Chlormezanone
Anti-Anxiety Agents
Amobarbital
Chlordiazepoxide
Hypnotics and Sedatives
Triazolam
Aminooxyacetic Acid
Spasms, Infantile
Encyclopedias as Topic
Clonazepam
Muscle Relaxants, Central
GABA receptors inhibited by benzodiazepines mediate fast inhibitory transmission in the central amygdala. (1/65)
The amygdala is intimately involved in emotional behavior, and its role in the generation of anxiety and conditioned fear is well known. Benzodiazepines, which are commonly used for the relief of anxiety, are thought to act by enhancing the action of the inhibitory transmitter GABA. We have examined the properties of GABA-mediated inhibition in the amygdala. Whole-cell recordings were made from neurons in the lateral division of the central amygdala. Application of GABA evoked a current that reversed at the chloride equilibrium potential. Application of the GABA antagonists bicuculline or SR95531 inhibited the GABA-evoked current in a manner consistent with two binding sites. Stimulation of afferents to neurons in the central amygdala evoked an IPSC that was mediated by the release of GABA. The GABA(A) receptor antagonists bicuculline and picrotoxin failed to completely block the IPSC. The bicuculline-resistant IPSC was chloride-selective and was unaffected by GABA(B)-receptor antagonists. Furthermore, this current was insensitive to modulation by general anesthetics or barbiturates. In contrast to their actions at GABA(A) receptors, diazepam and flurazepam inhibited the bicuculline-resistant IPSC in a concentration-dependent manner. These effects were fully antagonized by the benzodiazepine site antagonist Ro15-1788. We conclude that a new type of ionotropic GABA receptor mediates fast inhibitory transmission in the central amygdala. This receptor may be a potential target for the development of new therapeutic strategies for anxiety disorders. (+info)Comparison of the residual effects of two benzodiazepines (nitrazepam and flurazepam hydrochloride) and pentobarbitone sodium on human performance. (2/65)
1 The residual effects of two benzodiazepines, nitrazepam (10 mg) and flurazepam hydrochloride (30 mg), and pentobarbitone sodium (200 mg) were studied by adaptive tracking and by reaction time. Performance was measured at 10 h, 13 h, 16 h, 19 h and 34 h after ingestion of each drug. Impaired performance on adaptive tracking was observed at 10 h, 13 h, 16 h and 19 h after nitrazepam and pentobarbitone sodium and at 10 h, 13 h and 16 h after flurazepam hydrochloride. Enhanced performance was observed at 34 h after nitrazepam and pentobarbitone sodium. 2 Increased reaction time persisted to 16 h after nitrazepam, flurazepam hydrochloride and pentobarbitone sodium and reaction time was also increased at 34 h after nitrazepam and pentobarbitone sodium. 3 During the morning immediately after ingestion, the subjects as a group were able to differentiate correctly between placebo and drugs, but they were not able to assess accurately the persistence of the residual effects of nitrazepam and pentobarbitone sodium. 4 Flurazepam hydrochloride would appear to be a more promising benzodiazepine than nitrazepam for use as a hypnotic by persons involved in skilled activity. There was a rapid recovery of performance during the afternoon and, unlike pentobarbitone sodium and nitrazepam, subjects retained the ability to recognize impaired skill. (+info)Effect of nitrazepam and flurazepam on the ventilatory response to carbon dioxide. (3/65)
Ventilatory response to CO2 was measured before and after two different benzodiazepine hypnotics in both chronic bronchitics and patients without chest disease. Flurazepam, but not nitrazepam, produced a significant decrease in CO2 sensitivity, although there was no significant change in FEV1 or mixed venous PCO2. This is the first unequivocal evidence of central depression of respiration by a benzodiazepine and may be the mechanism by which benzodiazepines cause deterioration in patients with respiratory failure. (+info)Characteristics of the association of brotizolam, a thieno-triazolo diazepine derivative, with the benzodiazepine receptor: a selective and high affinity ligand of the central type I benzodiazepine receptor. (4/65)
Characteristics of the association of brotizolam, a thieno-triazolo diazepine derivative, to central benzodiazepine receptors were examined. Brotizolam significantly displaced the [3H]flunitrazepam and [3H]beta-carboline carboxylate ethylester bindings to crude synaptic membrane from the rat brain. This agent had the highest affinity for benzodiazepine receptors in the cerebellum, and it was found to be 2.1 times that in the spinal cord. Furthermore, a low concentration of brotizolam potentiated the GABA-stimulated 36Cl- influx into membrane vesicles. In contrast, the bindings of [3H]8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin to 5-hydroxytryptamine1A receptors and [3H]ketanserin to 5-hydroxytryptamine2 receptors were not affected by brotizolam. The present results suggest that brotizolam may be a selective and high affinity ligand for the type I central benzodiazepine receptor. The anxiolytic and hypnotic actions of brotizolam seem to be not due to the association with 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor, but due to the activation of the GABAA receptor complex. Furthermore, the present results suggest that the lower affinity of brotizolam to benzodiazepine receptors in the spinal cord than those in the cerebellum may be related to the low muscle relaxation action of this drug. (+info)Electroencephalographic properties of zaleplon, a non-benzodiazepine sedative/hypnotic, in rats. (5/65)
The encephalographic (EEG) properties of zaleplon were investigated in comparison with those of other sedative hypnotics in conscious rats with chronically implanted electrodes. The oral administration of zaleplon (0.25-1.0 mg/kg), triazolam (0.0625-0.25 mg/kg), zopiclone (1.0-4.0 mg/kg), brotizolam (0.0625-0.25 mg/kg), and nitrazepam (0.125-0.5 mg/kg) lengthened the total sleep in a dose-dependent manner. On distribution of sleep-wakefulness stages, zaleplon, in particular, increased the slow wave deep sleep (SWDS), whereas triazolam, brotizolam, and nitrazepam increased the slow wave light sleep (SWLS) in a dose-dependent manner. Zopiclone significantly increased the SWDS at a dose of 2 mg/kg and both the SWLS and the SWDS at a dose of 4 mg/kg. All tested hypnotics caused no influence on fast wave sleep (FWS) at doses tested. The appearance of the sleep-inducing activity of zaleplon was more rapid than those of any compounds tested, and zaleplon significantly increased the relative EEG power density in the delta frequency band over that of triazolam at 20 and 30 min after the administration in the spectral analysis. Therefore, the present findings suggest that the non-benzodiazepine zaleplon can be expected to exhibit high practical potential as a hypnotic and is characterized by an increase in SWDS with rapid onset of hypnotic action. (+info)Practice parameter: medical treatment of infantile spasms: report of the American Academy of Neurology and the Child Neurology Society. (6/65)
OBJECTIVE: To determine the current best practice for treatment of infantile spasms in children. METHODS: Database searches of MEDLINE from 1966 and EMBASE from 1980 and searches of reference lists of retrieved articles were performed. Inclusion criteria were the documented presence of infantile spasms and hypsarrhythmia. Outcome measures included complete cessation of spasms, resolution of hypsarrhythmia, relapse rate, developmental outcome, and presence or absence of epilepsy or an epileptiform EEG. One hundred fifty-nine articles were selected for detailed review. Recommendations were based on a four-tiered classification scheme. RESULTS: Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is probably effective for the short-term treatment of infantile spasms, but there is insufficient evidence to recommend the optimum dosage and duration of treatment. There is insufficient evidence to determine whether oral corticosteroids are effective. Vigabatrin is possibly effective for the short-term treatment of infantile spasm and is possibly also effective for children with tuberous sclerosis. Concerns about retinal toxicity suggest that serial ophthalmologic screening is required in patients on vigabatrin; however, the data are insufficient to make recommendations regarding the frequency or type of screening. There is insufficient evidence to recommend any other treatment of infantile spasms. There is insufficient evidence to conclude that successful treatment of infantile spasms improves the long-term prognosis. CONCLUSIONS: ACTH is probably an effective agent in the short-term treatment of infantile spasms. Vigabatrin is possibly effective. (+info)Detection of benzodiazepine intake in therapeutic doses by immunoanalysis of urine: two techniques evaluated and modified for improved performance. (7/65)
We evaluated the EMIT (enzyme-multiplied immuno technique) and FPIA (fluorescence polarization immunoassay) urine screening systems for detection of benzodiazepine intake. Healthy male volunteers were given single oral therapeutic doses of alprazolam (2 mg), chlordiazepoxide (25 mg), flunitrazepam (1 mg), lorazepam (3.75 mg), nitrazepam (5 mg), and triazolam (0.25 mg), after which urine was collected for the next 32 h. The EMIT method failed to detect the intake of flunitrazepam, lorazepam, and nitrazepam. FPIA did not detect the intake of chlordiazepoxide, flunitrazepam, lorazepam, nitrazepam, and triazolam. Modification of the EMIT method to include enzymatic hydrolysis did not significantly alter the results obtained with this method. A modification of the FPIA method to include enzymatic hydrolysis and a lower cutoff value improved the results considerably, so that we reliably detected all studied substances but flunitrazepam. We conclude that (a) both EMIT and FPIA techniques, when used as intended by the manufacturers, are unreliable for the detection of intake of therapeutic doses of these benzodiazepines, and (b) the described modification of the FPIA should provide a much improved tool for detection of benzodiazepine intake. (+info)Infantile spasms. A retrospective study of 105 cases. (8/65)
This paper is a summary of our observations on 105 cases of infantile spasms. The age of onset was around six months after birth, but the patients came for treatment mainly about one year after onset. Fever of unknown cause, asphyxia, birth injury, infection of the central nervous system, tuberous sclerosis, phenylketonuria and recent immunization etc. were complained. Clinically, it is characterized by head nodding, mental retardation, myoclonic jerks and various neurologic deficits. EEG findings showed classical or modified arrythmia or other epileptiform patterns. About one third of 22 cases examined had abnormal brain stem auditory evoked potentials. Among 42 patients who underwent CT scanning before ACTH treatment, 18 were normal and 7 abnormal; during ACTH treatment 3 normal and 4 abnormal; after completion of treatment, 4 normal and 6 abnormal, suggesting no further atrophy of the brain. Examination of trace elements of the hair by particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) method in 23 patients revealed a significant difference in lead, calcium and zinc contents between patients and 101 controls, but no statistical difference in iron and copper contents between the two groups. Sodium valproate, prednisone and ACTH appear to be effective in the treatment of infantile spasms. Eight patients fully recovered, and they can go to school without difficulty. Many patients derived various degrees of improvement to the satisfaction of their parents. Two patients were still amented and often attacked by myoclonus. The effects, side effects of these drugs, and the possible pathogenesis were discussed. (+info)Nitrazepam is a benzodiazepine drug primarily used for the treatment of severe insomnia and sometimes for managing certain types of epilepsy. It works by increasing the activity of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a neurotransmitter that inhibits central nervous system activity, thereby producing calming effects.
According to the World Health Organization's (WHO) Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) classification system, Nitrazepam falls under the category of "N05CD - Benzodiazepine derivatives" and has the ATC code "N05CD02".
It is essential to note that Nitrazepam should only be used under medical supervision due to its potential for dependence, addiction, and other side effects. It is also not recommended for long-term use or in pregnant or breastfeeding women without consulting a healthcare professional first.
Temazepam is a benzodiazepine medication that is primarily used for the treatment of insomnia. It has a depressant effect on the central nervous system and helps to slow down brain activity, allowing for relaxation and promoting sleep. Temazepam works by binding to specific receptors in the brain called GABA-A receptors, which are involved in regulating nerve impulses in the brain. This action increases the activity of the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), resulting in sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant effects.
Temazepam is available in immediate-release and controlled-release formulations, with the former typically taken just before bedtime and the latter taken at bedtime to help people stay asleep throughout the night. It is important to note that temazepam can be habit-forming and should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare provider. Common side effects include drowsiness, dizziness, weakness, and coordination problems.
Flurazepam is a benzodiazepine medication that is primarily used for the treatment of insomnia. According to the Medical Dictionary by Farlex, Flurazepam's medical definition is: "A long-acting benzodiazepine used in the management of severe insomnia. It has a rapid onset of action and produces sedation, anxiolysis, and muscle relaxation."
Flurazepam works by enhancing the effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a neurotransmitter that inhibits the activity of neurons in the brain. This results in calming effects on the central nervous system, helping to reduce anxiety and promote sleep. It is essential to use Flurazepam under the guidance of a healthcare professional due to its potential for dependency and side effects such as drowsiness, dizziness, and impaired coordination.
Chlormezanone is a benzodiazepine-like tranquilizer, which is primarily used for the treatment of moderate to severe anxiety and insomnia. It works by depressing the central nervous system, producing a calming effect on the brain. Chlorazenone has sedative, muscle relaxant, and anticonvulsant properties.
It's important to note that chlormezanone is not commonly used in clinical practice due to its potential for serious side effects, including liver toxicity, and because other benzodiazepines or related drugs are generally preferred for their safer profile and greater efficacy. As with any medication, it should only be taken under the supervision of a healthcare provider, and its use may be subject to certain restrictions in some countries.
Glutethimide is a sedative-hypnotic drug that was previously used for the treatment of insomnia and anxiety disorders. It belongs to the class of drugs known as non-barbiturate hypnotics. Glutethimide works by depressing the central nervous system (CNS), producing a calming effect on the brain.
Due to its potential for abuse, addiction, and its narrow therapeutic index, glutethimide is no longer commonly used in clinical practice. It has been replaced by safer and more effective sleep aids with fewer side effects and lower potential for misuse.
It's important to note that the use of glutethimide should be under the strict supervision of a healthcare professional, and it should only be taken as prescribed. Misuse or overuse of this medication can lead to serious health consequences, including respiratory depression, coma, and even death.
Anti-anxiety agents, also known as anxiolytics, are a class of medications used to manage symptoms of anxiety disorders. These drugs work by reducing the abnormal excitement in the brain and promoting relaxation and calmness. They include several types of medications such as benzodiazepines, azapirone, antihistamines, and beta-blockers.
Benzodiazepines are the most commonly prescribed anti-anxiety agents. They work by enhancing the inhibitory effects of a neurotransmitter called gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain, which results in sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties. Examples of benzodiazepines include diazepam (Valium), alprazolam (Xanax), lorazepam (Ativan), and clonazepam (Klonopin).
Azapirones are a newer class of anti-anxiety agents that act on serotonin receptors in the brain. Buspirone (Buspar) is an example of this type of medication, which has fewer side effects and less potential for abuse compared to benzodiazepines.
Antihistamines are medications that are primarily used to treat allergies but can also have anti-anxiety effects due to their sedative properties. Examples include hydroxyzine (Vistaril, Atarax) and diphenhydramine (Benadryl).
Beta-blockers are mainly used to treat high blood pressure and heart conditions but can also help manage symptoms of anxiety such as rapid heartbeat, tremors, and sweating. Propranolol (Inderal) is an example of a beta-blocker used for this purpose.
It's important to note that anti-anxiety agents should be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as they can have side effects and potential for dependence or addiction. Additionally, these medications are often used in combination with psychotherapy and lifestyle modifications to manage anxiety disorders effectively.
Oxazepam is a benzodiazepine medication that is primarily used to treat anxiety disorders and symptoms such as sleeplessness and irritability. It works by enhancing the activity of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a neurotransmitter that inhibits the activity of certain neurons in the brain, producing a calming effect.
In medical terms, oxazepam can be defined as follows:
Oxazepam is a Schedule IV controlled substance, indicating that it has a potential for abuse and dependence. It is available in tablet form and is typically taken two to four times per day. Common side effects of oxazepam include drowsiness, dizziness, and weakness. More serious side effects can include memory problems, confusion, and difficulty breathing.
It's important to note that oxazepam should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare provider, as it can have significant risks and interactions with other medications. It is not recommended for use in pregnant women or those with a history of substance abuse.
Amobarbital is a barbiturate drug that is primarily used as a sedative and sleep aid. It works by depressing the central nervous system, which can lead to relaxation, drowsiness, and reduced anxiety. Amobarbital is also sometimes used as an anticonvulsant to help control seizures.
Like other barbiturates, amobarbital has a high potential for abuse and addiction, and it can be dangerous or even fatal when taken in large doses or mixed with alcohol or other drugs. It is typically prescribed only for short-term use due to the risk of tolerance and dependence.
It's important to note that the use of barbiturates like amobarbital has declined in recent years due to the development of safer and more effective alternatives, such as benzodiazepines and non-benzodiazepine sleep aids.
Chlordiazepoxide is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs known as benzodiazepines. It is primarily used to treat anxiety disorders, but can also be used for the short-term relief of symptoms related to alcohol withdrawal and muscle spasms. Chlordiazepoxide works by enhancing the activity of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a neurotransmitter that inhibits nerve impulses in the brain, resulting in sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties.
The medication is available in both immediate-release and extended-release forms, and is typically taken orally. Common side effects of chlordiazepoxide include dizziness, drowsiness, and impaired coordination. More serious side effects can include memory problems, confusion, and difficulty breathing. Chlordiazepoxide can also be habit-forming, so it is important to use the medication only as directed by a healthcare provider.
It's important to note that chlordiazepoxide can interact with other medications, including certain antidepressants, opioids, and sedatives, so it's essential to inform your doctor about all the medications you are taking before starting chlordiazepoxide. Additionally, this medication should not be used during pregnancy or while breastfeeding, as it can cause harm to the developing fetus or newborn baby.
Hypnotics and sedatives are classes of medications that have depressant effects on the central nervous system, leading to sedation (calming or inducing sleep), reduction in anxiety, and in some cases, decreased awareness or memory. These agents work by affecting the neurotransmitter GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) in the brain, which results in inhibitory effects on neuronal activity.
Hypnotics are primarily used for the treatment of insomnia and other sleep disorders, while sedatives are often prescribed to manage anxiety or to produce a calming effect before medical procedures. Some medications can function as both hypnotics and sedatives, depending on the dosage and specific formulation. Common examples of these medications include benzodiazepines (such as diazepam and lorazepam), non-benzodiazepine hypnotics (such as zolpidem and eszopiclone), barbiturates, and certain antihistamines.
It is essential to use these medications under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as they can have potential side effects, such as drowsiness, dizziness, confusion, and impaired coordination. Additionally, long-term use or high doses may lead to tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal symptoms upon discontinuation.
Triazolam is a short-acting benzodiazepine drug, which is primarily used for the treatment of insomnia. It works by increasing the activity of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a neurotransmitter that inhibits the activity of neurons in the brain, thereby producing a calming effect. Triazolam has a rapid onset of action and its effects typically last for 1-2 hours, making it useful for inducing sleep. However, due to its short duration of action and potential for dependence and tolerance, triazolam is generally recommended for short-term use only.
Like all benzodiazepines, triazolam carries a risk of serious side effects, including respiratory depression, physical dependence, and cognitive impairment. It should be used with caution and under the close supervision of a healthcare provider.
Aminooxyacetic acid (AOAA) is a chemical compound that is an irreversible inhibitor of pyridoxal phosphate-dependent enzymes. Pyridoxal phosphate is a cofactor involved in several important biochemical reactions, including the transamination of amino acids. By inhibiting these enzymes, AOAA can alter the normal metabolism of amino acids and other related compounds in the body.
AOAA has been studied for its potential therapeutic uses, such as in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders like Huntington's disease and epilepsy. However, more research is needed to fully understand its mechanisms of action and potential side effects before it can be used as a routine therapy.
It is important to note that AOAA is not a naturally occurring substance in the human body and should only be used under medical supervision.
Infantile spasms, also known as West syndrome, is a rare but serious type of epilepsy that affects infants typically between 4-8 months of age. The spasms are characterized by sudden, brief, and frequent muscle jerks or contractions, often involving the neck, trunk, and arms. These spasms usually occur in clusters and may cause the infant to bend forward or stretch out. Infantile spasms can be a symptom of various underlying neurological conditions and are often associated with developmental delays and regression. Early recognition and treatment are crucial for improving outcomes.
An encyclopedia is a comprehensive reference work containing articles on various topics, usually arranged in alphabetical order. In the context of medicine, a medical encyclopedia is a collection of articles that provide information about a wide range of medical topics, including diseases and conditions, treatments, tests, procedures, and anatomy and physiology. Medical encyclopedias may be published in print or electronic formats and are often used as a starting point for researching medical topics. They can provide reliable and accurate information on medical subjects, making them useful resources for healthcare professionals, students, and patients alike. Some well-known examples of medical encyclopedias include the Merck Manual and the Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
Clonazepam is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called benzodiazepines. It is primarily used to treat seizure disorders, panic attacks, and anxiety. Clonazepam works by increasing the activity of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a neurotransmitter in the brain that has a calming effect on the nervous system.
The medication comes in tablet or orally disintegrating tablet form and is typically taken two to three times per day. Common side effects of clonazepam include dizziness, drowsiness, and coordination problems. It can also cause memory problems, mental confusion, and depression.
Like all benzodiazepines, clonazepam has the potential for abuse and addiction, so it should be used with caution and only under the supervision of a healthcare provider. It is important to follow the dosage instructions carefully and not to stop taking the medication suddenly, as this can lead to withdrawal symptoms.
It's important to note that while I strive to provide accurate information, this definition is intended to be a general overview and should not replace professional medical advice. Always consult with a healthcare provider for medical advice.
Anticonvulsants are a class of drugs used primarily to treat seizure disorders, also known as epilepsy. These medications work by reducing the abnormal electrical activity in the brain that leads to seizures. In addition to their use in treating epilepsy, anticonvulsants are sometimes also prescribed for other conditions, such as neuropathic pain, bipolar disorder, and migraine headaches.
Anticonvulsants can work in different ways to reduce seizure activity. Some medications, such as phenytoin and carbamazepine, work by blocking sodium channels in the brain, which helps to stabilize nerve cell membranes and prevent excessive electrical activity. Other medications, such as valproic acid and gabapentin, increase the levels of a neurotransmitter called gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain, which has a calming effect on nerve cells and helps to reduce seizure activity.
While anticonvulsants are generally effective at reducing seizure frequency and severity, they can also have side effects, such as dizziness, drowsiness, and gastrointestinal symptoms. In some cases, these side effects may be managed by adjusting the dosage or switching to a different medication. It is important for individuals taking anticonvulsants to work closely with their healthcare provider to monitor their response to the medication and make any necessary adjustments.
Central muscle relaxants are a class of pharmaceutical agents that act on the central nervous system (CNS) to reduce skeletal muscle tone and spasticity. These medications do not directly act on the muscles themselves but rather work by altering the messages sent between the brain and the muscles, thereby reducing excessive muscle contraction and promoting relaxation.
Central muscle relaxants are often prescribed for the management of various neuromuscular disorders, such as multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injuries, cerebral palsy, and stroke-induced spasticity. They may also be used to treat acute musculoskeletal conditions like strains, sprains, or other muscle injuries.
Examples of central muscle relaxants include baclofen, tizanidine, cyclobenzaprine, methocarbamol, and diazepam. It is important to note that these medications can have side effects such as drowsiness, dizziness, and impaired cognitive function, so they should be used with caution and under the guidance of a healthcare professional.