Non-invasive method of demonstrating internal anatomy based on the principle that atomic nuclei in a strong magnetic field absorb pulses of radiofrequency energy and emit them as radiowaves which can be reconstructed into computerized images. The concept includes proton spin tomographic techniques.
Spectroscopic method of measuring the magnetic moment of elementary particles such as atomic nuclei, protons or electrons. It is employed in clinical applications such as NMR Tomography (MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING).
Non-invasive method of vascular imaging and determination of internal anatomy without injection of contrast media or radiation exposure. The technique is used especially in CEREBRAL ANGIOGRAPHY as well as for studies of other vascular structures.
A type of imaging technique used primarily in the field of cardiology. By coordinating the fast gradient-echo MRI sequence with retrospective ECG-gating, numerous short time frames evenly spaced in the cardiac cycle are produced. These images are laced together in a cinematic display so that wall motion of the ventricles, valve motion, and blood flow patterns in the heart and great vessels can be visualized.
Substances used to allow enhanced visualization of tissues.
A diagnostic technique that incorporates the measurement of molecular diffusion (such as water or metabolites) for tissue assessment by MRI. The degree of molecular movement can be measured by changes of apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) with time, as reflected by tissue microstructure. Diffusion MRI has been used to study BRAIN ISCHEMIA and tumor response to treatment.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
A complex of gadolinium with a chelating agent, diethylenetriamine penta-acetic acid (DTPA see PENTETIC ACID), that is given to enhance the image in cranial and spinal MRIs. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p706)
NMR spectroscopy on small- to medium-size biological macromolecules. This is often used for structural investigation of proteins and nucleic acids, and often involves more than one isotope.
Gadolinium. An element of the rare earth family of metals. It has the atomic symbol Gd, atomic number 64, and atomic weight 157.25. Its oxide is used in the control rods of some nuclear reactors.
Imaging techniques used to colocalize sites of brain functions or physiological activity with brain structures.
A technique of inputting two-dimensional images into a computer and then enhancing or analyzing the imagery into a form that is more useful to the human observer.
A biosensing technique in which biomolecules capable of binding to specific analytes or ligands are first immobilized on one side of a metallic film. Light is then focused on the opposite side of the film to excite the surface plasmons, that is, the oscillations of free electrons propagating along the film's surface. The refractive index of light reflecting off this surface is measured. When the immobilized biomolecules are bound by their ligands, an alteration in surface plasmons on the opposite side of the film is created which is directly proportional to the change in bound, or adsorbed, mass. Binding is measured by changes in the refractive index. The technique is used to study biomolecular interactions, such as antigen-antibody binding.
Methods developed to aid in the interpretation of ultrasound, radiographic images, etc., for diagnosis of disease.
Improvement of the quality of a picture by various techniques, including computer processing, digital filtering, echocardiographic techniques, light and ultrastructural MICROSCOPY, fluorescence spectrometry and microscopy, scintigraphy, and in vitro image processing at the molecular level.
A technique applicable to the wide variety of substances which exhibit paramagnetism because of the magnetic moments of unpaired electrons. The spectra are useful for detection and identification, for determination of electron structure, for study of interactions between molecules, and for measurement of nuclear spins and moments. (From McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 7th edition) Electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopy is a variant of the technique which can give enhanced resolution. Electron spin resonance analysis can now be used in vivo, including imaging applications such as MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING.
The process of generating three-dimensional images by electronic, photographic, or other methods. For example, three-dimensional images can be generated by assembling multiple tomographic images with the aid of a computer, while photographic 3-D images (HOLOGRAPHY) can be made by exposing film to the interference pattern created when two laser light sources shine on an object.
Minimally invasive procedures guided with the aid of magnetic resonance imaging to visualize tissue structures.
The statistical reproducibility of measurements (often in a clinical context), including the testing of instrumentation or techniques to obtain reproducible results. The concept includes reproducibility of physiological measurements, which may be used to develop rules to assess probability or prognosis, or response to a stimulus; reproducibility of occurrence of a condition; and reproducibility of experimental results.
A type of FLUORESCENCE SPECTROSCOPY using two FLUORESCENT DYES with overlapping emission and absorption spectra, which is used to indicate proximity of labeled molecules. This technique is useful for studying interactions of molecules and PROTEIN FOLDING.
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
Tomography using x-ray transmission and a computer algorithm to reconstruct the image.
Non-invasive diagnostic technique for visualizing the PANCREATIC DUCTS and BILE DUCTS without the use of injected CONTRAST MEDIA or x-ray. MRI scans provide excellent sensitivity for duct dilatation, biliary stricture, and intraductal abnormalities.
Stable elementary particles having the smallest known positive charge, found in the nuclei of all elements. The proton mass is less than that of a neutron. A proton is the nucleus of the light hydrogen atom, i.e., the hydrogen ion.
An element with atomic symbol O, atomic number 8, and atomic weight [15.99903; 15.99977]. It is the most abundant element on earth and essential for respiration.
In screening and diagnostic tests, the probability that a person with a positive test is a true positive (i.e., has the disease), is referred to as the predictive value of a positive test; whereas, the predictive value of a negative test is the probability that the person with a negative test does not have the disease. Predictive value is related to the sensitivity and specificity of the test.
An amino acid that occurs in vertebrate tissues and in urine. In muscle tissue, creatine generally occurs as phosphocreatine. Creatine is excreted as CREATININE in the urine.
An endogenous substance found mainly in skeletal muscle of vertebrates. It has been tried in the treatment of cardiac disorders and has been added to cardioplegic solutions. (Reynolds JEF(Ed): Martindale: The Extra Pharmacopoeia (electronic version). Micromedex, Inc, Englewood, CO, 1996)
Behavioral manifestations of cerebral dominance in which there is preferential use and superior functioning of either the left or the right side, as in the preferred use of the right hand or right foot.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Pathologic conditions affecting the BRAIN, which is composed of the intracranial components of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. This includes (but is not limited to) the CEREBRAL CORTEX; intracranial white matter; BASAL GANGLIA; THALAMUS; HYPOTHALAMUS; BRAIN STEM; and CEREBELLUM.
A class of compounds of the type R-M, where a C atom is joined directly to any other element except H, C, N, O, F, Cl, Br, I, or At. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
A type of MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING that uses only one nuclear spin excitation per image and therefore can obtain images in a fraction of a second rather than the minutes required in traditional MRI techniques. It is used in a variety of medical and scientific applications.
The thin layer of GRAY MATTER on the surface of the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES that develops from the TELENCEPHALON and folds into gyri and sulchi. It reaches its highest development in humans and is responsible for intellectual faculties and higher mental functions.
Synthesized magnetic particles under 100 nanometers possessing many biomedical applications including DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS and CONTRAST AGENTS. The particles are usually coated with a variety of polymeric compounds.
Any visual display of structural or functional patterns of organs or tissues for diagnostic evaluation. It includes measuring physiologic and metabolic responses to physical and chemical stimuli, as well as ultramicroscopy.
A basic constituent of lecithin that is found in many plants and animal organs. It is important as a precursor of acetylcholine, as a methyl donor in various metabolic processes, and in lipid metabolism.
One of the non-essential amino acids commonly occurring in the L-form. It is found in animals and plants, especially in sugar cane and sugar beets. It may be a neurotransmitter.
A procedure consisting of a sequence of algebraic formulas and/or logical steps to calculate or determine a given task.
Decrease in the size of a cell, tissue, organ, or multiple organs, associated with a variety of pathological conditions such as abnormal cellular changes, ischemia, malnutrition, or hormonal changes.
The part of the cerebral hemisphere anterior to the central sulcus, and anterior and superior to the lateral sulcus.
Iron (II,III) oxide (Fe3O4). It is a black ore of IRON that forms opaque crystals and exerts strong magnetism.
Lower lateral part of the cerebral hemisphere responsible for auditory, olfactory, and semantic processing. It is located inferior to the lateral fissure and anterior to the OCCIPITAL LOBE.
Neoplasms of the intracranial components of the central nervous system, including the cerebral hemispheres, basal ganglia, hypothalamus, thalamus, brain stem, and cerebellum. Brain neoplasms are subdivided into primary (originating from brain tissue) and secondary (i.e., metastatic) forms. Primary neoplasms are subdivided into benign and malignant forms. In general, brain tumors may also be classified by age of onset, histologic type, or presenting location in the brain.
One of the convolutions on the medial surface of the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES. It surrounds the rostral part of the brain and CORPUS CALLOSUM and forms part of the LIMBIC SYSTEM.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
Any visible result of a procedure which is caused by the procedure itself and not by the entity being analyzed. Common examples include histological structures introduced by tissue processing, radiographic images of structures that are not naturally present in living tissue, and products of chemical reactions that occur during analysis.
Investigative technique commonly used during ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY in which a series of bright light flashes or visual patterns are used to elicit brain activity.
The failure by the observer to measure or identify a phenomenon accurately, which results in an error. Sources for this may be due to the observer's missing an abnormality, or to faulty technique resulting in incorrect test measurement, or to misinterpretation of the data. Two varieties are inter-observer variation (the amount observers vary from one another when reporting on the same material) and intra-observer variation (the amount one observer varies between observations when reporting more than once on the same material).
Tests designed to assess neurological function associated with certain behaviors. They are used in diagnosing brain dysfunction or damage and central nervous system disorders or injury.
Stable carbon atoms that have the same atomic number as the element carbon, but differ in atomic weight. C-13 is a stable carbon isotope.
Devices or objects in various imaging techniques used to visualize or enhance visualization by simulating conditions encountered in the procedure. Phantoms are used very often in procedures employing or measuring x-irradiation or radioactive material to evaluate performance. Phantoms often have properties similar to human tissue. Water demonstrates absorbing properties similar to normal tissue, hence water-filled phantoms are used to map radiation levels. Phantoms are used also as teaching aids to simulate real conditions with x-ray or ultrasonic machines. (From Iturralde, Dictionary and Handbook of Nuclear Medicine and Clinical Imaging, 1990)
A nonmetallic, diatomic gas that is a trace element and member of the halogen family. It is used in dentistry as flouride (FLUORIDES) to prevent dental caries.
A non-metal element that has the atomic symbol P, atomic number 15, and atomic weight 31. It is an essential element that takes part in a broad variety of biochemical reactions.
Molecules which contain an atom or a group of atoms exhibiting an unpaired electron spin that can be detected by electron spin resonance spectroscopy and can be bonded to another molecule. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Chemical and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
Upper central part of the cerebral hemisphere. It is located posterior to central sulcus, anterior to the OCCIPITAL LOBE, and superior to the TEMPORAL LOBES.
The rostral part of the frontal lobe, bounded by the inferior precentral fissure in humans, which receives projection fibers from the MEDIODORSAL NUCLEUS OF THE THALAMUS. The prefrontal cortex receives afferent fibers from numerous structures of the DIENCEPHALON; MESENCEPHALON; and LIMBIC SYSTEM as well as cortical afferents of visual, auditory, and somatic origin.
The characteristic 3-dimensional shape of a protein, including the secondary, supersecondary (motifs), tertiary (domains) and quaternary structure of the peptide chain. PROTEIN STRUCTURE, QUATERNARY describes the conformation assumed by multimeric proteins (aggregates of more than one polypeptide chain).
Studies to determine the advantages or disadvantages, practicability, or capability of accomplishing a projected plan, study, or project.
The study of MAGNETIC PHENOMENA.
Levels within a diagnostic group which are established by various measurement criteria applied to the seriousness of a patient's disorder.
The circulation of blood through the BLOOD VESSELS of the BRAIN.
Analysis of the intensity of Raman scattering of monochromatic light as a function of frequency of the scattered light.
Inorganic or organic compounds containing trivalent iron.
A meshlike structure composed of interconnecting nerve cells that are separated at the synaptic junction or joined to one another by cytoplasmic processes. In invertebrates, for example, the nerve net allows nerve impulses to spread over a wide area of the net because synapses can pass information in any direction.
Posterior portion of the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES responsible for processing visual sensory information. It is located posterior to the parieto-occipital sulcus and extends to the preoccipital notch.
Neural tracts connecting one part of the nervous system with another.
Models used experimentally or theoretically to study molecular shape, electronic properties, or interactions; includes analogous molecules, computer-generated graphics, and mechanical structures.
The normality of a solution with respect to HYDROGEN ions; H+. It is related to acidity measurements in most cases by pH = log 1/2[1/(H+)], where (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per liter of solution. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
A statistical technique that isolates and assesses the contributions of categorical independent variables to variation in the mean of a continuous dependent variable.
The muscle tissue of the HEART. It is composed of striated, involuntary muscle cells (MYOCYTES, CARDIAC) connected to form the contractile pump to generate blood flow.
Methods for visualizing REGIONAL BLOOD FLOW, metabolic, electrical, or other physiological activities in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM using various imaging modalities.
The range or frequency distribution of a measurement in a population (of organisms, organs or things) that has not been selected for the presence of disease or abnormality.
An imaging technique using compounds labelled with short-lived positron-emitting radionuclides (such as carbon-11, nitrogen-13, oxygen-15 and fluorine-18) to measure cell metabolism. It has been useful in study of soft tissues such as CANCER; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; and brain. SINGLE-PHOTON EMISSION-COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY is closely related to positron emission tomography, but uses isotopes with longer half-lives and resolution is lower.
A clear, odorless, tasteless liquid that is essential for most animal and plant life and is an excellent solvent for many substances. The chemical formula is hydrogen oxide (H2O). (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
Non-invasive methods of visualizing the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, especially the brain, by various imaging modalities.
Studies in which individuals or populations are followed to assess the outcome of exposures, procedures, or effects of a characteristic, e.g., occurrence of disease.
A synovial hinge connection formed between the bones of the FEMUR; TIBIA; and PATELLA.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
Deuterium. The stable isotope of hydrogen. It has one neutron and one proton in the nucleus.
Descriptive anatomy based on three-dimensional imaging (IMAGING, THREE-DIMENSIONAL) of the body, organs, and structures using a series of computer multiplane sections, displayed by transverse, coronal, and sagittal analyses. It is essential to accurate interpretation by the radiologist of such techniques as ultrasonic diagnosis, MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING, and computed tomography (TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED). (From Lane & Sharfaei, Modern Sectional Anatomy, 1992, Preface)
Dominance of one cerebral hemisphere over the other in cerebral functions.
Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison, referent) group without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing diseased and non-diseased persons with regard to the frequency or levels of the attribute in each group.
The characteristic three-dimensional shape of a molecule.
A physical property showing different values in relation to the direction in or along which the measurement is made. The physical property may be with regard to thermal or electric conductivity or light refraction. In crystallography, it describes crystals whose index of refraction varies with the direction of the incident light. It is also called acolotropy and colotropy. The opposite of anisotropy is isotropy wherein the same values characterize the object when measured along axes in all directions.
The time from the onset of a stimulus until a response is observed.
1-Deoxy-1-(methylamino)-D-glucitol. A derivative of sorbitol in which the hydroxyl group in position 1 is replaced by a methylamino group. Often used in conjunction with iodinated organic compounds as contrast medium.
Abnormal fluid retention by the body due to impaired cardiac function or heart failure. It is usually characterized by increase in venous and capillary pressure, and swollen legs when standing. It is different from the generalized edema caused by renal dysfunction (NEPHROTIC SYNDROME).
The hemodynamic and electrophysiological action of the left HEART VENTRICLE. Its measurement is an important aspect of the clinical evaluation of patients with heart disease to determine the effects of the disease on cardiac performance.
The creation of a visual display of the inside of the entire body of a human or animal for the purposes of diagnostic evaluation. This is most commonly achieved by using MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; or POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY.
The homogeneous mixtures formed by the mixing of a solid, liquid, or gaseous substance (solute) with a liquid (the solvent), from which the dissolved substances can be recovered by physical processes. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
An iron chelating agent with properties like EDETIC ACID. DTPA has also been used as a chelator for other metals, such as plutonium.
The amount of BLOOD pumped out of the HEART per beat, not to be confused with cardiac output (volume/time). It is calculated as the difference between the end-diastolic volume and the end-systolic volume.
The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.
Surgery performed on the nervous system or its parts.
The lower right and left chambers of the heart. The right ventricle pumps venous BLOOD into the LUNGS and the left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood into the systemic arterial circulation.
Pathologic conditions which feature SPINAL CORD damage or dysfunction, including disorders involving the meninges and perimeningeal spaces surrounding the spinal cord. Traumatic injuries, vascular diseases, infections, and inflammatory/autoimmune processes may affect the spinal cord.
Almond-shaped group of basal nuclei anterior to the INFERIOR HORN OF THE LATERAL VENTRICLE of the TEMPORAL LOBE. The amygdala is part of the limbic system.
Stable nitrogen atoms that have the same atomic number as the element nitrogen, but differ in atomic weight. N-15 is a stable nitrogen isotope.
The use of diffusion ANISOTROPY data from diffusion magnetic resonance imaging results to construct images based on the direction of the faster diffusing molecules.
A class of nerve fibers as defined by their structure, specifically the nerve sheath arrangement. The AXONS of the myelinated nerve fibers are completely encased in a MYELIN SHEATH. They are fibers of relatively large and varied diameters. Their NEURAL CONDUCTION rates are faster than those of the unmyelinated nerve fibers (NERVE FIBERS, UNMYELINATED). Myelinated nerve fibers are present in somatic and autonomic nerves.
The first chemical element in the periodic table. It has the atomic symbol H, atomic number 1, and atomic weight [1.00784; 1.00811]. It exists, under normal conditions, as a colorless, odorless, tasteless, diatomic gas. Hydrogen ions are PROTONS. Besides the common H1 isotope, hydrogen exists as the stable isotope DEUTERIUM and the unstable, radioactive isotope TRITIUM.
Analysis based on the mathematical function first formulated by Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier in 1807. The function, known as the Fourier transform, describes the sinusoidal pattern of any fluctuating pattern in the physical world in terms of its amplitude and its phase. It has broad applications in biomedicine, e.g., analysis of the x-ray crystallography data pivotal in identifying the double helical nature of DNA and in analysis of other molecules, including viruses, and the modified back-projection algorithm universally used in computerized tomography imaging, etc. (From Segen, The Dictionary of Modern Medicine, 1992)
The formation of an area of NECROSIS in the CEREBRUM caused by an insufficiency of arterial or venous blood flow. Infarcts of the cerebrum are generally classified by hemisphere (i.e., left vs. right), lobe (e.g., frontal lobe infarction), arterial distribution (e.g., INFARCTION, ANTERIOR CEREBRAL ARTERY), and etiology (e.g., embolic infarction).
Non-invasive imaging methods based on the mechanical response of an object to a vibrational or impulsive force. It is used for determining the viscoelastic properties of tissue, and thereby differentiating soft from hard inclusions in tissue such as microcalcifications, and some cancer lesions. Most techniques use ultrasound to create the images - eliciting the response with an ultrasonic radiation force and/or recording displacements of the tissue by Doppler ultrasonography.
The comparison of the quantity of meaningful data to the irrelevant or incorrect data.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
Intellectual or mental process whereby an organism obtains knowledge.
Large subcortical nuclear masses derived from the telencephalon and located in the basal regions of the cerebral hemispheres.
The worsening of a disease over time. This concept is most often used for chronic and incurable diseases where the stage of the disease is an important determinant of therapy and prognosis.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
Statistical models in which the value of a parameter for a given value of a factor is assumed to be equal to a + bx, where a and b are constants. The models predict a linear regression.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
The creation and display of functional images showing where the blood is flowing into the MYOCARDIUM by following over time the distribution of tracers injected into the blood stream.
Area of the OCCIPITAL LOBE concerned with the processing of visual information relayed via VISUAL PATHWAYS.
A group of diseases in which the dominant feature is the involvement of the CARDIAC MUSCLE itself. Cardiomyopathies are classified according to their predominant pathophysiological features (DILATED CARDIOMYOPATHY; HYPERTROPHIC CARDIOMYOPATHY; RESTRICTIVE CARDIOMYOPATHY) or their etiological/pathological factors (CARDIOMYOPATHY, ALCOHOLIC; ENDOCARDIAL FIBROELASTOSIS).
Computer-based representation of physical systems and phenomena such as chemical processes.
Benign and malignant neoplastic processes that arise from or secondarily involve the meningeal coverings of the brain and spinal cord.
A relatively common neoplasm of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that arises from arachnoidal cells. The majority are well differentiated vascular tumors which grow slowly and have a low potential to be invasive, although malignant subtypes occur. Meningiomas have a predilection to arise from the parasagittal region, cerebral convexity, sphenoidal ridge, olfactory groove, and SPINAL CANAL. (From DeVita et al., Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology, 5th ed, pp2056-7)
A protective layer of firm, flexible cartilage over the articulating ends of bones. It provides a smooth surface for joint movement, protecting the ends of long bones from wear at points of contact.
The visualization of deep structures of the body by recording the reflections or echoes of ultrasonic pulses directed into the tissues. Use of ultrasound for imaging or diagnostic purposes employs frequencies ranging from 1.6 to 10 megahertz.
Benign and malignant central nervous system neoplasms derived from glial cells (i.e., astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and ependymocytes). Astrocytes may give rise to astrocytomas (ASTROCYTOMA) or glioblastoma multiforme (see GLIOBLASTOMA). Oligodendrocytes give rise to oligodendrogliomas (OLIGODENDROGLIOMA) and ependymocytes may undergo transformation to become EPENDYMOMA; CHOROID PLEXUS NEOPLASMS; or colloid cysts of the third ventricle. (From Escourolle et al., Manual of Basic Neuropathology, 2nd ed, p21)
Broad plate of dense myelinated fibers that reciprocally interconnect regions of the cortex in all lobes with corresponding regions of the opposite hemisphere. The corpus callosum is located deep in the longitudinal fissure.
The measurement of an organ in volume, mass, or heaviness.
An isomer of glucose that has traditionally been considered to be a B vitamin although it has an uncertain status as a vitamin and a deficiency syndrome has not been identified in man. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1379) Inositol phospholipids are important in signal transduction.
Inorganic salts of phosphoric acid.
The use of molecularly targeted imaging probes to localize and/or monitor biochemical and cellular processes via various imaging modalities that include RADIONUCLIDE IMAGING; ULTRASONOGRAPHY; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; FLUORESCENCE IMAGING; and MICROSCOPY.
The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.
The coordination of a sensory or ideational (cognitive) process and a motor activity.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
The tendency of a gas or solute to pass from a point of higher pressure or concentration to a point of lower pressure or concentration and to distribute itself throughout the available space. Diffusion, especially FACILITATED DIFFUSION, is a major mechanism of BIOLOGICAL TRANSPORT.
Non-invasive imaging of cells that have been labeled non-destructively, such as with nanoemulsions or reporter genes that can be detected by molecular imaging, to monitor their location, viability, cell lineage expansion, response to drugs, movement, or other behaviors in vivo.
Care given during the period prior to undergoing surgery when psychological and physical preparations are made according to the special needs of the individual patient. This period spans the time between admission to the hospital to the time the surgery begins. (From Dictionary of Health Services Management, 2d ed)
VERTEBRAE in the region of the lower BACK below the THORACIC VERTEBRAE and above the SACRAL VERTEBRAE.
Disturbances in mental processes related to learning, thinking, reasoning, and judgment.
Those affective states which can be experienced and have arousing and motivational properties.
Ring compounds having atoms other than carbon in their nuclei. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Methods of creating machines and devices.
Nanometer-sized particles that are nanoscale in three dimensions. They include nanocrystaline materials; NANOCAPSULES; METAL NANOPARTICLES; DENDRIMERS, and QUANTUM DOTS. The uses of nanoparticles include DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS and cancer targeting and imaging.
The chemical reactions involved in the production and utilization of various forms of energy in cells.
A subtype of striated muscle, attached by TENDONS to the SKELETON. Skeletal muscles are innervated and their movement can be consciously controlled. They are also called voluntary muscles.
Helium. A noble gas with the atomic symbol He, atomic number 2, and atomic weight 4.003. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that is not combustible and does not support combustion. It was first detected in the sun and is now obtained from natural gas. Medically it is used as a diluent for other gases, being especially useful with oxygen in the treatment of certain cases of respiratory obstruction, and as a vehicle for general anesthetics. (Dorland, 27th ed)
The part of brain that lies behind the BRAIN STEM in the posterior base of skull (CRANIAL FOSSA, POSTERIOR). It is also known as the "little brain" with convolutions similar to those of CEREBRAL CORTEX, inner white matter, and deep cerebellar nuclei. Its function is to coordinate voluntary movements, maintain balance, and learn motor skills.
An autoimmune disorder mainly affecting young adults and characterized by destruction of myelin in the central nervous system. Pathologic findings include multiple sharply demarcated areas of demyelination throughout the white matter of the central nervous system. Clinical manifestations include visual loss, extra-ocular movement disorders, paresthesias, loss of sensation, weakness, dysarthria, spasticity, ataxia, and bladder dysfunction. The usual pattern is one of recurrent attacks followed by partial recovery (see MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS, RELAPSING-REMITTING), but acute fulminating and chronic progressive forms (see MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS, CHRONIC PROGRESSIVE) also occur. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p903)
A metallic element with atomic symbol Fe, atomic number 26, and atomic weight 55.85. It is an essential constituent of HEMOGLOBINS; CYTOCHROMES; and IRON-BINDING PROTEINS. It plays a role in cellular redox reactions and in the transport of OXYGEN.
A group of glucose polymers made by certain bacteria. Dextrans are used therapeutically as plasma volume expanders and anticoagulants. They are also commonly used in biological experimentation and in industry for a wide variety of purposes.
Localized reduction of blood flow to brain tissue due to arterial obstruction or systemic hypoperfusion. This frequently occurs in conjunction with brain hypoxia (HYPOXIA, BRAIN). Prolonged ischemia is associated with BRAIN INFARCTION.
Changes in the amounts of various chemicals (neurotransmitters, receptors, enzymes, and other metabolites) specific to the area of the central nervous system contained within the head. These are monitored over time, during sensory stimulation, or under different disease states.
Abnormal fluid accumulation in TISSUES or body cavities. Most cases of edema are present under the SKIN in SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE.
Noninflammatory degenerative disease of the knee joint consisting of three large categories: conditions that block normal synchronous movement, conditions that produce abnormal pathways of motion, and conditions that cause stress concentration resulting in changes to articular cartilage. (Crenshaw, Campbell's Operative Orthopaedics, 8th ed, p2019)
A method of computed tomography that uses radionuclides which emit a single photon of a given energy. The camera is rotated 180 or 360 degrees around the patient to capture images at multiple positions along the arc. The computer is then used to reconstruct the transaxial, sagittal, and coronal images from the 3-dimensional distribution of radionuclides in the organ. The advantages of SPECT are that it can be used to observe biochemical and physiological processes as well as size and volume of the organ. The disadvantage is that, unlike positron-emission tomography where the positron-electron annihilation results in the emission of 2 photons at 180 degrees from each other, SPECT requires physical collimation to line up the photons, which results in the loss of many available photons and hence degrades the image.
The location of the atoms, groups or ions relative to one another in a molecule, as well as the number, type and location of covalent bonds.
The level of protein structure in which regular hydrogen-bond interactions within contiguous stretches of polypeptide chain give rise to alpha helices, beta strands (which align to form beta sheets) or other types of coils. This is the first folding level of protein conformation.
A normal intermediate in the fermentation (oxidation, metabolism) of sugar. The concentrated form is used internally to prevent gastrointestinal fermentation. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
The science and art of collecting, summarizing, and analyzing data that are subject to random variation. The term is also applied to the data themselves and to the summarization of the data.
A curved elevation of GRAY MATTER extending the entire length of the floor of the TEMPORAL HORN of the LATERAL VENTRICLE (see also TEMPORAL LOBE). The hippocampus proper, subiculum, and DENTATE GYRUS constitute the hippocampal formation. Sometimes authors include the ENTORHINAL CORTEX in the hippocampal formation.
Any fluid-filled closed cavity or sac that is lined by an EPITHELIUM. Cysts can be of normal, abnormal, non-neoplastic, or neoplastic tissues.
Inflammation of a synovial membrane. It is usually painful, particularly on motion, and is characterized by a fluctuating swelling due to effusion within a synovial sac. (Dorland, 27th ed)
Timing the acquisition of imaging data to specific points in the cardiac cycle to minimize image blurring and other motion artifacts.
The outermost of the three MENINGES, a fibrous membrane of connective tissue that covers the brain and the spinal cord.
Focusing on certain aspects of current experience to the exclusion of others. It is the act of heeding or taking notice or concentrating.
Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body.
Derived from TELENCEPHALON, cerebrum is composed of a right and a left hemisphere. Each contains an outer cerebral cortex and a subcortical basal ganglia. The cerebrum includes all parts within the skull except the MEDULLA OBLONGATA, the PONS, and the CEREBELLUM. Cerebral functions include sensorimotor, emotional, and intellectual activities.
An analytical method used in determining the identity of a chemical based on its mass using mass analyzers/mass spectrometers.
Visualization of the heart structure and cardiac blood flow for diagnostic evaluation or to guide cardiac procedures via techniques including ENDOSCOPY (cardiac endoscopy, sometimes refered to as cardioscopy), RADIONUCLIDE IMAGING; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; TOMOGRAPHY; or ULTRASONOGRAPHY.
Paired bodies containing mostly GRAY MATTER and forming part of the lateral wall of the THIRD VENTRICLE of the brain.
A prediction of the probable outcome of a disease based on a individual's condition and the usual course of the disease as seen in similar situations.
The property of objects that determines the direction of heat flow when they are placed in direct thermal contact. The temperature is the energy of microscopic motions (vibrational and translational) of the particles of atoms.
Mental process to visually perceive a critical number of facts (the pattern), such as characters, shapes, displays, or designs.
The transfer of energy of a given form among different scales of motion. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed). It includes the transfer of kinetic energy and the transfer of chemical energy. The transfer of chemical energy from one molecule to another depends on proximity of molecules so it is often used as in techniques to measure distance such as the use of FORSTER RESONANCE ENERGY TRANSFER.
The first seven VERTEBRAE of the SPINAL COLUMN, which correspond to the VERTEBRAE of the NECK.
Longitudinal cavities in the spinal cord, most often in the cervical region, which may extend for multiple spinal levels. The cavities are lined by dense, gliogenous tissue and may be associated with SPINAL CORD NEOPLASMS; spinal cord traumatic injuries; and vascular malformations. Syringomyelia is marked clinically by pain and PARESTHESIA, muscular atrophy of the hands, and analgesia with thermoanesthesia of the hands and arms, but with the tactile sense preserved (sensory dissociation). Lower extremity spasticity and incontinence may also develop. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p1269)
Stable phosphorus atoms that have the same atomic number as the element phosphorus, but differ in atomic weight. P-31 is a stable phosphorus isotope.
NECROSIS of the MYOCARDIUM caused by an obstruction of the blood supply to the heart (CORONARY CIRCULATION).
Recording of electric currents developed in the brain by means of electrodes applied to the scalp, to the surface of the brain, or placed within the substance of the brain.
The selecting and organizing of visual stimuli based on the individual's past experience.
A group of pathological conditions characterized by sudden, non-convulsive loss of neurological function due to BRAIN ISCHEMIA or INTRACRANIAL HEMORRHAGES. Stroke is classified by the type of tissue NECROSIS, such as the anatomic location, vasculature involved, etiology, age of the affected individual, and hemorrhagic vs. non-hemorrhagic nature. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp777-810)
Acute and chronic conditions characterized by external mechanical compression of the SPINAL CORD due to extramedullary neoplasm; EPIDURAL ABSCESS; SPINAL FRACTURES; bony deformities of the vertebral bodies; and other conditions. Clinical manifestations vary with the anatomic site of the lesion and may include localized pain, weakness, sensory loss, incontinence, and impotence.
Freedom from activity.
A method of delineating blood vessels by subtracting a tissue background image from an image of tissue plus intravascular contrast material that attenuates the X-ray photons. The background image is determined from a digitized image taken a few moments before injection of the contrast material. The resulting angiogram is a high-contrast image of the vessel. This subtraction technique allows extraction of a high-intensity signal from the superimposed background information. The image is thus the result of the differential absorption of X-rays by different tissues.
Areas of attractive or repulsive force surrounding MAGNETS.
The hemodynamic and electrophysiological action of the right HEART VENTRICLE.
Computer-assisted processing of electric, ultrasonic, or electronic signals to interpret function and activity.
Any of various diseases affecting the white matter of the central nervous system.
A condition in which the LEFT VENTRICLE of the heart was functionally impaired. This condition usually leads to HEART FAILURE; MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION; and other cardiovascular complications. Diagnosis is made by measuring the diminished ejection fraction and a depressed level of motility of the left ventricular wall.
Observable changes of expression in the face in response to emotional stimuli.
A severe emotional disorder of psychotic depth characteristically marked by a retreat from reality with delusion formation, HALLUCINATIONS, emotional disharmony, and regressive behavior.
A convolution on the inferior surface of each cerebral hemisphere, lying between the hippocampal and collateral sulci.
Any operation on the cranium or incision into the cranium. (Dorland, 28th ed)
Three-dimensional representation to show anatomic structures. Models may be used in place of intact animals or organisms for teaching, practice, and study.
A class of statistical methods applicable to a large set of probability distributions used to test for correlation, location, independence, etc. In most nonparametric statistical tests, the original scores or observations are replaced by another variable containing less information. An important class of nonparametric tests employs the ordinal properties of the data. Another class of tests uses information about whether an observation is above or below some fixed value such as the median, and a third class is based on the frequency of the occurrence of runs in the data. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed, p1284; Corsini, Concise Encyclopedia of Psychology, 1987, p764-5)
A value equal to the total volume flow divided by the cross-sectional area of the vascular bed.
The interarticular fibrocartilages of the superior surface of the tibia.
Inorganic chemicals that contain manganese as an integral part of the molecule.
Radiography of the vascular system of the brain after injection of a contrast medium.
Complex mental function having four distinct phases: (1) memorizing or learning, (2) retention, (3) recall, and (4) recognition. Clinically, it is usually subdivided into immediate, recent, and remote memory.
Small-scale tests of methods and procedures to be used on a larger scale if the pilot study demonstrates that these methods and procedures can work.
A basic science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter; and the reactions that occur between substances and the associated energy exchange.
The measurement of the amplitude of the components of a complex waveform throughout the frequency range of the waveform. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
A partial or complete return to the normal or proper physiologic activity of an organ or part following disease or trauma.
The gradual irreversible changes in structure and function of an organism that occur as a result of the passage of time.

Visual perception: mind and brain see eye to eye. (1/44946)

Recent functional imaging studies have identified neural activity that is closely associated with the perception of illusory motion. The mapping of the mind onto the bin appears to be one-to-one: activity in visual 'motion area' MT is highly correlated with perceptual experience.  (+info)

Physiological characteristics of capacity constraints in working memory as revealed by functional MRI. (2/44946)

A fundamental characteristic of working memory is that its capacity to handle information is limited. While there have been many brain mapping studies of working memory, the physiological basis of its capacity limitation has not been explained. We identified characteristics of working memory capacity using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in healthy subjects. Working memory capacity was studied using a parametric 'n-back' working memory task involving increasing cognitive load and ultimately decreasing task performance. Loci within dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) evinced exclusively an 'inverted-U' shaped neurophysiological response from lowest to highest load, consistent with a capacity-constrained response. Regions outside of DLPFC, in contrast, were more heterogeneous in response and often showed early plateau or continuously increasing responses, which did not reflect capacity constraints. However, sporadic loci, including in the premotor cortex, thalamus and superior parietal lobule, also demonstrated putative capacity-constrained responses, perhaps arising as an upstream effect of DLPFC limitations or as part of a broader network-wide capacity limitation. These results demonstrate that regionally specific nodes within the working memory network are capacity-constrained in the physiological domain, providing a missing link in current explorations of the capacity characteristics of working memory.  (+info)

Signal-, set- and movement-related activity in the human brain: an event-related fMRI study. (3/44946)

Electrophysiological studies on monkeys have been able to distinguish sensory and motor signals close in time by pseudorandomly delaying the cue that instructs the movement from the stimulus that triggers the movement. We have used a similar experimental design in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), scanning subjects while they performed a visuomotor conditional task with instructed delays. One of four shapes was presented briefly. Two shapes instructed the subjects to flex the index finger; the other two shapes coded the flexion of the middle finger. The subjects were told to perform the movement after a tone. We have exploited a novel use of event-related fMRI. By systematically varying the interval between the visual and acoustic stimuli, it has been possible to estimate the significance of the evoked haemodynamic response (EHR) to each of the stimuli, despite their temporal proximity in relation to the time constant of the EHR. Furthermore, by varying the phase between events and image acquisition, we have been able to achieve high temporal resolution while scanning the whole brain. We dissociated sensory and motor components of the sensorimotor transformations elicited by the task, and assessed sustained activity during the instructed delays. In calcarine and occipitotemporal cortex, the responses were exclusively associated with the visual instruction cues. In temporal auditory cortex and in primary motor cortex, they were exclusively associated with the auditory trigger stimulus. In ventral prefrontal cortex there were movement-related responses preceded by preparatory activity and by signal-related activity. Finally, responses associated with the instruction cue and with sustained activity during the delay period were observed in the dorsal premotor cortex and in the dorsal posterior parietal cortex. Where the association between a visual cue and the appropriate movement is arbitrary, the underlying visuomotor transformations are not achieved exclusively through frontoparietal interactions. Rather, these processes seem to rely on the ventral visual stream, the ventral prefrontal cortex and the anterior part of the dorsal premotor cortex.  (+info)

Transient and permanent deficits in motion perception after lesions of cortical areas MT and MST in the macaque monkey. (4/44946)

We examined the nature and the selectivity of the motion deficits produced by lesions of extrastriate areas MT and MST. Lesions were made by injecting ibotenic acid into the representation of the left visual field in two macaque monkeys. The monkeys discriminated two stimuli that differed either in stimulus direction or orientation. Direction and orientation discrimination were assessed by measuring thresholds with gratings and random-dots placed in the intact or lesioned visual fields. At the start of behavioral testing, we found pronounced, motion-specific deficits in thresholds for all types of moving stimuli, including pronounced elevations in contrast thresholds and in signal-to-noise thresholds measured with moving gratings, as well as deficits in direction range thresholds and motion coherence measured with random-dot stimuli. In addition, the accuracy of direction discrimination was reduced at smaller spatial displacements (i.e. step sizes), suggesting an increase in spatial scale of the residual directional mechanism. Subsequent improvements in thresholds were seen with all motion stimuli, as behavioral training progressed, and these improvements occurred only with extensive behavioral testing in the lesioned visual field. These improvements were particularly pronounced for stimuli not masked by noise. On the other hand, deficits in the ability to extract motion from noisy stimuli and in the accuracy of direction discrimination persisted despite extensive behavioral training. These results demonstrate the importance of areas MT and MST for the perception of motion direction, particularly in the presence of noise. In addition, they provide evidence for the importance of behavioral training for functional recovery after cortical lesions. The data also strongly support the idea of functional specialization of areas MT and MST for motion processing.  (+info)

Integrated visualization of functional and anatomic brain data: a validation study. (5/44946)

Two-dimensional SPECT display and three methods for integrated visualization of SPECT and MRI patient data are evaluated in a multiobserver study to determine whether localization of functional data can be improved by adding anatomical information to the display. METHODS: SPECT and MRI data of 30 patients were gathered and presented using four types of display: one of SPECT in isolation, two integrated two-dimensional displays and one integrated three-dimensional display. Cold and hot spots in the peripheral cortex were preselected and indicated on black-and-white hard copies of the image data. Nuclear medicine physicians were asked to assign the corresponding spots in the image data on the computer screen to a lobe and a gyrus and give a confidence rating for both localizations. Interobserver agreement using kappa statistics and average confidence ratings were assessed to interpret the reported observations. RESULTS: Both the interobserver agreement and the confidence of the observers were greater for the integrated two-dimensional displays than for the two-dimensional SPECT display. An additional increase in agreement and confidence was seen with the integrated three-dimensional display. CONCLUSION: Integrated display of SPECT and MR brain images provides better localization of cerebral blood perfusion abnormalities in the peripheral cortex in relation to the anatomy of the brain than single-modality display and increases the confidence of the observer.  (+info)

Anatomic validation of spatial normalization methods for PET. (6/44946)

Spatial normalization methods, which are indispensable for intersubject analysis in current PET studies, have been improved in many aspects. These methods have not necessarily been evaluated as anatomic normalization methods because PET images are functional images. However, in view of the close relation between brain function and morphology, it is very intriguing how precisely normalized brains coincide with each other. In this report, the anatomic precision of spatial normalization is validated with three different methods. METHODS: Four PET centers in Japan participated in this study. In each center, six normal subjects were recruited for both H2(15)O-PET and high-resolution MRI studies. Variations in the location of the anterior commissure (AC) and size and contours of the brain and the courses of major sulci were measured in spatially normalized MR images for each method. Spatial normalization was performed as follows. (a) Linear: The AC-posterior commissure and midsagittal plane were identified on MRI and the size of the brain was adjusted to the Talairach space in each axis using linear parameters. (b) Human brain atlas (HBA): Atlas structures were manually adjusted to MRI to determine linear and nonlinear transformation parameters and then MRI was transformed with the inverse of these parameters. (c) Statistical parametric mapping (SPM) 95: PET images were transformed into the template PET image with linear and nonlinear parameters in a least-squares manner. Then, coregistered MR images were transformed with the same parameters used for the PET transformation. RESULTS: The AC was well registered in all methods. The size of the brain normalized with SPM95 varied to a greater extent than with other approaches. Larger variance in contours was observed with the linear method. Only SPM95 showed significant superiority to the linear method when the courses of major sulci were compared. CONCLUSION: The results of this study indicate that SPM95 is as effective a spatial normalization as HBA, although it does not use anatomic images. Large variance in structures other than the AC and size of the brain in the linear method suggests the necessity of nonlinear transformations for effective spatial normalization. Operator dependency of HBA also must be considered.  (+info)

Genetic influences on cervical and lumbar disc degeneration: a magnetic resonance imaging study in twins. (7/44946)

OBJECTIVE: Degenerative intervertebral disc disease is common; however, the importance of genetic factors is unknown. This study sought to determine the extent of genetic influences on disc degeneration by classic twin study methods using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). METHODS: We compared MRI features of degenerative disc disease in the cervical and lumbar spine of 172 monozygotic and 154 dizygotic twins (mean age 51.7 and 54.4, respectively) who were unselected for back pain or disc disease. An overall score for disc degeneration was calculated as the sum of the grades for disc height, bulge, osteophytosis, and signal intensity at each level. A "severe disease" score (excluding minor grades) and an "extent of disease" score (number of levels affected) were also calculated. RESULTS: For the overall score, heritability was 74% (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 64-81%) at the lumbar spine and 73% (95% CI 64-80%) at the cervical spine. For "severe disease," heritability was 64% and 79% at the lumbar and cervical spine, respectively, and for "extent of disease," heritability was 63% and 63%, respectively. These results were adjusted for age, weight, height, smoking, occupational manual work, and exercise. Examination of individual features revealed that disc height and bulge were highly heritable at both sites, and osteophytes were heritable in the lumbar spine. CONCLUSION: These results suggest an important genetic influence on variation in intervertebral disc degeneration. However, variation in disc signal is largely influenced by environmental factors shared by twins. The use of MRI scans to determine the phenotype in family and population studies should allow a better understanding of disease mechanisms and the identification of the genes involved.  (+info)

The effect of face inversion on activity in human neural systems for face and object perception. (8/44946)

The differential effect of stimulus inversion on face and object recognition suggests that inverted faces are processed by mechanisms for the perception of other objects rather than by face perception mechanisms. We investigated the face inversion using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The principal effect of face inversion on was an increased response in ventral extrastriate regions that respond preferentially to another class of objects (houses). In contrast, house inversion did not produce a similar change in face-selective regions. Moreover, stimulus inversion had equivalent, minimal effects for faces in in face-selective regions and for houses in house-selective regions. The results suggest that the failure of face perception systems with inverted faces leads to the recruitment of processing resources in object perception systems, but this failure is not reflected by altered activity in face perception systems.  (+info)

Some common types of brain diseases include:

1. Neurodegenerative diseases: These are progressive conditions that damage or kill brain cells over time, leading to memory loss, cognitive decline, and movement disorders. Examples include Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
2. Stroke: This occurs when blood flow to the brain is interrupted, leading to cell death and potential long-term disability.
3. Traumatic brain injury (TBI): This refers to any type of head injury that causes damage to the brain, such as concussions, contusions, or penetrating wounds.
4. Infections: Viral, bacterial, and fungal infections can all affect the brain, leading to a range of symptoms including fever, seizures, and meningitis.
5. Tumors: Brain tumors can be benign or malignant and can cause a variety of symptoms depending on their location and size.
6. Cerebrovascular diseases: These conditions affect the blood vessels of the brain, leading to conditions such as aneurysms, arteriovenous malformations (AVMs), and Moyamoya disease.
7. Neurodevelopmental disorders: These are conditions that affect the development of the brain and nervous system, such as autism spectrum disorder, ADHD, and intellectual disability.
8. Sleep disorders: Conditions such as insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea can all have a significant impact on brain function.
9. Psychiatric disorders: Mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia can affect the brain and its functioning.
10. Neurodegenerative with brain iron accumulation: Conditions such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington's disease are characterized by the accumulation of abnormal proteins and other substances in the brain, leading to progressive loss of brain function over time.

It is important to note that this is not an exhaustive list and there may be other conditions or factors that can affect the brain and its functioning. Additionally, many of these conditions can have a significant impact on a person's quality of life, and it is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

There are several types of atrophy that can occur in different parts of the body. For example:

1. Muscular atrophy: This occurs when muscles weaken and shrink due to disuse or injury.
2. Neuronal atrophy: This occurs when nerve cells degenerate, leading to a loss of cognitive function and memory.
3. Cardiac atrophy: This occurs when the heart muscle weakens and becomes less efficient, leading to decreased cardiac output.
4. Atrophic gastritis: This is a type of stomach inflammation that can lead to the wasting away of the stomach lining.
5. Atrophy of the testes: This occurs when the testes shrink due to a lack of use or disorder, leading to decreased fertility.

Atrophy can be diagnosed through various medical tests and imaging studies, such as MRI or CT scans. Treatment for atrophy depends on the underlying cause and may involve physical therapy, medication, or surgery. In some cases, atrophy can be prevented or reversed with proper treatment and care.

In summary, atrophy is a degenerative process that can occur in various parts of the body due to injury, disease, or disuse. It can lead to a loss of function and decreased quality of life, but with proper diagnosis and treatment, it may be possible to prevent or reverse some forms of atrophy.

Brain neoplasms can arise from various types of cells in the brain, including glial cells (such as astrocytes and oligodendrocytes), neurons, and vascular tissues. The symptoms of brain neoplasms vary depending on their size, location, and type, but may include headaches, seizures, weakness or numbness in the limbs, and changes in personality or cognitive function.

There are several different types of brain neoplasms, including:

1. Meningiomas: These are benign tumors that arise from the meninges, the thin layers of tissue that cover the brain and spinal cord.
2. Gliomas: These are malignant tumors that arise from glial cells in the brain. The most common type of glioma is a glioblastoma, which is aggressive and hard to treat.
3. Pineal parenchymal tumors: These are rare tumors that arise in the pineal gland, a small endocrine gland in the brain.
4. Craniopharyngiomas: These are benign tumors that arise from the epithelial cells of the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus.
5. Medulloblastomas: These are malignant tumors that arise in the cerebellum, specifically in the medulla oblongata. They are most common in children.
6. Acoustic neurinomas: These are benign tumors that arise on the nerve that connects the inner ear to the brain.
7. Oligodendrogliomas: These are malignant tumors that arise from oligodendrocytes, the cells that produce the fatty substance called myelin that insulates nerve fibers.
8. Lymphomas: These are cancers of the immune system that can arise in the brain and spinal cord. The most common type of lymphoma in the CNS is primary central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma, which is usually a type of B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
9. Metastatic tumors: These are tumors that have spread to the brain from another part of the body. The most common types of metastatic tumors in the CNS are breast cancer, lung cancer, and melanoma.

These are just a few examples of the many types of brain and spinal cord tumors that can occur. Each type of tumor has its own unique characteristics, such as its location, size, growth rate, and biological behavior. These factors can help doctors determine the best course of treatment for each patient.

A condition characterized by swelling of the heart and surrounding tissues due to an accumulation of fluid. This can occur as a result of various conditions such as heart failure, coronary artery disease, or cardiomyopathy. The swelling can lead to symptoms such as shortness of breath, fatigue, and difficulty exercising. Treatment options include diuretics, ACE inhibitors, and other medications to manage the underlying condition causing the edema.

Example sentence: "The patient was diagnosed with cardiac edema and started on a regimen of diuretics and ACE inhibitors to help reduce the swelling and improve their symptoms."

Some common examples of spinal cord diseases include:

1. Spinal muscular atrophy: This is a genetic disorder that affects the nerve cells responsible for controlling voluntary muscle movement. It can cause muscle weakness and wasting, as well as other symptoms such as respiratory problems and difficulty swallowing.
2. Multiple sclerosis: This is an autoimmune disease that causes inflammation and damage to the protective covering of nerve fibers in the spinal cord. Symptoms can include vision problems, muscle weakness, balance and coordination difficulties, and cognitive impairment.
3. Spinal cord injuries: These can occur as a result of trauma, such as a car accident or a fall, and can cause a range of symptoms including paralysis, numbness, and loss of sensation below the level of the injury.
4. Spinal stenosis: This is a condition in which the spinal canal narrows, putting pressure on the spinal cord and nerve roots. Symptoms can include back pain, leg pain, and difficulty walking or standing for long periods.
5. Tumors: Benign or malignant tumors can grow in the spinal cord, causing a range of symptoms including pain, weakness, and numbness or tingling in the limbs.
6. Infections: Bacterial, viral, or fungal infections can cause inflammation and damage to the spinal cord, leading to symptoms such as fever, headache, and muscle weakness.
7. Degenerative diseases: Conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) can cause progressive degeneration of the spinal cord nerve cells, leading to muscle weakness, twitching, and wasting.
8. Trauma: Traumatic injuries, such as those caused by sports injuries or physical assault, can damage the spinal cord and result in a range of symptoms including pain, numbness, and weakness.
9. Ischemia: Reduced blood flow to the spinal cord can cause tissue damage and lead to symptoms such as weakness, numbness, and paralysis.
10. Spinal cord infarction: A blockage in the blood vessels that supply the spinal cord can cause tissue damage and lead to symptoms similar to those of ischemia.

It's important to note that some of these conditions can be caused by a combination of factors, such as genetics, age, lifestyle, and environmental factors. It's also worth noting that some of these conditions can have a significant impact on quality of life, and in some cases, may be fatal.

Cerebral infarction can result in a range of symptoms, including sudden weakness or numbness in the face, arm, or leg on one side of the body, difficulty speaking or understanding speech, sudden vision loss, dizziness, and confusion. Depending on the location and severity of the infarction, it can lead to long-term disability or even death.

There are several types of cerebral infarction, including:

1. Ischemic stroke: This is the most common type of cerebral infarction, accounting for around 87% of all cases. It occurs when a blood clot blocks the flow of blood to the brain, leading to cell death and tissue damage.
2. Hemorrhagic stroke: This type of cerebral infarction occurs when a blood vessel in the brain ruptures, leading to bleeding and cell death.
3. Lacunar infarction: This type of cerebral infarction affects the deep structures of the brain, particularly the basal ganglia, and is often caused by small blockages or stenosis (narrowing) in the blood vessels.
4. Territorial infarction: This type of cerebral infarction occurs when there is a complete blockage of a blood vessel that supplies a specific area of the brain, leading to cell death and tissue damage in that area.

Diagnosis of cerebral infarction typically involves a combination of physical examination, medical history, and imaging tests such as CT or MRI scans. Treatment options vary depending on the cause and location of the infarction, but may include medication to dissolve blood clots, surgery to remove blockages, or supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

1) They share similarities with humans: Many animal species share similar biological and physiological characteristics with humans, making them useful for studying human diseases. For example, mice and rats are often used to study diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer because they have similar metabolic and cardiovascular systems to humans.

2) They can be genetically manipulated: Animal disease models can be genetically engineered to develop specific diseases or to model human genetic disorders. This allows researchers to study the progression of the disease and test potential treatments in a controlled environment.

3) They can be used to test drugs and therapies: Before new drugs or therapies are tested in humans, they are often first tested in animal models of disease. This allows researchers to assess the safety and efficacy of the treatment before moving on to human clinical trials.

4) They can provide insights into disease mechanisms: Studying disease models in animals can provide valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of a particular disease. This information can then be used to develop new treatments or improve existing ones.

5) Reduces the need for human testing: Using animal disease models reduces the need for human testing, which can be time-consuming, expensive, and ethically challenging. However, it is important to note that animal models are not perfect substitutes for human subjects, and results obtained from animal studies may not always translate to humans.

6) They can be used to study infectious diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study infectious diseases such as HIV, TB, and malaria. These models allow researchers to understand how the disease is transmitted, how it progresses, and how it responds to treatment.

7) They can be used to study complex diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study complex diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. These models allow researchers to understand the underlying mechanisms of the disease and test potential treatments.

8) They are cost-effective: Animal disease models are often less expensive than human clinical trials, making them a cost-effective way to conduct research.

9) They can be used to study drug delivery: Animal disease models can be used to study drug delivery and pharmacokinetics, which is important for developing new drugs and drug delivery systems.

10) They can be used to study aging: Animal disease models can be used to study the aging process and age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. This allows researchers to understand how aging contributes to disease and develop potential treatments.

Disease progression can be classified into several types based on the pattern of worsening:

1. Chronic progressive disease: In this type, the disease worsens steadily over time, with a gradual increase in symptoms and decline in function. Examples include rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and Parkinson's disease.
2. Acute progressive disease: This type of disease worsens rapidly over a short period, often followed by periods of stability. Examples include sepsis, acute myocardial infarction (heart attack), and stroke.
3. Cyclical disease: In this type, the disease follows a cycle of worsening and improvement, with periodic exacerbations and remissions. Examples include multiple sclerosis, lupus, and rheumatoid arthritis.
4. Recurrent disease: This type is characterized by episodes of worsening followed by periods of recovery. Examples include migraine headaches, asthma, and appendicitis.
5. Catastrophic disease: In this type, the disease progresses rapidly and unpredictably, with a poor prognosis. Examples include cancer, AIDS, and organ failure.

Disease progression can be influenced by various factors, including:

1. Genetics: Some diseases are inherited and may have a predetermined course of progression.
2. Lifestyle: Factors such as smoking, lack of exercise, and poor diet can contribute to disease progression.
3. Environmental factors: Exposure to toxins, allergens, and other environmental stressors can influence disease progression.
4. Medical treatment: The effectiveness of medical treatment can impact disease progression, either by slowing or halting the disease process or by causing unintended side effects.
5. Co-morbidities: The presence of multiple diseases or conditions can interact and affect each other's progression.

Understanding the type and factors influencing disease progression is essential for developing effective treatment plans and improving patient outcomes.

There are several types of cardiomyopathies, each with distinct characteristics and symptoms. Some of the most common forms of cardiomyopathy include:

1. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM): This is the most common form of cardiomyopathy and is characterized by an abnormal thickening of the heart muscle, particularly in the left ventricle. HCM can lead to obstruction of the left ventricular outflow tract and can increase the risk of sudden death.
2. Dilated cardiomyopathy: This type of cardiomyopathy is characterized by a decrease in the heart's ability to pump blood effectively, leading to enlargement of the heart and potentially life-threatening complications such as congestive heart failure.
3. Restrictive cardiomyopathy: This type of cardiomyopathy is characterized by stiffness of the heart muscle, which makes it difficult for the heart to fill with blood. This can lead to shortness of breath and fatigue.
4. Left ventricular non-compaction (LVNC): This is a rare type of cardiomyopathy that occurs when the left ventricle does not properly compact, leading to reduced cardiac function and potentially life-threatening complications.
5. Cardiac amyloidosis: This is a condition in which abnormal proteins accumulate in the heart tissue, leading to stiffness and impaired cardiac function.
6. Right ventricular cardiomyopathy (RVCM): This type of cardiomyopathy is characterized by impaired function of the right ventricle, which can lead to complications such as pulmonary hypertension and heart failure.
7. Endocardial fibroelastoma: This is a rare type of cardiomyopathy that occurs when abnormal tissue grows on the inner lining of the heart, leading to reduced cardiac function and potentially life-threatening complications.
8. Cardiac sarcoidosis: This is a condition in which inflammatory cells accumulate in the heart, leading to impaired cardiac function and potentially life-threatening complications.
9. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM): This is a condition in which the heart muscle thickens, leading to reduced cardiac function and potentially life-threatening complications such as arrhythmias and sudden death.
10. Hypokinetic left ventricular cardiomyopathy: This type of cardiomyopathy is characterized by decreased contraction of the left ventricle, leading to reduced cardiac function and potentially life-threatening complications such as heart failure.

It's important to note that some of these types of cardiomyopathy are more common in certain populations, such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy being more common in young athletes. Additionally, some types of cardiomyopathy may have overlapping symptoms or co-occurring conditions, so it's important to work with a healthcare provider for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment.

The symptoms of meningeal neoplasms vary depending on the location, size, and type of tumor. Common symptoms include headaches, seizures, weakness or numbness in the arms or legs, and changes in vision, memory, or behavior. As the tumor grows, it can compress or displaces the brain tissue, leading to increased intracranial pressure and potentially life-threatening complications.

There are several different types of meningeal neoplasms, including:

1. Meningioma: This is the most common type of meningeal neoplasm, accounting for about 75% of all cases. Meningiomas are usually benign and grow slowly, but they can sometimes be malignant.
2. Metastatic tumors: These are tumors that have spread to the meninges from another part of the body, such as the lung or breast.
3. Lymphoma: This is a type of cancer that affects the immune system and can spread to the meninges.
4. Melanotic neuroectodermal tumors (MNTs): These are rare, malignant tumors that usually occur in children and young adults.
5. Hemangiopericytic hyperplasia: This is a rare, benign condition characterized by an overgrowth of blood vessels in the meninges.

The diagnosis of meningeal neoplasms is based on a combination of clinical symptoms, physical examination findings, and imaging studies such as CT or MRI scans. A biopsy may be performed to confirm the diagnosis and determine the type of tumor.

Treatment options for meningeal neoplasms depend on the type, size, and location of the tumor, as well as the patient's overall health. Surgery is often the first line of treatment, and may involve removing as much of the tumor as possible or using a laser to ablate (destroy) the tumor cells. Radiation therapy and chemotherapy may also be used in combination with surgery to treat malignant meningeal neoplasms.

Prognosis for meningeal neoplasms varies depending on the type of tumor and the patient's overall health. In general, early diagnosis and treatment improve the prognosis, while later-stage tumors may have a poorer outcome.

Meningioma can occur in various locations within the brain, including the cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem, and spinal cord. The most common type of meningioma is the meningothelial meningioma, which arises from the arachnoid membrane, one of the three layers of the meninges. Other types of meningioma include the dural-based meningioma, which originates from the dura mater, and the fibrous-cap meningioma, which is characterized by a fibrous cap covering the tumor.

The symptoms of meningioma can vary depending on the location and size of the tumor, but they often include headaches, seizures, weakness or numbness in the arms or legs, and changes in vision, memory, or cognitive function. As the tumor grows, it can compress the brain tissue and cause damage to the surrounding structures, leading to more severe symptoms such as difficulty speaking, walking, or controlling movement.

The diagnosis of meningioma typically involves a combination of imaging studies such as MRI or CT scans, and tissue sampling through biopsy or surgery. Treatment options for meningioma depend on the size, location, and aggressiveness of the tumor, but may include surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. Overall, the prognosis for meningioma is generally good, with many patients experiencing a good outcome after treatment. However, some types of meningioma can be more aggressive and difficult to treat, and the tumor may recur in some cases.

There are several types of gliomas, including:

1. Astrocytoma: This is the most common type of glioma, accounting for about 50% of all cases. It arises from the star-shaped cells called astrocytes that provide support and nutrients to the brain's nerve cells.
2. Oligodendroglioma: This type of glioma originates from the oligodendrocytes, which are responsible for producing the fatty substance called myelin that insulates the nerve fibers.
3. Glioblastoma (GBM): This is the most aggressive and malignant type of glioma, accounting for about 70% of all cases. It is fast-growing and often spreads to other parts of the brain.
4. Brain stem glioma: This type of glioma arises in the brain stem, which is responsible for controlling many of the body's vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

The symptoms of glioma depend on the location and size of the tumor. Common symptoms include headaches, seizures, weakness or numbness in the arms or legs, and changes in personality, memory, or speech.

Gliomas are diagnosed through a combination of imaging tests such as CT or MRI scans, and tissue biopsy to confirm the presence of cancer cells. Treatment options for glioma depend on the type and location of the tumor, as well as the patient's overall health. Surgery is often the first line of treatment to remove as much of the tumor as possible, followed by radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy to kill any remaining cancer cells.

The prognosis for glioma patients varies depending on the type and location of the tumor, as well as the patient's overall health. In general, the prognosis is better for patients with slow-growing, low-grade tumors, while those with fast-growing, high-grade tumors have a poorer prognosis. Overall, the 5-year survival rate for glioma patients is around 30-40%.

Types of Cognition Disorders: There are several types of cognitive disorders that affect different aspects of cognitive functioning. Some common types include:

1. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Characterized by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
2. Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): Caused by a blow or jolt to the head that disrupts brain function, resulting in cognitive, emotional, and behavioral changes.
3. Alzheimer's Disease: A progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss, confusion, and difficulty with communication.
4. Stroke: A condition where blood flow to the brain is interrupted, leading to cognitive impairment and other symptoms.
5. Parkinson's Disease: A neurodegenerative disorder that affects movement, balance, and cognition.
6. Huntington's Disease: An inherited disorder that causes progressive damage to the brain, leading to cognitive decline and other symptoms.
7. Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD): A group of neurodegenerative disorders characterized by changes in personality, behavior, and language.
8. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A condition that develops after a traumatic event, characterized by symptoms such as anxiety, avoidance, and hypervigilance.
9. Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI): A condition characterized by memory loss and other cognitive symptoms that are more severe than normal age-related changes but not severe enough to interfere with daily life.

Causes and Risk Factors: The causes of cognition disorders can vary depending on the specific disorder, but some common risk factors include:

1. Genetics: Many cognitive disorders have a genetic component, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease.
2. Age: As people age, their risk of developing cognitive disorders increases, such as Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, and frontotemporal dementia.
3. Lifestyle factors: Factors such as physical inactivity, smoking, and poor diet can increase the risk of cognitive decline and dementia.
4. Traumatic brain injury: A severe blow to the head or a traumatic brain injury can increase the risk of developing cognitive disorders, such as chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE).
5. Infections: Certain infections, such as meningitis and encephalitis, can cause cognitive disorders if they damage the brain tissue.
6. Stroke or other cardiovascular conditions: A stroke or other cardiovascular conditions can cause cognitive disorders by damaging the blood vessels in the brain.
7. Chronic substance abuse: Long-term use of drugs or alcohol can damage the brain and increase the risk of cognitive disorders, such as dementia.
8. Sleep disorders: Sleep disorders, such as sleep apnea, can increase the risk of cognitive disorders, such as dementia.
9. Depression and anxiety: Mental health conditions, such as depression and anxiety, can increase the risk of cognitive decline and dementia.
10. Environmental factors: Exposure to certain environmental toxins, such as pesticides and heavy metals, has been linked to an increased risk of cognitive disorders.

It's important to note that not everyone with these risk factors will develop a cognitive disorder, and some people without any known risk factors can still develop a cognitive disorder. If you have concerns about your cognitive health, it's important to speak with a healthcare professional for proper evaluation and diagnosis.

The symptoms of MS can vary widely depending on the location and severity of the damage to the CNS. Common symptoms include:

* Weakness, numbness, or tingling in the limbs
* Fatigue
* Vision problems, such as blurred vision, double vision, or loss of vision
* Difficulty with balance and coordination
* Tremors or spasticity
* Memory and concentration problems
* Mood changes, such as depression or mood swings
* Bladder and bowel problems

There is no cure for MS, but various treatments can help manage the symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. These treatments include:

* Disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) - These medications are designed to reduce the frequency and severity of relapses, and they can also slow the progression of disability. Examples of DMTs include interferons, glatiramer acetate, natalizumab, fingolimod, dimethyl fumarate, teriflunomide, and alemtuzumab.
* Steroids - Corticosteroids can help reduce inflammation during relapses, but they are not a long-term solution.
* Pain management medications - Pain relievers, such as acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), can help manage pain caused by MS.
* Muscle relaxants - These medications can help reduce spasticity and tremors.
* Physical therapy - Physical therapy can help improve mobility, balance, and strength.
* Occupational therapy - Occupational therapy can help with daily activities and assistive devices.
* Speech therapy - Speech therapy can help improve communication and swallowing difficulties.
* Psychological counseling - Counseling can help manage the emotional and psychological aspects of MS.

It's important to note that each person with MS is unique, and the best treatment plan will depend on the individual's specific symptoms, needs, and preferences. It's essential to work closely with a healthcare provider to find the most effective treatment plan.

The term ischemia refers to the reduction of blood flow, and it is often used interchangeably with the term stroke. However, not all strokes are caused by ischemia, as some can be caused by other factors such as bleeding in the brain. Ischemic stroke accounts for about 87% of all strokes.

There are different types of brain ischemia, including:

1. Cerebral ischemia: This refers to the reduction of blood flow to the cerebrum, which is the largest part of the brain and responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thought, emotion, and voluntary movement.
2. Cerebellar ischemia: This refers to the reduction of blood flow to the cerebellum, which is responsible for coordinating and regulating movement, balance, and posture.
3. Brainstem ischemia: This refers to the reduction of blood flow to the brainstem, which is responsible for controlling many of the body's automatic functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
4. Territorial ischemia: This refers to the reduction of blood flow to a specific area of the brain, often caused by a blockage in a blood vessel.
5. Global ischemia: This refers to the reduction of blood flow to the entire brain, which can be caused by a cardiac arrest or other systemic conditions.

The symptoms of brain ischemia can vary depending on the location and severity of the condition, but may include:

1. Weakness or paralysis of the face, arm, or leg on one side of the body
2. Difficulty speaking or understanding speech
3. Sudden vision loss or double vision
4. Dizziness or loss of balance
5. Confusion or difficulty with memory
6. Seizures
7. Slurred speech or inability to speak
8. Numbness or tingling sensations in the face, arm, or leg
9. Vision changes, such as blurred vision or loss of peripheral vision
10. Difficulty with coordination and balance.

It is important to seek medical attention immediately if you experience any of these symptoms, as brain ischemia can cause permanent damage or death if left untreated.

There are several types of edema, including:

1. Pitting edema: This type of edema occurs when the fluid accumulates in the tissues and leaves a pit or depression when it is pressed. It is commonly seen in the skin of the lower legs and feet.
2. Non-pitting edema: This type of edema does not leave a pit or depression when pressed. It is often seen in the face, hands, and arms.
3. Cytedema: This type of edema is caused by an accumulation of fluid in the tissues of the limbs, particularly in the hands and feet.
4. Edema nervorum: This type of edema affects the nerves and can cause pain, numbness, and tingling in the affected area.
5. Lymphedema: This is a condition where the lymphatic system is unable to properly drain fluid from the body, leading to swelling in the arms or legs.

Edema can be diagnosed through physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as imaging studies and blood tests. Treatment options for edema depend on the underlying cause, but may include medications, lifestyle changes, and compression garments. In some cases, surgery or other interventions may be necessary to remove excess fluid or tissue.

The risk of developing osteoarthritis of the knee increases with age, obesity, and previous knee injuries or surgery. Symptoms of knee OA can include:

* Pain and stiffness in the knee, especially after activity or extended periods of standing or sitting
* Swelling and redness in the knee
* Difficulty moving the knee through its full range of motion
* Crunching or grinding sensations when the knee is bent or straightened
* Instability or a feeling that the knee may give way

Treatment for knee OA typically includes a combination of medication, physical therapy, and lifestyle modifications. Medications such as pain relievers, anti-inflammatory drugs, and corticosteroids can help manage symptoms, while physical therapy can improve joint mobility and strength. Lifestyle modifications, such as weight loss, regular exercise, and avoiding activities that exacerbate the condition, can also help slow the progression of the disease. In severe cases, surgery may be necessary to repair or replace the damaged joint.

There are many different types of cysts that can occur in the body, including:

1. Sebaceous cysts: These are small, usually painless cysts that form in the skin, particularly on the face, neck, or torso. They are filled with a thick, cheesy material and can become inflamed or infected.
2. Ovarian cysts: These are fluid-filled sacs that form on the ovaries. They are common in women of childbearing age and can cause pelvic pain, bloating, and other symptoms.
3. Kidney cysts: These are fluid-filled sacs that form in the kidneys. They are usually benign but can cause problems if they become large or infected.
4. Dermoid cysts: These are small, usually painless cysts that form in the skin or organs. They are filled with skin cells, hair follicles, and other tissue and can become inflamed or infected.
5. Pilar cysts: These are small, usually painless cysts that form on the scalp. They are filled with a thick, cheesy material and can become inflamed or infected.
6. Epidermoid cysts: These are small, usually painless cysts that form just under the skin. They are filled with a thick, cheesy material and can become inflamed or infected.
7. Mucous cysts: These are small, usually painless cysts that form on the fingers or toes. They are filled with a clear, sticky fluid and can become inflamed or infected.
8. Baker's cyst: This is a fluid-filled cyst that forms behind the knee. It can cause swelling and pain in the knee and is more common in women than men.
9. Tarlov cysts: These are small, fluid-filled cysts that form in the spine. They can cause back pain and other symptoms, such as sciatica.
10. ganglion cysts: These are noncancerous lumps that form on the joints or tendons. They are filled with a thick, clear fluid and can cause pain, swelling, and limited mobility.

It's important to note that this is not an exhaustive list and there may be other types of cysts that are not included here. If you suspect that you have a cyst, it's always best to consult with a healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and treatment.

There are several possible causes of synovitis, including:

1. Infection: Bacterial, viral, or fungal infections can cause synovitis.
2. Autoimmune disorders: Conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and gout can cause chronic synovitis.
3. Overuse injuries: Repetitive strain injuries, such as those caused by repetitive jumping or throwing, can lead to synovitis in the affected joint.
4. Trauma: A sudden injury, such as a fall or a blow to the joint, can cause acute synovitis.

Symptoms of synovitis may include:

1. Pain: Pain is the most common symptom of synovitis, and it can range from mild to severe.
2. Swelling: The affected joint or limb may become swollen and warm to the touch.
3. Limited range of motion: Synovitis can cause stiffness and limited mobility in the affected joint.
4. Redness: The affected area may become red and inflamed.
5. Fever: In some cases, synovitis may be accompanied by a fever.

Treatment for synovitis depends on the underlying cause and the severity of the condition. Conservative treatments such as rest, physical therapy, and anti-inflammatory medications are often effective in managing mild to moderate cases of synovitis. In more severe cases, surgical intervention may be necessary.

In conclusion, synovitis is a common condition that can cause pain and limited mobility in the affected joint or limb. It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time, as early diagnosis and treatment can help to prevent long-term damage and improve outcomes.

The exact cause of syringomyelia is not fully understood, but it is believed to be related to abnormal development or blockage of the spinal cord during fetal development. Some cases may be associated with genetic mutations or other inherited conditions, while others may be caused by acquired factors such as trauma, infection, or tumors.

Symptoms of syringomyelia can vary widely and may include:

1. Pain: Pain is a common symptom of syringomyelia, particularly in the neck, back, or limbs. The pain may be aching, sharp, or burning in nature and may be exacerbated by movement or activity.
2. Muscle weakness: As the syrinx grows, it can compress and damage the surrounding nerve fibers, leading to muscle weakness and wasting. This can affect the limbs, face, or other areas of the body.
3. Paresthesias: Patients with syringomyelia may experience numbness, tingling, or burning sensations in the affected area.
4. Spasticity: Some individuals with syringomyelia may experience spasticity, which is characterized by stiffness and increased muscle tone.
5. Sensory loss: In severe cases of syringomyelia, patients may experience loss of sensation in the affected area.
6. Bladder dysfunction: Syringomyelia can also affect the bladder and bowel function, leading to urinary retention or incontinence.
7. Orthostatic hypotension: Some patients with syringomyelia may experience a drop in blood pressure when standing, leading to dizziness or fainting.

Diagnosis of syringomyelia is typically made through a combination of imaging studies such as MRI or CT scans, and clinical evaluation. Treatment options vary depending on the underlying cause and severity of the condition, but may include:

1. Physical therapy to maintain muscle strength and prevent deformities.
2. Orthotics and assistive devices to improve mobility and function.
3. Pain management with medication or injections.
4. Surgery to release compressive lesions or remove tumors.
5. Chemotherapy to treat malignant causes of syringomyelia.
6. Shunting procedures to drain cerebrospinal fluid and relieve pressure.
7. Rehabilitation therapies such as occupational and speech therapy to address any cognitive or functional deficits.

It's important to note that the prognosis for syringomyelia varies depending on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. In some cases, the condition may be manageable with treatment, while in others it may progress and lead to significant disability or death. Early diagnosis and intervention are key to improving outcomes for patients with syringomyelia.

There are different types of myocardial infarctions, including:

1. ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI): This is the most severe type of heart attack, where a large area of the heart muscle is damaged. It is characterized by a specific pattern on an electrocardiogram (ECG) called the ST segment.
2. Non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI): This type of heart attack is less severe than STEMI, and the damage to the heart muscle may not be as extensive. It is characterized by a smaller area of damage or a different pattern on an ECG.
3. Incomplete myocardial infarction: This type of heart attack is when there is some damage to the heart muscle but not a complete blockage of blood flow.
4. Collateral circulation myocardial infarction: This type of heart attack occurs when there are existing collateral vessels that bypass the blocked coronary artery, which reduces the amount of damage to the heart muscle.

Symptoms of a myocardial infarction can include chest pain or discomfort, shortness of breath, lightheadedness, and fatigue. These symptoms may be accompanied by anxiety, fear, and a sense of impending doom. In some cases, there may be no noticeable symptoms at all.

Diagnosis of myocardial infarction is typically made based on a combination of physical examination findings, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as an electrocardiogram (ECG), cardiac enzyme tests, and imaging studies like echocardiography or cardiac magnetic resonance imaging.

Treatment of myocardial infarction usually involves medications to relieve pain, reduce the amount of work the heart has to do, and prevent further damage to the heart muscle. These may include aspirin, beta blockers, ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers, and statins. In some cases, a procedure such as angioplasty or coronary artery bypass surgery may be necessary to restore blood flow to the affected area.

Prevention of myocardial infarction involves managing risk factors such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, smoking, diabetes, and obesity. This can include lifestyle changes such as a healthy diet, regular exercise, and stress reduction, as well as medications to control these conditions. Early detection and treatment of heart disease can help prevent myocardial infarction from occurring in the first place.

1. Ischemic stroke: This is the most common type of stroke, accounting for about 87% of all strokes. It occurs when a blood vessel in the brain becomes blocked, reducing blood flow to the brain.
2. Hemorrhagic stroke: This type of stroke occurs when a blood vessel in the brain ruptures, causing bleeding in the brain. High blood pressure, aneurysms, and blood vessel malformations can all cause hemorrhagic strokes.
3. Transient ischemic attack (TIA): Also known as a "mini-stroke," a TIA is a temporary interruption of blood flow to the brain that lasts for a short period of time, usually less than 24 hours. TIAs are often a warning sign for a future stroke and should be taken seriously.

Stroke can cause a wide range of symptoms depending on the location and severity of the damage to the brain. Some common symptoms include:

* Weakness or numbness in the face, arm, or leg
* Difficulty speaking or understanding speech
* Sudden vision loss or double vision
* Dizziness, loss of balance, or sudden falls
* Severe headache
* Confusion, disorientation, or difficulty with memory

Stroke is a leading cause of long-term disability and can have a significant impact on the quality of life for survivors. However, with prompt medical treatment and rehabilitation, many people are able to recover some or all of their lost functions and lead active lives.

The medical community has made significant progress in understanding stroke and developing effective treatments. Some of the most important advances include:

* Development of clot-busting drugs and mechanical thrombectomy devices to treat ischemic strokes
* Improved imaging techniques, such as CT and MRI scans, to diagnose stroke and determine its cause
* Advances in surgical techniques for hemorrhagic stroke
* Development of new medications to prevent blood clots and reduce the risk of stroke

Despite these advances, stroke remains a significant public health problem. According to the American Heart Association, stroke is the fifth leading cause of death in the United States and the leading cause of long-term disability. In 2017, there were over 795,000 strokes in the United States alone.

There are several risk factors for stroke that can be controlled or modified. These include:

* High blood pressure
* Diabetes mellitus
* High cholesterol levels
* Smoking
* Obesity
* Lack of physical activity
* Poor diet

In addition to these modifiable risk factors, there are also several non-modifiable risk factors for stroke, such as age (stroke risk increases with age), family history of stroke, and previous stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA).

The medical community has made significant progress in understanding the causes and risk factors for stroke, as well as developing effective treatments and prevention strategies. However, more research is needed to improve outcomes for stroke survivors and reduce the overall burden of this disease.

There are several types of spinal cord compression, including:

1. Central canal stenosis: This occurs when the central canal of the spine narrows, compressing the spinal cord.
2. Foraminal stenosis: This occurs when the openings on either side of the spine (foramina) narrow, compressing the nerves exiting the spinal cord.
3. Spondylolisthesis: This occurs when a vertebra slips out of place, compressing the spinal cord.
4. Herniated discs: This occurs when the gel-like center of a disc bulges out and presses on the spinal cord.
5. Bone spurs: This occurs when bone growths develop on the vertebrae, compressing the spinal cord.
6. Tumors: This can be either primary or metastatic tumors that grow in the spine and compress the spinal cord.
7. Trauma: This occurs when there is a direct blow to the spine, causing compression of the spinal cord.

Symptoms of spinal cord compression may include:

* Pain, numbness, weakness, or tingling in the arms and legs
* Difficulty walking or maintaining balance
* Muscle wasting or loss of muscle mass
* Decreased reflexes
* Loss of bladder or bowel control
* Weakness in the muscles of the face, arms, or legs
* Difficulty with fine motor skills such as buttoning a shirt or typing

Diagnosis of spinal cord compression is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and imaging tests such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRI scans. Treatment options for spinal cord compression depend on the underlying cause and may include medication, surgery, or a combination of both.

In conclusion, spinal cord compression is a serious medical condition that can have significant impacts on quality of life, mobility, and overall health. It is important to be aware of the causes and symptoms of spinal cord compression in order to seek medical attention if they occur. With proper diagnosis and treatment, many cases of spinal cord compression can be effectively managed and improved.

There are several types of leukoencephalopathies, each with its own unique set of causes and characteristics. Some of the most common include:

1. Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD): A genetic disorder that affects the breakdown of fatty acids in the body, leading to the accumulation of toxic substances in the brain.
2. Metachromatic leukodystrophy (MLD): A genetic disorder that affects the metabolism of certain fats in the body, leading to the accumulation of toxic substances in the brain.
3. Krabbe disease: A rare genetic disorder that affects the breakdown of a substance called galactocerebroside in the brain, leading to the accumulation of toxic substances and progressive damage to the nervous system.
4. Niemann-Pick disease: A group of inherited disorders that affect the metabolism of certain fats in the body, leading to the accumulation of toxic substances in the brain and other organs.
5. Alexander disease: A rare genetic disorder that affects the breakdown of a substance called galactose in the brain, leading to the accumulation of toxic substances and progressive damage to the nervous system.

The symptoms of leukoencephalopathies can vary depending on the specific type of disorder and the severity of the disease. Common symptoms include:

* Cognitive impairment: Difficulty with learning, memory, and problem-solving skills.
* Motor dysfunction: Weakness, rigidity, or tremors in the muscles.
* Seizures: Abnormal electrical activity in the brain that can cause convulsions or other symptoms.
* Vision loss: Blindness or vision impairment due to damage to the optic nerve.
* Speech difficulties: Slurred speech, difficulty with articulation, or other communication challenges.
* Behavioral changes: Increased irritability, aggression, or other behavioral problems.

There is no cure for leukoencephalopathies, but treatment options are available to manage the symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. These may include:

1. Physical therapy: To improve motor function and reduce muscle weakness.
2. Occupational therapy: To improve daily living skills and cognitive function.
3. Speech therapy: To improve communication skills and address swallowing difficulties.
4. Medications: To control seizures, muscle spasms, or other symptoms.
5. Nutritional support: To ensure adequate nutrition and address any feeding challenges.
6. Respiratory support: To assist with breathing and manage respiratory infections.
7. Psychological support: To address behavioral changes and other psychological issues.

The prognosis for leukoencephalopathies is generally poor, as the diseases tend to progress rapidly and can lead to significant disability or death within a few years of onset. However, with appropriate management and support, many individuals with these conditions can achieve a good quality of life and live well into adulthood. It is important for families to work closely with healthcare providers to develop a comprehensive treatment plan that addresses their child's specific needs and provides ongoing support throughout their lives.

There are several potential causes of LVD, including:

1. Coronary artery disease: The buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries can lead to a heart attack, which can damage the left ventricle and impair its ability to function properly.
2. Heart failure: When the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs, it can lead to LVD.
3. Cardiomyopathy: This is a condition where the heart muscle becomes weakened or enlarged, leading to impaired function of the left ventricle.
4. Heart valve disease: Problems with the heart valves can disrupt the normal flow of blood and cause LVD.
5. Hypertension: High blood pressure can cause damage to the heart muscle and lead to LVD.
6. Genetic factors: Some people may be born with genetic mutations that predispose them to developing LVD.
7. Viral infections: Certain viral infections, such as myocarditis, can inflame and damage the heart muscle, leading to LVD.
8. Alcohol or drug abuse: Substance abuse can damage the heart muscle and lead to LVD.
9. Nutritional deficiencies: A diet lacking essential nutrients can lead to damage to the heart muscle and increase the risk of LVD.

Diagnosis of LVD typically involves a physical exam, medical history, and results of diagnostic tests such as electrocardiograms (ECGs), echocardiograms, and stress tests. Treatment options for LVD depend on the underlying cause, but may include medications to improve cardiac function, lifestyle changes, and in severe cases, surgery or other procedures.

Preventing LVD involves taking steps to maintain a healthy heart and reducing risk factors such as high blood pressure, smoking, and obesity. This can be achieved through a balanced diet, regular exercise, stress management, and avoiding substance abuse. Early detection and treatment of underlying conditions that increase the risk of LVD can also help prevent the condition from developing.

The term "schizophrenia" was first used by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler in 1908 to describe the splitting of mental functions, which he believed was a key feature of the disorder. The word is derived from the Greek words "schizein," meaning "to split," and "phrenos," meaning "mind."

There are several subtypes of schizophrenia, including:

1. Paranoid Schizophrenia: Characterized by delusions of persecution and suspicion, and a tendency to be hostile and defensive.
2. Hallucinatory Schizophrenia: Characterized by hearing voices or seeing things that are not there.
3. Disorganized Schizophrenia: Characterized by disorganized thinking and behavior, and a lack of motivation or interest in activities.
4. Catatonic Schizophrenia: Characterized by immobility, mutism, and other unusual movements or postures.
5. Undifferentiated Schizophrenia: Characterized by a combination of symptoms from the above subtypes.

The exact cause of schizophrenia is still not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and neurochemical factors. It is important to note that schizophrenia is not caused by poor parenting or a person's upbringing.

There are several risk factors for developing schizophrenia, including:

1. Genetics: A person with a family history of schizophrenia is more likely to develop the disorder.
2. Brain chemistry: Imbalances in neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin have been linked to schizophrenia.
3. Prenatal factors: Factors such as maternal malnutrition or exposure to certain viruses during pregnancy may increase the risk of schizophrenia in offspring.
4. Childhood trauma: Traumatic events during childhood, such as abuse or neglect, have been linked to an increased risk of developing schizophrenia.
5. Substance use: Substance use has been linked to an increased risk of developing schizophrenia, particularly cannabis and other psychotic substances.

There is no cure for schizophrenia, but treatment can help manage symptoms and improve quality of life. Treatment options include:

1. Medications: Antipsychotic medications are the primary treatment for schizophrenia. They can help reduce positive symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions, and negative symptoms such as a lack of motivation or interest in activities.
2. Therapy: Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and other forms of talk therapy can help individuals with schizophrenia manage their symptoms and improve their quality of life.
3. Social support: Support from family, friends, and support groups can be an important part of the treatment plan for individuals with schizophrenia.
4. Self-care: Engaging in activities that bring pleasure and fulfillment, such as hobbies or exercise, can help individuals with schizophrenia improve their overall well-being.

It is important to note that schizophrenia is a complex condition, and treatment should be tailored to the individual's specific needs and circumstances. With appropriate treatment and support, many people with schizophrenia are able to lead fulfilling lives and achieve their goals.

Cicatrix is a term used to describe the scar tissue that forms after an injury or surgery. It is made up of collagen fibers and other cells, and its formation is a natural part of the healing process. The cicatrix can be either hypertrophic (raised) or atrophic (depressed), depending on the severity of the original wound.

The cicatrix serves several important functions in the healing process, including:

1. Protection: The cicatrix helps to protect the underlying tissue from further injury and provides a barrier against infection.
2. Strength: The collagen fibers in the cicatrix give the scar tissue strength and flexibility, allowing it to withstand stress and strain.
3. Support: The cicatrix provides support to the surrounding tissue, helping to maintain the shape of the affected area.
4. Cosmetic appearance: The appearance of the cicatrix can affect the cosmetic outcome of a wound or surgical incision. Hypertrophic scars are typically red and raised, while atrophic scars are depressed and may be less noticeable.

While the formation of cicatrix is a normal part of the healing process, there are some conditions that can affect its development or appearance. For example, keloid scars are raised, thick scars that can form as a result of an overactive immune response to injury. Acne scars can also be difficult to treat and may leave a lasting impression on the skin.

In conclusion, cicatrix is an important part of the healing process after an injury or surgery. It provides protection, strength, support, and can affect the cosmetic appearance of the affected area. Understanding the formation and functions of cicatrix can help medical professionals to better manage wound healing and improve patient outcomes.

The exact cause of NFD is not fully understood, but it is believed to be related to the buildup of a protein called amyloid in the skin. This buildup leads to inflammation and the deposition of abnormal fibers in the dermis, which causes the skin to thicken and become rigid.

The symptoms of NFD can vary in severity and may include:

1. Thickening and hardening of the skin, particularly on the legs, arms, and torso
2. Limited joint mobility
3. Pain or discomfort in the affected areas
4. Difficulty with everyday activities such as walking, dressing, or bathing
5. Skin tightness and itchiness

There is no cure for NFD, but there are several treatment options available to manage the symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. These may include:

1. Topical creams and ointments to reduce itching and inflammation
2. Physical therapy to maintain joint mobility and strength
3. Pain management medications
4. Surgery to remove excess skin tissue
5. Dialysis-related treatments to address underlying kidney disease

It is important for individuals with NFD to work closely with their healthcare team to develop a comprehensive treatment plan that addresses their specific needs and helps manage their symptoms. With appropriate care, individuals with NFD can improve their quality of life and maintain their independence.

Benign spinal cord neoplasms are typically slow-growing and may not cause any symptoms in the early stages. However, as they grow, they can compress or damage the surrounding healthy tissue, leading to a range of symptoms such as pain, numbness, weakness, or paralysis.

Malignant spinal cord neoplasms are more aggressive and can grow rapidly, invading surrounding tissues and spreading to other parts of the body. They can cause similar symptoms to benign tumors, as well as other symptoms such as fever, nausea, and weight loss.

The diagnosis of spinal cord neoplasms is based on a combination of clinical findings, imaging studies (such as MRI or CT scans), and biopsy. Treatment options vary depending on the type and location of the tumor, but may include surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.

The prognosis for spinal cord neoplasms depends on the type and location of the tumor, as well as the patient's overall health. In general, benign tumors have a better prognosis than malignant tumors, and early diagnosis and treatment can improve outcomes. However, even with successful treatment, some patients may experience long-term neurological deficits or other complications.

Some common abducens nerve diseases include:

1. Abducens paresis or palsy: This is a weakness or paralysis of the abducens nerve that can cause difficulty moving the eyeball outward or away from the nose.
2. Brown syndrome: This is a condition where the nerve is compressed or damaged, leading to difficulty moving the eye laterally.
3. Congenital abducens palsy: This is a condition present at birth that affects the development of the abducens nerve and can result in limited or absent movement of one or both eyes.
4. Trauma to the abducens nerve: This can occur due to head injuries, facial trauma, or other forms of injury that damage the nerve.
5. Tumors or cysts: Growths in the orbit or near the abducens nerve can compress or damage the nerve and cause abducens nerve diseases.
6. Inflammatory conditions: Conditions such as Graves' disease, multiple sclerosis, or sarcoidosis can inflame the nerve and cause abducens nerve diseases.
7. Stroke or cerebral vasculature disorders: These conditions can damage the nerve due to reduced blood flow or bleeding in the brain.

Symptoms of abducens nerve diseases may include double vision, difficulty moving one or both eyes, and difficulty focusing. Diagnosis is typically made through a combination of physical examination, imaging studies such as MRI or CT scans, and electrophysiological tests such as electromyography. Treatment options vary depending on the underlying cause of the disease and may include glasses or contact lenses for double vision, prism lenses to align the eyes, or surgery to correct any anatomical abnormalities. In some cases, medications such as steroids or immunosuppressants may be prescribed to reduce inflammation and promote healing.

The word "edema" comes from the Greek word "oidema", meaning swelling.

The pituitary gland is a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain that plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions, such as growth and development, metabolism, and reproductive function. Pituitary diseases refer to any disorders or abnormalities that affect the pituitary gland, including tumors, cysts, hypopituitarism (underactive pituitary gland), hyperpituitarism (overactive pituitary gland), and other conditions.

Some common types of pituitary diseases include:

1. Pituitary tumors: These are abnormal growths that can occur in the pituitary gland, either benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). The most common type of pituitary tumor is a benign adenoma, which can cause excessive production of hormones and lead to various symptoms.
2. Cushing's disease: This is a rare disorder caused by excessive production of the hormone cortisol, which can lead to weight gain, high blood pressure, and other symptoms.
3. Hypopituitarism: This condition occurs when the pituitary gland does not produce enough hormones, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, weight loss, and poor fertility.
4. Hyperthyroidism: This is a condition in which the thyroid gland produces too much thyroid hormone, leading to symptoms such as rapid heartbeat, weight loss, and anxiety.
5. Acromegaly: This is a rare disorder caused by excessive production of growth hormone, leading to symptoms such as abnormal growth of hands, feet, and facial features, as well as joint pain and sleep apnea.
6. Pituitary giants: These are rare cases of pituitary tumors that can cause excessive growth and development in children.
7. Pituitary dwarfism: This is a condition in which the pituitary gland does not produce enough growth hormone, leading to short stature and other growth abnormalities.
8. Cushing's syndrome: This is a rare disorder caused by excessive production of the hormone cortisol, which can lead to symptoms such as weight gain, high blood pressure, and poor sleep.
9. Adrenal insufficiency: This is a condition in which the adrenal glands do not produce enough cortisol and aldosterone hormones, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, weight loss, and low blood pressure.
10. Multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN): This is a rare genetic disorder that affects the endocrine system and can cause various types of tumors, including pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal gland tumors.

These are just a few examples of rare hormonal disorders. There are many others, each with its unique set of symptoms and causes. If you suspect that you or someone you know may have a hormonal disorder, it is important to consult a qualified healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and treatment.

IVDD can occur due to various factors such as trauma, injury, degenerative disc disease, or genetic predisposition. The condition can be classified into two main types:

1. Herniated Disc (HDD): This occurs when the soft, gel-like center of the disc bulges out through a tear in the tough outer layer, putting pressure on nearby nerves.
2. Degenerative Disc Disease (DDD): This is a condition where the disc loses its water content and becomes brittle, leading to tears and fragmentation of the disc.

Symptoms of IVDD can include:

* Back or neck pain
* Muscle spasms
* Weakness or numbness in the legs or arms
* Difficulty walking or maintaining balance
* Loss of bladder or bowel control (in severe cases)

Diagnosis of IVDD is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and imaging tests such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRI. Treatment options for IVDD vary depending on the severity of the condition and can range from conservative approaches such as pain medication, physical therapy, and lifestyle modifications to surgical interventions in severe cases.

In summary, Intervertebral Disc Displacement (IVDD) is a condition where the soft tissue between two adjacent vertebrae in the spine is displaced or herniated, leading to pressure on nearby nerves and potential symptoms such as back pain, muscle spasms, and weakness. It can be classified into two main types: Herniated Disc and Degenerative Disc Disease, and diagnosis is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and imaging tests. Treatment options vary depending on the severity of the condition and can range from conservative approaches to surgical interventions.

Types: There are several types of brain infarction, including:

1. Cerebral infarction: This type of infarction occurs when there is a blockage or obstruction in the blood vessels that supply the cerebrum, which is the largest part of the brain.
2. Cerebellar infarction: This type of infarction occurs when there is a blockage or obstruction in the blood vessels that supply the cerebellum, which is located at the base of the brain.
3. Brain stem infarction: This type of infarction occurs when there is a blockage or obstruction in the blood vessels that supply the brain stem, which is the part of the brain that controls vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Symptoms: The symptoms of brain infarction can vary depending on the location and size of the affected area, but common symptoms include:

1. Sudden weakness or numbness in the face, arm, or leg
2. Sudden confusion or trouble speaking or understanding speech
3. Sudden difficulty seeing or blindness
4. Sudden difficulty walking or loss of balance
5. Sudden severe headache
6. Difficulty with coordination and movement
7. Slurred speech
8. Vision changes
9. Seizures

Diagnosis: Brain infarction is typically diagnosed using a combination of physical examination, medical history, and imaging tests such as CT or MRI scans. Other diagnostic tests may include blood tests to check for signs of infection or blood clotting abnormalities, and an electroencephalogram (EEG) to measure the electrical activity of the brain.

Treatment: The treatment of brain infarction depends on the underlying cause, but common treatments include:

1. Medications: To control symptoms such as high blood pressure, seizures, and swelling in the brain.
2. Endovascular therapy: A minimally invasive procedure to open or remove blockages in the blood vessels.
3. Surgery: To relieve pressure on the brain or repair damaged blood vessels.
4. Rehabilitation: To help regain lost function and improve quality of life.

Prognosis: The prognosis for brain infarction depends on the location and size of the affected area, as well as the promptness and effectiveness of treatment. In general, the earlier treatment is received, the better the outcome. However, some individuals may experience long-term or permanent disability, or even death.

The symptoms of tenosynovitis can vary depending on the location of the affected tendon, but common symptoms include:

* Pain and tenderness in the affected area
* Swelling and redness in the affected area
* Stiffness and limited range of motion in the affected joint
* Difficulty moving the affected limb or joint
* Clicking or snapping sensation in the affected joint

Tenosynovitis can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

* Overuse or repetitive strain on the tendon
* Injury or trauma to the affected area
* Age-related wear and tear on the tendons
* Certain medical conditions, such as gout or rheumatoid arthritis

Treatment for tenosynovitis usually involves rest, physical therapy, and anti-inflammatory medications. In severe cases, surgery may be necessary to repair the damaged tendon. It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time, as untreated tenosynovitis can lead to chronic pain and limited mobility.

There are several different types of brain injuries that can occur, including:

1. Concussions: A concussion is a type of mild traumatic brain injury that occurs when the brain is jolted or shaken, often due to a blow to the head.
2. Contusions: A contusion is a bruise on the brain that can occur when the brain is struck by an object, such as during a car accident.
3. Coup-contrecoup injuries: This type of injury occurs when the brain is injured as a result of the force of the body striking another object, such as during a fall.
4. Penetrating injuries: A penetrating injury occurs when an object pierces the brain, such as during a gunshot wound or stab injury.
5. Blast injuries: This type of injury occurs when the brain is exposed to a sudden and explosive force, such as during a bombing.

The symptoms of brain injuries can vary depending on the severity of the injury and the location of the damage in the brain. Some common symptoms include:

* Headaches
* Dizziness or loss of balance
* Confusion or disorientation
* Memory loss or difficulty with concentration
* Slurred speech or difficulty with communication
* Vision problems, such as blurred vision or double vision
* Sleep disturbances
* Mood changes, such as irritability or depression
* Personality changes
* Difficulty with coordination and balance

In some cases, brain injuries can be treated with medication, physical therapy, and other forms of rehabilitation. However, in more severe cases, the damage may be permanent and long-lasting. It is important to seek medical attention immediately if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

The symptoms of a brain abscess can vary depending on the location and size of the abscess, but may include:

* Headache
* Fever
* Confusion or disorientation
* Seizures
* Weakness or numbness in the arms or legs
* Vision problems
* Speech difficulties

If a brain abscess is suspected, a doctor will typically perform a physical examination and order imaging tests such as CT or MRI scans to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment usually involves antibiotics to treat the underlying infection, as well as surgery to drain the abscess and remove any infected tissue. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and treat the patient.

With prompt and appropriate treatment, most people with a brain abscess can recover fully or almost fully, but in some cases, the condition can result in long-term complications such as memory loss, cognitive impairment, or personality changes. In rare instances, a brain abscess can be fatal if not treated promptly and properly.

Arachnoid cysts are fluid-filled sacs that form between the layers of protective tissue (meninges) that cover the brain and spinal cord. They are typically benign and may or may not cause symptoms. Arachnoid cysts are relatively rare, and their exact cause is unknown. However, they may be associated with other congenital anomalies or neurological conditions.

Symptoms of Arachnoid Cysts[2]

The symptoms of arachnoid cysts can vary depending on the size and location of the cyst. Some common symptoms include:

1. Headaches
2. Seizures
3. Nausea and vomiting
4. Abnormal eye movements
5. Weakness or numbness in the arms or legs
6. Confusion or disorientation

Diagnosis of Arachnoid Cysts[3]

Arachnoid cysts are typically diagnosed using a combination of imaging tests, such as:

1. CT scans
2. MRI scans
3. Ultrasound

Treatment of Arachnoid Cysts[4]

The treatment of arachnoid cysts depends on the size and location of the cyst, as well as the symptoms it is causing. In some cases, arachnoid cysts may not require treatment and can be monitored with regular imaging tests. However, if the cyst is causing symptoms or is growing in size, surgery may be necessary to remove the cyst.

Prognosis of Arachnoid Cysts[5]

The prognosis for arachnoid cysts is generally good, and most people with these cysts lead normal lives. However, in some cases, arachnoid cysts can cause serious complications, such as infection or bleeding, which can be life-threatening. It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

In conclusion, arachnoid cysts are fluid-filled sacs that form between the layers of protective tissue (meninges) covering the brain and spinal cord. While they are generally benign, they can cause a variety of symptoms and complications. If you suspect that you or someone you know may have an arachnoid cyst, it is important to seek medical attention for proper diagnosis and treatment.

References:

[1] "Arachnoid Cysts." American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 2022, .

[2] "Arachnoid Cyst." Mayo Clinic, 2022, .

[3] "Arachnoid Cysts." MedlinePlus, 2022, .

[4] "Arachnoid Cyst: Types, Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, Treatment." Health Line, 2022, .

The exact cause of neurilemmoma is not known, but it is believed to be related to genetic mutations that occur during fetal development. Some cases have been associated with neurofibromatosis type 2, a genetic disorder that affects the growth and development of nerve tissue.

Neurilemmoma typically manifests as a slow-growing mass or lump in the affected area. Symptoms can include pain, numbness, tingling, or weakness in the affected limb or organ, depending on the location of the tumor. In some cases, neurilemmoma can cause hormonal imbalances or disrupt normal nerve function.

Diagnosis of neurilemmoma usually involves a combination of physical examination, imaging studies such as MRI or CT scans, and a biopsy to confirm the presence of malignant cells. Treatment options for neurilemmoma include surgical removal of the tumor, radiation therapy, and in some cases, observation with periodic monitoring. The prognosis for patients with neurilemmoma is generally good if the tumor is removed completely, but recurrence is possible in some cases.

Types of Spinal Neoplasms:

1. Benign tumors: Meningiomas, schwannomas, and osteochondromas are common types of benign spinal neoplasms. These tumors usually grow slowly and do not spread to other parts of the body.
2. Malignant tumors: Primary bone cancers (chordoma, chondrosarcoma, and osteosarcoma) and metastatic cancers (cancers that have spread to the spine from another part of the body) are types of malignant spinal neoplasms. These tumors can grow rapidly and spread to other parts of the body.

Causes and Risk Factors:

1. Genetic mutations: Some genetic disorders, such as neurofibromatosis type 1 and tuberous sclerosis complex, increase the risk of developing spinal neoplasms.
2. Previous radiation exposure: People who have undergone radiation therapy in the past may have an increased risk of developing a spinal tumor.
3. Family history: A family history of spinal neoplasms can increase an individual's risk.
4. Age and gender: Spinal neoplasms are more common in older adults, and males are more likely to be affected than females.

Symptoms:

1. Back pain: Pain is the most common symptom of spinal neoplasms, which can range from mild to severe and may be accompanied by other symptoms such as numbness, weakness, or tingling in the arms or legs.
2. Neurological deficits: Depending on the location and size of the tumor, patients may experience neurological deficits such as paralysis, loss of sensation, or difficulty with balance and coordination.
3. Difficulty with urination or bowel movements: Patients may experience changes in their bladder or bowel habits due to the tumor pressing on the spinal cord or nerve roots.
4. Weakness or numbness: Patients may experience weakness or numbness in their arms or legs due to compression of the spinal cord or nerve roots by the tumor.
5. Fractures: Spinal neoplasms can cause fractures in the spine, which can lead to a loss of height, an abnormal curvature of the spine, or difficulty with movement and balance.

Diagnosis:

1. Medical history and physical examination: A thorough medical history and physical examination can help identify the presence of symptoms and determine the likelihood of a spinal neoplasm.
2. Imaging studies: X-rays, CT scans, MRI scans, or PET scans may be ordered to visualize the spine and detect any abnormalities.
3. Biopsy: A biopsy may be performed to confirm the diagnosis and determine the type of tumor present.
4. Laboratory tests: Blood tests may be ordered to assess liver function, electrolyte levels, or other parameters that can help evaluate the patient's overall health.

Treatment:

1. Surgery: Surgical intervention is often necessary to remove the tumor and relieve pressure on the spinal cord or nerve roots.
2. Radiation therapy: Radiation therapy may be used before or after surgery to kill any remaining cancer cells.
3. Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy may be used in combination with radiation therapy or as a standalone treatment for patients who are not candidates for surgery.
4. Supportive care: Patients may require supportive care, such as physical therapy, pain management, and rehabilitation, to help them recover from the effects of the tumor and any treatment-related complications.

Prognosis:

The prognosis for patients with spinal neoplasms depends on several factors, including the type and location of the tumor, the extent of the disease, and the patient's overall health. In general, the prognosis is better for patients with slow-growing tumors that are confined to a specific area of the spine, as compared to those with more aggressive tumors that have spread to other parts of the body.

Survival rates:

The survival rates for patients with spinal neoplasms vary depending on the type of tumor and other factors. According to the American Cancer Society, the 5-year survival rate for primary spinal cord tumors is about 60%. However, this rate can be as high as 90% for patients with slow-growing tumors that are confined to a specific area of the spine.

Lifestyle modifications:

There are no specific lifestyle modifications that can cure spinal neoplasms, but certain changes may help improve the patient's quality of life and overall health. These may include:

1. Exercise: Gentle exercise, such as yoga or swimming, can help improve mobility and strength.
2. Diet: A balanced diet that includes plenty of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean protein can help support overall health.
3. Rest: Getting enough rest and avoiding strenuous activities can help the patient recover from treatment-related fatigue.
4. Managing stress: Stress management techniques, such as meditation or deep breathing exercises, can help reduce anxiety and improve overall well-being.
5. Follow-up care: Regular follow-up appointments with the healthcare provider are crucial to monitor the patient's condition and make any necessary adjustments to their treatment plan.

In conclusion, spinal neoplasms are rare tumors that can develop in the spine and can have a significant impact on the patient's quality of life. Early diagnosis is essential for effective treatment, and survival rates vary depending on the type of tumor and other factors. While there are no specific lifestyle modifications that can cure spinal neoplasms, certain changes may help improve the patient's overall health and well-being. It is important for patients to work closely with their healthcare provider to develop a personalized treatment plan and follow-up care to ensure the best possible outcome.

Some common types of pituitary neoplasms include:

1. Adenomas: These are benign tumors that grow slowly and often do not cause any symptoms in the early stages.
2. Craniopharyngiomas: These are rare, slow-growing tumors that can be benign or malignant. They can affect the pituitary gland, the hypothalamus, and other areas of the brain.
3. Pituitary carcinomas: These are malignant tumors that grow quickly and can spread to other parts of the body.
4. Pituitary metastases: These are tumors that have spread to the pituitary gland from another part of the body, such as breast cancer or lung cancer.

Symptoms of pituitary neoplasms can vary depending on the size and location of the tumor, but they may include:

* Headaches
* Vision changes, such as blurred vision or loss of peripheral vision
* Hormonal imbalances, which can lead to a variety of symptoms including fatigue, weight gain or loss, and irregular menstrual cycles
* Cognitive changes, such as memory loss or difficulty with concentration
* Pressure on the brain, which can cause nausea, vomiting, and weakness or numbness in the limbs

Diagnosis of pituitary neoplasms typically involves a combination of imaging tests, such as MRI or CT scans, and hormone testing to determine the level of hormones in the blood. Treatment options can vary depending on the type and size of the tumor, but they may include:

* Watchful waiting: Small, benign tumors may not require immediate treatment and can be monitored with regular imaging tests.
* Medications: Hormone replacement therapy or medications to control hormone levels may be used to manage symptoms.
* Surgery: Tumors can be removed through a transsphenoidal surgery, which involves removing the tumor through the nasal cavity and sphenoid sinus.
* Radiation therapy: May be used to treat residual tumor tissue after surgery or in cases where the tumor cannot be completely removed with surgery.

Overall, pituitary neoplasms are rare and can have a significant impact on the body if left untreated. If you suspect you may have a pituitary neoplasm, it is important to seek medical attention for proper diagnosis and treatment.

The exact cause of hemangiomas is not known, but they are thought to be caused by an abnormal formation of blood vessels during fetal development. Hemangiomas are more common in infants and children, and they tend to grow rapidly during the first year of life. They are usually small and do not cause any symptoms, but can become larger and more complex over time.

The diagnosis of a hemangioma is based on a physical examination, imaging studies such as ultrasound or MRI, and a biopsy. Treatment for hemangiomas may include observation, steroid medications, or surgical removal if the lesion is causing symptoms or is large and unsightly.

The following are some of the key features of hemangioma, cavernous:

1. Location: Hemangiomas can occur anywhere in the body, but they are most common in the skin and subcutaneous tissue.
2. Composition: Hemangiomas are made up of abnormal and dilated blood vessels.
3. Size: Hemangiomas can range in size from a few millimeters to several centimeters in diameter.
4. Shape: Hemangiomas can be round or oval in shape, and may have a raised or depressed surface.
5. Color: Hemangiomas are typically red or purple in color, but can also be blue or brown.
6. Symptoms: Hemangiomas may cause symptoms such as pain, swelling, or bleeding, depending on their location and size.
7. Cause: The exact cause of hemangiomas is not known, but they are thought to be caused by an abnormal formation of blood vessels during fetal development.
8. Treatment: Treatment for hemangiomas may include observation, steroid medications, or surgical removal if the lesion is causing symptoms or is cosmetically unsightly.

The following are some of the key features of hemangioma, capillary:

1. Location: Hemangiomas can occur anywhere in the body, but they are most common in the skin and subcutaneous tissue.
2. Composition: Hemangiomas are made up of abnormal and dilated capillaries.
3. Size: Hemangiomas can range in size from a few millimeters to several centimeters in diameter.
4. Shape: Hemangiomas can be round or oval in shape, and may have a raised or depressed surface.
5. Color: Hemangiomas are typically red or purple in color, but can also be blue or brown.
6. Symptoms: Hemangiomas may cause symptoms such as pain, swelling, or bleeding, depending on their location and size.
7. Cause: The exact cause of hemangiomas is not known, but they are thought to be caused by an abnormal formation of capillaries during fetal development.
8. Treatment: Treatment for hemangiomas usually involves observation and monitoring, but may also include surgical removal or laser therapy in some cases.

It's important to note that while hemangiomas are not cancerous, they can be difficult to distinguish from other types of vascular lesions, and a biopsy may be necessary to confirm the diagnosis. If you suspect you have a hemangioma, it's important to consult with a qualified healthcare professional for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment.

The syndrome is named after the American neurologist Dr. Arthur Dandy and British pediatrician Dr. Norman Walker, who first described it in the early 20th century. It is also known as hydrocephalus type I or cerebellar hydrocephalus.

DWS typically affects children, usually girls, between 3 and 18 months of age. The symptoms can vary in severity and may include:

* Enlarged skull
* Abnormal posture and gait
* Delayed development of motor skills
* Intellectual disability
* Seizures
* Vision problems

The exact cause of Dandy-Walker Syndrome is not known, but it is believed to be related to genetic mutations or environmental factors during fetal development. It can occur as an isolated condition or in combination with other congenital anomalies.

There is no cure for DWS, but treatment options may include:

* Shunts to drain excess CSF
* Physical therapy and occupational therapy
* Speech and language therapy
* Seizure medication
* Monitoring with regular imaging studies

The prognosis for children with Dandy-Walker Syndrome varies depending on the severity of the condition and the presence of other medical issues. Some individuals may experience significant developmental delays and intellectual disability, while others may have milder symptoms. With appropriate treatment and support, many individuals with DWS can lead fulfilling lives.

There are many different types of heart diseases, including:

1. Coronary artery disease: The buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries, which supply blood to the heart muscle, leading to chest pain or a heart attack.
2. Heart failure: When the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs, leading to fatigue, shortness of breath, and swelling in the legs.
3. Arrhythmias: Abnormal heart rhythms, such as atrial fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia, which can cause palpitations, dizziness, and shortness of breath.
4. Heart valve disease: Problems with the heart valves, which can lead to blood leaking back into the chambers or not being pumped effectively.
5. Cardiomyopathy: Disease of the heart muscle, which can lead to weakened heart function and heart failure.
6. Heart murmurs: Abnormal sounds heard during a heartbeat, which can be caused by defects in the heart valves or abnormal blood flow.
7. Congenital heart disease: Heart defects present at birth, such as holes in the heart or abnormal blood vessels.
8. Myocardial infarction (heart attack): Damage to the heart muscle due to a lack of oxygen, often caused by a blockage in a coronary artery.
9. Cardiac tamponade: Fluid accumulation around the heart, which can cause compression of the heart and lead to cardiac arrest.
10. Endocarditis: Infection of the inner lining of the heart, which can cause fever, fatigue, and heart valve damage.

Heart diseases can be diagnosed through various tests such as electrocardiogram (ECG), echocardiogram, stress test, and blood tests. Treatment options depend on the specific condition and may include lifestyle changes, medication, surgery, or a combination of these.

Some common types of spinal diseases include:

1. Degenerative disc disease: This is a condition where the discs between the vertebrae in the spine wear down over time, leading to pain and stiffness in the back.
2. Herniated discs: This occurs when the gel-like center of a disc bulges out through a tear in the outer layer, putting pressure on nearby nerves and causing pain.
3. Spinal stenosis: This is a narrowing of the spinal canal, which can put pressure on the spinal cord and nerve roots, causing pain, numbness, and weakness in the legs.
4. Spondylolisthesis: This is a condition where a vertebra slips out of place, either forward or backward, and can cause pressure on nearby nerves and muscles.
5. Scoliosis: This is a curvature of the spine that can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetics, injury, or disease.
6. Spinal infections: These are infections that can affect any part of the spine, including the discs, vertebrae, and soft tissues.
7. Spinal tumors: These are abnormal growths that can occur in the spine, either primary ( originating in the spine) or metastatic (originating elsewhere in the body).
8. Osteoporotic fractures: These are fractures that occur in the spine as a result of weakened bones due to osteoporosis.
9. Spinal cysts: These are fluid-filled sacs that can form in the spine, either as a result of injury or as a congenital condition.
10. Spinal degeneration: This is a general term for any type of wear and tear on the spine, such as arthritis or disc degeneration.

If you are experiencing any of these conditions, it is important to seek medical attention to receive an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment.

Necrosis is a type of cell death that occurs when cells are exposed to excessive stress, injury, or inflammation, leading to damage to the cell membrane and the release of cellular contents into the surrounding tissue. This can lead to the formation of gangrene, which is the death of body tissue due to lack of blood supply.

There are several types of necrosis, including:

1. Coagulative necrosis: This type of necrosis occurs when there is a lack of blood supply to the tissues, leading to the formation of a firm, white plaque on the surface of the affected area.
2. Liquefactive necrosis: This type of necrosis occurs when there is an infection or inflammation that causes the death of cells and the formation of pus.
3. Caseous necrosis: This type of necrosis occurs when there is a chronic infection, such as tuberculosis, and the affected tissue becomes soft and cheese-like.
4. Fat necrosis: This type of necrosis occurs when there is trauma to fatty tissue, leading to the formation of firm, yellowish nodules.
5. Necrotizing fasciitis: This is a severe and life-threatening form of necrosis that affects the skin and underlying tissues, often as a result of bacterial infection.

The diagnosis of necrosis is typically made through a combination of physical examination, imaging studies such as X-rays or CT scans, and laboratory tests such as biopsy. Treatment depends on the underlying cause of the necrosis and may include antibiotics, surgical debridement, or amputation in severe cases.

The symptoms of Alzheimer's disease can vary from person to person and may progress slowly over time. Early symptoms may include memory loss, confusion, and difficulty with problem-solving. As the disease progresses, individuals may experience language difficulties, visual hallucinations, and changes in mood and behavior.

There is currently no cure for Alzheimer's disease, but there are several medications and therapies that can help manage its symptoms and slow its progression. These include cholinesterase inhibitors, memantine, and non-pharmacological interventions such as cognitive training and behavioral therapy.

Alzheimer's disease is a significant public health concern, affecting an estimated 5.8 million Americans in 2020. It is the sixth leading cause of death in the United States, and its prevalence is expected to continue to increase as the population ages.

There is ongoing research into the causes and potential treatments for Alzheimer's disease, including studies into the role of inflammation, oxidative stress, and the immune system. Other areas of research include the development of biomarkers for early detection and the use of advanced imaging techniques to monitor progression of the disease.

Overall, Alzheimer's disease is a complex and multifactorial disorder that poses significant challenges for individuals, families, and healthcare systems. However, with ongoing research and advances in medical technology, there is hope for improving diagnosis and treatment options in the future.

There are two main types of carotid stenosis:

1. Internal carotid artery stenosis: This type of stenosis occurs when the internal carotid artery, which supplies blood to the brain, becomes narrowed or blocked.
2. Common carotid artery stenosis: This type of stenosis occurs when the common carotid artery, which supplies blood to the head and neck, becomes narrowed or blocked.

The symptoms of carotid stenosis can vary depending on the severity of the blockage and the extent of the affected area. Some common symptoms include:

* Dizziness or lightheadedness
* Vertigo (a feeling of spinning)
* Blurred vision or double vision
* Memory loss or confusion
* Slurred speech
* Weakness or numbness in the face, arm, or leg on one side of the body

If left untreated, carotid stenosis can lead to a stroke or other serious complications. Treatment options for carotid stenosis include medications to lower cholesterol and blood pressure, as well as surgical procedures such as endarterectomy (removing plaque from the artery) or stenting (placing a small mesh tube in the artery to keep it open).

In conclusion, carotid stenosis is a serious medical condition that can lead to stroke and other complications if left untreated. It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

1. Aneurysms: A bulge or ballooning in the wall of the aorta that can lead to rupture and life-threatening bleeding.
2. Atherosclerosis: The buildup of plaque in the inner lining of the aorta, which can narrow the artery and restrict blood flow.
3. Dissections: A tear in the inner layer of the aortic wall that can cause bleeding and lead to an aneurysm.
4. Thoracic aortic disease: Conditions that affect the thoracic portion of the aorta, such as atherosclerosis or dissections.
5. Abdominal aortic aneurysms: Enlargement of the abdominal aorta that can lead to rupture and life-threatening bleeding.
6. Aortic stenosis: Narrowing of the aortic valve, which can impede blood flow from the heart into the aorta.
7. Aortic regurgitation: Backflow of blood from the aorta into the heart due to a faulty aortic valve.
8. Marfan syndrome: A genetic disorder that affects the body's connective tissue, including the aorta.
9. Ehlers-Danlos syndrome: A group of genetic disorders that affect the body's connective tissue, including the aorta.
10. Turner syndrome: A genetic disorder that affects females and can cause aortic diseases.

Aortic diseases can be diagnosed through imaging tests such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI. Treatment options vary depending on the specific condition and may include medication, surgery, or endovascular procedures.

Examples of syndromes include:

1. Down syndrome: A genetic disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 that affects intellectual and physical development.
2. Turner syndrome: A genetic disorder caused by a missing or partially deleted X chromosome that affects physical growth and development in females.
3. Marfan syndrome: A genetic disorder affecting the body's connective tissue, causing tall stature, long limbs, and cardiovascular problems.
4. Alzheimer's disease: A neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss, confusion, and changes in personality and behavior.
5. Parkinson's disease: A neurological disorder characterized by tremors, rigidity, and difficulty with movement.
6. Klinefelter syndrome: A genetic disorder caused by an extra X chromosome in males, leading to infertility and other physical characteristics.
7. Williams syndrome: A rare genetic disorder caused by a deletion of genetic material on chromosome 7, characterized by cardiovascular problems, developmental delays, and a distinctive facial appearance.
8. Fragile X syndrome: The most common form of inherited intellectual disability, caused by an expansion of a specific gene on the X chromosome.
9. Prader-Willi syndrome: A genetic disorder caused by a defect in the hypothalamus, leading to problems with appetite regulation and obesity.
10. Sjogren's syndrome: An autoimmune disorder that affects the glands that produce tears and saliva, causing dry eyes and mouth.

Syndromes can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment for a syndrome depends on the underlying cause and the specific symptoms and signs presented by the patient.

Fibrosis can occur in response to a variety of stimuli, including inflammation, infection, injury, or chronic stress. It is a natural healing process that helps to restore tissue function and structure after damage or trauma. However, excessive fibrosis can lead to the loss of tissue function and organ dysfunction.

There are many different types of fibrosis, including:

* Cardiac fibrosis: the accumulation of scar tissue in the heart muscle or walls, leading to decreased heart function and potentially life-threatening complications.
* Pulmonary fibrosis: the accumulation of scar tissue in the lungs, leading to decreased lung function and difficulty breathing.
* Hepatic fibrosis: the accumulation of scar tissue in the liver, leading to decreased liver function and potentially life-threatening complications.
* Neurofibromatosis: a genetic disorder characterized by the growth of benign tumors (neurofibromas) made up of fibrous connective tissue.
* Desmoid tumors: rare, slow-growing tumors that are made up of fibrous connective tissue and can occur in various parts of the body.

Fibrosis can be diagnosed through a variety of methods, including:

* Biopsy: the removal of a small sample of tissue for examination under a microscope.
* Imaging tests: such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRI scans to visualize the accumulation of scar tissue.
* Blood tests: to assess liver function or detect specific proteins or enzymes that are elevated in response to fibrosis.

There is currently no cure for fibrosis, but various treatments can help manage the symptoms and slow the progression of the condition. These may include:

* Medications: such as corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, or chemotherapy to reduce inflammation and slow down the growth of scar tissue.
* Lifestyle modifications: such as quitting smoking, exercising regularly, and maintaining a healthy diet to improve overall health and reduce the progression of fibrosis.
* Surgery: in some cases, surgical removal of the affected tissue or organ may be necessary.

It is important to note that fibrosis can progress over time, leading to further scarring and potentially life-threatening complications. Regular monitoring and follow-up with a healthcare professional are crucial to managing the condition and detecting any changes or progression early on.

Examples of acute diseases include:

1. Common cold and flu
2. Pneumonia and bronchitis
3. Appendicitis and other abdominal emergencies
4. Heart attacks and strokes
5. Asthma attacks and allergic reactions
6. Skin infections and cellulitis
7. Urinary tract infections
8. Sinusitis and meningitis
9. Gastroenteritis and food poisoning
10. Sprains, strains, and fractures.

Acute diseases can be treated effectively with antibiotics, medications, or other therapies. However, if left untreated, they can lead to chronic conditions or complications that may require long-term care. Therefore, it is important to seek medical attention promptly if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

Synonyms: RV dysfunction

See also: Left Ventricular Dysfunction, Cardiac Dysfunction, Heart Failure

Note: This term is not a formal medical diagnosis but rather a descriptive term used to indicate the specific location of cardiac dysfunction. A more comprehensive diagnosis would require further evaluation and testing by a healthcare provider.

There are several types of intracranial embolism, including:

1. Cerebral embolism: This occurs when a blood clot or other foreign matter becomes lodged in the brain, blocking the flow of blood and oxygen to brain tissue.
2. Pulmonary embolism: This occurs when a blood clot forms in the lungs and travels to the brain, causing blockage of blood vessels.
3. Aortic embolism: This occurs when a blood clot or other foreign matter becomes lodged in the aorta, the main artery that carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body.
4. Atrial myxoma embolism: This occurs when a tumor in the heart, known as an atrial myxoma, breaks loose and travels to the brain, causing blockage of blood vessels.

Intracranial embolism can be diagnosed through various imaging tests such as CT or MRI scans, angiography, and Doppler ultrasound. Treatment options for intracranial embolism depend on the underlying cause and may include medications to dissolve blood clots, surgery to remove the blockage, or endovascular procedures such as stenting or coiling.

Preventive measures for intracranial embolism include managing risk factors for cardiovascular disease, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and smoking cessation, as well as avoiding long periods of immobility during long-distance travel. Early diagnosis and treatment are critical in preventing long-term cognitive and neurological damage.

There are several types of hydrocephalus, including:

1. Aqueductal stenosis: This occurs when the aqueduct that connects the third and fourth ventricles becomes narrowed or blocked, leading to an accumulation of CSF in the brain.
2. Choroid plexus papilloma: This is a benign tumor that grows on the surface of the choroid plexus, which is a layer of tissue that produces CSF.
3. Hydrocephalus ex vacuo: This occurs when there is a decrease in the volume of brain tissue due to injury or disease, leading to an accumulation of CSF.
4. Normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH): This is a type of hydrocephalus that occurs in adults and is characterized by an enlarged ventricle, gait disturbances, and cognitive decline, despite normal pressure levels.
5. Symptomatic hydrocephalus: This type of hydrocephalus is caused by other conditions such as brain tumors, cysts, or injuries.

Symptoms of hydrocephalus can include headache, nausea, vomiting, seizures, and difficulty walking or speaking. Treatment options for hydrocephalus depend on the underlying cause and may include medication, surgery, or a shunt to drain excess CSF. In some cases, hydrocephalus can be managed with lifestyle modifications such as regular exercise and a balanced diet.

Prognosis for hydrocephalus varies depending on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. However, with timely diagnosis and appropriate treatment, many people with hydrocephalus can lead active and fulfilling lives.

During relapses, new symptoms may appear or existing ones may worsen, such as vision problems, muscle weakness, coordination and balance difficulties, and cognitive impairment. The immune system mistakenly attacks the protective covering of nerve fibers, leading to communication problems between the brain and the rest of the body.

During remissions, the inflammation and symptoms may subside, but the disease is still active, and some residual disability may persist. RRMS is the most common form of MS, accounting for approximately 85% of all cases.

There are several causes of pulmonary valve insufficiency, including:

1. Congenital heart defects: Pulmonary valve insufficiency can be present at birth due to a congenital heart defect.
2. Rheumatic fever: This is an inflammatory disease that can damage the pulmonary valve and cause insufficiency.
3. Endocarditis: This is an infection of the inner lining of the heart, which can damage the pulmonary valve and cause insufficiency.
4. Heart damage: Damage to the heart muscle or valves due to a heart attack or other conditions can lead to pulmonary valve insufficiency.
5. Pulmonary hypertension: High blood pressure in the lungs can cause the pulmonary valve to become weak and insufficient.

Symptoms of pulmonary valve insufficiency may include:

1. Shortness of breath
2. Fatigue
3. Swelling in the legs, ankles, or feet
4. Chest pain
5. Dizziness or lightheadedness

If you experience any of these symptoms, it is important to seek medical attention. A healthcare provider can diagnose pulmonary valve insufficiency through a physical examination and diagnostic tests such as echocardiography, electrocardiography, or chest X-rays.

Treatment for pulmonary valve insufficiency depends on the severity of the condition and may include:

1. Medications to manage symptoms such as high blood pressure, heart failure, or infection
2. Lifestyle changes such as a healthy diet, regular exercise, and stress management techniques
3. Surgery to repair or replace the pulmonary valve
4. Catheter-based procedures such as balloon valvuloplasty or valve replacement

In some cases, pulmonary valve insufficiency may be a congenital condition that was present at birth. In other cases, it may develop later in life due to diseases such as rheumatic fever or viral infections.

Preventing pulmonary valve insufficiency is important, and this can be done by:

1. Managing underlying conditions such as heart disease or diabetes
2. Avoiding exposure to toxins or harmful substances
3. Maintaining a healthy lifestyle including regular exercise, a balanced diet, and stress management techniques
4. Getting regular check-ups with a healthcare provider

In conclusion, pulmonary valve insufficiency is a condition that can cause symptoms such as shortness of breath, fatigue, and chest pain. It is important to seek medical attention if you experience any of these symptoms, as early diagnosis and treatment can improve quality of life and prevent complications.

Myocardial ischemia can be caused by a variety of factors, including coronary artery disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, and smoking. It can also be triggered by physical exertion or stress.

There are several types of myocardial ischemia, including:

1. Stable angina: This is the most common type of myocardial ischemia, and it is characterized by a predictable pattern of chest pain that occurs during physical activity or emotional stress.
2. Unstable angina: This is a more severe type of myocardial ischemia that can occur without any identifiable trigger, and can be accompanied by other symptoms such as shortness of breath or vomiting.
3. Acute coronary syndrome (ACS): This is a condition that includes both stable angina and unstable angina, and it is characterized by a sudden reduction in blood flow to the heart muscle.
4. Heart attack (myocardial infarction): This is a type of myocardial ischemia that occurs when the blood flow to the heart muscle is completely blocked, resulting in damage or death of the cardiac tissue.

Myocardial ischemia can be diagnosed through a variety of tests, including electrocardiograms (ECGs), stress tests, and imaging studies such as echocardiography or cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Treatment options for myocardial ischemia include medications such as nitrates, beta blockers, and calcium channel blockers, as well as lifestyle changes such as quitting smoking, losing weight, and exercising regularly. In severe cases, surgical procedures such as coronary artery bypass grafting or angioplasty may be necessary.

Epidermal cysts are relatively common and can occur anywhere on the body, but they are most commonly found on the face, neck, torso, and arms. They are usually small, ranging in size from a pinpoint to a pea-sized bump, but they can sometimes grow larger.

Epidermal cysts are benign (non-cancerous) growths, and they typically do not cause any symptoms unless they become infected or rupture. In rare cases, epidermal cysts can become inflamed or infected, which can lead to redness, swelling, and pain.

Epidermal cysts are usually diagnosed by a dermatologist or other healthcare provider based on their appearance and location. In some cases, a biopsy may be performed to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment for epidermal cysts is usually not necessary unless they become inflamed or infected, in which case antibiotics or surgical drainage may be recommended.

It's important to note that epidermal cysts are different from sebaceous cysts, which are similar but occur in the deeper layers of the skin and are filled with a thick, cheesy material. Both types of cysts are benign and typically do not cause any symptoms unless they become infected or rupture.

Symptoms of iron overload can include fatigue, weakness, joint pain, and abdominal discomfort. Treatment for iron overload usually involves reducing iron intake and undergoing regular phlebotomy (blood removal) to remove excess iron from the body. In severe cases, iron chelation therapy may be recommended to help remove excess iron from tissues and organs.

In addition to these medical definitions and treatments, there are also some key points to keep in mind when it comes to iron overload:

1. Iron is essential for human health, but too much of it can be harmful. The body needs a certain amount of iron to produce hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout the body. However, excessive iron levels can damage organs and tissues.
2. Hereditary hemochromatosis is the most common cause of iron overload. This genetic disorder causes the body to absorb too much iron from food, leading to its accumulation in organs and tissues.
3. Iron overload can increase the risk of certain diseases, such as liver cirrhosis, diabetes, and heart disease. It can also lead to a condition called hemosiderosis, which is characterized by the deposition of iron in tissues and organs.
4. Phlebotomy is a safe and effective treatment for iron overload. Regular blood removal can help reduce excess iron levels and prevent complications such as liver damage, heart failure, and anemia.
5. Iron chelation therapy may be recommended in severe cases of iron overload. This involves using drugs to remove excess iron from tissues and organs, but it is not always necessary and can have potential side effects.

1. Meniscal tears: The meniscus is a cartilage structure in the knee joint that can tear due to twisting or bending movements.
2. Ligament sprains: The ligaments that connect the bones of the knee joint can become stretched or torn, leading to instability and pain.
3. Torn cartilage: The articular cartilage that covers the ends of the bones in the knee joint can tear due to wear and tear or trauma.
4. Fractures: The bones of the knee joint can fracture as a result of a direct blow or fall.
5. Dislocations: The bones of the knee joint can become dislocated, causing pain and instability.
6. Patellar tendinitis: Inflammation of the tendon that connects the patella (kneecap) to the shinbone.
7. Iliotibial band syndrome: Inflammation of the iliotibial band, a ligament that runs down the outside of the thigh and crosses the knee joint.
8. Osteochondritis dissecans: A condition in which a piece of cartilage and bone becomes detached from the end of a bone in the knee joint.
9. Baker's cyst: A fluid-filled cyst that forms behind the knee, usually as a result of a tear in the meniscus or a knee injury.

Symptoms of knee injuries can include pain, swelling, stiffness, and limited mobility. Treatment for knee injuries depends on the severity of the injury and may range from conservative measures such as physical therapy and medication to surgical intervention.

Some examples of pathologic constrictions include:

1. Stenosis: A narrowing or constriction of a blood vessel or other tubular structure, often caused by the buildup of plaque or scar tissue.
2. Asthma: A condition characterized by inflammation and constriction of the airways, which can make breathing difficult.
3. Esophageal stricture: A narrowing of the esophagus that can cause difficulty swallowing.
4. Gastric ring constriction: A narrowing of the stomach caused by a band of tissue that forms in the upper part of the stomach.
5. Anal fissure: A tear in the lining of the anus that can cause pain and difficulty passing stools.

Pathologic constrictions can be caused by a variety of factors, including inflammation, infection, injury, or genetic disorders. They can be diagnosed through imaging tests such as X-rays, CT scans, or endoscopies, and may require surgical treatment to relieve symptoms and improve function.

1. Stroke: A stroke occurs when the blood supply to the brain is interrupted, either due to a blockage or a rupture of the blood vessels. This can lead to cell death and permanent brain damage.
2. Cerebral vasospasm: Vasospasm is a temporary constriction of the blood vessels in the brain, which can occur after a subarachnoid hemorrhage (bleeding in the space surrounding the brain).
3. Moyamoya disease: This is a rare condition caused by narrowing or blockage of the internal carotid artery and its branches. It can lead to recurrent transient ischemic attacks (TIs) or stroke.
4. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy: This is a condition where abnormal protein deposits accumulate in the blood vessels of the brain, leading to inflammation and bleeding.
5. Cavernous malformations: These are abnormal collections of blood vessels in the brain that can cause seizures, headaches, and other symptoms.
6. Carotid artery disease: Atherosclerosis (hardening) of the carotid arteries can lead to a stroke or TIAs.
7. Vertebrobasilar insufficiency: This is a condition where the blood flow to the brain is reduced due to narrowing or blockage of the vertebral and basilar arteries.
8. Temporal lobe dementia: This is a type of dementia that affects the temporal lobe of the brain, leading to memory loss and other cognitive symptoms.
9. Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL): This is a rare genetic disorder that affects the blood vessels in the brain, leading to recurrent stroke-like events.
10. Moyamoya disease: This is a rare condition caused by narrowing or blockage of the internal carotid artery and its branches, leading to decreased blood flow to the brain and increased risk of stroke.

It's important to note that this list is not exhaustive and there may be other causes of stroke and TIAs that are not included here. A proper diagnosis can only be made by a qualified medical professional after conducting a thorough examination and reviewing the individual's medical history.

There are several types of nerve compression syndromes, including:

1. Carpal tunnel syndrome: Compression of the median nerve in the wrist, commonly caused by repetitive motion or injury.
2. Tarsal tunnel syndrome: Compression of the posterior tibial nerve in the ankle, similar to carpal tunnel syndrome but affecting the lower leg.
3. Cubital tunnel syndrome: Compression of the ulnar nerve at the elbow, often caused by repetitive leaning or bending.
4. Thoracic outlet syndrome: Compression of the nerves and blood vessels that pass through the thoracic outlet (the space between the neck and shoulder), often caused by poor posture or injury.
5. Peripheral neuropathy: A broader term for damage to the peripheral nerves, often caused by diabetes, vitamin deficiencies, or other systemic conditions.
6. Meralgia paresthetica: Compression of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve in the thigh, commonly caused by direct trauma or compression from a tight waistband or clothing.
7. Morton's neuroma: Compression of the plantar digital nerves between the toes, often caused by poorly fitting shoes or repetitive stress on the feet.
8. Neuralgia: A general term for pain or numbness caused by damage or irritation to a nerve, often associated with chronic conditions such as shingles or postherpetic neuralgia.
9. Trigeminal neuralgia: A condition characterized by recurring episodes of sudden, extreme pain in the face, often caused by compression or irritation of the trigeminal nerve.
10. Neuropathic pain: Pain that occurs as a result of damage or dysfunction of the nervous system, often accompanied by other symptoms such as numbness, tingling, or weakness.

The exact cause of HCM is not fully understood, but it is thought to be related to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Some people with HCM have a family history of the condition, and it is also more common in certain populations such as athletes and individuals with a history of hypertension or diabetes.

Symptoms of HCM can vary from person to person and may include shortness of breath, fatigue, palpitations, and chest pain. In some cases, HCM may not cause any symptoms at all and may be detected only through a physical examination or diagnostic tests such as an echocardiogram or electrocardiogram (ECG).

Treatment for HCM typically focuses on managing symptoms and reducing the risk of complications. This may include medications to reduce blood pressure, control arrhythmias, or improve heart function, as well as lifestyle modifications such as regular exercise and a healthy diet. In some cases, surgery or other procedures may be necessary to treat HCM.

Prognosis for individuals with HCM varies depending on the severity of the condition and the presence of any complications. With appropriate treatment and management, many people with HCM can lead active and fulfilling lives, but it is important to receive regular monitoring and care from a healthcare provider to manage the condition effectively.

There are several different types of pain, including:

1. Acute pain: This type of pain is sudden and severe, and it usually lasts for a short period of time. It can be caused by injuries, surgery, or other forms of tissue damage.
2. Chronic pain: This type of pain persists over a long period of time, often lasting more than 3 months. It can be caused by conditions such as arthritis, fibromyalgia, or nerve damage.
3. Neuropathic pain: This type of pain results from damage to the nervous system, and it can be characterized by burning, shooting, or stabbing sensations.
4. Visceral pain: This type of pain originates in the internal organs, and it can be difficult to localize.
5. Psychogenic pain: This type of pain is caused by psychological factors such as stress, anxiety, or depression.

The medical field uses a range of methods to assess and manage pain, including:

1. Pain rating scales: These are numerical scales that patients use to rate the intensity of their pain.
2. Pain diaries: These are records that patients keep to track their pain over time.
3. Clinical interviews: Healthcare providers use these to gather information about the patient's pain experience and other relevant symptoms.
4. Physical examination: This can help healthcare providers identify any underlying causes of pain, such as injuries or inflammation.
5. Imaging studies: These can be used to visualize the body and identify any structural abnormalities that may be contributing to the patient's pain.
6. Medications: There are a wide range of medications available to treat pain, including analgesics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and muscle relaxants.
7. Alternative therapies: These can include acupuncture, massage, and physical therapy.
8. Interventional procedures: These are minimally invasive procedures that can be used to treat pain, such as nerve blocks and spinal cord stimulation.

It is important for healthcare providers to approach pain management with a multi-modal approach, using a combination of these methods to address the physical, emotional, and social aspects of pain. By doing so, they can help improve the patient's quality of life and reduce their suffering.

There are several types of polyradiculopathy, including:

1. Cervical polyradiculopathy: This type affects the neck and can cause pain, numbness, and weakness in the arms, hands, and fingers.
2. Thoracic polyradiculopathy: This type affects the chest area and can cause pain, numbness, and weakness in the arms, hands, and fingers.
3. Lumbar polyradiculopathy: This type affects the lower back and can cause pain, numbness, and weakness in the legs, feet, and toes.
4. Sacral polyradiculopathy: This type affects the pelvis and can cause pain, numbness, and weakness in the legs, feet, and toes.

Polyradiculopathy can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

1. Herniated discs: When the gel-like center of a spinal disc bulges out through a tear in the outer layer, it can put pressure on the nerve roots and cause polyradiculopathy.
2. Degenerative disc disease: As we age, the spinal discs can break down and lose their cushioning ability, which can cause pressure on the nerve roots and lead to polyradiculopathy.
3. Spondylosis: This is a condition where bone spurs form on the vertebrae and can put pressure on the nerve roots, leading to polyradiculopathy.
4. Spinal stenosis: This is a condition where the spinal canal narrows, which can put pressure on the nerve roots and cause polyradiculopathy.
5. Inflammatory diseases: Conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis can cause inflammation in the spine and compress the nerve roots, leading to polyradiculopathy.
6. Trauma: A sudden injury, such as a fall or a car accident, can cause polyradiculopathy by compressing or damaging the nerve roots.
7. Tumors: Tumors in the spine can compress or damage the nerve roots and cause polyradiculopathy.
8. Infections: Infections such as meningitis or discitis can cause inflammation and compression of the nerve roots, leading to polyradiculopathy.
9. Vitamin deficiencies: Deficiencies in vitamins such as B12 and vitamin D can cause nerve damage and lead to polyradiculopathy.

The symptoms of polyradiculopathy can vary depending on the location and severity of the compression. Common symptoms include:

1. Pain: Pain is the most common symptom of polyradiculopathy, and it can occur in the back, legs, feet, and toes. The pain can be sharp, dull, or burning, and it can be exacerbated by movement or coughing.
2. Numbness and tingling: Compression of the nerve roots can cause numbness and tingling sensations in the legs, feet, and toes.
3. Weakness: Polyradiculopathy can cause weakness in the muscles of the legs, feet, and toes, making it difficult to walk or perform daily activities.
4. Muscle spasms: Compression of the nerve roots can cause muscle spasms in the back, legs, and feet.
5. Decreased reflexes: Polyradiculopathy can cause decreased reflexes in the legs and feet.
6. Difficulty with balance: Compression of the nerve roots can cause difficulty with balance and coordination.
7. Bladder and bowel dysfunction: In severe cases, polyradiculopathy can cause bladder and bowel dysfunction.

The diagnosis of polyradiculopathy typically involves a combination of physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as:

1. Physical examination: A thorough physical examination can help identify the presence of numbness, weakness, and other symptoms in the legs and feet.
2. Medical history: A detailed medical history can help identify any underlying conditions that may be contributing to the polyradiculopathy, such as diabetes or thyroid disorders.
3. Imaging tests: Imaging tests such as X-rays, CT scans, and MRI scans can help identify any structural problems in the spine that may be compressing the nerve roots.
4. Electromyography (EMG): An EMG can help identify any damage to the muscles and nerves in the legs and feet.
5. Nerve conduction studies: Nerve conduction studies can help identify any damage to the nerve roots and their function.

Treatment for polyradiculopathy depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. Some common treatments include:

1. Medications: Pain medications, muscle relaxants, and anti-inflammatory drugs can help manage symptoms such as pain, numbness, and tingling.
2. Physical therapy: Physical therapy can help improve mobility, strength, and flexibility in the affected limbs.
3. Lifestyle modifications: Maintaining a healthy weight, exercising regularly, and avoiding activities that exacerbate symptoms can help manage the condition.
4. Surgery: In some cases, surgery may be necessary to relieve compression on the nerve roots or repair any structural problems in the spine.
5. Alternative therapies: Alternative therapies such as acupuncture and chiropractic care may also be helpful in managing symptoms.

These disorders can cause a range of symptoms including cognitive impairment, confusion, memory loss, seizures, and changes in behavior and mood. Treatment options for brain disease metabolic disorders vary depending on the specific condition and may include medication, lifestyle changes, and other interventions such as surgery or rehabilitation therapy.

Examples of brain diseases, metabolic include:

* Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar)
* Hyperglycemia (high blood sugar)
* Diabetes mellitus (type 1 and type 2)
* Metabolic stroke
* Traumatic brain injury
* Neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease.

It is important to note that while these conditions are considered metabolic disorders, they can also have a significant impact on other aspects of an individual's life, including their mood, behavior, and cognitive functioning. Therefore, it is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

Types of congenital heart defects include:

1. Ventricular septal defect (VSD): A hole in the wall between the two lower chambers of the heart, allowing abnormal blood flow.
2. Atrial septal defect (ASD): A hole in the wall between the two upper chambers of the heart, also allowing abnormal blood flow.
3. Tetralogy of Fallot: A combination of four heart defects, including VSD, pulmonary stenosis (narrowing of the pulmonary valve), and abnormal development of the infundibulum (a part of the heart that connects the ventricles to the pulmonary artery).
4. Transposition of the great vessels: A condition in which the aorta and/or pulmonary artery are placed in the wrong position, disrupting blood flow.
5. Hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS): A severe defect in which the left side of the heart is underdeveloped, resulting in insufficient blood flow to the body.
6. Pulmonary atresia: A condition in which the pulmonary valve does not form properly, blocking blood flow to the lungs.
7. Truncus arteriosus: A rare defect in which a single artery instead of two (aorta and pulmonary artery) arises from the heart.
8. Double-outlet right ventricle: A condition in which both the aorta and the pulmonary artery arise from the right ventricle instead of the left ventricle.

Causes of congenital heart defects are not fully understood, but genetics, environmental factors, and viral infections during pregnancy may play a role. Diagnosis is typically made through fetal echocardiography or cardiac ultrasound during pregnancy or after birth. Treatment depends on the type and severity of the defect and may include medication, surgery, or heart transplantation. With advances in medical technology and treatment, many children with congenital heart disease can lead active, healthy lives into adulthood.


During ventricular remodeling, the heart muscle becomes thicker and less flexible, leading to a decrease in the heart's ability to fill with blood and pump it out to the body. This can lead to shortness of breath, fatigue, and swelling in the legs and feet.

Ventricular remodeling is a natural response to injury, but it can also be exacerbated by factors such as high blood pressure, diabetes, and obesity. Treatment for ventricular remodeling typically involves medications and lifestyle changes, such as exercise and a healthy diet, to help manage symptoms and slow the progression of the condition. In some cases, surgery or other procedures may be necessary to repair or replace damaged heart tissue.

The process of ventricular remodeling is complex and involves multiple cellular and molecular mechanisms. It is thought to be driven by a variety of factors, including changes in gene expression, inflammation, and the activity of various signaling pathways.

Overall, ventricular remodeling is an important condition that can have significant consequences for patients with heart disease. Understanding its causes and mechanisms is crucial for developing effective treatments and improving outcomes for those affected by this condition.

Central nervous system cysts are typically diagnosed through imaging tests such as CT or MRI scans. Treatment options for central nervous system cysts vary depending on the size, location, and symptoms of the cyst, but may include observation, surgery, or endoscopic procedures to drain or remove the cyst.

Some common types of central nervous system cysts include:

1. Arachnoid cysts: These are flattened sacs that form between the layers of tissue that cover the brain and spinal cord (meninges).
2. Ventricular cysts: These are cysts that form within the ventricles, which are fluid-filled spaces within the brain.
3. Cerebral cysts: These are cysts that form within the tissue of the brain.
4. Spinal cysts: These are cysts that form within the spinal cord or along the spine.
5. Neurocysticercosis: This is a parasitic infection caused by the larvae of the pork tapeworm, which can form cysts within the brain and spinal cord.

While central nervous system cysts are generally not cancerous, they can still cause significant health problems if left untreated. It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time, as early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent complications and improve outcomes.

Damage or dysfunction of the oculomotor nerve can result in a range of symptoms, including double vision (diplopia), drooping eyelids (ptosis), difficulty moving the eyes (ophthalmoplegia), and vision loss. The specific symptoms depend on the location and extent of the damage to the nerve.

Some common causes of oculomotor nerve diseases include:

1. Trauma or injury to the head or neck
2. Tumors or cysts in the brain or skull
3. Inflammatory conditions such as multiple sclerosis or sarcoidosis
4. Vasculitis or other blood vessel disorders
5. Certain medications, such as anticonvulsants or chemotherapy drugs
6. Nutritional deficiencies, such as vitamin B12 deficiency
7. Infections, such as meningitis or encephalitis
8. Genetic disorders, such as hereditary oculopharyngeal dystrophy
9. Ischemic or hemorrhagic strokes
10. Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).

The diagnosis of oculomotor nerve diseases typically involves a comprehensive eye exam, neurological evaluation, and imaging studies such as MRI or CT scans. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, surgery, or other interventions to address the underlying condition and relieve symptoms. In some cases, surgical intervention may be necessary to repair or replace damaged portions of the nerve.

There are different types of osteitis, including:

1. Osteitis fibrosa: A benign condition characterized by the formation of fibrous tissue in the bone, which can cause pain and stiffness.
2. Osteitis multiformis: A chronic condition that causes multiple areas of bone inflammation, often seen in patients with rheumatoid arthritis or ankylosing spondylitis.
3. Osteitis pseudogout: A condition characterized by the deposition of crystals in the bone, which can cause episodes of sudden and severe joint pain.
4. Osteitis suppurativa: A chronic condition characterized by recurring abscesses or pockets of pus in the bone, often seen in patients with a history of skin infections.

Symptoms of osteitis can include pain, swelling, redness and warmth over the affected area. Treatment options may vary depending on the underlying cause, but may include antibiotics for infection, anti-inflammatory medications, or surgical intervention to drain abscesses or remove infected tissue.

There are several types of headaches, including:

1. Tension headache: This is the most common type of headache and is caused by muscle tension in the neck and scalp.
2. Migraine: This is a severe headache that can cause nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound.
3. Sinus headache: This type of headache is caused by inflammation or infection in the sinuses.
4. Cluster headache: This is a rare type of headache that occurs in clusters or cycles and can be very painful.
5. Rebound headache: This type of headache is caused by overuse of pain medication.

Headaches can be treated with a variety of methods, such as:

1. Over-the-counter pain medications, such as acetaminophen or ibuprofen.
2. Prescription medications, such as triptans or ergots, for migraines and other severe headaches.
3. Lifestyle changes, such as stress reduction techniques, regular exercise, and a healthy diet.
4. Alternative therapies, such as acupuncture or massage, which can help relieve tension and pain.
5. Addressing underlying causes, such as sinus infections or allergies, that may be contributing to the headaches.

It is important to seek medical attention if a headache is severe, persistent, or accompanied by other symptoms such as fever, confusion, or weakness. A healthcare professional can diagnose the cause of the headache and recommend appropriate treatment.

There are many types of lipoma, with different names depending on their location and the tissues in which they grow. Common types include:

-Intramuscular lipoma: These occur within muscles and can feel firm or hard to the touch.

-Subcutaneous lipoma: These grow just beneath the skin and are usually soft to the touch.

-Mixed lipoma: These contain both fat cells and other types of tissue, such as muscle fibers.

-Spindle cell lipoma: These lipomas have a characteristic spindle or cylindrical shape under a microscope.

There are several ways to diagnose a lipoma, including physical examination, ultrasound imaging, and biopsy. Treatment for lipoma usually involves monitoring the tumor over time, as it will likely shrink or stay the same size without any intervention. However, if a lipoma grows quickly, becomes painful, or is causing discomfort or functional problems, surgical removal may be necessary.

In conclusion, lipomas are noncancerous growths that occur just beneath the skin or within muscles and connective tissues. They are usually painless unless pressed, but they can still cause discomfort or functional problems if large enough. While surgery is sometimes required to remove a lipoma, it is usually not necessary as long as the tumor remains small and doesn't grow rapidly over time.

The symptoms of MT can vary depending on the location and severity of the inflammation, but may include:

1. Weakness or paralysis in the arms and legs
2. Numbness or tingling sensations in the limbs
3. Bladder and bowel dysfunction
4. Pain and stiffness in the neck, back, and limbs
5. Fatigue and fever
6. Difficulty with coordination and balance
7. Vision problems

The exact cause of MT is not known, but it is believed to be an autoimmune disorder, in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks the protective covering of nerve fibers in the spinal cord. It can be triggered by a variety of factors, such as infections, genetic predisposition, and exposure to toxins.

Diagnosis of MT is based on a combination of clinical symptoms, laboratory tests, and imaging studies such as MRI. Treatment options include corticosteroids, immunoglobulin, and plasmapheresis, which can help reduce inflammation and slow the progression of the disease. In severe cases, surgery may be necessary to relieve compressive symptoms or remove abscesses.

Prognosis for MT varies depending on the severity of the disease and the promptness and effectiveness of treatment. While some individuals may experience a full recovery, others may have persistent neurological deficits or recurrent episodes of inflammation.

There are different types of Breast Neoplasms such as:

1. Fibroadenomas: These are benign tumors that are made up of glandular and fibrous tissues. They are usually small and round, with a smooth surface, and can be moved easily under the skin.

2. Cysts: These are fluid-filled sacs that can develop in both breast tissue and milk ducts. They are usually benign and can disappear on their own or be drained surgically.

3. Ductal Carcinoma In Situ (DCIS): This is a precancerous condition where abnormal cells grow inside the milk ducts. If left untreated, it can progress to invasive breast cancer.

4. Invasive Ductal Carcinoma (IDC): This is the most common type of breast cancer and starts in the milk ducts but grows out of them and invades surrounding tissue.

5. Invasive Lobular Carcinoma (ILC): It originates in the milk-producing glands (lobules) and grows out of them, invading nearby tissue.

Breast Neoplasms can cause various symptoms such as a lump or thickening in the breast or underarm area, skin changes like redness or dimpling, change in size or shape of one or both breasts, discharge from the nipple, and changes in the texture or color of the skin.

Treatment options for Breast Neoplasms may include surgery such as lumpectomy, mastectomy, or breast-conserving surgery, radiation therapy which uses high-energy beams to kill cancer cells, chemotherapy using drugs to kill cancer cells, targeted therapy which uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack cancer cells while minimizing harm to normal cells, hormone therapy, immunotherapy, and clinical trials.

It is important to note that not all Breast Neoplasms are cancerous; some are benign (non-cancerous) tumors that do not spread or grow.

The buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries is often caused by high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, smoking, high blood pressure, diabetes, and a family history of heart disease. The plaque can also rupture, causing a blood clot to form, which can completely block the flow of blood to the heart muscle, leading to a heart attack.

CAD is the most common type of heart disease and is often asymptomatic until a serious event occurs. Risk factors for CAD include:

* Age (men over 45 and women over 55)
* Gender (men are at greater risk than women, but women are more likely to die from CAD)
* Family history of heart disease
* High blood pressure
* High cholesterol
* Diabetes
* Smoking
* Obesity
* Lack of exercise

Diagnosis of CAD typically involves a physical exam, medical history, and results of diagnostic tests such as:

* Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)
* Stress test
* Echocardiogram
* Coronary angiography

Treatment for CAD may include lifestyle changes such as a healthy diet, regular exercise, stress management, and quitting smoking. Medications such as beta blockers, ACE inhibitors, and statins may also be prescribed to manage symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. In severe cases, surgical intervention such as coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) or percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) may be necessary.

Prevention of CAD includes managing risk factors such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and diabetes, quitting smoking, maintaining a healthy weight, and getting regular exercise. Early detection and treatment of CAD can help to reduce the risk of complications and improve quality of life for those affected by the disease.

Meningocele can occur alone or as part of other congenital anomalies, such as spina bifida or encephalocele. It is usually diagnosed at birth and can be associated with other neurological problems, such as hydrocephalus (fluid accumulation in the brain) or spinal cord abnormalities.

Treatment for meningocele typically involves surgery to repair the defect and relieve any pressure on the brain or spinal cord. In some cases, meningocele may be associated with other congenital anomalies that require additional surgical interventions. With appropriate treatment, many individuals with meningocele can lead normal lives. However, in severe cases, meningocele can be associated with long-term cognitive and physical disabilities.

Liver neoplasms, also known as liver tumors or hepatic tumors, are abnormal growths of tissue in the liver. These growths can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Malignant liver tumors can be primary, meaning they originate in the liver, or metastatic, meaning they spread to the liver from another part of the body.

There are several types of liver neoplasms, including:

1. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC): This is the most common type of primary liver cancer and arises from the main cells of the liver (hepatocytes). HCC is often associated with cirrhosis and can be caused by viral hepatitis or alcohol abuse.
2. Cholangiocarcinoma: This type of cancer arises from the cells lining the bile ducts within the liver (cholangiocytes). Cholangiocarcinoma is rare and often diagnosed at an advanced stage.
3. Hemangiosarcoma: This is a rare type of cancer that originates in the blood vessels of the liver. It is most commonly seen in dogs but can also occur in humans.
4. Fibromas: These are benign tumors that arise from the connective tissue of the liver (fibrocytes). Fibromas are usually small and do not spread to other parts of the body.
5. Adenomas: These are benign tumors that arise from the glandular cells of the liver (hepatocytes). Adenomas are usually small and do not spread to other parts of the body.

The symptoms of liver neoplasms vary depending on their size, location, and whether they are benign or malignant. Common symptoms include abdominal pain, fatigue, weight loss, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). Diagnosis is typically made through a combination of imaging tests such as CT scans, MRI scans, and ultrasound, and a biopsy to confirm the presence of cancer cells.

Treatment options for liver neoplasms depend on the type, size, location, and stage of the tumor, as well as the patient's overall health. Surgery may be an option for some patients with small, localized tumors, while others may require chemotherapy or radiation therapy to shrink the tumor before surgery can be performed. In some cases, liver transplantation may be necessary.

Prognosis for liver neoplasms varies depending on the type and stage of the cancer. In general, early detection and treatment improve the prognosis, while advanced-stage disease is associated with a poorer prognosis.

... neuroimaging software Magnetic immunoassay Magnetic particle imaging Magnetic resonance elastography Magnetic Resonance Imaging ... "Magnetic resonance spectroscopy and imaging for the study of fossils". Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Elsevier BV. 34 (6): 730-742 ... "discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging". Medicine portal Amplified magnetic resonance imaging Electron paramagnetic ... Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the ...
... and clinical science as they relate to the development and use of magnetic resonance imaging technology. Magnetic Resonance ... Magnetic Resonance Imaging is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Elsevier, encompassing biology, physics, ... Radiology and medical imaging journals, Publications established in 1982, English-language journals, 10 times per year journals ... Imaging was established in 1982 and the current editor-in-chief is John C. Gore. The journal produces 10 issues per year. ...
"Amplified magnetic resonance imaging (aMRI)". Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 75 (6): 2245-2254. doi:10.1002/mrm.26142. ISSN ... Amplified magnetic resonance imaging (aMRI) is an MRI method which is coupled with video magnification processing methods to ... Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 80 (6): 2549-2559. doi:10.1002/mrm.27236. ISSN 0740-3194. PMC 6269230. PMID 29845645. Wu, Hao- ... Both video-processing methods use a series of mathematical operations used in image processing known as steerable-pyramid ...
... (MRI) is referred to the imaging provided by an MRI scanner that has mobility and ... A low-field portable magnetic resonance imaging system for head imaging. Researchgate. pp. 3042-3044. doi:10.1109/PIERS-FALL. ... Investigative Magnetic Resonance Imaging(2019), 23 (3):179, http://dx.doi.org/10.13104/imri.2019.23.3.179 "Magnetic Resonance ... Allowing magnetic field that has non-linear gradients to encode the signal for imaging leads to the possibility of having a ...
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"Oxygenation-sensitive contrast in magnetic resonance image of rodent brain at high magnetic fields", Magnetic Resonance in ... "Magnetic Resonance, a critical peer-reviewed introduction; functional MRI". European Magnetic Resonance Forum. Retrieved 17 ... Functional magnetic resonance imaging or functional MRI (fMRI) measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with ... Knuuti, J.; Saraste, A.; Kallio, M.; Minn, H. (2 August 2013). "Is cardiac magnetic resonance imaging causing DNA damage?". ...
... (cardiac MRI), also known as cardiovascular MRI, is a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) ... Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images, Webarchive template wayback links, Cardiac imaging, Magnetic resonance ... "Representation of cardiovascular magnetic resonance in the AHA / ACC guidelines". Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance ... "4D flow cardiovascular magnetic resonance consensus statement". Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance. 17 (1): 72. doi: ...
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"Magnetic resonance first-pass myocardial perfusion imaging: clinical validation and future applications". J Magn Reson Imaging ... Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging perfusion (cardiac MRI perfusion, CMRI perfusion), also known as stress CMR perfusion, is a ... "Cardiac magnetic resonance perfusion imaging for the functional assessment of coronary artery disease: a comparison with ... clinical magnetic resonance imaging test performed on patients with known or suspected coronary artery disease to determine if ...
... and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)" (PDF). Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 28 (8): 1192-1199. doi:10.1016/j.mri. ... EEG-fMRI (short for EEG-correlated fMRI or electroencephalography-correlated functional magnetic resonance imaging) is a ... ability to image blood dynamics through the entire brain with high spatial resolution. Up to now, EEG-fMRI has been mainly seen ... because of their presumed origin in the motion of the EEG leads in the magnetic field that occurs with each heartbeat. A number ...
... (SENC-MRI) is a magnetic resonance imaging technique for imaging the strain of ... Cardiac imaging, Magnetic resonance imaging, Medical imaging). ... magnetic resonance elastography in that it has a faster imaging ... Osman, N. F. (2003). "Detecting stiff masses using strain-encoded (SENC) imaging". Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 49 (3): 605- ... Summer 2004 Getting to the Heart of Cardiac Imaging Deanna Pogorelc for MedCity News. April 29, 2014 In tech transfer, an idea ...
In magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), k-space is the 2D or 3D Fourier transform of the image measured. It was introduced in 1979 ... Journal of Magnetic Resonance 1983; 54:338. Twieg D (1983). "The k-trajectory formulation of the NMR imaging process with ... Ernst RR, Bodenhausen G and Wokaun A (1987), Principles of nuclear magnetic resonance in one and two dimensions, Oxford ... When k-space is full (at the end of the scan) the data are mathematically processed to produce a final image. Thus k-space ...
"A Short History of Magnetic Resonance Imaging from a European Point of View". European Magnetic Resonance Forum. Archived from ... In 1973, Lauterbur published the first nuclear magnetic resonance image and the first cross-sectional image of a living mouse ... While researching the analytical properties of magnetic resonance, Damadian created a hypothetical magnetic resonance cancer- ... "Dynamic imaging with lanthanide chelates in normal brain: contrast due to magnetic susceptibility effects". Magnetic Resonance ...
"In vivo MR Imaging at 21.1 T" (PDF). Duggan-Jahns, Terry. "The Evolution of Magnetic Resonance Imaging: 3T MRI in Clinical ... "Magnetic Resonance Imaging". University of Wisconsin. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 14 March 2016. ... The physics of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) concerns fundamental physical considerations of MRI techniques and ... Sprawls P (2000). Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Principles, Methods, and Techniques. Medical Physics Publishing. ISBN 978-0- ...
Ghadimi, M.; Sapra, A. (2022). "Magnetic Resonance Imaging Contraindications". Magnetic Resonance Imaging Contraindications - ... Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Safety of Patients and Personnel. Free Offprint from Rinck PA. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine - A ... "Magnetic Field Interactions of Copper-Containing Intrauterine Devices in 3.0-Tesla Magnetic Resonance Imaging: In Vivo Study". ... Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is in general a safe technique, although injuries may occur as a result of failed safety ...
... (PC-MRI) is a specific type of magnetic resonance imaging used primarily to determine ... Elkins, C.; Alley, M.T. (2007). "Magnetic resonance velocimetry: applications of magnetic resonance imaging in the measurement ... PC-MRI can be considered a method of Magnetic Resonance Velocimetry. It also provides a method of magnetic resonance ... contrast MR imaging of flow". Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 1 (4): 405-413. doi:10.1002/jmri.1880010404. PMID 1790362 ...
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... uses magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to produce high quality two-dimensional or three- ... Howe FA, Filler AG, Bell BA, Griffiths JR (December 1992). "Magnetic resonance neurography". Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 28 ... "Dynamic imaging with lanthanide chelates in normal brain: contrast due to magnetic susceptibility effects". Magnetic Resonance ... CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list, Commons category link is on Wikidata, Magnetic resonance imaging, Neuroimaging). ...
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... or dGEMRIC measures the fixed-charge density and relative ... Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 31 (5): 1203-9. doi:10.1002/jmri.22159. PMID 20432357. S2CID 34258524. The Impact of the ... Magnetic resonance imaging, All stub articles, Medical diagnostic stubs). ... Gadolinium-Enhanced MRI of Cartilage Association between findings on delayed gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of ...
The Erwin L. Hahn Institute for Magnetic Resonance Imaging is a research institute which develops magnetic resonance imaging ( ... Magnetic resonance imaging, Research institutes established in 2005, Medical and health organisations based in North Rhine- ... In contrast to the magnetic resonance imagers used in hospitals and clinics throughout the world, which commonly operate at a ... a physicist who has made innumerable contributions to the field of magnetic resonance. The centerpiece of the institute is a 7 ...
Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 8 (4): 467-481. doi:10.1016/0730-725x(90)90055-7. PMID 2118207. Elizondo, G; Fretz, C J; Stark, D D ... Synthesis and characterization of a paramagnetic chelate for magnetic resonance imaging enhancement". Inorganic Chemistry. 28 ( ... Lim, K O; Stark, D D; Leese, P T; Pfefferbaum, A; Rocklage, S M; Quay, S C (January 1991). "Hepatobiliary MR imaging: first ... new paramagnetic hepatobiliary contrast agent for MR imaging". Radiology. 178 (1): 73-78. doi:10.1148/radiology.178.1.1898538. ...
"Detection of dimethyl sulfone in the human brain by in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy". Magnetic Resonance Imaging ... Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies have demonstrated that oral doses of MSM are absorbed into the blood and cross the ... identification by multinuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy". Toxicology Letters. 123 (2-3): 169-77. doi:10.1016/S0378-4274( ...
Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Elsevier. 22 (2): 245-250. doi:10.1016/j.mri.2003.09.002. PMID 15010117. Foley, BS; Buschbacher, RM ... There is a new imaging test SPECT/CT which can sometimes detect sacroiliac joint dysfunction. There is also a lack of evidence ... for misdiagnosis or lack of diagnosis of sacroiliac joint dysfunction is based on the inability of common radiological imaging ...
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... signals in equipment used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The MR signal in MRI is produced by the process of resonance, ... MRI Radio frequency Huettel, S.A. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. USA: Sinauer. p. 31. Vaughan, J.T.; Adriany, G.; ... 1 October 2004). "Efficient high-frequency body coil for high-field MRI". Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 52 (4): 851-859. doi: ... Most clinical MRI scanners include a built in volume coil to perform whole-body imaging, and smaller volume coils have been ...
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Nuclear magnetic resonance, Magnetic resonance imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Research institutes in Massachusetts). ... The core technologies being developed and used at the Center are magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and in vivo magnetic ... "Magnetic Resonance Imaging , Martinos Center". 2019-06-19. Retrieved 2021-11-20. Martinos Center Research Martinos Center About ... molecular imaging, and transcranial magnetic stimulation. A particular area of innovation at the Center is Multimodal ...
Other diagnostic tools, such as analysis of cerebrospinal fluid, magnetic resonance imaging scans looking for brain shrinkage ... "F.D.A. Sees Promise in Alzheimer's Imaging Drug", The New York Times, January 20, 2011. Accessed January 20, 2011. "A Trial of ... "Avid Radiopharmaceuticals Selected to Receive Seed Funding from BioAdvance; Funds to Be Used to Develop Molecular Imaging Tools ... "Avid Radiopharmaceuticals Initiates First Phase II Trial Of Novel Compound For Imaging Alzheimer's Disease", Medical News Today ...
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CT scan, bronchoscopy, bronchography and Magnetic resonance imaging also contributes to the observation of patients' lung ... 2‐dimensional color Doppler imaging could visually capture the blood flow, hence determine the existence of pulmonary ... BMC Medical Imaging. 18 (1): 37. doi:10.1186/s12880-018-0281-5. PMC 6208179. PMID 30376819. (CS1 maint: others, Use mdy dates ...
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and mammography facility, NHLS Laboratory, Blood Bank, Laundry Services, Kitchen Services and ...
... they are very compact and compatible with magnetic resonance setups. Nevertheless, there are still several challenges, for ... design SiPM for medical imaging are attractive candidates for the replacement of the conventional PMT in PET and SPECT imaging ... enabling faster imaging rates or higher SNR without saturation. Dark current is typically much higher at a given temperature ... root of photoelectrons number within an excitation event The signal parameters are practically independent of external magnetic ...
... a systematic review of structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging studies". European Journal of Endocrinology. 173 (1 ... the tumors causing Cushing's disease are less than 2 mm in size and difficult to detect using MRI or CT imaging. In one study ...
"Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Multidetector Computed Tomography Scan Illustrating Damus-Kaye-Stansel Operation". ...
"In vivo neuronal tract tracing using manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging". Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 40 (5): ... Recently manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MEMRI) has been used to trace functional circuits in living brains, as ... Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 50 (1): 33-9. doi:10.1002/mrm.10498. PMID 12815676. Pautler RG, Silva AC, Koretsky AP (November ... Statistical parametric mapping of Mn accumulation in time-lapse images provides detailed information not only about neuronal ...
... and stress and symptom management services including radiology services such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound, ...
In the image example, a capacitor acts to influence the biasing voltage at the npn transistor's base. The resistance values of ... These resonances are the basis for a number of experimental techniques for detecting defects. The conductance method measures ... The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in a magnetic field rather than an electric field. Its current- ... Keithley, Joseph F. (1999). The Story of Electrical and Magnetic Measurements: From 500 BC to the 1940s. John Wiley & Sons. p. ...
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... about the Israeli company Elscint and its magnetic resonance imaging equipment. In 1972 Elscint was the first Israeli company ...
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can determine the extent of tendon degeneration, and may show differential diagnoses such as ... content and disorganized collagen matrix in tendon lesions may be detected by ultrasonography or magnetic resonance imaging.[ ...
"A noninvasive tumor oxygenation imaging strategy using magnetic resonance imaging of endogenous blood and tissue water". ... Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 71 (2): 561-569. doi:10.1002/mrm.24691. PMC 3718873. PMID 23447121. Yu, J.-X.; Hallac, R. R.; ... Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 62 (2): 357-364. doi:10.1002/mrm.22020. PMC 4426862. PMID 19526495. Hallac, R. R.; Zhou, H.; ... Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 71 (5): 1863-1873. doi:10.1002/mrm.24846. PMC 3883977. PMID 23813468. Zhang, Z.; Hallac, R. R ...
... functional magnetic resonance imaging, and brain stimulation). Research milestones by Nobre and her group include: discovering ... Functional magnetic resonance imaging of human prefrontal cortex activation during a spatial working memory task. Proceedings ... with innovative and complementary non-invasive techniques to image and stimulate the human brain (magneto- and ...
Comprehension levels are observed through neuroimaging techniques like functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). fMRI is ... Some notable examples are emojis, emoticons, cropped and uncropped images, and recently emojis which are images that are used ... Images showed that there was less brain region activation during sentence-level comprehension, suggesting a shared reliance ... Visualization is a "mental image" created in a person's mind while reading text, which "brings words to life" and helps improve ...
1966). "Resonance in the Nucleus". Progress of Theoretical Physics. 35 (1-3). Retrieved 11 October 2012. (NPT), Nazaria-i- ... up gradation of the CMS detector and the financial contribution worth one million SFr for the construction of eight magnetic ... 1798-1800 (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k32002/f1836.image). Influence of the gelatin on the granular size distribution ... Ottawa, Ontario, 6 to 8 November, (3,3) Resonance in the Nucleus - Progress of Theoretical Physics, Journal of the Physical ...
Early diagnosis of the ZTTK syndrome can be determined by brain imaging. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain of ZTTK ...
"Correlates of alpha rhythm in functional magnetic resonance imaging and near infrared spectroscopy". NeuroImage. 20 (1): 145-58 ...
In a study which assessed magnetic resonance images of the brain structures involved during motion-induced blindness found ... According to the implicit updating account, the observer is aware of the current state of the image, but not of the fact that ... Global motion is the movement of the entire image (in this case rotational) along with the circular trajectory that all the ... Research has demonstrated that people often fail to detect significant changes to images when the observer is not attending to ...
... refers to non-invasive imaging of the heart using ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed ... "Cardiovascular magnetic resonance physics for clinicians: part I". Journal of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance. 12 (1): 71. ... Magnetic resonance imaging visualises the heart by detecting hydrogen atoms using superconducting magnets, particularly those ... Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 47 (3): 595-603. doi:10.1002/jmri.25824. ISSN 1522-2586. PMID 28776823. S2CID 24257311. ...
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is used as a noninvasive way to accurately estimate iron deposition levels in the liver as ... Image by Mikael Häggström, MD. Source for mesenchymal versus parenchymal iron overload Deugnier Y, Turlin B (2007). "Pathology ...
Nett MP, Collins MS, Sperling JW (May 2008). "Magnetic resonance imaging of acute "wiiitis" of the upper extremity". Skeletal ...
"Validation of a method for combining biplanar radiography and magnetic resonance imaging to estimate knee cartilage contact". ... With the addition of a second X-ray and camera system, the 2-D plane of imaging expands to a 3-D volume of imaging at the ... In X-ray imaging, markers that appear opaque in the X-ray images are utilized. This frequently involves using radio-opaque ... This is done by placing the subject to be imaged in the center of the X-ray beam and recording the motion using an image ...
Fujito, Teruaki (1981). "Magnetic Interaction in Solvent-free DPPH and DPPH-Solvent Complexes". Bulletin of the Chemical ... ISBN 978-0-8493-9813-1. M.J. Davies (2000). Electron Paramagnetic Resonance. Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 178. ISBN 0-85404- ... Chembox image size set, Articles with short description, Short description matches Wikidata, Free radicals). ... and intensity of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) signals - the number of radicals for a freshly prepared sample can be ...
Magnetic resonance imaging evaluation demonstrating normal signal of both anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments (arrows). ...
The accurate interpretation of images of the postsurgical breast depends on the availability of high-quality pictures and ... Breast-specific gamma camera imaging with 99mTc-MIBI has better diagnostic performance than magnetic resonance imaging in ... Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Early postoperative MRI is affected by the strong enhancement of resection margins in response to ... Magnetic Resonance Imaging after Breast Oncoplastic Surgery: An Update. Breast Care (Basel). 2017 Sep. 12 (4):260-265. [QxMD ...
Magnetic Resonance Imaging. In general, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has not been used in the diagnosis of gastroschisis, ... Levine D. Ultrasound versus magnetic resonance imaging in fetal evaluation. Top Magn Reson Imaging. 2001 Feb. 12(1):25-38. [ ... Fetal anterior abdominal wall defects: prenatal imaging by magnetic resonance imaging. Pediatr Radiol. 2018 Apr. 48 (4):499-512 ... Levine D. Magnetic resonance imaging in prenatal diagnosis. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2001 Dec. 13(6):572-8. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. ...
What is a breast magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)?. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a diagnostic exam that uses a ... My Doctor Says I Have Dense Breasts: What Are Dense Breasts? Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Breast Health: 3-Step Plan for ... Seminar A Breast Radiologists Perspective: Screening Mammography and Diagnostic Imaging Breast imaging experts explain breast ... A magnetic field is created and pulses of radio waves are sent from a scanner. The radio waves knock the nuclei of the atoms in ...
... Arch Neurol. 2000 Dec;57(12):1751-7. doi: ... Objective: To evaluate the diagnostic usefulness of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the clinical diagnosis of Creutzfeldt- ...
"Magnetic Resonance Imaging". 0-9. A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K. L. M. N. O. P. Q. R. S. T. U. V. W. X. Y. Z. * 0-9 ...
This information will help you get ready for your magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) procedure with anesthesia at MSK. ... About Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) With Anesthesia - Last updated on May 9, 2023. All rights owned and reserved by Memorial ... This information will help you get ready for your magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) procedure with anesthesia at MSK. ... MRI is an imaging procedure that uses strong magnetic fields to take pictures of the inside of your body. MRI can be used to:. ...
MRI images help with diagnosis and treatment of many pediatric conditions. ... Our advanced imaging services are located adjacent to our surgery suites, making it easy to provide sedation and monitor your ... If your child is unable to remain still, or if they have experienced pain or anxiety during previous imaging scans, talk with ... All radiology and imaging tests, including MRI scans, are available at our St. Paul Campus. ...
For MRI with rather strong magnetic fields B, which are near 2 tesla currently and may go higher, there are further concer ... Cerebral aneurysm clips often cause artifacts and image distortion in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography ... Cerebral aneurysm clips often cause artifacts and image distortion in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography ... Titanium Cerebral Aneurysm Clips: Characterization and Performance in Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Computed Tomography. ...
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the Bones, Joints, and Soft Tissues. What is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)?. Magnetic ... resonance imaging (MRI) uses a large magnet, radiofrequencies, and a computer to make detailed pictures of organs and ... Computers are then used to form 2-D images of a body structure or organ based on the activity of the hydrogen atoms. Cross- ... This magnetic field, along with a radiofrequency, briefly redirects the hydrogen atoms natural alignment in the body. ...
... [mag-net-ik rez-uh-nuhns im-ij-ing] ... A test that produces high-quality images of the bodys internal ... MRI uses a large magnet, radio waves, and a computer to produce these images. ...
A state-of-the-art IR camera recorded IR images of the subjects breasts, a 3D scanner recorded surface geometries, and ... The present study developed a computational thermal model of breast cancer based on high-resolution infrared (IR) images, real ... standard diagnostic imaging procedures provided tumor sizes and spatial locations within the breast. The study estimated the ... A state-of-the-art IR camera recorded IR images, a 3D scanner recorded breast surface geometries, and magnetic resonance (MR) ...
The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) program at College of DuPage provides students with educational experiences and practical ... Magnetic Resonance Imaging. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging Certificate program at the College of DuPage is a three semester ... HomeAcademicsAreas of StudyMagnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Technology. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Technology Program. ... Magnetic Resonance Imaging Technology Program graduates will:. *Apply knowledge of anatomy, physiology, positioning, and MRI ...
... is a medical imaging technique used in Fairmont, MN, to form pictures of the anatomy of the body. ... Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) MRI is a technique that uses a magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed images of the ... This imaging technique is offered in Fairmont, Minnesota.. Most MRI machines are large, tube-shaped magnets. When you lie ... Since an MRI uses powerful magnets, the presence of metal in your body may be a safety hazard or affect a portion of the image ...
Chemical shift magnetic resonance imaging: applications in the abdomen and pelvis Topics in Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Tmri 4( ... Abbreviated Magnetic Resonance Imaging Protocols in the Abdomen and Pelvis Magnetic Resonance Imaging Clinics of North America ... Magnetic resonance angiography of the pediatric abdomen and pelvis: techniques and imaging findings Magnetic Resonance Imaging ... Magnetic resonance imaging of the abdomen and pelvis Wehrli, F W , D Shaw And J B Kneeland (Ed ) Biomedical Magnetic Resonance ...
Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is conducted to view heart tissue and anatomy in two or three dimensions using radio ... The only exposure is to radio waves and a magnetic field.. *However, there are absolute and relative contraindications for this ... which become aligned when the body is placed under a powerful magnetic field and when they are excited by radio frequencies ( ...
... routine mammographic imaging data or by a curve-fitting algorithm using fat and nonfat suppression magnetic resonance imaging ( ... Our results show that methods of breast imaging and modalities for estimating the amount of glandular tissue have no effects on ... These BD measures in a strictly defined group of premenopausal women providing both mammographic and breast MRI images were ... "Magnetic resonance imaging for secondary assessment of breast density in a high-risk cohort," Magnetic Resonance Imaging, vol. ...
The efficacy will be evaluated by exploring the effects on joint structure assessed by magnetic resonance imaging, x-rays and ... Effects of Tofacitinib (CP-690,550) on Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)- Assessed Joint Structure In Early Rheumatoid Arthritis ... On Magnetic Resonance Imaging Endpoints, In Methotrexate Naive Subjects With Early Active Rheumatoid Arthritis. ... Rheumatoid Arthritis Magnetic Resonance Imaging Score (RAMRIS) Wrist and Metacarpophalangeal (MCP) Synovitis [ Time Frame: ...
Diffusion-weight magnetic resonance imaging in carotid artery interventions. Following carotid intervention, the number of ... detectable diffusion-weight magnetic resonance imaging (DW-MRI) lesions is an order of magnitude greater than adverse clinical ... It was concluded that a large number of silent ischaemic lesions visualised on the DWI images post-carotid artery stenting ...
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been shown to be sensitive for diagnosing hamstring muscle strain injuries21 and better ... Objective-To prospectively establish risk factors for hamstring muscle strain injury using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to ... a prospective study with correlation of injury by magnetic resonance imaging ... a prospective study with correlation of injury by magnetic resonance imaging ...
Biosynthesis of magnetosome-like nanoparticles in mammalian cells would provide an endogenous magnetic resonance (MR) contrast ... To improve molecular imaging techniques, we are developing MRI reporter gene expression based on the magnetosome. In ... This patented technology would provide long-term molecular imaging for tracking cellular and molecular activities throughout ... magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has great potential to track cellular activities that define early stages of disease. ...
Calcium-responsive contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) offer an attractive approach to noninvasively image ... A protein-based biosensor for detecting calcium by magnetic resonance imaging. Harun F. Ozbakir, Austin D.C. Miller, Kiara B. ... A protein-based biosensor for detecting calcium by magnetic resonance imaging Message Subject (Your Name) has forwarded a page ... 4Werner Siemens Imaging Center, Department of Preclinical Imaging and Radiopharmacy, University of Tübingen, Tübingen 72076, ...
Validation of model-based brain shift correction in neurosurgery via intraoperative magnetic resonance imaging: preliminary ... Currently, the clinical standard to monitor brain shift is intraoperative magnetic resonance (iMR). While iMR provides better ... Medical Imaging 2017: Image-Guided Procedures, Robotic Interventions, and Modeling. Robert J. Webster III; Baowei Fei, Editor(s ... SPIE 10135, Medical Imaging 2017: Image-Guided Procedures, Robotic Interventions, and Modeling, 1013503 (3 March 2017); doi: ...
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Diagnoses in the Lumbar Spine of Adults With Low Back Pain in south West, Nigeria * AO Adeyinka ...
Background: Multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging (mpMRI) is increasingly used in men with suspicion of prostate cancer ( ... These men increasingly receive an often unnecessary magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan. We found that patient selection for ... Risk-based Patient Selection for Magnetic Resonance Imaging-targeted Prostate Biopsy after Negative Transrectal Ultrasound- ... guided Random Biopsy Avoids Unnecessary Magnetic Resonance Imaging Scans. Publication. Publication. European Urology : Official ...
Magnetic resonance imaging method based on magnetic susceptibility effects to estimate bubble size in alveolar products: ... Magnetic resonance imaging method based on magnetic susceptibility effects to estimate bubble size in alveolar products: ... Magnetic resonance imaging method based on magnetic susceptibility effects to estimate bubble size in alveolar products: ...
Value of magnetic resonance imaging - Minerva Urologica e Nefrologica 1998 December;50(4):233-6 - Minerva Medica - Journals ... Value of magnetic resonance imaging. Sarihan H., Sari A., Abes M., Dinc H. ... Mag-netic res-o-nance -imaging (MRI) was per-formed in 18 -male -patients -with 20 non-pal-pable unde-scended -testes and the - ...
OMERACT rheumatoid arthritis magnetic resonance imaging studies. Summary of OMERACT 6 MR imaging module. J Rheumatol 2003;30: ... Magnetic resonance imaging, radiography, and scintigraphy of the finger joints: one year follow up of patients with early ... Magnetic resonance imaging of the wrist in early rheumatoid arthritis reveals progression of erosions despite clinical ... OMERACT rheumatoid arthritis magnetic resonance imaging studies. Core set of MRI acquisitions, joint pathology definitions, and ...
Article abstract Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) and perfusion imaging (PI) are two new magnetic resonance technologies that ... Diffusion and perfusion magnetic resonance imaging studies to evaluate a non-competitive N-methyl-d-aspartate antagonist and ... Applications of diffusion-perfusion magnetic resonance imaging in acute ischemic stroke. Marc Fisher, Gregory W. Albers ... Clinical utility of diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in the assessment of ischemic stroke. Ann Neurol 1997;41:574- ...
Studies on Organic Magnetic Resonance Contrast Agents for Medical Imaging. / Soikkeli, Maiju. ... Studies on Organic Magnetic Resonance Contrast Agents for Medical Imaging. Helsinki : Helsingin yliopisto, 2019. ... Studies on Organic Magnetic Resonance Contrast Agents for Medical Imaging. Helsinki: Helsingin yliopisto, 2019. ... Soikkeli, M 2019, Studies on Organic Magnetic Resonance Contrast Agents for Medical Imaging, Helsingin yliopisto, Helsinki. , ...
  • Cerebral aneurysm clips often cause artifacts and image distortion in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT). (astm.org)
  • Result:Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of 58 patients showed most commonly involved sinuse s as maxillary and ethmoid sinuses together. (who.int)
  • Patients underwent the admission Computed tomography CT and magnetic resonance scans (DWI and FLAIR only) with time gap was no longer than one hour. (bvsalud.org)
  • To gain a clear understanding of the neck biomechanics during such exertions, we have recently initiated an unprecedented integration of multi-modality state-of-the-art measurement procedures including dynamic radiographic imaging, surface-based motion capture, electromyography, computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. (cdc.gov)
  • To evaluate the diagnostic usefulness of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the clinical diagnosis of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD). (nih.gov)
  • In the context of breast cancer screening and diagnosis, infrared (IR) imaging, also referred to as breast thermography or digital infrared thermal imaging (DITI), is an imaging technique where IR images are taken of a patient's breasts, referred to as "thermograms. (nature.com)
  • They are responsible for operating the MRI scanner to develop an image that assists doctors in the diagnosis and treatment of patients. (cod.edu)
  • 6 During this "decade of the brain," two new MRI techniques that have the potential to improve acute stroke diagnosis and management during the critical initial hours after onset-diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) and perfusion imaging (PI)-became available ( figure 1 ). (neurology.org)
  • If your child is unable to remain still, or if they have experienced pain or anxiety during previous imaging scans, talk with your health care provider about the possibility of sedation during MRI. (gillettechildrens.org)
  • Risk-based patient selection according to the Rotterdam Prostate Cancer Risk Calculator can avoid the performance of unnecessary multi-parametric magnetic resonance imaging scans in men with a sustained suspicion of prostate cancer after previous negative transrectal ultrasound-guided random prostate biopsy. (eur.nl)
  • Mammography projects a 3-dimensional (3D) tissue into a 2-dimensional (2D) image. (hindawi.com)
  • Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is conducted to view heart tissue and anatomy in two or three dimensions using radio waves. (icm-mhi.org)
  • Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR), in addition to assessing heart morphology, allows the identification of areas of fibrosis , including the atrium, by the late gadolinium enhancement technique (LGE) and could identify cases of OSA with potential atrial instability. (bvsalud.org)
  • L'imagerie par resonance magnetique (IRM) est souvent consideree standard test for characterizing cardiac as well as noncardiac struc- comme l'examen par excellence pour caracteriser les structures et les ture and function. (bvsalud.org)
  • This article gives a brief overview of the current clinical applications in PET/magnetic resonance (MR) imaging in abdominal diseases. (eurekamag.com)
  • For clinical applicability, a considerable amount of work was done by several groups to tailor disease-specific protocols for PET/MR imaging. (eurekamag.com)
  • The efficacy will be evaluated by exploring the effects on joint structure assessed by magnetic resonance imaging, x-rays and by standard clinical assessment. (clinicaltrials.gov)
  • Automated multimodal segmentation of acute ischemic stroke lesions on clinical MR images. (duke.edu)
  • Following carotid intervention, the number of detectable diffusion-weight magnetic resonance imaging (DW-MRI) lesions is an order of magnitude greater than adverse clinical event (stroke/death). (cxsymposium.com)
  • Currently, the clinical standard to monitor brain shift is intraoperative magnetic resonance (iMR). (spie.org)
  • In the WHO African Region where most countries are classified as low- and middle-income, clinical laboratory4 and imaging services5 are inadequate, with poor and inequitable access. (who.int)
  • Background: Multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging (mpMRI) is increasingly used in men with suspicion of prostate cancer (PCa) after negative transrectal ultrasound (TRUS)-guided random biopsy. (eur.nl)
  • This was followed by a presentation by Philips (PPS Medical Systems) on their ultramodern imaging facilities which included the nouvelle 4-dimensional ultrasound scanner. (who.int)
  • Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a diagnostic exam that uses a combination of a large magnet, radio waves and a computer to produce detailed images of organs and structures within the body. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • A state-of-the-art IR camera recorded IR images of the subject's breasts, a 3D scanner recorded surface geometries, and standard diagnostic imaging procedures provided tumor sizes and spatial locations within the breast. (nature.com)
  • When used adjunctively in a screening or diagnostic environment, IR images are assessed for thermal abnormalities potentially indicating breast cancer. (nature.com)
  • Those protocols focused on providing complementary diagnostic information from the PET as well as from the MR imaging component. (eurekamag.com)
  • The magnetic field, along with radio waves, alters the hydrogen atoms' natural alignment in the body. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • A magnetic field is created and pulses of radio waves are sent from a scanner. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • MRI uses a large magnet, radio waves, and a computer to produce these images. (webmd.com)
  • MRI is a technique that uses a magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed images of the organs and tissues within your body. (mayoclinichealthsystem.org)
  • The MRI machine creates a strong magnetic field around you, and radio waves are directed at your body. (mayoclinichealthsystem.org)
  • You don't feel the magnetic field or radio waves, and no moving parts are around you. (mayoclinichealthsystem.org)
  • The only exposure is to radio waves and a magnetic field. (icm-mhi.org)
  • Our MRI scanners are certified by the American College of Radiology for image quality and our technologists are fully experienced in working with children of all ages with a wide range of conditions. (childrens.com)
  • The primary goal of the program is to educate competent, efficient, and effective Magnetic Resonance Imaging Technologists, capable of functioning in any environment, within 12 months. (cod.edu)
  • Prepare the student to achieve a satisfactory result on the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists (ARRT) credentialing examination for Magnetic Resonance Imaging. (cod.edu)
  • Provide opportunities for continuing education for Magnetic Resonance Imaging Technologists. (cod.edu)
  • Article abstract Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) and perfusion imaging (PI) are two new magnetic resonance technologies that are becoming increasingly available for evaluation of acute ischemic stroke patients. (neurology.org)
  • Our results show that methods of breast imaging and modalities for estimating the amount of glandular tissue have no effects on the strength of these predictors of BD. (hindawi.com)
  • 10 ] developed compressible breast phantoms with known and varying breast composition (e.g., 0-80% glandular tissue) which were imaged together with each mammogram. (hindawi.com)
  • A value known as the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) is determined by diffusion weighting of the imaging sequence, and this value is dependent on a number of variables including time, orientation of the imaging plane, tissue being imaged (i.e. (neurology.org)
  • ADC values differ in normal white and gray matter), and the energy state of the imaged tissue. (neurology.org)
  • Imaging findings of inflammatory tissue infiltration adjacent to the paranasal sinuses in premaxillary, retroantral fat, facial muscles, pterygopalatine fossa, temporal, infratemporal fossa and extraconal orbital-fat along with typical patterns of sinonasal mucosal thickening should raise the suspicion of acute invasive fungal etiology given the short duration of history and immunocompromised status. (who.int)
  • Enhancements in prenatal imaging have given better insight into postnatal outcomes. (medscape.com)
  • This image shows free-floating exteriorized bowel in relation to the anterior abdominal wall. (medscape.com)
  • T1-weighted images were acquired before and after the administration of intravenous contrast agent containing gadolinium. (clinicaltrials.gov)
  • Biosynthesis of magnetosome-like nanoparticles in mammalian cells would provide an endogenous magnetic resonance (MR) contrast agent under genetic control. (uwo.ca)
  • Calcium-responsive contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) offer an attractive approach to noninvasively image neural activity with wide coverage in deep brain regions. (biorxiv.org)
  • Soikkeli, M 2019, ' Studies on Organic Magnetic Resonance Contrast Agents for Medical Imaging ', Helsingin yliopisto, Helsinki. (helsinki.fi)
  • Ferromagnetic materials have extremely high magnetic susceptibility χ and exhibit magnetic hysteresis. (astm.org)
  • Paramagnetic materials exhibit low magnetic susceptibility, and develop an induced magnetization in direct proportion to the applied field. (astm.org)
  • They have significantly smaller magnetic susceptibility and lower density. (astm.org)
  • With the advent of therapy for acute ischemic stroke, the availability of accurate brain imaging information assumes an increasingly important role in patient management. (neurology.org)
  • Currently, CT is the most widely used brain imaging technique in acute ischemic stroke patients. (neurology.org)
  • 4 , 5 Whereas these new observations about the utility of CT in acute ischemic stroke therapy with t-PA are important in acute ischemic stroke, CT remains largely an imaging tool to exclude hemorrhage, because the precise location and extent of the ischemic lesion is not visible for many hours after symptom onset in most patients. (neurology.org)
  • MR images obtained 16 hours after stroke onset show a lesion in the cortex of the right hemisphere that is easily seen on diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) and is confirmed to be an acute lesion on the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) map (arrowheads). (neurology.org)
  • The objective of the retrospective study is to describe the imaging findings of acute invasive rhino-orbito-cerebral mucormycosis (ROCM) in 58 patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, from SVP hospital with proven mucormycosis. (who.int)
  • Postbiopsy craniocaudal mammogram of the breast obtained immediately after stereotactic biopsy of a lesion (same patient as in Image above). (medscape.com)
  • Individualized imaging parameters are routinely stored in the DICOM header of the mammogram report. (hindawi.com)
  • We developed a mathematical model (MATH) that uses a substantial number of these individualized imaging parameters to automatically compute BD upon mammogram acquisition, thereby omitting the laborious HSM procedure [ 8 , 9 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • Standard MRI techniques such as T1 and T2 imaging are also of limited value during the critical initial few hours after stroke onset, as the ischemic lesion typically is not apparent for 8 to 12 hours after symptom onset. (neurology.org)
  • prospective cohort study was conducted on 72 patients with known time of symptoms onset, imaged within 24 hours from stroke onset. (bvsalud.org)
  • The MRI machine is a large, cylindrical (tube-shaped) machine that creates a strong magnetic field around the patient. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • The MRI machine is a large, tube-shaped machine that creates a strong magnetic field around the person being examined. (uhhospitals.org)
  • For MRI with rather strong magnetic fields B, which are near 2 tesla currently and may go higher, there are further concerns in terms of the interactions between the clips and the magnetic field. (astm.org)
  • Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technology that is used worldwide to diagnose disease. (uwo.ca)
  • The COVID-19 pandemic further exposed these weaknesses and emphasized the urgent need for stronger and coordinated laboratory services, medical imaging, rapid diagnostics, and genome sequencing. (who.int)
  • Implementing diffusion-weighted MRI for body imaging in prospective multicentre trials: current considerations and future perspectives. (duke.edu)
  • With its superb spatial and temporal resolution, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has great potential to track cellular activities that define early stages of disease. (uwo.ca)
  • The quality of brain tumor resection surgery is dependent on the spatial agreement between preoperative image and intraoperative anatomy. (spie.org)
  • A radiologist will analyze the images from your scan and report the findings to your primary care provider. (mayoclinichealthsystem.org)
  • Design, setting, and participants: One hundred and twenty two consecutive men received a mpMRI scan and subsequent MRI-TRUS fusion targeted biopsy in case of suspicious lesion(s) (Prostate Imaging Reporting and Data System ≥ 3) after negative TRUS-guided random biopsy. (eur.nl)
  • These men increasingly receive an often unnecessary magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan. (eur.nl)
  • The study comprises cases performed at two different imaging modalities and a tertiary care hospital from March 23,2021 to September 1, 2021. (who.int)
  • The Magnetic Resonance Imaging Certificate program at the College of DuPage is a three semester advanced certificate program designed for graduates of a two-year radiography program. (cod.edu)
  • The lesion is not visible on the T2 image, which was obtained at the same time point and at the exact same level. (neurology.org)
  • Evaluate images for appropriate positioning, coil selection, and image quality. (cod.edu)
  • This paper describes an overview of our systematic, integrative efforts of in vivo biodynamic measurements during sustained-till- exhaustion neck exertions and multi-modality imaging data, and how such an integrated database can be used to construct subject-specific neck musculoskeletal models. (cdc.gov)
  • Briefly, preoperative and intraoperative MR images of 2 patients were acquired. (spie.org)
  • Mag-netic res-o-nance -imaging (MRI) was per-formed in 18 -male -patients -with 20 non-pal-pable unde-scended -testes and the -results -were com-pared -with sur-gical find-ings. (minervamedica.it)
  • RÉSUMÉ Des méthodes non-invasives de haute précision sont nécessaires pour l'évaluation de la concentration en fer dans les organes des patients atteints de thalassémie. (who.int)
  • The dye may help create clearer images that outline abnormalities more easily. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • Computers are then used to form a two-dimensional (2D) image of a body structure or organ based on the activity of the hydrogen atoms. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • This magnetic field, along with a radiofrequency, briefly redirects the hydrogen atoms' natural alignment in the body. (uhhospitals.org)
  • When you lie inside an MRI machine, the magnetic field temporarily realigns hydrogen atoms in your body. (mayoclinichealthsystem.org)
  • Since an MRI uses powerful magnets, the presence of metal in your body may be a safety hazard or affect a portion of the image. (mayoclinichealthsystem.org)
  • Thus, understanding the expected postsurgical imaging findings is important to ensuring an accurate interpretation and recommendation. (medscape.com)
  • Educate the student to properly perform the procedures associated with entry-level Magnetic Resonance Technologist employment responsibilities. (cod.edu)
  • Although all have a common feature of viscera herniation through a defect in the anterior body wall, their imaging features and, more important, postnatal management differ widely. (medscape.com)
  • While MRI and X-ray are both imaging techniques, MRI can take more detailed 3-D images of organs, tissues and blood vessels without exposing your child to radiation. (childrens.com)
  • Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses a large magnet, radiofrequencies, and a computer to make detailed pictures of organs and structures within the body. (uhhospitals.org)
  • It produces high-resolution images for the provider to examine organs, tissues and the skeletal system to diagnose a variety of issues. (mayoclinichealthsystem.org)
  • The present study developed a computational thermal model of breast cancer based on high-resolution infrared (IR) images, real three-dimensional (3D) breast surface geometries, and internal tumor definition of a female subject histologically diagnosed with breast cancer. (nature.com)
  • If this is the case with your child, he or she will be cared for in our Radiology Anesthesia Unit by pediatric nurses and anesthesiologists before and after their imaging study. (childrens.com)
  • Pediatric MRI tests are just one of many radiology and advanced imaging services available at Gillette Children's. (gillettechildrens.org)
  • MRI uses radiofrequency to create specialized two- and three-dimensional images of your child's body, without the use of radiation. (childrens.com)
  • Prior breast surgery, trauma, and breast conservation treatment (BCT), or lumpectomy , can result in scarring and distortion as seen on imaging studies. (medscape.com)
  • Consequently, they are subjected to less magnetic force and produce much reduced artifact and image distortion in MRI and CT environments. (astm.org)
  • Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging (MRI) is commonly used to diagnose, assess and monitor stroke. (duke.edu)
  • A test that produces high-quality images of the body's internal structures without the use of X-rays. (webmd.com)
  • Determine imaging parameters to achieve optimum imaging. (cod.edu)
  • MRI is the most frequently used imaging test of the brain and spinal cord. (mayoclinichealthsystem.org)
  • Quantitative mapping of trimethyltin injury in the rat brain using magnetic resonance histology. (duke.edu)
  • Manganese uptake was examined in vivo with manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MEMRI) in key auditory brain regions implicated in tinnitus. (cdc.gov)
  • The accurate interpretation of images of the postsurgical breast depends on the availability of high-quality pictures and pertinent medical and surgical breast history. (medscape.com)
  • These BD measures in a strictly defined group of premenopausal women providing both mammographic and breast MRI images were predicted as well by the same set of strong predictor variables as were measures from a published laborious histogram segmentation method and a full field digital mammographic unit in multivariate regression models. (hindawi.com)
  • Lack of mammographic imaging data in younger women makes it difficult to assess the role of BD in women of younger age in predicting later-in-life breast cancer risk. (hindawi.com)
  • For body imaging, diffusion-weighted MRI may be used for tumour detection, staging, prognostic information, assessing response and follow-up. (duke.edu)
  • In conclusion, the magnetic resonance imaging exam of the temporomandibular joint can be considered an exam of choice for the evaluation of disc positioning and its morphological alterations. (bvsalud.org)
  • It was concluded that a large number of silent ischaemic lesions visualised on the DWI images post-carotid artery stenting disappear within months and therefore the extent of permanent carotid artery stenting-related cerebral damage may be overestimated. (cxsymposium.com)
  • Support the development of a diverse set of skills necessary to participate in both current and emerging technologies in magnetic resonance imaging. (cod.edu)
  • When they are placed in a magnetic field not parallel with the magnetization, a torque would be exerted on them to cause deflection. (astm.org)
  • However, magnetic force always prevails as F = mχB ( dB/dz ), where m is the clip mass and dB/dz is the field gradient. (astm.org)
  • Accordingly, preoperative image is updated based on the computed deformation field. (spie.org)