The production and release of substances such as NEUROTRANSMITTERS or HORMONES from nerve cells.
Cells that store epinephrine secretory vesicles. During times of stress, the nervous system signals the vesicles to secrete their hormonal content. Their name derives from their ability to stain a brownish color with chromic salts. Characteristically, they are located in the adrenal medulla and paraganglia (PARAGANGLIA, CHROMAFFIN) of the sympathetic nervous system.
A ubiquitous target SNARE protein that interacts with SYNTAXIN and SYNAPTOBREVIN. It is a core component of the machinery for intracellular MEMBRANE FUSION. The sequence contains 2 SNARE domains, one is the prototype for the Qb-SNARES, and the other is the prototype for the Qc-SNARES.
A CELL LINE derived from a PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA of the rat ADRENAL MEDULLA. PC12 cells stop dividing and undergo terminal differentiation when treated with NERVE GROWTH FACTOR, making the line a useful model system for NERVE CELL differentiation.
Cellular release of material within membrane-limited vesicles by fusion of the vesicles with the CELL MEMBRANE.
A system of NEURONS that has the specialized function to produce and secrete HORMONES, and that constitutes, in whole or in part, an ENDOCRINE SYSTEM or organ.
A neuronal cell membrane protein that combines with SNAP-25 and SYNAPTOBREVIN 2 to form a SNARE complex that leads to EXOCYTOSIS.
Membrane-bound compartments which contain transmitter molecules. Synaptic vesicles are concentrated at presynaptic terminals. They actively sequester transmitter molecules from the cytoplasm. In at least some synapses, transmitter release occurs by fusion of these vesicles with the presynaptic membrane, followed by exocytosis of their contents.
Vesicles derived from the GOLGI APPARATUS containing material to be released at the cell surface.
A superfamily of small proteins which are involved in the MEMBRANE FUSION events, intracellular protein trafficking and secretory processes. They share a homologous SNARE motif. The SNARE proteins are divided into subfamilies: QA-SNARES; QB-SNARES; QC-SNARES; and R-SNARES. The formation of a SNARE complex (composed of one each of the four different types SNARE domains (Qa, Qb, Qc, and R)) mediates MEMBRANE FUSION. Following membrane fusion SNARE complexes are dissociated by the NSFs (N-ETHYLMALEIMIDE-SENSITIVE FACTORS), in conjunction with SOLUBLE NSF ATTACHMENT PROTEIN, i.e., SNAPs (no relation to SNAP 25.)
A decapeptide that stimulates the synthesis and secretion of both pituitary gonadotropins, LUTEINIZING HORMONE and FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE. GnRH is produced by neurons in the septum PREOPTIC AREA of the HYPOTHALAMUS and released into the pituitary portal blood, leading to stimulation of GONADOTROPHS in the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND.
Substances used for their pharmacological actions on any aspect of neurotransmitter systems. Neurotransmitter agents include agonists, antagonists, degradation inhibitors, uptake inhibitors, depleters, precursors, and modulators of receptor function.
A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes.
The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the NERVOUS SYSTEM.
'Nerve tissue proteins' are specialized proteins found within the nervous system's biological tissue, including neurofilaments, neuronal cytoskeletal proteins, and neural cell adhesion molecules, which facilitate structural support, intracellular communication, and synaptic connectivity essential for proper neurological function.
Ventral part of the DIENCEPHALON extending from the region of the OPTIC CHIASM to the caudal border of the MAMMILLARY BODIES and forming the inferior and lateral walls of the THIRD VENTRICLE.
Proteins which are found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. They consist of two types, peripheral and integral proteins. They include most membrane-associated enzymes, antigenic proteins, transport proteins, and drug, hormone, and lectin receptors.
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
A curved elevation of GRAY MATTER extending the entire length of the floor of the TEMPORAL HORN of the LATERAL VENTRICLE (see also TEMPORAL LOBE). The hippocampus proper, subiculum, and DENTATE GYRUS constitute the hippocampal formation. Sometimes authors include the ENTORHINAL CORTEX in the hippocampal formation.
Heteromultimers of Kir6 channels (the pore portion) and sulfonylurea receptor (the regulatory portion) which affect function of the HEART; PANCREATIC BETA CELLS; and KIDNEY COLLECTING DUCTS. KATP channel blockers include GLIBENCLAMIDE and mitiglinide whereas openers include CROMAKALIM and minoxidil sulfate.
Cell membrane glycoproteins that are selectively permeable to potassium ions. At least eight major groups of K channels exist and they are made up of dozens of different subunits.
A neurotransmitter found at neuromuscular junctions, autonomic ganglia, parasympathetic effector junctions, a subset of sympathetic effector junctions, and at many sites in the central nervous system.
A suspension of radioactive gold particles emitting negative beta particles and gamma irradiation. It was formerly used for liver scans and irradiation treatment of some metastatic malignancies.
A technique for measuring extracellular concentrations of substances in tissues, usually in vivo, by means of a small probe equipped with a semipermeable membrane. Substances may also be introduced into the extracellular space through the membrane.
Loss of the ability to maintain awareness of self and environment combined with markedly reduced responsiveness to environmental stimuli. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp344-5)
Procedure in which patients are induced into an unconscious state through use of various medications so that they do not feel pain during surgery.
A stable, non-explosive inhalation anesthetic, relatively free from significant side effects.
Drugs considered essential to meet the health needs of a population as well as to control drug costs.
Agents that are capable of inducing a total or partial loss of sensation, especially tactile sensation and pain. They may act to induce general ANESTHESIA, in which an unconscious state is achieved, or may act locally to induce numbness or lack of sensation at a targeted site.
Agents that induce various degrees of analgesia; depression of consciousness, circulation, and respiration; relaxation of skeletal muscle; reduction of reflex activity; and amnesia. There are two types of general anesthetics, inhalation and intravenous. With either type, the arterial concentration of drug required to induce anesthesia varies with the condition of the patient, the desired depth of anesthesia, and the concomitant use of other drugs. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p.173)
Gases or volatile liquids that vary in the rate at which they induce anesthesia; potency; the degree of circulation, respiratory, or neuromuscular depression they produce; and analgesic effects. Inhalation anesthetics have advantages over intravenous agents in that the depth of anesthesia can be changed rapidly by altering the inhaled concentration. Because of their rapid elimination, any postoperative respiratory depression is of relatively short duration. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p173)

Neurosecretory cells without neurosecretion: evidence of an independently regulated trait of the cell phenotype. (1/92)

Neurosecretion competence is a fundamental property that enables differentiated neurones and professional neurosecretory cells to store neurotransmitters and hormones in specialized organelles, the synaptic-like vesicles and dense granules, and to release them by regulated exocytosis. In our laboratory, the study of rat phaeochromocytoma (PC12) clones that fail to express the above organelles or any other components involved in neurosecretion, whilst maintaining most of the general markers of the parental population, has served to demonstrate that this trait is controlled independently from the rest of the phenotype. The present review focuses on recent advances in elucidating the molecular mechanisms governing neurosecretion competence. Moreover, the opportunities that such neurosecretion-defective PC12 clones offer for the investigation of new aspects of regulated exocytosis and the localization of its components are summarized.  (+info)

A study of hypothalmic neurosecretory cells of bullfrogs in vitro. (2/92)

Neurosecretory cells of preoptic nuclei of bullfrogs were studied in isolated hypothalamo-hypophysial preparations under constant perfusion with oxygenated Ringer solution at 15-17 degress C. Antidromic potentials were recorded following stimuli applied to the posterior lobe of the pituitary or the stalk. 2. Intracellularly and extracellularly recorded potentials resembled those obtained in vivo from neurosecretory cells of the mammalian hypothalamus. They were unique in that the antidromic potential had a long duration (10-20 msec) and a distinct notch on the rising phase (between A and B spikes). The conduction velocity of the stalk fibres in vitro at this temperature was 0-1--0-2 m/sec. 3. When two successive stimuli were given to the posterior lobe or to the stalk separated by intervals of between 30 and 65 msec, the test (second) response showed a longer delay of the B spike. This delay between the A and B components was as long as 10 msec. Further shortening of stimulus intervals produced block of B spikes in the test response. A complete separation of A and B spikes occur spontaneously in a few instances. 4. Evidence indicated that inhibitory recurrent axon collaterals play a role in the control of bullfrog neurosecretory cells. Antidromic potentials were inhibited by a 'conditioning' stimulus for as long as 300-400 msec, even when the stimulus did not evoke an antidromic potential. 5. It was found that in addition to the inhibitory interaction there is a facilitatory recurrent axon collateral system which operates within the nuclei. The evidence for this is: (1) stimulation of the posterior lobe, with single subthreshold pulses evoked an action potential if preceded by another stimulus of subthreshold or just threshold intensity. The durations of such facilitatory effects were found to be 20--400 msec; (2) a single pulse given to the posterior lobe did occasionally evoke two spikes from neurosecretory cells; the second spike which occurred 15-30 msec after the first had the characteristics of a trans-synaptically produced potential; (3) gradual changes in the intensity of stimuli applied to the neural lobe produced a sudden shift in latencies ranging between 15 and 30 msec. The potentials having long latency also showed characteristics of those transsynaptically excited. In addition, an increase in excitability of neurosecretory cells by antidromic stimulation was confirmed by using orthodromically induced action potentials in in vivo studies. Possible functional significance of inhibitory and excitatory recurrent collateral system in neurosecretory cells was discussed. 6. Two to threefold increase in NaCl concentration of a perfusate slightly increased the latency and refractory period of antidromic potential but not the shape of the potential. Norepinephrine added to a perfusate (1 mug/ml). augmented the separation of A and B spikes of the antidromic potential. Acetylcholine at a concentration of 1 mug/ml. did not have an appreciable effect on the antidromic potential.  (+info)

A novel technique that measures peptide secretion on a millisecond timescale reveals rapid changes in release. (3/92)

Neuropeptides are ubiquitous transmitters that have been implicated in a wide variety of physiological and pathological conditions, and it is important to understand the processes that control their secretion. We have developed a technique that measures neuropeptide secretion with high temporal resolution. This method involves placing an electrophysiological "tag" in a neuropeptide prohormone. The tagged prohormone is subsequently expressed together with an ionotropic receptor that binds the tag. Because the neuropeptide of interest and the tag enter the same population of dense core granules, neuropeptide secretion gives rise to fast, synaptic-like currents. Using this method, we show that peptide secretion can be modulated on a millisecond time scale. This technique could be readily adapted to measure the secretion of any neuropeptide.  (+info)

Extrasynaptic release of dopamine in a retinal neuron: activity dependence and transmitter modulation. (4/92)

Extrasynaptic release of dopamine is well documented, but its relation to the physiological activity of the neuron is unclear. Here we show that in absence of presynaptic active zones, solitary cell bodies of retinal dopaminergic neurons release by exocytosis packets of approximately 40,000 molecules of dopamine at irregular intervals and low frequency. The release is triggered by the action potentials that the neurons generate in a rhythmic fashion upon removal of all synaptic influences and therefore depends upon the electrical events at the neuronal surface. Furthermore, it is stimulated by kainate and abolished by GABA and quinpirole, an agonist at the D(2) dopamine receptor. Since the somatic receptors for these ligands are extrasynaptic, we suggest that the composition of the extracellular fluid directly modulates extrasynaptic release.  (+info)

Peripheral melatonin mediates neural stimulation of duodenal mucosal bicarbonate secretion. (5/92)

Melatonin is released from intestinal enterochromaffin cells and from the pineal gland, but its role in gastrointestinal function is largely unknown. Our aim was to study the involvement of intestinal and central nervous melatonin in the neurohumoral control of the duodenal mucosa-protective bicarbonate secretion. Working in anesthetized rats, we cannulated a 12-mm segment of duodenum with an intact blood supply and titrated the local bicarbonate secretion with pH-stat. Melatonin and receptor ligands were supplied to the duodenum by close intra-arterial infusion. Even at low doses, melatonin and the full agonist 2-iodo-N-butanoyl-5-methoxytryptamine increased duodenal bicarbonate secretion. Responses were inhibited by the predominantly MT2-selective antagonist luzindole but not by prazosin, acting at MT3 receptors. Also, luzindole almost abolished the marked rise in secretion induced by intracerebroventricular infusion of the adrenoceptor agonist phenylephrine. This response was also abolished by sublaryngeal ligation of all nerves around the carotid arteries. However, it was insensitive to truncal vagotomy alone or sympathectomy alone and was unaffected by removal of either the pineal gland or pituitary gland. Thus, melatonin stimulates duodenal bicarbonate secretion via action at enterocyte MT2-receptors and mediates neural stimulation of the secretion.  (+info)

Nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate enhances quantal neurosecretion at the frog neuromuscular junction: possible action on synaptic vesicles in the releasable pool. (6/92)

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3)) and cyclic adenosine diphosphate-ribose (cADPR) are second messengers that enhance neurosecretion by inducing Ca(2+) release from smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). The putative intracellular messenger, nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAADP), releases Ca(2+) from stores that are distinct from SER. Evidence is presented here that NAADP causes a concentration-dependent increase in quantal output that is associated with an increase in probability of transmitter release at the frog neuromuscular junction. This effect is mimicked by A23187, a Ca ionophore that promotes Ca(2+) entry at the plasmalemma. The response to NAADP is potentiated by IP(3) but antagonized by cADPR. Thapsigargin completely blocks IP(3) and cADPR responses and decreases but does not prevent the response to NAADP. We conclude that NAADP, whose receptors are widely distributed in the brain, enhances neurosecretion by releasing Ca(2+) from an internal store near the plasmalemma, possibly from synaptic vesicles in the releasable pool. These data also support the hypothesis of a two-pool model for Ca(2+) oscillations at the presynaptic site.  (+info)

Calmodulin increases transmitter release by mobilizing quanta at the frog motor nerve terminal. (7/92)

The role of calmodulin (CaM) in transmitter release was investigated using liposomes to deliver CaM and monoclonal antibodies against CaM (antiCaM) directly into the frog motor nerve terminal. Miniature endplate potentials (MEPPs) were recorded in a high K+ solution, and effects on transmitter release were monitored using estimates of the quantal release parameters m (number of quanta released), n (number of functional transmitter release sites), p (mean probability of release), and var(s) p (spatial variance in p). Administration of CaM, but not heat-inactivated CaM, encapsulated in liposomes (1000 units ml(-1)) produced an increase in m (25%) that was due to an increase in n. MEPP amplitude was not altered by CaM. Administration of antiCaM, but not heat-inactivated antiCaM, in liposomes (50 microl ml(-1)) produced a progressive decrease in m (40%) that was associated with decreases in n and p. MEPP amplitude was decreased (15%) after a 25 min lag time, suggesting a separation in time between the decreases in quantal release and quantal size. Bath application of the membrane-permeable CaM antagonist W7 (28 microM) produced a gradual decrease in m (25%) that was associated with a decrease in n. W7 also produced a decrease in MEPP amplitude that paralleled the decrease in m. The decreases in MEPP size and m produced by W7 were both reversed by addition of CaM. Our results suggest that CaM increases transmitter release by mobilizing synaptic vesicles at the frog motor nerve terminal.  (+info)

Localization of myoinhibitory peptide immunoreactivity in Manduca sexta and Bombyx mori, with indications that the peptide has a role in molting and ecdysis. (8/92)

For normal development of Manduca sexta larvae, the ecdysteroid titer must drop following its sudden rise at the start of the molting cycle; this sudden decline in titer may be due to myoinhibitory peptide I (MIP I), which has an inhibitory effect on the release of ecdysone by the prothoracic glands of Bombyx mori in vitro. Using an antiserum to MIP, we have demonstrated secretion of an MIP-like peptide by the epiproctodeal glands of Manduca sexta, which are located on each proctodeal nerve, just anterior to the rectum. These MIP-immunoreactive glands are also present in B. mori. In fourth-instar larvae of M. sexta, the epiproctodeal glands show a distinct cycle of synthesis and sudden release of MIP that coincides with the time of the rapid decline in ecdysteroid titer. The function of the epiproctodeal glands appears to be the timely release of MIP during the molting cycle, so as to inhibit the prothoracic glands and thus to facilitate the sudden decline in ecdysteroid titer. In addition, we have found that MIP immunoreactivity is co-localized with that of crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP) in the 704 interneurons; these peptides appear to be co-released at the time of ecdysis. It is known that CCAP can initiate the ecdysis motor program; our results suggest that MIP may also be involved in activating ecdysis behavior.  (+info)

Neurosecretion is the process by which certain neurons, known as neurosecretory cells, release chemical messengers called neurosecretory hormones or neurotransmitters into the bloodstream or directly into the extracellular space. These neurosecretory hormones can have endocrine effects by acting on distant target organs via the bloodstream, or they can have paracrine or autocrine effects by acting on neighboring cells or on the same cell that released them, respectively.

Neurosecretory cells are found in specialized regions of the brain called neurosecretory nuclei. These cells have long processes called axons that terminate in swellings known as neurosecretory terminals. The neurosecretory hormones are synthesized within the cell body and then transported along the axon to the terminals, where they are stored in secretory vesicles.

The release of neurosecretory hormones is triggered by a variety of stimuli, including neural activity, changes in ion concentrations, and hormonal signals. The process of neurosecretion involves the fusion of the secretory vesicles with the plasma membrane, resulting in the exocytosis of the neurosecretory hormones into the extracellular space or bloodstream.

Neurosecretion plays important roles in regulating a variety of physiological processes, including growth, development, reproduction, and stress responses. Dysregulation of neurosecretion can contribute to the development of various diseases, such as diabetes, hypertension, and neurological disorders.

Chromaffin cells are specialized neuroendocrine cells that are responsible for the synthesis and release of catecholamines, which are hormones such as adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine). These cells are located in the medulla of the adrenal gland and in some autonomic ganglia outside the central nervous system. Chromaffin cells contain secretory granules that stain brown with chromium salts, hence their name. They play a crucial role in the body's response to stress by releasing catecholamines into the bloodstream, which helps prepare the body for the "fight or flight" response.

Synaptosomal-associated protein 25 (SNAP-25) is a protein found in the presynaptic membrane of neurons, which plays a crucial role in the process of synaptic transmission. It is a component of the SNARE complex, a group of proteins that facilitate vesicle docking and fusion with the presynaptic membrane during neurotransmitter release. SNAP-25 binds to other SNARE proteins, syntaxin and VAMP (vesicle-associated membrane protein), forming a tight complex that brings the vesicle membrane into close apposition with the presynaptic membrane, allowing for the fusion of the two membranes and the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

PC12 cells are a type of rat pheochromocytoma cell line, which are commonly used in scientific research. Pheochromocytomas are tumors that develop from the chromaffin cells of the adrenal gland, and PC12 cells are a subtype of these cells.

PC12 cells have several characteristics that make them useful for research purposes. They can be grown in culture and can be differentiated into a neuron-like phenotype when treated with nerve growth factor (NGF). This makes them a popular choice for studies involving neuroscience, neurotoxicity, and neurodegenerative disorders.

PC12 cells are also known to express various neurotransmitter receptors, ion channels, and other proteins that are relevant to neuronal function, making them useful for studying the mechanisms of drug action and toxicity. Additionally, PC12 cells can be used to study the regulation of cell growth and differentiation, as well as the molecular basis of cancer.

Exocytosis is the process by which cells release molecules, such as hormones or neurotransmitters, to the extracellular space. This process involves the transport of these molecules inside vesicles (membrane-bound sacs) to the cell membrane, where they fuse and release their contents to the outside of the cell. It is a crucial mechanism for intercellular communication and the regulation of various physiological processes in the body.

Neurosecretory systems are specialized components of the nervous system that produce and release chemical messengers called neurohormones. These neurohormones are released into the bloodstream and can have endocrine effects on various target organs in the body. The cells that make up neurosecretory systems, known as neurosecretory cells, are found in specific regions of the brain, such as the hypothalamus, and in peripheral nerves.

Neurosecretory systems play a critical role in regulating many physiological processes, including fluid and electrolyte balance, stress responses, growth and development, reproductive functions, and behavior. The neurohormones released by these systems can act synergistically or antagonistically to maintain homeostasis and coordinate the body's response to internal and external stimuli.

Neurosecretory cells are characterized by their ability to synthesize and store neurohormones in secretory granules, which are released upon stimulation. The release of neurohormones can be triggered by a variety of signals, including neural impulses, hormonal changes, and other physiological cues. Once released into the bloodstream, neurohormones can travel to distant target organs, where they bind to specific receptors and elicit a range of responses.

Overall, neurosecretory systems are an essential component of the neuroendocrine system, which plays a critical role in regulating many aspects of human physiology and behavior.

Syntaxin 1 is a specific type of protein called a SNARE (Soluble N-ethylmaleimide sensitive factor Attachment protein REceptor) protein, which plays a crucial role in the process of synaptic vesicle fusion with the presynaptic membrane during neurotransmitter release. This protein is primarily localized to the presynaptic active zone and helps regulate the precise docking and fusion of synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters with the presynaptic membrane, enabling rapid and efficient communication between neurons. Syntaxin 1 interacts with other SNARE proteins such as SNAP-25 (Synaptosomal Associated Protein of 25 kDa) and synaptobrevin/VAMP (Vesicle Associated Membrane Protein), forming a stable complex that facilitates membrane fusion. Dysregulation or mutations in syntaxin 1 have been implicated in various neurological disorders, including epilepsy and autism spectrum disorder.

Synaptic vesicles are tiny membrane-enclosed sacs within the presynaptic terminal of a neuron, containing neurotransmitters. They play a crucial role in the process of neurotransmission, which is the transmission of signals between nerve cells. When an action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, it triggers the fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane, releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. These neurotransmitters can then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron and trigger a response. After release, synaptic vesicles are recycled through endocytosis, allowing them to be refilled with neurotransmitters and used again in subsequent rounds of neurotransmission.

Secretory vesicles are membrane-bound organelles found within cells that store and transport secretory proteins and other molecules to the plasma membrane for exocytosis. Exocytosis is the process by which these molecules are released from the cell, allowing them to perform various functions, such as communication with other cells or participation in biochemical reactions. Secretory vesicles can be found in a variety of cell types, including endocrine cells, exocrine cells, and neurons. The proteins and molecules contained within secretory vesicles are synthesized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and then transported to the Golgi apparatus, where they are processed, modified, and packaged into the vesicles for subsequent release.

SNARE proteins, which stands for Soluble N-ethylmaleimide sensitive factor Attachment protein REceptor, are a family of small proteins that play a crucial role in the process of membrane fusion in cells. They are essential for various cellular processes such as neurotransmitter release, hormone secretion, and intracellular trafficking.

SNARE proteins are located on both sides of the membranes that are about to fuse, with one set of SNAREs (v-SNAREs) present on the vesicle membrane and the other set (t-SNAREs) present on the target membrane. During membrane fusion, v-SNAREs and t-SNAREs interact to form a tight complex called a SNARE complex, which brings the two membranes into close proximity and facilitates their fusion.

The formation of the SNARE complex is a highly specific process that involves the alignment of specific amino acid sequences on the v-SNARE and t-SNARE proteins. Once formed, the SNARE complex provides the energy required for membrane fusion, and its disassembly is necessary for the completion of the fusion event.

Mutations in SNARE proteins have been implicated in various neurological disorders, including motor neuron disease and epilepsy. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of SNARE proteins is essential for developing therapies for these conditions.

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH), also known as Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone (LHRH), is a hormonal peptide consisting of 10 amino acids. It is produced and released by the hypothalamus, an area in the brain that links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

GnRH plays a crucial role in regulating reproduction and sexual development through its control of two gonadotropins: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). These gonadotropins, in turn, stimulate the gonads (ovaries or testes) to produce sex steroids and eggs or sperm.

GnRH acts on the anterior pituitary gland by binding to its specific receptors, leading to the release of FSH and LH. The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is under negative feedback control, meaning that when sex steroid levels are high, they inhibit the release of GnRH, which subsequently decreases FSH and LH secretion.

GnRH agonists and antagonists have clinical applications in various medical conditions, such as infertility treatments, precocious puberty, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, prostate cancer, and hormone-responsive breast cancer.

Neurotransmitter agents are substances that affect the synthesis, storage, release, uptake, degradation, or reuptake of neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers that transmit signals across a chemical synapse from one neuron to another. These agents can be either agonists, which mimic the action of a neurotransmitter and bind to its receptor, or antagonists, which block the action of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor without activating it. They are used in medicine to treat various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and Parkinson's disease.

Calcium is an essential mineral that is vital for various physiological processes in the human body. The medical definition of calcium is as follows:

Calcium (Ca2+) is a crucial cation and the most abundant mineral in the human body, with approximately 99% of it found in bones and teeth. It plays a vital role in maintaining structural integrity, nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, hormonal secretion, blood coagulation, and enzyme activation.

Calcium homeostasis is tightly regulated through the interplay of several hormones, including parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, and vitamin D. Dietary calcium intake, absorption, and excretion are also critical factors in maintaining optimal calcium levels in the body.

Hypocalcemia refers to low serum calcium levels, while hypercalcemia indicates high serum calcium levels. Both conditions can have detrimental effects on various organ systems and require medical intervention to correct.

Neurons, also known as nerve cells or neurocytes, are specialized cells that constitute the basic unit of the nervous system. They are responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information and signals within the body. Neurons have three main parts: the dendrites, the cell body (soma), and the axon. The dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors, while the axon transmits these signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands. The junction between two neurons is called a synapse, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit the signal across the gap (synaptic cleft) to the next neuron. Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure depending on their function and location within the nervous system.

Nerve tissue proteins are specialized proteins found in the nervous system that provide structural and functional support to nerve cells, also known as neurons. These proteins include:

1. Neurofilaments: These are type IV intermediate filaments that provide structural support to neurons and help maintain their shape and size. They are composed of three subunits - NFL (light), NFM (medium), and NFH (heavy).

2. Neuronal Cytoskeletal Proteins: These include tubulins, actins, and spectrins that provide structural support to the neuronal cytoskeleton and help maintain its integrity.

3. Neurotransmitter Receptors: These are specialized proteins located on the postsynaptic membrane of neurons that bind neurotransmitters released by presynaptic neurons, triggering a response in the target cell.

4. Ion Channels: These are transmembrane proteins that regulate the flow of ions across the neuronal membrane and play a crucial role in generating and transmitting electrical signals in neurons.

5. Signaling Proteins: These include enzymes, receptors, and adaptor proteins that mediate intracellular signaling pathways involved in neuronal development, differentiation, survival, and death.

6. Adhesion Proteins: These are cell surface proteins that mediate cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, playing a crucial role in the formation and maintenance of neural circuits.

7. Extracellular Matrix Proteins: These include proteoglycans, laminins, and collagens that provide structural support to nerve tissue and regulate neuronal migration, differentiation, and survival.

The hypothalamus is a small, vital region of the brain that lies just below the thalamus and forms part of the limbic system. It plays a crucial role in many important functions including:

1. Regulation of body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, and circadian rhythms.
2. Production and regulation of hormones through its connection with the pituitary gland (the hypophysis). It controls the release of various hormones by producing releasing and inhibiting factors that regulate the anterior pituitary's function.
3. Emotional responses, behavior, and memory formation through its connections with the limbic system structures like the amygdala and hippocampus.
4. Autonomic nervous system regulation, which controls involuntary physiological functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion.
5. Regulation of the immune system by interacting with the autonomic nervous system.

Damage to the hypothalamus can lead to various disorders like diabetes insipidus, growth hormone deficiency, altered temperature regulation, sleep disturbances, and emotional or behavioral changes.

Membrane proteins are a type of protein that are embedded in the lipid bilayer of biological membranes, such as the plasma membrane of cells or the inner membrane of mitochondria. These proteins play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including:

1. Cell-cell recognition and signaling
2. Transport of molecules across the membrane (selective permeability)
3. Enzymatic reactions at the membrane surface
4. Energy transduction and conversion
5. Mechanosensation and signal transduction

Membrane proteins can be classified into two main categories: integral membrane proteins, which are permanently associated with the lipid bilayer, and peripheral membrane proteins, which are temporarily or loosely attached to the membrane surface. Integral membrane proteins can further be divided into three subcategories based on their topology:

1. Transmembrane proteins, which span the entire width of the lipid bilayer with one or more alpha-helices or beta-barrels.
2. Lipid-anchored proteins, which are covalently attached to lipids in the membrane via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor or other lipid modifications.
3. Monotopic proteins, which are partially embedded in the membrane and have one or more domains exposed to either side of the bilayer.

Membrane proteins are essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and are targets for various therapeutic interventions, including drug development and gene therapy. However, their structural complexity and hydrophobicity make them challenging to study using traditional biochemical methods, requiring specialized techniques such as X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM).

"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.

The hippocampus is a complex, curved formation in the brain that resembles a seahorse (hence its name, from the Greek word "hippos" meaning horse and "kampos" meaning sea monster). It's part of the limbic system and plays crucial roles in the formation of memories, particularly long-term ones.

This region is involved in spatial navigation and cognitive maps, allowing us to recognize locations and remember how to get to them. Additionally, it's one of the first areas affected by Alzheimer's disease, which often results in memory loss as an early symptom.

Anatomically, it consists of two main parts: the Ammon's horn (or cornu ammonis) and the dentate gyrus. These structures are made up of distinct types of neurons that contribute to different aspects of learning and memory.

ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels are a type of ion channel found in the membranes of cells, including those in the heart, muscle, and pancreas. These channels are unique because their opening and closing are regulated by the levels of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) in the cell.

Under normal conditions, when ATP levels are high and ADP levels are low, the KATP channels are closed, which allows the cells to maintain their normal electrical activity. However, during times of metabolic stress or ischemia (a lack of blood flow), the levels of ATP in the cell decrease while the levels of ADP increase. This change in the ATP-to-ADP ratio causes the KATP channels to open, which allows potassium ions to flow out of the cell. The efflux of potassium ions then leads to hyperpolarization of the cell membrane, which helps to protect the cells from damage.

In the pancreas, KATP channels play a crucial role in regulating insulin secretion. In the beta cells of the pancreas, an increase in blood glucose levels leads to an increase in ATP production and a decrease in ADP levels, which causes the KATP channels to close. This closure of the KATP channels leads to depolarization of the cell membrane, which triggers the release of insulin.

Overall, KATP channels are important regulators of cellular electrical activity and play a critical role in protecting cells from damage during times of metabolic stress or ischemia.

Potassium channels are membrane proteins that play a crucial role in regulating the electrical excitability of cells, including cardiac, neuronal, and muscle cells. These channels facilitate the selective passage of potassium ions (K+) across the cell membrane, maintaining the resting membrane potential and shaping action potentials. They are composed of four or six subunits that assemble to form a central pore through which potassium ions move down their electrochemical gradient. Potassium channels can be modulated by various factors such as voltage, ligands, mechanical stimuli, or temperature, allowing cells to fine-tune their electrical properties and respond to different physiological demands. Dysfunction of potassium channels has been implicated in several diseases, including cardiac arrhythmias, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter, a type of chemical messenger that transmits signals across a chemical synapse from one neuron (nerve cell) to another "target" neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell. It is involved in both peripheral and central nervous system functions.

In the peripheral nervous system, acetylcholine acts as a neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction, where it transmits signals from motor neurons to activate muscles. Acetylcholine also acts as a neurotransmitter in the autonomic nervous system, where it is involved in both the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

In the central nervous system, acetylcholine plays a role in learning, memory, attention, and arousal. Disruptions in cholinergic neurotransmission have been implicated in several neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and myasthenia gravis.

Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl-CoA by the enzyme choline acetyltransferase and is stored in vesicles at the presynaptic terminal of the neuron. When a nerve impulse arrives, the vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane, releasing acetylcholine into the synapse. The acetylcholine then binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, triggering a response in the target cell. Acetylcholine is subsequently degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which terminates its action and allows for signal transduction to be repeated.

A gold colloid, radioactive, refers to a type of medical preparation where tiny particles of radioactive gold (usually in the form of gold-198 isotope) are suspended in a liquid medium. Gold-198 has a half-life of about 2.7 days and emits beta particles and gamma radiation.

Radioactive gold colloid is sometimes used in interventional radiology procedures for the treatment of various conditions, such as liver tumors or inflammatory diseases like arthritis. The radioactivity of the gold particles helps to deliver targeted radiation therapy to the affected area, while the small size and colloidal form allow for easy administration and distribution within the body.

It is important to note that the use of radioactive materials in medical procedures requires specialized training and equipment, and should only be performed by qualified healthcare professionals in a controlled environment.

Microdialysis is a minimally invasive technique used in clinical and research settings to continuously monitor the concentration of various chemicals, such as neurotransmitters, drugs, or metabolites, in biological fluids (e.g., extracellular fluid of tissues, blood, or cerebrospinal fluid). This method involves inserting a small, flexible catheter with a semipermeable membrane into the region of interest. A physiological solution is continuously perfused through the catheter, allowing molecules to diffuse across the membrane based on their concentration gradient. The dialysate that exits the catheter is then collected and analyzed for target compounds using various analytical techniques (e.g., high-performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry).

In summary, microdialysis is a valuable tool for monitoring real-time changes in chemical concentrations within biological systems, enabling better understanding of physiological processes or pharmacokinetic properties of drugs.

Unconsciousness is a state of complete awareness where a person is not responsive to stimuli and cannot be awakened. It is often caused by severe trauma, illness, or lack of oxygen supply to the brain. In medical terms, it is defined as a lack of response to verbal commands, pain, or other stimuli, indicating that the person's brain is not functioning at a level necessary to maintain wakefulness and awareness.

Unconsciousness can be described as having different levels, ranging from drowsiness to deep coma. The causes of unconsciousness can vary widely, including head injury, seizure, stroke, infection, drug overdose, or lack of oxygen supply to the brain. Depending on the cause and severity, unconsciousness may last for a few seconds or continue for an extended period, requiring medical intervention and treatment.

General anesthesia is a state of controlled unconsciousness, induced by administering various medications, that eliminates awareness, movement, and pain sensation during medical procedures. It involves the use of a combination of intravenous and inhaled drugs to produce a reversible loss of consciousness, allowing patients to undergo surgical or diagnostic interventions safely and comfortably. The depth and duration of anesthesia are carefully monitored and adjusted throughout the procedure by an anesthesiologist or certified registered nurse anesthetist (CRNA) to ensure patient safety and optimize recovery. General anesthesia is typically used for more extensive surgical procedures, such as open-heart surgery, major orthopedic surgeries, and neurosurgery.

Isoflurane is a volatile halogenated ether used for induction and maintenance of general anesthesia. It is a colorless liquid with a pungent, sweet odor. Isoflurane is an agonist at the gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptor and inhibits excitatory neurotransmission in the brain, leading to unconsciousness and immobility. It has a rapid onset and offset of action due to its low blood solubility, allowing for quick adjustments in anesthetic depth during surgery. Isoflurane is also known for its bronchodilator effects, making it useful in patients with reactive airway disease. However, it can cause dose-dependent decreases in heart rate and blood pressure, so careful hemodynamic monitoring is required during its use.

"Essential drugs" is a term used in the medical and public health fields to refer to a list of medications that are considered necessary to meet the most important needs of a healthcare system. The concept of essential drugs was first introduced by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1977, with the aim of promoting access to affordable, effective, and safe medicines for all people, particularly those in low- and middle-income countries.

The WHO's Model List of Essential Medicines (EML) is regularly updated and contains a core list of essential medicines that should be available at all times in adequate quantities, in the appropriate dosage forms, and at a price that the majority of the population can afford. The list includes drugs for a wide range of medical conditions, from infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria to chronic conditions such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer.

The selection of essential medicines is based on several criteria, including the burden of disease in a population, the safety and efficacy of the drug, its cost-effectiveness, and its place in the overall treatment strategy for a particular condition. The goal is to ensure that healthcare systems have access to a basic set of medicines that can address the most common health needs of their populations, while also allowing for flexibility to meet the specific needs of individual countries and regions.

In summary, essential drugs are a list of medications considered necessary to meet the most important healthcare needs of a population, selected based on criteria such as disease burden, safety, efficacy, cost-effectiveness, and treatment strategy. The concept is promoted by the World Health Organization to improve access to affordable, effective, and safe medicines for all people, particularly those in low- and middle-income countries.

Anesthetics are medications that are used to block or reduce feelings of pain and sensation, either locally in a specific area of the body or generally throughout the body. They work by depressing the nervous system, interrupting the communication between nerves and the brain. Anesthetics can be administered through various routes such as injection, inhalation, or topical application, depending on the type and the desired effect. There are several classes of anesthetics, including:

1. Local anesthetics: These numb a specific area of the body and are commonly used during minor surgical procedures, dental work, or to relieve pain from injuries. Examples include lidocaine, prilocaine, and bupivacaine.
2. Regional anesthetics: These block nerve impulses in a larger area of the body, such as an arm or leg, and can be used for more extensive surgical procedures. They are often administered through a catheter to provide continuous pain relief over a longer period. Examples include spinal anesthesia, epidural anesthesia, and peripheral nerve blocks.
3. General anesthetics: These cause a state of unconsciousness and are used for major surgical procedures or when the patient needs to be completely immobile during a procedure. They can be administered through inhalation or injection and affect the entire body. Examples include propofol, sevoflurane, and isoflurane.

Anesthetics are typically safe when used appropriately and under medical supervision. However, they can have side effects such as drowsiness, nausea, and respiratory depression. Proper dosing and monitoring by a healthcare professional are essential to minimize the risks associated with anesthesia.

General anesthetics are a type of medication used to render a person unconscious and insensible to pain during surgical procedures. They work by depressing the central nervous system, affecting the brain's ability to process information and transmit signals, including those related to pain and muscle movement. General anesthesia involves a combination of intravenous (IV) drugs and inhaled gases that produce a state of controlled unconsciousness, amnesia, analgesia, and immobility.

General anesthetics can be classified into several categories based on their chemical structure and mechanism of action, including:

1. Inhalation anesthetics: These are volatile liquids or gases that are vaporized and inhaled through a breathing circuit. Examples include sevoflurane, desflurane, isoflurane, and nitrous oxide.
2. Intravenous anesthetics: These are drugs that are administered directly into the bloodstream through an IV line. Examples include propofol, etomidate, and ketamine.
3. Dissociative anesthetics: These are drugs that produce a state of dissociation between the thalamus and the cerebral cortex, resulting in altered consciousness, analgesia, and amnesia. Ketamine is a commonly used example.
4. Neurodegenerative anesthetics: These are drugs that cause degeneration of neurons in specific areas of the brain, leading to loss of consciousness. Examples include barbiturates such as thiopental and methohexital.

The choice of general anesthetic depends on several factors, including the patient's medical history, the type and duration of surgery, and the anesthesiologist's preference. The administration of general anesthetics requires careful monitoring and management by a trained anesthesia provider to ensure the patient's safety and comfort throughout the procedure.

Inhalational anesthetics are a type of general anesthetic that is administered through the person's respiratory system. They are typically delivered in the form of vapor or gas, which is inhaled through a mask or breathing tube. Commonly used inhalational anesthetics include sevoflurane, desflurane, isoflurane, and nitrous oxide. These agents work by depressing the central nervous system, leading to a loss of consciousness and an inability to feel pain. They are often used for their rapid onset and offset of action, making them useful for both induction and maintenance of anesthesia during surgical procedures.

Forbes AP (1963). "Neurosecretions; proceedings of the third International Symposium on Neurosecretion, held in the University ... Insects play a large role in what is known about neurosecretion. In simpler organisms neurosecretion mechanisms regulate the ... Neurosecretion in Tasar Silkworm, Antheraea mylitta Drury was investigated by Tripathi, P N et al.,(1997)and they suggested the ... Neurosecretion cells synthesize and package their product in vesicles and exocytose them at axon endings just as normal neurons ...
Scharrer E, Scharrer B (1 January 1945). "Neurosecretion". Physiological Reviews. 25 (1): 171-181. doi:10.1152/physrev.1945.25. ...
1941 Neurosecretion. II. Neurosecretory cells in the central nervous system of cockroaches. J. Comp. Neurol., 74:93-108. 1944 ... Throughout their career, they conducted groundbreaking research on neurosecretion, investigating the connection between the ... "demonstrating the central role of neurosecretion and neuropeptides in the integration of animal function and development." ... Neurosecretion VI. A comparison between the intercerebralis-cardiacum-allatum system of the insects and the hypothalamo- ...
The neurosecretions of the species are largely identified. Its venom is not usually lethal to humans because it has arguably ... Habibulla, Mohammad (1970). "Neurosecretion in the scorpion Heterometrus swammerdami". Journal of Morphology. 131 (1): 1-15. ... Habibulla, Mohammad (1971-10-01). "Neurosecretion in the brain of a scorpion Heterometrus swammerdami-a histochemical study". ... Rao, Kandula Pampapathi; Habibulla, Mohammad (1973-04-01). "Correlation between neurosecretion and some physiological functions ...
v t e Oka, Kazuyuki; Takeda, Naokuni (1986-01-01). "Relationship between neurosecretion and spermatogenesis in the leech, ...
... neurosecretion, and neuropharmacology. Welsh was born August 25, 1901, in Boothbay, Maine. He graduated from Berea College in ...
"The PC12 cell as model for neurosecretion: PC12 cells as model for neurosecretion". Acta Physiologica. 192 (2): 273-285. doi: ... This makes PC12 cells useful as a model system for neuronal differentiation and neurosecretion. Treatment of PC12 cells with ...
It is thought to be associated with neuronal secretory vesicles and regulate neurosecretion. It is the Ca2+-sensing subunit of ...
... identification of tomosyn as an inhibitor of neurosecretion". PLOS Genet. 1 (1): 6-16. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0010002. PMC ...
"Kiss-and-run and full-collapse fusion as modes of exo-endocytosis in neurosecretion". Journal of Neurochemistry. 97 (6): 1546- ...
"The multiple actions of black widow spider toxins and their selective use in neurosecretion studies". Toxicon. 43 (5): 527-542 ...
"The multiple actions of black widow spider toxins and their selective use in neurosecretion studies". Toxicon. 43 (5): 527-42. ...
"The multiple actions of black widow spider toxins and their selective use in neurosecretion studies". Toxicon. 43 (5): 527-42. ...
"The multiple actions of black widow spider toxins and their selective use in neurosecretion studies". Toxicon. 43 (5): 527-42. ... "The multiple actions of black widow spider toxins and their selective use in neurosecretion studies". Toxicon. 43 (5): 527-42. ... "The multiple actions of black widow spider toxins and their selective use in neurosecretion studies". Toxicon. 43 (5): 527-42. ...
Ushkaryov, Y. A. (2004). "The multiple actions of black widow spider toxins and their selective use in neurosecretion studies ...
Some of these sites are the sites of neurosecretion - the neurohypophysis and the median eminence. However, others are sites at ...
"The multiple actions of black widow spider toxins and their selective use in neurosecretion studies". Toxicon. 43 (5): 527-542 ...
Ushkaryov, Y. A. (2004). "The multiple actions of black widow spider toxins and their selective use in neurosecretion studies ...
In September 1973 he organized the sixth international symposium on neurosecretion, which was held in London. He took ... Neurosecretion - the final endocrine pathway). In a tribute from his fellow editors at Springer-Verlag, they recalled " a ... and was already familiar with his work on invertebrate neurosecretion. He asked Knowles whether Marlborough could offer ... became aware of the new perspectives that had been opened in comparative endocrinology through the discovery of neurosecretion ...
Negative feedback of progesterone inhibits hypothalamic pulsatile GnRH neurosecretion, ovulatory GnRH release and pituitary ...
During neurosecretion/exocytosis, SNAREs play a crucial role in vesicle docking, priming, fusion, and synchronization of ...
... in Neurosecretion: The Final Neuroendocrine Pathway (Eds. F. Knowles and L. Vollrath), Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Adiyodi, K.G. ( ... in Neurosecretion: The Final Neuroendocrine Pathway (Eds.F. Knowles and L. Vollrath), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, p.294. Adiyodi, ...
Studies On Reproduction And Neurosecretion In The Millipede Phyllogonostreptus Nigrolabiatus Host Preference by Millipede ...
... control of neurosecretion activity of photoreceptor cells cardiac muscle relaxation maintenance of Ca2+ concentration in the ...
... while in the evenings continuing his research into neurosecretion at the Department of Anatomy at Yale University. At the end ... as well as studying neurosecretion and neuroglia. In 1961, Palay accepted an invitation to become the Bullard Professor of ...
Forbes AP (1963). "Neurosecretions; proceedings of the third International Symposium on Neurosecretion, held in the University ... Insects play a large role in what is known about neurosecretion. In simpler organisms neurosecretion mechanisms regulate the ... Neurosecretion in Tasar Silkworm, Antheraea mylitta Drury was investigated by Tripathi, P N et al.,(1997)and they suggested the ... Neurosecretion cells synthesize and package their product in vesicles and exocytose them at axon endings just as normal neurons ...
Neurosecretion. The biosynthesis and inactivation of neurotransmitters, neurotransmission across synapses. Cholinergic, ...
Hypothalamic tumor; correlation between symptomatology, regional anatomy, and neurosecretion. ROTHBALLER AB, DUGGER GS. ...
The multiple actions of black widow spider toxins and their selective use in neurosecretion studies. Toxicon. 2004 Apr. 43(5): ...
A role for soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor complex dimerization during neurosecretion. ...
Effect of Some Anesthetic Agents on Diuresis and Hypothalamo-Hypophysial Neurosecretion in the Rat. 1966. ...
Elena Fdez; Mar Martínez-Salvador; Matthew Beard; Philip Woodman; Sabine Hilfiker Neurosecretion involves fusion of vesicles ...
Han, GA, Malintan, NT, Collins, BM, Meunier, FA and Sugita, S (2010). Munc18-1 as a key regulator of neurosecretion. Journal of ...
Biomembrane Structure and Function; Cell Entry of Enveloped Viruses; Neurosecretion by Exocytosis; Structure of Bacterial ...
Acts on the pituitary gland through the release of neurosecretions. Regulates: ...
... generic of chlorzoxazone does it work nonhectically regarding which neurosecretion pronouncements. Cites aesthetic near to ...
Neurosecretion Preferred Term Term UI T028290. Date01/01/1999. LexicalTag NON. ThesaurusID NLM (1964). ... Neurosecretion Preferred Concept UI. M0014764. Scope Note. The production and release of substances such as NEUROTRANSMITTERS ... Neurosecretion. Tree Number(s). G11.561.653. Unique ID. D009489. RDF Unique Identifier. http://id.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/D009489 ...
... and physiological and molecular characterization of neurosecretion and its regulation by G proteins and Ca2+. Edward Sherwood, ...
Short-lived dcap-1 mutants exhibit a neurosecretion-dependent upregulation of intestinal ins-7 transcription, and diminished ...
Regulation of cyclic adenosine 3′,5′-monophosphate signaling and pulsatile neurosecretion by Gi-coupled plasma membrane ... Regulation of cyclic adenosine 3′,5′-monophosphate signaling and pulsatile neurosecretion by Gi-coupled plasma membrane ...
... regulating neurosecretion and mediating seasonal cycles of reproduction and metabolic physiology. This last function reflects ...
Neurosecretion. In: Kerkut, G.A., Gilbert, L.I. (Eds.), Comprehensive Insect Physiology, Biochemis-try and Pharmacology, vol. 7 ...
keywords = "In vitro preparation, Intracellular, Neurosecretion, Parvocellular hypothalamic neurons, Procion yellow",. author ...
Neurosecretion - Preferred Concept UI. M0014764. Scope note. The production and release of substances such as NEUROTRANSMITTERS ...
Neurosecretion: secretory mechanisms. (pp. 195-218) edited by Jose R. Lemos, Govindan Dayanithi. Cham, Switzerland: Springer ...
Insect hormones ; Neurosecretion ; Analyse--(DE-588)4122795-5 ; Insekten--(DE-588)4027110-9 ; Neurohormon--(DE-588)4125626-8 ...
N2 - It has been speculated that neurosecretion can be enhanced by increasing the motion, and hence, the availability of ... AB - It has been speculated that neurosecretion can be enhanced by increasing the motion, and hence, the availability of ... It has been speculated that neurosecretion can be enhanced by increasing the motion, and hence, the availability of cytoplasmic ... abstract = "It has been speculated that neurosecretion can be enhanced by increasing the motion, and hence, the availability of ...
... with channel blockade increasing the likelihood of neurosecretion. The present experiment examined the effects of glucose and ... with channel blockade increasing the likelihood of neurosecretion. The present experiment examined the effects of glucose and ... with channel blockade increasing the likelihood of neurosecretion. The present experiment examined the effects of glucose and ... with channel blockade increasing the likelihood of neurosecretion. The present experiment examined the effects of glucose and ...
Scharrer E., Scharrer B. Neurosecretion. - In: Handbuch der mikroskopischen Anatomie des Menschen / Hrsg: W. Bargmann. Berlin: ...
What does the medical term Neurosecretion mean?. It appears to me that if one wants to make progress in mathematics, one ...
dilations of axons filled with neuro-secretion vesicles.. © 2005-2023. T. Clark Brelje and Robert L. Sorenson ...
  • The 3rd International Symposium on Neurosecretion at the University of Bristol discussed the intracellular structure of the neurosecretory cells and the migration path to the target organs or vascular fluid areas by neurosecretory granules. (wikipedia.org)
  • Neurosecretion is the release of extracellular vesicles and particles from neurons, astrocytes, microglial and other cells of the central nervous system. (wikipedia.org)
  • Neurosecretion cells synthesize and package their product in vesicles and exocytose them at axon endings just as normal neurons do, but release their product farther from their target than normal neurons (which release their neurotransmitters short distances at synapses), typically releasing their neurohormones into the circulatory system to reach their distant targets. (wikipedia.org)
  • Like the average neuron, these cells conduct electrical impulses along the axon but unlike these neurons, neurosecretion produces neurohormones that are released into the body's circulation. (wikipedia.org)
  • Background: Recent evidence suggests that astrocytes have important neuroregulatory functions besides classic functions of support and segregation of neurons which includes regulation of neuron communication,neurosecretion and synaptic plasticity.The aim of this review was to focus on astrocyte-neuron interactions in t. (webmedcentral.com)
  • It has been speculated that neurosecretion can be enhanced by increasing the motion, and hence, the availability of cytoplasmic secretory vesicles. (elsevierpure.com)
  • These findings suggest that RabX4 is involved in the neurosecretion of a secretory organ in Bombyx mori. (bvsalud.org)
  • Sabine Hilfiker Neurosecretion involves fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane. (biologists.com)
  • Tanycytes play multiple roles in hypothalamic functions, including sensing peripheral nutrients and metabolic hormones, regulating neurosecretion and mediating seasonal cycles of reproduction and metabolic physiology. (nottingham.ac.uk)
  • and physiological and molecular characterization of neurosecretion and its regulation by G proteins and Ca2+. (vumc.org)
  • This study is the first to report a possible relationship between Rab and neurosecretion in the insect corpus allatum. (bvsalud.org)
  • In simpler organisms neurosecretion mechanisms regulate the heart, the process of metamorphosis, and directly influences the development of the gonadal function. (wikipedia.org)
  • Neurosecretion is a broad area of study and must be further observed to be better understood. (wikipedia.org)
  • The concept of neurosecretion was first elucidated by Ernst Scharrer and colleagues in the 1930s on the basis of the morphologic study of the hypothalamus of fish and mammals. (medscape.com)
  • Insects play a large role in what is known about neurosecretion. (wikipedia.org)
  • Douglas WW (1963) A possible mechanism of neurosecretion release of vasopressin by depolarization and its dependence on calcium. (springer.com)
  • The beginning of puberty is controlled by the neurosecretion of gonadotropin releasing hormone ( GnRH ) from the hypothalamus . (wikilectures.eu)
  • Furthermore disruptions in P4 responses have already been implicated in the U 73122 pathogenesis of infertilities connected U 73122 with hyperandrogenemia such as for example polycystic ovarian symptoms (25 26 Despite their physiological and medical importance the mobile mechanisms where P4 exerts adverse feedback results on GnRH neurosecretion possess remained incompletely realized. (healthy-nutrition-plan.com)
  • SNARE-mediated membrane fusion is required for regulated exocytosis and is critical in many cellular processes including neurosecretion, insulin secretion, immune responses and inflammation. (edu.au)
  • Synaptotagmins (Syts) certainly are a family of vesicle proteins that have been implicated in both regulated neurosecretion and general membrane trafficking. (baxkyardgardener.com)
  • Mitochondria play a pivotal role in the generation of signals coupling metabolism with neurotransmitter release, but a role for mitochondrial-produced ROS in regulating neurosecretion has not been described. (nih.gov)
  • The modern definition of neurosecretion has evolved to include the release of any neuronal secretory product from a neuron. (ontobee.org)
  • The multiple actions of black widow spider toxins and their selective use in neurosecretion studies. (medscape.com)
  • Further genetic screening for repressors identified the transcriptional repressor PAG-3/Gfi-1, which was the first mutation identified that results in increased neurosecretion, a phenotype that has clinical implications for DCV-mediated secretory disorders. (nih.gov)
  • We used a RSK2-KO mouse model that shows no obvious brain abnormalities at the anatomical and histological levels to study the function of RSK2 in neurosecretion. (nih.gov)
  • Neurosecretory cells are one of the examples of specialised nervous system cells that produce neurosecretions. (bartleby.com)
  • My colleagues and I have been active in discovering and classifying diverse types of Ca2+ channels, including the channels most critical for neurosecretion in the brain. (nih.gov)