Osteotomy is a surgical procedure in which a bone is cut to shorten, lengthen, or change its alignment. It is often performed to correct deformities or to realign bones that have been damaged by trauma or disease. The bone may be cut straight across (transverse osteotomy) or at an angle (oblique osteotomy). After the bone is cut, it can be realigned and held in place with pins, plates, or screws until it heals. This procedure is commonly performed on bones in the leg, such as the femur or tibia, but can also be done on other bones in the body.

A mandibular osteotomy is a surgical procedure that involves making a cut in the mandible (lower jawbone). This procedure is often performed to correct various dental and maxillofacial conditions such as jaw misalignment, sleep apnea, or jaw tumors. The specific type of osteotomy performed depends on the individual patient's needs and may involve making cuts at different locations along the mandible.

During the procedure, the surgeon makes an incision in the gum tissue to expose the mandible and then uses specialized instruments to make a precise cut in the bone. The surgeon can then move the jawbone into the desired position and secure it with plates, screws, or wires. In some cases, bone grafting may also be necessary to provide additional support.

After the procedure, patients may experience swelling, bruising, and discomfort, which can be managed with pain medication and cold compresses. Patients are usually advised to follow a soft diet for several weeks while the jaw heals. The recovery period can vary depending on the individual patient's healing process, but most patients can return to their normal activities within a few weeks.

The mandible, also known as the lower jaw, is the largest and strongest bone in the human face. It forms the lower portion of the oral cavity and plays a crucial role in various functions such as mastication (chewing), speaking, and swallowing. The mandible is a U-shaped bone that consists of a horizontal part called the body and two vertical parts called rami.

The mandible articulates with the skull at the temporomandibular joints (TMJs) located in front of each ear, allowing for movements like opening and closing the mouth, protrusion, retraction, and side-to-side movement. The mandible contains the lower teeth sockets called alveolar processes, which hold the lower teeth in place.

In medical terminology, the term "mandible" refers specifically to this bone and its associated structures.

Osteogenesis, distraction refers to a surgical procedure and controlled rehabilitation process used in orthopedic surgery, oral and maxillofacial surgery, and neurosurgery to lengthen bones or correct bone deformities. The term "osteogenesis" means bone formation, while "distraction" refers to the gradual separation of bone segments.

In this procedure, a surgeon first cuts the bone (osteotomy) and then applies an external or internal distraction device that slowly moves apart the cut ends of the bone. Over time, new bone forms in the gap between the separated bone segments through a process called distraction osteogenesis. This results in increased bone length or correction of deformities.

Distraction osteogenesis is often used to treat various conditions such as limb length discrepancies, craniofacial deformities, and spinal deformities. The procedure requires careful planning, precise surgical technique, and close postoperative management to ensure optimal outcomes.

An "osteotomy" refers to a surgical procedure in which a bone is cut. A "Le Fort osteotomy" is a specific type of osteotomy that involves cutting and repositioning the middle (midface) portion of the facial bones. There are three types of Le Fort osteotomies, named after the French surgeon René Le Fort who first described them:

1. Le Fort I osteotomy: This procedure involves making a horizontal cut through the lower part of the maxilla (upper jaw) and separating it from the rest of the facial bones. It is often used to treat conditions such as severe jaw deformities or obstructive sleep apnea.
2. Le Fort II osteotomy: In this procedure, an upward curved cut is made through the lower part of the maxilla and the middle portion of the nasal bones. This allows for the repositioning of the midface and nose. It may be used to treat conditions such as severe facial fractures or congenital deformities.
3. Le Fort III osteotomy: A Le Fort III osteotomy involves making a cut through the upper part of the maxilla, the orbital bones (bones surrounding the eyes), and the zygomatic bones (cheekbones). This procedure allows for significant repositioning of the midface and is often used to treat severe facial fractures or congenital deformities.

It's important to note that Le Fort osteotomies are complex surgical procedures that should only be performed by experienced oral and maxillofacial surgeons or craniofacial surgeons.

Acquired joint deformities refer to structural changes in the alignment and shape of a joint that develop after birth, due to various causes such as injury, disease, or wear and tear. These deformities can affect the function and mobility of the joint, causing pain, stiffness, and limited range of motion. Examples of conditions that can lead to acquired joint deformities include arthritis, infection, trauma, and nerve damage. Treatment may involve medication, physical therapy, or surgery to correct the deformity and alleviate symptoms.

Congenital hip dislocation, also known as developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH), is a condition where the hip joint fails to develop normally in utero or during early infancy. In a healthy hip, the head of the femur (thigh bone) fits snugly into the acetabulum (hip socket). However, in congenital hip dislocation, the femoral head is not held firmly in place within the acetabulum due to abnormal development or laxity of the ligaments that support the joint.

There are two types of congenital hip dislocations:

1. Teratologic dislocation: This type is present at birth and occurs due to abnormalities in the development of the hip joint during fetal growth. The femoral head may be completely outside the acetabulum or partially dislocated.

2. Developmental dysplasia: This type develops after birth, often within the first few months of life, as a result of ligamentous laxity and shallow acetabulum. In some cases, it can progress to a complete hip dislocation if left untreated.

Risk factors for congenital hip dislocation include family history, breech presentation during delivery, and female gender. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial to prevent long-term complications such as pain, limited mobility, and osteoarthritis. Treatment options may include bracing, closed reduction, or surgical intervention, depending on the severity and age of the child at diagnosis.

Malunited fractures refer to a type of fracture where the bones do not heal in their proper alignment or position. This can occur due to various reasons such as inadequate reduction of the fracture fragments during initial treatment, improper casting or immobilization, or failure of the patient to follow proper immobilization instructions. Malunited fractures can result in deformity, limited range of motion, and decreased functionality of the affected limb. Additional treatments such as surgery may be required to correct the malunion and restore normal function.

Hallux Valgus is a medical condition that affects the foot, specifically the big toe joint. It is characterized by the deviation of the big toe (hallux) towards the second toe, resulting in a prominent bump on the inner side of the foot at the base of the big toe. This bump is actually the metatarsal head of the first bone in the foot that becomes exposed due to the angulation.

The deformity can lead to pain, stiffness, and difficulty wearing shoes. In severe cases, it can also cause secondary arthritis in the joint. Hallux Valgus is more common in women than men and can be caused by genetic factors, foot shape, or ill-fitting shoes that put pressure on the big toe joint.

The tibia, also known as the shin bone, is the larger of the two bones in the lower leg and part of the knee joint. It supports most of the body's weight and is a major insertion point for muscles that flex the foot and bend the leg. The tibia articulates with the femur at the knee joint and with the fibula and talus bone at the ankle joint. Injuries to the tibia, such as fractures, are common in sports and other activities that put stress on the lower leg.

Sagittal split ramus osteotomy (SSRO) is a specific type of orthognathic surgery, which is performed on the ramus of the mandible (lower jaw). The procedure involves making a surgical cut in the ramus bone in a sagittal direction (splitting it from front to back), and then splitting the bone further into two segments. These segments are then repositioned to correct dentofacial deformities, such as jaw misalignment or asymmetry. The procedure is often used to treat severe cases of malocclusion (bad bite) and jaw joint disorders. After the bones are repositioned, they are stabilized with plates and screws until they heal together in their new position.

The femur is the medical term for the thigh bone, which is the longest and strongest bone in the human body. It connects the hip bone to the knee joint and plays a crucial role in supporting the weight of the body and allowing movement during activities such as walking, running, and jumping. The femur is composed of a rounded head, a long shaft, and two condyles at the lower end that articulate with the tibia and patella to form the knee joint.

The metatarsal bones are a group of five long bones in the foot that connect the tarsal bones in the hindfoot to the phalanges in the forefoot. They are located between the tarsal and phalangeal bones and are responsible for forming the arch of the foot and transmitting weight-bearing forces during walking and running. The metatarsal bones are numbered 1 to 5, with the first metatarsal being the shortest and thickest, and the fifth metatarsal being the longest and thinnest. Each metatarsal bone has a base, shaft, and head, and they articulate with each other and with the surrounding bones through joints. Any injury or disorder affecting the metatarsal bones can cause pain and difficulty in walking or standing.

The acetabulum is the cup-shaped cavity in the pelvic bone (specifically, the os coxa) where the head of the femur bone articulates to form the hip joint. It provides a stable and flexible connection between the lower limb and the trunk, allowing for a wide range of movements such as flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, and circumduction. The acetabulum is lined with articular cartilage, which facilitates smooth and frictionless movement of the hip joint. Its stability is further enhanced by various ligaments, muscles, and the labrum, a fibrocartilaginous rim that deepens the socket and increases its contact area with the femoral head.

The pelvic bones, also known as the hip bones, are a set of three irregularly shaped bones that connect to form the pelvic girdle in the lower part of the human body. They play a crucial role in supporting the spine and protecting the abdominal and pelvic organs.

The pelvic bones consist of three bones:

1. The ilium: This is the largest and uppermost bone, forming the majority of the hip bone and the broad, flaring part of the pelvis known as the wing of the ilium or the iliac crest, which can be felt on the side of the body.
2. The ischium: This is the lower and back portion of the pelvic bone that forms part of the sitting surface or the "sit bones."
3. The pubis: This is the front part of the pelvic bone, which connects to the other side at the pubic symphysis in the midline of the body.

The pelvic bones are joined together at the acetabulum, a cup-shaped socket that forms the hip joint and articulates with the head of the femur (thigh bone). The pelvic bones also have several openings for the passage of blood vessels, nerves, and reproductive and excretory organs.

The shape and size of the pelvic bones differ between males and females due to their different roles in childbirth and locomotion. Females typically have a wider and shallower pelvis than males to accommodate childbirth, while males usually have a narrower and deeper pelvis that is better suited for weight-bearing and movement.

Legg-Calve-Perthes disease is a childhood hip disorder that occurs when the blood supply to the ball part of the thigh bone (femoral head) is disrupted. This causes the bone tissue to die, leading to its collapse and deformity. The femoral head then regenerates itself, but often not as round and smooth as it should be, which can lead to hip problems in later life.

The disease is named after three doctors who independently described it: Arthur Legg, Jacques Calve, and Georg Perthes. It typically affects children between the ages of 4 and 10, more commonly boys than girls. Symptoms may include limping, pain in the hip or knee, reduced range of motion in the hip, and muscle wasting. Treatment often involves rest, physical therapy, and sometimes surgery to realign or reshape the femoral head.

The hip joint, also known as the coxal joint, is a ball-and-socket type synovial joint that connects the femur (thigh bone) to the pelvis. The "ball" is the head of the femur, while the "socket" is the acetabulum, a concave surface on the pelvic bone.

The hip joint is surrounded by a strong fibrous capsule and is reinforced by several ligaments, including the iliofemoral, ischiofemoral, and pubofemoral ligaments. The joint allows for flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, medial and lateral rotation, and circumduction movements, making it one of the most mobile joints in the body.

The hip joint is also supported by various muscles, including the gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, iliopsoas, and other hip flexors and extensors. These muscles provide stability and strength to the joint, allowing for weight-bearing activities such as walking, running, and jumping.

Bone plates are medical devices used in orthopedic surgery to stabilize and hold together fractured or broken bones during the healing process. They are typically made of surgical-grade stainless steel, titanium, or other biocompatible materials. The plate is shaped to fit the contour of the bone and is held in place with screws that are inserted through the plate and into the bone on either side of the fracture. This provides stability and alignment to the broken bones, allowing them to heal properly. Bone plates can be used to treat a variety of fractures, including those that are complex or unstable. After healing is complete, the bone plate may be left in place or removed, depending on the individual's needs and the surgeon's recommendation.

Articular Range of Motion (AROM) is a term used in physiotherapy and orthopedics to describe the amount of movement available in a joint, measured in degrees of a circle. It refers to the range through which synovial joints can actively move without causing pain or injury. AROM is assessed by measuring the degree of motion achieved by active muscle contraction, as opposed to passive range of motion (PROM), where the movement is generated by an external force.

Assessment of AROM is important in evaluating a patient's functional ability and progress, planning treatment interventions, and determining return to normal activities or sports participation. It is also used to identify any restrictions in joint mobility that may be due to injury, disease, or surgery, and to monitor the effectiveness of rehabilitation programs.

A hip dislocation is a medical emergency that occurs when the head of the femur (thighbone) slips out of its socket in the pelvis. This can happen due to high-energy trauma, such as a car accident or a severe fall. Hip dislocations can also occur in people with certain health conditions that make their hips more prone to displacement, such as developmental dysplasia of the hip.

There are two main types of hip dislocations: posterior and anterior. In a posterior dislocation, the femur head moves out of the back of the socket, which is the most common type. In an anterior dislocation, the femur head moves out of the front of the socket. Both types of hip dislocations can cause severe pain, swelling, and difficulty moving the affected leg.

Immediate medical attention is necessary for a hip dislocation to realign the bones and prevent further damage. Treatment typically involves sedation or anesthesia to relax the muscles around the joint, followed by a closed reduction procedure to gently guide the femur head back into the socket. In some cases, surgery may be required to repair any associated injuries, such as fractures or damaged ligaments. After treatment, physical therapy and rehabilitation are usually necessary to restore strength, mobility, and function to the affected hip joint.

A maxillary osteotomy is a surgical procedure that involves making cuts in the bone of the upper jaw (maxilla). This type of surgery may be performed for various reasons, such as to correct jaw deformities, realign the jaws, or treat sleep apnea. In some cases, it may also be done in conjunction with other procedures, such as a genioplasty (chin surgery) or rhinoplasty (nose surgery).

During a maxillary osteotomy, an incision is made inside the mouth, and the surgeon carefully cuts through the bone of the upper jaw. The maxilla is then repositioned as needed and held in place with small plates and screws. In some cases, bone grafts may also be used to help support the new position of the jaw. After the surgery, the incision is closed with stitches.

It's important to note that a maxillary osteotomy is a complex surgical procedure that requires careful planning and execution. It should only be performed by an experienced oral and maxillofacial surgeon or craniofacial surgeon. As with any surgery, there are risks involved, including infection, bleeding, and reactions to anesthesia. It's important to discuss these risks with your surgeon and to follow all post-operative instructions carefully to help ensure a successful recovery.

Bone lengthening is a surgical procedure that involves cutting and then gradually stretching the bone apart, allowing new bone to grow in its place. This process is also known as distraction osteogenesis. The goal of bone lengthening is to increase the length of a bone, either to improve function or to correct a deformity.

The procedure typically involves making an incision in the skin over the bone and using specialized tools to cut through the bone. Once the bone is cut, a device called an external fixator is attached to the bone on either side of the cut. The external fixator is then gradually adjusted over time to slowly stretch the bone apart, creating a gap between the two ends of the bone. As the bone is stretched, new bone tissue begins to grow in the space between the two ends, eventually filling in the gap and lengthening the bone.

Bone lengthening can be used to treat a variety of conditions, including limb length discrepancies, congenital deformities, and injuries that result in bone loss. It is typically performed by an orthopedic surgeon and may require several months of follow-up care to ensure proper healing and growth of the new bone tissue.

Jaw fixation techniques, also known as maxillomandibular fixation (MMF), are procedures used in dental and oral surgery to hold the jaw in a specific position. This is typically done by wiring the upper and lower teeth together or using elastic bands and other devices to keep the jaws aligned. The technique is often used after surgical procedures on the jaw, such as corrective jaw surgery (orthognathic surgery) or fracture repair, to help promote proper healing and alignment of the bones. It may also be used in the management of temporomandibular joint disorders or other conditions affecting the jaw. The duration of jaw fixation can vary depending on the specific procedure and individual patient needs, but it typically lasts several weeks.

Bone malalignment is a term used to describe the abnormal alignment or positioning of bones in relation to each other. This condition can occur as a result of injury, deformity, surgery, or disease processes that affect the bones and joints. Bone malalignment can cause pain, stiffness, limited mobility, and an increased risk of further injury. In some cases, bone malalignment may require treatment such as bracing, physical therapy, or surgery to correct the alignment and improve function.

Developmental bone diseases are a group of medical conditions that affect the growth and development of bones. These diseases are present at birth or develop during childhood and adolescence, when bones are growing rapidly. They can result from genetic mutations, hormonal imbalances, or environmental factors such as poor nutrition.

Some examples of developmental bone diseases include:

1. Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI): Also known as brittle bone disease, OI is a genetic disorder that affects the body's production of collagen, a protein necessary for healthy bones. People with OI have fragile bones that break easily and may also experience other symptoms such as blue sclerae (whites of the eyes), hearing loss, and joint laxity.
2. Achondroplasia: This is the most common form of dwarfism, caused by a genetic mutation that affects bone growth. People with achondroplasia have short limbs and a large head relative to their body size.
3. Rickets: A condition caused by vitamin D deficiency or an inability to absorb or use vitamin D properly. This leads to weak, soft bones that can bow or bend easily, particularly in children.
4. Fibrous dysplasia: A rare bone disorder where normal bone is replaced with fibrous tissue, leading to weakened bones and deformities.
5. Scoliosis: An abnormal curvature of the spine that can develop during childhood or adolescence. While not strictly a developmental bone disease, scoliosis can be caused by various underlying conditions such as cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy, or spina bifida.

Treatment for developmental bone diseases varies depending on the specific condition and its severity. Treatment may include medication, physical therapy, bracing, or surgery to correct deformities and improve function. Regular follow-up with a healthcare provider is essential to monitor growth, manage symptoms, and prevent complications.

The metatarsus is the region in the foot between the tarsal bones (which form the hindfoot and midfoot) and the phalanges (toes). It consists of five long bones called the metatarsals, which articulate with the tarsal bones proximally and the phalanges distally. The metatarsus plays a crucial role in weight-bearing, support, and propulsion during walking and running. Any abnormalities or injuries to this region may result in various foot conditions, such as metatarsalgia, Morton's neuroma, or hammertoes.

Kyphosis is a medical term used to describe an excessive curvature of the spine in the sagittal plane, leading to a rounded or humped back appearance. This condition often affects the thoracic region of the spine and can result from various factors such as age-related degenerative changes, congenital disorders, Scheuermann's disease, osteoporosis, or traumatic injuries. Mild kyphosis may not cause any significant symptoms; however, severe cases can lead to pain, respiratory difficulties, and decreased quality of life. Treatment options typically include physical therapy, bracing, and, in some cases, surgical intervention.

The ulna is one of the two long bones in the forearm, the other being the radius. It runs from the elbow to the wrist and is located on the medial side of the forearm, next to the bone called the humerus in the upper arm. The ulna plays a crucial role in the movement of the forearm and also serves as an attachment site for various muscles.

Arthroplasty is a surgical procedure to restore the integrity and function of a joint. The term is derived from two Greek words: "arthro" meaning joint, and "plasty" meaning to mold or form. There are several types of arthroplasty, but most involve resurfacing the damaged joint cartilage with artificial materials such as metal, plastic, or ceramic.

The goal of arthroplasty is to relieve pain, improve mobility, and restore function in a joint that has been damaged by arthritis, injury, or other conditions. The most common types of arthroplasty are total joint replacement (TJR) and partial joint replacement (PJR).

In TJR, the surgeon removes the damaged ends of the bones in the joint and replaces them with artificial components called prostheses. These prostheses can be made of metal, plastic, or ceramic materials, and are designed to mimic the natural movement and function of the joint.

In PJR, only one side of the joint is resurfaced, typically because the damage is less extensive. This procedure is less invasive than TJR and may be recommended for younger patients who are still active or have a higher risk of complications from a full joint replacement.

Other types of arthroplasty include osteotomy, in which the surgeon cuts and reshapes the bone to realign the joint; arthrodesis, in which the surgeon fuses two bones together to create a stable joint; and resurfacing, in which the damaged cartilage is removed and replaced with a smooth, artificial surface.

Arthroplasty is typically recommended for patients who have tried other treatments, such as physical therapy, medication, or injections, but have not found relief from their symptoms. While arthroplasty can be highly effective in relieving pain and improving mobility, it is not without risks, including infection, blood clots, and implant failure. Patients should discuss the benefits and risks of arthroplasty with their healthcare provider to determine if it is the right treatment option for them.

The femoral head is the rounded, ball-like top portion of the femur (thigh bone) that fits into the hip socket (acetabulum) to form the hip joint. It has a smooth, articular cartilage surface that allows for smooth and stable articulation with the pelvis. The femoral head is connected to the femoral neck, which is a narrower section of bone that angles downward and leads into the shaft of the femur. Together, the femoral head and neck provide stability and range of motion to the hip joint.

Fracture healing is the natural process by which a broken bone repairs itself. When a fracture occurs, the body responds by initiating a series of biological and cellular events aimed at restoring the structural integrity of the bone. This process involves the formation of a hematoma (a collection of blood) around the fracture site, followed by the activation of inflammatory cells that help to clean up debris and prepare the area for repair.

Over time, specialized cells called osteoblasts begin to lay down new bone matrix, or osteoid, along the edges of the broken bone ends. This osteoid eventually hardens into new bone tissue, forming a bridge between the fracture fragments. As this process continues, the callus (a mass of newly formed bone and connective tissue) gradually becomes stronger and more compact, eventually remodeling itself into a solid, unbroken bone.

The entire process of fracture healing can take several weeks to several months, depending on factors such as the severity of the injury, the patient's age and overall health, and the location of the fracture. In some cases, medical intervention may be necessary to help promote healing or ensure proper alignment of the bone fragments. This may include the use of casts, braces, or surgical implants such as plates, screws, or rods.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Femoral head necrosis, also known as avascular necrosis of the femoral head, is a medical condition that results from the interruption of blood flow to the femoral head, which is the rounded end of the thigh bone that fits into the hip joint. This lack of blood supply can cause the bone tissue to die, leading to the collapse of the femoral head and eventually resulting in hip joint damage or arthritis.

The condition can be caused by a variety of factors, including trauma, alcohol abuse, corticosteroid use, radiation therapy, and certain medical conditions such as sickle cell disease and lupus. Symptoms may include pain in the hip or groin, limited range of motion, and difficulty walking. Treatment options depend on the severity and progression of the necrosis and may include medication, physical therapy, or surgical intervention.

'Leg length inequality' (LLIS) is a condition where there is a discrepancy in the lengths of an individual's lower extremities, specifically the bones of the thigh (femur) and/or the leg (tibia/fibula). This discrepancy can be congenital or acquired due to various causes such as fractures, infections, or surgical procedures. The inequality can lead to functional scoliosis, lower back pain, and other musculoskeletal issues. It is typically diagnosed through physical examination and imaging studies like X-rays, and may be treated with various methods including orthotics, shoe lifts, or in some cases, surgical intervention.

Osteoarthritis (OA) of the hip is a degenerative joint disease that affects the articular cartilage and subchondral bone of the hip joint. It is characterized by the progressive loss of cartilage, remodeling of bone, osteophyte formation (bone spurs), cysts, and mild to moderate inflammation. The degenerative process can lead to pain, stiffness, limited range of motion, and crepitus (grating or crackling sound) during movement.

In the hip joint, OA typically affects the femoral head and acetabulum. As the articular cartilage wears away, the underlying bone becomes exposed and can lead to bone-on-bone contact, which is painful. The body responds by attempting to repair the damage through remodeling of the subchondral bone and formation of osteophytes. However, these changes can further limit joint mobility and exacerbate symptoms.

Risk factors for OA of the hip include age, obesity, genetics, previous joint injury or surgery, and repetitive stress on the joint. Treatment options may include pain management (such as NSAIDs, physical therapy, and injections), lifestyle modifications (such as weight loss and exercise), and, in severe cases, surgical intervention (such as hip replacement).

Bone screws are medical devices used in orthopedic and trauma surgery to affix bone fracture fragments or to attach bones to other bones or to metal implants such as plates, rods, or artificial joints. They are typically made of stainless steel or titanium alloys and have a threaded shaft that allows for purchase in the bone when tightened. The head of the screw may have a hexagonal or star-shaped design to allow for precise tightening with a screwdriver. Bone screws come in various shapes, sizes, and designs, including fully threaded, partially threaded, cannulated (hollow), and headless types, depending on their intended use and location in the body.

The knee joint, also known as the tibiofemoral joint, is the largest and one of the most complex joints in the human body. It is a synovial joint that connects the thighbone (femur) to the shinbone (tibia). The patella (kneecap), which is a sesamoid bone, is located in front of the knee joint and helps in the extension of the leg.

The knee joint is made up of three articulations: the femorotibial joint between the femur and tibia, the femoropatellar joint between the femur and patella, and the tibiofibular joint between the tibia and fibula. These articulations are surrounded by a fibrous capsule that encloses the synovial membrane, which secretes synovial fluid to lubricate the joint.

The knee joint is stabilized by several ligaments, including the medial and lateral collateral ligaments, which provide stability to the sides of the joint, and the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments, which prevent excessive forward and backward movement of the tibia relative to the femur. The menisci, which are C-shaped fibrocartilaginous structures located between the femoral condyles and tibial plateaus, also help to stabilize the joint by absorbing shock and distributing weight evenly across the articular surfaces.

The knee joint allows for flexion, extension, and a small amount of rotation, making it essential for activities such as walking, running, jumping, and sitting.

Internal fixators are medical devices that are implanted into the body through surgery to stabilize and hold broken or fractured bones in the correct position while they heal. These devices can be made from various materials, such as metal (stainless steel or titanium) or bioabsorbable materials. Internal fixators can take many forms, including plates, screws, rods, nails, wires, or cages, depending on the type and location of the fracture.

The main goal of using internal fixators is to promote bone healing by maintaining accurate reduction and alignment of the fractured bones, allowing for early mobilization and rehabilitation. This can help reduce the risk of complications such as malunion, nonunion, or deformity. Internal fixators are typically removed once the bone has healed, although some bioabsorbable devices may not require a second surgery for removal.

It is important to note that while internal fixators provide stability and support for fractured bones, they do not replace the need for proper immobilization, protection, or rehabilitation during the healing process. Close follow-up with an orthopedic surgeon is essential to ensure appropriate healing and address any potential complications.

An external fixator is a type of orthopedic device used in the treatment of severe fractures or deformities of bones. It consists of an external frame that is attached to the bone with pins or wires that pass through the skin and into the bone. This provides stability to the injured area while allowing for alignment and adjustment of the bone during the healing process.

External fixators are typically used in cases where traditional casting or internal fixation methods are not feasible, such as when there is extensive soft tissue damage, infection, or when a limb needs to be gradually stretched or shortened. They can also be used in reconstructive surgery for bone defects or deformities.

The external frame of the fixator is made up of bars and clamps that are adjustable, allowing for precise positioning and alignment of the bones. The pins or wires that attach to the bone are carefully inserted through small incisions in the skin, and are held in place by the clamps on the frame.

External fixators can be used for a period of several weeks to several months, depending on the severity of the injury and the individual's healing process. During this time, the patient may require regular adjustments and monitoring by an orthopedic surgeon or other medical professional. Once the bone has healed sufficiently, the external fixator can be removed in a follow-up procedure.

Slipped epiphyses refer to a medical condition where the growth plate (epiphysis) at the end of a bone slips away from the rest of the bone. This condition most commonly affects the hip joint in adolescents and is also known as slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE).

The epiphysis is a layer of cartilage that is present at the ends of long bones in children and adolescents. It is responsible for the growth and development of the bone. In SCFE, the epiphysis on the upper end of the thighbone (femur) slips away from the shaft of the bone due to weakness or injury to the growth plate.

Slipped epiphyses can cause pain, stiffness, and limited mobility in the affected joint. If left untreated, it can lead to complications such as avascular necrosis (death of bone tissue due to lack of blood supply) and early arthritis. Treatment for slipped epiphyses typically involves surgery to realign and stabilize the growth plate with pins or screws.

A reoperation is a surgical procedure that is performed again on a patient who has already undergone a previous operation for the same or related condition. Reoperations may be required due to various reasons, such as inadequate initial treatment, disease recurrence, infection, or complications from the first surgery. The nature and complexity of a reoperation can vary widely depending on the specific circumstances, but it often carries higher risks and potential complications compared to the original operation.

Piezosurgery is a type of surgical procedure that uses ultrasonic vibrations to cut through bone tissue while minimizing damage to surrounding soft tissues. It is often used in oral and maxillofacial surgery, such as during dental implant placement or jaw osteotomies. The piezoelectric instrument generates high-frequency microvibrations that selectively cut mineralized tissue like bone, while leaving adjacent soft tissues largely unaffected. This allows for precise cuts with less trauma and bleeding compared to traditional surgical techniques, potentially resulting in faster healing times and reduced postoperative discomfort.

Postoperative complications refer to any unfavorable condition or event that occurs during the recovery period after a surgical procedure. These complications can vary in severity and may include, but are not limited to:

1. Infection: This can occur at the site of the incision or inside the body, such as pneumonia or urinary tract infection.
2. Bleeding: Excessive bleeding (hemorrhage) can lead to a drop in blood pressure and may require further surgical intervention.
3. Blood clots: These can form in the deep veins of the legs (deep vein thrombosis) and can potentially travel to the lungs (pulmonary embolism).
4. Wound dehiscence: This is when the surgical wound opens up, which can lead to infection and further complications.
5. Pulmonary issues: These include atelectasis (collapsed lung), pneumonia, or respiratory failure.
6. Cardiovascular problems: These include abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias), heart attack, or stroke.
7. Renal failure: This can occur due to various reasons such as dehydration, blood loss, or the use of certain medications.
8. Pain management issues: Inadequate pain control can lead to increased stress, anxiety, and decreased mobility.
9. Nausea and vomiting: These can be caused by anesthesia, opioid pain medication, or other factors.
10. Delirium: This is a state of confusion and disorientation that can occur in the elderly or those with certain medical conditions.

Prompt identification and management of these complications are crucial to ensure the best possible outcome for the patient.

The metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint is the joint in the foot where the metatarsal bones of the foot (the long bones behind the toes) connect with the proximal phalanges of the toes. It's a synovial joint, which means it's surrounded by a capsule containing synovial fluid to allow for smooth movement. The MTP joint is responsible for allowing the flexion and extension movements of the toes, and is important for maintaining balance and pushing off during walking and running. Issues with the MTP joint can lead to conditions such as hallux valgus (bunions) or hammertoe.

Follow-up studies are a type of longitudinal research that involve repeated observations or measurements of the same variables over a period of time, in order to understand their long-term effects or outcomes. In medical context, follow-up studies are often used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments, interventions, or procedures.

In a typical follow-up study, a group of individuals (called a cohort) who have received a particular treatment or intervention are identified and then followed over time through periodic assessments or data collection. The data collected may include information on clinical outcomes, adverse events, changes in symptoms or functional status, and other relevant measures.

The results of follow-up studies can provide important insights into the long-term benefits and risks of medical interventions, as well as help to identify factors that may influence treatment effectiveness or patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that follow-up studies can be subject to various biases and limitations, such as loss to follow-up, recall bias, and changes in clinical practice over time, which must be carefully considered when interpreting the results.

Joint instability is a condition characterized by the loss of normal joint function and increased risk of joint injury due to impaired integrity of the supporting structures, such as ligaments, muscles, or cartilage. This can result in excessive movement or laxity within the joint, leading to decreased stability and increased susceptibility to dislocations or subluxations. Joint instability may cause pain, swelling, and limited range of motion, and it can significantly impact a person's mobility and quality of life. It is often caused by trauma, degenerative conditions, or congenital abnormalities and may require medical intervention, such as physical therapy, bracing, or surgery, to restore joint stability.

The fibula is a slender bone located in the lower leg of humans and other vertebrates. It runs parallel to the larger and more robust tibia, and together they are known as the bones of the leg or the anterior tibial segment. The fibula is the lateral bone in the leg, positioned on the outside of the tibia.

In humans, the fibula extends from the knee joint proximally to the ankle joint distally. Its proximal end, called the head of the fibula, articulates with the lateral condyle of the tibia and forms part of the inferior aspect of the knee joint. The narrowed portion below the head is known as the neck of the fibula.

The shaft of the fibula, also called the body of the fibula, is a long, thin structure that descends from the neck and serves primarily for muscle attachment rather than weight-bearing functions. The distal end of the fibula widens to form the lateral malleolus, which is an important bony landmark in the ankle region. The lateral malleolus articulates with the talus bone of the foot and forms part of the ankle joint.

The primary functions of the fibula include providing attachment sites for muscles that act on the lower leg, ankle, and foot, as well as contributing to the stability of the ankle joint through its articulation with the talus bone. Fractures of the fibula can occur due to various injuries, such as twisting or rotational forces applied to the ankle or direct trauma to the lateral aspect of the lower leg.

I'm not aware of a medical term called "bone wires." The term "wiring" is used in orthopedic surgery to describe the use of metal wire to hold bones or fractures in place during healing. However, I couldn't find any specific medical definition or term related to "bone wires." It may be a colloquialism, a term used in a specific context, or a term from science fiction. If you could provide more context about where you encountered this term, I might be able to give a more accurate answer.

The tarsal bones are a group of seven articulating bones in the foot that make up the posterior portion of the foot, located between the talus bone of the leg and the metatarsal bones of the forefoot. They play a crucial role in supporting the body's weight and facilitating movement.

There are three categories of tarsal bones:

1. Proximal row: This includes the talus, calcaneus (heel bone), and navicular bones. The talus articulates with the tibia and fibula to form the ankle joint, while the calcaneus is the largest tarsal bone and forms the heel. The navicular bone is located between the talus and the cuneiform bones.

2. Intermediate row: This includes the cuboid bone, which is located laterally (on the outside) to the navicular bone and articulates with the calcaneus, fourth and fifth metatarsals, and the cuneiform bones.

3. Distal row: This includes three cuneiform bones - the medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiforms - which are located between the navicular bone proximally and the first, second, and third metatarsal bones distally. The medial cuneiform is the largest of the three and articulates with the navicular bone, first metatarsal, and the intermediate cuneiform. The intermediate cuneiform articulates with the medial and lateral cuneiforms and the second metatarsal. The lateral cuneiform articulates with the intermediate cuneiform, cuboid, and fourth metatarsal.

Together, these bones form a complex network of joints that allow for movement and stability in the foot. Injuries or disorders affecting the tarsal bones can result in pain, stiffness, and difficulty walking.