The pathological process occurring in cells that are dying from irreparable injuries. It is caused by the progressive, uncontrolled action of degradative ENZYMES, leading to MITOCHONDRIAL SWELLING, nuclear flocculation, and cell lysis. It is distinct it from APOPTOSIS, which is a normal, regulated cellular process.
Serum glycoprotein produced by activated MACROPHAGES and other mammalian MONONUCLEAR LEUKOCYTES. It has necrotizing activity against tumor cell lines and increases ability to reject tumor transplants. Also known as TNF-alpha, it is only 30% homologous to TNF-beta (LYMPHOTOXIN), but they share TNF RECEPTORS.
Cell surface receptors that bind TUMOR NECROSIS FACTORS and trigger changes which influence the behavior of cells.
A tumor necrosis factor receptor subtype that is expressed primarily in IMMUNE SYSTEM cells. It has specificity for membrane-bound form of TUMOR NECROSIS FACTORS and mediates intracellular-signaling through TNF RECEPTOR ASSOCIATED FACTORS.
A condition in which the death of adipose tissue results in neutral fats being split into fatty acids and glycerol.
Aseptic or avascular necrosis of the femoral head. The major types are idiopathic (primary), as a complication of fractures or dislocations, and LEGG-CALVE-PERTHES DISEASE.
A complication of kidney diseases characterized by cell death involving KIDNEY PAPILLA in the KIDNEY MEDULLA. Damages to this area may hinder the kidney to concentrate urine resulting in POLYURIA. Sloughed off necrotic tissue may block KIDNEY PELVIS or URETER. Necrosis of multiple renal papillae can lead to KIDNEY FAILURE.
Death of cells in the KIDNEY CORTEX, a common final result of various renal injuries including HYPOXIA; ISCHEMIA; and drug toxicity.
Non-antibody proteins secreted by inflammatory leukocytes and some non-leukocytic cells, that act as intercellular mediators. They differ from classical hormones in that they are produced by a number of tissue or cell types rather than by specialized glands. They generally act locally in a paracrine or autocrine rather than endocrine manner.
Acute kidney failure resulting from destruction of EPITHELIAL CELLS of the KIDNEY TUBULES. It is commonly attributed to exposure to toxic agents or renal ISCHEMIA following severe TRAUMA.
A soluble factor produced by MONOCYTES; MACROPHAGES, and other cells which activates T-lymphocytes and potentiates their response to mitogens or antigens. Interleukin-1 is a general term refers to either of the two distinct proteins, INTERLEUKIN-1ALPHA and INTERLEUKIN-1BETA. The biological effects of IL-1 include the ability to replace macrophage requirements for T-cell activation.
One of the mechanisms by which CELL DEATH occurs (compare with NECROSIS and AUTOPHAGOCYTOSIS). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA; (DNA FRAGMENTATION); at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth.
A family of proteins that were originally identified by their ability to cause NECROSIS of NEOPLASMS. Their necrotic effect on cells is mediated through TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR RECEPTORS which induce APOPTOSIS.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Lipid-containing polysaccharides which are endotoxins and important group-specific antigens. They are often derived from the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria and induce immunoglobulin secretion. The lipopolysaccharide molecule consists of three parts: LIPID A, core polysaccharide, and O-specific chains (O ANTIGENS). When derived from Escherichia coli, lipopolysaccharides serve as polyclonal B-cell mitogens commonly used in laboratory immunology. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Ubiquitous, inducible, nuclear transcriptional activator that binds to enhancer elements in many different cell types and is activated by pathogenic stimuli. The NF-kappa B complex is a heterodimer composed of two DNA-binding subunits: NF-kappa B1 and relA.
A cytokine that stimulates the growth and differentiation of B-LYMPHOCYTES and is also a growth factor for HYBRIDOMAS and plasmacytomas. It is produced by many different cells including T-LYMPHOCYTES; MONOCYTES; and FIBROBLASTS.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
The type species of AQUABIRNAVIRUS, causing infectious pancreatic necrosis in salmonid fish and other freshwater and marine animals including mollusks.
A tumor necrosis factor family member that is released by activated LYMPHOCYTES. Soluble lymphotoxin is specific for TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR RECEPTOR TYPE I; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR RECEPTOR TYPE II; and TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR RECEPTOR SUPERFAMILY, MEMBER 14. Lymphotoxin-alpha can form a membrane-bound heterodimer with LYMPHOTOXIN-BETA that has specificity for the LYMPHOTOXIN BETA RECEPTOR.
The major interferon produced by mitogenically or antigenically stimulated LYMPHOCYTES. It is structurally different from TYPE I INTERFERON and its major activity is immunoregulation. It has been implicated in the expression of CLASS II HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS in cells that do not normally produce them, leading to AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.
The relatively long-lived phagocytic cell of mammalian tissues that are derived from blood MONOCYTES. Main types are PERITONEAL MACROPHAGES; ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES; HISTIOCYTES; KUPFFER CELLS of the liver; and OSTEOCLASTS. They may further differentiate within chronic inflammatory lesions to EPITHELIOID CELLS or may fuse to form FOREIGN BODY GIANT CELLS or LANGHANS GIANT CELLS. (from The Dictionary of Cell Biology, Lackie and Dow, 3rd ed.)
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
A subclass of tumor necrosis family receptors that lack cell signaling domains. They bind to specific TNF RECEPTOR LIGANDS and are believed to play a modulating role in the TNF signaling pathway. Some of the decoy receptors are products of distinct genes, while others are products of ALTERNATIVE SPLICING of the MRNA for the active receptor.
A transmembrane-protein belonging to the TNF family of intercellular signaling proteins. It is a widely expressed ligand that activates APOPTOSIS by binding to TNF-RELATED APOPTOSIS-INDUCING LIGAND RECEPTORS. The membrane-bound form of the protein can be cleaved by specific CYSTEINE ENDOPEPTIDASES to form a soluble ligand form.
A pathological process characterized by injury or destruction of tissues caused by a variety of cytologic and chemical reactions. It is usually manifested by typical signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
Mild to fulminant necrotizing vaso-occlusive retinitis associated with a high incidence of retinal detachment and poor vision outcome.
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Large, phagocytic mononuclear leukocytes produced in the vertebrate BONE MARROW and released into the BLOOD; contain a large, oval or somewhat indented nucleus surrounded by voluminous cytoplasm and numerous organelles.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
A family of intracellular CYSTEINE ENDOPEPTIDASES that play a role in regulating INFLAMMATION and APOPTOSIS. They specifically cleave peptides at a CYSTEINE amino acid that follows an ASPARTIC ACID residue. Caspases are activated by proteolytic cleavage of a precursor form to yield large and small subunits that form the enzyme. Since the cleavage site within precursors matches the specificity of caspases, sequential activation of precursors by activated caspases can occur.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
The type species of NOVIRHABDOVIRUS, in the family RHABDOVIRIDAE. It is a major pathogen of TROUT and SALMON.
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.
The termination of the cell's ability to carry out vital functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, responsiveness, and adaptability.
A family of serine-threonine kinases that plays a role in intracellular signal transduction by interacting with a variety of signaling adaptor proteins such as CRADD SIGNALING ADAPTOR PROTEIN; TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED FACTOR 2; and TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED DEATH DOMAIN PROTEIN. Although they were initially described as death domain-binding adaptor proteins, members of this family may contain other protein-binding domains such as those involving caspase activation and recruitment.
Glycoproteins found on the membrane or surface of cells.
A member of the CXC chemokine family that plays a role in the regulation of the acute inflammatory response. It is secreted by variety of cell types and induces CHEMOTAXIS of NEUTROPHILS and other inflammatory cells.
The span of viability of a cell characterized by the capacity to perform certain functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, some form of responsiveness, and adaptability.
Differentiation antigens residing on mammalian leukocytes. CD stands for cluster of differentiation, which refers to groups of monoclonal antibodies that show similar reactivity with certain subpopulations of antigens of a particular lineage or differentiation stage. The subpopulations of antigens are also known by the same CD designation.
Inbred BALB/c mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical to each other, making them useful for scientific research and experiments due to their consistent genetic background and predictable responses to various stimuli or treatments.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
An interleukin-1 subtype that is synthesized as an inactive membrane-bound pro-protein. Proteolytic processing of the precursor form by CASPASE 1 results in release of the active form of interleukin-1beta from the membrane.
Cells grown in vitro from neoplastic tissue. If they can be established as a TUMOR CELL LINE, they can be propagated in cell culture indefinitely.
A chronic systemic disease, primarily of the joints, marked by inflammatory changes in the synovial membranes and articular structures, widespread fibrinoid degeneration of the collagen fibers in mesenchymal tissues, and by atrophy and rarefaction of bony structures. Etiology is unknown, but autoimmune mechanisms have been implicated.
A large group of proteins that control APOPTOSIS. This family of proteins includes many ONCOGENE PROTEINS as well as a wide variety of classes of INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING PEPTIDES AND PROTEINS such as CASPASES.
Drugs that are used to treat RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS.
The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.
The endogenous compounds that mediate inflammation (AUTACOIDS) and related exogenous compounds including the synthetic prostaglandins (PROSTAGLANDINS, SYNTHETIC).
A cytokine produced by a variety of cell types, including T-LYMPHOCYTES; MONOCYTES; DENDRITIC CELLS; and EPITHELIAL CELLS that exerts a variety of effects on immunoregulation and INFLAMMATION. Interleukin-10 combines with itself to form a homodimeric molecule that is the biologically active form of the protein.
A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.
Tumor necrosis factor receptor family members that are widely expressed and play a role in regulation of peripheral immune responses and APOPTOSIS. The receptors are specific for TNF-RELATED APOPTOSIS-INDUCING LIGAND and signal via conserved death domains that associate with specific TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED FACTORS in the CYTOPLASM.
A positive regulatory effect on physiological processes at the molecular, cellular, or systemic level. At the molecular level, the major regulatory sites include membrane receptors, genes (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION), mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), and proteins.
Granular leukocytes having a nucleus with three to five lobes connected by slender threads of chromatin, and cytoplasm containing fine inconspicuous granules and stainable by neutral dyes.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
Substances that reduce or suppress INFLAMMATION.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
A long pro-domain caspase that contains a death effector domain in its pro-domain region. Caspase 8 plays a role in APOPTOSIS by cleaving and activating EFFECTOR CASPASES. Activation of this enzyme can occur via the interaction of its N-terminal death effector domain with DEATH DOMAIN RECEPTOR SIGNALING ADAPTOR PROTEINS.
Toxins closely associated with the living cytoplasm or cell wall of certain microorganisms, which do not readily diffuse into the culture medium, but are released upon lysis of the cells.
A spectrum of clinical liver diseases ranging from mild biochemical abnormalities to ACUTE LIVER FAILURE, caused by drugs, drug metabolites, and chemicals from the environment.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
The action of a drug in promoting or enhancing the effectiveness of another drug.
Intracellular signaling peptides and proteins that bind directly or indirectly to the cytoplasmic portion of TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR RECEPTORS.
A signal transducing tumor necrosis factor receptor associated factor that is involved in TNF RECEPTOR feedback regulation. It is similar in structure and appears to work in conjunction with TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED FACTOR 1 to inhibit APOPTOSIS.
Technique using an instrument system for making, processing, and displaying one or more measurements on individual cells obtained from a cell suspension. Cells are usually stained with one or more fluorescent dyes specific to cell components of interest, e.g., DNA, and fluorescence of each cell is measured as it rapidly transverses the excitation beam (laser or mercury arc lamp). Fluorescence provides a quantitative measure of various biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell, as well as a basis for cell sorting. Other measurable optical parameters include light absorption and light scattering, the latter being applicable to the measurement of cell size, shape, density, granularity, and stain uptake.
The process of altering the morphology and functional activity of macrophages so that they become avidly phagocytic. It is initiated by lymphokines, such as the macrophage activation factor (MAF) and the macrophage migration-inhibitory factor (MMIF), immune complexes, C3b, and various peptides, polysaccharides, and immunologic adjuvants.
Conversion of an inactive form of an enzyme to one possessing metabolic activity. It includes 1, activation by ions (activators); 2, activation by cofactors (coenzymes); and 3, conversion of an enzyme precursor (proenzyme or zymogen) to an active enzyme.
A short pro-domain caspase that plays an effector role in APOPTOSIS. It is activated by INITIATOR CASPASES such as CASPASE 9. Isoforms of this protein exist due to multiple alternative splicing of its MESSENGER RNA.
A severe form of acute INFLAMMATION of the PANCREAS characterized by one or more areas of NECROSIS in the pancreas with varying degree of involvement of the surrounding tissues or organ systems. Massive pancreatic necrosis may lead to DIABETES MELLITUS, and malabsorption.
A family of inhibitory proteins which bind to the REL PROTO-ONCOGENE PROTEINS and modulate their activity. In the CYTOPLASM, I-kappa B proteins bind to the transcription factor NF-KAPPA B. Cell stimulation causes its dissociation and translocation of active NF-kappa B to the nucleus.
Single pavement layer of cells which line the luminal surface of the entire vascular system and regulate the transport of macromolecules and blood components.
Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blot transferring from the electrophoresis gel to strips of nitrocellulose paper, followed by labeling with antibody probes.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
Diseases of freshwater, marine, hatchery or aquarium fish. This term includes diseases of both teleosts (true fish) and elasmobranchs (sharks, rays and skates).
A signal transducing tumor necrosis factor receptor associated factor that is involved in TNF RECEPTOR feedback regulation. It is similar in structure and appears to work in conjunction with TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED FACTOR 2 to inhibit APOPTOSIS.
A METHYLXANTHINE derivative that inhibits phosphodiesterase and affects blood rheology. It improves blood flow by increasing erythrocyte and leukocyte flexibility. It also inhibits platelet aggregation. Pentoxifylline modulates immunologic activity by stimulating cytokine production.
The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.
Measurable and quantifiable biological parameters (e.g., specific enzyme concentration, specific hormone concentration, specific gene phenotype distribution in a population, presence of biological substances) which serve as indices for health- and physiology-related assessments, such as disease risk, psychiatric disorders, environmental exposure and its effects, disease diagnosis, metabolic processes, substance abuse, pregnancy, cell line development, epidemiologic studies, etc.
Death of a bone or part of a bone, either atraumatic or posttraumatic.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
A cell-surface ligand involved in leukocyte adhesion and inflammation. Its production is induced by gamma-interferon and it is required for neutrophil migration into inflamed tissue.
Mature LYMPHOCYTES and MONOCYTES transported by the blood to the body's extravascular space. They are morphologically distinguishable from mature granulocytic leukocytes by their large, non-lobed nuclei and lack of coarse, heavily stained cytoplasmic granules.
Either of the pair of organs occupying the cavity of the thorax that effect the aeration of the blood.
Galactosamine is a type of amino monosaccharide that is a key component of many glycosaminoglycans, and is commonly found in animal tissues, often used in research and pharmaceutical applications for its role in cellular metabolism and synthesis of various biological molecules.
Mononuclear phagocytes derived from bone marrow precursors but resident in the peritoneum.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
Connective tissue cells which secrete an extracellular matrix rich in collagen and other macromolecules.
A free radical gas produced endogenously by a variety of mammalian cells, synthesized from ARGININE by NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE. Nitric oxide is one of the ENDOTHELIUM-DEPENDENT RELAXING FACTORS released by the vascular endothelium and mediates VASODILATION. It also inhibits platelet aggregation, induces disaggregation of aggregated platelets, and inhibits platelet adhesion to the vascular endothelium. Nitric oxide activates cytosolic GUANYLATE CYCLASE and thus elevates intracellular levels of CYCLIC GMP.
A negative regulatory effect on physiological processes at the molecular, cellular, or systemic level. At the molecular level, the major regulatory sites include membrane receptors, genes (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION), mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), and proteins.
A tumor necrosis factor receptor subtype found in a variety of tissues and on activated LYMPHOCYTES. It has specificity for FAS LIGAND and plays a role in regulation of peripheral immune responses and APOPTOSIS. Multiple isoforms of the protein exist due to multiple ALTERNATIVE SPLICING. The activated receptor signals via a conserved death domain that associates with specific TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED FACTORS in the CYTOPLASM.
A cell line derived from cultured tumor cells.
Inbred C3H mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to maintain a high degree of genetic uniformity and share specific genetic characteristics, including susceptibility to certain diseases, which makes them valuable for biomedical research purposes.
A protein serine-threonine kinase that catalyzes the PHOSPHORYLATION of I KAPPA B PROTEINS. This enzyme also activates the transcription factor NF-KAPPA B and is composed of alpha and beta catalytic subunits, which are protein kinases and gamma, a regulatory subunit.
The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.
Compounds or agents that combine with an enzyme in such a manner as to prevent the normal substrate-enzyme combination and the catalytic reaction.
A subgroup of mitogen-activated protein kinases that activate TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR AP-1 via the phosphorylation of C-JUN PROTEINS. They are components of intracellular signaling pathways that regulate CELL PROLIFERATION; APOPTOSIS; and CELL DIFFERENTIATION.
A family of membrane-anchored glycoproteins that contain a disintegrin and metalloprotease domain. They are responsible for the proteolytic cleavage of many transmembrane proteins and the release of their extracellular domain.
A CALCIUM-independent subtype of nitric oxide synthase that may play a role in immune function. It is an inducible enzyme whose expression is transcriptionally regulated by a variety of CYTOKINES.
Death of pulp tissue with or without bacterial invasion. When the necrosis is due to ischemia with superimposed bacterial infection, it is referred to as pulp gangrene. When the necrosis is non-bacterial in origin, it is called pulp mummification.
A mitogen-activated protein kinase subfamily that regulates a variety of cellular processes including CELL GROWTH PROCESSES; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; APOPTOSIS; and cellular responses to INFLAMMATION. The P38 MAP kinases are regulated by CYTOKINE RECEPTORS and can be activated in response to bacterial pathogens.
A subunit of NF-kappa B that is primarily responsible for its transactivation function. It contains a C-terminal transactivation domain and an N-terminal domain with homology to PROTO-ONCOGENE PROTEINS C-REL.
A tumor necrosis factor receptor subtype with specificity for TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR LIGAND SUPERFAMILY MEMBER 15. It is found in tissues containing LYMPHOCYTES and may play a role in regulating lymphocyte homeostasis and APOPTOSIS. The activated receptor signals via a conserved death domain that associates with specific TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED FACTORS in the CYTOPLASM.
The fission of a CELL. It includes CYTOKINESIS, when the CYTOPLASM of a cell is divided, and CELL NUCLEUS DIVISION.
Molecules or ions formed by the incomplete one-electron reduction of oxygen. These reactive oxygen intermediates include SINGLET OXYGEN; SUPEROXIDES; PEROXIDES; HYDROXYL RADICAL; and HYPOCHLOROUS ACID. They contribute to the microbicidal activity of PHAGOCYTES, regulation of signal transduction and gene expression, and the oxidative damage to NUCLEIC ACIDS; PROTEINS; and LIPIDS.
Disease having a short and relatively severe course.
The outer covering of the body that protects it from the environment. It is composed of the DERMIS and the EPIDERMIS.
A superfamily of PROTEIN-SERINE-THREONINE KINASES that are activated by diverse stimuli via protein kinase cascades. They are the final components of the cascades, activated by phosphorylation by MITOGEN-ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE KINASES, which in turn are activated by mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinases (MAP KINASE KINASE KINASES).
Splitting the DNA into shorter pieces by endonucleolytic DNA CLEAVAGE at multiple sites. It includes the internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, which along with chromatin condensation, are considered to be the hallmarks of APOPTOSIS.
The inner membrane of a joint capsule surrounding a freely movable joint. It is loosely attached to the external fibrous capsule and secretes SYNOVIAL FLUID.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
An encapsulated lymphatic organ through which venous blood filters.
Endogenous and exogenous compounds and that either inhibit CASPASES or prevent their activation.
The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.
Body organ that filters blood for the secretion of URINE and that regulates ion concentrations.
The muscle tissue of the HEART. It is composed of striated, involuntary muscle cells (MYOCYTES, CARDIAC) connected to form the contractile pump to generate blood flow.
Sepsis associated with HYPOTENSION or hypoperfusion despite adequate fluid resuscitation. Perfusion abnormalities may include, but are not limited to LACTIC ACIDOSIS; OLIGURIA; or acute alteration in mental status.
The introduction of a phosphoryl group into a compound through the formation of an ester bond between the compound and a phosphorus moiety.
Linear POLYPEPTIDES that are synthesized on RIBOSOMES and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of AMINO ACIDS determines the shape the polypeptide will take, during PROTEIN FOLDING, and the function of the protein.
A signal transducing tumor necrosis factor receptor associated factor that is involved in regulation of NF-KAPPA B signalling and activation of JNK MITOGEN-ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASES.
An in situ method for detecting areas of DNA which are nicked during APOPTOSIS. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase is used to add labeled dUTP, in a template-independent manner, to the 3 prime OH ends of either single- or double-stranded DNA. The terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase nick end labeling, or TUNEL, assay labels apoptosis on a single-cell level, making it more sensitive than agarose gel electrophoresis for analysis of DNA FRAGMENTATION.
Antibiotic substance isolated from streptomycin-producing strains of Streptomyces griseus. It acts by inhibiting elongation during protein synthesis.
Transport proteins that carry specific substances in the blood or across cell membranes.
Cell surface proteins that bind signalling molecules external to the cell with high affinity and convert this extracellular event into one or more intracellular signals that alter the behavior of the target cell (From Alberts, Molecular Biology of the Cell, 2nd ed, pp693-5). Cell surface receptors, unlike enzymes, do not chemically alter their ligands.
Adverse functional, metabolic, or structural changes in ischemic tissues resulting from the restoration of blood flow to the tissue (REPERFUSION), including swelling; HEMORRHAGE; NECROSIS; and damage from FREE RADICALS. The most common instance is MYOCARDIAL REPERFUSION INJURY.
Anti-inflammatory agents that are non-steroidal in nature. In addition to anti-inflammatory actions, they have analgesic, antipyretic, and platelet-inhibitory actions.They act by blocking the synthesis of prostaglandins by inhibiting cyclooxygenase, which converts arachidonic acid to cyclic endoperoxides, precursors of prostaglandins. Inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis accounts for their analgesic, antipyretic, and platelet-inhibitory actions; other mechanisms may contribute to their anti-inflammatory effects.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of L-alanine and 2-oxoglutarate to pyruvate and L-glutamate. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.6.1.2.
A hypoperfusion of the BLOOD through an organ or tissue caused by a PATHOLOGIC CONSTRICTION or obstruction of its BLOOD VESSELS, or an absence of BLOOD CIRCULATION.
Cytokine-induced cell adhesion molecule present on activated endothelial cells, tissue macrophages, dendritic cells, bone marrow fibroblasts, myoblasts, and myotubes. It is important for the recruitment of leukocytes to sites of inflammation. (From Pigott & Power, The Adhesion Molecule FactsBook, 1993, p154)
DNA sequences which are recognized (directly or indirectly) and bound by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase during the initiation of transcription. Highly conserved sequences within the promoter include the Pribnow box in bacteria and the TATA BOX in eukaryotes.
A chemokine that is a chemoattractant for MONOCYTES and may also cause cellular activation of specific functions related to host defense. It is produced by LEUKOCYTES of both monocyte and lymphocyte lineage and by FIBROBLASTS during tissue injury. It has specificity for CCR2 RECEPTORS.
Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the ANTIGEN (or a very similar shape) that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially PLASMA CELLS).
INFLAMMATION of the PANCREAS. Pancreatitis is classified as acute unless there are computed tomographic or endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatographic findings of CHRONIC PANCREATITIS (International Symposium on Acute Pancreatitis, Atlanta, 1992). The two most common forms of acute pancreatitis are ALCOHOLIC PANCREATITIS and gallstone pancreatitis.
A secreted tumor necrosis factor receptor family member that has specificity FAS LIGAND and TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR LIGAND SUPERFAMILY MEMBER 14. It plays a modulating role in tumor necrosis factor signaling pathway.
A disturbance in the prooxidant-antioxidant balance in favor of the former, leading to potential damage. Indicators of oxidative stress include damaged DNA bases, protein oxidation products, and lipid peroxidation products (Sies, Oxidative Stress, 1991, pxv-xvi).
A long pro-domain caspase that contains a caspase recruitment domain in its pro-domain region. Caspase 9 is activated during cell stress by mitochondria-derived proapoptotic factors and by CARD SIGNALING ADAPTOR PROTEINS such as APOPTOTIC PROTEASE-ACTIVATING FACTOR 1. It activates APOPTOSIS by cleaving and activating EFFECTOR CASPASES.
Soluble factors which stimulate growth-related activities of leukocytes as well as other cell types. They enhance cell proliferation and differentiation, DNA synthesis, secretion of other biologically active molecules and responses to immune and inflammatory stimuli.
Biologically active substances whose activities affect or play a role in the functioning of the immune system.
A phorbol ester found in CROTON OIL with very effective tumor promoting activity. It stimulates the synthesis of both DNA and RNA.
An NADPH-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of L-ARGININE and OXYGEN to produce CITRULLINE and NITRIC OXIDE.
An acidic glycoprotein of MW 23 kDa with internal disulfide bonds. The protein is produced in response to a number of inflammatory mediators by mesenchymal cells present in the hemopoietic environment and at peripheral sites of inflammation. GM-CSF is able to stimulate the production of neutrophilic granulocytes, macrophages, and mixed granulocyte-macrophage colonies from bone marrow cells and can stimulate the formation of eosinophil colonies from fetal liver progenitor cells. GM-CSF can also stimulate some functional activities in mature granulocytes and macrophages.
A CELL LINE derived from human T-CELL LEUKEMIA and used to determine the mechanism of differential susceptibility to anti-cancer drugs and radiation.
A transmembrane protein belonging to the tumor necrosis factor superfamily that was originally discovered on cells of the lymphoid-myeloid lineage, including activated T-LYMPHOCYTES and NATURAL KILLER CELLS. It plays an important role in immune homeostasis and cell-mediated toxicity by binding to the FAS RECEPTOR and triggering APOPTOSIS.
The most common and most biologically active of the mammalian prostaglandins. It exhibits most biological activities characteristic of prostaglandins and has been used extensively as an oxytocic agent. The compound also displays a protective effect on the intestinal mucosa.
Short sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) of DNA that are complementary to sequences of messenger RNA and allow reverse transcriptases to start copying the adjacent sequences of mRNA. Primers are used extensively in genetic and molecular biology techniques.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
Surface ligands, usually glycoproteins, that mediate cell-to-cell adhesion. Their functions include the assembly and interconnection of various vertebrate systems, as well as maintenance of tissue integration, wound healing, morphogenic movements, cellular migrations, and metastasis.
Class of pro-inflammatory cytokines that have the ability to attract and activate leukocytes. They can be divided into at least three structural branches: C; (CHEMOKINES, C); CC; (CHEMOKINES, CC); and CXC; (CHEMOKINES, CXC); according to variations in a shared cysteine motif.
Cells that line the inner and outer surfaces of the body by forming cellular layers (EPITHELIUM) or masses. Epithelial cells lining the SKIN; the MOUTH; the NOSE; and the ANAL CANAL derive from ectoderm; those lining the RESPIRATORY SYSTEM and the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM derive from endoderm; others (CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM and LYMPHATIC SYSTEM) derive from mesoderm. Epithelial cells can be classified mainly by cell shape and function into squamous, glandular and transitional epithelial cells.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
White blood cells. These include granular leukocytes (BASOPHILS; EOSINOPHILS; and NEUTROPHILS) as well as non-granular leukocytes (LYMPHOCYTES and MONOCYTES).
Proteins which are found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. They consist of two types, peripheral and integral proteins. They include most membrane-associated enzymes, antigenic proteins, transport proteins, and drug, hormone, and lectin receptors.
Adherence of cells to surfaces or to other cells.
A family of bullet-shaped viruses of the order MONONEGAVIRALES, infecting vertebrates, arthropods, protozoa, and plants. Genera include VESICULOVIRUS; LYSSAVIRUS; EPHEMEROVIRUS; NOVIRHABDOVIRUS; Cytorhabdovirus; and Nucleorhabdovirus.
Morphologic alteration of small B LYMPHOCYTES or T LYMPHOCYTES in culture into large blast-like cells able to synthesize DNA and RNA and to divide mitotically. It is induced by INTERLEUKINS; MITOGENS such as PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS, and by specific ANTIGENS. It may also occur in vivo as in GRAFT REJECTION.
Round, granular, mononuclear phagocytes found in the alveoli of the lungs. They ingest small inhaled particles resulting in degradation and presentation of the antigen to immunocompetent cells.
A ligand that binds to but fails to activate the INTERLEUKIN 1 RECEPTOR. It plays an inhibitory role in the regulation of INFLAMMATION and FEVER. Several isoforms of the protein exist due to multiple ALTERNATIVE SPLICING of its mRNA.
Detection of RNA that has been electrophoretically separated and immobilized by blotting on nitrocellulose or other type of paper or nylon membrane followed by hybridization with labeled NUCLEIC ACID PROBES.
A signal-transducing adaptor protein that associates with TNF RECEPTOR complexes. It contains a death effector domain that can interact with death effector domains found on INITIATOR CASPASES such as CASPASE 8 and CASPASE 10. Activation of CASPASES via interaction with this protein plays a role in the signaling cascade that leads to APOPTOSIS.
A heterodimeric cytokine that plays a role in innate and adaptive immune responses. Interleukin-12 is a 70 kDa protein that is composed of covalently linked 40 kDa and 35 kDa subunits. It is produced by DENDRITIC CELLS; MACROPHAGES and a variety of other immune cells and plays a role in the stimulation of INTERFERON-GAMMA production by T-LYMPHOCYTES and NATURAL KILLER CELLS.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A human cell line established from a diffuse histiocytic lymphoma (HISTIOCYTIC LYMPHOMA, DIFFUSE) and displaying many monocytic characteristics. It serves as an in vitro model for MONOCYTE and MACROPHAGE differentiation.
Semiautonomous, self-reproducing organelles that occur in the cytoplasm of all cells of most, but not all, eukaryotes. Each mitochondrion is surrounded by a double limiting membrane. The inner membrane is highly invaginated, and its projections are called cristae. Mitochondria are the sites of the reactions of oxidative phosphorylation, which result in the formation of ATP. They contain distinctive RIBOSOMES, transfer RNAs (RNA, TRANSFER); AMINO ACYL T RNA SYNTHETASES; and elongation and termination factors. Mitochondria depend upon genes within the nucleus of the cells in which they reside for many essential messenger RNAs (RNA, MESSENGER). Mitochondria are believed to have arisen from aerobic bacteria that established a symbiotic relationship with primitive protoeukaryotes. (King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations, or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. All animals within an inbred strain trace back to a common ancestor in the twentieth generation.
A sarcoma derived from deep fibrous tissue, characterized by bundles of immature proliferating fibroblasts with variable collagen formation, which tends to invade locally and metastasize by the bloodstream. (Stedman, 25th ed)
Microscopy using an electron beam, instead of light, to visualize the sample, thereby allowing much greater magnification. The interactions of ELECTRONS with specimens are used to provide information about the fine structure of that specimen. In TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY the reactions of the electrons that are transmitted through the specimen are imaged. In SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY an electron beam falls at a non-normal angle on the specimen and the image is derived from the reactions occurring above the plane of the specimen.
Substances that inhibit or prevent the proliferation of NEOPLASMS.
Highly specialized EPITHELIAL CELLS that line the HEART; BLOOD VESSELS; and lymph vessels, forming the ENDOTHELIUM. They are polygonal in shape and joined together by TIGHT JUNCTIONS. The tight junctions allow for variable permeability to specific macromolecules that are transported across the endothelial layer.
A pattern recognition receptor that interacts with LYMPHOCYTE ANTIGEN 96 and LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES. It mediates cellular responses to GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA.
An APOPTOSIS-regulating protein that is structurally related to CASPASE 8 and competes with CASPASE 8 for binding to FAS ASSOCIATED DEATH DOMAIN PROTEIN. Two forms of CASP8 and FADD-like apoptosis regulating protein exist, a long form containing a caspase-like enzymatically inactive domain and a short form which lacks the caspase-like domain.
The main structural component of the LIVER. They are specialized EPITHELIAL CELLS that are organized into interconnected plates called lobules.
A 34 kDa signal transducing adaptor protein that associates with TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR RECEPTOR TYPE 1. It facilitates the recruitment of signaling proteins such as TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED FACTOR 2 and FAS ASSOCIATED DEATH DOMAIN PROTEIN to the receptor complex.
Venous vessels in the umbilical cord. They carry oxygenated, nutrient-rich blood from the mother to the FETUS via the PLACENTA. In humans, there is normally one umbilical vein.
A tetrameric enzyme that, along with the coenzyme NAD+, catalyzes the interconversion of LACTATE and PYRUVATE. In vertebrates, genes for three different subunits (LDH-A, LDH-B and LDH-C) exist.
Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
A relatively small nodular inflammatory lesion containing grouped mononuclear phagocytes, caused by infectious and noninfectious agents.
An anti-inflammatory 9-fluoro-glucocorticoid.
Cell adhesion molecule and CD antigen that mediates neutrophil, monocyte, and memory T-cell adhesion to cytokine-activated endothelial cells. E-selectin recognizes sialylated carbohydrate groups related to the Lewis X or Lewis A family.
A plasma protein that circulates in increased amounts during inflammation and after tissue damage.
Specialized cells of the hematopoietic system that have branch-like extensions. They are found throughout the lymphatic system, and in non-lymphoid tissues such as SKIN and the epithelia of the intestinal, respiratory, and reproductive tracts. They trap and process ANTIGENS, and present them to T-CELLS, thereby stimulating CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY. They are different from the non-hematopoietic FOLLICULAR DENDRITIC CELLS, which have a similar morphology and immune system function, but with respect to humoral immunity (ANTIBODY PRODUCTION).
Membrane proteins encoded by the BCL-2 GENES and serving as potent inhibitors of cell death by APOPTOSIS. The proteins are found on mitochondrial, microsomal, and NUCLEAR MEMBRANE sites within many cell types. Overexpression of bcl-2 proteins, due to a translocation of the gene, is associated with follicular lymphoma.
All of the processes involved in increasing CELL NUMBER including CELL DIVISION.
Conjugated protein-carbohydrate compounds including mucins, mucoid, and amyloid glycoproteins.
The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.
A hemeprotein from leukocytes. Deficiency of this enzyme leads to a hereditary disorder coupled with disseminated moniliasis. It catalyzes the conversion of a donor and peroxide to an oxidized donor and water. EC 1.11.1.7.
Virus diseases caused by RHABDOVIRIDAE. Important infections include RABIES; EPHEMERAL FEVER; and vesicular stomatitis.
Tongues of skin and subcutaneous tissue, sometimes including muscle, cut away from the underlying parts but often still attached at one end. They retain their own microvasculature which is also transferred to the new site. They are often used in plastic surgery for filling a defect in a neighboring region.
Small double-stranded, non-protein coding RNAs (21-31 nucleotides) involved in GENE SILENCING functions, especially RNA INTERFERENCE (RNAi). Endogenously, siRNAs are generated from dsRNAs (RNA, DOUBLE-STRANDED) by the same ribonuclease, Dicer, that generates miRNAs (MICRORNAS). The perfect match of the siRNAs' antisense strand to their target RNAs mediates RNAi by siRNA-guided RNA cleavage. siRNAs fall into different classes including trans-acting siRNA (tasiRNA), repeat-associated RNA (rasiRNA), small-scan RNA (scnRNA), and Piwi protein-interacting RNA (piRNA) and have different specific gene silencing functions.
ENDOPEPTIDASES which use a metal such as ZINC in the catalytic mechanism.
A soluble factor produced by activated T-LYMPHOCYTES that induces the expression of MHC CLASS II GENES and FC RECEPTORS on B-LYMPHOCYTES and causes their proliferation and differentiation. It also acts on T-lymphocytes, MAST CELLS, and several other hematopoietic lineage cells.
Abnormal fluid accumulation in TISSUES or body cavities. Most cases of edema are present under the SKIN in SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE.
The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.
Recombinant proteins produced by the GENETIC TRANSLATION of fused genes formed by the combination of NUCLEIC ACID REGULATORY SEQUENCES of one or more genes with the protein coding sequences of one or more genes.
Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function that leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.
The hemispheric articular surface at the upper extremity of the thigh bone. (Stedman, 26th ed)
Levels within a diagnostic group which are established by various measurement criteria applied to the seriousness of a patient's disorder.
Within a eukaryotic cell, a membrane-limited body which contains chromosomes and one or more nucleoli (CELL NUCLEOLUS). The nuclear membrane consists of a double unit-type membrane which is perforated by a number of pores; the outermost membrane is continuous with the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM. A cell may contain more than one nucleus. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
Pathological processes of the LIVER.

Systemic infection with Alaria americana (Trematoda). (1/6081)

Alaria americana is a trematode, the adult of which is found in mammalian carnivores. The first case of disseminated human infection by the mesocercarial stage of this worm occurred in a 24-year-old man. The infection possibly was acquired by the eating of inadequately cooked frogs, which are intermediate hosts of the worm. The diagnosis was made during life by lung biopsy and confirmed at autopsy. The mesocercariae were present in the stomach wall, lymph nodes, liver, myocardium, pancreas and surrounding adipose tissue, spleen, kidney, lungs, brain and spinal cord. There was no host reaction to the parasites. Granulomas were present in the stomach wall, lymph nodes and liver, but the worms were not identified in them. Hypersensitivity vasculitis and a bleeding diathesis due to disseminated intravascular coagulation and a circulating anticoagulant caused his death 8 days after the onset of his illness.  (+info)

Daunorubicin-induced apoptosis in rat cardiac myocytes is inhibited by dexrazoxane. (2/6081)

-The clinical efficacy of anthracycline antineoplastic agents is limited by a high incidence of severe and usually irreversible cardiac toxicity, the cause of which remains controversial. In primary cultures of neonatal and adult rat ventricular myocytes, we found that daunorubicin, at concentrations /=10 micromol/L induced necrotic cell death within 24 hours, with no changes characteristic of apoptosis. To determine whether reactive oxygen species play a role in daunorubicin-mediated apoptosis, we monitored the generation of hydrogen peroxide with dichlorofluorescein (DCF). However, daunorubicin (1 micromol/L) did not increase DCF fluorescence, nor were the antioxidants N-acetylcysteine or the combination of alpha-tocopherol and ascorbic acid able to prevent apoptosis. In contrast, dexrazoxane (10 micromol/L), known clinically to limit anthracycline cardiac toxicity, prevented daunorubicin-induced myocyte apoptosis, but not necrosis induced by higher anthracycline concentrations (>/=10 micromol/L). The antiapoptotic action of dexrazoxane was mimicked by the superoxide-dismutase mimetic porphyrin manganese(II/III)tetrakis(1-methyl-4-peridyl)porphyrin (50 micromol/L). The recognition that anthracycline-induced cardiac myocyte apoptosis, perhaps mediated by superoxide anion generation, occurs at concentrations well below those that result in myocyte necrosis, may aid in the design of new therapeutic strategies to limit the toxicity of these drugs.  (+info)

Changes in the total number of neuroglia, mitotic cells and necrotic cells in the anterior limb of the mouse anterior commissure following hypoxic stress. (3/6081)

The effects of hypoxic stress (390 mmHg) on the total number of glia, cell division, and cell death in the anterior limb of the anterior commissure were studied. There was a significant (P less than 0-01) fall in the total number of glia following exposure to hypoxia at 390 mmHg for two days. No significant change was observed in the total number of glia between the hypoxic and recovery group one week after return to sea level (ca. 760 mmHg). No change was observed in the number of mitotic figures in the control, hypoxic or recovery groups, but significant falls were observed in the mean number of necrotic cells between both the control and hypoxic groups (P less than 0-05) and the hypoxic and recovery groups (P less than 0-012). The decrease in necrotic cells may be due to a large number of elderly and effete cells, which would normally have undergone degeneration over a period of weeks, dying rapidly after the onset of hypoxia, thus temporarily reducing the daily cell death rate.  (+info)

A photodynamic pathway to apoptosis and necrosis induced by dimethyl tetrahydroxyhelianthrone and hypericin in leukaemic cells: possible relevance to photodynamic therapy. (4/6081)

The mechanism of cell death induction by dimethyl tetrahydroxyhelianthrone (DTHe), a new second-generation photodynamic sensitizer, is analysed in human leukaemic cell lines in comparison with the structurally related hypericin. DTHe has a broad range of light spectrum absorption that enables effective utilization of polychromatic light. Photosensitization of HL-60 cells with low doses of DTHe (0.65 microM DTHe and 7.2 J cm(-2) light energy) induced rapid apoptosis of > or =90% of the cells. At doses > or =2 microM, dying cells assumed morphological necrosis with perinucleolar condensation of chromatin in HL-60 and K-562 cell lines. Although nuclear fragmentation that is characteristic to apoptosis was prevented, DNA digestion to oligonucleosomes proceeded unhindered. Such incomplete apoptosis was more prevalent with the related analogue hypericin throughout most doses of photosensitization. Despite hypericin being a stronger photosensitizer, DTHe exhibited advantageous phototoxic properties to tumour cells, initiating apoptosis at concentrations about threefold lower than hypericin. Photosensitization of the cells induced dissociation of the nuclear envelope, releasing lamins into the cytosol. DTHe also differed from hypericin in effects exerted on the nuclear lamina, causing release of an 86-kDa lamin protein into the cytosol that was unique to DTHe. Within the nucleus, nuclear envelope lamin B underwent covalent polymerization, which did not affect apoptotic nuclear fragmentation at low doses of DTHe. At higher doses, polymerization may have been extensive enough to prevent nuclear collapse. Hut-78, CD4+ cells were resistant to the photodynamically activated apoptotic pathway. Beyond the tolerated levels of photodynamic damage, these cells died exclusively via necrosis. Hut-78 cells overexpress Bcl-X(L) as well as a truncated Bcl-X(L)tr isoform that could contribute to the observed resistance to apoptosis.  (+info)

Diet and risk of ethanol-induced hepatotoxicity: carbohydrate-fat relationships in rats. (5/6081)

Nutritional status is a primary factor in the effects of xenobiotics and may be an important consideration in development of safety standards and assessment of risk. One important xenobiotic consumed daily by millions of people worldwide is alcohol. Some adverse effects of ethanol, such as alcohol liver disease, have been linked to diet. For example, ethanol-induced hepatotoxicity in animal models requires diets that have a high percentage of the total calories as unsaturated fat. However, little attention has been given to the role of carbohydrates (or carbohydrate to fat ratio) in the effects of this important xenobiotic on liver injury. In the present study, adult male Sprague-Dawley rats (8-10/group) were infused (intragastrically) diets high in unsaturated fat (25 or 45% total calories), sufficient protein (16%) and ethanol (38%) in the presence or absence of adequate carbohydrate (21 or 2.5%) for 42-55 days (d). Animals infused ethanol-containing diets adequate in carbohydrate developed steatosis, but had no other signs of hepatic pathology. However, rats infused with the carbohydrate-deficient diet had a 4-fold increase in serum ALT levels (p < 0.05), an unexpectedly high (34-fold) induction of hepatic microsomal CYP2E1 apoprotein (p < 0.001), and focal necrosis. The strong positive association between low dietary carbohydrate, enhanced CYP2E1 induction and hepatic necrosis suggests that in the presence of low carbohydrate intake, ethanol induction of CYP2E1 is enhanced to levels sufficient to cause necrosis, possibly through reactive oxygen species and other free radicals generated by CYP2E1 metabolism of ethanol and unsaturated fatty acids.  (+info)

Tumor suppression in human skin carcinoma cells by chromosome 15 transfer or thrombospondin-1 overexpression through halted tumor vascularization. (6/6081)

The development of skin carcinomas presently is believed to be correlated with mutations in the p53 tumor suppressor and ras gene as well as with the loss of chromosome 9. We now demonstrate that, in addition, loss of chromosome 15 may be a relevant genetic defect. Reintroduction of an extra copy of chromosome 15, but not chromosome 4, into the human skin carcinoma SCL-I cells, lacking one copy of each chromosome, resulted in tumor suppression after s.c. injection in mice. Transfection with thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1), mapped to 15q15, induced the same tumor suppression without affecting cell proliferation in vitro or in vivo. Halted tumors remained as small cysts encapsulated by surrounding stroma and blood vessels. These cysts were characterized by increased TSP-1 matrix deposition at the tumor/stroma border and a complete lack of tumor vascularization. Coinjection of TSP-1 antisense oligonucleotides drastically reduced TSP-1 expression and almost completely abolished matrix deposition at the tumor/stroma border. As a consequence, the tumor phenotype reverted to a well vascularized, progressively expanding, solid carcinoma indistinguishable from that induced by the untransfected SCL-I cells. Thus, these data strongly suggest TSP-1 as a potential tumor suppressor on chromosome 15. The data further propose an unexpected mechanism of TSP-1-mediated tumor suppression. Instead of interfering with angiogenesis in general, in this system TSP-1 acts as a matrix barrier at the tumor/stroma border, which, by halting tumor vascularization, prevents tumor cell invasion and, thus, tumor expansion.  (+info)

Mycophenolate mofetil inhibits rat and human mesangial cell proliferation by guanosine depletion. (7/6081)

BACKGROUND: Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) is used for immunosuppression after renal transplantation because it reduces lymphocyte proliferation by inhibiting inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) in lymphocytes and GTP biosynthesis. In the present study we asked if therapeutic concentrations of MMF might interfere with mesangial cell (MC) proliferation which is involved in inflammatory proliferative glomerular diseases. METHODS: Rat and human MCs were growth-arrested by withdrawal of fetal calf serum (FCS) and stimulated by addition of FCS, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) or lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). Different concentrations of MMF (0.019-10 microM) were added concomitantly in the presence or absence of guanosine. MC proliferation was determined by [3H]thymidine incorporation. Cell viability was assessed by trypan blue exclusion. Apoptotic nuclei were stained using the Hoechst dye H33258. Cytosolic free Ca2+ concentrations were determined with the fluorescent calcium chelator fura-2-AM. RESULTS: MMF inhibited mitogen-induced rat MC proliferation with an IC50 of 0.45 +/- 0.13 microM. Human MCs proved to be even more sensitive (IC50 0.19 +/- 0.06 microM). Inhibition of MC proliferation was reversible and not accompanied by cellular necrosis or apoptosis. Addition of guanosine prevented the antiproliferative effect of MMF, indicating that inhibition of IMPDH is responsible for decreased MC proliferation. Early signalling events of GTP-binding-protein-coupled receptors, such as changes in intracellular Ca2+ levels were not affected by MMF. CONCLUSIONS: The results show that MMF has a concentration-dependent antiproliferative effect on cultured MCs in the therapeutic range, which might be a rationale for the use of this drug in the treatment of mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis.  (+info)

Bcl-2 alters the balance between apoptosis and necrosis, but does not prevent cell death induced by oxidized low density lipoproteins. (8/6081)

Oxidized low density lipoproteins (oxLDL) participate in atherosclerosis plaque formation, rupture, and subsequent thrombosis. Because oxLDL are toxic to cultured cells and Bcl-2 protein prevents apoptosis, the present work aimed to study whether Bcl-2 may counterbalance the toxicity of oxLDL. Two experimental model systems were used in which Bcl-2 levels were modulated: 1) lymphocytes in which the (high) basal level of Bcl-2 was reduced by antisense oligonucleotides; 2) HL60 and HL60/B (transduced by Bcl-2) expressing low and high Bcl-2 levels, respectively. In cells expressing relatively high Bcl-2 levels (lymphocytes and HL60/B), oxLDL induced mainly primary necrosis. In cells expressing low Bcl-2 levels (antisense-treated lymphocytes, HL60 and ECV-304 endothelial cells), the rate of oxLDL-induced apoptosis was higher than that of primary necrosis. OxLDL evoked a sustained calcium rise, which is a common trigger to necrosis and apoptosis since both types of cell death were blocked by the calcium chelator EGTA. Conversely, a sustained calcium influx elicited by the calcium ionophore A23187 induced necrosis in cells expressing high Bcl-2 levels and apoptosis in cells expressing low Bcl-2 levels. This suggests that Bcl-2 acts downstream from the calcium peak and inhibits only the apoptotic pathway, not the necrosis pathway, thus explaining the apparent shift from oxLDL-induced apoptosis toward necrosis when Bcl-2 is overexpressed.  (+info)

Necrosis is the premature death of cells or tissues due to damage or injury, such as from infection, trauma, infarction (lack of blood supply), or toxic substances. It's a pathological process that results in the uncontrolled and passive degradation of cellular components, ultimately leading to the release of intracellular contents into the extracellular space. This can cause local inflammation and may lead to further tissue damage if not treated promptly.

There are different types of necrosis, including coagulative, liquefactive, caseous, fat, fibrinoid, and gangrenous necrosis, each with distinct histological features depending on the underlying cause and the affected tissues or organs.

Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α) is a cytokine, a type of small signaling protein involved in immune response and inflammation. It is primarily produced by activated macrophages, although other cell types such as T-cells, natural killer cells, and mast cells can also produce it.

TNF-α plays a crucial role in the body's defense against infection and tissue injury by mediating inflammatory responses, activating immune cells, and inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death) in certain types of cells. It does this by binding to its receptors, TNFR1 and TNFR2, which are found on the surface of many cell types.

In addition to its role in the immune response, TNF-α has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and psoriasis, as well as cancer, where it can promote tumor growth and metastasis.

Therapeutic agents that target TNF-α, such as infliximab, adalimumab, and etanercept, have been developed to treat these conditions. However, these drugs can also increase the risk of infections and other side effects, so their use must be carefully monitored.

Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) Receptors are cell surface receptors that bind to tumor necrosis factor cytokines. They play crucial roles in the regulation of a variety of immune cell functions, including inflammation, immunity, and cell survival or death (apoptosis).

There are two major types of TNF receptors: TNFR1 (also known as p55 or CD120a) and TNFR2 (also known as p75 or CD120b). TNFR1 is widely expressed in most tissues, while TNFR2 has a more restricted expression pattern and is mainly found on immune cells.

TNF receptors have an intracellular domain called the death domain, which can trigger signaling pathways leading to apoptosis when activated by TNF ligands. However, they can also activate other signaling pathways that promote cell survival, differentiation, and inflammation. Dysregulation of TNF receptor signaling has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and neurodegenerative conditions.

Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) Receptor II, also known as TNFRSF1B or CD120b, is a type of receptor that binds to the TNF-alpha cytokine and plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is a transmembrane protein mainly expressed on the surface of various cells including immune cells, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells.

The activation of TNFRII by TNF-alpha leads to the initiation of intracellular signaling pathways that regulate inflammatory responses, cell survival, differentiation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). Dysregulation of this receptor's function has been implicated in several pathological conditions such as autoimmune diseases, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders.

TNFRII is a member of the TNF receptor superfamily (TNFRSF) and consists of an extracellular domain containing multiple cysteine-rich motifs that facilitate ligand binding, a transmembrane domain, and an intracellular domain responsible for signal transduction. Upon ligand binding, TNFRII forms complexes with various adaptor proteins to activate downstream signaling cascades, ultimately leading to the activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and other signaling molecules.

In summary, Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor II is a key regulator of immune responses and cell fate decisions, with its dysregulation contributing to various pathological conditions.

Fat necrosis is a medical condition that refers to the death (necrosis) of fat cells, typically due to injury or trauma. This can occur when there is an interruption of blood flow to the area, leading to the death of fat cells and the release of their contents. The affected area may become firm, nodular, or lumpy, and can sometimes be mistaken for a tumor.

Fat necrosis can also occur as a result of pancreatic enzymes leaking into surrounding tissues due to conditions such as pancreatitis. These enzymes can break down fat cells, leading to the formation of calcium soaps that can be seen on imaging studies.

While fat necrosis is not typically a serious condition, it can cause discomfort or pain in the affected area. In some cases, surgical intervention may be necessary to remove the affected tissue.

Femoral head necrosis, also known as avascular necrosis of the femoral head, is a medical condition that results from the interruption of blood flow to the femoral head, which is the rounded end of the thigh bone that fits into the hip joint. This lack of blood supply can cause the bone tissue to die, leading to the collapse of the femoral head and eventually resulting in hip joint damage or arthritis.

The condition can be caused by a variety of factors, including trauma, alcohol abuse, corticosteroid use, radiation therapy, and certain medical conditions such as sickle cell disease and lupus. Symptoms may include pain in the hip or groin, limited range of motion, and difficulty walking. Treatment options depend on the severity and progression of the necrosis and may include medication, physical therapy, or surgical intervention.

Kidney papillary necrosis is a medical condition characterized by the death (necrosis) of the renal papillae, which are the small conical projections at the ends of the renal tubules in the kidneys. This condition typically occurs due to reduced blood flow to the kidneys or as a result of toxic injury from certain medications, chronic infections, diabetes, sickle cell disease, and systemic vasculitides.

The necrosis of the papillae can lead to the formation of small stones or debris that can obstruct the flow of urine, causing further damage to the kidneys. Symptoms of kidney papillary necrosis may include fever, flank pain, nausea, vomiting, and bloody or foul-smelling urine. The diagnosis is typically made through imaging studies such as CT scans or MRI, and treatment may involve addressing the underlying cause, administering antibiotics to prevent infection, and providing supportive care to maintain kidney function.

Kidney cortex necrosis is a serious condition characterized by the death (necrosis) of cells in the outer part (cortex) of the kidneys, usually as a result of an interruption in blood flow. This can occur due to various reasons such as severe shock, blood clots, or complications from pregnancy. The necrosis of kidney cortical tissue can lead to acute renal failure, which is a life-threatening situation requiring immediate medical attention and intensive care.

The death of kidney cells in the cortex disrupts the normal functioning of the kidneys, impairing their ability to filter waste products and excess fluids from the blood. This can result in the accumulation of harmful substances in the body and an imbalance of electrolytes, which can be life-threatening if left untreated.

Kidney cortex necrosis is typically diagnosed through a combination of clinical evaluation, laboratory tests, and imaging studies such as ultrasound or CT scan. Treatment usually involves supportive care, including dialysis to replace the kidneys' function until they can recover on their own or until a transplant can be performed. In some cases, the damage to the kidneys may be permanent, leading to chronic renal failure and the need for long-term dialysis or transplantation.

Cytokines are a broad and diverse category of small signaling proteins that are secreted by various cells, including immune cells, in response to different stimuli. They play crucial roles in regulating the immune response, inflammation, hematopoiesis, and cellular communication.

Cytokines mediate their effects by binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, which triggers intracellular signaling pathways that ultimately result in changes in gene expression, cell behavior, and function. Some key functions of cytokines include:

1. Regulating the activation, differentiation, and proliferation of immune cells such as T cells, B cells, natural killer (NK) cells, and macrophages.
2. Coordinating the inflammatory response by recruiting immune cells to sites of infection or tissue damage and modulating their effector functions.
3. Regulating hematopoiesis, the process of blood cell formation in the bone marrow, by controlling the proliferation, differentiation, and survival of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.
4. Modulating the development and function of the nervous system, including neuroinflammation, neuroprotection, and neuroregeneration.

Cytokines can be classified into several categories based on their structure, function, or cellular origin. Some common types of cytokines include interleukins (ILs), interferons (IFNs), tumor necrosis factors (TNFs), chemokines, colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), and transforming growth factors (TGFs). Dysregulation of cytokine production and signaling has been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Acute Kidney Tubular Necrosis (ATN) is a medical condition characterized by the death of tubular epithelial cells that make up the renal tubules of the kidneys. This damage can occur as a result of various insults, including ischemia (lack of blood flow), toxins, or medications.

In ATN, the necrosis of the tubular cells leads to a decrease in the kidney's ability to concentrate urine, regulate electrolytes and remove waste products from the body. This can result in symptoms such as decreased urine output, fluid and electrolyte imbalances, and the accumulation of waste products in the blood (azotemia).

Acute Kidney Tubular Necrosis is usually diagnosed based on clinical findings, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment typically involves supportive care, such as administering intravenous fluids to maintain hydration and electrolyte balance, managing any underlying conditions that may have contributed to the development of ATN, and providing dialysis if necessary to support kidney function until the tubular cells can recover.

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is a type of cytokine, which are proteins that play a crucial role in cell signaling. Specifically, IL-1 is a pro-inflammatory cytokine that is involved in the regulation of immune and inflammatory responses in the body. It is produced by various cells, including monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, in response to infection or injury.

IL-1 exists in two forms, IL-1α and IL-1β, which have similar biological activities but are encoded by different genes. Both forms of IL-1 bind to the same receptor, IL-1R, and activate intracellular signaling pathways that lead to the production of other cytokines, chemokines, and inflammatory mediators.

IL-1 has a wide range of biological effects, including fever induction, activation of immune cells, regulation of hematopoiesis (the formation of blood cells), and modulation of bone metabolism. Dysregulation of IL-1 production or activity has been implicated in various inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, gout, and inflammatory bowel disease. Therefore, IL-1 is an important target for the development of therapies aimed at modulating the immune response and reducing inflammation.

Apoptosis is a programmed and controlled cell death process that occurs in multicellular organisms. It is a natural process that helps maintain tissue homeostasis by eliminating damaged, infected, or unwanted cells. During apoptosis, the cell undergoes a series of morphological changes, including cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, and fragmentation into membrane-bound vesicles called apoptotic bodies. These bodies are then recognized and engulfed by neighboring cells or phagocytic cells, preventing an inflammatory response. Apoptosis is regulated by a complex network of intracellular signaling pathways that involve proteins such as caspases, Bcl-2 family members, and inhibitors of apoptosis (IAPs).

Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) is a type of cytokine, which is a category of proteins that are crucial to cell signaling. TNF plays a significant role in the body's immune response and inflammation process. Specifically, it's primarily produced by activated macrophages as a defensive response against infection, but it can also be produced by other cells such as T-cells and NK cells.

TNF has two types of receptors, TNFR1 and TNFR2, through which it exerts its biological effects. These effects include:

1. Activation of immune cells: TNF helps in the activation of other inflammatory cells like more macrophages and stimulates the release of other cytokines.
2. Cell survival or death: Depending on the context, TNF can promote cell survival or induce programmed cell death (apoptosis), particularly in cancer cells.
3. Fever and acute phase response: TNF is one of the mediators that cause fever and the acute phase reaction during an infection.

The term 'Tumor Necrosis Factor' comes from its historical discovery where it was noted to cause necrosis (death) of tumor cells in certain conditions, although this is not its primary function in the body. Overproduction or dysregulation of TNF has been implicated in several diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and some types of cancer.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are large molecules found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. They consist of a hydrophilic polysaccharide called the O-antigen, a core oligosaccharide, and a lipid portion known as Lipid A. The Lipid A component is responsible for the endotoxic activity of LPS, which can trigger a powerful immune response in animals, including humans. This response can lead to symptoms such as fever, inflammation, and septic shock, especially when large amounts of LPS are introduced into the bloodstream.

NF-κB (Nuclear Factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) is a protein complex that plays a crucial role in regulating the immune response to infection and inflammation, as well as in cell survival, differentiation, and proliferation. It is composed of several subunits, including p50, p52, p65 (RelA), c-Rel, and RelB, which can form homodimers or heterodimers that bind to specific DNA sequences called κB sites in the promoter regions of target genes.

Under normal conditions, NF-κB is sequestered in the cytoplasm by inhibitory proteins known as IκBs (inhibitors of κB). However, upon stimulation by various signals such as cytokines, bacterial or viral products, and stress, IκBs are phosphorylated, ubiquitinated, and degraded, leading to the release and activation of NF-κB. Activated NF-κB then translocates to the nucleus, where it binds to κB sites and regulates the expression of target genes involved in inflammation, immunity, cell survival, and proliferation.

Dysregulation of NF-κB signaling has been implicated in various pathological conditions such as cancer, chronic inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, targeting NF-κB signaling has emerged as a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of these diseases.

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a cytokine, a type of protein that plays a crucial role in communication between cells, especially in the immune system. It is produced by various cells including T-cells, B-cells, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells in response to infection, injury, or inflammation.

IL-6 has diverse effects on different cell types. In the immune system, it stimulates the growth and differentiation of B-cells into plasma cells that produce antibodies. It also promotes the activation and survival of T-cells. Moreover, IL-6 plays a role in fever induction by acting on the hypothalamus to raise body temperature during an immune response.

In addition to its functions in the immune system, IL-6 has been implicated in various physiological processes such as hematopoiesis (the formation of blood cells), bone metabolism, and neural development. However, abnormal levels of IL-6 have also been associated with several diseases, including autoimmune disorders, chronic inflammation, and cancer.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

Infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN) is a viral disease that primarily affects young salmonid fish, such as salmon and trout. The IPN virus, also known as Salmonid alphavirus (SAV), is the causative agent of this disease. It is an enveloped, positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the family Alphaflexiviridae and genus Alphavirus.

The IPN virus primarily targets the exocrine pancreas, leading to severe necrosis (tissue death) in infected fish. The infection can also spread to other organs, including the liver, kidney, and heart. Infected fish may exhibit various clinical signs such as lethargy, loss of appetite, darkening of the skin, abnormal swimming behavior, and exophthalmia (bulging eyes).

The IPN virus is highly contagious and can be transmitted horizontally through direct contact with infected fish or their bodily fluids. It can also be vertically transmitted from infected broodstock to their offspring. The disease can have significant economic impacts on the aquaculture industry, leading to high mortality rates in affected fish populations.

Prevention and control measures for IPN include vaccination of broodstock and fry, biosecurity practices, and quarantine procedures. There is no specific treatment for IPN, and antibiotics are generally not effective against viral infections. Supportive care, such as providing optimal water quality and nutrition, can help affected fish recover from the disease.

Lymphotoxin-alpha (LT-alpha), also known as Tumor Necrosis Factor-beta (TNF-beta), is a cytokine that belongs to the TNF superfamily. It is primarily produced by activated CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, and to some extent by B cells, natural killer (NK) cells, and neutrophils. LT-alpha can form homotrimers or heterotrimers with Lymphotoxin-beta (LT-beta), which bind to the LT-beta receptor (LTβR) and herceptin-resistant tumor cells (HRT) on the surface of various cell types, including immune cells, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells.

The activation of the LTβR signaling pathway plays a crucial role in the development and organization of secondary lymphoid organs, such as lymph nodes, Peyer's patches, and spleen. Additionally, LT-alpha has proinflammatory effects, inducing apoptosis in susceptible cells, activating immune cells, and contributing to the pathogenesis of several inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and Crohn's disease.

Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) is a soluble cytokine that is primarily produced by the activation of natural killer (NK) cells and T lymphocytes, especially CD4+ Th1 cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells. It plays a crucial role in the regulation of the immune response against viral and intracellular bacterial infections, as well as tumor cells. IFN-γ has several functions, including activating macrophages to enhance their microbicidal activity, increasing the presentation of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and II molecules on antigen-presenting cells, stimulating the proliferation and differentiation of T cells and NK cells, and inducing the production of other cytokines and chemokines. Additionally, IFN-γ has direct antiproliferative effects on certain types of tumor cells and can enhance the cytotoxic activity of immune cells against infected or malignant cells.

Macrophages are a type of white blood cell that are an essential part of the immune system. They are large, specialized cells that engulf and destroy foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, as well as damaged or dead cells. Macrophages are found throughout the body, including in the bloodstream, lymph nodes, spleen, liver, lungs, and connective tissues. They play a critical role in inflammation, immune response, and tissue repair and remodeling.

Macrophages originate from monocytes, which are a type of white blood cell produced in the bone marrow. When monocytes enter the tissues, they differentiate into macrophages, which have a larger size and more specialized functions than monocytes. Macrophages can change their shape and move through tissues to reach sites of infection or injury. They also produce cytokines, chemokines, and other signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response and recruit other immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

Macrophages have a variety of surface receptors that allow them to recognize and respond to different types of foreign substances and signals from other cells. They can engulf and digest foreign particles, bacteria, and viruses through a process called phagocytosis. Macrophages also play a role in presenting antigens to T cells, which are another type of immune cell that helps coordinate the immune response.

Overall, macrophages are crucial for maintaining tissue homeostasis, defending against infection, and promoting wound healing and tissue repair. Dysregulation of macrophage function has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and chronic inflammatory conditions.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) Decoy Receptors are soluble forms of TNF receptors that act as decoy molecules to neutralize the activity of TNF-α, a pro-inflammatory cytokine. They function by binding to TNF-α and preventing it from interacting with its cell surface receptors (TNFR1 and TNFR2), thereby inhibiting the downstream signaling cascades that lead to inflammation and tissue damage.

There are two main types of TNF decoy receptors:

1. TNF Receptor 1 (TNFR1, also known as p55 or p60) - This type of decoy receptor is produced by alternative splicing of the TNFR1 gene and can be found in both membrane-bound and soluble forms. The soluble form of TNFR1 acts as a decoy receptor for TNF-α, preventing it from binding to its cell surface receptors.
2. TNF Receptor 2 (TNFR2, also known as p75 or p80) - This type of decoy receptor is primarily found in the soluble form and is produced by proteolytic cleavage of the membrane-bound TNFR2. Soluble TNFR2 can bind to TNF-α with higher affinity than TNFR1, making it a more effective decoy receptor.

TNF decoy receptors have been implicated in various physiological and pathological processes, including inflammation, immune regulation, and cancer. They are being investigated as potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and psoriasis.

TNF-Related Apoptosis-Inducing Ligand (TRAIL) is a type II transmembrane protein and a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) ligand family. It binds to death receptors TRAIL-R1 (DR4) and TRAIL-R2 (DR5), leading to the activation of extrinsic apoptosis pathway in sensitive cells. This protein is involved in immune surveillance against tumor cells, as it can selectively induce apoptosis in malignant or virus-infected cells while sparing normal cells. TRAIL also plays a role in inflammation and innate immunity.

Inflammation is a complex biological response of tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is characterized by the following signs: rubor (redness), tumor (swelling), calor (heat), dolor (pain), and functio laesa (loss of function). The process involves the activation of the immune system, recruitment of white blood cells, and release of inflammatory mediators, which contribute to the elimination of the injurious stimuli and initiation of the healing process. However, uncontrolled or chronic inflammation can also lead to tissue damage and diseases.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Acute Retinal Necrosis Syndrome (ARNS) is a rare, but severe ophthalmological emergency that primarily affects otherwise healthy individuals. It is characterized by rapid, progressive necrosis (death of cells) of the retina, the innermost layer of the eye responsible for processing visual images. The condition typically presents unilaterally (in one eye), but has a high risk (up to 75%) of progressing to involve the other eye within several weeks.

The primary causative agents of ARNS are various viruses, most commonly herpes simplex virus type 1 and 2 (HSV-1, HSV-2) and varicella-zoster virus (VZV). These viruses gain access to the retina via hematogenous spread (dissemination through the bloodstream), infecting the retinal vessels and causing a robust inflammatory response that results in necrosis of the retinal tissue.

The clinical presentation of ARNS includes:

1. Acute onset of visual loss, typically over several days to two weeks.
2. Floaters (small, dark spots or strands that appear in the field of vision) and photopsias (flashes of light).
3. Inflammation of the anterior chamber of the eye (anterior uveitis), characterized by cells and flare in the aqueous humor.
4. Vitritis (inflammation of the vitreous gel that fills the space between the lens and retina) with associated snowball or string-of-pearls opacities.
5. Retinal arteritis (inflammation of the retinal arteries), characterized by segmental narrowing, occlusion, and/or periarterial sheathing.
6. Progressive necrosis of the retina, often leading to retinal detachment and severe visual impairment or blindness if left untreated.

The diagnosis of ARNS is primarily clinical, based on the characteristic signs and symptoms, as well as supportive laboratory tests such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis of aqueous humor or vitreous samples to detect viral DNA. Imaging techniques like optical coherence tomography (OCT) and fluorescein angiography can also aid in the diagnosis and management of this condition.

Treatment typically involves antiviral therapy, such as intravenous acyclovir, to target the underlying viral infection. Corticosteroids are often used concurrently to manage the inflammatory response. Immunomodulatory agents like intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) or plasma exchange may also be considered in severe cases or when there is a poor response to initial therapy.

Early diagnosis and prompt treatment of ARNS are crucial for preserving visual function and preventing complications such as retinal detachment. Regular follow-up with an ophthalmologist is essential for monitoring disease progression, managing complications, and adjusting treatment plans as necessary.

Recombinant proteins are artificially created proteins produced through the use of recombinant DNA technology. This process involves combining DNA molecules from different sources to create a new set of genes that encode for a specific protein. The resulting recombinant protein can then be expressed, purified, and used for various applications in research, medicine, and industry.

Recombinant proteins are widely used in biomedical research to study protein function, structure, and interactions. They are also used in the development of diagnostic tests, vaccines, and therapeutic drugs. For example, recombinant insulin is a common treatment for diabetes, while recombinant human growth hormone is used to treat growth disorders.

The production of recombinant proteins typically involves the use of host cells, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, which are engineered to express the desired protein. The host cells are transformed with a plasmid vector containing the gene of interest, along with regulatory elements that control its expression. Once the host cells are cultured and the protein is expressed, it can be purified using various chromatography techniques.

Overall, recombinant proteins have revolutionized many areas of biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study and manipulate proteins in ways that were previously impossible.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Monocytes are a type of white blood cell that are part of the immune system. They are large cells with a round or oval shape and a nucleus that is typically indented or horseshoe-shaped. Monocytes are produced in the bone marrow and then circulate in the bloodstream, where they can differentiate into other types of immune cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells.

Monocytes play an important role in the body's defense against infection and tissue damage. They are able to engulf and digest foreign particles, microorganisms, and dead or damaged cells, which helps to clear them from the body. Monocytes also produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help to coordinate the immune response.

Elevated levels of monocytes in the bloodstream can be a sign of an ongoing infection, inflammation, or other medical conditions such as cancer or autoimmune disorders.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

Caspases are a family of protease enzymes that play essential roles in programmed cell death, also known as apoptosis. These enzymes are produced as inactive precursors and are activated when cells receive signals to undergo apoptosis. Once activated, caspases cleave specific protein substrates, leading to the characteristic morphological changes and DNA fragmentation associated with apoptotic cell death. Caspases also play roles in other cellular processes, including inflammation and differentiation. There are two types of caspases: initiator caspases (caspase-2, -8, -9, and -10) and effector caspases (caspase-3, -6, and -7). Initiator caspases are activated in response to various apoptotic signals and then activate the effector caspases, which carry out the proteolytic cleavage of cellular proteins. Dysregulation of caspase activity has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, ischemic injury, and cancer.

'Gene expression regulation' refers to the processes that control whether, when, and where a particular gene is expressed, meaning the production of a specific protein or functional RNA encoded by that gene. This complex mechanism can be influenced by various factors such as transcription factors, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, non-coding RNAs, and post-transcriptional modifications, among others. Proper regulation of gene expression is crucial for normal cellular function, development, and maintaining homeostasis in living organisms. Dysregulation of gene expression can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus (IHNV) is a species of negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the family Novirhabdoviridae. It is the causative agent of infectious hematopoietic necrosis (IHN), a serious and highly contagious disease in salmonid fish such as rainbow trout, sockeye salmon, and Atlantic salmon.

The virus primarily infects the hematopoietic tissue in the kidney, spleen, and liver of the host fish, leading to necrosis (cell death) and subsequent damage to the immune system. IHNV can cause significant mortality rates in infected fish populations, particularly in young fish, and poses a major threat to the aquaculture industry.

IHNV is transmitted horizontally through direct contact with infected fish or their bodily fluids, as well as vertically from infected broodstock to offspring. The virus can also be spread through contaminated water, equipment, and other fomites. Prevention and control measures include strict biosecurity protocols, vaccination of fish stocks, and the use of disinfectants to eliminate the virus from contaminated surfaces and equipment.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

Monoclonal antibodies are a type of antibody that are identical because they are produced by a single clone of cells. They are laboratory-produced molecules that act like human antibodies in the immune system. They can be designed to attach to specific proteins found on the surface of cancer cells, making them useful for targeting and treating cancer. Monoclonal antibodies can also be used as a therapy for other diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and inflammatory conditions.

Monoclonal antibodies are produced by fusing a single type of immune cell, called a B cell, with a tumor cell to create a hybrid cell, or hybridoma. This hybrid cell is then able to replicate indefinitely, producing a large number of identical copies of the original antibody. These antibodies can be further modified and engineered to enhance their ability to bind to specific targets, increase their stability, and improve their effectiveness as therapeutic agents.

Monoclonal antibodies have several mechanisms of action in cancer therapy. They can directly kill cancer cells by binding to them and triggering an immune response. They can also block the signals that promote cancer growth and survival. Additionally, monoclonal antibodies can be used to deliver drugs or radiation directly to cancer cells, increasing the effectiveness of these treatments while minimizing their side effects on healthy tissues.

Monoclonal antibodies have become an important tool in modern medicine, with several approved for use in cancer therapy and other diseases. They are continuing to be studied and developed as a promising approach to treating a wide range of medical conditions.

Cell death is the process by which cells cease to function and eventually die. There are several ways that cells can die, but the two most well-known and well-studied forms of cell death are apoptosis and necrosis.

Apoptosis is a programmed form of cell death that occurs as a normal and necessary process in the development and maintenance of healthy tissues. During apoptosis, the cell's DNA is broken down into small fragments, the cell shrinks, and the membrane around the cell becomes fragmented, allowing the cell to be easily removed by phagocytic cells without causing an inflammatory response.

Necrosis, on the other hand, is a form of cell death that occurs as a result of acute tissue injury or overwhelming stress. During necrosis, the cell's membrane becomes damaged and the contents of the cell are released into the surrounding tissue, causing an inflammatory response.

There are also other forms of cell death, such as autophagy, which is a process by which cells break down their own organelles and proteins to recycle nutrients and maintain energy homeostasis, and pyroptosis, which is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in response to infection and involves the activation of inflammatory caspases.

Cell death is an important process in many physiological and pathological processes, including development, tissue homeostasis, and disease. Dysregulation of cell death can contribute to the development of various diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases.

Receptor-Interacting Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases (RIPKs) are a family of serine-threonine kinases that play crucial roles in the regulation of cell death, inflammation, and immune response. In humans, there are seven known members of this family, RIPK1 to RIPK7, which share a conserved N-terminal kinase domain and C-terminal domains involved in protein-protein interactions.

RIPKs can be activated by various stimuli, including cytokines, pathogens, and stress signals, leading to the phosphorylation of downstream substrates that modulate cellular processes such as apoptosis (programmed cell death), necroptosis (a programmed form of necrosis), and inflammation.

RIPK1 is one of the most well-studied members, acting as a key regulator of both cell survival and death pathways. In response to tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor engagement, RIPK1 can form complexes with other proteins that either promote cell survival through the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) or induce cell death via apoptosis or necroptosis.

Dysregulation of RIPKs has been implicated in several pathological conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases, inflammatory disorders, and cancer. Therefore, targeting RIPKs with small molecule inhibitors is an area of active research for the development of novel therapeutic strategies to treat these diseases.

Membrane glycoproteins are proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to their polypeptide backbone. They are integral components of biological membranes, spanning the lipid bilayer and playing crucial roles in various cellular processes.

The glycosylation of these proteins occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus during protein folding and trafficking. The attached glycans can vary in structure, length, and composition, which contributes to the diversity of membrane glycoproteins.

Membrane glycoproteins can be classified into two main types based on their orientation within the lipid bilayer:

1. Type I (N-linked): These glycoproteins have a single transmembrane domain and an extracellular N-terminus, where the oligosaccharides are predominantly attached via asparagine residues (Asn-X-Ser/Thr sequon).
2. Type II (C-linked): These glycoproteins possess two transmembrane domains and an intracellular C-terminus, with the oligosaccharides linked to tryptophan residues via a mannose moiety.

Membrane glycoproteins are involved in various cellular functions, such as:

* Cell adhesion and recognition
* Receptor-mediated signal transduction
* Enzymatic catalysis
* Transport of molecules across membranes
* Cell-cell communication
* Immunological responses

Some examples of membrane glycoproteins include cell surface receptors (e.g., growth factor receptors, cytokine receptors), adhesion molecules (e.g., integrins, cadherins), and transporters (e.g., ion channels, ABC transporters).

Interleukin-8 (IL-8) is a type of cytokine, which is a small signaling protein involved in immune response and inflammation. IL-8 is also known as neutrophil chemotactic factor or NCF because it attracts neutrophils, a type of white blood cell, to the site of infection or injury.

IL-8 is produced by various cells including macrophages, epithelial cells, and endothelial cells in response to bacterial or inflammatory stimuli. It acts by binding to specific receptors called CXCR1 and CXCR2 on the surface of neutrophils, which triggers a series of intracellular signaling events leading to neutrophil activation, migration, and degranulation.

IL-8 plays an important role in the recruitment of neutrophils to the site of infection or tissue damage, where they can phagocytose and destroy invading microorganisms. However, excessive or prolonged production of IL-8 has been implicated in various inflammatory diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), rheumatoid arthritis, and cancer.

Cell survival refers to the ability of a cell to continue living and functioning normally, despite being exposed to potentially harmful conditions or treatments. This can include exposure to toxins, radiation, chemotherapeutic drugs, or other stressors that can damage cells or interfere with their normal processes.

In scientific research, measures of cell survival are often used to evaluate the effectiveness of various therapies or treatments. For example, researchers may expose cells to a particular drug or treatment and then measure the percentage of cells that survive to assess its potential therapeutic value. Similarly, in toxicology studies, measures of cell survival can help to determine the safety of various chemicals or substances.

It's important to note that cell survival is not the same as cell proliferation, which refers to the ability of cells to divide and multiply. While some treatments may promote cell survival, they may also inhibit cell proliferation, making them useful for treating diseases such as cancer. Conversely, other treatments may be designed to specifically target and kill cancer cells, even if it means sacrificing some healthy cells in the process.

CD (cluster of differentiation) antigens are cell-surface proteins that are expressed on leukocytes (white blood cells) and can be used to identify and distinguish different subsets of these cells. They are important markers in the field of immunology and hematology, and are commonly used to diagnose and monitor various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases.

CD antigens are designated by numbers, such as CD4, CD8, CD19, etc., which refer to specific proteins found on the surface of different types of leukocytes. For example, CD4 is a protein found on the surface of helper T cells, while CD8 is found on cytotoxic T cells.

CD antigens can be used as targets for immunotherapy, such as monoclonal antibody therapy, in which antibodies are designed to bind to specific CD antigens and trigger an immune response against cancer cells or infected cells. They can also be used as markers to monitor the effectiveness of treatments and to detect minimal residual disease (MRD) after treatment.

It's important to note that not all CD antigens are exclusive to leukocytes, some can be found on other cell types as well, and their expression can vary depending on the activation state or differentiation stage of the cells.

BALB/c is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The strain was developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London by Henry Baldwin and his colleagues in the 1920s, and it has since become one of the most commonly used inbred strains in the world.

BALB/c mice are characterized by their black coat color, which is determined by a recessive allele at the tyrosinase locus. They are also known for their docile and friendly temperament, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory.

One of the key features of BALB/c mice that makes them useful for research is their susceptibility to certain types of tumors and immune responses. For example, they are highly susceptible to developing mammary tumors, which can be induced by chemical carcinogens or viral infection. They also have a strong Th2-biased immune response, which makes them useful models for studying allergic diseases and asthma.

BALB/c mice are also commonly used in studies of genetics, neuroscience, behavior, and infectious diseases. Because they are an inbred strain, they have a uniform genetic background, which makes it easier to control for genetic factors in experiments. Additionally, because they have been bred in the laboratory for many generations, they are highly standardized and reproducible, making them ideal subjects for scientific research.

A "knockout" mouse is a genetically engineered mouse in which one or more genes have been deleted or "knocked out" using molecular biology techniques. This allows researchers to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes, as well as potential associations with human diseases. The mice are generated by introducing targeted DNA modifications into embryonic stem cells, which are then used to create a live animal. Knockout mice have been widely used in biomedical research to investigate gene function, disease mechanisms, and potential therapeutic targets.

Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) is a member of the interleukin-1 cytokine family and is primarily produced by activated macrophages in response to inflammatory stimuli. It is a crucial mediator of the innate immune response and plays a key role in the regulation of various biological processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. IL-1β is involved in the pathogenesis of several inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and atherosclerosis. It exerts its effects by binding to the interleukin-1 receptor, which triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of various transcription factors and the expression of target genes.

'Tumor cells, cultured' refers to the process of removing cancerous cells from a tumor and growing them in controlled laboratory conditions. This is typically done by isolating the tumor cells from a patient's tissue sample, then placing them in a nutrient-rich environment that promotes their growth and multiplication.

The resulting cultured tumor cells can be used for various research purposes, including the study of cancer biology, drug development, and toxicity testing. They provide a valuable tool for researchers to better understand the behavior and characteristics of cancer cells outside of the human body, which can lead to the development of more effective cancer treatments.

It is important to note that cultured tumor cells may not always behave exactly the same way as they do in the human body, so findings from cell culture studies must be validated through further research, such as animal models or clinical trials.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease that primarily affects the joints. It is characterized by persistent inflammation, synovial hyperplasia, and subsequent damage to the articular cartilage and bone. The immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues, specifically targeting the synovial membrane lining the joint capsule. This results in swelling, pain, warmth, and stiffness in affected joints, often most severely in the hands and feet.

RA can also have extra-articular manifestations, affecting other organs such as the lungs, heart, skin, eyes, and blood vessels. The exact cause of RA remains unknown, but it is believed to involve a complex interplay between genetic susceptibility and environmental triggers. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial in managing rheumatoid arthritis to prevent joint damage, disability, and systemic complications.

Apoptosis regulatory proteins are a group of proteins that play an essential role in the regulation and execution of apoptosis, also known as programmed cell death. This process is a normal part of development and tissue homeostasis, allowing for the elimination of damaged or unnecessary cells. The balance between pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic proteins determines whether a cell will undergo apoptosis.

Pro-apoptotic proteins, such as BAX, BID, and PUMA, promote apoptosis by neutralizing or counteracting the effects of anti-apoptotic proteins or by directly activating the apoptotic pathway. These proteins can be activated in response to various stimuli, including DNA damage, oxidative stress, and activation of the death receptor pathway.

Anti-apoptotic proteins, such as BCL-2, BCL-XL, and MCL-1, inhibit apoptosis by binding and neutralizing pro-apoptotic proteins or by preventing the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria, which is a key step in the intrinsic apoptotic pathway.

Dysregulation of apoptosis regulatory proteins has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases. Therefore, understanding the role of these proteins in apoptosis regulation is crucial for developing new therapeutic strategies to treat these conditions.

Antirheumatic agents are a class of drugs used to treat rheumatoid arthritis, other inflammatory types of arthritis, and related conditions. These medications work by reducing inflammation in the body, relieving symptoms such as pain, swelling, and stiffness in the joints. They can also help slow down or prevent joint damage and disability caused by the disease.

There are several types of antirheumatic agents, including:

1. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): These medications, such as ibuprofen and naproxen, reduce inflammation and relieve pain. They are often used to treat mild to moderate symptoms of arthritis.
2. Corticosteroids: These powerful anti-inflammatory drugs, such as prednisone and cortisone, can quickly reduce inflammation and suppress the immune system. They are usually used for short-term relief of severe symptoms or in combination with other antirheumatic agents.
3. Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs): These medications, such as methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine, work by slowing down the progression of rheumatoid arthritis and preventing joint damage. They can take several weeks or months to become fully effective.
4. Biologic response modifiers (biologics): These are a newer class of DMARDs that target specific molecules involved in the immune response. They include drugs such as adalimumab, etanercept, and infliximab. Biologics are usually used in combination with other antirheumatic agents for patients who have not responded to traditional DMARD therapy.
5. Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors: These medications, such as tofacitinib and baricitinib, work by blocking the action of enzymes called JAKs that are involved in the immune response. They are used to treat moderate to severe rheumatoid arthritis and can be used in combination with other antirheumatic agents.

It is important to note that antirheumatic agents can have significant side effects and should only be prescribed by a healthcare provider who is experienced in the management of rheumatoid arthritis. Regular monitoring and follow-up are essential to ensure safe and effective treatment.

Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such as a protein or RNA molecule. This process involves several steps: transcription, RNA processing, and translation. During transcription, the genetic information in DNA is copied into a complementary RNA molecule, known as messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA then undergoes RNA processing, which includes adding a cap and tail to the mRNA and splicing out non-coding regions called introns. The resulting mature mRNA is then translated into a protein on ribosomes in the cytoplasm through the process of translation.

The regulation of gene expression is a complex and highly controlled process that allows cells to respond to changes in their environment, such as growth factors, hormones, and stress signals. This regulation can occur at various stages of gene expression, including transcriptional activation or repression, RNA processing, mRNA stability, and translation. Dysregulation of gene expression has been implicated in many diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and neurological conditions.

Inflammation mediators are substances that are released by the body in response to injury or infection, which contribute to the inflammatory response. These mediators include various chemical factors such as cytokines, chemokines, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and histamine, among others. They play a crucial role in regulating the inflammatory process by attracting immune cells to the site of injury or infection, increasing blood flow to the area, and promoting the repair and healing of damaged tissues. However, an overactive or chronic inflammatory response can also contribute to the development of various diseases and conditions, such as autoimmune disorders, cardiovascular disease, and cancer.

Interleukin-10 (IL-10) is an anti-inflammatory cytokine that plays a crucial role in the modulation of immune responses. It is produced by various cell types, including T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells. IL-10 inhibits the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-12, and downregulates the expression of costimulatory molecules on antigen-presenting cells. This results in the suppression of T cell activation and effector functions, which ultimately helps to limit tissue damage during inflammation and promote tissue repair. Dysregulation of IL-10 has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including chronic infections, autoimmune diseases, and cancer.

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to amplify and detect specific DNA sequences. This technique is particularly useful for the detection and quantification of RNA viruses, as well as for the analysis of gene expression.

The process involves two main steps: reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In the first step, reverse transcriptase enzyme is used to convert RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) by reading the template provided by the RNA molecule. This cDNA then serves as a template for the PCR amplification step.

In the second step, the PCR reaction uses two primers that flank the target DNA sequence and a thermostable polymerase enzyme to repeatedly copy the targeted cDNA sequence. The reaction mixture is heated and cooled in cycles, allowing the primers to anneal to the template, and the polymerase to extend the new strand. This results in exponential amplification of the target DNA sequence, making it possible to detect even small amounts of RNA or cDNA.

RT-PCR is a sensitive and specific technique that has many applications in medical research and diagnostics, including the detection of viruses such as HIV, hepatitis C virus, and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19). It can also be used to study gene expression, identify genetic mutations, and diagnose genetic disorders.

TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) receptors are a group of cell surface proteins that belong to the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor superfamily. There are four known TRAIL receptors, referred to as TRAIL-R1, TRAIL-R2, TRAIL-R3, and TRAIL-R4.

TRAIL receptors play a crucial role in the regulation of programmed cell death, also known as apoptosis. TRAIL binding to its receptors TRAIL-R1 and TRAIL-R2 can trigger the activation of intracellular signaling pathways that lead to apoptotic cell death. This is an important mechanism for eliminating damaged or abnormal cells, including cancer cells.

On the other hand, TRAIL receptors TRAIL-R3 and TRAIL-R4 do not transmit apoptotic signals because they lack functional death domains. Instead, they act as decoy receptors that can bind to TRAIL and prevent it from interacting with TRAIL-R1 and TRAIL-R2, thereby inhibiting TRAIL-induced apoptosis.

Abnormalities in the regulation of TRAIL receptor signaling have been implicated in various pathological conditions, including cancer, autoimmune diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, targeting TRAIL receptors has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of these diseases.

Up-regulation is a term used in molecular biology and medicine to describe an increase in the expression or activity of a gene, protein, or receptor in response to a stimulus. This can occur through various mechanisms such as increased transcription, translation, or reduced degradation of the molecule. Up-regulation can have important functional consequences, for example, enhancing the sensitivity or response of a cell to a hormone, neurotransmitter, or drug. It is a normal physiological process that can also be induced by disease or pharmacological interventions.

Neutrophils are a type of white blood cell that are part of the immune system's response to infection. They are produced in the bone marrow and released into the bloodstream where they circulate and are able to move quickly to sites of infection or inflammation in the body. Neutrophils are capable of engulfing and destroying bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances through a process called phagocytosis. They are also involved in the release of inflammatory mediators, which can contribute to tissue damage in some cases. Neutrophils are characterized by the presence of granules in their cytoplasm, which contain enzymes and other proteins that help them carry out their immune functions.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.

Anti-inflammatory agents are a class of drugs or substances that reduce inflammation in the body. They work by inhibiting the production of inflammatory mediators, such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes, which are released during an immune response and contribute to symptoms like pain, swelling, redness, and warmth.

There are two main types of anti-inflammatory agents: steroidal and nonsteroidal. Steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (SAIDs) include corticosteroids, which mimic the effects of hormones produced by the adrenal gland. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are a larger group that includes both prescription and over-the-counter medications, such as aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and celecoxib.

While both types of anti-inflammatory agents can be effective in reducing inflammation and relieving symptoms, they differ in their mechanisms of action, side effects, and potential risks. Long-term use of NSAIDs, for example, can increase the risk of gastrointestinal bleeding, kidney damage, and cardiovascular events. Corticosteroids can have significant side effects as well, particularly with long-term use, including weight gain, mood changes, and increased susceptibility to infections.

It's important to use anti-inflammatory agents only as directed by a healthcare provider, and to be aware of potential risks and interactions with other medications or health conditions.

An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a type of analytical biochemistry assay used to detect and quantify the presence of a substance, typically a protein or peptide, in a liquid sample. It takes its name from the enzyme-linked antibodies used in the assay.

In an ELISA, the sample is added to a well containing a surface that has been treated to capture the target substance. If the target substance is present in the sample, it will bind to the surface. Next, an enzyme-linked antibody specific to the target substance is added. This antibody will bind to the captured target substance if it is present. After washing away any unbound material, a substrate for the enzyme is added. If the enzyme is present due to its linkage to the antibody, it will catalyze a reaction that produces a detectable signal, such as a color change or fluorescence. The intensity of this signal is proportional to the amount of target substance present in the sample, allowing for quantification.

ELISAs are widely used in research and clinical settings to detect and measure various substances, including hormones, viruses, and bacteria. They offer high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility, making them a reliable choice for many applications.

Caspase 8 is a type of protease enzyme that plays a crucial role in programmed cell death, also known as apoptosis. It is a key component of the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis, which can be initiated by the binding of death ligands to their respective death receptors on the cell surface.

Once activated, Caspase 8 cleaves and activates other downstream effector caspases, which then go on to degrade various cellular proteins, leading to the characteristic morphological changes associated with apoptosis, such as cell shrinkage, membrane blebbing, and DNA fragmentation.

In addition to its role in apoptosis, Caspase 8 has also been implicated in other cellular processes, including inflammation, differentiation, and proliferation. Dysregulation of Caspase 8 activity has been linked to various diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases.

Endotoxins are toxic substances that are associated with the cell walls of certain types of bacteria. They are released when the bacterial cells die or divide, and can cause a variety of harmful effects in humans and animals. Endotoxins are made up of lipopolysaccharides (LPS), which are complex molecules consisting of a lipid and a polysaccharide component.

Endotoxins are particularly associated with gram-negative bacteria, which have a distinctive cell wall structure that includes an outer membrane containing LPS. These toxins can cause fever, inflammation, and other symptoms when they enter the bloodstream or other tissues of the body. They are also known to play a role in the development of sepsis, a potentially life-threatening condition characterized by a severe immune response to infection.

Endotoxins are resistant to heat, acid, and many disinfectants, making them difficult to eliminate from contaminated environments. They can also be found in a variety of settings, including hospitals, industrial facilities, and agricultural operations, where they can pose a risk to human health.

Drug-Induced Liver Injury (DILI) is a medical term that refers to liver damage or injury caused by the use of medications or drugs. This condition can vary in severity, from mild abnormalities in liver function tests to severe liver failure, which may require a liver transplant.

The exact mechanism of DILI can differ depending on the drug involved, but it generally occurs when the liver metabolizes the drug into toxic compounds that damage liver cells. This can happen through various pathways, including direct toxicity to liver cells, immune-mediated reactions, or metabolic idiosyncrasies.

Symptoms of DILI may include jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), fatigue, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and dark urine. In severe cases, it can lead to complications such as ascites, encephalopathy, and bleeding disorders.

The diagnosis of DILI is often challenging because it requires the exclusion of other potential causes of liver injury. Liver function tests, imaging studies, and sometimes liver biopsies may be necessary to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment typically involves discontinuing the offending drug and providing supportive care until the liver recovers. In some cases, medications that protect the liver or promote its healing may be used.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Drug synergism is a pharmacological concept that refers to the interaction between two or more drugs, where the combined effect of the drugs is greater than the sum of their individual effects. This means that when these drugs are administered together, they produce an enhanced therapeutic response compared to when they are given separately.

Drug synergism can occur through various mechanisms, such as:

1. Pharmacodynamic synergism - When two or more drugs interact with the same target site in the body and enhance each other's effects.
2. Pharmacokinetic synergism - When one drug affects the metabolism, absorption, distribution, or excretion of another drug, leading to an increased concentration of the second drug in the body and enhanced therapeutic effect.
3. Physiochemical synergism - When two drugs interact physically, such as when one drug enhances the solubility or permeability of another drug, leading to improved absorption and bioavailability.

It is important to note that while drug synergism can result in enhanced therapeutic effects, it can also increase the risk of adverse reactions and toxicity. Therefore, healthcare providers must carefully consider the potential benefits and risks when prescribing combinations of drugs with known or potential synergistic effects.

Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor-Associated Proteins (TRAPs) and Peptides are a group of proteins and peptides that interact with the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptors. TNF is a cytokine involved in inflammation, immune response, and cell death. TRAPs modulate the signals generated by TNF receptors, thereby regulating various cellular responses such as proliferation, differentiation, survival, and apoptosis (programmed cell death).

TRAPs include adaptor proteins, regulatory proteins, and signaling molecules that are recruited to the TNF receptor complex upon TNF ligand binding. They can have both positive and negative effects on TNF-induced signaling pathways, depending on the specific TRAP involved and the cellular context.

Examples of TRAPs include TNF receptor-associated death domain (TRADD), Fas-associated death domain protein (FADD), receptor-interacting protein (RIP), TNF receptor-associated factor (TRAF) proteins, and cellular inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (cIAPs).

Abnormal regulation of TRAPs has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including cancer, autoimmune diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of TRAPs is crucial for developing novel therapeutic strategies to target these diseases.

TNF Receptor-Associated Factor 2 (TRAF2) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the signaling pathways of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptors. TRAF2 is a member of the TRAF family, which includes TRAF1, TRAF2-6, and CD40TRAF. These proteins function as adaptors that mediate signal transduction from the cell surface to the nucleus by interacting with various signaling molecules.

TRAF2 is primarily associated with the TNFR1 receptor, where it binds to the intracellular death domain of the receptor upon TNF-α binding. The formation of this complex leads to the activation of several downstream signaling pathways, including the NF-κB and MAPK pathways, which regulate various cellular processes such as inflammation, immune response, differentiation, and apoptosis.

TRAF2 also plays a role in the regulation of cell death and survival by modulating the activity of caspases, which are protease enzymes that play a central role in programmed cell death or apoptosis. TRAF2 can inhibit caspase activation and promote cell survival by interacting with other proteins such as cIAP1 and cIAP2, which are E3 ubiquitin ligases that target caspases for degradation.

Mutations in the TRAF2 gene have been associated with various diseases, including immunodeficiency, autoimmunity, and cancer. Dysregulation of TRAF2 signaling has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several inflammatory and degenerative disorders, making it a potential therapeutic target for the development of novel drugs to treat these conditions.

Flow cytometry is a medical and research technique used to measure physical and chemical characteristics of cells or particles, one cell at a time, as they flow in a fluid stream through a beam of light. The properties measured include:

* Cell size (light scatter)
* Cell internal complexity (granularity, also light scatter)
* Presence or absence of specific proteins or other molecules on the cell surface or inside the cell (using fluorescent antibodies or other fluorescent probes)

The technique is widely used in cell counting, cell sorting, protein engineering, biomarker discovery and monitoring disease progression, particularly in hematology, immunology, and cancer research.

Macrophage activation is a process in which these immune cells become increasingly active and responsive to various stimuli, such as pathogens or inflammatory signals. This activation triggers a series of changes within the macrophages, allowing them to perform important functions like phagocytosis (ingesting and destroying foreign particles or microorganisms), antigen presentation (presenting microbial fragments to T-cells to stimulate an immune response), and production of cytokines and chemokines (signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response).

There are two main types of macrophage activation: classical (or M1) activation and alternative (or M2) activation. Classical activation is typically induced by interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), leading to a proinflammatory response, enhanced microbicidal activity, and the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Alternative activation, on the other hand, is triggered by cytokines like interleukin-4 (IL-4) and IL-13, resulting in an anti-inflammatory response, tissue repair, and the promotion of wound healing.

It's important to note that macrophage activation plays a crucial role in various physiological and pathological processes, including immune defense, inflammation, tissue remodeling, and even cancer progression. Dysregulation of macrophage activation has been implicated in several diseases, such as autoimmune disorders, chronic infections, and cancer.

Enzyme activation refers to the process by which an enzyme becomes biologically active and capable of carrying out its specific chemical or biological reaction. This is often achieved through various post-translational modifications, such as proteolytic cleavage, phosphorylation, or addition of cofactors or prosthetic groups to the enzyme molecule. These modifications can change the conformation or structure of the enzyme, exposing or creating a binding site for the substrate and allowing the enzymatic reaction to occur.

For example, in the case of proteolytic cleavage, an inactive precursor enzyme, known as a zymogen, is cleaved into its active form by a specific protease. This is seen in enzymes such as trypsin and chymotrypsin, which are initially produced in the pancreas as inactive precursors called trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen, respectively. Once they reach the small intestine, they are activated by enteropeptidase, a protease that cleaves a specific peptide bond, releasing the active enzyme.

Phosphorylation is another common mechanism of enzyme activation, where a phosphate group is added to a specific serine, threonine, or tyrosine residue on the enzyme by a protein kinase. This modification can alter the conformation of the enzyme and create a binding site for the substrate, allowing the enzymatic reaction to occur.

Enzyme activation is a crucial process in many biological pathways, as it allows for precise control over when and where specific reactions take place. It also provides a mechanism for regulating enzyme activity in response to various signals and stimuli, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, or changes in the intracellular environment.

Caspase-3 is a type of protease enzyme that plays a central role in the execution-phase of cell apoptosis, or programmed cell death. It's also known as CPP32 (CPP for ced-3 protease precursor) or apopain. Caspase-3 is produced as an inactive protein that is activated when cleaved by other caspases during the early stages of apoptosis. Once activated, it cleaves a variety of cellular proteins, including structural proteins, enzymes, and signal transduction proteins, leading to the characteristic morphological and biochemical changes associated with apoptotic cell death. Caspase-3 is often referred to as the "death protease" because of its crucial role in executing the cell death program.

Acute necrotizing pancreatitis is a severe and potentially life-threatening form of acute pancreatitis, which is an inflammatory condition of the pancreas. In acute necrotizing pancreatitis, there is widespread death (necrosis) of pancreatic tissue due to autodigestion caused by the activation and release of digestive enzymes within the pancreas. This condition can lead to systemic inflammation, organ failure, and infection of the necrotic areas in the pancreas. It typically has a more complicated clinical course and worse prognosis compared to acute interstitial pancreatitis, which is another form of acute pancreatitis without significant necrosis.

I-kappa B (IκB) proteins are a family of inhibitory proteins that play a crucial role in regulating the activity of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), a key transcription factor involved in inflammation, immune response, and cell survival. In resting cells, NF-κB is sequestered in the cytoplasm by binding to IκB proteins, which prevents NF-κB from translocating into the nucleus and activating its target genes.

Upon stimulation of various signaling pathways, such as those triggered by proinflammatory cytokines, bacterial or viral components, and stress signals, IκB proteins become phosphorylated, ubiquitinated, and subsequently degraded by the 26S proteasome. This process allows NF-κB to dissociate from IκB, translocate into the nucleus, and bind to specific DNA sequences, leading to the expression of various genes involved in immune response, inflammation, cell growth, differentiation, and survival.

There are several members of the IκB protein family, including IκBα, IκBβ, IκBε, IκBγ, and Bcl-3. Each member has distinct functions and regulatory mechanisms in controlling NF-κB activity. Dysregulation of IκB proteins and NF-κB signaling has been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as chronic inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and cancer.

The endothelium is a thin layer of simple squamous epithelial cells that lines the interior surface of blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and heart chambers. The vascular endothelium, specifically, refers to the endothelial cells that line the blood vessels. These cells play a crucial role in maintaining vascular homeostasis by regulating vasomotor tone, coagulation, platelet activation, inflammation, and permeability of the vessel wall. They also contribute to the growth and repair of the vascular system and are involved in various pathological processes such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, and diabetes.

Western blotting is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to detect and quantify specific proteins in a mixture of many different proteins. This technique is commonly used to confirm the expression of a protein of interest, determine its size, and investigate its post-translational modifications. The name "Western" blotting distinguishes this technique from Southern blotting (for DNA) and Northern blotting (for RNA).

The Western blotting procedure involves several steps:

1. Protein extraction: The sample containing the proteins of interest is first extracted, often by breaking open cells or tissues and using a buffer to extract the proteins.
2. Separation of proteins by electrophoresis: The extracted proteins are then separated based on their size by loading them onto a polyacrylamide gel and running an electric current through the gel (a process called sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or SDS-PAGE). This separates the proteins according to their molecular weight, with smaller proteins migrating faster than larger ones.
3. Transfer of proteins to a membrane: After separation, the proteins are transferred from the gel onto a nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane using an electric current in a process called blotting. This creates a replica of the protein pattern on the gel but now immobilized on the membrane for further analysis.
4. Blocking: The membrane is then blocked with a blocking agent, such as non-fat dry milk or bovine serum albumin (BSA), to prevent non-specific binding of antibodies in subsequent steps.
5. Primary antibody incubation: A primary antibody that specifically recognizes the protein of interest is added and allowed to bind to its target protein on the membrane. This step may be performed at room temperature or 4°C overnight, depending on the antibody's properties.
6. Washing: The membrane is washed with a buffer to remove unbound primary antibodies.
7. Secondary antibody incubation: A secondary antibody that recognizes the primary antibody (often coupled to an enzyme or fluorophore) is added and allowed to bind to the primary antibody. This step may involve using a horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated or alkaline phosphatase (AP)-conjugated secondary antibody, depending on the detection method used later.
8. Washing: The membrane is washed again to remove unbound secondary antibodies.
9. Detection: A detection reagent is added to visualize the protein of interest by detecting the signal generated from the enzyme-conjugated or fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibody. This can be done using chemiluminescent, colorimetric, or fluorescent methods.
10. Analysis: The resulting image is analyzed to determine the presence and quantity of the protein of interest in the sample.

Western blotting is a powerful technique for identifying and quantifying specific proteins within complex mixtures. It can be used to study protein expression, post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and more. However, it requires careful optimization and validation to ensure accurate and reproducible results.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

"Fish diseases" is a broad term that refers to various health conditions and infections affecting fish populations in aquaculture, ornamental fish tanks, or wild aquatic environments. These diseases can be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, or environmental factors such as water quality, temperature, and stress.

Some common examples of fish diseases include:

1. Bacterial diseases: Examples include furunculosis (caused by Aeromonas salmonicida), columnaris disease (caused by Flavobacterium columnare), and enteric septicemia of catfish (caused by Edwardsiella ictaluri).

2. Viral diseases: Examples include infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) in salmonids, viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV), and koi herpesvirus (KHV).

3. Fungal diseases: Examples include saprolegniasis (caused by Saprolegnia spp.) and cotton wool disease (caused by Aphanomyces spp.).

4. Parasitic diseases: Examples include ichthyophthirius multifiliis (Ich), costia, trichodina, and various worm infestations such as anchor worms (Lernaea spp.) and tapeworms (Diphyllobothrium spp.).

5. Environmental diseases: These are caused by poor water quality, temperature stress, or other environmental factors that weaken the fish's immune system and make them more susceptible to infections. Examples include osmoregulatory disorders, ammonia toxicity, and low dissolved oxygen levels.

It is essential to diagnose and treat fish diseases promptly to prevent their spread among fish populations and maintain healthy aquatic ecosystems. Preventative measures such as proper sanitation, water quality management, biosecurity practices, and vaccination can help reduce the risk of fish diseases in both farmed and ornamental fish settings.

TNF Receptor-Associated Factor 1 (TRAF1) is a protein in humans that plays a crucial role in the signaling pathways of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptors. TRAF1 is a member of the TRAF family, which includes TRAF1-6. These proteins function as adaptors to mediate signal transduction from the cell surface to the nucleus, ultimately leading to the activation of various transcription factors and the regulation of gene expression.

TRAF1 is primarily associated with the TNFR2 receptor and contributes to the activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways. These pathways are essential for immune cell activation, differentiation, and survival, as well as inflammatory responses. Dysregulation of TRAF1 function has been implicated in several diseases, including autoimmune disorders and cancer.

In summary, TNF Receptor-Associated Factor 1 (TRAF1) is a protein involved in the signaling pathways of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptors, primarily associated with TNFR2, contributing to immune cell activation, differentiation, and survival, as well as inflammatory responses.

Pentoxifylline is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs known as xanthines. Medically, it is defined as a methylxanthine derivative that acts as a vasodilator and improves blood flow by reducing the viscosity of blood. It is used in the treatment of intermittent claudication (pain in the legs due to poor circulation) and may also be used for other conditions that benefit from improved blood flow, such as preventing kidney damage in people with diabetes.

Pentoxifylline works by increasing the flexibility of red blood cells, allowing them to move more easily through narrowed blood vessels, improving oxygen supply to tissues and organs. It also has anti-inflammatory effects that may contribute to its therapeutic benefits.

Common side effects of pentoxifylline include gastrointestinal symptoms like nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Less commonly, it can cause dizziness, headache, or skin rashes. Rare but serious side effects include decreased blood pressure, irregular heartbeat, and liver damage. It is essential to follow the prescribing physician's instructions carefully when taking pentoxifylline and report any unusual symptoms promptly.

Transfection is a term used in molecular biology that refers to the process of deliberately introducing foreign genetic material (DNA, RNA or artificial gene constructs) into cells. This is typically done using chemical or physical methods, such as lipofection or electroporation. Transfection is widely used in research and medical settings for various purposes, including studying gene function, producing proteins, developing gene therapies, and creating genetically modified organisms. It's important to note that transfection is different from transduction, which is the process of introducing genetic material into cells using viruses as vectors.

A biological marker, often referred to as a biomarker, is a measurable indicator that reflects the presence or severity of a disease state, or a response to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers can be found in various materials such as blood, tissues, or bodily fluids, and they can take many forms, including molecular, histologic, radiographic, or physiological measurements.

In the context of medical research and clinical practice, biomarkers are used for a variety of purposes, such as:

1. Diagnosis: Biomarkers can help diagnose a disease by indicating the presence or absence of a particular condition. For example, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a biomarker used to detect prostate cancer.
2. Monitoring: Biomarkers can be used to monitor the progression or regression of a disease over time. For instance, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels are monitored in diabetes patients to assess long-term blood glucose control.
3. Predicting: Biomarkers can help predict the likelihood of developing a particular disease or the risk of a negative outcome. For example, the presence of certain genetic mutations can indicate an increased risk for breast cancer.
4. Response to treatment: Biomarkers can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific treatment by measuring changes in the biomarker levels before and after the intervention. This is particularly useful in personalized medicine, where treatments are tailored to individual patients based on their unique biomarker profiles.

It's important to note that for a biomarker to be considered clinically valid and useful, it must undergo rigorous validation through well-designed studies, including demonstrating sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and clinical relevance.

Osteonecrosis is a medical condition characterized by the death of bone tissue due to the disruption of blood supply. Also known as avascular necrosis, this process can lead to the collapse of the bone and adjacent joint surfaces, resulting in pain, limited mobility, and potential deformity if left untreated. Osteonecrosis most commonly affects the hips, shoulders, and knees, but it can occur in any bone. The condition may be caused by trauma, corticosteroid use, alcohol abuse, certain medical conditions (like sickle cell disease or lupus), or for no apparent reason (idiopathic).

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1 (ICAM-1), also known as CD54, is a transmembrane glycoprotein expressed on the surface of various cell types including endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and immune cells. ICAM-1 plays a crucial role in the inflammatory response and the immune system by mediating the adhesion of leukocytes (white blood cells) to the endothelium, allowing them to migrate into surrounding tissues during an immune response or inflammation.

ICAM-1 contains five immunoglobulin-like domains in its extracellular region and binds to several integrins present on leukocytes, such as LFA-1 (lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1) and Mac-1 (macrophage-1 antigen). This interaction facilitates the firm adhesion of leukocytes to the endothelium, which is a critical step in the extravasation process.

In addition to its role in inflammation and immunity, ICAM-1 has been implicated in several pathological conditions, including atherosclerosis, cancer, and autoimmune diseases. Increased expression of ICAM-1 on endothelial cells is associated with the recruitment of immune cells to sites of injury or infection, making it an important target for therapeutic interventions in various inflammatory disorders.

Mononuclear leukocytes are a type of white blood cells (leukocytes) that have a single, large nucleus. They include lymphocytes (B-cells, T-cells, and natural killer cells), monocytes, and dendritic cells. These cells play important roles in the body's immune system, including defending against infection and disease, and participating in immune responses and surveillance. Mononuclear leukocytes can be found in the bloodstream as well as in tissues throughout the body. They are involved in both innate and adaptive immunity, providing specific and nonspecific defense mechanisms to protect the body from harmful pathogens and other threats.

A lung is a pair of spongy, elastic organs in the chest that work together to enable breathing. They are responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide through the process of respiration. The left lung has two lobes, while the right lung has three lobes. The lungs are protected by the ribcage and are covered by a double-layered membrane called the pleura. The trachea divides into two bronchi, which further divide into smaller bronchioles, leading to millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli, where the exchange of gases occurs.

Galactosamine is not a medical condition but a chemical compound. Medically, it might be referred to in the context of certain medical tests or treatments. Here's the scientific definition:

Galactosamine is an amino sugar, a type of monosaccharide (simple sugar) that contains a functional amino group (-NH2) as well as a hydroxyl group (-OH). More specifically, galactosamine is a derivative of galactose, with the chemical formula C6H13NO5. It is an important component of many glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), which are complex carbohydrates found in animal tissues, particularly in connective tissue and cartilage.

In some medical applications, galactosamine has been used as a building block for the synthesis of GAG analogs or as a component of substrates for enzyme assays. It is also used in research to study various biological processes, such as cell growth and differentiation.

Peritoneal macrophages are a type of immune cell that are present in the peritoneal cavity, which is the space within the abdomen that contains the liver, spleen, stomach, and intestines. These macrophages play a crucial role in the body's defense against infection and injury by engulfing and destroying foreign substances such as bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms.

Macrophages are large phagocytic cells that originate from monocytes, which are a type of white blood cell produced in the bone marrow. When monocytes enter tissue, they can differentiate into macrophages, which have a variety of functions depending on their location and activation state.

Peritoneal macrophages are involved in various physiological processes, including the regulation of inflammation, tissue repair, and the breakdown of foreign substances. They also play a role in the development and progression of certain diseases, such as cancer and autoimmune disorders.

These macrophages can be collected from animals or humans for research purposes by injecting a solution into the peritoneal cavity and then withdrawing the fluid, which contains the macrophages. These cells can then be studied in vitro to better understand their functions and potential therapeutic targets.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

Fibroblasts are specialized cells that play a critical role in the body's immune response and wound healing process. They are responsible for producing and maintaining the extracellular matrix (ECM), which is the non-cellular component present within all tissues and organs, providing structural support and biochemical signals for surrounding cells.

Fibroblasts produce various ECM proteins such as collagens, elastin, fibronectin, and laminins, forming a complex network of fibers that give tissues their strength and flexibility. They also help in the regulation of tissue homeostasis by controlling the turnover of ECM components through the process of remodeling.

In response to injury or infection, fibroblasts become activated and start to proliferate rapidly, migrating towards the site of damage. Here, they participate in the inflammatory response, releasing cytokines and chemokines that attract immune cells to the area. Additionally, they deposit new ECM components to help repair the damaged tissue and restore its functionality.

Dysregulation of fibroblast activity has been implicated in several pathological conditions, including fibrosis (excessive scarring), cancer (where they can contribute to tumor growth and progression), and autoimmune diseases (such as rheumatoid arthritis).

Nitric oxide (NO) is a molecule made up of one nitrogen atom and one oxygen atom. In the body, it is a crucial signaling molecule involved in various physiological processes such as vasodilation, immune response, neurotransmission, and inhibition of platelet aggregation. It is produced naturally by the enzyme nitric oxide synthase (NOS) from the amino acid L-arginine. Inhaled nitric oxide is used medically to treat pulmonary hypertension in newborns and adults, as it helps to relax and widen blood vessels, improving oxygenation and blood flow.

Down-regulation is a process that occurs in response to various stimuli, where the number or sensitivity of cell surface receptors or the expression of specific genes is decreased. This process helps maintain homeostasis within cells and tissues by reducing the ability of cells to respond to certain signals or molecules.

In the context of cell surface receptors, down-regulation can occur through several mechanisms:

1. Receptor internalization: After binding to their ligands, receptors can be internalized into the cell through endocytosis. Once inside the cell, these receptors may be degraded or recycled back to the cell surface in smaller numbers.
2. Reduced receptor synthesis: Down-regulation can also occur at the transcriptional level, where the expression of genes encoding for specific receptors is decreased, leading to fewer receptors being produced.
3. Receptor desensitization: Prolonged exposure to a ligand can lead to a decrease in receptor sensitivity or affinity, making it more difficult for the cell to respond to the signal.

In the context of gene expression, down-regulation refers to the decreased transcription and/or stability of specific mRNAs, leading to reduced protein levels. This process can be induced by various factors, including microRNA (miRNA)-mediated regulation, histone modification, or DNA methylation.

Down-regulation is an essential mechanism in many physiological processes and can also contribute to the development of several diseases, such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders.

CD95 (also known as Fas or APO-1) is a type of cell surface receptor that can bind to specific proteins and trigger programmed cell death, also known as apoptosis. It is an important regulator of the immune system and helps to control the activation and deletion of immune cells. CD95 ligand (CD95L), the protein that binds to CD95, is expressed on activated T-cells and can induce apoptosis in other cells that express CD95, including other T-cells and tumor cells.

An antigen is any substance that can stimulate an immune response, leading to the production of antibodies or activation of immune cells. In the context of CD95, antigens may refer to substances that can induce the expression of CD95 on the surface of cells, making them susceptible to CD95L-mediated apoptosis. These antigens could include viral proteins, tumor antigens, or other substances that trigger an immune response.

Therefore, the medical definition of 'antigens, CD95' may refer to substances that can induce the expression of CD95 on the surface of cells and make them targets for CD95L-mediated apoptosis.

A cell line that is derived from tumor cells and has been adapted to grow in culture. These cell lines are often used in research to study the characteristics of cancer cells, including their growth patterns, genetic changes, and responses to various treatments. They can be established from many different types of tumors, such as carcinomas, sarcomas, and leukemias. Once established, these cell lines can be grown and maintained indefinitely in the laboratory, allowing researchers to conduct experiments and studies that would not be feasible using primary tumor cells. It is important to note that tumor cell lines may not always accurately represent the behavior of the original tumor, as they can undergo genetic changes during their time in culture.

'C3H' is the name of an inbred strain of laboratory mice that was developed at the Jackson Laboratory in Bar Harbor, Maine. The mice are characterized by their uniform genetic background and have been widely used in biomedical research for many decades.

The C3H strain is particularly notable for its susceptibility to certain types of cancer, including mammary tumors and lymphomas. It also has a high incidence of age-related macular degeneration and other eye diseases. The strain is often used in studies of immunology, genetics, and carcinogenesis.

Like all inbred strains, the C3H mice are the result of many generations of brother-sister matings, which leads to a high degree of genetic uniformity within the strain. This makes them useful for studying the effects of specific genes or environmental factors on disease susceptibility and other traits. However, it also means that they may not always be representative of the genetic diversity found in outbred populations, including humans.

I-kappa B kinase (IKK) is a protein complex that plays a crucial role in the activation of NF-kB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells), a transcription factor involved in the regulation of immune response, inflammation, cell survival, and proliferation.

The IKK complex is composed of two catalytic subunits, IKKα and IKKβ, and a regulatory subunit, IKKγ (also known as NEMO). Upon stimulation by various signals such as cytokines, pathogens, or stress, the IKK complex becomes activated and phosphorylates I-kappa B (IkB), an inhibitor protein that keeps NF-kB in an inactive state in the cytoplasm.

Once IkB is phosphorylated by the IKK complex, it undergoes ubiquitination and degradation, leading to the release and nuclear translocation of NF-kB, where it can bind to specific DNA sequences and regulate gene expression. Dysregulation of IKK activity has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including chronic inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and cancer.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of antibody, which is a protective protein produced by the immune system in response to foreign substances like bacteria or viruses. IgG is the most abundant type of antibody in human blood, making up about 75-80% of all antibodies. It is found in all body fluids and plays a crucial role in fighting infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and toxins.

IgG has several important functions:

1. Neutralization: IgG can bind to the surface of bacteria or viruses, preventing them from attaching to and infecting human cells.
2. Opsonization: IgG coats the surface of pathogens, making them more recognizable and easier for immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages to phagocytose (engulf and destroy) them.
3. Complement activation: IgG can activate the complement system, a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens from the body. Activation of the complement system leads to the formation of the membrane attack complex, which creates holes in the cell membranes of bacteria, leading to their lysis (destruction).
4. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC): IgG can bind to immune cells like natural killer (NK) cells and trigger them to release substances that cause target cells (such as virus-infected or cancerous cells) to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).
5. Immune complex formation: IgG can form immune complexes with antigens, which can then be removed from the body through various mechanisms, such as phagocytosis by immune cells or excretion in urine.

IgG is a critical component of adaptive immunity and provides long-lasting protection against reinfection with many pathogens. It has four subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4) that differ in their structure, function, and distribution in the body.

Enzyme inhibitors are substances that bind to an enzyme and decrease its activity, preventing it from catalyzing a chemical reaction in the body. They can work by several mechanisms, including blocking the active site where the substrate binds, or binding to another site on the enzyme to change its shape and prevent substrate binding. Enzyme inhibitors are often used as drugs to treat various medical conditions, such as high blood pressure, abnormal heart rhythms, and bacterial infections. They can also be found naturally in some foods and plants, and can be used in research to understand enzyme function and regulation.

JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase) Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases are a subgroup of the Ser/Thr protein kinases that are activated by stress stimuli and play important roles in various cellular processes, including inflammation, apoptosis, and differentiation. They are involved in the regulation of gene expression through phosphorylation of transcription factors such as c-Jun. JNKs are activated by a variety of upstream kinases, including MAP2Ks (MKK4/SEK1 and MKK7), which are in turn activated by MAP3Ks (such as ASK1, MEKK1, MLKs, and TAK1). JNK signaling pathways have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and inflammatory diseases.

ADAM (A Disintegrin And Metalloprotease) proteins are a family of type I transmembrane proteins that contain several distinct domains, including a prodomain, a metalloprotease domain, a disintegrin-like domain, a cysteine-rich domain, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic tail. These proteins are involved in various biological processes such as cell adhesion, migration, proteolysis, and signal transduction.

ADAM proteins have been found to play important roles in many physiological and pathological conditions, including fertilization, neurodevelopment, inflammation, and cancer metastasis. For example, ADAM12 is involved in the fusion of myoblasts during muscle development, while ADAM17 (also known as TACE) plays a crucial role in the shedding of membrane-bound proteins such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha and epidermal growth factor receptor ligands.

Abnormalities in ADAM protein function have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and arthritis. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of these proteins has important implications for the development of novel therapeutic strategies.

Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II (NOS2), also known as Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase (iNOS), is an enzyme that catalyzes the production of nitric oxide (NO) from L-arginine. Unlike other isoforms of NOS, NOS2 is not constitutively expressed and its expression can be induced by various stimuli such as cytokines, lipopolysaccharides, and bacterial products. Once induced, NOS2 produces large amounts of NO, which plays a crucial role in the immune response against invading pathogens. However, excessive or prolonged production of NO by NOS2 has been implicated in various pathological conditions such as inflammation, septic shock, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Dental pulp necrosis is the death of the soft tissue inside a tooth, known as the dental pulp. The dental pulp contains nerves, blood vessels, and connective tissue that help the tooth grow and develop. It also provides sensations like hot or cold. Dental pulp necrosis can occur due to various reasons such as tooth decay, trauma, or infection. When the dental pulp dies, it can no longer provide nutrients to the tooth, making it more susceptible to fractures and infections. Symptoms of dental pulp necrosis may include pain, sensitivity, swelling, or abscess formation. Treatment options for dental pulp necrosis typically involve root canal therapy or extraction of the affected tooth.

p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases (p38 MAPKs) are a family of conserved serine-threonine protein kinases that play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including inflammation, immune response, differentiation, apoptosis, and stress responses. They are activated by diverse stimuli such as cytokines, ultraviolet radiation, heat shock, osmotic stress, and lipopolysaccharides (LPS).

Once activated, p38 MAPKs phosphorylate and regulate several downstream targets, including transcription factors and other protein kinases. This regulation leads to the expression of genes involved in inflammation, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis. Dysregulation of p38 MAPK signaling has been implicated in various diseases, such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases. Therefore, p38 MAPKs are considered promising targets for developing new therapeutic strategies to treat these conditions.

Transcription Factor RelA, also known as NF-kB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) p65, is a protein complex that plays a crucial role in regulating the immune response to infection and inflammation, as well as cell survival, differentiation, and proliferation.

RelA is one of the five subunits that make up the NF-kB protein complex, and it is responsible for the transcriptional activation of target genes. In response to various stimuli such as cytokines, bacterial or viral antigens, and stress signals, RelA can be activated by phosphorylation and then translocate into the nucleus where it binds to specific DNA sequences called kB sites in the promoter regions of target genes. This binding leads to the recruitment of coactivators and the initiation of transcription.

RelA has been implicated in a wide range of biological processes, including inflammation, immunity, cell growth, and apoptosis. Dysregulation of NF-kB signaling and RelA activity has been associated with various diseases, such as cancer, autoimmune disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Superfamily Member 25 (TNFRSF25), also known as Death Receptor 3 (DR3) or APO-3, is a type of cell surface receptor that belongs to the Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Superfamily (TNFRSF). These receptors are involved in various biological processes such as immune regulation, inflammation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death).

TNFRSF25 is composed of an extracellular domain that binds to its ligand, Tumor Necrosis Factor-like protein 1A (TL1A), and an intracellular domain that mediates signal transduction. The binding of TL1A to TNFRSF25 can activate several signaling pathways, including the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, which regulate cell survival, proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis.

In the context of tumors, TNFRSF25 has been found to be expressed in various types of cancer cells, including colorectal, gastric, and breast cancer. The activation of TNFRSF25 by TL1A can induce apoptosis in some cancer cells, suggesting that it may have potential as a therapeutic target for cancer treatment. However, the role of TNFRSF25 in tumor development and progression is complex and context-dependent, and further research is needed to fully understand its functions and clinical relevance.

Cell division is the process by which a single eukaryotic cell (a cell with a true nucleus) divides into two identical daughter cells. This complex process involves several stages, including replication of DNA, separation of chromosomes, and division of the cytoplasm. There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis is the type of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells. It is a fundamental process for growth, development, and tissue repair in multicellular organisms. The stages of mitosis include prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, followed by cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm.

Meiosis, on the other hand, is a type of cell division that occurs in the gonads (ovaries and testes) during the production of gametes (sex cells). Meiosis results in four genetically unique daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This process is essential for sexual reproduction and genetic diversity. The stages of meiosis include meiosis I and meiosis II, which are further divided into prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

In summary, cell division is the process by which a single cell divides into two daughter cells, either through mitosis or meiosis. This process is critical for growth, development, tissue repair, and sexual reproduction in multicellular organisms.

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) are highly reactive molecules containing oxygen, including peroxides, superoxide, hydroxyl radical, and singlet oxygen. They are naturally produced as byproducts of normal cellular metabolism in the mitochondria, and can also be generated by external sources such as ionizing radiation, tobacco smoke, and air pollutants. At low or moderate concentrations, ROS play important roles in cell signaling and homeostasis, but at high concentrations, they can cause significant damage to cell structures, including lipids, proteins, and DNA, leading to oxidative stress and potential cell death.

An acute disease is a medical condition that has a rapid onset, develops quickly, and tends to be short in duration. Acute diseases can range from minor illnesses such as a common cold or flu, to more severe conditions such as pneumonia, meningitis, or a heart attack. These types of diseases often have clear symptoms that are easy to identify, and they may require immediate medical attention or treatment.

Acute diseases are typically caused by an external agent or factor, such as a bacterial or viral infection, a toxin, or an injury. They can also be the result of a sudden worsening of an existing chronic condition. In general, acute diseases are distinct from chronic diseases, which are long-term medical conditions that develop slowly over time and may require ongoing management and treatment.

Examples of acute diseases include:

* Acute bronchitis: a sudden inflammation of the airways in the lungs, often caused by a viral infection.
* Appendicitis: an inflammation of the appendix that can cause severe pain and requires surgical removal.
* Gastroenteritis: an inflammation of the stomach and intestines, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.
* Migraine headaches: intense headaches that can last for hours or days, and are often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound.
* Myocardial infarction (heart attack): a sudden blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle, often caused by a buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries.
* Pneumonia: an infection of the lungs that can cause coughing, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
* Sinusitis: an inflammation of the sinuses, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.

It's important to note that while some acute diseases may resolve on their own with rest and supportive care, others may require medical intervention or treatment to prevent complications and promote recovery. If you are experiencing symptoms of an acute disease, it is always best to seek medical attention to ensure proper diagnosis and treatment.

In medical terms, the skin is the largest organ of the human body. It consists of two main layers: the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (inner layer), as well as accessory structures like hair follicles, sweat glands, and oil glands. The skin plays a crucial role in protecting us from external factors such as bacteria, viruses, and environmental hazards, while also regulating body temperature and enabling the sense of touch.

Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases (MAPKs) are a family of serine/threonine protein kinases that play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including proliferation, differentiation, transformation, and apoptosis, in response to diverse stimuli such as mitogens, growth factors, hormones, cytokines, and environmental stresses. They are highly conserved across eukaryotes and consist of a three-tiered kinase module composed of MAPK kinase kinases (MAP3Ks), MAPK kinases (MKKs or MAP2Ks), and MAPKs.

Activation of MAPKs occurs through a sequential phosphorylation and activation cascade, where MAP3Ks phosphorylate and activate MKKs, which in turn phosphorylate and activate MAPKs at specific residues (Thr-X-Tyr or Ser-Pro motifs). Once activated, MAPKs can further phosphorylate and regulate various downstream targets, including transcription factors and other protein kinases.

There are four major groups of MAPKs in mammals: extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2), c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK1/2/3), p38 MAPKs (p38α/β/γ/δ), and ERK5/BMK1. Each group of MAPKs has distinct upstream activators, downstream targets, and cellular functions, allowing for a high degree of specificity in signal transduction and cellular responses. Dysregulation of MAPK signaling pathways has been implicated in various human diseases, including cancer, diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders, and inflammatory diseases.

DNA fragmentation is the breaking of DNA strands into smaller pieces. This process can occur naturally during apoptosis, or programmed cell death, where the DNA is broken down and packaged into apoptotic bodies to be safely eliminated from the body. However, excessive or abnormal DNA fragmentation can also occur due to various factors such as oxidative stress, exposure to genotoxic agents, or certain medical conditions. This can lead to genetic instability, cellular dysfunction, and increased risk of diseases such as cancer. In the context of reproductive medicine, high levels of DNA fragmentation in sperm cells have been linked to male infertility and poor assisted reproductive technology outcomes.

The synovial membrane, also known as the synovium, is the soft tissue that lines the inner surface of the capsule of a synovial joint, which is a type of joint that allows for smooth movement between bones. This membrane secretes synovial fluid, a viscous substance that lubricates and nourishes the cartilage and helps to reduce friction within the joint during movement.

The synovial membrane has a highly specialized structure, consisting of two layers: the intima and the subintima. The intima is a thin layer of cells that are in direct contact with the synovial fluid, while the subintima is a more fibrous layer that contains blood vessels and nerves.

The main function of the synovial membrane is to produce and regulate the production of synovial fluid, as well as to provide nutrients to the articular cartilage. It also plays a role in the immune response within the joint, helping to protect against infection and inflammation. However, abnormalities in the synovial membrane can lead to conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, where the membrane becomes inflamed and produces excess synovial fluid, leading to pain, swelling, and joint damage.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

The spleen is an organ in the upper left side of the abdomen, next to the stomach and behind the ribs. It plays multiple supporting roles in the body:

1. It fights infection by acting as a filter for the blood. Old red blood cells are recycled in the spleen, and platelets and white blood cells are stored there.
2. The spleen also helps to control the amount of blood in the body by removing excess red blood cells and storing platelets.
3. It has an important role in immune function, producing antibodies and removing microorganisms and damaged red blood cells from the bloodstream.

The spleen can be removed without causing any significant problems, as other organs take over its functions. This is known as a splenectomy and may be necessary if the spleen is damaged or diseased.

Caspase inhibitors are substances or molecules that block the activity of caspases, which are a family of enzymes involved in programmed cell death, also known as apoptosis. Caspases play a crucial role in the execution phase of apoptosis by cleaving various proteins and thereby bringing about characteristic changes in the cell, such as cell shrinkage, membrane blebbing, and DNA fragmentation.

Caspase inhibitors can be synthetic or natural compounds that bind to caspases and prevent them from carrying out their function. These inhibitors have been used in research to study the role of caspases in various biological processes and have also been explored as potential therapeutic agents for conditions associated with excessive apoptosis, such as neurodegenerative diseases and ischemia-reperfusion injury.

It's important to note that while caspase inhibitors can prevent apoptotic cell death, they may also have unintended consequences, such as promoting the survival of damaged or cancerous cells. Therefore, their use as therapeutic agents must be carefully evaluated and balanced against potential risks.

Genetic transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is used to create a complementary RNA molecule. This process is the first step in gene expression, where the genetic code in DNA is converted into a form that can be used to produce proteins or functional RNAs.

During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to the DNA template strand and reads the sequence of nucleotide bases. As it moves along the template, it adds complementary RNA nucleotides to the growing RNA chain, creating a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to the DNA template strand. Once transcription is complete, the RNA molecule may undergo further processing before it can be translated into protein or perform its functional role in the cell.

Transcription can be either "constitutive" or "regulated." Constitutive transcription occurs at a relatively constant rate and produces essential proteins that are required for basic cellular functions. Regulated transcription, on the other hand, is subject to control by various intracellular and extracellular signals, allowing cells to respond to changing environmental conditions or developmental cues.

A kidney, in medical terms, is one of two bean-shaped organs located in the lower back region of the body. They are essential for maintaining homeostasis within the body by performing several crucial functions such as:

1. Regulation of water and electrolyte balance: Kidneys help regulate the amount of water and various electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and calcium in the bloodstream to maintain a stable internal environment.

2. Excretion of waste products: They filter waste products from the blood, including urea (a byproduct of protein metabolism), creatinine (a breakdown product of muscle tissue), and other harmful substances that result from normal cellular functions or external sources like medications and toxins.

3. Endocrine function: Kidneys produce several hormones with important roles in the body, such as erythropoietin (stimulates red blood cell production), renin (regulates blood pressure), and calcitriol (activated form of vitamin D that helps regulate calcium homeostasis).

4. pH balance regulation: Kidneys maintain the proper acid-base balance in the body by excreting either hydrogen ions or bicarbonate ions, depending on whether the blood is too acidic or too alkaline.

5. Blood pressure control: The kidneys play a significant role in regulating blood pressure through the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which constricts blood vessels and promotes sodium and water retention to increase blood volume and, consequently, blood pressure.

Anatomically, each kidney is approximately 10-12 cm long, 5-7 cm wide, and 3 cm thick, with a weight of about 120-170 grams. They are surrounded by a protective layer of fat and connected to the urinary system through the renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

The myocardium is the middle layer of the heart wall, composed of specialized cardiac muscle cells that are responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. It forms the thickest part of the heart wall and is divided into two sections: the left ventricle, which pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body, and the right ventricle, which pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

The myocardium contains several types of cells, including cardiac muscle fibers, connective tissue, nerves, and blood vessels. The muscle fibers are arranged in a highly organized pattern that allows them to contract in a coordinated manner, generating the force necessary to pump blood through the heart and circulatory system.

Damage to the myocardium can occur due to various factors such as ischemia (reduced blood flow), infection, inflammation, or genetic disorders. This damage can lead to several cardiac conditions, including heart failure, arrhythmias, and cardiomyopathy.

Septic shock is a serious condition that occurs as a complication of an infection that has spread throughout the body. It's characterized by a severe drop in blood pressure and abnormalities in cellular metabolism, which can lead to organ failure and death if not promptly treated.

In septic shock, the immune system overreacts to an infection, releasing an overwhelming amount of inflammatory chemicals into the bloodstream. This leads to widespread inflammation, blood vessel dilation, and leaky blood vessels, which can cause fluid to leak out of the blood vessels and into surrounding tissues. As a result, the heart may not be able to pump enough blood to vital organs, leading to organ failure.

Septic shock is often caused by bacterial infections, but it can also be caused by fungal or viral infections. It's most commonly seen in people with weakened immune systems, such as those who have recently undergone surgery, have chronic medical conditions, or are taking medications that suppress the immune system.

Prompt diagnosis and treatment of septic shock is critical to prevent long-term complications and improve outcomes. Treatment typically involves aggressive antibiotic therapy, intravenous fluids, vasopressors to maintain blood pressure, and supportive care in an intensive care unit (ICU).

Phosphorylation is the process of adding a phosphate group (a molecule consisting of one phosphorus atom and four oxygen atoms) to a protein or other organic molecule, which is usually done by enzymes called kinases. This post-translational modification can change the function, localization, or activity of the target molecule, playing a crucial role in various cellular processes such as signal transduction, metabolism, and regulation of gene expression. Phosphorylation is reversible, and the removal of the phosphate group is facilitated by enzymes called phosphatases.

Proteins are complex, large molecules that play critical roles in the body's functions. They are made up of amino acids, which are organic compounds that are the building blocks of proteins. Proteins are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs. They are essential for the growth, repair, and maintenance of body tissues, and they play a crucial role in many biological processes, including metabolism, immune response, and cellular signaling. Proteins can be classified into different types based on their structure and function, such as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and structural proteins. They are found in various foods, especially animal-derived products like meat, dairy, and eggs, as well as plant-based sources like beans, nuts, and grains.

TNF Receptor-Associated Factor 6 (TRAF6) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the signaling pathways of various cytokine receptors and pattern recognition receptors, including TNF receptors, IL-1 receptors, and TLRs. It functions as an E3 ubiquitin ligase, which adds ubiquitin molecules to other proteins, thereby modulating their activity, stability, or localization.

TRAF6 is involved in the activation of several downstream signaling pathways, such as NF-κB and MAPK pathways, leading to the induction of immune responses, inflammation, cell survival, differentiation, and proliferation. Mutations or dysregulation of TRAF6 have been implicated in various diseases, including immunodeficiencies, autoimmune disorders, and cancers.

In situ nick-end labeling (ISEL, also known as TUNEL) is a technique used in pathology and molecular biology to detect DNA fragmentation, which is a characteristic of apoptotic cells (cells undergoing programmed cell death). The method involves labeling the 3'-hydroxyl termini of double or single stranded DNA breaks in situ (within tissue sections or individual cells) using modified nucleotides that are coupled to a detectable marker, such as a fluorophore or an enzyme. This technique allows for the direct visualization and quantification of apoptotic cells within complex tissues or cell populations.

Cycloheximide is an antibiotic that is primarily used in laboratory settings to inhibit protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells. It is derived from the actinobacteria species Streptomyces griseus. In medical terms, it is not used as a therapeutic drug in humans due to its significant side effects, including liver toxicity and potential neurotoxicity. However, it remains a valuable tool in research for studying protein function and cellular processes.

The antibiotic works by binding to the 60S subunit of the ribosome, thereby preventing the transfer RNA (tRNA) from delivering amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain during translation. This inhibition of protein synthesis can be lethal to cells, making cycloheximide a useful tool in studying cellular responses to protein depletion or misregulation.

In summary, while cycloheximide has significant research applications due to its ability to inhibit protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells, it is not used as a therapeutic drug in humans because of its toxic side effects.

Carrier proteins, also known as transport proteins, are a type of protein that facilitates the movement of molecules across cell membranes. They are responsible for the selective and active transport of ions, sugars, amino acids, and other molecules from one side of the membrane to the other, against their concentration gradient. This process requires energy, usually in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

Carrier proteins have a specific binding site for the molecule they transport, and undergo conformational changes upon binding, which allows them to move the molecule across the membrane. Once the molecule has been transported, the carrier protein returns to its original conformation, ready to bind and transport another molecule.

Carrier proteins play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of ions and other molecules inside and outside of cells, and are essential for many physiological processes, including nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and nutrient uptake.

Cell surface receptors, also known as membrane receptors, are proteins located on the cell membrane that bind to specific molecules outside the cell, known as ligands. These receptors play a crucial role in signal transduction, which is the process of converting an extracellular signal into an intracellular response.

Cell surface receptors can be classified into several categories based on their structure and mechanism of action, including:

1. Ion channel receptors: These receptors contain a pore that opens to allow ions to flow across the cell membrane when they bind to their ligands. This ion flux can directly activate or inhibit various cellular processes.
2. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs): These receptors consist of seven transmembrane domains and are associated with heterotrimeric G proteins that modulate intracellular signaling pathways upon ligand binding.
3. Enzyme-linked receptors: These receptors possess an intrinsic enzymatic activity or are linked to an enzyme, which becomes activated when the receptor binds to its ligand. This activation can lead to the initiation of various signaling cascades within the cell.
4. Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs): These receptors contain intracellular tyrosine kinase domains that become activated upon ligand binding, leading to the phosphorylation and activation of downstream signaling molecules.
5. Integrins: These receptors are transmembrane proteins that mediate cell-cell or cell-matrix interactions by binding to extracellular matrix proteins or counter-receptors on adjacent cells. They play essential roles in cell adhesion, migration, and survival.

Cell surface receptors are involved in various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, hormone signaling, immune response, and cell growth and differentiation. Dysregulation of these receptors can contribute to the development of numerous diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Reperfusion injury is a complex pathophysiological process that occurs when blood flow is restored to previously ischemic tissues, leading to further tissue damage. This phenomenon can occur in various clinical settings such as myocardial infarction (heart attack), stroke, or peripheral artery disease after an intervention aimed at restoring perfusion.

The restoration of blood flow leads to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inflammatory mediators, which can cause oxidative stress, cellular damage, and activation of the immune system. This results in a cascade of events that may lead to microvascular dysfunction, capillary leakage, and tissue edema, further exacerbating the injury.

Reperfusion injury is an important consideration in the management of ischemic events, as interventions aimed at restoring blood flow must be carefully balanced with potential harm from reperfusion injury. Strategies to mitigate reperfusion injury include ischemic preconditioning (exposing the tissue to short periods of ischemia before a prolonged ischemic event), ischemic postconditioning (applying brief periods of ischemia and reperfusion after restoring blood flow), remote ischemic preconditioning (ischemia applied to a distant organ or tissue to protect the target organ), and pharmacological interventions that scavenge ROS, reduce inflammation, or improve microvascular function.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents (NSAIDs) are a class of medications that reduce pain, inflammation, and fever. They work by inhibiting the activity of cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes, which are involved in the production of prostaglandins, chemicals that contribute to inflammation and cause blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable, leading to symptoms such as pain, redness, warmth, and swelling.

NSAIDs are commonly used to treat a variety of conditions, including arthritis, muscle strains and sprains, menstrual cramps, headaches, and fever. Some examples of NSAIDs include aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and celecoxib.

While NSAIDs are generally safe and effective when used as directed, they can have side effects, particularly when taken in large doses or for long periods of time. Common side effects include stomach ulcers, gastrointestinal bleeding, and increased risk of heart attack and stroke. It is important to follow the recommended dosage and consult with a healthcare provider if you have any concerns about using NSAIDs.

Alanine transaminase (ALT) is a type of enzyme found primarily in the cells of the liver and, to a lesser extent, in the cells of other tissues such as the heart, muscles, and kidneys. Its primary function is to catalyze the reversible transfer of an amino group from alanine to another alpha-keto acid, usually pyruvate, to form pyruvate and another amino acid, usually glutamate. This process is known as the transamination reaction.

When liver cells are damaged or destroyed due to various reasons such as hepatitis, alcohol abuse, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, or drug-induced liver injury, ALT is released into the bloodstream. Therefore, measuring the level of ALT in the blood is a useful diagnostic tool for evaluating liver function and detecting liver damage. Normal ALT levels vary depending on the laboratory, but typically range from 7 to 56 units per liter (U/L) for men and 6 to 45 U/L for women. Elevated ALT levels may indicate liver injury or disease, although other factors such as muscle damage or heart disease can also cause elevations in ALT.

Ischemia is the medical term used to describe a lack of blood flow to a part of the body, often due to blocked or narrowed blood vessels. This can lead to a shortage of oxygen and nutrients in the tissues, which can cause them to become damaged or die. Ischemia can affect many different parts of the body, including the heart, brain, legs, and intestines. Symptoms of ischemia depend on the location and severity of the blockage, but they may include pain, cramping, numbness, weakness, or coldness in the affected area. In severe cases, ischemia can lead to tissue death (gangrene) or organ failure. Treatment for ischemia typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the blocked blood flow, such as through medication, surgery, or lifestyle changes.

Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule-1 (VCAM-1) is a glycoprotein expressed on the surface of endothelial cells that plays a crucial role in the inflammatory response. It is involved in the recruitment and adhesion of leukocytes to the site of inflammation. VCAM-1 interacts with integrins on the surface of leukocytes, particularly very late antigen-4 (VLA-4), to facilitate this adhesion process. This interaction leads to the activation of signaling pathways that promote the migration of leukocytes across the endothelial barrier and into the surrounding tissue, where they can contribute to the immune response and resolution of inflammation. Increased expression of VCAM-1 has been associated with various inflammatory diseases, including atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis.

Promoter regions in genetics refer to specific DNA sequences located near the transcription start site of a gene. They serve as binding sites for RNA polymerase and various transcription factors that regulate the initiation of gene transcription. These regulatory elements help control the rate of transcription and, therefore, the level of gene expression. Promoter regions can be composed of different types of sequences, such as the TATA box and CAAT box, and their organization and composition can vary between different genes and species.

Chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2, also known as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), is a small signaling protein that belongs to the chemokine family. Chemokines are a group of cytokines, or regulatory proteins, that play important roles in immune responses and inflammation by recruiting various immune cells to sites of infection or injury.

CCL2 specifically acts as a chemoattractant for monocytes, memory T cells, and dendritic cells, guiding them to migrate towards the source of infection or tissue damage. It does this by binding to its receptor, CCR2, which is expressed on the surface of these immune cells.

CCL2 has been implicated in several pathological conditions, including atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and various cancers, where it contributes to the recruitment of immune cells that can exacerbate tissue damage or promote tumor growth and metastasis. Therefore, targeting CCL2 or its signaling pathways has emerged as a potential therapeutic strategy for these diseases.

Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence of a foreign substance, such as a bacterium or virus. They are capable of identifying and binding to specific antigens (foreign substances) on the surface of these invaders, marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Antibodies are also known as immunoglobulins and come in several different types, including IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM, each with a unique function in the immune response. They are composed of four polypeptide chains, two heavy chains and two light chains, that are held together by disulfide bonds. The variable regions of the heavy and light chains form the antigen-binding site, which is specific to a particular antigen.

Pancreatitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the pancreas, a gland located in the abdomen that plays a crucial role in digestion and regulating blood sugar levels. The inflammation can be acute (sudden and severe) or chronic (persistent and recurring), and it can lead to various complications if left untreated.

Acute pancreatitis often results from gallstones or excessive alcohol consumption, while chronic pancreatitis may be caused by long-term alcohol abuse, genetic factors, autoimmune conditions, or metabolic disorders like high triglyceride levels. Symptoms of acute pancreatitis include severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, fever, and increased heart rate, while chronic pancreatitis may present with ongoing abdominal pain, weight loss, diarrhea, and malabsorption issues due to impaired digestive enzyme production. Treatment typically involves supportive care, such as intravenous fluids, pain management, and addressing the underlying cause. In severe cases, hospitalization and surgery may be necessary.

Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Superfamily Member 6b (TNFRSF6B), also known as Decoy Receptor 3 (DcR3), is a type of tumor necrosis factor receptor that can be found on the surface of certain cells. It is a soluble receptor that functions as a decoy, preventing the binding of its ligands, TNF-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK) and Fas ligand (FasL), to their respective signaling receptors, Fn14 and Fas.

By acting as a decoy, TNFRSF6B helps regulate the immune response and prevent excessive inflammation, which can contribute to the development and progression of various diseases, including cancer. However, TNFRSF6B has also been found to be overexpressed in some tumors, where it may help the tumor evade the immune system and promote its growth and survival.

It's important to note that medical definitions can vary depending on the source and context, so this definition is not exhaustive and other sources may provide additional or different information.

Oxidative stress is defined as an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (free radicals) and the body's ability to detoxify them or repair the damage they cause. This imbalance can lead to cellular damage, oxidation of proteins, lipids, and DNA, disruption of cellular functions, and activation of inflammatory responses. Prolonged or excessive oxidative stress has been linked to various health conditions, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and aging-related diseases.

Caspase-9 is a type of protease enzyme that plays a crucial role in the execution phase of programmed cell death, also known as apoptosis. It is a member of the cysteine-aspartic acid protease (caspase) family, which are characterized by their ability to cleave proteins after an aspartic acid residue. Caspase-9 is activated through a process called cytochrome c-mediated caspase activation, which occurs in the mitochondria during apoptosis. Once activated, caspase-9 cleaves and activates other downstream effector caspases, such as caspase-3 and caspase-7, leading to the proteolytic degradation of cellular structures and ultimately resulting in cell death. Dysregulation of caspase-9 activity has been implicated in various diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders and cancer.

Interleukins (ILs) are a group of naturally occurring proteins that are important in the immune system. They are produced by various cells, including immune cells like lymphocytes and macrophages, and they help regulate the immune response by facilitating communication between different types of cells. Interleukins can have both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects, depending on the specific interleukin and the context in which it is produced. They play a role in various biological processes, including the development of immune responses, inflammation, and hematopoiesis (the formation of blood cells).

There are many different interleukins that have been identified, and they are numbered according to the order in which they were discovered. For example, IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, etc. Each interleukin has a specific set of functions and targets certain types of cells. Dysregulation of interleukins has been implicated in various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, infections, and cancer.

Immunologic factors refer to the elements of the immune system that contribute to the body's defense against foreign substances, infectious agents, and cancerous cells. These factors include various types of white blood cells (such as lymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, and eosinophils), antibodies, complement proteins, cytokines, and other molecules involved in the immune response.

Immunologic factors can be categorized into two main types: innate immunity and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity is the non-specific defense mechanism that provides immediate protection against pathogens through physical barriers (e.g., skin, mucous membranes), chemical barriers (e.g., stomach acid, enzymes), and inflammatory responses. Adaptive immunity, on the other hand, is a specific defense mechanism that develops over time as the immune system learns to recognize and respond to particular pathogens or antigens.

Abnormalities in immunologic factors can lead to various medical conditions, such as autoimmune disorders, immunodeficiency diseases, and allergies. Therefore, understanding immunologic factors is crucial for diagnosing and treating these conditions.

Tetradecanoylphorbol acetate (TPA) is defined as a pharmacological agent that is a derivative of the phorbol ester family. It is a potent tumor promoter and activator of protein kinase C (PKC), a group of enzymes that play a role in various cellular processes such as signal transduction, proliferation, and differentiation. TPA has been widely used in research to study PKC-mediated signaling pathways and its role in cancer development and progression. It is also used in topical treatments for skin conditions such as psoriasis.

Nitric Oxide Synthase (NOS) is a group of enzymes that catalyze the production of nitric oxide (NO) from L-arginine. There are three distinct isoforms of NOS, each with different expression patterns and functions:

1. Neuronal Nitric Oxide Synthase (nNOS or NOS1): This isoform is primarily expressed in the nervous system and plays a role in neurotransmission, synaptic plasticity, and learning and memory processes.
2. Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase (iNOS or NOS2): This isoform is induced by various stimuli such as cytokines, lipopolysaccharides, and hypoxia in a variety of cells including immune cells, endothelial cells, and smooth muscle cells. iNOS produces large amounts of NO, which functions as a potent effector molecule in the immune response, particularly in the defense against microbial pathogens.
3. Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase (eNOS or NOS3): This isoform is constitutively expressed in endothelial cells and produces low levels of NO that play a crucial role in maintaining vascular homeostasis by regulating vasodilation, inhibiting platelet aggregation, and preventing smooth muscle cell proliferation.

Overall, NOS plays an essential role in various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, immune response, cardiovascular function, and respiratory regulation. Dysregulation of NOS activity has been implicated in several pathological conditions such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative diseases, and inflammatory disorders.

Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) is a type of cytokine, which is a small signaling protein involved in immune response and hematopoiesis (the formation of blood cells). GM-CSF's specific role is to stimulate the production, proliferation, and activation of granulocytes (a type of white blood cell that fights against infection) and macrophages (large white blood cells that eat foreign substances, bacteria, and dead or dying cells).

In medical terms, GM-CSF is often used in therapeutic settings to boost the production of white blood cells in patients undergoing chemotherapy or radiation treatment for cancer. This can help to reduce the risk of infection during these treatments. It can also be used to promote the growth and differentiation of stem cells in bone marrow transplant procedures.

Jurkat cells are a type of human immortalized T lymphocyte (a type of white blood cell) cell line that is commonly used in scientific research. They were originally isolated from the peripheral blood of a patient with acute T-cell leukemia. Jurkat cells are widely used as a model system to study T-cell activation, signal transduction, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). They are also used in the study of HIV infection and replication, as they can be infected with the virus and used to investigate viral replication and host cell responses.

Fas Ligand Protein (FasL or CD95L) is a type II transmembrane protein belonging to the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily. It plays a crucial role in programmed cell death, also known as apoptosis. The FasL protein binds to its receptor, Fas (CD95 or APO-1), which is found on the surface of various cells including immune cells. This binding triggers a signaling cascade that leads to apoptosis, helping to regulate the immune response and maintain homeostasis in tissues.

FasL can also be produced as a soluble protein (sFasL) through alternative splicing or proteolytic cleavage of the membrane-bound form. Soluble FasL may have different functions compared to its membrane-bound counterpart, and its role in physiology and disease is still under investigation.

Dysregulation of the Fas/FasL system has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including autoimmune diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer.

Dinoprostone is a prostaglandin E2 analog used in medical practice for the induction of labor and ripening of the cervix in pregnant women. It is available in various forms, including vaginal suppositories, gel, and tablets. Dinoprostone works by stimulating the contraction of uterine muscles and promoting cervical dilation, which helps in facilitating a successful delivery.

It's important to note that dinoprostone should only be administered under the supervision of a healthcare professional, as its use is associated with certain risks and side effects, including uterine hyperstimulation, fetal distress, and maternal infection. The dosage and duration of treatment are carefully monitored to minimize these risks and ensure the safety of both the mother and the baby.

DNA primers are short single-stranded DNA molecules that serve as a starting point for DNA synthesis. They are typically used in laboratory techniques such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. The primer binds to a complementary sequence on the DNA template through base pairing, providing a free 3'-hydroxyl group for the DNA polymerase enzyme to add nucleotides and synthesize a new strand of DNA. This allows for specific and targeted amplification or analysis of a particular region of interest within a larger DNA molecule.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are a type of protein found on the surface of cells that mediate the attachment or adhesion of cells to either other cells or to the extracellular matrix (ECM), which is the network of proteins and carbohydrates that provides structural and biochemical support to surrounding cells.

CAMs play crucial roles in various biological processes, including tissue development, differentiation, repair, and maintenance of tissue architecture and function. They are also involved in cell signaling, migration, and regulation of the immune response.

There are several types of CAMs, classified based on their structure and function, such as immunoglobulin-like CAMs (IgCAMs), cadherins, integrins, and selectins. Dysregulation of CAMs has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, inflammation, and neurological disorders.

Chemokines are a family of small cytokines, or signaling proteins, that are secreted by cells and play an important role in the immune system. They are chemotactic, meaning they can attract and guide the movement of various immune cells to specific locations within the body. Chemokines do this by binding to G protein-coupled receptors on the surface of target cells, initiating a signaling cascade that leads to cell migration.

There are four main subfamilies of chemokines, classified based on the arrangement of conserved cysteine residues near the amino terminus: CXC, CC, C, and CX3C. Different chemokines have specific roles in inflammation, immune surveillance, hematopoiesis, and development. Dysregulation of chemokine function has been implicated in various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, infections, and cancer.

In summary, Chemokines are a group of signaling proteins that play a crucial role in the immune system by directing the movement of immune cells to specific locations within the body, thus helping to coordinate the immune response.

Epithelial cells are types of cells that cover the outer surfaces of the body, line the inner surfaces of organs and glands, and form the lining of blood vessels and body cavities. They provide a protective barrier against the external environment, regulate the movement of materials between the internal and external environments, and are involved in the sense of touch, temperature, and pain. Epithelial cells can be squamous (flat and thin), cuboidal (square-shaped and of equal height), or columnar (tall and narrow) in shape and are classified based on their location and function.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

Leukocytes, also known as white blood cells (WBCs), are a crucial component of the human immune system. They are responsible for protecting the body against infections and foreign substances. Leukocytes are produced in the bone marrow and circulate throughout the body in the bloodstream and lymphatic system.

There are several types of leukocytes, including:

1. Neutrophils - These are the most abundant type of leukocyte and are primarily responsible for fighting bacterial infections. They contain enzymes that can destroy bacteria.
2. Lymphocytes - These are responsible for producing antibodies and destroying virus-infected cells, as well as cancer cells. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes.
3. Monocytes - These are the largest type of leukocyte and help to break down and remove dead or damaged tissues, as well as microorganisms.
4. Eosinophils - These play a role in fighting parasitic infections and are also involved in allergic reactions and inflammation.
5. Basophils - These release histamine and other chemicals that cause inflammation in response to allergens or irritants.

An abnormal increase or decrease in the number of leukocytes can indicate an underlying medical condition, such as an infection, inflammation, or a blood disorder.

Membrane proteins are a type of protein that are embedded in the lipid bilayer of biological membranes, such as the plasma membrane of cells or the inner membrane of mitochondria. These proteins play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including:

1. Cell-cell recognition and signaling
2. Transport of molecules across the membrane (selective permeability)
3. Enzymatic reactions at the membrane surface
4. Energy transduction and conversion
5. Mechanosensation and signal transduction

Membrane proteins can be classified into two main categories: integral membrane proteins, which are permanently associated with the lipid bilayer, and peripheral membrane proteins, which are temporarily or loosely attached to the membrane surface. Integral membrane proteins can further be divided into three subcategories based on their topology:

1. Transmembrane proteins, which span the entire width of the lipid bilayer with one or more alpha-helices or beta-barrels.
2. Lipid-anchored proteins, which are covalently attached to lipids in the membrane via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor or other lipid modifications.
3. Monotopic proteins, which are partially embedded in the membrane and have one or more domains exposed to either side of the bilayer.

Membrane proteins are essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and are targets for various therapeutic interventions, including drug development and gene therapy. However, their structural complexity and hydrophobicity make them challenging to study using traditional biochemical methods, requiring specialized techniques such as X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM).

Cell adhesion refers to the binding of cells to extracellular matrices or to other cells, a process that is fundamental to the development, function, and maintenance of multicellular organisms. Cell adhesion is mediated by various cell surface receptors, such as integrins, cadherins, and immunoglobulin-like cell adhesion molecules (Ig-CAMs), which interact with specific ligands in the extracellular environment. These interactions lead to the formation of specialized junctions, such as tight junctions, adherens junctions, and desmosomes, that help to maintain tissue architecture and regulate various cellular processes, including proliferation, differentiation, migration, and survival. Disruptions in cell adhesion can contribute to a variety of diseases, including cancer, inflammation, and degenerative disorders.

Rhabdoviridae is a family of negative-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses that include several important human and animal pathogens. The name "Rhabdoviridae" comes from the Greek word "rhabdos," meaning rod, which refers to the characteristic bullet shape of these virions.

The family Rhabdoviridae is divided into six genera: Vesiculovirus, Lyssavirus, Ephemerovirus, Novirhabdovirus, Cytorhabdovirus, and Sphericalvirus. The most well-known member of this family is the rabies virus, which belongs to the genus Lyssavirus.

Rhabdoviruses have a simple structure, consisting of an envelope surrounding a helical nucleocapsid that contains the RNA genome. The virions are typically 100-430 nm in length and 45-100 nm in diameter, with a central electron-dense core surrounded by a less dense matrix protein layer.

Rhabdoviruses infect a wide range of hosts, including mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, and insects. They typically cause acute infections characterized by fever, lethargy, and other nonspecific symptoms. In severe cases, rhabdovirus infections can lead to serious neurological disorders, such as encephalitis or meningitis, and can be fatal if left untreated.

Transmission of rhabdoviruses occurs through various routes, depending on the specific virus and host. For example, rabies virus is typically transmitted through the bite of an infected animal, while other rhabdoviruses may be spread through contact with contaminated bodily fluids or aerosols.

Prevention and control measures for rhabdovirus infections depend on the specific virus and host. For example, rabies vaccination is effective in preventing infection in humans and animals, while other rhabdoviruses may be controlled through quarantine measures, insect control, or antiviral therapy.

Lymphocyte activation is the process by which B-cells and T-cells (types of lymphocytes) become activated to perform effector functions in an immune response. This process involves the recognition of specific antigens presented on the surface of antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells or macrophages.

The activation of B-cells leads to their differentiation into plasma cells that produce antibodies, while the activation of T-cells results in the production of cytotoxic T-cells (CD8+ T-cells) that can directly kill infected cells or helper T-cells (CD4+ T-cells) that assist other immune cells.

Lymphocyte activation involves a series of intracellular signaling events, including the binding of co-stimulatory molecules and the release of cytokines, which ultimately result in the expression of genes involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, and effector functions. The activation process is tightly regulated to prevent excessive or inappropriate immune responses that can lead to autoimmunity or chronic inflammation.

Alveolar macrophages are a type of macrophage (a large phagocytic cell) that are found in the alveoli of the lungs. They play a crucial role in the immune defense system of the lungs by engulfing and destroying any foreign particles, such as dust, microorganisms, and pathogens, that enter the lungs through the process of inhalation. Alveolar macrophages also produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help to coordinate the immune response. They are important for maintaining the health and function of the lungs by removing debris and preventing infection.

Interleukin-1 Receptor Antagonist Protein (IL-1Ra) is a naturally occurring protein that acts as a competitive inhibitor of the interleukin-1 (IL-1) receptor. IL-1 is a pro-inflammatory cytokine involved in various physiological processes, including the immune response and inflammation. The binding of IL-1 to its receptor triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of inflammatory genes and cellular responses.

IL-1Ra shares structural similarities with IL-1 but does not initiate the downstream signaling pathway. Instead, it binds to the same receptor site as IL-1, preventing IL-1 from interacting with its receptor and thus inhibiting the inflammatory response.

Increased levels of IL-1Ra have been found in various inflammatory conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and sepsis, where it acts to counterbalance the pro-inflammatory effects of IL-1. Recombinant IL-1Ra (Anakinra) is used clinically as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory diseases.

Northern blotting is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to detect and analyze specific RNA molecules (such as mRNA) in a mixture of total RNA extracted from cells or tissues. This technique is called "Northern" blotting because it is analogous to the Southern blotting method, which is used for DNA detection.

The Northern blotting procedure involves several steps:

1. Electrophoresis: The total RNA mixture is first separated based on size by running it through an agarose gel using electrical current. This separates the RNA molecules according to their length, with smaller RNA fragments migrating faster than larger ones.

2. Transfer: After electrophoresis, the RNA bands are denatured (made single-stranded) and transferred from the gel onto a nitrocellulose or nylon membrane using a technique called capillary transfer or vacuum blotting. This step ensures that the order and relative positions of the RNA fragments are preserved on the membrane, similar to how they appear in the gel.

3. Cross-linking: The RNA is then chemically cross-linked to the membrane using UV light or heat treatment, which helps to immobilize the RNA onto the membrane and prevent it from washing off during subsequent steps.

4. Prehybridization: Before adding the labeled probe, the membrane is prehybridized in a solution containing blocking agents (such as salmon sperm DNA or yeast tRNA) to minimize non-specific binding of the probe to the membrane.

5. Hybridization: A labeled nucleic acid probe, specific to the RNA of interest, is added to the prehybridization solution and allowed to hybridize (form base pairs) with its complementary RNA sequence on the membrane. The probe can be either a DNA or an RNA molecule, and it is typically labeled with a radioactive isotope (such as ³²P) or a non-radioactive label (such as digoxigenin).

6. Washing: After hybridization, the membrane is washed to remove unbound probe and reduce background noise. The washing conditions (temperature, salt concentration, and detergent concentration) are optimized based on the stringency required for specific hybridization.

7. Detection: The presence of the labeled probe is then detected using an appropriate method, depending on the type of label used. For radioactive probes, this typically involves exposing the membrane to X-ray film or a phosphorimager screen and analyzing the resulting image. For non-radioactive probes, detection can be performed using colorimetric, chemiluminescent, or fluorescent methods.

8. Data analysis: The intensity of the signal is quantified and compared to controls (such as housekeeping genes) to determine the relative expression level of the RNA of interest. This information can be used for various purposes, such as identifying differentially expressed genes in response to a specific treatment or comparing gene expression levels across different samples or conditions.

The Fas-Associated Death Domain Protein (FADD), also known as Mort1 or MORT1, is a protein that plays a crucial role in the programmed cell death pathway, also known as apoptosis. It is composed of an N-terminal death effector domain (DED), a middle domain, and a C-terminal death domain (DD).

FADD functions as an adaptor protein that links the Fas receptor to downstream signaling molecules in the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis. When the Fas receptor is activated by its ligand (FasL), it recruits FADD through homotypic interactions between their DED domains. This recruitment leads to the formation of the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) and the activation of caspase-8, which subsequently activates downstream effector caspases that ultimately lead to cell death.

FADD is essential for maintaining tissue homeostasis by eliminating damaged or potentially harmful cells, and its dysregulation has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and autoimmune disorders.

Interleukin-12 (IL-12) is a naturally occurring protein that is primarily produced by activated macrophages and dendritic cells, which are types of immune cells. It plays a crucial role in the regulation of the immune response, particularly in the development of cell-mediated immunity.

IL-12 is composed of two subunits, p35 and p40, which combine to form a heterodimer. This cytokine stimulates the differentiation and activation of naive T cells into Th1 cells, which are important for fighting intracellular pathogens such as viruses and bacteria. IL-12 also enhances the cytotoxic activity of natural killer (NK) cells and CD8+ T cells, which can directly kill infected or malignant cells.

In addition to its role in the immune response, IL-12 has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and psoriasis. As a result, therapeutic strategies targeting IL-12 or its signaling pathways have been explored as potential treatments for these conditions.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

U937 cells are a type of human histiocytic lymphoma cell line that is commonly used in scientific research and studies. They are derived from the peripheral blood of a patient with histiocytic lymphoma, which is a rare type of cancer that affects the immune system's cells called histiocytes.

U937 cells have a variety of uses in research, including studying the mechanisms of cancer cell growth and proliferation, testing the effects of various drugs and treatments on cancer cells, and investigating the role of different genes and proteins in cancer development and progression. These cells are easy to culture and maintain in the laboratory, making them a popular choice for researchers in many fields.

It is important to note that while U937 cells can provide valuable insights into the behavior of cancer cells, they do not necessarily reflect the complexity and diversity of human cancers. Therefore, findings from studies using these cells should be validated in more complex models or clinical trials before being applied to patient care.

Mitochondria are specialized structures located inside cells that convert the energy from food into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the primary form of energy used by cells. They are often referred to as the "powerhouses" of the cell because they generate most of the cell's supply of chemical energy. Mitochondria are also involved in various other cellular processes, such as signaling, differentiation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death).

Mitochondria have their own DNA, known as mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which is inherited maternally. This means that mtDNA is passed down from the mother to her offspring through the egg cells. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been linked to a variety of diseases and conditions, including neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes, and aging.

Inbred strains of mice are defined as lines of mice that have been brother-sister mated for at least 20 consecutive generations. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the mice of an inbred strain are genetically identical to one another, with the exception of spontaneous mutations.

Inbred strains of mice are widely used in biomedical research due to their genetic uniformity and stability, which makes them useful for studying the genetic basis of various traits, diseases, and biological processes. They also provide a consistent and reproducible experimental system, as compared to outbred or genetically heterogeneous populations.

Some commonly used inbred strains of mice include C57BL/6J, BALB/cByJ, DBA/2J, and 129SvEv. Each strain has its own unique genetic background and phenotypic characteristics, which can influence the results of experiments. Therefore, it is important to choose the appropriate inbred strain for a given research question.

Fibrosarcoma is a type of soft tissue cancer that develops in the fibrous (or connective) tissue found throughout the body, including tendons, ligaments, and muscles. It is characterized by the malignant proliferation of fibroblasts, which are the cells responsible for producing collagen, a structural protein found in connective tissue.

The tumor typically presents as a painless, firm mass that grows slowly over time. Fibrosarcomas can occur at any age but are more common in adults between 30 and 60 years old. The exact cause of fibrosarcoma is not well understood, but it has been linked to radiation exposure, certain chemicals, and genetic factors.

There are several subtypes of fibrosarcoma, including adult-type fibrosarcoma, infantile fibrosarcoma, and dedifferentiated fibrosarcoma. Treatment usually involves surgical removal of the tumor, often followed by radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy to reduce the risk of recurrence. The prognosis for patients with fibrosarcoma depends on several factors, including the size and location of the tumor, the patient's age and overall health, and the presence or absence of metastasis (spread of cancer to other parts of the body).

Electron microscopy (EM) is a type of microscopy that uses a beam of electrons to create an image of the sample being examined, resulting in much higher magnification and resolution than light microscopy. There are several types of electron microscopy, including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and reflection electron microscopy (REM).

In TEM, a beam of electrons is transmitted through a thin slice of the sample, and the electrons that pass through the sample are focused to form an image. This technique can provide detailed information about the internal structure of cells, viruses, and other biological specimens, as well as the composition and structure of materials at the atomic level.

In SEM, a beam of electrons is scanned across the surface of the sample, and the electrons that are scattered back from the surface are detected to create an image. This technique can provide information about the topography and composition of surfaces, as well as the structure of materials at the microscopic level.

REM is a variation of SEM in which the beam of electrons is reflected off the surface of the sample, rather than scattered back from it. This technique can provide information about the surface chemistry and composition of materials.

Electron microscopy has a wide range of applications in biology, medicine, and materials science, including the study of cellular structure and function, disease diagnosis, and the development of new materials and technologies.

Antineoplastic agents are a class of drugs used to treat malignant neoplasms or cancer. These agents work by inhibiting the growth and proliferation of cancer cells, either by killing them or preventing their division and replication. Antineoplastic agents can be classified based on their mechanism of action, such as alkylating agents, antimetabolites, topoisomerase inhibitors, mitotic inhibitors, and targeted therapy agents.

Alkylating agents work by adding alkyl groups to DNA, which can cause cross-linking of DNA strands and ultimately lead to cell death. Antimetabolites interfere with the metabolic processes necessary for DNA synthesis and replication, while topoisomerase inhibitors prevent the relaxation of supercoiled DNA during replication. Mitotic inhibitors disrupt the normal functioning of the mitotic spindle, which is essential for cell division. Targeted therapy agents are designed to target specific molecular abnormalities in cancer cells, such as mutated oncogenes or dysregulated signaling pathways.

It's important to note that antineoplastic agents can also affect normal cells and tissues, leading to various side effects such as nausea, vomiting, hair loss, and myelosuppression (suppression of bone marrow function). Therefore, the use of these drugs requires careful monitoring and management of their potential adverse effects.

Endothelial cells are the type of cells that line the inner surface of blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and heart chambers. They play a crucial role in maintaining vascular homeostasis by controlling vasomotor tone, coagulation, platelet activation, and inflammation. Endothelial cells also regulate the transport of molecules between the blood and surrounding tissues, and contribute to the maintenance of the structural integrity of the vasculature. They are flat, elongated cells with a unique morphology that allows them to form a continuous, nonthrombogenic lining inside the vessels. Endothelial cells can be isolated from various tissues and cultured in vitro for research purposes.

Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR4) is a type of protein found on the surface of some cells in the human body, including immune cells like macrophages and dendritic cells. It belongs to a class of proteins called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which play a crucial role in the innate immune system's response to infection.

TLR4 recognizes and responds to specific molecules found on gram-negative bacteria, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS), also known as endotoxin. When TLR4 binds to LPS, it triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of immune cells, production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and initiation of the adaptive immune response.

TLR4 is an essential component of the body's defense against gram-negative bacterial infections, but its overactivation can also contribute to the development of various inflammatory diseases, such as sepsis, atherosclerosis, and certain types of cancer.

CASP8 and FADD-Like Apoptosis Regulating Protein, also known as CFLAR or FLIP, is a protein that plays a role in regulating cell death (apoptosis). It is a member of the inhibitor of apoptosis protein (IAP) family. The protein contains a death effector domain (DED), which allows it to interact with other proteins that contain DEDs, such as FADD and caspase-8.

CFLAR can function as an inhibitor or a promoter of apoptosis, depending on the context. When CFLAR is present in high levels, it can bind to and inhibit the activity of caspase-8, preventing the initiation of the apoptotic signaling pathway. However, when CFLAR is present in low levels or is cleaved by proteases, it can promote apoptosis by facilitating the activation of caspase-8.

Mutations in the gene that encodes CFLAR have been associated with an increased risk of developing certain types of cancer, such as Hodgkin lymphoma and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.

Hepatocytes are the predominant type of cells in the liver, accounting for about 80% of its cytoplasmic mass. They play a key role in protein synthesis, protein storage, transformation of carbohydrates, synthesis of cholesterol, bile salts and phospholipids, detoxification, modification, and excretion of exogenous and endogenous substances, initiation of formation and secretion of bile, and enzyme production. Hepatocytes are essential for the maintenance of homeostasis in the body.

TNF Receptor-Associated Death Domain Protein (TRADD) is a type of adaptor protein that plays a crucial role in the intracellular signaling pathways associated with the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor superfamily. TRADD is composed of several functional domains, including a death domain (DD), a really interesting new gene (RING) finger domain, and multiple protein-protein interaction motifs.

When TNF ligands bind to their respective receptors, they induce the formation of a signaling complex, which includes TRADD. The DD of TRADD interacts with the DD of the TNFR1, leading to the recruitment of other signaling proteins such as TNF receptor-associated factor 2 (TRAF2), Fas-associated death domain protein (FADD), and receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1 (RIPK1).

The assembly of this complex triggers two major signaling cascades: the pro-survival NF-κB pathway and the pro-apoptotic caspase activation pathway. TRADD is a key player in both these pathways, acting as a scaffold to facilitate protein-protein interactions and downstream signal transduction events.

In the NF-κB pathway, TRADD recruits TRAF2, which subsequently activates the IKK complex, leading to the nuclear translocation of NF-κB and the induction of target genes involved in cell survival, proliferation, and inflammation. In the caspase activation pathway, TRADD interacts with FADD, forming a death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) that activates caspases 8 and 10, ultimately leading to apoptosis or programmed cell death.

Dysregulation of TRADD-mediated signaling has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying TRADD function is essential for developing novel therapeutic strategies to target these diseases.

The umbilical veins are blood vessels in the umbilical cord that carry oxygenated and nutrient-rich blood from the mother to the developing fetus during pregnancy. There are typically two umbilical veins, one of which usually degenerates and becomes obliterated, leaving a single functional vein. This remaining vein is known as the larger umbilical vein or the venous duct. It enters the fetal abdomen through the umbilicus and passes through the liver, where it branches off to form the portal sinus. Ultimately, the blood from the umbilical vein mixes with the blood from the inferior vena cava and is pumped to the heart through the right atrium.

It's important to note that after birth, the umbilical veins are no longer needed and undergo involution, becoming the ligamentum teres in the adult.

L-Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) is an enzyme found in various tissues within the body, including the heart, liver, kidneys, muscles, and brain. It plays a crucial role in the process of energy production, particularly during anaerobic conditions when oxygen levels are low.

In the presence of the coenzyme NADH, LDH catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to lactate, generating NAD+ as a byproduct. Conversely, in the presence of NAD+, LDH can convert lactate back to pyruvate using NADH. This reversible reaction is essential for maintaining the balance between lactate and pyruvate levels within cells.

Elevated blood levels of LDH may indicate tissue damage or injury, as this enzyme can be released into the circulation following cellular breakdown. As a result, LDH is often used as a nonspecific biomarker for various medical conditions, such as myocardial infarction (heart attack), liver disease, muscle damage, and certain types of cancer. However, it's important to note that an isolated increase in LDH does not necessarily pinpoint the exact location or cause of tissue damage, and further diagnostic tests are usually required for confirmation.

Transgenic mice are genetically modified rodents that have incorporated foreign DNA (exogenous DNA) into their own genome. This is typically done through the use of recombinant DNA technology, where a specific gene or genetic sequence of interest is isolated and then introduced into the mouse embryo. The resulting transgenic mice can then express the protein encoded by the foreign gene, allowing researchers to study its function in a living organism.

The process of creating transgenic mice usually involves microinjecting the exogenous DNA into the pronucleus of a fertilized egg, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother. The offspring that result from this procedure are screened for the presence of the foreign DNA, and those that carry the desired genetic modification are used to establish a transgenic mouse line.

Transgenic mice have been widely used in biomedical research to model human diseases, study gene function, and test new therapies. They provide a valuable tool for understanding complex biological processes and developing new treatments for a variety of medical conditions.

A granuloma is a small, nodular inflammatory lesion that occurs in various tissues in response to chronic infection, foreign body reaction, or autoimmune conditions. Histologically, it is characterized by the presence of epithelioid macrophages, which are specialized immune cells with enlarged nuclei and abundant cytoplasm, often arranged in a palisading pattern around a central area containing necrotic debris, microorganisms, or foreign material.

Granulomas can be found in various medical conditions such as tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, fungal infections, and certain autoimmune disorders like Crohn's disease. The formation of granulomas is a complex process involving both innate and adaptive immune responses, which aim to contain and eliminate the offending agent while minimizing tissue damage.

Dexamethasone is a type of corticosteroid medication, which is a synthetic version of a natural hormone produced by the adrenal glands. It is often used to reduce inflammation and suppress the immune system in a variety of medical conditions, including allergies, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and certain skin conditions.

Dexamethasone works by binding to specific receptors in cells, which triggers a range of anti-inflammatory effects. These include reducing the production of chemicals that cause inflammation, suppressing the activity of immune cells, and stabilizing cell membranes.

In addition to its anti-inflammatory effects, dexamethasone can also be used to treat other medical conditions, such as certain types of cancer, brain swelling, and adrenal insufficiency. It is available in a variety of forms, including tablets, liquids, creams, and injectable solutions.

Like all medications, dexamethasone can have side effects, particularly if used for long periods of time or at high doses. These may include mood changes, increased appetite, weight gain, acne, thinning skin, easy bruising, and an increased risk of infections. It is important to follow the instructions of a healthcare provider when taking dexamethasone to minimize the risk of side effects.

E-Selectin, also known as Endothelial Leukocyte Adhesion Molecule 1 (ELAM-1), is a type of cell adhesion molecule mainly expressed on the surface of endothelial cells in response to inflammatory cytokines. It plays a crucial role in the initial recruitment and attachment of leukocytes (white blood cells) to the site of inflammation or injury, facilitating their transendothelial migration into the surrounding tissue. E-Selectin recognizes specific carbohydrate structures on the surface of leukocytes, contributing to the specificity of this adhesive interaction during the inflammatory response.

C-reactive protein (CRP) is a protein produced by the liver in response to inflammation or infection in the body. It is named after its ability to bind to the C-polysaccharide of pneumococcus, a type of bacteria. CRP levels can be measured with a simple blood test and are often used as a marker of inflammation or infection. Elevated CRP levels may indicate a variety of conditions, including infections, tissue damage, and chronic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and cancer. However, it is important to note that CRP is not specific to any particular condition, so additional tests are usually needed to make a definitive diagnosis.

Dendritic cells (DCs) are a type of immune cell that play a critical role in the body's defense against infection and cancer. They are named for their dendrite-like projections, which they use to interact with and sample their environment. DCs are responsible for processing antigens (foreign substances that trigger an immune response) and presenting them to T cells, a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the immune system's response to infection and cancer.

DCs can be found throughout the body, including in the skin, mucous membranes, and lymphoid organs. They are able to recognize and respond to a wide variety of antigens, including those from bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Once they have processed an antigen, DCs migrate to the lymph nodes, where they present the antigen to T cells. This interaction activates the T cells, which then go on to mount a targeted immune response against the invading pathogen or cancerous cells.

DCs are a diverse group of cells that can be divided into several subsets based on their surface markers and function. Some DCs, such as Langerhans cells and dermal DCs, are found in the skin and mucous membranes, where they serve as sentinels for invading pathogens. Other DCs, such as plasmacytoid DCs and conventional DCs, are found in the lymphoid organs, where they play a role in activating T cells and initiating an immune response.

Overall, dendritic cells are essential for the proper functioning of the immune system, and dysregulation of these cells has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including autoimmune disorders and cancer.

Proto-oncogene proteins c-bcl-2 are a group of proteins that play a role in regulating cell death (apoptosis). The c-bcl-2 gene produces one of these proteins, which helps to prevent cells from undergoing apoptosis. This protein is located on the membrane of mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum and it can inhibit the release of cytochrome c, a key player in the activation of caspases, which are enzymes that trigger apoptosis.

In normal cells, the regulation of c-bcl-2 protein helps to maintain a balance between cell proliferation and cell death, ensuring proper tissue homeostasis. However, when the c-bcl-2 gene is mutated or its expression is dysregulated, it can contribute to cancer development by allowing cancer cells to survive and proliferate. High levels of c-bcl-2 protein have been found in many types of cancer, including leukemia, lymphoma, and carcinomas, and are often associated with a poor prognosis.

Cell proliferation is the process by which cells increase in number, typically through the process of cell division. In the context of biology and medicine, it refers to the reproduction of cells that makes up living tissue, allowing growth, maintenance, and repair. It involves several stages including the transition from a phase of quiescence (G0 phase) to an active phase (G1 phase), DNA replication in the S phase, and mitosis or M phase, where the cell divides into two daughter cells.

Abnormal or uncontrolled cell proliferation is a characteristic feature of many diseases, including cancer, where deregulated cell cycle control leads to excessive and unregulated growth of cells, forming tumors that can invade surrounding tissues and metastasize to distant sites in the body.

Glycoproteins are complex proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to their polypeptide backbone. These glycans are linked to the protein through asparagine residues (N-linked) or serine/threonine residues (O-linked). Glycoproteins play crucial roles in various biological processes, including cell recognition, cell-cell interactions, cell adhesion, and signal transduction. They are widely distributed in nature and can be found on the outer surface of cell membranes, in extracellular fluids, and as components of the extracellular matrix. The structure and composition of glycoproteins can vary significantly depending on their function and location within an organism.

Protein binding, in the context of medical and biological sciences, refers to the interaction between a protein and another molecule (known as the ligand) that results in a stable complex. This process is often reversible and can be influenced by various factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration of the involved molecules.

In clinical chemistry, protein binding is particularly important when it comes to drugs, as many of them bind to proteins (especially albumin) in the bloodstream. The degree of protein binding can affect a drug's distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which in turn influence its therapeutic effectiveness and potential side effects.

Protein-bound drugs may be less available for interaction with their target tissues, as only the unbound or "free" fraction of the drug is active. Therefore, understanding protein binding can help optimize dosing regimens and minimize adverse reactions.

Peroxidase is a type of enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction in which hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is broken down into water (H2O) and oxygen (O2). This enzymatic reaction also involves the oxidation of various organic and inorganic compounds, which can serve as electron donors.

Peroxidases are widely distributed in nature and can be found in various organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. They play important roles in various biological processes, such as defense against oxidative stress, breakdown of toxic substances, and participation in metabolic pathways.

The peroxidase-catalyzed reaction can be represented by the following chemical equation:

H2O2 + 2e- + 2H+ → 2H2O

In this reaction, hydrogen peroxide is reduced to water, and the electron donor is oxidized. The peroxidase enzyme facilitates the transfer of electrons between the substrate (hydrogen peroxide) and the electron donor, making the reaction more efficient and specific.

Peroxidases have various applications in medicine, industry, and research. For example, they can be used for diagnostic purposes, as biosensors, and in the treatment of wastewater and medical wastes. Additionally, peroxidases are involved in several pathological conditions, such as inflammation, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases, making them potential targets for therapeutic interventions.

Rhabdoviruses are negative-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses that belong to the family Rhabdoviridae. They have a wide host range, including humans, and can cause various diseases.

Rhabdoviridae infections refer to the infectious diseases caused by rhabdoviruses. The most well-known member of this family is the rabies virus, which causes rabies, a fatal zoonotic disease that affects warm-blooded animals, including humans. Rabies is transmitted through the saliva of infected animals, usually via bites or scratches.

Other rhabdoviruses can also cause human diseases, such as:

1. Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV): It primarily affects livestock, causing vesicular lesions in the mouth and on the feet. However, it can also infect humans, causing flu-like symptoms or a rash around the mouth and hands.
2. Chandipura virus: This rhabdovirus is associated with acute encephalitis, particularly in children. It is transmitted through mosquitoes and has been identified in several countries, including India and Nigeria.
3. Human basalotid fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) receptor-binding virus: This recently discovered rhabdovirus was found to be associated with a case of acute respiratory illness. More research is needed to understand its epidemiology, transmission, and clinical significance.

Prevention and control measures for Rhabdoviridae infections include vaccination against rabies, public education on avoiding contact with potentially infected animals, and personal protective measures such as wearing gloves when handling animals or their tissues.

A surgical flap is a specialized type of surgical procedure where a section of living tissue (including skin, fat, muscle, and/or blood vessels) is lifted from its original site and moved to another location, while still maintaining a blood supply through its attached pedicle. This technique allows the surgeon to cover and reconstruct defects or wounds that cannot be closed easily with simple suturing or stapling.

Surgical flaps can be classified based on their vascularity, type of tissue involved, or method of transfer. The choice of using a specific type of surgical flap depends on the location and size of the defect, the patient's overall health, and the surgeon's expertise. Some common types of surgical flaps include:

1. Random-pattern flaps: These flaps are based on random blood vessels within the tissue and are typically used for smaller defects in areas with good vascularity, such as the face or scalp.
2. Axial pattern flaps: These flaps are designed based on a known major blood vessel and its branches, allowing them to cover larger defects or reach distant sites. Examples include the radial forearm flap and the anterolateral thigh flap.
3. Local flaps: These flaps involve tissue adjacent to the wound and can be further classified into advancement, rotation, transposition, and interpolation flaps based on their movement and orientation.
4. Distant flaps: These flaps are harvested from a distant site and then transferred to the defect after being tunneled beneath the skin or through a separate incision. Examples include the groin flap and the latissimus dorsi flap.
5. Free flaps: In these flaps, the tissue is completely detached from its original blood supply and then reattached at the new site using microvascular surgical techniques. This allows for greater flexibility in terms of reach and placement but requires specialized expertise and equipment.

Surgical flaps play a crucial role in reconstructive surgery, helping to restore form and function after trauma, tumor removal, or other conditions that result in tissue loss.

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) is a type of short, double-stranded RNA molecule that plays a role in the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway. The RNAi pathway is a natural cellular process that regulates gene expression by targeting and destroying specific messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules, thereby preventing the translation of those mRNAs into proteins.

SiRNAs are typically 20-25 base pairs in length and are generated from longer double-stranded RNA precursors called hairpin RNAs or dsRNAs by an enzyme called Dicer. Once generated, siRNAs associate with a protein complex called the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), which uses one strand of the siRNA (the guide strand) to recognize and bind to complementary sequences in the target mRNA. The RISC then cleaves the target mRNA, leading to its degradation and the inhibition of protein synthesis.

SiRNAs have emerged as a powerful tool for studying gene function and have shown promise as therapeutic agents for a variety of diseases, including viral infections, cancer, and genetic disorders. However, their use as therapeutics is still in the early stages of development, and there are challenges associated with delivering siRNAs to specific cells and tissues in the body.

Metalloendopeptidases are a type of enzymes that cleave peptide bonds in proteins, specifically at interior positions within the polypeptide chain. They require metal ions as cofactors for their catalytic activity, typically zinc (Zn2+) or cobalt (Co2+). These enzymes play important roles in various biological processes such as protein degradation, processing, and signaling. Examples of metalloendopeptidases include thermolysin, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), and neutrophil elastase.

Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is a type of cytokine, which is a cell signaling molecule that mediates communication between cells in the immune system. Specifically, IL-4 is produced by activated T cells and mast cells, among other cells, and plays an important role in the differentiation and activation of immune cells called Th2 cells.

Th2 cells are involved in the immune response to parasites, as well as in allergic reactions. IL-4 also promotes the growth and survival of B cells, which produce antibodies, and helps to regulate the production of certain types of antibodies. In addition, IL-4 has anti-inflammatory effects and can help to downregulate the immune response in some contexts.

Defects in IL-4 signaling have been implicated in a number of diseases, including asthma, allergies, and certain types of cancer.

Edema is the medical term for swelling caused by excess fluid accumulation in the body tissues. It can affect any part of the body, but it's most commonly noticed in the hands, feet, ankles, and legs. Edema can be a symptom of various underlying medical conditions, such as heart failure, kidney disease, liver disease, or venous insufficiency.

The swelling occurs when the capillaries leak fluid into the surrounding tissues, causing them to become swollen and puffy. The excess fluid can also collect in the cavities of the body, leading to conditions such as pleural effusion (fluid around the lungs) or ascites (fluid in the abdominal cavity).

The severity of edema can vary from mild to severe, and it may be accompanied by other symptoms such as skin discoloration, stiffness, and pain. Treatment for edema depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, lifestyle changes, or medical procedures.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Rabbits" is a common name used to refer to the Lagomorpha species, particularly members of the family Leporidae. They are small mammals known for their long ears, strong legs, and quick reproduction.

However, if you're referring to "rabbits" in a medical context, there is a term called "rabbit syndrome," which is a rare movement disorder characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements of the fingers, resembling those of a rabbit chewing. It is also known as "finger-chewing chorea." This condition is usually associated with certain medications, particularly antipsychotics, and typically resolves when the medication is stopped or adjusted.

Recombinant fusion proteins are artificially created biomolecules that combine the functional domains or properties of two or more different proteins into a single protein entity. They are generated through recombinant DNA technology, where the genes encoding the desired protein domains are linked together and expressed as a single, chimeric gene in a host organism, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells.

The resulting fusion protein retains the functional properties of its individual constituent proteins, allowing for novel applications in research, diagnostics, and therapeutics. For instance, recombinant fusion proteins can be designed to enhance protein stability, solubility, or immunogenicity, making them valuable tools for studying protein-protein interactions, developing targeted therapies, or generating vaccines against infectious diseases or cancer.

Examples of recombinant fusion proteins include:

1. Etaglunatide (ABT-523): A soluble Fc fusion protein that combines the heavy chain fragment crystallizable region (Fc) of an immunoglobulin with the extracellular domain of the human interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R). This fusion protein functions as a decoy receptor, neutralizing IL-6 and its downstream signaling pathways in rheumatoid arthritis.
2. Etanercept (Enbrel): A soluble TNF receptor p75 Fc fusion protein that binds to tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and inhibits its proinflammatory activity, making it a valuable therapeutic option for treating autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and psoriasis.
3. Abatacept (Orencia): A fusion protein consisting of the extracellular domain of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) linked to the Fc region of an immunoglobulin, which downregulates T-cell activation and proliferation in autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis.
4. Belimumab (Benlysta): A monoclonal antibody that targets B-lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS) protein, preventing its interaction with the B-cell surface receptor and inhibiting B-cell activation in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).
5. Romiplostim (Nplate): A fusion protein consisting of a thrombopoietin receptor agonist peptide linked to an immunoglobulin Fc region, which stimulates platelet production in patients with chronic immune thrombocytopenia (ITP).
6. Darbepoetin alfa (Aranesp): A hyperglycosylated erythropoiesis-stimulating protein that functions as a longer-acting form of recombinant human erythropoietin, used to treat anemia in patients with chronic kidney disease or cancer.
7. Palivizumab (Synagis): A monoclonal antibody directed against the F protein of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), which prevents RSV infection and is administered prophylactically to high-risk infants during the RSV season.
8. Ranibizumab (Lucentis): A recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody fragment that binds and inhibits vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A), used in the treatment of age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and other ocular disorders.
9. Cetuximab (Erbitux): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that binds to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), used in the treatment of colorectal cancer and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.
10. Adalimumab (Humira): A fully humanized monoclonal antibody that targets tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and Crohn's disease.
11. Bevacizumab (Avastin): A recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to VEGF-A, used in the treatment of various cancers, including colorectal, lung, breast, and kidney cancer.
12. Trastuzumab (Herceptin): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets HER2/neu receptor, used in the treatment of breast cancer.
13. Rituximab (Rituxan): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that binds to CD20 antigen on B cells, used in the treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and rheumatoid arthritis.
14. Palivizumab (Synagis): A humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to the F protein of respiratory syncytial virus, used in the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection in high-risk infants.
15. Infliximab (Remicade): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
16. Natalizumab (Tysabri): A humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to α4β1 integrin, used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis and Crohn's disease.
17. Adalimumab (Humira): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis.
18. Golimumab (Simponi): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and ulcerative colitis.
19. Certolizumab pegol (Cimzia): A PEGylated Fab' fragment of a humanized monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and Crohn's disease.
20. Ustekinumab (Stelara): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-12 and IL-23, used in the treatment of psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and Crohn's disease.
21. Secukinumab (Cosentyx): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17A, used in the treatment of psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
22. Ixekizumab (Taltz): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17A, used in the treatment of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis.
23. Brodalumab (Siliq): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17 receptor A, used in the treatment of psoriasis.
24. Sarilumab (Kevzara): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 receptor, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
25. Tocilizumab (Actemra): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 receptor, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis, polyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis, giant cell arteritis, and chimeric antigen receptor T-cell-induced cytokine release syndrome.
26. Siltuximab (Sylvant): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6, used in the treatment of multicentric Castleman disease.
27. Satralizumab (Enspryng): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6 receptor alpha, used in the treatment of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder.
28. Sirukumab (Plivensia): A human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6, used in the treatment

Cell differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell, or stem cell, becomes a more specialized cell type with specific functions and structures. This process involves changes in gene expression, which are regulated by various intracellular signaling pathways and transcription factors. Differentiation results in the development of distinct cell types that make up tissues and organs in multicellular organisms. It is a crucial aspect of embryonic development, tissue repair, and maintenance of homeostasis in the body.

The femoral head is the rounded, ball-like top portion of the femur (thigh bone) that fits into the hip socket (acetabulum) to form the hip joint. It has a smooth, articular cartilage surface that allows for smooth and stable articulation with the pelvis. The femoral head is connected to the femoral neck, which is a narrower section of bone that angles downward and leads into the shaft of the femur. Together, the femoral head and neck provide stability and range of motion to the hip joint.

A Severity of Illness Index is a measurement tool used in healthcare to assess the severity of a patient's condition and the risk of mortality or other adverse outcomes. These indices typically take into account various physiological and clinical variables, such as vital signs, laboratory values, and co-morbidities, to generate a score that reflects the patient's overall illness severity.

Examples of Severity of Illness Indices include the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) system, the Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS), and the Mortality Probability Model (MPM). These indices are often used in critical care settings to guide clinical decision-making, inform prognosis, and compare outcomes across different patient populations.

It is important to note that while these indices can provide valuable information about a patient's condition, they should not be used as the sole basis for clinical decision-making. Rather, they should be considered in conjunction with other factors, such as the patient's overall clinical presentation, treatment preferences, and goals of care.

The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in the eukaryotic cells (cells with a true nucleus). It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as DNA molecules in complex with proteins, RNA molecules, and histones to form chromosomes.

The primary function of the cell nucleus is to regulate and control the activities of the cell, including growth, metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction. It also plays a crucial role in the process of mitosis (cell division) by separating and protecting the genetic material during this process. The nuclear membrane, or nuclear envelope, surrounding the nucleus is composed of two lipid bilayers with numerous pores that allow for the selective transport of molecules between the nucleoplasm (nucleus interior) and the cytoplasm (cell exterior).

The cell nucleus is a vital structure in eukaryotic cells, and its dysfunction can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

Liver diseases refer to a wide range of conditions that affect the normal functioning of the liver. The liver is a vital organ responsible for various critical functions such as detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion.

Liver diseases can be categorized into acute and chronic forms. Acute liver disease comes on rapidly and can be caused by factors like viral infections (hepatitis A, B, C, D, E), drug-induced liver injury, or exposure to toxic substances. Chronic liver disease develops slowly over time, often due to long-term exposure to harmful agents or inherent disorders of the liver.

Common examples of liver diseases include hepatitis, cirrhosis (scarring of the liver tissue), fatty liver disease, alcoholic liver disease, autoimmune liver diseases, genetic/hereditary liver disorders (like Wilson's disease and hemochromatosis), and liver cancers. Symptoms may vary widely depending on the type and stage of the disease but could include jaundice, abdominal pain, fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, and weight loss.

Early diagnosis and treatment are essential to prevent progression and potential complications associated with liver diseases.

Coculture techniques refer to a type of experimental setup in which two or more different types of cells or organisms are grown and studied together in a shared culture medium. This method allows researchers to examine the interactions between different cell types or species under controlled conditions, and to study how these interactions may influence various biological processes such as growth, gene expression, metabolism, and signal transduction.

Coculture techniques can be used to investigate a wide range of biological phenomena, including the effects of host-microbe interactions on human health and disease, the impact of different cell types on tissue development and homeostasis, and the role of microbial communities in shaping ecosystems. These techniques can also be used to test the efficacy and safety of new drugs or therapies by examining their effects on cells grown in coculture with other relevant cell types.

There are several different ways to establish cocultures, depending on the specific research question and experimental goals. Some common methods include:

1. Mixed cultures: In this approach, two or more cell types are simply mixed together in a culture dish or flask and allowed to grow and interact freely.
2. Cell-layer cultures: Here, one cell type is grown on a porous membrane or other support structure, while the second cell type is grown on top of it, forming a layered coculture.
3. Conditioned media cultures: In this case, one cell type is grown to confluence and its culture medium is collected and then used to grow a second cell type. This allows the second cell type to be exposed to any factors secreted by the first cell type into the medium.
4. Microfluidic cocultures: These involve growing cells in microfabricated channels or chambers, which allow for precise control over the spatial arrangement and flow of nutrients, waste products, and signaling molecules between different cell types.

Overall, coculture techniques provide a powerful tool for studying complex biological systems and gaining insights into the mechanisms that underlie various physiological and pathological processes.

Kupffer cells are specialized macrophages that reside in the liver, particularly in the sinusoids of the liver's blood circulation system. They play a crucial role in the immune system by engulfing and destroying bacteria, microorganisms, and other particles that enter the liver via the portal vein. Kupffer cells also contribute to the clearance of damaged red blood cells, iron metabolism, and the regulation of inflammation in the liver. They are named after the German pathologist Karl Wilhelm von Kupffer who first described them in 1876.

RNA virus infections refer to diseases or conditions caused by the invasion and replication of RNA (Ribonucleic acid) viruses in host cells. These viruses use RNA as their genetic material, which is different from DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) viruses. Upon entering a host cell, the RNA virus releases its genetic material, which then uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components and replicate. This process can lead to various outcomes, depending on the specific virus and the host's immune response:

1. Asymptomatic infection: Some RNA virus infections may not cause any noticeable symptoms and may only be discovered through diagnostic testing.
2. Acute infection: Many RNA viruses cause acute infections, characterized by the rapid onset of symptoms that typically last for a short period (days to weeks). Examples include the common cold (caused by rhinoviruses), influenza (caused by orthomyxoviruses), and some gastrointestinal infections (caused by noroviruses or rotaviruses).
3. Chronic infection: A few RNA viruses can establish chronic infections, where the virus persists in the host for an extended period, sometimes leading to long-term health complications. Examples include HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), HCV (Hepatitis C Virus), and HTLV-1 (Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1).
4. Latent infection: Some RNA viruses, like herpesviruses, can establish latency in the host, where they remain dormant for extended periods but can reactivate under certain conditions, causing recurrent symptoms or diseases.
5. Oncogenic potential: Certain RNA viruses have oncogenic properties and can contribute to the development of cancer. For example, retroviruses like HTLV-1 can cause leukemia and lymphoma by integrating their genetic material into the host cell's DNA and altering gene expression.

Treatment for RNA virus infections varies depending on the specific virus and the severity of the infection. Antiviral medications, immunotherapy, and supportive care are common treatment strategies. Vaccines are also available to prevent some RNA virus infections, such as measles, mumps, rubella, influenza, and hepatitis A and B.

Ceramides are a type of lipid molecule that are found naturally in the outer layer of the skin (the stratum corneum). They play a crucial role in maintaining the barrier function and hydration of the skin. Ceramides help to seal in moisture, support the structure of the skin, and protect against environmental stressors such as pollution and bacteria.

In addition to their role in the skin, ceramides have also been studied for their potential therapeutic benefits in various medical conditions. For example, abnormal levels of ceramides have been implicated in several diseases, including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. As a result, ceramide-based therapies are being investigated as potential treatments for these conditions.

Medically, ceramides may be mentioned in the context of skin disorders or diseases where there is a disruption in the skin's barrier function, such as eczema, psoriasis, and ichthyosis. In these cases, ceramide-based therapies may be used to help restore the skin's natural barrier and improve its overall health and appearance.

Nodaviridae is a family of small, non-enveloped viruses with icosahedral symmetry. The genome consists of two positive-sense, single-stranded RNA segments: RNA1 (3.1 kb) encodes the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and RNA2 (1.4 kb) encodes the capsid protein. A subgenomic RNA3 is also produced from RNA1 during replication, which encodes a non-structural protein involved in viral replication. Nodaviruses infect insects and fish and can cause diseases such as encephalopathy and retinopathy in fish. They are transmitted horizontally through the fecal-oral route and vertically through the egg. Nodaviridae is a member of the order Picornavirales.

"Swine" is a common term used to refer to even-toed ungulates of the family Suidae, including domestic pigs and wild boars. However, in a medical context, "swine" often appears in the phrase "swine flu," which is a strain of influenza virus that typically infects pigs but can also cause illness in humans. The 2009 H1N1 pandemic was caused by a new strain of swine-origin influenza A virus, which was commonly referred to as "swine flu." It's important to note that this virus is not transmitted through eating cooked pork products; it spreads from person to person, mainly through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes.

Amino acid chloromethyl ketones (AACMKs) are a class of chemical compounds that are widely used in research and industry. They are derivatives of amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins, with a chloromethyl ketone group (-CO-CH2Cl) attached to the side chain of the amino acid.

In the context of medical research, AACMKs are often used as irreversible inhibitors of enzymes, particularly those that contain active site serine or cysteine residues. The chloromethyl ketone group reacts with these residues to form a covalent bond, which permanently inactivates the enzyme. This makes AACMKs useful tools for studying the mechanisms of enzymes and for developing drugs that target specific enzymes.

However, it is important to note that AACMKs can also be highly reactive and toxic, and they must be handled with care in the laboratory. They have been shown to inhibit a wide range of enzymes, including some that are essential for normal cellular function, and prolonged exposure can lead to cell damage or death. Therefore, their use is typically restricted to controlled experimental settings.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

Aspartate aminotransferases (ASTs) are a group of enzymes found in various tissues throughout the body, including the heart, liver, and muscles. They play a crucial role in the metabolic process of transferring amino groups between different molecules.

In medical terms, AST is often used as a blood test to measure the level of this enzyme in the serum. Elevated levels of AST can indicate damage or injury to tissues that contain this enzyme, such as the liver or heart. For example, liver disease, including hepatitis and cirrhosis, can cause elevated AST levels due to damage to liver cells. Similarly, heart attacks can also result in increased AST levels due to damage to heart muscle tissue.

It is important to note that an AST test alone cannot diagnose a specific medical condition, but it can provide valuable information when used in conjunction with other diagnostic tests and clinical evaluation.

Sepsis is a life-threatening condition that arises when the body's response to an infection injures its own tissues and organs. It is characterized by a whole-body inflammatory state (systemic inflammation) that can lead to blood clotting issues, tissue damage, and multiple organ failure.

Sepsis happens when an infection you already have triggers a chain reaction throughout your body. Infections that lead to sepsis most often start in the lungs, urinary tract, skin, or gastrointestinal tract.

Sepsis is a medical emergency. If you suspect sepsis, seek immediate medical attention. Early recognition and treatment of sepsis are crucial to improve outcomes. Treatment usually involves antibiotics, intravenous fluids, and may require oxygen, medication to raise blood pressure, and corticosteroids. In severe cases, surgery may be required to clear the infection.

Experimental arthritis refers to the induction of joint inflammation in animal models for the purpose of studying the disease process and testing potential treatments. This is typically achieved through the use of various methods such as injecting certain chemicals or proteins into the joints, genetically modifying animals to develop arthritis-like symptoms, or immunizing animals to induce an autoimmune response against their own joint tissues. These models are crucial for advancing our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of arthritis and for developing new therapies to treat this debilitating disease.

HeLa cells are a type of immortalized cell line used in scientific research. They are derived from a cancer that developed in the cervical tissue of Henrietta Lacks, an African-American woman, in 1951. After her death, cells taken from her tumor were found to be capable of continuous division and growth in a laboratory setting, making them an invaluable resource for medical research.

HeLa cells have been used in a wide range of scientific studies, including research on cancer, viruses, genetics, and drug development. They were the first human cell line to be successfully cloned and are able to grow rapidly in culture, doubling their population every 20-24 hours. This has made them an essential tool for many areas of biomedical research.

It is important to note that while HeLa cells have been instrumental in numerous scientific breakthroughs, the story of their origin raises ethical questions about informed consent and the use of human tissue in research.

Endotoxemia is a medical condition characterized by the presence of endotoxins in the bloodstream. Endotoxins are toxic substances that are found in the cell walls of certain types of bacteria, particularly gram-negative bacteria. They are released into the circulation when the bacteria die or multiply, and can cause a variety of symptoms such as fever, inflammation, low blood pressure, and organ failure.

Endotoxemia is often seen in patients with severe bacterial infections, sepsis, or septic shock. It can also occur after certain medical procedures, such as surgery or dialysis, that may allow bacteria from the gut to enter the bloodstream. In some cases, endotoxemia may be a result of a condition called "leaky gut syndrome," in which the lining of the intestines becomes more permeable, allowing endotoxins and other harmful substances to pass into the bloodstream.

Endotoxemia can be diagnosed through various tests, including blood cultures, measurement of endotoxin levels in the blood, and assessment of inflammatory markers such as c-reactive protein (CRP) and procalcitonin (PCT). Treatment typically involves antibiotics to eliminate the underlying bacterial infection, as well as supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Ethylamines are organic compounds that contain a primary amino group (-NH2) attached to an ethyl group (-C2H5). In other words, they have the formula R-CH2-CH2-NH2, where R is a carbon-containing group. Ethylamines are derivatives of ammonia (NH3), in which one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by an ethyl group.

Ethylamines can be found in various natural and synthetic substances. They are used as building blocks in the synthesis of various pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and other industrial chemicals. Some ethylamines also have psychoactive properties and are used as recreational drugs or abused for their mind-altering effects.

It is important to note that some ethylamines can be toxic or harmful to human health, especially at high concentrations or with prolonged exposure. Therefore, they should be handled with care and used only under controlled conditions.

Monokines are cytokines that are produced and released by monocytes, which are a type of white blood cell. These proteins play an important role in the immune response, including inflammation, immunoregulation, and hematopoiesis (the formation of blood cells).

Monokines include several types of cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-12 (IL-12). These molecules help to regulate the activity of other immune cells, such as T cells and B cells, and can also have direct effects on infected or damaged tissues.

Monokines are involved in a variety of physiological and pathological processes, including host defense against infection, tissue repair and regeneration, and the development of chronic inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and atherosclerosis.

Tumor Necrosis Factor Ligand Superfamily Member 13 (TNFSF13), also known as APRIL (A Proliferation-Inducing Ligand), is a type II transmembrane protein and a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) ligand superfamily. It plays a crucial role in the immune system, particularly in the activation, proliferation, and differentiation of B cells, which are key players in the humoral immune response.

TNFSF13 is expressed by various cell types, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils. It binds to two receptors: TACI (Transmembrane Activator and Calcium Modulator and Cyclophilin Ligand Interactor) and BCMA (B-cell Maturation Antigen), which are primarily found on the surface of B cells. The interaction between TNFSF13 and its receptors promotes the survival, proliferation, and differentiation of B cells into plasma cells, ultimately leading to increased antibody production.

Dysregulation of TNFSF13 has been implicated in several autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and multiple sclerosis (MS). Therefore, targeting this molecule or its signaling pathways has been a focus of research for the development of novel therapeutic strategies in these conditions.

Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is a type of cytokine, which are signaling molecules that mediate and regulate immunity, inflammation, and hematopoiesis. Specifically, IL-2 is a growth factor for T cells, a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the immune response. It is primarily produced by CD4+ T cells (also known as T helper cells) and stimulates the proliferation and differentiation of activated T cells, including effector T cells and regulatory T cells. IL-2 also has roles in the activation and function of other immune cells, such as B cells, natural killer cells, and dendritic cells. Dysregulation of IL-2 production or signaling can contribute to various pathological conditions, including autoimmune diseases, chronic infections, and cancer.

A fatal outcome is a term used in medical context to describe a situation where a disease, injury, or illness results in the death of an individual. It is the most severe and unfortunate possible outcome of any medical condition, and is often used as a measure of the severity and prognosis of various diseases and injuries. In clinical trials and research, fatal outcome may be used as an endpoint to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of different treatments or interventions.

In a medical context, nitrites are typically referred to as organic compounds that contain a functional group with the formula R-N=O, where R represents an alkyl or aryl group. They are commonly used in medicine as vasodilators, which means they widen and relax blood vessels, improving blood flow and lowering blood pressure.

One example of a nitrite used medically is amyl nitrite, which was previously used to treat angina pectoris, a type of chest pain caused by reduced blood flow to the heart muscle. However, its use has largely been replaced by other medications due to safety concerns and the availability of more effective treatments.

It's worth noting that inorganic nitrites, such as sodium nitrite, are also used in medicine for various purposes, including as a preservative in food and as a medication to treat cyanide poisoning. However, these compounds have different chemical properties and uses than organic nitrites.

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid is a type of clinical specimen obtained through a procedure called bronchoalveolar lavage. This procedure involves inserting a bronchoscope into the lungs and instilling a small amount of saline solution into a specific area of the lung, then gently aspirating the fluid back out. The fluid that is recovered is called bronchoalveolar lavage fluid.

BAL fluid contains cells and other substances that are present in the lower respiratory tract, including the alveoli (the tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs). By analyzing BAL fluid, doctors can diagnose various lung conditions, such as pneumonia, interstitial lung disease, and lung cancer. They can also monitor the effectiveness of treatments for these conditions by comparing the composition of BAL fluid before and after treatment.

BAL fluid is typically analyzed for its cellular content, including the number and type of white blood cells present, as well as for the presence of bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms. The fluid may also be tested for various proteins, enzymes, and other biomarkers that can provide additional information about lung health and disease.

Glutathione is a tripeptide composed of three amino acids: cysteine, glutamic acid, and glycine. It is a vital antioxidant that plays an essential role in maintaining cellular health and function. Glutathione helps protect cells from oxidative stress by neutralizing free radicals, which are unstable molecules that can damage cells and contribute to aging and diseases such as cancer, heart disease, and dementia. It also supports the immune system, detoxifies harmful substances, and regulates various cellular processes, including DNA synthesis and repair.

Glutathione is found in every cell of the body, with particularly high concentrations in the liver, lungs, and eyes. The body can produce its own glutathione, but levels may decline with age, illness, or exposure to toxins. As such, maintaining optimal glutathione levels through diet, supplementation, or other means is essential for overall health and well-being.

A biopsy is a medical procedure in which a small sample of tissue is taken from the body to be examined under a microscope for the presence of disease. This can help doctors diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as cancer, infections, or autoimmune disorders. The type of biopsy performed will depend on the location and nature of the suspected condition. Some common types of biopsies include:

1. Incisional biopsy: In this procedure, a surgeon removes a piece of tissue from an abnormal area using a scalpel or other surgical instrument. This type of biopsy is often used when the lesion is too large to be removed entirely during the initial biopsy.

2. Excisional biopsy: An excisional biopsy involves removing the entire abnormal area, along with a margin of healthy tissue surrounding it. This technique is typically employed for smaller lesions or when cancer is suspected.

3. Needle biopsy: A needle biopsy uses a thin, hollow needle to extract cells or fluid from the body. There are two main types of needle biopsies: fine-needle aspiration (FNA) and core needle biopsy. FNA extracts loose cells, while a core needle biopsy removes a small piece of tissue.

4. Punch biopsy: In a punch biopsy, a round, sharp tool is used to remove a small cylindrical sample of skin tissue. This type of biopsy is often used for evaluating rashes or other skin abnormalities.

5. Shave biopsy: During a shave biopsy, a thin slice of tissue is removed from the surface of the skin using a sharp razor-like instrument. This technique is typically used for superficial lesions or growths on the skin.

After the biopsy sample has been collected, it is sent to a laboratory where a pathologist will examine the tissue under a microscope and provide a diagnosis based on their findings. The results of the biopsy can help guide further treatment decisions and determine the best course of action for managing the patient's condition.

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a colorless, odorless, clear liquid with a slightly sweet taste, although drinking it is harmful and can cause poisoning. It is a weak oxidizing agent and is used as an antiseptic and a bleaching agent. In diluted form, it is used to disinfect wounds and kill bacteria and viruses on the skin; in higher concentrations, it can be used to bleach hair or remove stains from clothing. It is also used as a propellant in rocketry and in certain industrial processes. Chemically, hydrogen peroxide is composed of two hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms, and it is structurally similar to water (H2O), with an extra oxygen atom. This gives it its oxidizing properties, as the additional oxygen can be released and used to react with other substances.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material present in the cells of organisms where it is responsible for the storage and transmission of hereditary information. DNA is a long molecule that consists of two strands coiled together to form a double helix. Each strand is made up of a series of four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - that are linked together by phosphate and sugar groups. The sequence of these bases along the length of the molecule encodes genetic information, with A always pairing with T and C always pairing with G. This base-pairing allows for the replication and transcription of DNA, which are essential processes in the functioning and reproduction of all living organisms.

Myocarditis is an inflammation of the myocardium, which is the middle layer of the heart wall. The myocardium is composed of cardiac muscle cells and is responsible for the heart's pumping function. Myocarditis can be caused by various infectious and non-infectious agents, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites, autoimmune diseases, toxins, and drugs.

In myocarditis, the inflammation can damage the cardiac muscle cells, leading to decreased heart function, arrhythmias (irregular heart rhythms), and in severe cases, heart failure or even sudden death. Symptoms of myocarditis may include chest pain, shortness of breath, fatigue, palpitations, and swelling in the legs, ankles, or abdomen.

The diagnosis of myocarditis is often based on a combination of clinical presentation, laboratory tests, electrocardiogram (ECG), echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and endomyocardial biopsy. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and severity of the disease and may include medications to support heart function, reduce inflammation, control arrhythmias, and prevent further damage to the heart muscle. In some cases, hospitalization and intensive care may be necessary.

Innate immunity, also known as non-specific immunity or natural immunity, is the inherent defense mechanism that provides immediate protection against potentially harmful pathogens (like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites) without the need for prior exposure. This type of immunity is present from birth and does not adapt to specific threats over time.

Innate immune responses involve various mechanisms such as:

1. Physical barriers: Skin and mucous membranes prevent pathogens from entering the body.
2. Chemical barriers: Enzymes, stomach acid, and lysozyme in tears, saliva, and sweat help to destroy or inhibit the growth of microorganisms.
3. Cellular responses: Phagocytic cells (neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages) recognize and engulf foreign particles and pathogens, while natural killer (NK) cells target and eliminate virus-infected or cancerous cells.
4. Inflammatory response: When an infection occurs, the innate immune system triggers inflammation to increase blood flow, recruit immune cells, and remove damaged tissue.
5. Complement system: A group of proteins that work together to recognize and destroy pathogens directly or enhance phagocytosis by coating them with complement components (opsonization).

Innate immunity plays a crucial role in initiating the adaptive immune response, which is specific to particular pathogens and provides long-term protection through memory cells. Both innate and adaptive immunity work together to maintain overall immune homeostasis and protect the body from infections and diseases.

Cysteine proteinase inhibitors are a type of molecule that bind to and inhibit the activity of cysteine proteases, which are enzymes that cleave proteins at specific sites containing the amino acid cysteine. These inhibitors play important roles in regulating various biological processes, including inflammation, immune response, and programmed cell death (apoptosis). They can also have potential therapeutic applications in diseases where excessive protease activity contributes to pathology, such as cancer, arthritis, and neurodegenerative disorders. Examples of cysteine proteinase inhibitors include cystatins, kininogens, and serpins.

CD40 is a type of protein known as a tumor necrosis factor receptor that is found on the surface of various cells in the body, including B cells, dendritic cells, and activated T cells. It plays an important role in the immune system by interacting with another protein called CD154 (also known as CD40 ligand) to activate immune responses.

CD40 antigens are molecules that can stimulate an immune response when introduced into the body because they are recognized as foreign substances by the immune system. They may be used in vaccines or other immunotherapies to induce an immune response against specific targets, such as cancer cells or infectious agents.

CD40 antigens can also be found on some types of tumor cells, and activating CD40 with CD154 has been shown to enhance the anti-tumor immune response in preclinical models. Therefore, CD40 agonists are being investigated as potential cancer therapies.

In summary, CD40 antigens are proteins that can stimulate an immune response and are involved in activating immune cells. They have potential applications in vaccines, immunotherapies, and cancer treatments.

Protein-Serine-Threonine Kinases (PSTKs) are a type of protein kinase that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to the hydroxyl side chains of serine or threonine residues on target proteins. This phosphorylation process plays a crucial role in various cellular signaling pathways, including regulation of metabolism, gene expression, cell cycle progression, and apoptosis. PSTKs are involved in many physiological and pathological processes, and their dysregulation has been implicated in several diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Radiation injuries refer to the damages that occur to living tissues as a result of exposure to ionizing radiation. These injuries can be acute, occurring soon after exposure to high levels of radiation, or chronic, developing over a longer period after exposure to lower levels of radiation. The severity and type of injury depend on the dose and duration of exposure, as well as the specific tissues affected.

Acute radiation syndrome (ARS), also known as radiation sickness, is the most severe form of acute radiation injury. It can cause symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, fatigue, fever, and skin burns. In more severe cases, it can lead to neurological damage, hemorrhage, infection, and death.

Chronic radiation injuries, on the other hand, may not appear until months or even years after exposure. They can cause a range of symptoms, including fatigue, weakness, skin changes, cataracts, reduced fertility, and an increased risk of cancer.

Radiation injuries can be treated with supportive care, such as fluids and electrolytes replacement, antibiotics, wound care, and blood transfusions. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove damaged tissue or control bleeding. Prevention is the best approach to radiation injuries, which includes limiting exposure through proper protective measures and monitoring radiation levels in the environment.

Biological models, also known as physiological models or organismal models, are simplified representations of biological systems, processes, or mechanisms that are used to understand and explain the underlying principles and relationships. These models can be theoretical (conceptual or mathematical) or physical (such as anatomical models, cell cultures, or animal models). They are widely used in biomedical research to study various phenomena, including disease pathophysiology, drug action, and therapeutic interventions.

Examples of biological models include:

1. Mathematical models: These use mathematical equations and formulas to describe complex biological systems or processes, such as population dynamics, metabolic pathways, or gene regulation networks. They can help predict the behavior of these systems under different conditions and test hypotheses about their underlying mechanisms.
2. Cell cultures: These are collections of cells grown in a controlled environment, typically in a laboratory dish or flask. They can be used to study cellular processes, such as signal transduction, gene expression, or metabolism, and to test the effects of drugs or other treatments on these processes.
3. Animal models: These are living organisms, usually vertebrates like mice, rats, or non-human primates, that are used to study various aspects of human biology and disease. They can provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of diseases, the mechanisms of drug action, and the safety and efficacy of new therapies.
4. Anatomical models: These are physical representations of biological structures or systems, such as plastic models of organs or tissues, that can be used for educational purposes or to plan surgical procedures. They can also serve as a basis for developing more sophisticated models, such as computer simulations or 3D-printed replicas.

Overall, biological models play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of biology and medicine, helping to identify new targets for therapeutic intervention, develop novel drugs and treatments, and improve human health.

Acetaminophen is a medication used to relieve pain and reduce fever. It is a commonly used over-the-counter drug and is also available in prescription-strength formulations. Acetaminophen works by inhibiting the production of prostaglandins, chemicals in the body that cause inflammation and trigger pain signals.

Acetaminophen is available in many different forms, including tablets, capsules, liquids, and suppositories. It is often found in combination with other medications, such as cough and cold products, sleep aids, and opioid pain relievers.

While acetaminophen is generally considered safe when used as directed, it can cause serious liver damage or even death if taken in excessive amounts. It is important to follow the dosing instructions carefully and avoid taking more than the recommended dose, especially if you are also taking other medications that contain acetaminophen.

If you have any questions about using acetaminophen or are concerned about potential side effects, it is always best to consult with a healthcare professional.

A case-control study is an observational research design used to identify risk factors or causes of a disease or health outcome. In this type of study, individuals with the disease or condition (cases) are compared with similar individuals who do not have the disease or condition (controls). The exposure history or other characteristics of interest are then compared between the two groups to determine if there is an association between the exposure and the disease.

Case-control studies are often used when it is not feasible or ethical to conduct a randomized controlled trial, as they can provide valuable insights into potential causes of diseases or health outcomes in a relatively short period of time and at a lower cost than other study designs. However, because case-control studies rely on retrospective data collection, they are subject to biases such as recall bias and selection bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, it is important to carefully design and conduct case-control studies to minimize these potential sources of bias.

Dactinomycin is an antineoplastic antibiotic, which means it is used to treat cancer. It is specifically used to treat certain types of testicular cancer, Wilms' tumor (a type of kidney cancer that occurs in children), and some gestational trophoblastic tumors (a type of tumor that can develop in the uterus after pregnancy). Dactinomycin works by interfering with the DNA in cancer cells, which prevents them from dividing and growing. It is often used in combination with other chemotherapy drugs as part of a treatment regimen.

Dactinomycin is administered intravenously (through an IV) and its use is usually limited to hospitals or specialized cancer treatment centers due to the need for careful monitoring during administration. Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, and hair loss. More serious side effects can include bone marrow suppression, which can lead to an increased risk of infection, and tissue damage at the site where the drug is injected. Dactinomycin can also cause severe allergic reactions in some people.

It's important to note that dactinomycin should only be used under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional, as its use requires careful monitoring and management of potential side effects.

CD4-positive T-lymphocytes, also known as CD4+ T cells or helper T cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune response. They express the CD4 receptor on their surface and help coordinate the immune system's response to infectious agents such as viruses and bacteria.

CD4+ T cells recognize and bind to specific antigens presented by antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells or macrophages. Once activated, they can differentiate into various subsets of effector cells, including Th1, Th2, Th17, and Treg cells, each with distinct functions in the immune response.

CD4+ T cells are particularly important in the immune response to HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), which targets and destroys these cells, leading to a weakened immune system and increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections. The number of CD4+ T cells is often used as a marker of disease progression in HIV infection, with lower counts indicating more advanced disease.

"Nude mice" is a term used in the field of laboratory research to describe a strain of mice that have been genetically engineered to lack a functional immune system. Specifically, nude mice lack a thymus gland and have a mutation in the FOXN1 gene, which results in a failure to develop a mature T-cell population. This means that they are unable to mount an effective immune response against foreign substances or organisms.

The name "nude" refers to the fact that these mice also have a lack of functional hair follicles, resulting in a hairless or partially hairless phenotype. This feature is actually a secondary consequence of the same genetic mutation that causes their immune deficiency.

Nude mice are commonly used in research because their weakened immune system makes them an ideal host for transplanted tumors, tissues, and cells from other species, including humans. This allows researchers to study the behavior of these foreign substances in a living organism without the complication of an immune response. However, it's important to note that because nude mice lack a functional immune system, they must be kept in sterile conditions and are more susceptible to infection than normal mice.

The intestinal mucosa is the innermost layer of the intestines, which comes into direct contact with digested food and microbes. It is a specialized epithelial tissue that plays crucial roles in nutrient absorption, barrier function, and immune defense. The intestinal mucosa is composed of several cell types, including absorptive enterocytes, mucus-secreting goblet cells, hormone-producing enteroendocrine cells, and immune cells such as lymphocytes and macrophages.

The surface of the intestinal mucosa is covered by a single layer of epithelial cells, which are joined together by tight junctions to form a protective barrier against harmful substances and microorganisms. This barrier also allows for the selective absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream. The intestinal mucosa also contains numerous lymphoid follicles, known as Peyer's patches, which are involved in immune surveillance and defense against pathogens.

In addition to its role in absorption and immunity, the intestinal mucosa is also capable of producing hormones that regulate digestion and metabolism. Dysfunction of the intestinal mucosa can lead to various gastrointestinal disorders, such as inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease, and food allergies.

Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) is a type of protein belonging to the family of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which play a crucial role in the innate immune system's response to pathogens. TLR2 is primarily expressed on the surface of various immune cells, including monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells.

TLR2 recognizes a wide range of microbial components, such as lipopeptides, lipoteichoic acid, and zymosan, derived from both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, fungi, and certain viruses. Upon recognition and binding to these ligands, TLR2 initiates a signaling cascade that activates various transcription factors, leading to the production of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and costimulatory molecules. This response is essential for the activation and recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection, thereby contributing to the clearance of invading pathogens.

In summary, TLR2 is a vital pattern recognition receptor that helps the innate immune system detect and respond to various microbial threats by initiating an inflammatory response upon ligand binding.

Psoriatic arthritis is a form of inflammatory arthritis that occurs in some people with psoriasis, a skin condition characterized by scaly, red, and itchy patches. The Arthritis Foundation defines psoriatic arthritis as "a chronic disease characterized by swelling, pain, and stiffness in and around the joints. It usually affects the fingers and toes but can also affect the lower back, knees, ankles, and spine."

Psoriatic arthritis can cause a variety of symptoms, including:

* Joint pain, swelling, and stiffness
* Swollen fingers or toes (dactylitis)
* Tenderness, pain, and swelling where tendons and ligaments attach to bones (enthesitis)
* Changes in nail growth, such as pitting, ridging, or separation from the nail bed
* Fatigue and weakness
* Reduced range of motion and mobility

The exact cause of psoriatic arthritis is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and immune system factors. Treatment typically involves a combination of medications, lifestyle changes, and physical therapy to manage symptoms and prevent joint damage.

I'm happy to help! "Rats, Inbred Lew" is a specific strain of laboratory rats that have been inbred for research purposes. The "Lew" part of the name refers to the location where they were first developed, the Lewis Institute in Lake Bluff, Illinois, USA.

Inbreeding is a process of mating closely related individuals over many generations to create a genetically homogeneous population. This results in a high degree of genetic similarity among members of the strain, making them ideal for use as experimental models because any differences observed between individuals are more likely to be due to the experimental manipulation rather than genetic variation.

Inbred Lew rats have been widely used in biomedical research, particularly in studies related to hypertension and cardiovascular disease. They exhibit a number of unique characteristics that make them useful for these types of studies, including their susceptibility to developing high blood pressure when fed a high-salt diet or given certain drugs.

It's important to note that while inbred strains like Lew rats can be very useful tools for researchers, they are not perfect models for human disease. Because they have been bred in a controlled environment and selected for specific traits, they may not respond to experimental manipulations in the same way that humans or other animals would. Therefore, it's important to interpret findings from these studies with caution and consider multiple lines of evidence before drawing any firm conclusions.

Conditioned culture media refers to a type of growth medium that has been previously used to culture and maintain the cells of an organism. The conditioned media contains factors secreted by those cells, such as hormones, nutrients, and signaling molecules, which can affect the behavior and growth of other cells that are introduced into the media later on.

When the conditioned media is used for culturing a new set of cells, it can provide a more physiologically relevant environment than traditional culture media, as it contains factors that are specific to the original cell type. This can be particularly useful in studies that aim to understand cell-cell interactions and communication, or to mimic the natural microenvironment of cells in the body.

It's important to note that conditioned media should be handled carefully and used promptly after preparation, as the factors it contains can degrade over time and affect the quality of the results.

Imidazoles are a class of heterocyclic organic compounds that contain a double-bonded nitrogen atom and two additional nitrogen atoms in the ring. They have the chemical formula C3H4N2. In a medical context, imidazoles are commonly used as antifungal agents. Some examples of imidazole-derived antifungals include clotrimazole, miconazole, and ketoconazole. These medications work by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, a key component of fungal cell membranes, leading to increased permeability and death of the fungal cells. Imidazoles may also have anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and anticancer properties.

Protein synthesis inhibitors are a class of medications or chemical substances that interfere with the process of protein synthesis in cells. Protein synthesis is the biological process by which cells create proteins, essential components for the structure, function, and regulation of tissues and organs. This process involves two main stages: transcription and translation.

Translation is the stage where the genetic information encoded in messenger RNA (mRNA) is translated into a specific sequence of amino acids, resulting in a protein molecule. Protein synthesis inhibitors work by targeting various components of the translation machinery, such as ribosomes, transfer RNAs (tRNAs), or translation factors, thereby preventing or disrupting the formation of new proteins.

These inhibitors have clinical applications in treating various conditions, including bacterial and viral infections, cancer, and autoimmune disorders. Some examples of protein synthesis inhibitors include:

1. Antibiotics: Certain antibiotics, like tetracyclines, macrolides, aminoglycosides, and chloramphenicol, target bacterial ribosomes and inhibit their ability to synthesize proteins, thereby killing or inhibiting the growth of bacteria.
2. Antiviral drugs: Protein synthesis inhibitors are used to treat viral infections by targeting various stages of the viral replication cycle, including protein synthesis. For example, ribavirin is an antiviral drug that can inhibit viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and mRNA capping, which are essential for viral protein synthesis.
3. Cancer therapeutics: Some chemotherapeutic agents target rapidly dividing cancer cells by interfering with their protein synthesis machinery. For instance, puromycin is an aminonucleoside antibiotic that can be incorporated into elongating polypeptide chains during translation, causing premature termination and inhibiting overall protein synthesis in cancer cells.
4. Immunosuppressive drugs: Protein synthesis inhibitors are also used as immunosuppressants to treat autoimmune disorders and prevent organ rejection after transplantation. For example, tacrolimus and cyclosporine bind to and inhibit the activity of calcineurin, a protein phosphatase that plays a crucial role in T-cell activation and cytokine production.

In summary, protein synthesis inhibitors are valuable tools for treating various diseases, including bacterial and viral infections, cancer, and autoimmune disorders. By targeting the protein synthesis machinery of pathogens or abnormal cells, these drugs can selectively inhibit their growth and proliferation while minimizing harm to normal cells.

'DBA' is an abbreviation for 'Database of Genotypes and Phenotypes,' but in the context of "Inbred DBA mice," it refers to a specific strain of laboratory mice that have been inbred for many generations. The DBA strain is one of the oldest inbred strains, and it was established in 1909 by C.C. Little at the Bussey Institute of Harvard University.

The "Inbred DBA" mice are genetically identical mice that have been produced by brother-sister matings for more than 20 generations. This extensive inbreeding results in a homozygous population, where all members of the strain have the same genetic makeup. The DBA strain is further divided into several sub-strains, including DBA/1, DBA/2, and DBA/J, among others.

DBA mice are known for their black coat color, which can fade to gray with age, and they exhibit a range of phenotypic traits that make them useful for research purposes. For example, DBA mice have a high incidence of retinal degeneration, making them a valuable model for studying eye diseases. They also show differences in behavior, immune response, and susceptibility to various diseases compared to other inbred strains.

In summary, "Inbred DBA" mice are a specific strain of laboratory mice that have been inbred for many generations, resulting in a genetically identical population with distinct phenotypic traits. They are widely used in biomedical research to study various diseases and biological processes.

Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that is an essential part of the immune system. They are responsible for recognizing and responding to potentially harmful substances such as viruses, bacteria, and other foreign invaders. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B-lymphocytes (B-cells) and T-lymphocytes (T-cells).

B-lymphocytes produce antibodies, which are proteins that help to neutralize or destroy foreign substances. When a B-cell encounters a foreign substance, it becomes activated and begins to divide and differentiate into plasma cells, which produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies. These antibodies bind to the foreign substance, marking it for destruction by other immune cells.

T-lymphocytes, on the other hand, are involved in cell-mediated immunity. They directly attack and destroy infected cells or cancerous cells. T-cells can also help to regulate the immune response by producing chemical signals that activate or inhibit other immune cells.

Lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow and mature in either the bone marrow (B-cells) or the thymus gland (T-cells). They circulate throughout the body in the blood and lymphatic system, where they can be found in high concentrations in lymph nodes, the spleen, and other lymphoid organs.

Abnormalities in the number or function of lymphocytes can lead to a variety of immune-related disorders, including immunodeficiency diseases, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.

Intracellular signaling peptides and proteins are molecules that play a crucial role in transmitting signals within cells, which ultimately lead to changes in cell behavior or function. These signals can originate from outside the cell (extracellular) or within the cell itself. Intracellular signaling molecules include various types of peptides and proteins, such as:

1. G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs): These are seven-transmembrane domain receptors that bind to extracellular signaling molecules like hormones, neurotransmitters, or chemokines. Upon activation, they initiate a cascade of intracellular signals through G proteins and secondary messengers.
2. Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs): These are transmembrane receptors that bind to growth factors, cytokines, or hormones. Activation of RTKs leads to autophosphorylation of specific tyrosine residues, creating binding sites for intracellular signaling proteins such as adapter proteins, phosphatases, and enzymes like Ras, PI3K, and Src family kinases.
3. Second messenger systems: Intracellular second messengers are small molecules that amplify and propagate signals within the cell. Examples include cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), diacylglycerol (DAG), inositol triphosphate (IP3), calcium ions (Ca2+), and nitric oxide (NO). These second messengers activate or inhibit various downstream effectors, leading to changes in cellular responses.
4. Signal transduction cascades: Intracellular signaling proteins often form complex networks of interacting molecules that relay signals from the plasma membrane to the nucleus. These cascades involve kinases (protein kinases A, B, C, etc.), phosphatases, and adapter proteins, which ultimately regulate gene expression, cell cycle progression, metabolism, and other cellular processes.
5. Ubiquitination and proteasome degradation: Intracellular signaling pathways can also control protein stability by modulating ubiquitin-proteasome degradation. E3 ubiquitin ligases recognize specific substrates and conjugate them with ubiquitin molecules, targeting them for proteasomal degradation. This process regulates the abundance of key signaling proteins and contributes to signal termination or amplification.

In summary, intracellular signaling pathways involve a complex network of interacting proteins that relay signals from the plasma membrane to various cellular compartments, ultimately regulating gene expression, metabolism, and other cellular processes. Dysregulation of these pathways can contribute to disease development and progression, making them attractive targets for therapeutic intervention.

Immunologic cytotoxicity refers to the damage or destruction of cells that occurs as a result of an immune response. This process involves the activation of immune cells, such as cytotoxic T cells and natural killer (NK) cells, which release toxic substances, such as perforins and granzymes, that can kill target cells.

In addition, antibodies produced by B cells can also contribute to immunologic cytotoxicity by binding to antigens on the surface of target cells and triggering complement-mediated lysis or antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) by activating immune effector cells.

Immunologic cytotoxicity plays an important role in the body's defense against viral infections, cancer cells, and other foreign substances. However, it can also contribute to tissue damage and autoimmune diseases if the immune system mistakenly targets healthy cells or tissues.

I believe there might be a misunderstanding in your question. "Dogs" is not a medical term or condition. It is the common name for a domesticated carnivore of the family Canidae, specifically the genus Canis, which includes wolves, foxes, and other extant and extinct species of mammals. Dogs are often kept as pets and companions, and they have been bred in a wide variety of forms and sizes for different purposes, such as hunting, herding, guarding, assisting police and military forces, and providing companionship and emotional support.

If you meant to ask about a specific medical condition or term related to dogs, please provide more context so I can give you an accurate answer.

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is an enzyme involved in the synthesis of prostaglandins, which are hormone-like substances that play a role in inflammation, pain, and fever. COX-2 is primarily expressed in response to stimuli such as cytokines and growth factors, and its expression is associated with the development of inflammation.

COX-2 inhibitors are a class of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that selectively block the activity of COX-2, reducing the production of prostaglandins and providing analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic effects. These medications are often used to treat pain and inflammation associated with conditions such as arthritis, menstrual cramps, and headaches.

It's important to note that while COX-2 inhibitors can be effective in managing pain and inflammation, they may also increase the risk of cardiovascular events such as heart attack and stroke, particularly when used at high doses or for extended periods. Therefore, it's essential to use these medications under the guidance of a healthcare provider and to follow their instructions carefully.

Transforming Growth Factor-beta (TGF-β) is a type of cytokine, which is a cell signaling protein involved in the regulation of various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). TGF-β plays a critical role in embryonic development, tissue homeostasis, and wound healing. It also has been implicated in several pathological conditions such as fibrosis, cancer, and autoimmune diseases.

TGF-β exists in multiple isoforms (TGF-β1, TGF-β2, and TGF-β3) that are produced by many different cell types, including immune cells, epithelial cells, and fibroblasts. The protein is synthesized as a precursor molecule, which is cleaved to release the active TGF-β peptide. Once activated, TGF-β binds to its receptors on the cell surface, leading to the activation of intracellular signaling pathways that regulate gene expression and cell behavior.

In summary, Transforming Growth Factor-beta (TGF-β) is a multifunctional cytokine involved in various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis, embryonic development, tissue homeostasis, and wound healing. It has been implicated in several pathological conditions such as fibrosis, cancer, and autoimmune diseases.

Birnaviridae is a family of viruses that includes several species known to cause infections in animals, including birds and fish. The most well-known member of this family is the infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), which primarily affects young chickens and causes a highly contagious disease known as Gumboro disease.

Infection with IBDV can result in a range of symptoms, including diarrhea, depression, ruffled feathers, and decreased appetite. In severe cases, the virus can cause significant mortality in infected flocks. Other members of the Birnaviridae family include viruses that infect salmonids (such as infectious pancreatic necrosis virus) and other bird species.

Transmission of Birnaviridae viruses typically occurs through direct contact with infected animals or their feces, as well as through contaminated food and water sources. Prevention and control measures for these infections include good biosecurity practices, vaccination, and proper nutrition and management.

Tumor Necrosis Factor Ligand Superfamily Member 14 (TNFSF14), also known as HVEM (Herpesvirus Entry Mediator) Ligand or Lymphotoxin-like, Inhibitory or Secreting Factor (LIGHT), is a type II transmembrane protein and a member of the Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) ligand superfamily. It plays a crucial role in immune cell communication and regulation of inflammatory responses.

TNFSF14 can exist as both a membrane-bound form and a soluble form, produced through proteolytic cleavage or alternative splicing. The protein interacts with two receptors: HVEM (TNFRSF14) and Lymphotoxin β Receptor (LTβR). Depending on the receptor it binds to, TNFSF14 can have either costimulatory or inhibitory effects on immune cell functions.

The binding of TNFSF14 to HVEM promotes the activation and proliferation of T cells, enhances the cytotoxic activity of natural killer (NK) cells, and contributes to the development and maintenance of secondary lymphoid organs. In contrast, the interaction between TNFSF14 and LTβR primarily induces the formation and remodeling of tertiary lymphoid structures in peripheral tissues during inflammation or infection.

Dysregulation of TNFSF14 has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, and cancer. Therefore, targeting this molecule and its signaling pathways is an area of interest for developing novel therapeutic strategies to treat these disorders.

Osteoprotegerin (OPG) is a soluble decoy receptor for the receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL). It is a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor superfamily and plays a crucial role in regulating bone metabolism. By binding to RANKL, OPG prevents it from interacting with its signaling receptor RANK on the surface of osteoclast precursor cells, thereby inhibiting osteoclast differentiation, activation, and survival. This results in reduced bone resorption and increased bone mass.

In addition to its role in bone homeostasis, OPG has also been implicated in various physiological and pathological processes, including immune regulation, cancer progression, and cardiovascular disease.

Phagocytosis is the process by which certain cells in the body, known as phagocytes, engulf and destroy foreign particles, bacteria, or dead cells. This mechanism plays a crucial role in the immune system's response to infection and inflammation. Phagocytes, such as neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages, have receptors on their surface that recognize and bind to specific molecules (known as antigens) on the target particles or microorganisms.

Once attached, the phagocyte extends pseudopodia (cell extensions) around the particle, forming a vesicle called a phagosome that completely encloses it. The phagosome then fuses with a lysosome, an intracellular organelle containing digestive enzymes and other chemicals. This fusion results in the formation of a phagolysosome, where the engulfed particle is broken down by the action of these enzymes, neutralizing its harmful effects and allowing for the removal of cellular debris or pathogens.

Phagocytosis not only serves as a crucial defense mechanism against infections but also contributes to tissue homeostasis by removing dead cells and debris.

'Death domain receptors' (also known as 'death receptors') are a type of transmembrane receptor proteins that play a crucial role in activating programmed cell death, or apoptosis, in response to specific signals. These receptors have an intracellular domain called the 'death domain,' which can interact with other proteins to initiate the signaling cascade leading to cell death. This process is essential for maintaining tissue homeostasis and eliminating damaged, infected, or potentially cancerous cells. Examples of death domain receptors include Fas (CD95), TNFR1 (Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor 1), and DR3 (Death Receptor 3).

TNF Receptor-Associated Factor 3 (TRAF3) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the regulation of immune responses and inflammation. It is a member of the TRAF family of proteins, which are adaptor molecules that mediate signal transduction from tumor necrosis factor receptors (TNFRs) and other innate immune receptors.

TRAF3 is primarily associated with the TNFR superfamily member CD40 and the toll-like receptor (TLR) adaptor protein, TRIF. When these receptors are activated by their respective ligands, TRAF3 is recruited to the receptor complex where it mediates downstream signaling events leading to the activation of various transcription factors, including NF-κB and IRFs, which regulate the expression of genes involved in immune responses, inflammation, cell survival, and differentiation.

TRAF3 also plays a critical role in the negative regulation of TNFR and TLR signaling pathways by promoting the degradation of key signaling molecules, thereby preventing excessive or prolonged activation of these pathways. Dysregulation of TRAF3 has been implicated in various immune-related disorders, including autoimmune diseases and cancer.

"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.

Acute kidney injury (AKI), also known as acute renal failure, is a rapid loss of kidney function that occurs over a few hours or days. It is defined as an increase in the serum creatinine level by 0.3 mg/dL within 48 hours or an increase in the creatinine level to more than 1.5 times baseline, which is known or presumed to have occurred within the prior 7 days, or a urine volume of less than 0.5 mL/kg per hour for six hours.

AKI can be caused by a variety of conditions, including decreased blood flow to the kidneys, obstruction of the urinary tract, exposure to toxic substances, and certain medications. Symptoms of AKI may include decreased urine output, fluid retention, electrolyte imbalances, and metabolic acidosis. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the injury and providing supportive care, such as dialysis, to help maintain kidney function until the injury resolves.

Massive hepatic necrosis is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition characterized by extensive damage and death of liver cells (hepatocytes) due to various causes, such as severe liver injury, infection, or exposure to certain toxins. It can lead to liver failure, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS).

In medical terms, "massive" refers to the extent of the damage, which involves a significant portion of the liver (often more than 70%). "Necrosis" is the term used to describe the death of cells or tissues due to injury, disease, or lack of blood supply.

The condition can present with symptoms such as jaundice, abdominal pain and distension, nausea, vomiting, fever, and altered mental status. Diagnosis is typically made through imaging studies (such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI) and laboratory tests that show evidence of liver dysfunction, including elevated liver enzymes, coagulopathy, and increased bilirubin levels.

Treatment for massive hepatic necrosis is primarily supportive, with a focus on addressing any underlying causes, managing complications, and providing intensive care as needed. In severe cases, liver transplantation may be considered if other treatments are not effective.

Neoplasm transplantation is not a recognized or established medical procedure in the field of oncology. The term "neoplasm" refers to an abnormal growth of cells, which can be benign or malignant (cancerous). "Transplantation" typically refers to the surgical transfer of living cells, tissues, or organs from one part of the body to another or between individuals.

The concept of neoplasm transplantation may imply the transfer of cancerous cells or tissues from a donor to a recipient, which is not a standard practice due to ethical considerations and the potential harm it could cause to the recipient. In some rare instances, researchers might use laboratory animals to study the transmission and growth of human cancer cells, but this is done for scientific research purposes only and under strict regulatory guidelines.

In summary, there is no medical definition for 'Neoplasm Transplantation' as it does not represent a standard or ethical medical practice.

Annexin A5 is a protein that belongs to the annexin family, which are calcium-dependent phospholipid-binding proteins. Annexin A5 has high affinity for phosphatidylserine, a type of phospholipid that is usually located on the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane in healthy cells. However, when cells undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death), phosphatidylserine is exposed on the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane.

Annexin A5 can bind to exposed phosphatidylserine on the surface of apoptotic cells and is commonly used as a marker for detecting apoptosis in various experimental settings, including flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry, and imaging techniques. Annexin A5-based assays are widely used in research and clinical settings to study the mechanisms of apoptosis and to develop diagnostic tools for various diseases, such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and cardiovascular diseases.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

Antioxidants are substances that can prevent or slow damage to cells caused by free radicals, which are unstable molecules that the body produces as a reaction to environmental and other pressures. Antioxidants are able to neutralize free radicals by donating an electron to them, thus stabilizing them and preventing them from causing further damage to the cells.

Antioxidants can be found in a variety of foods, including fruits, vegetables, nuts, and grains. Some common antioxidants include vitamins C and E, beta-carotene, and selenium. Antioxidants are also available as dietary supplements.

In addition to their role in protecting cells from damage, antioxidants have been studied for their potential to prevent or treat a number of health conditions, including cancer, heart disease, and age-related macular degeneration. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential benefits and risks of using antioxidant supplements.

Immunosuppressive agents are medications that decrease the activity of the immune system. They are often used to prevent the rejection of transplanted organs and to treat autoimmune diseases, where the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues. These drugs work by interfering with the immune system's normal responses, which helps to reduce inflammation and damage to tissues. However, because they suppress the immune system, people who take immunosuppressive agents are at increased risk for infections and other complications. Examples of immunosuppressive agents include corticosteroids, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate mofetil, tacrolimus, and sirolimus.

Arthritis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation in one or more joints, leading to symptoms such as pain, stiffness, swelling, and reduced range of motion. There are many different types of arthritis, including osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, gout, and lupus, among others.

Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis and is caused by wear and tear on the joints over time. Rheumatoid arthritis, on the other hand, is an autoimmune disorder in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks the joint lining, causing inflammation and damage.

Arthritis can affect people of all ages, including children, although it is more common in older adults. Treatment for arthritis may include medications to manage pain and reduce inflammation, physical therapy, exercise, and in some cases, surgery.

MAP Kinase Kinase 4 (MAP2K4 or MKK4) is a serine/threonine protein kinase that plays a crucial role in intracellular signal transduction pathways, particularly the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades. These cascades are involved in various cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, survival, and apoptosis in response to extracellular stimuli like cytokines, growth factors, and stress signals.

MAP2K4 specifically activates the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway by phosphorylating and activating JNK proteins. The activation of JNK leads to the phosphorylation and regulation of various transcription factors, ultimately influencing gene expression and cellular responses. Dysregulation of MAP2K4 has been implicated in several diseases, including cancer and inflammatory disorders.

High Mobility Group Box 1 (HMGB1) protein is a non-histone chromosomal protein that is widely expressed in various cell types, including immune cells and nucleated cells. It plays a crucial role in the maintenance of nucleosome structure and stability, regulation of gene transcription, and DNA replication and repair. HMGB1 can be actively secreted by activated immune cells or passively released from necrotic or damaged cells. Once outside the cell, it functions as a damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) molecule that binds to various receptors, such as Toll-like receptors and the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), on immune cells, leading to the activation of inflammatory responses and the induction of innate and adaptive immunity. HMGB1 has been implicated in various physiological and pathological processes, including inflammation, infection, autoimmunity, cancer, and neurological disorders.

Enzyme induction is a process by which the activity or expression of an enzyme is increased in response to some stimulus, such as a drug, hormone, or other environmental factor. This can occur through several mechanisms, including increasing the transcription of the enzyme's gene, stabilizing the mRNA that encodes the enzyme, or increasing the translation of the mRNA into protein.

In some cases, enzyme induction can be a beneficial process, such as when it helps the body to metabolize and clear drugs more quickly. However, in other cases, enzyme induction can have negative consequences, such as when it leads to the increased metabolism of important endogenous compounds or the activation of harmful procarcinogens.

Enzyme induction is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology, as it can affect the efficacy and safety of drugs and other xenobiotics. It is also relevant to the study of drug interactions, as the induction of one enzyme by a drug can lead to altered metabolism and effects of another drug that is metabolized by the same enzyme.

F344 is a strain code used to designate an outbred stock of rats that has been inbreeded for over 100 generations. The F344 rats, also known as Fischer 344 rats, were originally developed at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and are now widely used in biomedical research due to their consistent and reliable genetic background.

Inbred strains, like the F344, are created by mating genetically identical individuals (siblings or parents and offspring) for many generations until a state of complete homozygosity is reached, meaning that all members of the strain have identical genomes. This genetic uniformity makes inbred strains ideal for use in studies where consistent and reproducible results are important.

F344 rats are known for their longevity, with a median lifespan of around 27-31 months, making them useful for aging research. They also have a relatively low incidence of spontaneous tumors compared to other rat strains. However, they may be more susceptible to certain types of cancer and other diseases due to their inbred status.

It's important to note that while F344 rats are often used as a standard laboratory rat strain, there can still be some genetic variation between individual animals within the same strain, particularly if they come from different suppliers or breeding colonies. Therefore, it's always important to consider the source and history of any animal model when designing experiments and interpreting results.

The pancreas is a glandular organ located in the abdomen, posterior to the stomach. It has both exocrine and endocrine functions. The exocrine portion of the pancreas consists of acinar cells that produce and secrete digestive enzymes into the duodenum via the pancreatic duct. These enzymes help in the breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats in food.

The endocrine portion of the pancreas consists of clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans, which include alpha, beta, delta, and F cells. These cells produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. Insulin and glucagon are critical regulators of blood sugar levels, with insulin promoting glucose uptake and storage in tissues and glucagon stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to raise blood glucose when it is low.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a type of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that play a crucial role in the innate immune system. They are transmembrane proteins located on the surface of various immune cells, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells. TLRs recognize specific patterns of molecules called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are found on microbes such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.

Once TLRs bind to PAMPs, they initiate a signaling cascade that activates the immune response, leading to the production of cytokines and chemokines, which in turn recruit and activate other immune cells. TLRs also play a role in the adaptive immune response by activating antigen-presenting cells and promoting the differentiation of T cells.

There are ten known human TLRs, each with distinct ligand specificity and cellular localization. TLRs can be found on the cell surface or within endosomes, where they recognize different types of PAMPs. For example, TLR4 recognizes lipopolysaccharides (LPS) found on gram-negative bacteria, while TLR3 recognizes double-stranded RNA from viruses.

Overall, TLRs are critical components of the immune system's ability to detect and respond to infections, and dysregulation of TLR signaling has been implicated in various inflammatory diseases and cancers.

Immunoblotting, also known as western blotting, is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology and immunogenetics to detect and quantify specific proteins in a complex mixture. This technique combines the electrophoretic separation of proteins by gel electrophoresis with their detection using antibodies that recognize specific epitopes (protein fragments) on the target protein.

The process involves several steps: first, the protein sample is separated based on size through sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Next, the separated proteins are transferred onto a nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane using an electric field. The membrane is then blocked with a blocking agent to prevent non-specific binding of antibodies.

After blocking, the membrane is incubated with a primary antibody that specifically recognizes the target protein. Following this, the membrane is washed to remove unbound primary antibodies and then incubated with a secondary antibody conjugated to an enzyme such as horseradish peroxidase (HRP) or alkaline phosphatase (AP). The enzyme catalyzes a colorimetric or chemiluminescent reaction that allows for the detection of the target protein.

Immunoblotting is widely used in research and clinical settings to study protein expression, post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and disease biomarkers. It provides high specificity and sensitivity, making it a valuable tool for identifying and quantifying proteins in various biological samples.

"Random allocation," also known as "random assignment" or "randomization," is a process used in clinical trials and other research studies to distribute participants into different intervention groups (such as experimental group vs. control group) in a way that minimizes selection bias and ensures the groups are comparable at the start of the study.

In random allocation, each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group, and the assignment is typically made using a computer-generated randomization schedule or other objective methods. This process helps to ensure that any differences between the groups are due to the intervention being tested rather than pre-existing differences in the participants' characteristics.

A phenotype is the physical or biochemical expression of an organism's genes, or the observable traits and characteristics resulting from the interaction of its genetic constitution (genotype) with environmental factors. These characteristics can include appearance, development, behavior, and resistance to disease, among others. Phenotypes can vary widely, even among individuals with identical genotypes, due to differences in environmental influences, gene expression, and genetic interactions.

Glucocorticoids are a class of steroid hormones that are naturally produced in the adrenal gland, or can be synthetically manufactured. They play an essential role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, and have significant anti-inflammatory effects. Glucocorticoids suppress immune responses and inflammation by inhibiting the release of inflammatory mediators from various cells, such as mast cells, eosinophils, and lymphocytes. They are frequently used in medical treatment for a wide range of conditions, including allergies, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, dermatological disorders, and certain cancers. Prolonged use or high doses of glucocorticoids can lead to several side effects, such as weight gain, mood changes, osteoporosis, and increased susceptibility to infections.

Immunoenzyme techniques are a group of laboratory methods used in immunology and clinical chemistry that combine the specificity of antibody-antigen reactions with the sensitivity and amplification capabilities of enzyme reactions. These techniques are primarily used for the detection, quantitation, or identification of various analytes (such as proteins, hormones, drugs, viruses, or bacteria) in biological samples.

In immunoenzyme techniques, an enzyme is linked to an antibody or antigen, creating a conjugate. This conjugate then interacts with the target analyte in the sample, forming an immune complex. The presence and amount of this immune complex can be visualized or measured by detecting the enzymatic activity associated with it.

There are several types of immunoenzyme techniques, including:

1. Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA): A widely used method for detecting and quantifying various analytes in a sample. In ELISA, an enzyme is attached to either the capture antibody or the detection antibody. After the immune complex formation, a substrate is added that reacts with the enzyme, producing a colored product that can be measured spectrophotometrically.
2. Immunoblotting (Western blot): A method used for detecting specific proteins in a complex mixture, such as a protein extract from cells or tissues. In this technique, proteins are separated by gel electrophoresis and transferred to a membrane, where they are probed with an enzyme-conjugated antibody directed against the target protein.
3. Immunohistochemistry (IHC): A method used for detecting specific antigens in tissue sections or cells. In IHC, an enzyme-conjugated primary or secondary antibody is applied to the sample, and the presence of the antigen is visualized using a chromogenic substrate that produces a colored product at the site of the antigen-antibody interaction.
4. Immunofluorescence (IF): A method used for detecting specific antigens in cells or tissues by employing fluorophore-conjugated antibodies. The presence of the antigen is visualized using a fluorescence microscope.
5. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): A method used for detecting and quantifying specific antigens or antibodies in liquid samples, such as serum or culture supernatants. In ELISA, an enzyme-conjugated detection antibody is added after the immune complex formation, and a substrate is added that reacts with the enzyme to produce a colored product that can be measured spectrophotometrically.

These techniques are widely used in research and diagnostic laboratories for various applications, including protein characterization, disease diagnosis, and monitoring treatment responses.

REceptor Activator of NF-kB (RANK) Ligand is a type of protein that plays a crucial role in the immune system and bone metabolism. It belongs to the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily and is primarily produced by osteoblasts, which are cells responsible for bone formation.

RANK Ligand binds to its receptor RANK, which is found on the surface of osteoclasts, a type of cell involved in bone resorption or breakdown. The binding of RANK Ligand to RANK activates signaling pathways that promote the differentiation, activation, and survival of osteoclasts, thereby increasing bone resorption.

Abnormalities in the RANKL-RANK signaling pathway have been implicated in various bone diseases, such as osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and certain types of cancer that metastasize to bones. Therefore, targeting this pathway with therapeutic agents has emerged as a promising approach for the treatment of these conditions.

Ankylosing spondylitis is a type of inflammatory arthritis that primarily affects the spine, although other joints can also be involved. It causes swelling in the spinal joints (vertebrae) that can lead to stiffness and pain. Over time, some of these joints may grow together, causing new bone formation and resulting in a rigid spine. This fusion of the spine is called ankylosis.

The condition typically begins in the sacroiliac joints, where the spine connects to the pelvis. From there, it can spread up the spine and potentially involve other areas of the body such as the eyes, heart, lungs, and gastrointestinal system.

Ankylosing spondylitis has a strong genetic link, with most people carrying the HLA-B27 gene. However, not everyone with this gene will develop the condition. It primarily affects males more often than females and tends to start in early adulthood.

Treatment usually involves a combination of medication, physical therapy, and exercise to help manage pain, maintain mobility, and prevent deformity. In severe cases, surgery may be considered.

Brain neoplasms, also known as brain tumors, are abnormal growths of cells within the brain. These growths can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign brain tumors typically grow slowly and do not spread to other parts of the body. However, they can still cause serious problems if they press on sensitive areas of the brain. Malignant brain tumors, on the other hand, are cancerous and can grow quickly, invading surrounding brain tissue and spreading to other parts of the brain or spinal cord.

Brain neoplasms can arise from various types of cells within the brain, including glial cells (which provide support and insulation for nerve cells), neurons (nerve cells that transmit signals in the brain), and meninges (the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord). They can also result from the spread of cancer cells from other parts of the body, known as metastatic brain tumors.

Symptoms of brain neoplasms may vary depending on their size, location, and growth rate. Common symptoms include headaches, seizures, weakness or paralysis in the limbs, difficulty with balance and coordination, changes in speech or vision, confusion, memory loss, and changes in behavior or personality.

Treatment for brain neoplasms depends on several factors, including the type, size, location, and grade of the tumor, as well as the patient's age and overall health. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or a combination of these approaches. Regular follow-up care is essential to monitor for recurrence and manage any long-term effects of treatment.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Pyridines" is not a medical term. It is a chemical term that refers to a class of organic compounds with the chemical structure of a six-membered ring containing one nitrogen atom and five carbon atoms (heterocyclic aromatic compound).

In a biological or medical context, pyridine derivatives can be found in various natural and synthetic substances. For example, some medications contain pyridine rings as part of their chemical structure. However, "Pyridines" itself is not a medical term or condition.

A "reporter gene" is a type of gene that is linked to a gene of interest in order to make the expression or activity of that gene detectable. The reporter gene encodes for a protein that can be easily measured and serves as an indicator of the presence and activity of the gene of interest. Commonly used reporter genes include those that encode for fluorescent proteins, enzymes that catalyze colorimetric reactions, or proteins that bind to specific molecules.

In the context of genetics and genomics research, a reporter gene is often used in studies involving gene expression, regulation, and function. By introducing the reporter gene into an organism or cell, researchers can monitor the activity of the gene of interest in real-time or after various experimental treatments. The information obtained from these studies can help elucidate the role of specific genes in biological processes and diseases, providing valuable insights for basic research and therapeutic development.

Tobacco necrosis satellite virus (TNSV) is a small, single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the family Alphaflexiviridae. It is a dependent virus, requiring the presence of Tobacco necrosis virus (TNV), another RNA virus, for its replication. TNSV is mainly transmitted through soil and causes necrotic lesions on leaves of various plant species, including tobacco. The virus is not known to infect humans or animals and has no medical significance in terms of human health.

Cachexia is a complex metabolic disorder characterized by severe weight loss, muscle wasting, and weakness. It is often associated with chronic diseases such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, heart failure, kidney disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Cachexia differs from simple malnutrition or starvation in that it involves a significant loss of muscle mass and an imbalance in energy metabolism, even when adequate calories are consumed.

The hallmark features of cachexia include:

1. Weight loss: Unintentional loss of more than 5% of body weight over 12 months or less, or more than 2% in individuals already underweight.
2. Muscle wasting: Reduction in skeletal muscle mass and strength, leading to weakness and functional impairment.
3. Fatigue and anorexia: Decreased appetite and reduced food intake due to various factors such as inflammation, hormonal imbalances, and psychological distress.
4. Inflammation: Elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6) that contribute to metabolic dysregulation and muscle wasting.
5. Insulin resistance: Impaired glucose uptake and utilization by cells, leading to increased blood glucose levels and altered energy metabolism.
6. Altered protein metabolism: Increased protein breakdown and decreased protein synthesis in skeletal muscles, contributing to muscle wasting.
7. Altered lipid metabolism: Increased lipolysis (breakdown of fat) and impaired lipogenesis (formation of fat), leading to loss of adipose tissue and altered energy storage.

Cachexia significantly impacts patients' quality of life, treatment outcomes, and overall survival. Currently, there is no single effective treatment for cachexia, and management typically involves addressing the underlying disease, nutritional support, exercise interventions, and pharmacological therapies to target specific aspects of the metabolic dysregulation associated with this condition.

Receptor Activator of Nuclear Factor-kappa B (RANK) is a type I transmembrane protein and a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily. It plays a crucial role in the regulation of bone metabolism through the activation of osteoclasts, which are cells responsible for bone resorption.

When RANK binds to its ligand, RANKL (Receptor Activator of Nuclear Factor-kappa B Ligand), it triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that lead to the activation and differentiation of osteoclast precursors into mature osteoclasts. This process is essential for maintaining bone homeostasis, as excessive osteoclast activity can result in bone loss and diseases such as osteoporosis.

In addition to its role in bone metabolism, RANK has also been implicated in the regulation of immune responses, as it is involved in the activation and differentiation of dendritic cells and T cells. Dysregulation of RANK signaling has been associated with various pathological conditions, including autoimmune diseases and cancer.

"CBA" is an abbreviation for a specific strain of inbred mice that were developed at the Cancer Research Institute in London. The "Inbred CBA" mice are genetically identical individuals within the same strain, due to many generations of brother-sister matings. This results in a homozygous population, making them valuable tools for research because they reduce variability and increase reproducibility in experimental outcomes.

The CBA strain is known for its susceptibility to certain diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and cancer, which makes it a popular choice for researchers studying those conditions. Additionally, the CBA strain has been widely used in studies related to transplantation immunology, infectious diseases, and genetic research.

It's important to note that while "Inbred CBA" mice are a well-established and useful tool in biomedical research, they represent only one of many inbred strains available for scientific investigation. Each strain has its own unique characteristics and advantages, depending on the specific research question being asked.

Neutrophil infiltration is a pathological process characterized by the accumulation of neutrophils, a type of white blood cell, in tissue. It is a common feature of inflammation and occurs in response to infection, injury, or other stimuli that trigger an immune response. Neutrophils are attracted to the site of tissue damage by chemical signals called chemokines, which are released by damaged cells and activated immune cells. Once they reach the site of inflammation, neutrophils help to clear away damaged tissue and microorganisms through a process called phagocytosis. However, excessive or prolonged neutrophil infiltration can also contribute to tissue damage and may be associated with various disease states, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and ischemia-reperfusion injury.

A plant extract is a preparation containing chemical constituents that have been extracted from a plant using a solvent. The resulting extract may contain a single compound or a mixture of several compounds, depending on the extraction process and the specific plant material used. These extracts are often used in various industries including pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and food and beverage, due to their potential therapeutic or beneficial properties. The composition of plant extracts can vary widely, and it is important to ensure their quality, safety, and efficacy before use in any application.

Acetylcysteine is a medication that is used for its antioxidant effects and to help loosen thick mucus in the lungs. It is commonly used to treat conditions such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and cystic fibrosis. Acetylcysteine is also known by the brand names Mucomyst and Accolate. It works by thinning and breaking down mucus in the airways, making it easier to cough up and clear the airways. Additionally, acetylcysteine is an antioxidant that helps to protect cells from damage caused by free radicals. It is available as a oral tablet, liquid, or inhaled medication.

Medical Definition:

Matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9), also known as gelatinase B or 92 kDa type IV collagenase, is a member of the matrix metalloproteinase family. These enzymes are involved in degrading and remodeling the extracellular matrix (ECM) components, playing crucial roles in various physiological and pathological processes such as wound healing, tissue repair, and tumor metastasis.

MMP-9 is secreted as an inactive zymogen and activated upon removal of its propeptide domain. It can degrade several ECM proteins, including type IV collagen, elastin, fibronectin, and gelatin. MMP-9 has been implicated in numerous diseases, such as cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. Its expression is regulated at the transcriptional, translational, and post-translational levels, and its activity can be controlled by endogenous inhibitors called tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs).

A "cell line, transformed" is a type of cell culture that has undergone a stable genetic alteration, which confers the ability to grow indefinitely in vitro, outside of the organism from which it was derived. These cells have typically been immortalized through exposure to chemical or viral carcinogens, or by introducing specific oncogenes that disrupt normal cell growth regulation pathways.

Transformed cell lines are widely used in scientific research because they offer a consistent and renewable source of biological material for experimentation. They can be used to study various aspects of cell biology, including signal transduction, gene expression, drug discovery, and toxicity testing. However, it is important to note that transformed cells may not always behave identically to their normal counterparts, and results obtained using these cells should be validated in more physiologically relevant systems when possible.

Superoxides are partially reduced derivatives of oxygen that contain one extra electron, giving them an overall charge of -1. They are highly reactive and unstable, with the most common superoxide being the hydroxyl radical (•OH-) and the superoxide anion (O2-). Superoxides are produced naturally in the body during metabolic processes, particularly within the mitochondria during cellular respiration. They play a role in various physiological processes, but when produced in excess or not properly neutralized, they can contribute to oxidative stress and damage to cells and tissues, potentially leading to the development of various diseases such as cancer, atherosclerosis, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Gene expression regulation, enzymologic refers to the biochemical processes and mechanisms that control the transcription and translation of specific genes into functional proteins or enzymes. This regulation is achieved through various enzymatic activities that can either activate or repress gene expression at different levels, such as chromatin remodeling, transcription factor activation, mRNA processing, and protein degradation.

Enzymologic regulation of gene expression involves the action of specific enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions involved in these processes. For example, histone-modifying enzymes can alter the structure of chromatin to make genes more or less accessible for transcription, while RNA polymerase and its associated factors are responsible for transcribing DNA into mRNA. Additionally, various enzymes are involved in post-transcriptional modifications of mRNA, such as splicing, capping, and tailing, which can affect the stability and translation of the transcript.

Overall, the enzymologic regulation of gene expression is a complex and dynamic process that allows cells to respond to changes in their environment and maintain proper physiological function.

Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 14 (TNFRSF14), also known as HVEM (herpesvirus entry mediator), is a type of cell surface receptor that belongs to the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily. It is involved in various immune responses and can be found on the surface of different types of cells, including T cells, B cells, and myeloid cells.

TNFRSF14 has been shown to interact with several ligands, including LIGHT (TNFSF14) and BTLA (B- and T-lymphocyte attenuator), which can either activate or inhibit immune responses. The interaction between TNFRSF14 and its ligands plays a crucial role in regulating the activation, proliferation, and effector functions of immune cells.

In the context of tumors, TNFRSF14 has been found to be expressed on some tumor cells, where it can contribute to tumor growth and progression by promoting immune evasion and resistance to therapies. Additionally, genetic variations in TNFRSF14 have been associated with susceptibility to certain autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus.

Overall, TNFRSF14 is a critical regulator of immune responses and has important implications for the development of cancer and autoimmune diseases.

Transcription Factor AP-1 (Activator Protein 1) is a heterodimeric transcription factor that belongs to the bZIP (basic region-leucine zipper) family. It is formed by the dimerization of Jun (c-Jun, JunB, JunD) and Fos (c-Fos, FosB, Fra1, Fra2) protein families, or alternatively by homodimers of Jun proteins. AP-1 plays a crucial role in regulating gene expression in various cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Its activity is tightly controlled through various signaling pathways, including the MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) cascades, which lead to phosphorylation and activation of its components. Once activated, AP-1 binds to specific DNA sequences called TPA response elements (TREs) or AP-1 sites, thereby modulating the transcription of target genes involved in various cellular responses, such as inflammation, immune response, stress response, and oncogenic transformation.

A ligand, in the context of biochemistry and medicine, is a molecule that binds to a specific site on a protein or a larger biomolecule, such as an enzyme or a receptor. This binding interaction can modify the function or activity of the target protein, either activating it or inhibiting it. Ligands can be small molecules, like hormones or neurotransmitters, or larger structures, like antibodies. The study of ligand-protein interactions is crucial for understanding cellular processes and developing drugs, as many therapeutic compounds function by binding to specific targets within the body.

Liver neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the liver that can be benign or malignant. Benign liver neoplasms are non-cancerous tumors that do not spread to other parts of the body, while malignant liver neoplasms are cancerous tumors that can invade and destroy surrounding tissue and spread to other organs.

Liver neoplasms can be primary, meaning they originate in the liver, or secondary, meaning they have metastasized (spread) to the liver from another part of the body. Primary liver neoplasms can be further classified into different types based on their cell of origin and behavior, including hepatocellular carcinoma, cholangiocarcinoma, and hepatic hemangioma.

The diagnosis of liver neoplasms typically involves a combination of imaging studies, such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI, and biopsy to confirm the type and stage of the tumor. Treatment options depend on the type and extent of the neoplasm and may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or liver transplantation.

Solubility is a fundamental concept in pharmaceutical sciences and medicine, which refers to the maximum amount of a substance (solute) that can be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent (usually water) at a specific temperature and pressure. Solubility is typically expressed as mass of solute per volume or mass of solvent (e.g., grams per liter, milligrams per milliliter). The process of dissolving a solute in a solvent results in a homogeneous solution where the solute particles are dispersed uniformly throughout the solvent.

Understanding the solubility of drugs is crucial for their formulation, administration, and therapeutic effectiveness. Drugs with low solubility may not dissolve sufficiently to produce the desired pharmacological effect, while those with high solubility might lead to rapid absorption and short duration of action. Therefore, optimizing drug solubility through various techniques like particle size reduction, salt formation, or solubilization is an essential aspect of drug development and delivery.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Animal Hepatitis" is not a medical term used to describe a specific disease. Hepatitis refers to inflammation of the liver, and it can be caused by various factors, including viruses, alcohol, drugs, and certain medical conditions.

However, there are several viral hepatitis types that can infect animals, such as Hepatitis A, B, and C, which primarily affect humans. But there are also other hepatitis viruses that are species-specific and primarily infect animals, such as:

1. Canine Hepatitis (Adenovirus Type 1): This is a viral infection that affects dogs and causes liver damage, respiratory signs, and occasionally death.
2. Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP) Virus: While not strictly a hepatitis virus, this feline coronavirus can cause severe inflammation of the liver and other organs in cats.
3. Equine Infectious Anemia Virus (EIAV): This retrovirus affects horses and causes cyclic fever, anemia, and occasionally liver disease.
4. Avian Hepatitis E Virus: A recently discovered virus that infects birds and can cause hepatitis and other systemic signs in chickens and other avian species.

If you're looking for information on a specific animal hepatitis virus or a different medical term, please provide more context so I can give you a more accurate answer.

Disease progression is the worsening or advancement of a medical condition over time. It refers to the natural course of a disease, including its development, the severity of symptoms and complications, and the impact on the patient's overall health and quality of life. Understanding disease progression is important for developing appropriate treatment plans, monitoring response to therapy, and predicting outcomes.

The rate of disease progression can vary widely depending on the type of medical condition, individual patient factors, and the effectiveness of treatment. Some diseases may progress rapidly over a short period of time, while others may progress more slowly over many years. In some cases, disease progression may be slowed or even halted with appropriate medical interventions, while in other cases, the progression may be inevitable and irreversible.

In clinical practice, healthcare providers closely monitor disease progression through regular assessments, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. This information is used to guide treatment decisions and adjust care plans as needed to optimize patient outcomes and improve quality of life.

Interleukin-1 alpha (IL-1α) is a member of the interleukin-1 cytokine family, which plays a crucial role in the regulation of inflamation and immune responses. IL-1α is primarily produced by activated macrophages, epithelial cells, and fibroblasts. It is a potent proinflammatory cytokine that binds to the interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R) and activates signaling pathways leading to the expression of genes involved in inflammation, fever, and cellular activation. IL-1α is involved in various physiological processes such as hematopoiesis, bone remodeling, and response to infection or injury. Dysregulation of IL-1α has been implicated in several pathological conditions including autoimmune diseases, atherosclerosis, and cancer.

Histochemistry is the branch of pathology that deals with the microscopic localization of cellular or tissue components using specific chemical reactions. It involves the application of chemical techniques to identify and locate specific biomolecules within tissues, cells, and subcellular structures. This is achieved through the use of various staining methods that react with specific antigens or enzymes in the sample, allowing for their visualization under a microscope. Histochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to identify different types of tissues, cells, and structures, as well as in research to study cellular and molecular processes in health and disease.

Cell movement, also known as cell motility, refers to the ability of cells to move independently and change their location within tissue or inside the body. This process is essential for various biological functions, including embryonic development, wound healing, immune responses, and cancer metastasis.

There are several types of cell movement, including:

1. **Crawling or mesenchymal migration:** Cells move by extending and retracting protrusions called pseudopodia or filopodia, which contain actin filaments. This type of movement is common in fibroblasts, immune cells, and cancer cells during tissue invasion and metastasis.
2. **Amoeboid migration:** Cells move by changing their shape and squeezing through tight spaces without forming protrusions. This type of movement is often observed in white blood cells (leukocytes) as they migrate through the body to fight infections.
3. **Pseudopodial extension:** Cells extend pseudopodia, which are temporary cytoplasmic projections containing actin filaments. These protrusions help the cell explore its environment and move forward.
4. **Bacterial flagellar motion:** Bacteria use a whip-like structure called a flagellum to propel themselves through their environment. The rotation of the flagellum is driven by a molecular motor in the bacterial cell membrane.
5. **Ciliary and ependymal movement:** Ciliated cells, such as those lining the respiratory tract and fallopian tubes, have hair-like structures called cilia that beat in coordinated waves to move fluids or mucus across the cell surface.

Cell movement is regulated by a complex interplay of signaling pathways, cytoskeletal rearrangements, and adhesion molecules, which enable cells to respond to environmental cues and navigate through tissues.

"Cell count" is a medical term that refers to the process of determining the number of cells present in a given volume or sample of fluid or tissue. This can be done through various laboratory methods, such as counting individual cells under a microscope using a specialized grid called a hemocytometer, or using automated cell counters that use light scattering and electrical impedance techniques to count and classify different types of cells.

Cell counts are used in a variety of medical contexts, including hematology (the study of blood and blood-forming tissues), microbiology (the study of microscopic organisms), and pathology (the study of diseases and their causes). For example, a complete blood count (CBC) is a routine laboratory test that includes a white blood cell (WBC) count, red blood cell (RBC) count, hemoglobin level, hematocrit value, and platelet count. Abnormal cell counts can indicate the presence of various medical conditions, such as infections, anemia, or leukemia.

Disease susceptibility, also known as genetic predisposition or genetic susceptibility, refers to the increased likelihood or risk of developing a particular disease due to inheriting specific genetic variations or mutations. These genetic factors can make an individual more vulnerable to certain diseases compared to those who do not have these genetic changes.

It is important to note that having a genetic predisposition does not guarantee that a person will definitely develop the disease. Other factors, such as environmental exposures, lifestyle choices, and additional genetic variations, can influence whether or not the disease will manifest. In some cases, early detection and intervention may help reduce the risk or delay the onset of the disease in individuals with a known genetic susceptibility.

Adenoviridae is a family of viruses that includes many species that can cause various types of illnesses in humans and animals. These viruses are non-enveloped, meaning they do not have a lipid membrane, and have an icosahedral symmetry with a diameter of approximately 70-90 nanometers.

The genome of Adenoviridae is composed of double-stranded DNA, which contains linear chromosomes ranging from 26 to 45 kilobases in length. The family is divided into five genera: Mastadenovirus, Aviadenovirus, Atadenovirus, Siadenovirus, and Ichtadenovirus.

Human adenoviruses are classified under the genus Mastadenovirus and can cause a wide range of illnesses, including respiratory infections, conjunctivitis, gastroenteritis, and upper respiratory tract infections. Some serotypes have also been associated with more severe diseases such as hemorrhagic cystitis, hepatitis, and meningoencephalitis.

Adenoviruses are highly contagious and can be transmitted through respiratory droplets, fecal-oral route, or by contact with contaminated surfaces. They can also be spread through contaminated water sources. Infections caused by adenoviruses are usually self-limiting, but severe cases may require hospitalization and supportive care.

NF-κB (Nuclear Factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) p50 subunit, also known as NFKB1, is a protein that plays a crucial role in regulating the immune response, inflammation, and cell survival. The NF-κB p50 subunit can form homodimers or heterodimers with other NF-κB family members, such as p65 (RelA) or c-Rel, to bind to specific DNA sequences called κB sites in the promoter regions of target genes.

The activation of NF-κB signaling leads to the nuclear translocation of these dimers and the regulation of gene expression involved in various biological processes, including immune response, inflammation, differentiation, cell growth, and apoptosis. The p50 subunit can act as a transcriptional activator or repressor, depending on its partner and the context.

In summary, NF-κB p50 Subunit is a protein involved in the regulation of gene expression, particularly in immune response, inflammation, and cell survival, through its ability to bind to specific DNA sequences as part of homodimers or heterodimers with other NF-κB family members.

A leukocyte count, also known as a white blood cell (WBC) count, is a laboratory test that measures the number of leukocytes in a sample of blood. Leukocytes are a vital part of the body's immune system and help fight infection and inflammation. A high or low leukocyte count may indicate an underlying medical condition, such as an infection, inflammation, or a bone marrow disorder. The normal range for a leukocyte count in adults is typically between 4,500 and 11,000 cells per microliter (mcL) of blood. However, the normal range can vary slightly depending on the laboratory and the individual's age and sex.

Nonparametric statistics is a branch of statistics that does not rely on assumptions about the distribution of variables in the population from which the sample is drawn. In contrast to parametric methods, nonparametric techniques make fewer assumptions about the data and are therefore more flexible in their application. Nonparametric tests are often used when the data do not meet the assumptions required for parametric tests, such as normality or equal variances.

Nonparametric statistical methods include tests such as the Wilcoxon rank-sum test (also known as the Mann-Whitney U test) for comparing two independent groups, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for comparing two related groups, and the Kruskal-Wallis test for comparing more than two independent groups. These tests use the ranks of the data rather than the actual values to make comparisons, which allows them to be used with ordinal or continuous data that do not meet the assumptions of parametric tests.

Overall, nonparametric statistics provide a useful set of tools for analyzing data in situations where the assumptions of parametric methods are not met, and can help researchers draw valid conclusions from their data even when the data are not normally distributed or have other characteristics that violate the assumptions of parametric tests.

TNF Receptor-Associated Factor 5 (TRAF5) is a protein that belongs to the TRAF family, which interacts with tumor necrosis factor receptors (TNFRs) and other related receptors. TRAF5 plays a crucial role in signal transduction pathways associated with immune responses, inflammation, and cell survival. It mediates downstream signaling events by interacting with various proteins involved in the activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and interferon regulatory factors (IRFs). Mutations or dysregulation of TRAF5 have been implicated in several diseases, including cancer and autoimmune disorders.

Tumor Necrosis Factor Ligand Superfamily Member 15 (TNFSF15) is a type II transmembrane protein that belongs to the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) ligand superfamily. It is also known as vascular endothelial growth inhibitor (VEGI), and it plays a role in regulating immune responses, inflammation, and angiogenesis.

TNFSF15 binds to its receptor, TNFRSF25 (also known as DR3 or APO-3), which is expressed on the surface of various cells including T cells, B cells, and dendritic cells. The binding of TNFSF15 to TNFRSF25 leads to the activation of several signaling pathways, including the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway, which regulates the expression of genes involved in immune responses and inflammation.

TNFSF15 has been shown to have both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects, depending on the context. It can promote the activation and survival of T cells, as well as the production of cytokines and chemokines that contribute to inflammation. On the other hand, it can also inhibit angiogenesis and tumor growth by inducing apoptosis in endothelial cells and reducing the expression of pro-angiogenic factors.

Abnormalities in TNFSF15 have been implicated in several diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and cancer. Therefore, TNFSF15 is a potential target for the development of therapies for these conditions.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling system is a crucial pathway for the transmission and regulation of various cellular responses in eukaryotic cells. It plays a significant role in several biological processes, including proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, inflammation, and stress response. The MAPK cascade consists of three main components: MAP kinase kinase kinase (MAP3K or MEKK), MAP kinase kinase (MAP2K or MEK), and MAP kinase (MAPK).

The signaling system is activated by various extracellular stimuli, such as growth factors, cytokines, hormones, and stress signals. These stimuli initiate a phosphorylation cascade that ultimately leads to the activation of MAPKs. The activated MAPKs then translocate into the nucleus and regulate gene expression by phosphorylating various transcription factors and other regulatory proteins.

There are four major MAPK families: extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2), c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK1/2/3), p38 MAPKs (p38α/β/γ/δ), and ERK5. Each family has distinct functions, substrates, and upstream activators. Dysregulation of the MAPK signaling system can lead to various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and neurological disorders. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying this pathway is crucial for developing novel therapeutic strategies.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Salmon" is not a medical term. It is a common name for various species of fish that belong to the family Salmonidae and are known for their distinctive pink or red flesh. They are an important source of food and are popular in many cuisines around the world. If you have any questions about medical terminology, I'd be happy to help with those instead!

Sialglycoproteins are a type of glycoprotein that have sialic acid as the terminal sugar in their oligosaccharide chains. These complex molecules are abundant on the surface of many cell types and play important roles in various biological processes, including cell recognition, cell-cell interactions, and protection against proteolytic degradation.

The presence of sialic acid on the outermost part of these glycoproteins makes them negatively charged, which can affect their interaction with other molecules such as lectins, antibodies, and enzymes. Sialglycoproteins are also involved in the regulation of various physiological functions, including blood coagulation, inflammation, and immune response.

Abnormalities in sialglycoprotein expression or structure have been implicated in several diseases, such as cancer, autoimmune disorders, and neurodegenerative conditions. Therefore, understanding the biology of sialoglycoproteins is important for developing new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for these diseases.

Thiocarbamates are a group of chemical compounds that contain a functional group with the structure R-S-CO-NH-R', where R and R' represent organic groups. They are commonly used as herbicides, fungicides, and nematocides in agriculture due to their ability to inhibit certain enzymes in plants and pests.

In a medical context, thiocarbamates have been studied for their potential therapeutic effects, particularly as anti-cancer agents. Some thiocarbamate derivatives have been found to inhibit the growth of cancer cells by interfering with microtubule dynamics or by inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death). However, more research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and potential side effects before they can be widely used in clinical settings.

Vasculitis is a group of disorders characterized by inflammation of the blood vessels, which can cause changes in the vessel walls including thickening, narrowing, or weakening. These changes can restrict blood flow, leading to organ and tissue damage. The specific symptoms and severity of vasculitis depend on the size and location of the affected blood vessels and the extent of inflammation. Vasculitis can affect any organ system in the body, and its causes can vary, including infections, autoimmune disorders, or exposure to certain medications or chemicals.

"Salmonidae" is not a medical term. It is a biological term that refers to a family of fish which includes salmon, trout, char, grayling, and whitefish. These fish are often anadromous, meaning they are born in fresh water, migrate to the ocean, then return to fresh water to reproduce. They are important both commercially and recreationally as a source of food and sport fishing.

Psoriasis is a chronic skin disorder that is characterized by recurrent episodes of red, scaly patches on the skin. The scales are typically silvery-white and often occur on the elbows, knees, scalp, and lower back, but they can appear anywhere on the body. The exact cause of psoriasis is unknown, but it is believed to be related to an immune system issue that causes skin cells to grow too quickly.

There are several types of psoriasis, including plaque psoriasis (the most common form), guttate psoriasis, inverse psoriasis, pustular psoriasis, and erythrodermic psoriasis. The symptoms and severity of the condition can vary widely from person to person, ranging from mild to severe.

While there is no cure for psoriasis, various treatments are available that can help manage the symptoms and improve quality of life. These may include topical medications, light therapy, and systemic medications such as biologics. Lifestyle measures such as stress reduction, quitting smoking, and avoiding triggers (such as certain foods or alcohol) may also be helpful in managing psoriasis.

Monoclonal antibodies are laboratory-produced proteins that mimic the immune system's ability to fight off harmful antigens such as viruses and cancer cells. They are created by fusing a single B cell (the type of white blood cell responsible for producing antibodies) with a tumor cell, resulting in a hybrid cell called a hybridoma. This hybridoma can then be cloned to produce a large number of identical cells, all producing the same antibody, hence "monoclonal."

Humanized monoclonal antibodies are a type of monoclonal antibody that have been genetically engineered to include human components. This is done to reduce the risk of an adverse immune response in patients receiving the treatment. In this process, the variable region of the mouse monoclonal antibody, which contains the antigen-binding site, is grafted onto a human constant region. The resulting humanized monoclonal antibody retains the ability to bind to the target antigen while minimizing the immunogenicity associated with murine (mouse) antibodies.

In summary, "antibodies, monoclonal, humanized" refers to a type of laboratory-produced protein that mimics the immune system's ability to fight off harmful antigens, but with reduced immunogenicity due to the inclusion of human components in their structure.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique used to compare the means of two or more groups and determine whether there are any significant differences between them. It is a way to analyze the variance in a dataset to determine whether the variability between groups is greater than the variability within groups, which can indicate that the groups are significantly different from one another.

ANOVA is based on the concept of partitioning the total variance in a dataset into two components: variance due to differences between group means (also known as "between-group variance") and variance due to differences within each group (also known as "within-group variance"). By comparing these two sources of variance, ANOVA can help researchers determine whether any observed differences between groups are statistically significant, or whether they could have occurred by chance.

ANOVA is a widely used technique in many areas of research, including biology, psychology, engineering, and business. It is often used to compare the means of two or more experimental groups, such as a treatment group and a control group, to determine whether the treatment had a significant effect. ANOVA can also be used to compare the means of different populations or subgroups within a population, to identify any differences that may exist between them.

Aquaculture is the controlled cultivation and farming of aquatic organisms, such as fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and aquatic plants, in both freshwater and saltwater environments. It involves the breeding, rearing, and harvesting of these organisms under controlled conditions to produce food, feed, recreational resources, and other products for human use. Aquaculture can take place in a variety of systems, including ponds, raceways, tanks, and cages, and it is an important source of protein and livelihoods for many people around the world.

Carbon tetrachloride is a colorless, heavy, and nonflammable liquid with a mild ether-like odor. Its chemical formula is CCl4. It was previously used as a solvent and refrigerant, but its use has been largely phased out due to its toxicity and ozone-depleting properties.

Inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact with carbon tetrachloride can cause harmful health effects. Short-term exposure can lead to symptoms such as dizziness, headache, nausea, and vomiting. Long-term exposure has been linked to liver and kidney damage, as well as an increased risk of cancer.

Carbon tetrachloride is also a potent greenhouse gas and contributes to climate change. Its production and use are regulated by international agreements aimed at protecting human health and the environment.

Transcription factors are proteins that play a crucial role in regulating gene expression by controlling the transcription of DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA). They function by binding to specific DNA sequences, known as response elements, located in the promoter region or enhancer regions of target genes. This binding can either activate or repress the initiation of transcription, depending on the properties and interactions of the particular transcription factor. Transcription factors often act as part of a complex network of regulatory proteins that determine the precise spatiotemporal patterns of gene expression during development, differentiation, and homeostasis in an organism.

Transcriptional activation is the process by which a cell increases the rate of transcription of specific genes from DNA to RNA. This process is tightly regulated and plays a crucial role in various biological processes, including development, differentiation, and response to environmental stimuli.

Transcriptional activation occurs when transcription factors (proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences) interact with the promoter region of a gene and recruit co-activator proteins. These co-activators help to remodel the chromatin structure around the gene, making it more accessible for the transcription machinery to bind and initiate transcription.

Transcriptional activation can be regulated at multiple levels, including the availability and activity of transcription factors, the modification of histone proteins, and the recruitment of co-activators or co-repressors. Dysregulation of transcriptional activation has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

Prognosis is a medical term that refers to the prediction of the likely outcome or course of a disease, including the chances of recovery or recurrence, based on the patient's symptoms, medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests. It is an important aspect of clinical decision-making and patient communication, as it helps doctors and patients make informed decisions about treatment options, set realistic expectations, and plan for future care.

Prognosis can be expressed in various ways, such as percentages, categories (e.g., good, fair, poor), or survival rates, depending on the nature of the disease and the available evidence. However, it is important to note that prognosis is not an exact science and may vary depending on individual factors, such as age, overall health status, and response to treatment. Therefore, it should be used as a guide rather than a definitive forecast.

Fluorescence microscopy is a type of microscopy that uses fluorescent dyes or proteins to highlight and visualize specific components within a sample. In this technique, the sample is illuminated with high-energy light, typically ultraviolet (UV) or blue light, which excites the fluorescent molecules causing them to emit lower-energy, longer-wavelength light, usually visible light in the form of various colors. This emitted light is then collected by the microscope and detected to produce an image.

Fluorescence microscopy has several advantages over traditional brightfield microscopy, including the ability to visualize specific structures or molecules within a complex sample, increased sensitivity, and the potential for quantitative analysis. It is widely used in various fields of biology and medicine, such as cell biology, neuroscience, and pathology, to study the structure, function, and interactions of cells and proteins.

There are several types of fluorescence microscopy techniques, including widefield fluorescence microscopy, confocal microscopy, two-photon microscopy, and total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, each with its own strengths and limitations. These techniques can provide valuable insights into the behavior of cells and proteins in health and disease.

A chronic disease is a long-term medical condition that often progresses slowly over a period of years and requires ongoing management and care. These diseases are typically not fully curable, but symptoms can be managed to improve quality of life. Common chronic diseases include heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes, arthritis, and COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). They are often associated with advanced age, although they can also affect children and younger adults. Chronic diseases can have significant impacts on individuals' physical, emotional, and social well-being, as well as on healthcare systems and society at large.

Keratinocytes are the predominant type of cells found in the epidermis, which is the outermost layer of the skin. These cells are responsible for producing keratin, a tough protein that provides structural support and protection to the skin. Keratinocytes undergo constant turnover, with new cells produced in the basal layer of the epidermis and older cells moving upward and eventually becoming flattened and filled with keratin as they reach the surface of the skin, where they are then shed. They also play a role in the immune response and can release cytokines and other signaling molecules to help protect the body from infection and injury.

Xanthones are a type of chemical compound that are found in various plants and fruits. They have a variety of potential health benefits, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer properties. Some research suggests that xanthones may help to protect against chronic diseases such as heart disease and cancer, but more studies are needed to confirm these effects. Xanthones can be found in small amounts in a variety of foods, including mangosteen fruit, blackberries, and turmeric. They are also available in supplement form.

"Specific Pathogen-Free (SPF)" is a term used to describe animals or organisms that are raised and maintained in a controlled environment, free from specific pathogens (disease-causing agents) that could interfere with research outcomes or pose a risk to human or animal health. The "specific" part of the term refers to the fact that the exclusion of pathogens is targeted to those that are relevant to the particular organism or research being conducted.

To maintain an SPF status, animals are typically housed in specialized facilities with strict biosecurity measures, such as air filtration systems, quarantine procedures, and rigorous sanitation protocols. They are usually bred and raised in isolation from other animals, and their health status is closely monitored to ensure that they remain free from specific pathogens.

It's important to note that SPF does not necessarily mean "germ-free" or "sterile," as some microorganisms may still be present in the environment or on the animals themselves, even in an SPF facility. Instead, it means that the animals are free from specific pathogens that have been identified and targeted for exclusion.

In summary, Specific Pathogen-Free Organisms refer to animals or organisms that are raised and maintained in a controlled environment, free from specific disease-causing agents that are relevant to the research being conducted or human/animal health.

A genetic vector is a vehicle, often a plasmid or a virus, that is used to introduce foreign DNA into a host cell as part of genetic engineering or gene therapy techniques. The vector contains the desired gene or genes, along with regulatory elements such as promoters and enhancers, which are needed for the expression of the gene in the target cells.

The choice of vector depends on several factors, including the size of the DNA to be inserted, the type of cell to be targeted, and the efficiency of uptake and expression required. Commonly used vectors include plasmids, adenoviruses, retroviruses, and lentiviruses.

Plasmids are small circular DNA molecules that can replicate independently in bacteria. They are often used as cloning vectors to amplify and manipulate DNA fragments. Adenoviruses are double-stranded DNA viruses that infect a wide range of host cells, including human cells. They are commonly used as gene therapy vectors because they can efficiently transfer genes into both dividing and non-dividing cells.

Retroviruses and lentiviruses are RNA viruses that integrate their genetic material into the host cell's genome. This allows for stable expression of the transgene over time. Lentiviruses, a subclass of retroviruses, have the advantage of being able to infect non-dividing cells, making them useful for gene therapy applications in post-mitotic tissues such as neurons and muscle cells.

Overall, genetic vectors play a crucial role in modern molecular biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study gene function, develop new therapies, and modify organisms for various purposes.

MAP (Mitogen-Activated Protein) Kinase Kinase Kinases (MAP3K or MAPKKK) are a group of protein kinases that play a crucial role in intracellular signal transduction pathways, which regulate various cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, survival, and apoptosis. They are called "kinases" because they catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to specific serine or threonine residues on their target proteins.

MAP3Ks function upstream of MAP Kinase Kinases (MKKs or MAP2K) and MAP Kinases (MPKs or MAPK) in the MAP kinase cascade. Upon activation by various extracellular signals, such as growth factors, cytokines, stress, and hormones, MAP3Ks phosphorylate and activate MKKs, which subsequently phosphorylate and activate MPKs. Activated MPKs then regulate the activity of downstream transcription factors and other target proteins to elicit appropriate cellular responses.

There are several subfamilies of MAP3Ks, including ASK, DLK, TAK, MEKK, MLK, and ZAK, among others. Each subfamily has distinct structural features and functions in different signaling pathways. Dysregulation of MAP kinase cascades, including MAP3Ks, has been implicated in various human diseases, such as cancer, inflammation, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Synovial fluid is a viscous, clear, and straw-colored fluid found in the cavities of synovial joints, bursae, and tendon sheaths. It is produced by the synovial membrane, which lines the inner surface of the capsule surrounding these structures.

The primary function of synovial fluid is to reduce friction between articulating surfaces, providing lubrication for smooth and painless movement. It also acts as a shock absorber, protecting the joints from external forces during physical activities. Synovial fluid contains nutrients that nourish the articular cartilage, hyaluronic acid, which provides its viscoelastic properties, and lubricin, a protein responsible for boundary lubrication.

Abnormalities in synovial fluid composition or volume can indicate joint-related disorders, such as osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, gout, infection, or trauma. Analysis of synovial fluid is often used diagnostically to determine the underlying cause of joint pain, inflammation, or dysfunction.

Crohn's disease is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that can affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract, from the mouth to the anus. It is characterized by chronic inflammation of the digestive tract, which can lead to symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, fatigue, weight loss, and malnutrition.

The specific causes of Crohn's disease are not fully understood, but it is believed to be related to a combination of genetic, environmental, and immune system factors. The disease can affect people of any age, but it is most commonly diagnosed in young adults between the ages of 15 and 35.

There is no cure for Crohn's disease, but treatments such as medications, lifestyle changes, and surgery can help manage symptoms and prevent complications. Treatment options depend on the severity and location of the disease, as well as the individual patient's needs and preferences.

Follow-up studies are a type of longitudinal research that involve repeated observations or measurements of the same variables over a period of time, in order to understand their long-term effects or outcomes. In medical context, follow-up studies are often used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments, interventions, or procedures.

In a typical follow-up study, a group of individuals (called a cohort) who have received a particular treatment or intervention are identified and then followed over time through periodic assessments or data collection. The data collected may include information on clinical outcomes, adverse events, changes in symptoms or functional status, and other relevant measures.

The results of follow-up studies can provide important insights into the long-term benefits and risks of medical interventions, as well as help to identify factors that may influence treatment effectiveness or patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that follow-up studies can be subject to various biases and limitations, such as loss to follow-up, recall bias, and changes in clinical practice over time, which must be carefully considered when interpreting the results.

Polymyxin B is an antibiotic derived from the bacterium Paenibacillus polymyxa. It belongs to the class of polypeptide antibiotics and has a cyclic structure with a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic region, which allows it to interact with and disrupt the bacterial cell membrane. Polymyxin B is primarily active against gram-negative bacteria, including many multidrug-resistant strains. It is used clinically to treat serious infections caused by these organisms, such as sepsis, pneumonia, and urinary tract infections. However, its use is limited due to potential nephrotoxicity and neurotoxicity.

Medical Definition:

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive diagnostic imaging technique that uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed cross-sectional or three-dimensional images of the internal structures of the body. The patient lies within a large, cylindrical magnet, and the scanner detects changes in the direction of the magnetic field caused by protons in the body. These changes are then converted into detailed images that help medical professionals to diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as tumors, injuries, or diseases affecting the brain, spinal cord, heart, blood vessels, joints, and other internal organs. MRI does not use radiation like computed tomography (CT) scans.

Neutrophil activation refers to the process by which neutrophils, a type of white blood cell, become activated in response to a signal or stimulus, such as an infection or inflammation. This activation triggers a series of responses within the neutrophil that enable it to carry out its immune functions, including:

1. Degranulation: The release of granules containing enzymes and other proteins that can destroy microbes.
2. Phagocytosis: The engulfment and destruction of microbes through the use of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and other toxic substances.
3. Formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs): A process in which neutrophils release DNA and proteins to trap and kill microbes outside the cell.
4. Release of cytokines and chemokines: Signaling molecules that recruit other immune cells to the site of infection or inflammation.

Neutrophil activation is a critical component of the innate immune response, but excessive or uncontrolled activation can contribute to tissue damage and chronic inflammation.

The colon, also known as the large intestine, is a part of the digestive system in humans and other vertebrates. It is an organ that eliminates waste from the body and is located between the small intestine and the rectum. The main function of the colon is to absorb water and electrolytes from digested food, forming and storing feces until they are eliminated through the anus.

The colon is divided into several regions, including the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus. The walls of the colon contain a layer of muscle that helps to move waste material through the organ by a process called peristalsis.

The inner surface of the colon is lined with mucous membrane, which secretes mucus to lubricate the passage of feces. The colon also contains a large population of bacteria, known as the gut microbiota, which play an important role in digestion and immunity.

Body weight is the measure of the force exerted on a scale or balance by an object's mass, most commonly expressed in units such as pounds (lb) or kilograms (kg). In the context of medical definitions, body weight typically refers to an individual's total weight, which includes their skeletal muscle, fat, organs, and bodily fluids.

Healthcare professionals often use body weight as a basic indicator of overall health status, as it can provide insights into various aspects of a person's health, such as nutritional status, metabolic function, and risk factors for certain diseases. For example, being significantly underweight or overweight can increase the risk of developing conditions like malnutrition, diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

It is important to note that body weight alone may not provide a complete picture of an individual's health, as it does not account for factors such as muscle mass, bone density, or body composition. Therefore, healthcare professionals often use additional measures, such as body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and blood tests, to assess overall health status more comprehensively.

The Shwartzman phenomenon is a rare but serious condition characterized by the development of thrombotic vasculopathy in multiple organs. It is typically divided into two phases: the local reaction phase and the systemic reaction phase. The local reaction phase occurs after the injection of a large dose of bacterial endotoxin (such as Escherichia coli) into the skin, which results in a localized inflammatory response. This is followed by the systemic reaction phase, which can occur 24-48 hours later and is characterized by the development of thrombosis and necrosis in various organs, including the kidneys, lungs, and brain.

The Shwartzman phenomenon is thought to be caused by the activation of the complement system and the coagulation cascade, which leads to the formation of blood clots and the destruction of blood vessels. It can occur as a complication of certain medical procedures (such as intravenous pyelograms) or infections, and it is often seen in patients with compromised immune systems.

The Shwartzman phenomenon is named after the Russian-American physician, Maurice Shwartzman, who first described the condition in 1928.

Glucocorticoid-induced TNFR-related protein (GITRP) is not a widely recognized or established medical term in the field of glucocorticoids, tumor necrosis factor receptors (TNFRs), or related proteins. It's possible that there is some confusion with the term, and it might be referring to TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand receptor (TRAIL-R) or a specific isoform of this receptor, such as TRAIL-R2/DR5, which can be upregulated by glucocorticoids.

To provide some context, TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand receptors (TRAIL-Rs) are a group of death receptors that play a role in the regulation of cell survival and apoptosis (programmed cell death). Glucocorticoids, which are frequently used anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive agents, have been shown to modulate the expression of TRAIL-Rs on the cell surface. This modulation can potentially influence the sensitivity of cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis, although the exact mechanisms and clinical relevance are still a subject of ongoing research.

If you require more specific information about 'Glucocorticoid-induced TNFR-related protein' or need clarification on the topic, please provide additional context or details to help better understand the question.

B-cell activating factor (BAFF) is a type of protein belonging to the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family. Its primary function is to stimulate and activate B cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune system by producing antibodies. BAFF helps to promote the survival, differentiation, and activation of B cells, thereby contributing to the adaptive immune response.

BAFF binds to its receptor, known as BAFF receptor (BAFF-R), which is expressed on the surface of B cells. This interaction leads to the activation of various signaling pathways that promote B cell survival and proliferation. Overexpression or excessive production of BAFF has been implicated in several autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and Sjogren's syndrome, due to the abnormal activation and expansion of B cells.

In summary, B-cell activating factor is a protein that plays an essential role in the activation and survival of B cells, which are crucial for the immune response. However, its overexpression or dysregulation can contribute to the development of autoimmune diseases.

Proto-oncogene proteins are normal cellular proteins that play crucial roles in various cellular processes, such as signal transduction, cell cycle regulation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). They are involved in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation, and survival under physiological conditions.

When proto-oncogene proteins undergo mutations or aberrations in their expression levels, they can transform into oncogenic forms, leading to uncontrolled cell growth and division. These altered proteins are then referred to as oncogene products or oncoproteins. Oncogenic mutations can occur due to various factors, including genetic predisposition, environmental exposures, and aging.

Examples of proto-oncogene proteins include:

1. Ras proteins: Involved in signal transduction pathways that regulate cell growth and differentiation. Activating mutations in Ras genes are found in various human cancers.
2. Myc proteins: Regulate gene expression related to cell cycle progression, apoptosis, and metabolism. Overexpression of Myc proteins is associated with several types of cancer.
3. EGFR (Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor): A transmembrane receptor tyrosine kinase that regulates cell proliferation, survival, and differentiation. Mutations or overexpression of EGFR are linked to various malignancies, such as lung cancer and glioblastoma.
4. Src family kinases: Intracellular tyrosine kinases that regulate signal transduction pathways involved in cell proliferation, survival, and migration. Dysregulation of Src family kinases is implicated in several types of cancer.
5. Abl kinases: Cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases that regulate various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and stress responses. Aberrant activation of Abl kinases, as seen in chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), leads to uncontrolled cell proliferation.

Understanding the roles of proto-oncogene proteins and their dysregulation in cancer development is essential for developing targeted cancer therapies that aim to inhibit or modulate these aberrant signaling pathways.

Interleukin-18 (IL-18) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine, a type of signaling molecule used in intercellular communication. It belongs to the interleukin-1 (IL-1) family and is primarily produced by macrophages, although other cells such as keratinocytes, osteoblasts, and Kupffer cells can also produce it.

IL-18 plays a crucial role in the innate and adaptive immune responses. It contributes to the differentiation of Th1 (T helper 1) cells, which are critical for fighting intracellular pathogens, and enhances the cytotoxic activity of natural killer (NK) cells and CD8+ T cells. IL-18 also has a role in the production of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), a cytokine that activates immune cells and has antiviral properties.

Dysregulation of IL-18 has been implicated in several inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease, and psoriasis. It is also involved in the pathogenesis of some autoimmune disorders and has been investigated as a potential therapeutic target for these conditions.

Photochemotherapy is a medical treatment that combines the use of drugs and light to treat various skin conditions. The most common type of photochemotherapy is PUVA (Psoralen + UVA), where the patient takes a photosensitizing medication called psoralen, followed by exposure to ultraviolet A (UVA) light.

The psoralen makes the skin more sensitive to the UVA light, which helps to reduce inflammation and suppress the overactive immune response that contributes to many skin conditions. This therapy is often used to treat severe cases of psoriasis, eczema, and mycosis fungoides (a type of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma). It's important to note that photochemotherapy can increase the risk of skin cancer and cataracts, so it should only be administered under the close supervision of a healthcare professional.

Experimental neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors that are induced and studied in a controlled laboratory setting, typically in animals or cell cultures. These studies are conducted to understand the fundamental mechanisms of cancer development, progression, and potential treatment strategies. By manipulating various factors such as genetic mutations, environmental exposures, and pharmacological interventions, researchers can gain valuable insights into the complex processes underlying neoplasm formation and identify novel targets for cancer therapy. It is important to note that experimental neoplasms may not always accurately represent human cancers, and further research is needed to translate these findings into clinically relevant applications.

"Inbred strains of rats" are genetically identical rodents that have been produced through many generations of brother-sister mating. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the genes at any particular locus in the genome are identical in all members of the strain.

Inbred strains of rats are widely used in biomedical research because they provide a consistent and reproducible genetic background for studying various biological phenomena, including the effects of drugs, environmental factors, and genetic mutations on health and disease. Additionally, inbred strains can be used to create genetically modified models of human diseases by introducing specific mutations into their genomes.

Some commonly used inbred strains of rats include the Wistar Kyoto (WKY), Sprague-Dawley (SD), and Fischer 344 (F344) rat strains. Each strain has its own unique genetic characteristics, making them suitable for different types of research.

Gastric dilatation, also known as stomach dilation or distention, refers to the abnormal enlargement or expansion of the stomach. This condition often occurs when the stomach fills with gas, food, or fluids and is unable to empty properly. Gastric dilatation can be caused by various factors such as overeating, swallowing excessive air, gastroparesis (delayed gastric emptying), intestinal obstruction, or certain medical conditions like hiatal hernia or pregnancy.

In severe cases, gastric dilatation may lead to gastric volvulus, where the stomach twists on itself, cutting off its blood supply and leading to ischemia and necrosis of the stomach tissue. This is a life-threatening condition that requires immediate medical attention. Symptoms of gastric dilatation include abdominal pain, bloating, vomiting, loss of appetite, and difficulty breathing.

Chinese herbal drugs, also known as traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), refer to a system of medicine that has been practiced in China for thousands of years. It is based on the belief that the body's vital energy, called Qi, must be balanced and flowing freely for good health. TCM uses various techniques such as herbal therapy, acupuncture, dietary therapy, and exercise to restore balance and promote healing.

Chinese herbal drugs are usually prescribed in the form of teas, powders, pills, or tinctures and may contain one or a combination of herbs. The herbs used in Chinese medicine are typically derived from plants, minerals, or animal products. Some commonly used Chinese herbs include ginseng, astragalus, licorice root, and cinnamon bark.

It is important to note that the use of Chinese herbal drugs should be under the guidance of a qualified practitioner, as some herbs can interact with prescription medications or have side effects. Additionally, the quality and safety of Chinese herbal products can vary widely depending on the source and manufacturing process.

An animal model in medicine refers to the use of non-human animals in experiments to understand, predict, and test responses and effects of various biological and chemical interactions that may also occur in humans. These models are used when studying complex systems or processes that cannot be easily replicated or studied in human subjects, such as genetic manipulation or exposure to harmful substances. The choice of animal model depends on the specific research question being asked and the similarities between the animal's and human's biological and physiological responses. Examples of commonly used animal models include mice, rats, rabbits, guinea pigs, and non-human primates.

A cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a thin semi-permeable phospholipid bilayer that surrounds all cells in animals, plants, and microorganisms. It functions as a barrier to control the movement of substances in and out of the cell, allowing necessary molecules such as nutrients, oxygen, and signaling molecules to enter while keeping out harmful substances and waste products. The cell membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids, which have hydrophilic (water-loving) heads and hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails. This unique structure allows the membrane to be flexible and fluid, yet selectively permeable. Additionally, various proteins are embedded in the membrane that serve as channels, pumps, receptors, and enzymes, contributing to the cell's overall functionality and communication with its environment.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

"Intraperitoneal injection" is a medical term that refers to the administration of a substance or medication directly into the peritoneal cavity, which is the space between the lining of the abdominal wall and the organs contained within it. This type of injection is typically used in clinical settings for various purposes, such as delivering chemotherapy drugs, anesthetics, or other medications directly to the abdominal organs.

The procedure involves inserting a needle through the abdominal wall and into the peritoneal cavity, taking care to avoid any vital structures such as blood vessels or nerves. Once the needle is properly positioned, the medication can be injected slowly and carefully to ensure even distribution throughout the cavity.

It's important to note that intraperitoneal injections are typically reserved for situations where other routes of administration are not feasible or effective, as they carry a higher risk of complications such as infection, bleeding, or injury to surrounding organs. As with any medical procedure, it should only be performed by trained healthcare professionals under appropriate clinical circumstances.

The acute-phase reaction is a complex series of physiological responses that occur in response to tissue injury, infection, or stress. It is characterized by the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) from activated immune cells, including macrophages and neutrophils.

These cytokines trigger a range of systemic effects, including fever, increased heart rate and respiratory rate, decreased appetite, and changes in white blood cell count. They also stimulate the production of acute-phase proteins (APPs) by the liver, such as C-reactive protein (CRP), fibrinogen, and serum amyloid A.

The acute-phase reaction is an important part of the body's immune response to injury or infection, helping to promote healing and fight off pathogens. However, excessive or prolonged activation of the acute-phase reaction can contribute to the development of chronic inflammatory conditions and diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, and cancer.

Protein Kinase C (PKC) is a family of serine-threonine kinases that play crucial roles in various cellular signaling pathways. These enzymes are activated by second messengers such as diacylglycerol (DAG) and calcium ions (Ca2+), which result from the activation of cell surface receptors like G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs).

Once activated, PKC proteins phosphorylate downstream target proteins, thereby modulating their activities. This regulation is involved in numerous cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis, and membrane trafficking. There are at least 10 isoforms of PKC, classified into three subfamilies based on their second messenger requirements and structural features: conventional (cPKC; α, βI, βII, and γ), novel (nPKC; δ, ε, η, and θ), and atypical (aPKC; ζ and ι/λ). Dysregulation of PKC signaling has been implicated in several diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging method that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional (tomographic) images (virtual "slices") of the body. These cross-sectional images can then be used to display detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body.

The term "computed tomography" is used instead of "CT scan" or "CAT scan" because the machines take a series of X-ray measurements from different angles around the body and then use a computer to process these data to create detailed images of internal structures within the body.

CT scanning is a noninvasive, painless medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions. CT imaging provides detailed information about many types of tissue including lung, bone, soft tissue and blood vessels. CT examinations can be performed on every part of the body for a variety of reasons including diagnosis, surgical planning, and monitoring of therapeutic responses.

In computed tomography (CT), an X-ray source and detector rotate around the patient, measuring the X-ray attenuation at many different angles. A computer uses this data to construct a cross-sectional image by the process of reconstruction. This technique is called "tomography". The term "computed" refers to the use of a computer to reconstruct the images.

CT has become an important tool in medical imaging and diagnosis, allowing radiologists and other physicians to view detailed internal images of the body. It can help identify many different medical conditions including cancer, heart disease, lung nodules, liver tumors, and internal injuries from trauma. CT is also commonly used for guiding biopsies and other minimally invasive procedures.

In summary, X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging technique that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional images of the body. It provides detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body, allowing physicians to diagnose and treat medical conditions.

B-lymphocytes, also known as B-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune system's response to infection. They are responsible for producing antibodies, which are proteins that help to neutralize or destroy pathogens such as bacteria and viruses.

When a B-lymphocyte encounters a pathogen, it becomes activated and begins to divide and differentiate into plasma cells, which produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies specific to the antigens on the surface of the pathogen. These antibodies bind to the pathogen, marking it for destruction by other immune cells such as neutrophils and macrophages.

B-lymphocytes also have a role in presenting antigens to T-lymphocytes, another type of white blood cell involved in the immune response. This helps to stimulate the activation and proliferation of T-lymphocytes, which can then go on to destroy infected cells or help to coordinate the overall immune response.

Overall, B-lymphocytes are an essential part of the adaptive immune system, providing long-lasting immunity to previously encountered pathogens and helping to protect against future infections.

Kidney tubules are the structural and functional units of the kidney responsible for reabsorption, secretion, and excretion of various substances. They are part of the nephron, which is the basic unit of the kidney's filtration and reabsorption process.

There are three main types of kidney tubules:

1. Proximal tubule: This is the initial segment of the kidney tubule that receives the filtrate from the glomerulus. It is responsible for reabsorbing approximately 65% of the filtrate, including water, glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes.
2. Loop of Henle: This U-shaped segment of the tubule consists of a thin descending limb, a thin ascending limb, and a thick ascending limb. The loop of Henle helps to concentrate urine by creating an osmotic gradient that allows water to be reabsorbed in the collecting ducts.
3. Distal tubule: This is the final segment of the kidney tubule before it empties into the collecting duct. It is responsible for fine-tuning the concentration of electrolytes and pH balance in the urine by selectively reabsorbing or secreting substances such as sodium, potassium, chloride, and hydrogen ions.

Overall, kidney tubules play a critical role in maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance, regulating acid-base balance, and removing waste products from the body.

A "mutant strain of mice" in a medical context refers to genetically engineered mice that have specific genetic mutations introduced into their DNA. These mutations can be designed to mimic certain human diseases or conditions, allowing researchers to study the underlying biological mechanisms and test potential therapies in a controlled laboratory setting.

Mutant strains of mice are created through various techniques, including embryonic stem cell manipulation, gene editing technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9, and radiation-induced mutagenesis. These methods allow scientists to introduce specific genetic changes into the mouse genome, resulting in mice that exhibit altered physiological or behavioral traits.

These strains of mice are widely used in biomedical research because their short lifespan, small size, and high reproductive rate make them an ideal model organism for studying human diseases. Additionally, the mouse genome has been well-characterized, and many genetic tools and resources are available to researchers working with these animals.

Examples of mutant strains of mice include those that carry mutations in genes associated with cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, metabolic diseases, and immunological conditions. These mice provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of human diseases and help advance our understanding of potential therapeutic interventions.

Osteoclasts are large, multinucleated cells that are primarily responsible for bone resorption, a process in which they break down and dissolve the mineralized matrix of bones. They are derived from monocyte-macrophage precursor cells of hematopoietic origin and play a crucial role in maintaining bone homeostasis by balancing bone formation and bone resorption.

Osteoclasts adhere to the bone surface and create an isolated microenvironment, called the "resorption lacuna," between their cell membrane and the bone surface. Here, they release hydrogen ions into the lacuna through a process called proton pumping, which lowers the pH and dissolves the mineral component of the bone matrix. Additionally, osteoclasts secrete proteolytic enzymes, such as cathepsin K, that degrade the organic components, like collagen, in the bone matrix.

An imbalance in osteoclast activity can lead to various bone diseases, including osteoporosis and Paget's disease, where excessive bone resorption results in weakened and fragile bones.

Colitis is a medical term that refers to inflammation of the inner lining of the colon or large intestine. The condition can cause symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and urgency to have a bowel movement. Colitis can be caused by a variety of factors, including infections, inflammatory bowel disease (such as Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis), microscopic colitis, ischemic colitis, and radiation therapy. The specific symptoms and treatment options for colitis may vary depending on the underlying cause.

An Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay (EMSA) is a laboratory technique used to detect and analyze protein-DNA interactions. In this assay, a mixture of proteins and fluorescently or radioactively labeled DNA probes are loaded onto a native polyacrylamide gel matrix and subjected to an electric field. The negatively charged DNA probe migrates towards the positive electrode, and the rate of migration (mobility) is dependent on the size and charge of the molecule. When a protein binds to the DNA probe, it forms a complex that has a different size and/or charge than the unbound probe, resulting in a shift in its mobility on the gel.

The EMSA can be used to identify specific protein-DNA interactions, determine the binding affinity of proteins for specific DNA sequences, and investigate the effects of mutations or post-translational modifications on protein-DNA interactions. The technique is widely used in molecular biology research, including studies of gene regulation, DNA damage repair, and epigenetic modifications.

In summary, Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay (EMSA) is a laboratory technique that detects and analyzes protein-DNA interactions by subjecting a mixture of proteins and labeled DNA probes to an electric field in a native polyacrylamide gel matrix. The binding of proteins to the DNA probe results in a shift in its mobility on the gel, allowing for the detection and analysis of specific protein-DNA interactions.

Chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 2, also known as CXCL2, is a small signaling protein that belongs to the chemokine family. Chemokines are a group of cytokines, or cell signaling molecules, that play crucial roles in immune responses and inflammation. They mediate their effects by interacting with specific receptors on the surface of target cells, guiding the migration of various immune cells to sites of infection, injury, or inflammation.

CXCL2 is primarily produced by activated monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils, as well as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and certain types of tumor cells. Its primary function is to attract and activate neutrophils, which are key effector cells in the early stages of inflammation and host defense against invading pathogens. CXCL2 exerts its effects by binding to its specific receptor, CXCR2, which is expressed on the surface of neutrophils and other immune cells.

In addition to its role in inflammation and immunity, CXCL2 has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including cancer, atherosclerosis, and autoimmune diseases. Its expression can be regulated by several factors, such as pro-inflammatory cytokines, bacterial products, and growth factors. Understanding the role of CXCL2 in health and disease may provide insights into the development of novel therapeutic strategies for treating inflammation-associated disorders.

Cell culture is a technique used in scientific research to grow and maintain cells from plants, animals, or humans in a controlled environment outside of their original organism. This environment typically consists of a sterile container called a cell culture flask or plate, and a nutrient-rich liquid medium that provides the necessary components for the cells' growth and survival, such as amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and hormones.

There are several different types of cell culture techniques used in research, including:

1. Adherent cell culture: In this technique, cells are grown on a flat surface, such as the bottom of a tissue culture dish or flask. The cells attach to the surface and spread out, forming a monolayer that can be observed and manipulated under a microscope.
2. Suspension cell culture: In suspension culture, cells are grown in liquid medium without any attachment to a solid surface. These cells remain suspended in the medium and can be agitated or mixed to ensure even distribution of nutrients.
3. Organoid culture: Organoids are three-dimensional structures that resemble miniature organs and are grown from stem cells or other progenitor cells. They can be used to study organ development, disease processes, and drug responses.
4. Co-culture: In co-culture, two or more different types of cells are grown together in the same culture dish or flask. This technique is used to study cell-cell interactions and communication.
5. Conditioned medium culture: In this technique, cells are grown in a medium that has been conditioned by previous cultures of other cells. The conditioned medium contains factors secreted by the previous cells that can influence the growth and behavior of the new cells.

Cell culture techniques are widely used in biomedical research to study cellular processes, develop drugs, test toxicity, and investigate disease mechanisms. However, it is important to note that cell cultures may not always accurately represent the behavior of cells in a living organism, and results from cell culture experiments should be validated using other methods.

Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped organs that are part of the immune system. They are found throughout the body, especially in the neck, armpits, groin, and abdomen. Lymph nodes filter lymph fluid, which carries waste and unwanted substances such as bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells. They contain white blood cells called lymphocytes that help fight infections and diseases by attacking and destroying the harmful substances found in the lymph fluid. When an infection or disease is present, lymph nodes may swell due to the increased number of immune cells and fluid accumulation as they work to fight off the invaders.

Genetic polymorphism refers to the occurrence of multiple forms (called alleles) of a particular gene within a population. These variations in the DNA sequence do not generally affect the function or survival of the organism, but they can contribute to differences in traits among individuals. Genetic polymorphisms can be caused by single nucleotide changes (SNPs), insertions or deletions of DNA segments, or other types of genetic rearrangements. They are important for understanding genetic diversity and evolution, as well as for identifying genetic factors that may contribute to disease susceptibility in humans.

Pregnancy is a physiological state or condition where a fertilized egg (zygote) successfully implants and grows in the uterus of a woman, leading to the development of an embryo and finally a fetus. This process typically spans approximately 40 weeks, divided into three trimesters, and culminates in childbirth. Throughout this period, numerous hormonal and physical changes occur to support the growing offspring, including uterine enlargement, breast development, and various maternal adaptations to ensure the fetus's optimal growth and well-being.

Respiratory burst is a term used in the field of biology, particularly in the context of immunology and cellular processes. It does not have a direct application to clinical medicine, but it is important for understanding certain physiological and pathophysiological mechanisms. Here's a definition of respiratory burst:

Respiratory burst is a rapid increase in oxygen consumption by phagocytic cells (like neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages) following their activation in response to various stimuli, such as pathogens or inflammatory molecules. This process is part of the innate immune response and serves to eliminate invading microorganisms.

The respiratory burst involves the activation of NADPH oxidase, an enzyme complex present in the membrane of phagosomes (the compartment where pathogens are engulfed). Upon activation, NADPH oxidase catalyzes the reduction of oxygen to superoxide radicals, which then dismutate to form hydrogen peroxide. These reactive oxygen species (ROS) can directly kill or damage microorganisms and also serve as signaling molecules for other immune cells.

While respiratory burst is a crucial part of the immune response, excessive or dysregulated ROS production can contribute to tissue damage and chronic inflammation, which have implications in various pathological conditions, such as atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer.

Antigens are substances (usually proteins) on the surface of cells, or viruses, bacteria, and other microorganisms, that can stimulate an immune response.

Differentiation in the context of myelomonocytic cells refers to the process by which these cells mature and develop into specific types of immune cells, such as monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils.

Myelomonocytic cells are a type of white blood cell that originate from stem cells in the bone marrow. They give rise to two main types of immune cells: monocytes and granulocytes (which include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils).

Therefore, 'Antigens, Differentiation, Myelomonocytic' refers to the study or examination of how antigens affect the differentiation process of myelomonocytic cells into specific types of immune cells. This is an important area of research in immunology and hematology as it relates to understanding how the body responds to infections, inflammation, and cancer.

Astrocytes are a type of star-shaped glial cell found in the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain and spinal cord. They play crucial roles in supporting and maintaining the health and function of neurons, which are the primary cells responsible for transmitting information in the CNS.

Some of the essential functions of astrocytes include:

1. Supporting neuronal structure and function: Astrocytes provide structural support to neurons by ensheathing them and maintaining the integrity of the blood-brain barrier, which helps regulate the entry and exit of substances into the CNS.
2. Regulating neurotransmitter levels: Astrocytes help control the levels of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft (the space between two neurons) by taking up excess neurotransmitters and breaking them down, thus preventing excessive or prolonged activation of neuronal receptors.
3. Providing nutrients to neurons: Astrocytes help supply energy metabolites, such as lactate, to neurons, which are essential for their survival and function.
4. Modulating synaptic activity: Through the release of various signaling molecules, astrocytes can modulate synaptic strength and plasticity, contributing to learning and memory processes.
5. Participating in immune responses: Astrocytes can respond to CNS injuries or infections by releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which help recruit immune cells to the site of injury or infection.
6. Promoting neuronal survival and repair: In response to injury or disease, astrocytes can become reactive and undergo morphological changes that aid in forming a glial scar, which helps contain damage and promote tissue repair. Additionally, they release growth factors and other molecules that support the survival and regeneration of injured neurons.

Dysfunction or damage to astrocytes has been implicated in several neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and multiple sclerosis (MS).

Bone marrow cells are the types of cells found within the bone marrow, which is the spongy tissue inside certain bones in the body. The main function of bone marrow is to produce blood cells. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red bone marrow is where most blood cell production takes place, while yellow bone marrow serves as a fat storage site.

The three main types of bone marrow cells are:

1. Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs): These are immature cells that can differentiate into any type of blood cell, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. They have the ability to self-renew, meaning they can divide and create more hematopoietic stem cells.
2. Red blood cell progenitors: These are immature cells that will develop into mature red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes. Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and carbon dioxide back to the lungs.
3. Myeloid and lymphoid white blood cell progenitors: These are immature cells that will develop into various types of white blood cells, which play a crucial role in the body's immune system by fighting infections and diseases. Myeloid progenitors give rise to granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils), monocytes, and megakaryocytes (which eventually become platelets). Lymphoid progenitors differentiate into B cells, T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells.

Bone marrow cells are essential for maintaining a healthy blood cell count and immune system function. Abnormalities in bone marrow cells can lead to various medical conditions, such as anemia, leukopenia, leukocytosis, thrombocytopenia, or thrombocytosis, depending on the specific type of blood cell affected. Additionally, bone marrow cells are often used in transplantation procedures to treat patients with certain types of cancer, such as leukemia and lymphoma, or other hematologic disorders.

Gene expression profiling is a laboratory technique used to measure the activity (expression) of thousands of genes at once. This technique allows researchers and clinicians to identify which genes are turned on or off in a particular cell, tissue, or organism under specific conditions, such as during health, disease, development, or in response to various treatments.

The process typically involves isolating RNA from the cells or tissues of interest, converting it into complementary DNA (cDNA), and then using microarray or high-throughput sequencing technologies to determine which genes are expressed and at what levels. The resulting data can be used to identify patterns of gene expression that are associated with specific biological states or processes, providing valuable insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms of diseases and potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

In recent years, gene expression profiling has become an essential tool in various fields, including cancer research, drug discovery, and personalized medicine, where it is used to identify biomarkers of disease, predict patient outcomes, and guide treatment decisions.

The intestines, also known as the bowel, are a part of the digestive system that extends from the stomach to the anus. They are responsible for the further breakdown and absorption of nutrients from food, as well as the elimination of waste products. The intestines can be divided into two main sections: the small intestine and the large intestine.

The small intestine is a long, coiled tube that measures about 20 feet in length and is lined with tiny finger-like projections called villi, which increase its surface area and enhance nutrient absorption. The small intestine is where most of the digestion and absorption of nutrients takes place.

The large intestine, also known as the colon, is a wider tube that measures about 5 feet in length and is responsible for absorbing water and electrolytes from digested food, forming stool, and eliminating waste products from the body. The large intestine includes several regions, including the cecum, colon, rectum, and anus.

Together, the intestines play a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being by ensuring that the body receives the nutrients it needs to function properly.

Hemorrhage is defined in the medical context as an excessive loss of blood from the circulatory system, which can occur due to various reasons such as injury, surgery, or underlying health conditions that affect blood clotting or the integrity of blood vessels. The bleeding may be internal, external, visible, or concealed, and it can vary in severity from minor to life-threatening, depending on the location and extent of the bleeding. Hemorrhage is a serious medical emergency that requires immediate attention and treatment to prevent further blood loss, organ damage, and potential death.

Indole is not strictly a medical term, but it is a chemical compound that can be found in the human body and has relevance to medical and biological research. Indoles are organic compounds that contain a bicyclic structure consisting of a six-membered benzene ring fused to a five-membered pyrrole ring.

In the context of medicine, indoles are particularly relevant due to their presence in certain hormones and other biologically active molecules. For example, the neurotransmitter serotonin contains an indole ring, as does the hormone melatonin. Indoles can also be found in various plant-based foods, such as cruciferous vegetables (e.g., broccoli, kale), and have been studied for their potential health benefits.

Some indoles, like indole-3-carbinol and diindolylmethane, are found in these vegetables and can have anti-cancer properties by modulating estrogen metabolism, reducing inflammation, and promoting cell death (apoptosis) in cancer cells. However, it is essential to note that further research is needed to fully understand the potential health benefits and risks associated with indoles.

Flavonoids are a type of plant compounds with antioxidant properties that are beneficial to health. They are found in various fruits, vegetables, grains, and wine. Flavonoids have been studied for their potential to prevent chronic diseases such as heart disease and cancer due to their ability to reduce inflammation and oxidative stress.

There are several subclasses of flavonoids, including:

1. Flavanols: Found in tea, chocolate, grapes, and berries. They have been shown to improve blood flow and lower blood pressure.
2. Flavones: Found in parsley, celery, and citrus fruits. They have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.
3. Flavanonols: Found in citrus fruits, onions, and tea. They have been shown to improve blood flow and reduce inflammation.
4. Isoflavones: Found in soybeans and legumes. They have estrogen-like effects and may help prevent hormone-related cancers.
5. Anthocyanidins: Found in berries, grapes, and other fruits. They have antioxidant properties and may help improve vision and memory.

It is important to note that while flavonoids have potential health benefits, they should not be used as a substitute for medical treatment or a healthy lifestyle. It is always best to consult with a healthcare professional before starting any new supplement regimen.

Adaptor proteins are a type of protein that play a crucial role in intracellular signaling pathways by serving as a link between different components of the signaling complex. Specifically, "signal transducing adaptor proteins" refer to those adaptor proteins that are involved in signal transduction processes, where they help to transmit signals from the cell surface receptors to various intracellular effectors. These proteins typically contain modular domains that allow them to interact with multiple partners, thereby facilitating the formation of large signaling complexes and enabling the integration of signals from different pathways.

Signal transducing adaptor proteins can be classified into several families based on their structural features, including the Src homology 2 (SH2) domain, the Src homology 3 (SH3) domain, and the phosphotyrosine-binding (PTB) domain. These domains enable the adaptor proteins to recognize and bind to specific motifs on other signaling molecules, such as receptor tyrosine kinases, G protein-coupled receptors, and cytokine receptors.

One well-known example of a signal transducing adaptor protein is the growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 (Grb2), which contains an SH2 domain that binds to phosphotyrosine residues on activated receptor tyrosine kinases. Grb2 also contains an SH3 domain that interacts with proline-rich motifs on other signaling proteins, such as the guanine nucleotide exchange factor SOS. This interaction facilitates the activation of the Ras small GTPase and downstream signaling pathways involved in cell growth, differentiation, and survival.

Overall, signal transducing adaptor proteins play a critical role in regulating various cellular processes by modulating intracellular signaling pathways in response to extracellular stimuli. Dysregulation of these proteins has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer and inflammatory disorders.

Tristetraprolin (TTP) is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the ZFP36 gene. It belongs to a family of proteins known as zinc finger proteins, which are involved in the regulation of gene expression. TTP is an important regulator of inflammation and the immune response.

Specifically, TTP functions as an mRNA-binding protein that destabilizes certain mRNAs, leading to their degradation. This includes mRNAs encoding cytokines, chemokines, and other pro-inflammatory mediators, which TTP downregulates post-transcriptionally. By doing so, TTP plays a crucial role in limiting the duration and intensity of inflammation.

Mutations in the ZFP36 gene can lead to excessive production of these pro-inflammatory mediators, resulting in autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of TTP is essential for developing new therapies for inflammatory disorders.

A glioma is a type of tumor that originates from the glial cells in the brain. Glial cells are non-neuronal cells that provide support and protection for nerve cells (neurons) within the central nervous system, including providing nutrients, maintaining homeostasis, and insulating neurons.

Gliomas can be classified into several types based on the specific type of glial cell from which they originate. The most common types include:

1. Astrocytoma: Arises from astrocytes, a type of star-shaped glial cells that provide structural support to neurons.
2. Oligodendroglioma: Develops from oligodendrocytes, which produce the myelin sheath that insulates nerve fibers.
3. Ependymoma: Originate from ependymal cells, which line the ventricles (fluid-filled spaces) in the brain and spinal cord.
4. Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM): A highly aggressive and malignant type of astrocytoma that tends to spread quickly within the brain.

Gliomas can be further classified based on their grade, which indicates how aggressive and fast-growing they are. Lower-grade gliomas tend to grow more slowly and may be less aggressive, while higher-grade gliomas are more likely to be aggressive and rapidly growing.

Symptoms of gliomas depend on the location and size of the tumor but can include headaches, seizures, cognitive changes, and neurological deficits such as weakness or paralysis in certain parts of the body. Treatment options for gliomas may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches.

Skeletal muscle, also known as striated or voluntary muscle, is a type of muscle that is attached to bones by tendons or aponeuroses and functions to produce movements and support the posture of the body. It is composed of long, multinucleated fibers that are arranged in parallel bundles and are characterized by alternating light and dark bands, giving them a striped appearance under a microscope. Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, meaning that it is consciously activated through signals from the nervous system. It is responsible for activities such as walking, running, jumping, and lifting objects.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Sarcoma, Experimental" is not a recognized medical term or definition. Sarcomas are a type of cancer that develop in the body's connective tissues, such as bones, muscles, tendons, cartilage, and fat. There are many different types of sarcomas, classified based on the specific type of tissue they originate from.

Experimental, on the other hand, refers to something that is being tested or tried out for the first time, typically as part of a scientific experiment or clinical trial. In the context of cancer treatment, an experimental therapy might refer to a new drug, procedure, or device that is still being studied in clinical trials to determine its safety and effectiveness.

Therefore, "Sarcoma, Experimental" could potentially refer to a clinical trial or research study involving a new treatment for sarcoma, but it would not be a medical definition in and of itself. If you have any specific questions about sarcomas or experimental treatments, I would recommend consulting with a healthcare professional or medical researcher for more accurate information.

Complementary DNA (cDNA) is a type of DNA that is synthesized from a single-stranded RNA molecule through the process of reverse transcription. In this process, the enzyme reverse transcriptase uses an RNA molecule as a template to synthesize a complementary DNA strand. The resulting cDNA is therefore complementary to the original RNA molecule and is a copy of its coding sequence, but it does not contain non-coding regions such as introns that are present in genomic DNA.

Complementary DNA is often used in molecular biology research to study gene expression, protein function, and other genetic phenomena. For example, cDNA can be used to create cDNA libraries, which are collections of cloned cDNA fragments that represent the expressed genes in a particular cell type or tissue. These libraries can then be screened for specific genes or gene products of interest. Additionally, cDNA can be used to produce recombinant proteins in heterologous expression systems, allowing researchers to study the structure and function of proteins that may be difficult to express or purify from their native sources.

BCL-2-associated X protein, often abbreviated as BAX, is a type of protein belonging to the BCL-2 family. The BCL-2 family of proteins plays a crucial role in regulating programmed cell death, also known as apoptosis. Specifically, BAX is a pro-apoptotic protein, which means that it promotes cell death.

BAX is encoded by the BAX gene, and it functions by forming pores in the outer membrane of the mitochondria, leading to the release of cytochrome c and other pro-apoptotic factors into the cytosol. This triggers a cascade of events that ultimately leads to cell death.

Dysregulation of BAX and other BCL-2 family proteins has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer and neurodegenerative disorders. For example, reduced levels of BAX have been observed in some types of cancer, which may contribute to tumor growth and resistance to chemotherapy. On the other hand, excessive activation of BAX has been linked to neuronal death in conditions such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.

CD40 ligand (CD40L or CD154) is a type II transmembrane protein and a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily. It is primarily expressed on activated CD4+ T cells, but can also be found on other immune cells such as activated B cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells.

CD40 ligand binds to its receptor, CD40, which is mainly expressed on the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as B cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages. The interaction between CD40L and CD40 plays a crucial role in the activation and regulation of the immune response.

CD40L-CD40 signaling is essential for T cell-dependent B cell activation, antibody production, and class switching. It also contributes to the activation and maturation of dendritic cells, promoting their ability to stimulate T cell responses. Dysregulation of CD40L-CD40 signaling has been implicated in various autoimmune diseases, transplant rejection, and cancer.

Fibrosis is a pathological process characterized by the excessive accumulation and/or altered deposition of extracellular matrix components, particularly collagen, in various tissues and organs. This results in the formation of fibrous scar tissue that can impair organ function and structure. Fibrosis can occur as a result of chronic inflammation, tissue injury, or abnormal repair mechanisms, and it is a common feature of many diseases, including liver cirrhosis, lung fibrosis, heart failure, and kidney disease.

In medical terms, fibrosis is defined as:

"The process of producing scar tissue (consisting of collagen) in response to injury or chronic inflammation in normal connective tissue. This can lead to the thickening and stiffening of affected tissues and organs, impairing their function."

A joint is the location at which two or more bones make contact. They are constructed to allow movement and provide support and stability to the body during motion. Joints can be classified in several ways, including structure, function, and the type of tissue that forms them. The three main types of joints based on structure are fibrous (or fixed), cartilaginous, and synovial (or diarthrosis). Fibrous joints do not have a cavity and have limited movement, while cartilaginous joints allow for some movement and are connected by cartilage. Synovial joints, the most common and most movable type, have a space between the articular surfaces containing synovial fluid, which reduces friction and wear. Examples of synovial joints include hinge, pivot, ball-and-socket, saddle, and condyloid joints.

Organ size refers to the volume or physical measurement of an organ in the body of an individual. It can be described in terms of length, width, and height or by using specialized techniques such as imaging studies (like CT scans or MRIs) to determine the volume. The size of an organ can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, body size, and overall health status. Changes in organ size may indicate various medical conditions, including growths, inflammation, or atrophy.

Neoplasms are abnormal growths of cells or tissues in the body that serve no physiological function. They can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign neoplasms are typically slow growing and do not spread to other parts of the body, while malignant neoplasms are aggressive, invasive, and can metastasize to distant sites.

Neoplasms occur when there is a dysregulation in the normal process of cell division and differentiation, leading to uncontrolled growth and accumulation of cells. This can result from genetic mutations or other factors such as viral infections, environmental exposures, or hormonal imbalances.

Neoplasms can develop in any organ or tissue of the body and can cause various symptoms depending on their size, location, and type. Treatment options for neoplasms include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy, among others.

Gastrointestinal agents are a class of pharmaceutical drugs that affect the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which includes the organs involved in digestion such as the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. These agents can have various effects on the GI tract, including:

1. Increasing gastric motility (promoting bowel movements) - laxatives, prokinetics
2. Decreasing gastric motility (reducing bowel movements) - antidiarrheal agents
3. Neutralizing gastric acid - antacids
4. Reducing gastric acid secretion - H2-blockers, proton pump inhibitors
5. Protecting the mucosal lining of the GI tract - sucralfate, misoprostol
6. Relieving symptoms associated with GI disorders such as bloating, abdominal pain, and nausea - antispasmodics, antiemetics

Examples of gastrointestinal agents include:

* Laxatives (e.g., psyllium, docusate)
* Prokinetics (e.g., metoclopramide)
* Antacids (e.g., calcium carbonate, aluminum hydroxide)
* H2-blockers (e.g., ranitidine, famotidine)
* Proton pump inhibitors (e.g., omeprazole, lansoprazole)
* Sucralfate
* Misoprostol
* Antispasmodics (e.g., hyoscyamine, dicyclomine)
* Antiemetics (e.g., ondansetron, promethazine)

It is important to note that gastrointestinal agents can have both therapeutic and adverse effects, and their use should be based on a careful evaluation of the patient's condition and medical history.

Bromobenzenes are a group of chemical compounds that consist of a benzene ring (a cyclic structure with six carbon atoms and alternating double bonds) substituted with one or more bromine atoms. The simplest and most common member of this group is bromobenzene itself, which contains a single bromine atom attached to a benzene ring.

Other members of the bromobenzenes family include dibromobenzene (with two bromine atoms), tribromobenzene (with three bromine atoms), and tetrabromobenzene (with four bromine atoms). These compounds are used in various industrial applications, such as in the production of flame retardants, dyes, pharmaceuticals, and agrochemicals.

It is important to note that bromobenzenes can be harmful or toxic to humans and other organisms, and should be handled with care. Exposure to high levels of these compounds can cause a range of health effects, including irritation of the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract, headaches, dizziness, nausea, and damage to the liver and kidneys.

Inhibitor of Apoptosis Proteins (IAPs) are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in regulating programmed cell death, also known as apoptosis. These proteins function by binding to and inhibiting the activity of caspases, which are enzymes that drive the execution phase of apoptosis.

There are eight known human IAPs, including X-linked IAP (XIAP), cellular IAP1 (cIAP1), cIAP2, survivin, melanoma IAP (ML-IAP), ILP-2, NAIP, and Bruce. Each IAP contains at least one baculoviral IAP repeat (BIR) domain, which is responsible for binding to caspases and other regulatory proteins.

In addition to inhibiting caspases, some IAPs have been shown to regulate other cellular processes, such as inflammation, innate immunity, and cell cycle progression. Dysregulation of IAP function has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases. Therefore, IAPs are considered important targets for the development of new therapeutic strategies aimed at modulating apoptosis and other cellular processes.

Th1 cells, or Type 1 T helper cells, are a subset of CD4+ T cells that play a crucial role in the cell-mediated immune response. They are characterized by the production of specific cytokines, such as interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin-2 (IL-2). Th1 cells are essential for protecting against intracellular pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, and parasites. They activate macrophages to destroy ingested microorganisms, stimulate the differentiation of B cells into plasma cells that produce antibodies, and recruit other immune cells to the site of infection. Dysregulation of Th1 cell responses has been implicated in various autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and type 1 diabetes.

"Newborn animals" refers to the very young offspring of animals that have recently been born. In medical terminology, newborns are often referred to as "neonates," and they are classified as such from birth until about 28 days of age. During this time period, newborn animals are particularly vulnerable and require close monitoring and care to ensure their survival and healthy development.

The specific needs of newborn animals can vary widely depending on the species, but generally, they require warmth, nutrition, hydration, and protection from harm. In many cases, newborns are unable to regulate their own body temperature or feed themselves, so they rely heavily on their mothers for care and support.

In medical settings, newborn animals may be examined and treated by veterinarians to ensure that they are healthy and receiving the care they need. This can include providing medical interventions such as feeding tubes, antibiotics, or other treatments as needed to address any health issues that arise. Overall, the care and support of newborn animals is an important aspect of animal medicine and conservation efforts.

Tertiary protein structure refers to the three-dimensional arrangement of all the elements (polypeptide chains) of a single protein molecule. It is the highest level of structural organization and results from interactions between various side chains (R groups) of the amino acids that make up the protein. These interactions, which include hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, van der Waals forces, and disulfide bridges, give the protein its unique shape and stability, which in turn determines its function. The tertiary structure of a protein can be stabilized by various factors such as temperature, pH, and the presence of certain ions. Any changes in these factors can lead to denaturation, where the protein loses its tertiary structure and thus its function.

Isoenzymes, also known as isoforms, are multiple forms of an enzyme that catalyze the same chemical reaction but differ in their amino acid sequence, structure, and/or kinetic properties. They are encoded by different genes or alternative splicing of the same gene. Isoenzymes can be found in various tissues and organs, and they play a crucial role in biological processes such as metabolism, detoxification, and cell signaling. Measurement of isoenzyme levels in body fluids (such as blood) can provide valuable diagnostic information for certain medical conditions, including tissue damage, inflammation, and various diseases.

Familial Mediterranean Fever (FMF) is a hereditary inflammatory disorder that primarily affects people of Mediterranean ancestry, including populations from Turkey, Armenia, Arab countries, and Jewish communities from the Middle East. It is caused by mutations in the MEFV gene, which provides instructions for making a protein called pyrin or marenostrin.

The main features of FMF include recurrent episodes of fever, serositis (inflammation of the membranes lining the abdominal cavity, chest cavity, or heart), and polyserositis (inflammation affecting multiple serous membranes simultaneously). The attacks usually last between 12 and 72 hours and can be associated with severe abdominal pain, joint pain, and skin rashes.

The diagnosis of FMF is based on clinical criteria, family history, and genetic testing. Treatment typically involves the use of colchicine, an anti-inflammatory medication that helps prevent attacks and reduces the risk of long-term complications such as amyloidosis, a condition characterized by the buildup of abnormal protein deposits in various organs.

Early diagnosis and treatment of FMF are essential to prevent complications and improve quality of life for affected individuals.

Platelet-activating factor (PAF) is a potent phospholipid mediator that plays a significant role in various inflammatory and immune responses. It is a powerful lipid signaling molecule released mainly by activated platelets, neutrophils, monocytes, endothelial cells, and other cell types during inflammation or injury.

PAF has a molecular structure consisting of an alkyl chain linked to a glycerol moiety, a phosphate group, and an sn-2 acetyl group. This unique structure allows PAF to bind to its specific G protein-coupled receptor (PAF-R) on the surface of target cells, triggering various intracellular signaling cascades that result in cell activation, degranulation, and aggregation.

The primary functions of PAF include:

1. Platelet activation and aggregation: PAF stimulates platelets to aggregate, release their granules, and activate the coagulation cascade, which can lead to thrombus formation.
2. Neutrophil and monocyte activation: PAF activates these immune cells, leading to increased adhesion, degranulation, and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and pro-inflammatory cytokines.
3. Vasodilation and increased vascular permeability: PAF can cause vasodilation by acting on endothelial cells, leading to an increase in blood flow and facilitating the extravasation of immune cells into inflamed tissues.
4. Bronchoconstriction: In the respiratory system, PAF can induce bronchoconstriction and recruitment of inflammatory cells, contributing to asthma symptoms.
5. Neurotransmission modulation: PAF has been implicated in neuroinflammation and may play a role in neuronal excitability, synaptic plasticity, and cognitive functions.

Dysregulated PAF signaling has been associated with several pathological conditions, including atherosclerosis, sepsis, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), ischemia-reperfusion injury, and neuroinflammatory disorders. Therefore, targeting the PAF pathway may provide therapeutic benefits in these diseases.

Growth substances, in the context of medical terminology, typically refer to natural hormones or chemically synthesized agents that play crucial roles in controlling and regulating cell growth, differentiation, and division. They are also known as "growth factors" or "mitogens." These substances include:

1. Proteins: Examples include insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), and fibroblast growth factors (FGFs). They bind to specific receptors on the cell surface, activating intracellular signaling pathways that promote cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival.

2. Steroids: Certain steroid hormones, such as androgens and estrogens, can also act as growth substances by binding to nuclear receptors and influencing gene expression related to cell growth and division.

3. Cytokines: Some cytokines, like interleukins (ILs) and hematopoietic growth factors (HGFs), contribute to the regulation of hematopoiesis, immune responses, and inflammation, thus indirectly affecting cell growth and differentiation.

These growth substances have essential roles in various physiological processes, such as embryonic development, tissue repair, and wound healing. However, abnormal or excessive production or response to these growth substances can lead to pathological conditions, including cancer, benign tumors, and other proliferative disorders.

Natural Killer (NK) cells are a type of lymphocyte, which are large granular innate immune cells that play a crucial role in the host's defense against viral infections and malignant transformations. They do not require prior sensitization to target and destroy abnormal cells, such as virus-infected cells or tumor cells. NK cells recognize their targets through an array of germline-encoded activating and inhibitory receptors that detect the alterations in the cell surface molecules of potential targets. Upon activation, NK cells release cytotoxic granules containing perforins and granzymes to induce target cell apoptosis, and they also produce a variety of cytokines and chemokines to modulate immune responses. Overall, natural killer cells serve as a critical component of the innate immune system, providing rapid and effective responses against infected or malignant cells.

'Mycobacterium tuberculosis' is a species of slow-growing, aerobic, gram-positive bacteria that demonstrates acid-fastness. It is the primary causative agent of tuberculosis (TB) in humans. This bacterium has a complex cell wall rich in lipids, including mycolic acids, which provides a hydrophobic barrier and makes it resistant to many conventional antibiotics. The ability of M. tuberculosis to survive within host macrophages and resist the immune response contributes to its pathogenicity and the difficulty in treating TB infections.

M. tuberculosis is typically transmitted through inhalation of infectious droplets containing the bacteria, which primarily targets the lungs but can spread to other parts of the body (extrapulmonary TB). The infection may result in a spectrum of clinical manifestations, ranging from latent TB infection (LTBI) to active disease. LTBI represents a dormant state where individuals are infected with M. tuberculosis but do not show symptoms and cannot transmit the bacteria. However, they remain at risk of developing active TB throughout their lifetime, especially if their immune system becomes compromised.

Effective prevention and control strategies for TB rely on early detection, treatment, and public health interventions to limit transmission. The current first-line treatments for drug-susceptible TB include a combination of isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide for at least six months. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) strains of M. tuberculosis present significant challenges in TB control and require more complex treatment regimens.

Acute-phase proteins (APPs) are a group of plasma proteins whose concentrations change in response to various inflammatory conditions, such as infection, trauma, or tissue damage. They play crucial roles in the body's defense mechanisms and help mediate the innate immune response during the acute phase of an injury or illness.

There are several types of APPs, including:

1. C-reactive protein (CRP): Produced by the liver, CRP is one of the most sensitive markers of inflammation and increases rapidly in response to various stimuli, such as bacterial infections or tissue damage.
2. Serum amyloid A (SAA): Another liver-derived protein, SAA is involved in lipid metabolism and immune regulation. Its concentration rises quickly during the acute phase of inflammation.
3. Fibrinogen: A coagulation factor produced by the liver, fibrinogen plays a vital role in blood clotting and wound healing. Its levels increase during inflammation.
4. Haptoglobin: This protein binds free hemoglobin released from red blood cells, preventing oxidative damage to tissues. Its concentration rises during the acute phase of inflammation.
5. Alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT): A protease inhibitor produced by the liver, AAT helps regulate the activity of enzymes involved in tissue breakdown and repair. Its levels increase during inflammation to protect tissues from excessive proteolysis.
6. Ceruloplasmin: This copper-containing protein is involved in iron metabolism and antioxidant defense. Its concentration rises during the acute phase of inflammation.
7. Ferritin: A protein responsible for storing iron, ferritin levels increase during inflammation as part of the body's response to infection or tissue damage.

These proteins have diagnostic and prognostic value in various clinical settings, such as monitoring disease activity, assessing treatment responses, and predicting outcomes in patients with infectious, autoimmune, or inflammatory conditions.

Virus replication is the process by which a virus produces copies or reproduces itself inside a host cell. This involves several steps:

1. Attachment: The virus attaches to a specific receptor on the surface of the host cell.
2. Penetration: The viral genetic material enters the host cell, either by invagination of the cell membrane or endocytosis.
3. Uncoating: The viral genetic material is released from its protective coat (capsid) inside the host cell.
4. Replication: The viral genetic material uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
5. Assembly: The newly synthesized viral components are assembled into new virus particles.
6. Release: The newly formed viruses are released from the host cell, often through lysis (breaking) of the cell membrane or by budding off the cell membrane.

The specific mechanisms and details of virus replication can vary depending on the type of virus. Some viruses, such as DNA viruses, use the host cell's DNA polymerase to replicate their genetic material, while others, such as RNA viruses, use their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase enzymes. Understanding the process of virus replication is important for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Pathologic neovascularization is the abnormal growth of new blood vessels in previously avascular tissue or excessive growth within existing vasculature, which occurs as a result of hypoxia, inflammation, or angiogenic stimuli. These newly formed vessels are often disorganized, fragile, and lack proper vessel hierarchy, leading to impaired blood flow and increased vascular permeability. Pathologic neovascularization can be observed in various diseases such as cancer, diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and chronic inflammation. This process contributes to disease progression by promoting tumor growth, metastasis, and edema formation, ultimately leading to tissue damage and organ dysfunction.

Immunologic adjuvants are substances that are added to a vaccine to enhance the body's immune response to the antigens contained in the vaccine. They work by stimulating the immune system and promoting the production of antibodies and activating immune cells, such as T-cells and macrophages, which help to provide a stronger and more sustained immune response to the vaccine.

Immunologic adjuvants can be derived from various sources, including bacteria, viruses, and chemicals. Some common examples include aluminum salts (alum), oil-in-water emulsions (such as MF59), and bacterial components (such as lipopolysaccharide or LPS).

The use of immunologic adjuvants in vaccines can help to improve the efficacy of the vaccine, particularly for vaccines that contain weak or poorly immunogenic antigens. They can also help to reduce the amount of antigen needed in a vaccine, which can be beneficial for vaccines that are difficult or expensive to produce.

It's important to note that while adjuvants can enhance the immune response to a vaccine, they can also increase the risk of adverse reactions, such as inflammation and pain at the injection site. Therefore, the use of immunologic adjuvants must be carefully balanced against their potential benefits and risks.

Liquefactive necrosis (or colliquative necrosis), in contrast to coagulative necrosis, is characterized by the digestion of ... Some granulomas contain this pattern of necrosis. Fat necrosis is specialized necrosis of fat tissue, resulting from the action ... Fibrinoid necrosis is a special form of necrosis usually caused by immune-mediated vascular damage. It is marked by complexes ... Until recently, necrosis was thought to be an unregulated process. However, there are two broad pathways in which necrosis may ...
... is a cutaneous condition and usually occurs between days 5 and 10 of heparin therapy. Warfarin necrosis List ...
... generally refers to a necrosis that occurs in fragments. Piecemeal necrosis in liver aka interface hepatitis ... When used in relation to the [nibbling necrosis and interface necrosis) refers specifically to a loss and degeneration of ( ... Necrosis: Renamed Troxis Necrosis". Experimental and Molecular Pathology. 71 (2): 137-146. doi:10.1006/exmp.2001.2397. PMID ... Piecemeal necrosis of the liver is associated with a lymphocytic infiltrate into the adjacent parenchyma, and with destruction ...
Necrosis is the fourth studio album by the Norwegian death metal band Cadaver. A video was released for the song "Decomposed ... "Necrosis - Cadaver - Songs, Reviews, Credits - AllMusic". AllMusic. Retrieved 2016-08-07. v t e (Articles with short ...
... refers to the necrosis of the centrilobular tissue of the hepatic lobule. The centrilobular zone of the ... v t e (Necrosis, All stub articles, Disease stubs). ... will bind to the liver cells causing centrilobular necrosis. ...
... is not limited to the immune-mediated vasculitides; many pathologic processes can lead to areas of fibrinoid ... Fibrinoid necrosis is a specific pattern of irreversible, uncontrolled cell death that occurs when antigen-antibody complexes ... which may show prominent fibrinoid necrosis. Also it's seen in rheumatoid nodules with similar pathology. Also seen in Serum ... necrosis. In systemic lupus erythematosus, the dermis is often affected by fluid accumulation and inflammation around the small ...
... may be a symptom of other diseases too. It also has been observed as an adverse event related to a medical ... Acral necrosis is a symptom common in bubonic plague. The striking black discoloration of skin and tissue, primarily on the ... However, acral necrosis occurs when blood supply is disrupted for prolonged periods, blackening and damaging the affected area ... With appropriate medical treatment, areas with acral necrosis may be successfully restored to function and lead a normal life. ...
... (or colliquative necrosis) is a type of necrosis which results in a transformation of the tissue into a ... Liquefactive necrosis can also occur in the lung, especially in the context of lung abscesses. Liquefactive necrosis can also ... In liquefactive necrosis, the affected cell is completely digested by hydrolytic enzymes, resulting in a soft, circumscribed ... Due to excitotoxicity, hypoxic death of cells within the central nervous system can result in liquefactive necrosis. This is a ...
... is a type of accidental cell death typically caused by ischemia or infarction. In coagulative necrosis, ... Different diseases are associated with coagulative necrosis, including acute tubular necrosis and acute myocardial infarction. ... Coagulative necrosis can also be induced by high local temperature; it is a desired effect of treatments such as high intensity ... Coagulative necrosis is most commonly caused by conditions that do not involve severe trauma, toxins or an acute or chronic ...
In Japan, Necrosis was released to film theaters on 5 March 2010. The Donner Party - a 2009 film based on the ill-fated Donner ... Necrosis (released internationally as Blood Snow) is a 2009 independent psychological thriller film directed by Jason Robert ... in April Story Page American World Pictures Trailer Necrosis Brings the Dead back to Life April 20 Official website Necrosis at ... Party expedition Cannibalism in popular culture Necrosis Hitting DVD ...
Osteonecrosis / Avascular Necrosis at the National Institute of Health Osteonecrosis / Avascular necrosis at Merck Manual for ... The intravertebral vacuum cleft sign (at white arrow) is a sign of avascular necrosis. Avascular necrosis of a vertebral body ... Pathology of avascular necrosis, with a photograph of a cross-section of the involved bone at top left. The reactive zone shows ... Avascular necrosis of the hip was also identified in a routine medical check-up on quarterback Brett Favre following his trade ...
This causes necrosis. Necrosis is a histological term that means death of the pulp. It does not occur suddenly unless there has ... Pulp necrosis may or may not arise with symptoms. Signs and symptoms of pulpal necrosis include; Pain Crown discolouration ... There are a plethora of ways to diagnose pulp necrosis in a tooth. The diagnosis of pulp necrosis can be based on the following ... The pulp can respond (reversible pulpitis, irreversible pulpitis, partial necrosis, total necrosis) in a variety of ways to ...
Warfarin-induced skin necrosis is a condition in which skin and subcutaneous tissue necrosis (tissue death) occurs due to ... Warfarin necrosis usually occurs three to five days after drug therapy is begun, and a high initial dose increases the risk of ... While skin necrosis in patients had been previously described, Verhagen was the first to publish a paper on this relationship ... Warfarin necrosis is also different from another drug eruption associated with warfarin, purple toe syndrome, which usually ...
Microscope images of caseous necrosis Image of a hilar lymph node demonstrating caseous necrosis Image of a caseating granuloma ... which is why this type of necrosis is often depicted as a combination of both coagulative and liquefactive necrosis.[citation ... Caseous necrosis or caseous degeneration (/ˈkeɪsiəs/) is a unique form of cell death in which the tissue maintains a cheese- ... In caseous necrosis no histological architecture is preserved. On microscopic examination with H&E staining, it is ...
Necrosis may also refer to: Necrosis (album), a 2004 album by the Norwegian death metal band Cadaver Necrosis (film), a 2009 ... Necrosis is a form of cell injury that results in the premature death of cells in living tissue. ... a sublabel of Earache Records This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Necrosis. If an internal link ... independent film directed by Jason Robert Stephens Necrosis, ...
Caseous necrosis Coagulative necrosis Liquefactive necrosis Myospherulosis Necrosis USMLE Step 1 Lecture Notes 2021. Pathology ... Fat necrosis is a form of necrosis that is caused by the action of lipases on adipocytes. In fat necrosis, the enzyme lipase ... To keep track of benign fat necrosis a yearly mammogram is taken in order to observe it. However, if fat necrosis consists of ... that give fat necrosis its characteristic chalky-white appearance. Fat necrosis is an example of dystrophic calcification ...
Acute interstitial nephritis Renal cortical necrosis Renal papillary necrosis Desanti De Oliveira, B., Xu, K., Shen, T.H. et al ... Acute tubular necrosis is classified as a "renal" (i.e. not pre-renal or post-renal) cause of acute kidney injury. Diagnosis is ... Because necrosis is often not present, the term acute tubular injury (ATI) is preferred by pathologists over the older name ... Acute tubular necrosis (ATN) is a medical condition involving the death of tubular epithelial cells that form the renal tubules ...
... (UDN) is a chronic dermatological disease of cold water salmonid fish that had a severe impact on ... Ulcerative dermal necrosis". In Roberts, Ronald J. (ed.). Fish pathology (4th ed.). Wiley Blackwell. pp. 435-438. ISBN ... Mills, Derek (1989). "Ulcerative dermal necrosis". Ecology and management of Atlantic salmon. London: Chapman and Hall. pp. 81- ...
... is a late-stage and serious complication usually occurring in persons who have undergone radiation ... Dassarath, M; Yin, Z; Chen, J; Liu, H; Yang, K; Wu, G (2011). "Temporal lobe necrosis: a dwindling entity in a patient with ... Chen, J; Dassarath, M; Yin, Z; Liu, H; Yang, K; Wu, G (2011). "Radiation induced temporal lobe necrosis in patients with ... Many patients who experience temporal lobe necrosis are asymptomatic. This demonstrates a need for consistent imaging follow up ...
... was first described by Goldenberg et al. in 1990. Cases have emerged since 1960, but have never been ... Necrosis can be found mostly between the three distals of the esophagus, but stops abruptly at the gastroesophageal junction. ... Acute esophageal necrosis made an appearance on an American medical drama show, Dr. G: Medical Examiner. Jan Garavaglia, the ... Acute esophageal necrosis (AEN), black esophagus, or Gurvits syndrome is a rare esophageal disorder. AEN defines itself with ...
... , also known as cortical laminar necrosis and simply laminar necrosis, is the (uncontrolled) ... Histologically, grey matter is more vulnerable than white matter to necrosis due to lack of oxygen. The third layer of the grey ... Samain, J.; Haven, F.; Gille, M.; Mathys, P. (2011-06-18). "Typical CT and MRI features of cortical laminar necrosis". Journal ... Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy - principles (neuropathology-web.org) Laminar necrosis on MRI (rochester.edu) (Pathology). ...
... is a cutaneous condition that is rapidly fatal, characterized by skin erosions and ulcerations ...
... (IPN) is a severe viral disease of salmonid fish. It is caused by infectious pancreatic necrosis ... Wood, E. M.; Snieszko, S. F.; Yasutake, W. T. (July 1955). "Infectious pancreatic necrosis in brook trout". A.M.A. Archives of ... On necropsy, internal damage (viral necrosis) to the pancreas and thick mucus in the intestines often is present. Surviving ... "Product Information Database - Home". Infectious pancreatic necrosis - The Scottish Government: Marine and Fisheries Infectious ...
... (TNF, cachexin, or cachectin; formerly known as tumor necrosis factor alpha or TNF-α) is an adipokine and ... "Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha". Drug Information Portal. U.S. National Library of Medicine. Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha at the U. ... Ghada A. Abd El Latif, Tumor necrosis factor alpha and keratin 17 expression in oral submucous fibrosis in rat model, E.D.J. ... Salomon BL, Leclerc M, Tosello J, Ronin E, Piaggio E, Cohen JL (2018). "Tumor Necrosis Factor α and Regulatory T Cells in ...
Cytomegalovirus retinitis Progressive outer retinal necrosis Forster, David (1990). "Rapidly Progressive Outer Retinal Necrosis ... Acute retinal necrosis (ARN) is a medical inflammatory condition of the eye. The condition presents itself as a necrotizing ... The combination of the conditions was given the name acute retinal necrosis. The first reports of ARN came about in 1971. It is ... "Acute retinal necrosis - EyeWiki". eyewiki.aao.org. Retrieved 2015-10-27. Lau, Chun H.; Missotten, Tom; Salzmann, Joel; ...
... and rot is a soft rot disease caused by the bacterium Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. betavasculorum, ... Saleh, O.I.; Huang, P.-Y.; J.-S. Huang (1996). "Bacterial Vascular Necrosis and Root Rot Disease of Sugar Beet in Egypt". ... 1977). "Beet Vascular Necrosis and Rot of Sugarbeet: General Description and Etiology" (PDF). Phytopathology. 67 (10): 1183- ... Whitney, E.D.; R.T. Lewellen (1977). "Bacterial Vascular Necrosis and Rot of Sugar Beet: Effects on Cultivars and Quality". ...
... is a form of nephropathy involving the necrosis of the renal papilla. Lesions that characterize renal ... Ultimately, necrosis of the papillae results in sloughing into the lumen, causing hematuria. If the degree of necrosis is ... Jung, Dae Chul; Kim, Seung Hyup; Jung, Sung Il; Hwang, Sung Il; Kim, Sun Ho (November 2006). "Renal Papillary Necrosis: Review ... Individuals with renal papillary necrosis due to excess use of analgesic have an elevated risk of epithelial tumors, hence a ...
... is a type of uncontrolled cell death (necrosis) unique to cardiac myocytes and thought to arise in ... Contraction band necrosis. H&E stain. Contraction band necrosis. PTAH. Myocardial infarction Timeline of myocardial infarction ... Contraction band necrosis is thought to arise by two mechanisms: a calcium-dependent mechanism - activation of the contractile ... November 1997). "Gap junction uncoupler heptanol prevents cell-to-cell progression of hypercontracture and limits necrosis ...
... may refer to: Pancreatic panniculitis Subcutaneous fat necrosis of the newborn This disambiguation ... page lists articles associated with the title Subcutaneous fat necrosis. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to ...
... (CoNV) is a plant pathogenic virus of the genus nepovirus that infects Theobroma cacao en natura causing ... Cacao necrosis virus is restricted to systemic infection of Theobroma cacao in nature. Symptoms on cacao include an acute stage ... Specificity in the life cycle of cacao necrosis virus, in contrast to other plant pathogenic viral pathogens, has not yet been ... The exact mechanism of pathogenesis for cacao necrosis virus is not yet understood. The virus is not infective in sap after ...
Liquefactive necrosis (or colliquative necrosis), in contrast to coagulative necrosis, is characterized by the digestion of ... Some granulomas contain this pattern of necrosis. Fat necrosis is specialized necrosis of fat tissue, resulting from the action ... Fibrinoid necrosis is a special form of necrosis usually caused by immune-mediated vascular damage. It is marked by complexes ... Until recently, necrosis was thought to be an unregulated process. However, there are two broad pathways in which necrosis may ...
Necrosis is the death of body tissue. It occurs when too little blood flows to the tissue. This can be from injury, radiation, ... Necrosis is the death of body tissue. It occurs when too little blood flows to the tissue. This can be from injury, radiation, ... Necrosis is the death of body tissue. It occurs when too little blood flows to the tissue. This can be from injury, radiation, ...
Edema and the presence of tumor render the CNS parenchyma in the tumor bed more susceptible to radiation necrosis. ... Radiation necrosis, a focal structural lesion that usually occurs at the original tumor site, is a potential long-term central ... While the term radiation necrosis is used to refer to radiation injury, pathology is not limited to necrosis and a spectrum of ... Radiation necrosis is coagulative and predominantly affects white matter. This coagulative necrosis is due to small artery ...
Anti-tumour necrosis factor agents and tuberculosis risk: mechanisms of action and clinical management. Lancet Infect Dis 2003; ... Tumor necrosis factor-a inhibitors and the reactivation of latent tuberculosis infection. CMAJ 2003;168:1153--6. ... Tuberculosis associated with infliximab, a tumor necrosis factor-alpha neutralizing agent. N Engl J Med 2001;345:1098--104. ... Tuberculosis Associated with Blocking Agents Against Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha --- California, 2002--2003. ...
Untreated, avascular necrosis worsens. Eventually, the bone can collapse. Avascular necrosis also causes bone to lose its ... Avascular necrosis occurs when blood flow to a bone is interrupted or reduced. Reduced blood supply can be caused by:. *Joint ... Avascular necrosis is the death of bone tissue due to a lack of blood supply. Also called osteonecrosis, it can lead to tiny ... To reduce the risk of avascular necrosis and improve general health:. *Limit alcohol. Heavy drinking is one of the top risk ...
Avascular necrosis (AVN) of the femoral head is a pathologic process that results from interruption of blood supply to the bone ... encoded search term (Femoral Head Avascular Necrosis) and Femoral Head Avascular Necrosis What to Read Next on Medscape ... Femoral Head Avascular Necrosis Clinical Presentation. Updated: Oct 20, 2023 * Author: John D Kelly, IV, MD; Chief Editor: ... Non-traumatic avascular necrosis of the femoral head. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1995 Mar. 77(3):459-74. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. ...
Tags Danielle De Luca George Stults James Kyson-Lee Jason Robert Stephens Necrosis Penny Drake Tiffany ...
Early diagnosis and treatment of steroid induced avascular necrosis of bone.. Research Article Early diagnosis and treatment of ... steroid induced avascular necrosis of bone.. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1984; 288 doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.288.6419.741 ( ...
Fat necrosis is death of fat tissue due to injury and loss of blood supply. It can cause hard lumps to form under your skin. ... What is fat necrosis?. Necrosis is tissue death, usually involving a loss of blood supply. Fat necrosis occurs in your adipose ... Fat Necrosis. Fat necrosis is death of fat tissue due to injury and loss of blood supply. It can occur from trauma or as a ... What causes fat necrosis?. Fat necrosis occurs when injury to your adipose tissue causes cells to die. Injuries include:. * ...
... Gastroenterology. 1986 Aug;91(2):433-8. doi: ... Intra- and extrapancreatic necrosis was more widespread and pancreatitis-associated ascites was more frequent in patients with ... Thus, it is demonstrated that bacterial contamination of pancreatic necrosis occurs early and frequently, causing a significant ... as compared with 2 of 16 patients with sterile necrosis, died. ...
Using next-generation sequencing, we sought to understand the relationship between T. tagusensis tissue necrosis and its ... it was possible to verify the microbial succession during different stages of tissue necrosis (i.e., initial, intermediate, and ... some colonies are displaying tissue necrosis, a phenomenon never reported for this invasive nor any other azooxanthellate coral ... bacteria associated with healthy colonies and an even higher diversity associated with those corals presenting tissue necrosis ...
... including osteonecrosis and bone necrosis. Left untreated, it can result in extreme joint pain and can potentially require ... Avascular necrosis (AVN) (also known as osteonecrosis, bone necrosis, bone infarction, aseptic necrosis, and ischemic necrosis ... Avascular necrosis can occur as a result of an injury that interrupts the blood supply, such as in AVN of the hip after a ...
Elevated circulating tumor necrosis factor levels in Alzheimers disease. Neurosci Lett. 1991 Aug 19;129(2):318-20. PubMed. ...
Etanercept, a dimerized version of the soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor II, and infliximab, a chimeric anti-TNF-alpha ... Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) antagonists have rapidly emerged as a valuable class of antirheumatic agents. ... Tumor necrosis factor-alpha antagonists for the treatment of rheumatic diseases Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2002 May;14(3):204-11. doi ... Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) antagonists have rapidly emerged as a valuable class of antirheumatic agents. ...
... inihayag ni Angelica Panganiban na mayroon siyang Avascular necrosis o bone death, na kinailangang isailalim siya sa medical ... Sa kaniyang vlog na may titulong "I have Avascular Necrosis," sinabi ni Angelica na nakararanas siya ng paulit-ulit na sakit sa ... Angelica Panganiban, isiniwalat na mayroon siyang Avascular Necrosis o bone death. Nobyembre 20, 2023 8:53pm GMT+08:00 ... Nang magpatingin siya sa Asian Hospital, dito na niya nalaman na mayroon siyang Avascular Necrosis, isang kondisyon na nagiging ...
Avascular necrosis is a painful bone condition that causes bone tissue death. It can affect mobility and often requires surgery ... Avascular Necrosis (Osteonecrosis). Avascular necrosis is a painful bone condition that gets worse over time and can affect ... What is avascular necrosis?. Avascular necrosis happens when something blocks the flow of blood to your bone tissue. Your bones ... What causes avascular necrosis?. Bone fractures or disease that prevent blood flow to bone tissue causes avascular necrosis. ...
The following findings may be found on CT scan of patients with acute tubular necrosis:[1] *Increased kidney size ... CT scan findings of patients with acute tubular necrosis may include alterations in kidney size, striate nephrogram, ... Retrieved from "https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php?title=Acute_tubular_necrosis_CT&oldid=1473441" ...
Tag archive for necrosis and gangrene. Want more amazing articles related to necrosis and gangrene? Please subscribe below ... well notify you when we publish new articles related to necrosis and gangrene ...
EARLY ANTI-TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR THERAPY REDUCES AORTIC STIFFNESS IN INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE. A MULTICENTRE LONGITUDINAL ... EARLY ANTI-TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR THERAPY REDUCES AORTIC STIFFNESS IN INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE. A MULTICENTRE LONGITUDINAL ... EARLY ANTI-TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR THERAPY REDUCES AORTIC STIFFNESS IN INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE. A MULTICENTRE LONGITUDINAL ... and that aPWV is reduced by long-term anti-tumor necrosis factor (anti-TNF) therapy and is increased in patients with severe ...
Avascular necrosis (AVN) is also known as osteonecrosis, aseptic necrosis, and ischemic necrosis.1,2 AVN is a sequela of ... avascular or aseptic or ischemic or ischaemic or femur head or femoral head or bone or bones) adj2 (necrosis or necroses)).tw. ... avascular necrosis or osteonecrosis or asceptic necrosis or ischemic) adj2 (scan* or imag* or scintigraph*)).tw.. ... Clinical Condition: Avascular Necrosis (Osteonecrosis) of the Hip. Variant 1: Initial Study When AVN is Suspected Clinically. ...
I guess fat necrosis can disappear too? I dont really know of anyone who had a lump that they felt after having a mastectomy ... I am pretty sure it is also fat necrosis. I took a pink sharpie and put a dot on my skin where the lump is to make it easier to ... I dont think its crazy to feel one side you know is fat necrosis to see if the other feels the same. I think I would do the ... I am also wondering about fat necrosis in my right breast which is my non cancer side that I had a reduction on. I have a lump ...
... Course Description. Bisphosphonates, as a class, reduce bone loss associated with diseases such as osteoporosis ...
Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus in Scottish Atlantic Salmon Farms, 1996-2001 Alexander G. Murray*†. , Corina D. Busby*, ... Variance in the error terms obtained in a multilevel model with binomial assumptions regarding infectious pancreatic necrosis ... Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus in Scottish Atlantic Salmon Farms, 1996-2001. ...
Six cases, not amounting to true necrosis but in which healing after dental extraction was delayed, and described, and mention ... An intensive study in hospital of a case of classical necrosis showed no departure from normal, except delayed healing ... In the discussion the time of onset of necrosis after first exposure to phosphorus, clinical and radiological diagnosis, the ...
Induction of tumor necrosis factor receptor type 2 gene expression by tumor necrosis factor-alpha in rat primary astrocytes. ... Expression of the type 1 and type 2 receptors for tumor necrosis factor after traumatic spinal cord injury in adult rats. Yan, ... Shedding of tumor necrosis factor type 1 receptor after experimental spinal cord injury. Harrington, J.F., Messier, A.A., ... A determination of tumor necrosis factor expression in TMJ inflammation with the use of microarray analysis. Spears, R., Oakes ...
Wilting of sections of the plant or the entire plant is a key symptom of pith necrosis. However, bacterial wilt can cause ...
Rumen necrosis and hemorrhage, bovine. Gross pathology photograph of a bovine rumen displaying necrotic (large arrow) and ...
J:55624 Schneider P, et al., BAFF, a novel ligand of the tumor necrosis factor family, stimulates B cell growth. J Exp Med. ...
What was the cause of her small bowel obstruction and necrosis?. To find out the diagnosis, read the full case in ... She underwent emergent exploratory laparotomy that revealed small bowel necrosis (figure). ...
  • Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of osteonecrosis (avascular necrosis of bone). (mayoclinic.org)
  • Avascular necrosis: diagnosis, staging, and management. (medscape.com)
  • In the discussion the time of onset of necrosis after first exposure to phosphorus, clinical and radiological diagnosis, the organisms present, personal susceptibility, the appearance of the sequestra, and regeneration of bone are considered. (bmj.com)
  • MRFR's detailed report includes segmentation of the global avascular necrosis market on the basis of type, site, diagnosis, treatment, end-user, and region. (medgadget.com)
  • Corticosteroid-associated avascular necrosis: dose relationships and early diagnosis. (medscape.com)
  • These periapical lesions related to pulp necrosis result from the same etiologic factors, but they present particular clinical and radiographical features and diverse symptoms that are important to differentiate the diagnosis that will determine the treatment. (bvsalud.org)
  • Avascular necrosis (AVN) (also known as osteonecrosis , bone necrosis , bone infarction , aseptic necrosis , and ischemic necrosis ) is a condition in which the bone "dies" as a result of a loss of circulation to an area of bone tissue. (hss.edu)
  • Avascular necrosis (AVN) is also known as osteonecrosis, aseptic necrosis, and ischemic necrosis. (cadth.ca)
  • Notably, avascular necrosis or osteonecrosis is a challenging condition to diagnose and can often be overlooked until it has approached a later stage, and no known cure exists. (medgadget.com)
  • Approximately 10% of Avascular necrosis of the talus is considered idiopathic: 15% is medication-induced and 75% from trauma. (caringmedical.com)
  • While arthroscopy with or without core decompression is the standard of care for unresolved cases of avascular necrosis of the talus, we present a case of avascular necrosis of the talar dome where symptoms resolved satisfactorily with direct bone marrow injections into structures into and around the ankle. (caringmedical.com)
  • A severe case of acute pancreatitis can sometimes cause fat necrosis in the fatty tissue surrounding your pancreas . (clevelandclinic.org)
  • CT scan findings of patients with acute tubular necrosis may include alterations in kidney size, striate nephrogram, accumulation of fluid around kidneys . (wikidoc.org)
  • Acute tubular necrosis (ATN) is a type of acute kidney injury (AKI) that results in the sudden and rapid death of tubular cells in the kidneys. (osmosis.org)
  • Albany, NY -- ( SBWIRE ) -- 12/28/2017 -- Acute cutaneous necrosis can be defined as a skin disease with sudden onset of tissue death that results in significant morbidity and is usually, but not always, excruciatingly painful. (sbwire.com)
  • There is no specific therapy for acute tubular necrosis apart from supportive care. (bmj.com)
  • Acute tubular necrosis (ATN) is an intrinsic AKI that follows a condition of severe and persistent hypoperfusion or toxic injury of epithelial cells causing detachment of the basement membrane and tubular dysfunction. (bmj.com)
  • Renal cortical necrosis is destruction of cortical tissue resulting from renal arteriolar injury and leading to acute kidney injury. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Growing evidence suggests that proinflammatory cytokines (PICs), such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα), are induced in the spinal cord under various injury conditions and contribute to pain hypersensitivity. (jneurosci.org)
  • The effects of the two macrolides on tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) release were also examined. (karger.com)
  • Pain associated with avascular necrosis of the hip might center on the groin, thigh or buttock. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Organ transplants, especially kidney transplants, also are associated with avascular necrosis. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Ai ZS, Gao YS, Sun Y, Liu Y, Zhang CQ, Jiang CH. Logistic regression analysis of factors associated with avascular necrosis of the femoral head following femoral neck fractures in middle-aged and elderly patients. (medscape.com)
  • Coagulative necrosis occurs primarily in tissues such as the kidney, heart and adrenal glands. (wikipedia.org)
  • If superimposed infection of dead tissues occurs, then liquefactive necrosis ensues (wet gangrene). (wikipedia.org)
  • Radiation necrosis, a focal structural lesion that usually occurs at the original tumor site, is a potential long-term central nervous system (CNS) complication of radiotherapy or radiosurgery. (medscape.com)
  • Avascular necrosis occurs when blood flow to a bone is interrupted or reduced. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Fat necrosis occurs in your adipose tissue (fat tissue) when it's been injured in some way. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • A lump occurs in the first stage of fat necrosis. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Fat necrosis occurs when injury to your adipose tissue causes cells to die. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Thus, it is demonstrated that bacterial contamination of pancreatic necrosis occurs early and frequently, causing a significant increase in morbidity and mortality, particularly when it develops in the initial stages of the attack. (nih.gov)
  • Avascular necrosis (AVN) occurs when bone tissue begins to die due to a lack of sufficient supply of blood. (medgadget.com)
  • Pulp necrosis occurs when the pulp's vital functions are interrupted, starting a degenerative process. (bvsalud.org)
  • Some people develop avascular necrosis on both sides, such as in both hips or in both knees. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Between 10,000 and 20,000 Americans develop avascular necrosis every year. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • About 20% of people who dislocate their hips (the hip is no longer aligned in the joint as it normally would be) develop avascular necrosis. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Some people have no symptoms in the early stages of avascular necrosis. (mayoclinic.org)
  • What are the symptoms of fat necrosis? (clevelandclinic.org)
  • It might be weeks or months before you notice symptoms that might indicate you have avascular necrosis. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Symptoms of necrosis include the darkening or wilting of leaf, stem or other plant tissue. (canolacouncil.org)
  • Summary: We report three patients in whom neurologic symptoms and cortical laminar necrosis developed after immunosuppressive treatment (cyclosporin A and FK 506) and polychemotherapy (vincristine and methotrexate). (ajnr.org)
  • Bacterial contamination of pancreatic necrosis. (nih.gov)
  • There are also very specific forms of necrosis such as gangrene (term used in clinical practices for limbs which have had severe hypoxia), gummatous necrosis (due to spirochaetal infections) and hemorrhagic necrosis (due to the blockage of venous drainage of an organ or tissue). (wikipedia.org)
  • In the clinical situation of a recurrent astrocytoma (postradiation therapy), radiation necrosis presents a diagnostic dilemma. (medscape.com)
  • Radiation necrosis is part of a series of clinical syndromes related to CNS complications of radiotherapy. (medscape.com)
  • Etanercept, a dimerized version of the soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor II, and infliximab, a chimeric anti-TNF-alpha monoclonal antibody, are currently approved for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) based on their proven beneficial effects in clinical trials. (nih.gov)
  • However, the results merely depend on the etiology and the clinical stage of femoral head necrosis. (ijpsonline.com)
  • A late 2020 surgical paper ( 1 ) states plainly: "Avascular necrosis (AVN) of the talus remains a clinical challenge with suboptimal outcomes after treatment. (jointrehab.com)
  • The objective of this study was to expose and discuss, through a review, the etiological factors and histological, clinical and radiographical features of the periapical illnesses resulting from necrosis. (bvsalud.org)
  • This pattern of necrosis is typically seen in hypoxic (low-oxygen) environments, such as infarction. (wikipedia.org)
  • Edema and the presence of tumor render the CNS parenchyma in the tumor bed more susceptible to radiation necrosis. (medscape.com)
  • Radiation necrosis can occur when radiotherapy is used to treat primary CNS tumors, metastatic disease, or head and neck malignancies. (medscape.com)
  • Glioblastoma multiforme's hallmark histology of pseudopalisading necrosis makes it difficult to differentiate radiation necrosis from recurrent astrocytoma using MRI. (medscape.com)
  • While the term radiation necrosis is used to refer to radiation injury, pathology is not limited to necrosis and a spectrum of injury patterns may occur. (medscape.com)
  • This also may be an etiology for the changes seen with radiation necrosis. (medscape.com)
  • Radiation necrosis and diffuse cerebral atrophy are considered long-term complications of radiotherapy that occur from months to decades after radiation treatment. (medscape.com)
  • As opposed to the focal nature of radiation necrosis, diffuse cerebral atrophy is characterized by bihemispheric sulci enlargement, brain atrophy, and ventriculomegaly. (medscape.com)
  • They note that although radiation therapy can provide some palliation in such patients, it can also result in radiation necrosis and neurologic decline. (medscape.com)
  • In 1 child who continued to decline on bevacizumab, it was later determined that the patient had disease progression, not radiation necrosis. (medscape.com)
  • Stroke-Like Migraine Attacks After Radiation Therapy Syndrome and Radiation Necrosis After Cerebral Proton Beam Radiation: A Case Report of Dual Radiotherapy Complications. (iasp-pain.org)
  • SMART syndrome may be mistaken for tumor recurrence, radiation necrosis, and stroke. (iasp-pain.org)
  • Six months later, he developed radiation necrosis. (iasp-pain.org)
  • We present a case of early SMART syndrome following proton beam radiotherapy, as well as the dual occurrence of radiation necrosis and SMART syndrome in this individual. (iasp-pain.org)
  • Radiation necrosis and SMART syndrome are known complications of radiotherapy, with the latter less well-described. (iasp-pain.org)
  • Risk factors of avascular necrosis of the femoral head and fixation failure in patients with valgus angulated femoral neck fractures over the age of 50 years. (medscape.com)
  • Maini L, Kumar S, Batra S, Gupta R, Arora S. Evaluation of the muscle morphology of the obturator externus and piriformis as the predictors of avascular necrosis of the femoral head in acetabular fractures. (medscape.com)
  • Bone fractures or disease that prevent blood flow to bone tissue causes avascular necrosis. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • What bone fractures cause traumatic avascular necrosis? (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Avascular necrosis is more likely in some bone fractures than others. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Talar neck fractures represent 50% of all talar injuries and are responsible for 90% of all traumatic avascular necrosis. (caringmedical.com)
  • citation needed] Structural signs that indicate irreversible cell injury and the progression of necrosis include dense clumping and progressive disruption of genetic material, and disruption to membranes of cells and organelles. (wikipedia.org)
  • No pharmaceutical treatment prevents progression of avascular necrosis (AVN). (medscape.com)
  • 2, 3 The most feared complication of talar injuries is Avascular necrosis. (caringmedical.com)
  • This technique provides a more anatomic treatment for patients with severely deficient bone stock due to talar necrosis with ankle arthritis or failed ankle replacement. (jointrehab.com)
  • Follow-up studies showed cortical hyperintense lesions on T1-weighted MR images, consistent with cortical laminar necrosis. (ajnr.org)
  • In this article, we report three patients treated with immunosuppressive drugs and chemotherapy (vincristine, methotrexate) in whom cortical laminar necrosis developed. (ajnr.org)
  • The term "necrosis" came about in the mid-19th century and is commonly attributed to German pathologist Rudolf Virchow in, who is often regarded as one of the founders of modern pathology. (wikipedia.org)
  • Pancreatic fat necrosis usually affects your abdominal region, but occasionally, it can infiltrate the subcutaneous fat layer under your skin and spread throughout your body (panniculitis). (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Subcutaneous fat necrosis associated with panniculitis is more often painful because this type involves chronic inflammation . (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Non-traumatic avascular necrosis of the femoral head. (medscape.com)
  • Arlet J, Ficat P. [Non-traumatic avascular femur head necrosis. (medscape.com)
  • What is the treatment for more advanced forms of avascular necrosis? (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor ( TNF ) production or function by small molecules has become a major focus in the pharmaceutical industry for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. (rsc.org)
  • Among all, cell transplantation therapy is considered the most favourable treatment strategy for femoral head necrosis. (ijpsonline.com)
  • The main objective of this communication is to study the treatment of femoral head necrosis with cell replacement therapy and also its effects by focusing on the disease stages. (ijpsonline.com)
  • Anti-tumour necrosis factor (TNF) α treatment has had a tremendous effect on the managment of rheumatoid arthritis, but it needs to be monitored closely. (bmj.com)
  • Dermal necrosis can be diagnoses using biopsy testing as it gives the correct treatment guidance and thereby providing targeted treatment to the patient. (sbwire.com)
  • This offers an area of unmet needs where market players can develop a molecule and form a strong position in the dermal necrosis treatment market. (sbwire.com)
  • In terms of geography, Dermal Necrosis Treatment market has been divided into five regions including North- America, Asia- Pacific, Middle-East & Africa, Latin America and Europe. (sbwire.com)
  • The presence of major market players, technology advancements and research investments has made North America the dominating region for the dermal necrosis treatment market. (sbwire.com)
  • Moreover, there are many startups who are trying to enter the dermal necrosis treatment market with new technologies and more sensitive tests. (sbwire.com)
  • Asia Pacific is expected to be the fastest growing region in the dermal necrosis treatment market. (sbwire.com)
  • Some of the dermal necrosis treatment market participants are Baxter International,Boston Therapeutics, Inc.,Amgen,AstraZeneca,Glaxo Smithkline Pharmaceuticals Ltd.,Systopic Laboratories (P) Ltd.,Sun Pharmaceuticals, RPG Life Sciences and Zydus Cadila Healthcare Ltd. (sbwire.com)
  • In this article I will focus on the problem of avascular necrosis in the ankle, mainly the talus bone in the ankle, and to suggest if various injections may be an effective treatment in helping you avoid ankle replacement or ankle fusion surgery . (jointrehab.com)
  • An intensive study in hospital of a case of classical necrosis showed no departure from normal, except delayed healing following bone biopsy from the iliac crest, and a reversed polymorphonuclear/lymphocyte ratio. (bmj.com)
  • Hypoxic infarcts in the brain presents as this type of necrosis, because the brain contains little connective tissue but high amounts of digestive enzymes and lipids, and cells therefore can be readily digested by their own enzymes. (wikipedia.org)
  • Where does fat necrosis occur? (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Fat necrosis can also occur in other fatty areas such as your abdomen, buttocks and thighs as a result of medical or cosmetic procedures. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Avascular necrosis can occur as a result of an injury that interrupts the blood supply, such as in AVN of the hip after a fracture of the upper femur (thighbone). (hss.edu)
  • Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) antagonists have rapidly emerged as a valuable class of antirheumatic agents. (nih.gov)
  • The dermal necrosis market is expected to witness growth as it is a highly undiscovered area. (sbwire.com)
  • All 5 patients with pancreatic sepsis who were operated on in the first 7 days of the disease, as compared with 2 of 16 patients with sterile necrosis, died. (nih.gov)
  • Parikh S, Gomez O, Davis T, Lyon Z, Corces A. Avascular Necrosis as a Sequela of COVID-19: A Case Series. (medscape.com)
  • CgNLP1 was shown to target a R2R3 type transcription factor HbMYB8-like in rubber tree, which localized on nucleus and induced necrosis in N. benthamiana . (biorxiv.org)
  • Necrosis (from Ancient Greek νέκρωσις (nékrōsis) 'death') is a form of cell injury which results in the premature death of cells in living tissue by autolysis. (wikipedia.org)
  • Fat necrosis is death of fat tissue due to injury and loss of blood supply. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Fat necrosis can affect anyone who sustains an injury to their fatty tissue. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Fang T, Zhang EW, Sailes FC, McGuire RA, Lineaweaver WC, Zhang F. Vascularized fibular grafts in patients with avascular necrosis of femoral head: a systematic review and meta-analysis. (medscape.com)
  • Intra- and extrapancreatic necrosis was more widespread and pancreatitis-associated ascites was more frequent in patients with proven contamination. (nih.gov)
  • We have previously reported in IBD that aortic pulse wave velocity (aPWV) is increased and dependent upon chronic inflammation, and that aPWV is reduced by long-term anti-tumor necrosis factor (anti-TNF) therapy and is increased in patients with severe inflammation and in those treated with high doses of salicylates. (lww.com)
  • Background: The adipocyte products, leptin and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)alpha are associated with atherosclerotic diseases and may be factors contributing to the enhanced cardiovascular risk in hypopituitary patients with growth hormone (GH) deficiency. (lu.se)
  • Avascular necrosis in HIV-infected patients: a case-control study from the Aquitaine Cohort, 1997-2002, France. (medscape.com)
  • Cette étude a permis de déterminer la fréquence et l'étiologie de l'insuffisance rénale aiguë chez des patients hospitalisés en Arabie saoudite sur une période de 2 ans. (who.int)
  • Wilting of sections of the plant or the entire plant is a key symptom of pith necrosis. (ufl.edu)
  • We test these hypotheses by measuring pathogen replicative fitness as within-host viral loads from the onset of infection to the beginning of virus clearance, using the rhabdovirus infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) in salmonid fish. (usgs.gov)
  • Avascular necrosis associated with fracture of the femoral neck after hip resurfacing: histological assessment of femoral bone from retrieval specimens. (medscape.com)
  • Severe ischemia most commonly causes necrosis of this form. (wikipedia.org)
  • Fat necrosis is a slow, delayed process with several stages. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Also, as the microbial community associated with the seven healthy colonies did not alter composition significantly, it was possible to verify the microbial succession during different stages of tissue necrosis (i.e., initial, intermediate, and advanced). (nature.com)
  • There are six distinctive morphological patterns of necrosis: Coagulative necrosis is characterized by the formation of a gelatinous (gel-like) substance in dead tissues in which the architecture of the tissue is maintained, and can be observed by light microscopy. (wikipedia.org)
  • Fat necrosis is specialized necrosis of fat tissue, resulting from the action of activated lipases on fatty tissues such as the pancreas. (wikipedia.org)
  • Penis necrosis secondary to circumcision by an electrical scalpel in a 2 years and 2 months-old boy occurred. (safetylit.org)
  • Cellular death due to necrosis does not follow the apoptotic signal transduction pathway, but rather various receptors are activated and result in the loss of cell membrane integrity and an uncontrolled release of products of cell death into the extracellular space. (wikipedia.org)
  • Shah SN, Kapoor CS, Jhaveri MR, Golwala PP, Patel S. Analysis of outcome of avascular necrosis of femoral head treated by core decompression and bone grafting. (medscape.com)
  • Core decompression for avascular necrosis of the femoral head. (medscape.com)
  • Caseous necrosis can be considered a combination of coagulative and liquefactive necrosis, typically caused by mycobacteria (e.g. tuberculosis), fungi and some foreign substances. (wikipedia.org)
  • Various preventive measures required to treat femoral head necrosis include revascularization, adequate supply of osteogenic cells and establishing enough strength to avoid collapse. (ijpsonline.com)
  • Market players that have significantly impacted the global avascular necrosis market have been recorded in the report and include Integra LifeSciences Corporation, Bayer AG, Eli Lilly and Company, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Medtronic Plc, Merck KGaA, Sanofi, Zimmer Biomet Holdings, Pfizer Inc, Boehringer Ingelheim. (medgadget.com)
  • Types of avascular necrosis recorded in the report include trauma-related avascular necrosis and non-trauma related avascular necrosis. (medgadget.com)
  • Sa kaniyang Youtube video, inihayag ni Angelica Panganiban na mayroon siyang Avascular necrosis o "bone death," na kinailangang isailalim siya sa medical procedure. (gmanetwork.com)
  • Fat necrosis may cause some procedures, such as breast reconstruction, to fail entirely. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • I have diagnosed fat necrosis on my left breast reconstruction, (via DIEP). (breastcancer.org)
  • Wang CJ, Cheng JH, Huang CC, Yip HK, Russo S. Extracorporeal shockwave therapy for avascular necrosis of femoral head. (medscape.com)
  • Avascular necrosis also causes bone to lose its smooth shape, possibly leading to severe arthritis. (mayoclinic.org)