Macrophages. Medical search

The relatively long-lived phagocytic cell of mammalian tissues that are derived from blood MONOCYTES. Main types are PERITONEAL MACROPHAGES; ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES; HISTIOCYTES; KUPFFER CELLS of the liver; and OSTEOCLASTS. They may further differentiate within chronic inflammatory lesions to EPITHELIOID CELLS or may fuse to form FOREIGN BODY GIANT CELLS or LANGHANS GIANT CELLS. (from The Dictionary of Cell Biology, Lackie and Dow, 3rd ed.)

The process of altering the morphology and functional activity of macrophages so that they become avidly phagocytic. It is initiated by lymphokines, such as the macrophage activation factor (MAF) and the macrophage migration-inhibitory factor (MMIF), immune complexes, C3b, and various peptides, polysaccharides, and immunologic adjuvants.

Mononuclear phagocytes derived from bone marrow precursors but resident in the peritoneum.

Round, granular, mononuclear phagocytes found in the alveoli of the lungs. They ingest small inhaled particles resulting in degradation and presentation of the antigen to immunocompetent cells.

The engulfing and degradation of microorganisms; other cells that are dead, dying, or pathogenic; and foreign particles by phagocytic cells (PHAGOCYTES).

A mononuclear phagocyte colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) synthesized by mesenchymal cells. The compound stimulates the survival, proliferation, and differentiation of hematopoietic cells of the monocyte-macrophage series. M-CSF is a disulfide-bonded glycoprotein dimer with a MW of 70 kDa. It binds to a specific high affinity receptor (RECEPTOR, MACROPHAGE COLONY-STIMULATING FACTOR).

Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.

Lipid-containing polysaccharides which are endotoxins and important group-specific antigens. They are often derived from the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria and induce immunoglobulin secretion. The lipopolysaccharide molecule consists of three parts: LIPID A, core polysaccharide, and O-specific chains (O ANTIGENS). When derived from Escherichia coli, lipopolysaccharides serve as polyclonal B-cell mitogens commonly used in laboratory immunology. (From Dorland, 28th ed)

Large, phagocytic mononuclear leukocytes produced in the vertebrate BONE MARROW and released into the BLOOD; contain a large, oval or somewhat indented nucleus surrounded by voluminous cytoplasm and numerous organelles.

Proteins released by sensitized LYMPHOCYTES and possibly other cells that inhibit the migration of MACROPHAGES away from the release site. The structure and chemical properties may vary with the species and type of releasing cell.

Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.

Serum glycoprotein produced by activated MACROPHAGES and other mammalian MONONUCLEAR LEUKOCYTES. It has necrotizing activity against tumor cell lines and increases ability to reject tumor transplants. Also known as TNF-alpha, it is only 30% homologous to TNF-beta (LYMPHOTOXIN), but they share TNF RECEPTORS.

Non-antibody proteins secreted by inflammatory leukocytes and some non-leukocytic cells, that act as intercellular mediators. They differ from classical hormones in that they are produced by a number of tissue or cell types rather than by specialized glands. They generally act locally in a paracrine or autocrine rather than endocrine manner.

Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.

The space enclosed by the peritoneum. It is divided into two portions, the greater sac and the lesser sac or omental bursa, which lies behind the STOMACH. The two sacs are connected by the foramen of Winslow, or epiploic foramen.

Organic esters of thioglycolic acid (HS-CH2COOH).

Heparin-binding proteins that exhibit a number of inflammatory and immunoregulatory activities. Originally identified as secretory products of MACROPHAGES, these chemokines are produced by a variety of cell types including NEUTROPHILS; FIBROBLASTS; and EPITHELIAL CELLS. They likely play a significant role in respiratory tract defenses.

A pathological process characterized by injury or destruction of tissues caused by a variety of cytologic and chemical reactions. It is usually manifested by typical signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function.

Surface antigens expressed on myeloid cells of the granulocyte-monocyte-histiocyte series during differentiation. Analysis of their reactivity in normal and malignant myelomonocytic cells is useful in identifying and classifying human leukemias and lymphomas.

The serous fluid of ASCITES, the accumulation of fluids in the PERITONEAL CAVITY.

A receptor for MACROPHAGE COLONY-STIMULATING FACTOR encoded by the c-fms proto-oncogene (GENES, FMS). It contains an intrinsic protein-tyrosine kinase activity. When activated the receptor undergoes autophosphorylation, phosphorylation of down-stream signaling molecules and rapid down-regulation.

RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.

The major interferon produced by mitogenically or antigenically stimulated LYMPHOCYTES. It is structurally different from TYPE I INTERFERON and its major activity is immunoregulation. It has been implicated in the expression of CLASS II HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS in cells that do not normally produce them, leading to AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.

A diphosphonate which affects calcium metabolism. It inhibits bone resorption and soft tissue calcification.

A family of scavenger receptors that mediate the influx of LIPIDS into MACROPHAGES and are involved in FOAM CELL formation.

Membrane-bound cytoplasmic vesicles formed by invagination of phagocytized material. They fuse with lysosomes to form phagolysosomes in which the hydrolytic enzymes of the lysosome digest the phagocytized material.

Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.

A free radical gas produced endogenously by a variety of mammalian cells, synthesized from ARGININE by NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE. Nitric oxide is one of the ENDOTHELIUM-DEPENDENT RELAXING FACTORS released by the vascular endothelium and mediates VASODILATION. It also inhibits platelet aggregation, induces disaggregation of aggregated platelets, and inhibits platelet adhesion to the vascular endothelium. Nitric oxide activates cytosolic GUANYLATE CYCLASE and thus elevates intracellular levels of CYCLIC GMP.

Small polyhedral outpouchings along the walls of the alveolar sacs, alveolar ducts and terminal bronchioles through the walls of which gas exchange between alveolar air and pulmonary capillary blood takes place.

A CALCIUM-independent subtype of nitric oxide synthase that may play a role in immune function. It is an inducible enzyme whose expression is transcriptionally regulated by a variety of CYTOKINES.

The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.

An encapsulated lymphatic organ through which venous blood filters.

Factors secreted by stimulated lymphocytes that prime macrophages to become nonspecifically cytotoxic to tumors. They also modulate the expression of macrophage cell surface Ia antigens. One MAF is INTERFERON-GAMMA. Other factors antigenically distinct from IFN-gamma have also been identified.

Zymosan is a polysaccharide derived from yeast cell walls that is used in medical research to induce an inflammatory response in animals.

Cells contained in the bone marrow including fat cells (see ADIPOCYTES); STROMAL CELLS; MEGAKARYOCYTES; and the immediate precursors of most blood cells.

A class of lipoproteins of small size (18-25 nm) and light (1.019-1.063 g/ml) particles with a core composed mainly of CHOLESTEROL ESTERS and smaller amounts of TRIGLYCERIDES. The surface monolayer consists mostly of PHOSPHOLIPIDS, a single copy of APOLIPOPROTEIN B-100, and free cholesterol molecules. The main LDL function is to transport cholesterol and cholesterol esters to extrahepatic tissues.

A subclass of lectins that are specific for CARBOHYDRATES that contain MANNOSE.

A chemokine that is a chemoattractant for MONOCYTES and may also cause cellular activation of specific functions related to host defense. It is produced by LEUKOCYTES of both monocyte and lymphocyte lineage and by FIBROBLASTS during tissue injury. It has specificity for CCR2 RECEPTORS.

Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function that leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.

Either of the pair of organs occupying the cavity of the thorax that effect the aeration of the blood.

A large group of structurally diverse cell surface receptors that mediate endocytic uptake of modified LIPOPROTEINS. Scavenger receptors are expressed by MYELOID CELLS and some ENDOTHELIAL CELLS, and were originally characterized based on their ability to bind acetylated LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS. They can also bind a variety of other polyanionic ligand. Certain scavenger receptors can internalize micro-organisms as well as apoptotic cells.

Technique using an instrument system for making, processing, and displaying one or more measurements on individual cells obtained from a cell suspension. Cells are usually stained with one or more fluorescent dyes specific to cell components of interest, e.g., DNA, and fluorescence of each cell is measured as it rapidly transverses the excitation beam (laser or mercury arc lamp). Fluorescence provides a quantitative measure of various biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell, as well as a basis for cell sorting. Other measurable optical parameters include light absorption and light scattering, the latter being applicable to the measurement of cell size, shape, density, granularity, and stain uptake.

Ubiquitous, inducible, nuclear transcriptional activator that binds to enhancer elements in many different cell types and is activated by pathogenic stimuli. The NF-kappa B complex is a heterodimer composed of two DNA-binding subunits: NF-kappa B1 and relA.

A pattern recognition receptor that interacts with LYMPHOCYTE ANTIGEN 96 and LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES. It mediates cellular responses to GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA.

Cell surface proteins that bind signalling molecules external to the cell with high affinity and convert this extracellular event into one or more intracellular signals that alter the behavior of the target cell (From Alberts, Molecular Biology of the Cell, 2nd ed, pp693-5). Cell surface receptors, unlike enzymes, do not chemically alter their ligands.

A thickening and loss of elasticity of the walls of ARTERIES that occurs with formation of ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUES within the ARTERIAL INTIMA.

Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.

Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.

The capacity of a normal organism to remain unaffected by microorganisms and their toxins. It results from the presence of naturally occurring ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS, constitutional factors such as BODY TEMPERATURE and immediate acting immune cells such as NATURAL KILLER CELLS.

Granular leukocytes having a nucleus with three to five lobes connected by slender threads of chromatin, and cytoplasm containing fine inconspicuous granules and stainable by neutral dyes.

A cytokine that stimulates the growth and differentiation of B-LYMPHOCYTES and is also a growth factor for HYBRIDOMAS and plasmacytomas. It is produced by many different cells including T-LYMPHOCYTES; MONOCYTES; and FIBROBLASTS.

Cell surface molecules on cells of the immune system that specifically bind surface molecules or messenger molecules and trigger changes in the behavior of cells. Although these receptors were first identified in the immune system, many have important functions elsewhere.

A soluble factor produced by MONOCYTES; MACROPHAGES, and other cells which activates T-lymphocytes and potentiates their response to mitogens or antigens. Interleukin-1 is a general term refers to either of the two distinct proteins, INTERLEUKIN-1ALPHA and INTERLEUKIN-1BETA. The biological effects of IL-1 include the ability to replace macrophage requirements for T-cell activation.

The endogenous compounds that mediate inflammation (AUTACOIDS) and related exogenous compounds including the synthetic prostaglandins (PROSTAGLANDINS, SYNTHETIC).

One of the mechanisms by which CELL DEATH occurs (compare with NECROSIS and AUTOPHAGOCYTOSIS). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA; (DNA FRAGMENTATION); at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth.

An acidic glycoprotein of MW 23 kDa with internal disulfide bonds. The protein is produced in response to a number of inflammatory mediators by mesenchymal cells present in the hemopoietic environment and at peripheral sites of inflammation. GM-CSF is able to stimulate the production of neutrophilic granulocytes, macrophages, and mixed granulocyte-macrophage colonies from bone marrow cells and can stimulate the formation of eosinophil colonies from fetal liver progenitor cells. GM-CSF can also stimulate some functional activities in mature granulocytes and macrophages.

Lymphocytes responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Two types have been identified - cytotoxic (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and helper T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, HELPER-INDUCER). They are formed when lymphocytes circulate through the THYMUS GLAND and differentiate to thymocytes. When exposed to an antigen, they divide rapidly and produce large numbers of new T cells sensitized to that antigen.

Differentiation antigens residing on mammalian leukocytes. CD stands for cluster of differentiation, which refers to groups of monoclonal antibodies that show similar reactivity with certain subpopulations of antigens of a particular lineage or differentiation stage. The subpopulations of antigens are also known by the same CD designation.

A cytokine produced by a variety of cell types, including T-LYMPHOCYTES; MONOCYTES; DENDRITIC CELLS; and EPITHELIAL CELLS that exerts a variety of effects on immunoregulation and INFLAMMATION. Interleukin-10 combines with itself to form a homodimeric molecule that is the biologically active form of the protein.

Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.

Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations, or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. All animals within an inbred strain trace back to a common ancestor in the twentieth generation.

A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.

Washing liquid obtained from irrigation of the lung, including the BRONCHI and the PULMONARY ALVEOLI. It is generally used to assess biochemical, inflammatory, or infection status of the lung.

Class of pro-inflammatory cytokines that have the ability to attract and activate leukocytes. They can be divided into at least three structural branches: C; (CHEMOKINES, C); CC; (CHEMOKINES, CC); and CXC; (CHEMOKINES, CXC); according to variations in a shared cysteine motif.

A class of morphologically heterogeneous cytoplasmic particles in animal and plant tissues characterized by their content of hydrolytic enzymes and the structure-linked latency of these enzymes. The intracellular functions of lysosomes depend on their lytic potential. The single unit membrane of the lysosome acts as a barrier between the enzymes enclosed in the lysosome and the external substrate. The activity of the enzymes contained in lysosomes is limited or nil unless the vesicle in which they are enclosed is ruptured. Such rupture is supposed to be under metabolic (hormonal) control. (From Rieger et al., Glossary of Genetics: Classical and Molecular, 5th ed)

A positive regulatory effect on physiological processes at the molecular, cellular, or systemic level. At the molecular level, the major regulatory sites include membrane receptors, genes (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION), mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), and proteins.

Cells that can carry out the process of PHAGOCYTOSIS.

A CC chemokine with specificity for CCR5 RECEPTORS. It is a chemoattractant for NK CELLS; MONOCYTES and a variety of other immune cells. This chemokine is encoded by multiple genes.

A CC chemokine with specificity for CCR1 RECEPTORS and CCR5 RECEPTORS. It is a chemoattractant for NK CELLS; MONOCYTES; and a variety of other immune cells. This chemokine is encoded by multiple genes.

Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.

The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.

A ureahydrolase that catalyzes the hydrolysis of arginine or canavanine to yield L-ornithine (ORNITHINE) and urea. Deficiency of this enzyme causes HYPERARGININEMIA. EC 3.5.3.1.

The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils.

Molecules found on the surface of some, but not all, B-lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes, and macrophages, which recognize and combine with the Fc (crystallizable) portion of immunoglobulin molecules.

The movement of cells from one location to another. Distinguish from CYTOKINESIS which is the process of dividing the CYTOPLASM of a cell.

A class of animal lectins that bind to carbohydrate in a calcium-dependent manner. They share a common carbohydrate-binding domain that is structurally distinct from other classes of lectins.

A pattern recognition receptor that forms heterodimers with other TOLL-LIKE RECEPTORS. It interacts with multiple ligands including PEPTIDOGLYCAN, bacterial LIPOPROTEINS, lipoarabinomannan, and a variety of PORINS.

An interleukin-1 subtype that is synthesized as an inactive membrane-bound pro-protein. Proteolytic processing of the precursor form by CASPASE 1 results in release of the active form of interleukin-1beta from the membrane.

The number of CELLS of a specific kind, usually measured per unit volume or area of sample.

The bovine variety of the tubercle bacillus. It is called also Mycobacterium tuberculosis var. bovis.

Soluble mediators of the immune response that are neither antibodies nor complement. They are produced largely, but not exclusively, by monocytes and macrophages.

Proteins that bind to particles and cells to increase susceptibility to PHAGOCYTOSIS, especially ANTIBODIES bound to EPITOPES that attach to FC RECEPTORS. COMPLEMENT C3B may also participate.

The engulfing of liquids by cells by a process of invagination and closure of the cell membrane to form fluid-filled vacuoles.

A species of gram-positive, aerobic bacteria that produces TUBERCULOSIS in humans, other primates, CATTLE; DOGS; and some other animals which have contact with humans. Growth tends to be in serpentine, cordlike masses in which the bacilli show a parallel orientation.

Glycoproteins found on the membrane or surface of cells.

Thickening and loss of elasticity of the walls of ARTERIES of all sizes. There are many forms classified by the types of lesions and arteries involved, such as ATHEROSCLEROSIS with fatty lesions in the ARTERIAL INTIMA of medium and large muscular arteries.

A class of protein components which can be found in several lipoproteins including HIGH-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS; VERY-LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS; and CHYLOMICRONS. Synthesized in most organs, Apo E is important in the global transport of lipids and cholesterol throughout the body. Apo E is also a ligand for LDL receptors (RECEPTORS, LDL) that mediates the binding, internalization, and catabolism of lipoprotein particles in cells. There are several allelic isoforms (such as E2, E3, and E4). Deficiency or defects in Apo E are causes of HYPERLIPOPROTEINEMIA TYPE III.

Specific molecular sites on the surface of various cells, including B-lymphocytes and macrophages, that combine with IMMUNOGLOBULIN Gs. Three subclasses exist: Fc gamma RI (the CD64 antigen, a low affinity receptor), Fc gamma RII (the CD32 antigen, a high affinity receptor), and Fc gamma RIII (the CD16 antigen, a low affinity receptor).

Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.

The most common and most biologically active of the mammalian prostaglandins. It exhibits most biological activities characteristic of prostaglandins and has been used extensively as an oxytocic agent. The compound also displays a protective effect on the intestinal mucosa.

The span of viability of a cell characterized by the capacity to perform certain functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, some form of responsiveness, and adaptability.

An NADPH-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of L-ARGININE and OXYGEN to produce CITRULLINE and NITRIC OXIDE.

Specialized cells of the hematopoietic system that have branch-like extensions. They are found throughout the lymphatic system, and in non-lymphoid tissues such as SKIN and the epithelia of the intestinal, respiratory, and reproductive tracts. They trap and process ANTIGENS, and present them to T-CELLS, thereby stimulating CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY. They are different from the non-hematopoietic FOLLICULAR DENDRITIC CELLS, which have a similar morphology and immune system function, but with respect to humoral immunity (ANTIBODY PRODUCTION).

A technique of culturing mixed cell types in vitro to allow their synergistic or antagonistic interactions, such as on CELL DIFFERENTIATION or APOPTOSIS. Coculture can be of different types of cells, tissues, or organs from normal or disease states.

White blood cells formed in the body's lymphoid tissue. The nucleus is round or ovoid with coarse, irregularly clumped chromatin while the cytoplasm is typically pale blue with azurophilic (if any) granules. Most lymphocytes can be classified as either T or B (with subpopulations of each), or NATURAL KILLER CELLS.

A family of pattern recognition receptors characterized by an extracellular leucine-rich domain and a cytoplasmic domain that share homology with the INTERLEUKIN 1 RECEPTOR and the DROSOPHILA toll protein. Following pathogen recognition, toll-like receptors recruit and activate a variety of SIGNAL TRANSDUCING ADAPTOR PROTEINS.

Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blot transferring from the electrophoresis gel to strips of nitrocellulose paper, followed by labeling with antibody probes.

A superfamily of large integral ATP-binding cassette membrane proteins whose expression pattern is consistent with a role in lipid (cholesterol) efflux. It is implicated in TANGIER DISEASE characterized by accumulation of cholesteryl ester in various tissues.

A CXC chemokine that is synthesized by activated MONOCYTES and NEUTROPHILS. It has specificity for CXCR2 RECEPTORS.

Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.

Microscopy using an electron beam, instead of light, to visualize the sample, thereby allowing much greater magnification. The interactions of ELECTRONS with specimens are used to provide information about the fine structure of that specimen. In TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY the reactions of the electrons that are transmitted through the specimen are imaged. In SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY an electron beam falls at a non-normal angle on the specimen and the image is derived from the reactions occurring above the plane of the specimen.

Highly reactive compounds produced when oxygen is reduced by a single electron. In biological systems, they may be generated during the normal catalytic function of a number of enzymes and during the oxidation of hemoglobin to METHEMOGLOBIN. In living organisms, SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE protects the cell from the deleterious effects of superoxides.

An adhesion-promoting leukocyte surface membrane heterodimer. The alpha subunit consists of the CD11b ANTIGEN and the beta subunit the CD18 ANTIGEN. The antigen, which is an integrin, functions both as a receptor for complement 3 and in cell-cell and cell-substrate adhesive interactions.

A heterodimeric cytokine that plays a role in innate and adaptive immune responses. Interleukin-12 is a 70 kDa protein that is composed of covalently linked 40 kDa and 35 kDa subunits. It is produced by DENDRITIC CELLS; MACROPHAGES and a variety of other immune cells and plays a role in the stimulation of INTERFERON-GAMMA production by T-LYMPHOCYTES and NATURAL KILLER CELLS.

A species of gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria widely distributed in nature. It has been isolated from sewage, soil, silage, and from feces of healthy animals and man. Infection with this bacterium leads to encephalitis, meningitis, endocarditis, and abortion.

Specialized phagocytic cells of the MONONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTE SYSTEM found on the luminal surface of the hepatic sinusoids. They filter bacteria and small foreign proteins out of the blood, and dispose of worn out red blood cells.

Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.

The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.

A species of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria that is the causative agent of LEGIONNAIRES' DISEASE. It has been isolated from numerous environmental sites as well as from human lung tissue, respiratory secretions, and blood.

A secreted matrix metalloproteinase which is highly expressed by MACROPHAGES where it may play a role in INFLAMMATION and WOUND HEALING.

A bacterium causing tuberculosis in domestic fowl and other birds. In pigs, it may cause localized and sometimes disseminated disease. The organism occurs occasionally in sheep and cattle. It should be distinguished from the M. avium complex, which infects primarily humans.

Culture media containing biologically active components obtained from previously cultured cells or tissues that have released into the media substances affecting certain cell functions (e.g., growth, lysis).

A CD antigen that contains a conserved I domain which is involved in ligand binding. When combined with CD18 the two subunits form MACROPHAGE-1 ANTIGEN.

Adherence of cells to surfaces or to other cells.

A negative regulatory effect on physiological processes at the molecular, cellular, or systemic level. At the molecular level, the major regulatory sites include membrane receptors, genes (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION), mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), and proteins.

A human cell line established from a diffuse histiocytic lymphoma (HISTIOCYTIC LYMPHOMA, DIFFUSE) and displaying many monocytic characteristics. It serves as an in vitro model for MONOCYTE and MACROPHAGE differentiation.

The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.

An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.

Leukocyte differentiation antigens and major platelet membrane glycoproteins present on MONOCYTES; ENDOTHELIAL CELLS; PLATELETS; and mammary EPITHELIAL CELLS. They play major roles in CELL ADHESION; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; and regulation of angiogenesis. CD36 is a receptor for THROMBOSPONDINS and can act as a scavenger receptor that recognizes and transports oxidized LIPOPROTEINS and FATTY ACIDS.

Proteins which are found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. They consist of two types, peripheral and integral proteins. They include most membrane-associated enzymes, antigenic proteins, transport proteins, and drug, hormone, and lectin receptors.

The process of intracellular viral multiplication, consisting of the synthesis of PROTEINS; NUCLEIC ACIDS; and sometimes LIPIDS, and their assembly into a new infectious particle.

The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. The pathogenic capacity of an organism is determined by its VIRULENCE FACTORS.

The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.

The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.

The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.

The phenomenon of target cell destruction by immunologically active effector cells. It may be brought about directly by sensitized T-lymphocytes or by lymphoid or myeloid "killer" cells, or it may be mediated by cytotoxic antibody, cytotoxic factor released by lymphoid cells, or complement.

The third type of glial cell, along with astrocytes and oligodendrocytes (which together form the macroglia). Microglia vary in appearance depending on developmental stage, functional state, and anatomical location; subtype terms include ramified, perivascular, ameboid, resting, and activated. Microglia clearly are capable of phagocytosis and play an important role in a wide spectrum of neuropathologies. They have also been suggested to act in several other roles including in secretion (e.g., of cytokines and neural growth factors), in immunological processing (e.g., antigen presentation), and in central nervous system development and remodeling.

A relatively small nodular inflammatory lesion containing grouped mononuclear phagocytes, caused by infectious and noninfectious agents.

Large, transmembrane, non-covalently linked glycoproteins (alpha and beta). Both chains can be polymorphic although there is more structural variation in the beta chains. The class II antigens in humans are called HLA-D ANTIGENS and are coded by a gene on chromosome 6. In mice, two genes named IA and IE on chromosome 17 code for the H-2 antigens. The antigens are found on B-lymphocytes, macrophages, epidermal cells, and sperm and are thought to mediate the competence of and cellular cooperation in the immune response. The term IA antigens used to refer only to the proteins encoded by the IA genes in the mouse, but is now used as a generic term for any class II histocompatibility antigen.

Assays that measure the rate of migration of MACROPHAGES. They may involve the use hollow plastic chamber, sealed at one end with a porous membrane and suspended over a larger well which may contain CHEMOTACTIC FACTORS. The migration of cell through the pores to the other side of the membrane is measured.

The fission of a CELL. It includes CYTOKINESIS, when the CYTOPLASM of a cell is divided, and CELL NUCLEUS DIVISION.

Manifestations of the immune response which are mediated by antigen-sensitized T-lymphocytes via lymphokines or direct cytotoxicity. This takes place in the absence of circulating antibody or where antibody plays a subordinate role.

A sialic acid binding lectin that was originally identified as an adhesion molecule for inflammatory MACROPHAGES and activated MONOCYTES. This protein is the largest known siglec subtype and contains 16 immunoglobulin C2-set domains. It plays a role in cell to cell interactions and interactions with BACTERIA.

An intracellular signaling adaptor protein that plays a role in TOLL-LIKE RECEPTOR and INTERLEUKIN 1 RECEPTORS signal transduction. It forms a signaling complex with the activated cell surface receptors and members of the IRAK KINASES.

The movement of cells or organisms toward or away from a substance in response to its concentration gradient.

Fatty acid esters of cholesterol which constitute about two-thirds of the cholesterol in the plasma. The accumulation of cholesterol esters in the arterial intima is a characteristic feature of atherosclerosis.

Salts of nitrous acid or compounds containing the group NO2-. The inorganic nitrites of the type MNO2 (where M=metal) are all insoluble, except the alkali nitrites. The organic nitrites may be isomeric, but not identical with the corresponding nitro compounds. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)

The type species of LENTIVIRUS and the etiologic agent of AIDS. It is characterized by its cytopathic effect and affinity for the T4-lymphocyte.

Antigens expressed primarily on the membranes of living cells during sequential stages of maturation and differentiation. As immunologic markers they have high organ and tissue specificity and are useful as probes in studies of normal cell development as well as neoplastic transformation.

Substances that reduce or suppress INFLAMMATION.

A soluble factor produced by activated T-LYMPHOCYTES that induces the expression of MHC CLASS II GENES and FC RECEPTORS on B-LYMPHOCYTES and causes their proliferation and differentiation. It also acts on T-lymphocytes, MAST CELLS, and several other hematopoietic lineage cells.

A phorbol ester found in CROTON OIL with very effective tumor promoting activity. It stimulates the synthesis of both DNA and RNA.

A family of scavenger receptors that are predominately localized to CAVEOLAE of the PLASMA MEMBRANE and bind HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS.

Morphologic alteration of small B LYMPHOCYTES or T LYMPHOCYTES in culture into large blast-like cells able to synthesize DNA and RNA and to divide mitotically. It is induced by INTERLEUKINS; MITOGENS such as PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS, and by specific ANTIGENS. It may also occur in vivo as in GRAFT REJECTION.

Phenomenon of cell-mediated immunity measured by in vitro inhibition of the migration or phagocytosis of antigen-stimulated LEUKOCYTES or MACROPHAGES. Specific CELL MIGRATION ASSAYS have been developed to estimate levels of migration inhibitory factors, immune reactivity against tumor-associated antigens, and immunosuppressive effects of infectious microorganisms.

White blood cells. These include granular leukocytes (BASOPHILS; EOSINOPHILS; and NEUTROPHILS) as well as non-granular leukocytes (LYMPHOCYTES and MONOCYTES).

A genus of flagellate protozoa comprising several species that are pathogenic for humans. Organisms of this genus have an amastigote and a promastigote stage in their life cycles. As a result of enzymatic studies this single genus has been divided into two subgenera: Leishmania leishmania and Leishmania viannia. Species within the Leishmania leishmania subgenus include: L. aethiopica, L. arabica, L. donovani, L. enrietti, L. gerbilli, L. hertigi, L. infantum, L. major, L. mexicana, and L. tropica. The following species are those that compose the Leishmania viannia subgenus: L. braziliensis, L. guyanensis, L. lainsoni, L. naiffi, and L. shawi.

Chemical substances that attract or repel cells. The concept denotes especially those factors released as a result of tissue injury, microbial invasion, or immunologic activity, that attract LEUKOCYTES; MACROPHAGES; or other cells to the site of infection or insult.

Conversion of an inactive form of an enzyme to one possessing metabolic activity. It includes 1, activation by ions (activators); 2, activation by cofactors (coenzymes); and 3, conversion of an enzyme precursor (proenzyme or zymogen) to an active enzyme.

A bacteria isolated from normal skin, intestinal contents, wounds, blood, pus, and soft tissue abscesses. It is a common contaminant of clinical specimens, presumably from the skin of patients or attendants.

Transparent, tasteless crystals found in nature as agate, amethyst, chalcedony, cristobalite, flint, sand, QUARTZ, and tridymite. The compound is insoluble in water or acids except hydrofluoric acid.

Receptors on the plasma membrane of nonhepatic cells that specifically bind LDL. The receptors are localized in specialized regions called coated pits. Hypercholesteremia is caused by an allelic genetic defect of three types: 1, receptors do not bind to LDL; 2, there is reduced binding of LDL; and 3, there is normal binding but no internalization of LDL. In consequence, entry of cholesterol esters into the cell is impaired and the intracellular feedback by cholesterol on 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase is lacking.

A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.

The movement of leukocytes in response to a chemical concentration gradient or to products formed in an immunologic reaction.

Any of several ways in which living cells of an organism communicate with one another, whether by direct contact between cells or by means of chemical signals carried by neurotransmitter substances, hormones, and cyclic AMP.

A long pro-domain caspase that has specificity for the precursor form of INTERLEUKIN-1BETA. It plays a role in INFLAMMATION by catalytically converting the inactive forms of CYTOKINES such as interleukin-1beta to their active, secreted form. Caspase 1 is referred as interleukin-1beta converting enzyme and is frequently abbreviated ICE.

Toxins closely associated with the living cytoplasm or cell wall of certain microorganisms, which do not readily diffuse into the culture medium, but are released upon lysis of the cells.

An inducibly-expressed subtype of prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase. It plays an important role in many cellular processes and INFLAMMATION. It is the target of COX2 INHIBITORS.

Molecules on the surface of some B-lymphocytes and macrophages, that recognize and combine with the C3b, C3d, C1q, and C4b components of complement.

An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of an orthophosphoric monoester and water to an alcohol and orthophosphate. EC 3.1.3.2.

Cell surface proteins that bind lipoproteins with high affinity. Lipoprotein receptors in the liver and peripheral tissues mediate the regulation of plasma and cellular cholesterol metabolism and concentration. The receptors generally recognize the apolipoproteins of the lipoprotein complex, and binding is often a trigger for endocytosis.

CCR receptors with specificity for CHEMOKINE CCL2 and several other CCL2-related chemokines. They are expressed at high levels in T-LYMPHOCYTES; B-LYMPHOCYTES; MACROPHAGES; BASOPHILS; and NK CELLS.

Infections with bacteria of the genus LISTERIA.

Glycoproteins found in a subfraction of normal mammalian plasma and urine. They stimulate the proliferation of bone marrow cells in agar cultures and the formation of colonies of granulocytes and/or macrophages. The factors include INTERLEUKIN-3; (IL-3); GRANULOCYTE COLONY-STIMULATING FACTOR; (G-CSF); MACROPHAGE COLONY-STIMULATING FACTOR; (M-CSF); and GRANULOCYTE-MACROPHAGE COLONY-STIMULATING FACTOR; (GM-CSF).

Mice bearing mutant genes which are phenotypically expressed in the animals.

A milky, product excreted from the latex canals of a variety of plant species that contain cauotchouc. Latex is composed of 25-35% caoutchouc, 60-75% water, 2% protein, 2% resin, 1.5% sugar & 1% ash. RUBBER is made by the removal of water from latex.(From Concise Encyclopedia Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 3rd ed). Hevein proteins are responsible for LATEX HYPERSENSITIVITY. Latexes are used as inert vehicles to carry antibodies or antigens in LATEX FIXATION TESTS.

Molecules or ions formed by the incomplete one-electron reduction of oxygen. These reactive oxygen intermediates include SINGLET OXYGEN; SUPEROXIDES; PEROXIDES; HYDROXYL RADICAL; and HYPOCHLOROUS ACID. They contribute to the microbicidal activity of PHAGOCYTES, regulation of signal transduction and gene expression, and the oxidative damage to NUCLEIC ACIDS; PROTEINS; and LIPIDS.

A large increase in oxygen uptake by neutrophils and most types of tissue macrophages through activation of an NADPH-cytochrome b-dependent oxidase that reduces oxygen to a superoxide. Individuals with an inherited defect in which the oxidase that reduces oxygen to superoxide is decreased or absent (GRANULOMATOUS DISEASE, CHRONIC) often die as a result of recurrent bacterial infections.

Compounds or agents that combine with an enzyme in such a manner as to prevent the normal substrate-enzyme combination and the catalytic reaction.

Transport proteins that carry specific substances in the blood or across cell membranes.

A parasitic hemoflagellate of the subgenus Leishmania leishmania that infects man and animals including rodents. The Leishmania mexicana complex causes both cutaneous (LEISHMANIASIS, CUTANEOUS) and diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis (LEISHMANIASIS, DIFFUSE CUTANEOUS) and includes the subspecies amazonensis, garnhami, mexicana, pifanoi, and venezuelensis. L. m. mexicana causes chiclero ulcer, a form of cutaneous leishmaniasis (LEISHMANIASIS, CUTANEOUS) in the New World. The sandfly, Lutzomyia, appears to be the vector.

Artificial, single or multilaminar vesicles (made from lecithins or other lipids) that are used for the delivery of a variety of biological molecules or molecular complexes to cells, for example, drug delivery and gene transfer. They are also used to study membranes and membrane proteins.

Enzymes of the isomerase class that catalyze the oxidation of one part of a molecule with a corresponding reduction of another part of the same molecule. They include enzymes converting aldoses to ketoses (ALDOSE-KETOSE ISOMERASES), enzymes shifting a carbon-carbon double bond (CARBON-CARBON DOUBLE BOND ISOMERASES), and enzymes transposing S-S bonds (SULFUR-SULFUR BOND ISOMERASES). (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 5.3.

A mitogen-activated protein kinase subfamily that regulates a variety of cellular processes including CELL GROWTH PROCESSES; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; APOPTOSIS; and cellular responses to INFLAMMATION. The P38 MAP kinases are regulated by CYTOKINE RECEPTORS and can be activated in response to bacterial pathogens.

A parasitic hemoflagellate of the subgenus Leishmania leishmania that infects man and animals and causes visceral leishmaniasis (LEISHMANIASIS, VISCERAL). The sandfly genera Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia are the vectors.

A family of MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROTEINS that require ATP hydrolysis for the transport of substrates across membranes. The protein family derives its name from the ATP-binding domain found on the protein.

A member of the CXC chemokine family that plays a role in the regulation of the acute inflammatory response. It is secreted by variety of cell types and induces CHEMOTAXIS of NEUTROPHILS and other inflammatory cells.

An increase in the rate of synthesis of an enzyme due to the presence of an inducer which acts to derepress the gene responsible for enzyme synthesis.

Test for tissue antigen using either a direct method, by conjugation of antibody with fluorescent dye (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, DIRECT) or an indirect method, by formation of antigen-antibody complex which is then labeled with fluorescein-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin antibody (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, INDIRECT). The tissue is then examined by fluorescence microscopy.

Mature LYMPHOCYTES and MONOCYTES transported by the blood to the body's extravascular space. They are morphologically distinguishable from mature granulocytic leukocytes by their large, non-lobed nuclei and lack of coarse, heavily stained cytoplasmic granules.

The introduction of a phosphoryl group into a compound through the formation of an ester bond between the compound and a phosphorus moiety.

A strong oxidizing agent used in aqueous solution as a ripening agent, bleach, and topical anti-infective. It is relatively unstable and solutions deteriorate over time unless stabilized by the addition of acetanilide or similar organic materials.

A CC-type chemokine that is a chemoattractant for EOSINOPHILS; MONOCYTES; and LYMPHOCYTES. It is a potent and selective eosinophil chemotaxin that is stored in and released from PLATELETS and activated T-LYMPHOCYTES. Chemokine CCL5 is specific for CCR1 RECEPTORS; CCR3 RECEPTORS; and CCR5 RECEPTORS. The acronym RANTES refers to Regulated on Activation, Normal T Expressed and Secreted.

Soluble protein factors generated by activated lymphocytes that affect other cells, primarily those involved in cellular immunity.

Substances that augment, stimulate, activate, potentiate, or modulate the immune response at either the cellular or humoral level. The classical agents (Freund's adjuvant, BCG, Corynebacterium parvum, et al.) contain bacterial antigens. Some are endogenous (e.g., histamine, interferon, transfer factor, tuftsin, interleukin-1). Their mode of action is either non-specific, resulting in increased immune responsiveness to a wide variety of antigens, or antigen-specific, i.e., affecting a restricted type of immune response to a narrow group of antigens. The therapeutic efficacy of many biological response modifiers is related to their antigen-specific immunoadjuvanticity.

The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.

A common name used for the genus Cavia. The most common species is Cavia porcellus which is the domesticated guinea pig used for pets and biomedical research.

The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.

Animals or humans raised in the absence of a particular disease-causing virus or other microorganism. Less frequently plants are cultivated pathogen-free.

A cytokine subunit that is a component of both interleukin-12 and interleukin-23. It binds to the INTERLEUKIN-12 SUBUNIT P35 via a disulfide bond to form interleukin-12 and to INTERLEUKIN-23 SUBUNIT P19 to form interleukin-23.

The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.

The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.

A broad category of receptor-like proteins that may play a role in transcriptional-regulation in the CELL NUCLEUS. Many of these proteins are similar in structure to known NUCLEAR RECEPTORS but appear to lack a functional ligand-binding domain, while in other cases the specific ligands have yet to be identified.

Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the ANTIGEN (or a very similar shape) that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially PLASMA CELLS).

The soft tissue filling the cavities of bones. Bone marrow exists in two types, yellow and red. Yellow marrow is found in the large cavities of large bones and consists mostly of fat cells and a few primitive blood cells. Red marrow is a hematopoietic tissue and is the site of production of erythrocytes and granular leukocytes. Bone marrow is made up of a framework of connective tissue containing branching fibers with the frame being filled with marrow cells.

Hypersensitivity pneumonitis: experimental production in calves with antigens of Micropolyspora faeni. (1/32182)

Pneumonitis was induced in calves by exposure to aerosols of Micropolyspora faeni with or without prior sensitization of the animals by subcutaneous injection of antigen. The pneumonitis primarily involved centrolobular areas and was characterized by alveolar septal thickening and loss of air space by cellular infiltration. Vasculitis and focal haemorrhage occurred in certain individuals and haemoproteinaceous exudate appeared within septa and alveolar lumina. The pneumonitis was compared with human farmer's lung, pneumonitis of housed cattle and other experimental hypersensitivity pneumonitides. (+info)

Cell-mediated immunity: dealing a direct blow to pathogens. (2/32182)

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes are essential for defence against viral infections. Recent data demonstrating direct killing of intracellular bacteria by granulysin, a protein released from the granules of cytotoxic T lymphocytes, emphasize the contribution of these lymphocytes to the control of tuberculosis. (+info)

Chlamydial and human heat shock protein 60s activate human vascular endothelium, smooth muscle cells, and macrophages. (3/32182)

Both chlamydial and human heat shock protein 60s (HSP 60), which colocalize in human atheroma, may contribute to inflammation during atherogenesis. We tested the hypothesis that chlamydial or human HSP 60 activates human endothelial cells (ECs), smooth muscle cells (SMCs), and monocyte-derived macrophages. We examined the expression of adhesion molecules such as endothelial-leukocyte adhesion molecule-1 (E-selectin), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), and the production of the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6). We also tested whether either HSP 60 induces nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB), which contributes to the gene expression of these molecules. Either chlamydial or human HSP 60 induced E-selectin, ICAM-1, and VCAM-1 expression on ECs similar to levels induced by Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Each HSP 60 also significantly induced IL-6 production by ECs, SMCs, and macrophages to an extent similar to that induced by E. coli LPS, as assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In ECs, either HSP 60 triggered activation of NF-kappaB complexes containing p65 and p50 Rel proteins. Heat treatment abolished all these effects, but did not alter the ability of E. coli LPS to induce these functions. Chlamydial and human HSP 60s therefore activate human vascular cell functions relevant to atherogenesis and lesional complications. These findings help to elucidate the mechanisms by which a chronic asymptomatic chlamydial infection might contribute to the pathophysiology of atheroma. (+info)

Anti-monocyte chemoattractant protein-1/monocyte chemotactic and activating factor antibody inhibits neointimal hyperplasia in injured rat carotid arteries. (4/32182)

Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1)/monocyte chemotactic and activating factor (MCAF) has been suggested to promote atherogenesis. The effects of in vivo neutralization of MCP-1 in a rat model were examined in an effort to clarify the role of MCP-1 in the development of neointimal hyperplasia. Competitive polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed maximum MCP-1 mRNA expression at 4 hours after carotid arterial injury. Increased immunoreactivities of MCP-1 were also detected at 2 and 8 hours after injury. Either anti-MCP-1 antibody or nonimmunized goat IgG (10 mg/kg) was then administered every 12 hours to rats that had undergone carotid arterial injury. Treatment with 3 consecutive doses of anti-MCP-1 antibody within 24 hours (experiment 1) and every 12 hours for 5 days (experiment 2) significantly inhibited neointimal hyperplasia at day 14, resulting in a 27.8% reduction of the mean intima/media ratio (P<0.05) in experiment 1 and a 43.6% reduction (P<0.01) in experiment 2. This effect was still apparent at day 56 (55.6% inhibition; P<0.05). The number of vascular smooth muscle cells in the neointima at day 4 was significantly reduced by anti-MCP-1 treatment, demonstrating the important role of MCP-1 in early neointimal lesion formation. However, recombinant MCP-1 did not stimulate chemotaxis of vascular smooth muscle cells in an in vitro migration assay. These results suggest that MCP-1 promotes neointimal hyperplasia in early neointimal lesion formation and that neutralization of MCP-1 before, and immediately after, arterial injury may be effective in preventing restenosis after angioplasty. Further studies are needed to clarify the mechanism underlying the promotion of neointimal hyperplasia by MCP-1. (+info)

Activated macrophages and microglia induce dopaminergic sprouting in the injured striatum and express brain-derived neurotrophic factor and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor. (5/32182)

Nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons undergo sprouting around the margins of a striatal wound. The mechanism of this periwound sprouting has been unclear. In this study, we have examined the role played by the macrophage and microglial response that follows striatal injury. Macrophages and activated microglia quickly accumulate after injury and reach their greatest numbers in the first week. Subsequently, the number of both cell types declines rapidly in the first month and thereafter more slowly. Macrophage numbers eventually cease to decline, and a sizable group of these cells remains at the wound site and forms a long-term, highly activated resident population. This population of macrophages expresses increasing amounts of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA with time. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA is also expressed in and around the wound site. Production of this factor is by both activated microglia and, to a lesser extent, macrophages. The production of these potent dopaminergic neurotrophic factors occurs in a similar spatial distribution to sprouting dopaminergic fibers. Moreover, dopamine transporter-positive dopaminergic neurites can be seen growing toward and embracing hemosiderin-filled wound macrophages. The dopaminergic sprouting that accompanies striatal injury thus appears to result from neurotrophic factor secretion by activated macrophages and microglia at the wound site. (+info)

Overexpression of CuZn superoxide dismutase protects RAW 264.7 macrophages against nitric oxide cytotoxicity. (6/32182)

Initiation of nitric oxide (NO.)-mediated apoptotic cell death in RAW 264.7 macrophages is associated with up-regulation of mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD; SOD2) and down-regulation of cytosolic copper zinc superoxide dismutase (CuZnSOD; SOD1) at their individual mRNA and protein levels. To evaluate the decreased CuZnSOD expression and the initiation of apoptosis we stably transfected macrophages to overexpress human CuZnSOD. Individual clones revealed a 2-fold increase in CuZnSOD activity. Expression of a functional and thus protective CuZnSOD was verified by attenuated superoxide (O2(.)-)-mediated apoptotic as well as necrotic cell death. In this study we showed that SOD-overexpressing macrophages (R-SOD1-12) were also protected against NO.-initiated programmed cell death. Protection was substantial towards NO. derived from exogenously added NO donors or when NO. was generated by inducible NO synthase activation, and was evident at the level of p53 accumulation, caspase activation and DNA fragmentation. Stimulation of parent and SOD-overexpressing cells with a combination of lipopolysaccharide and murine interferon gamma produced equivalent amounts of nitrite/nitrate, which ruled out attenuated inducible NO. synthase activity during protection. Because protection by a O2(.)--scavenging system during NO. -intoxication implies a role of NO. and O2(.)- in the progression of cell damage, we used uric acid to delineate the role of peroxynitrite during NO.-elicited apoptosis. The peroxynitrite scavenger uric acid left S-nitrosoglutathione or spermine-NO-elicited apoptosis unaltered, blocking only 3-morpholinosydnonimine-mediated cell death. As a result we exclude peroxynitrite from contributing, to any major extent, to NO. -mediated apoptosis. Therefore protection observed with CuZnSOD overexpression is unlikely to stem from interference with peroxynitrite formation and/or action. Unequivocally, the down-regulation of CuZnSOD is associated with NO. cytotoxicity, whereas CuZnSOD overexpression protects macrophages from apoptosis. (+info)

Salmonella typhimurium and lipopolysaccharide stimulate extracellularly regulated kinase activation in macrophages by a mechanism involving phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and phospholipase D as novel intermediates. (7/32182)

Activation of the extracellularly regulated kinase (ERK) pathway is part of the early biochemical events that follow lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment of macrophages or their infection by virulent and attenuated Salmonella strains. Phagocytosis as well as the secretion of invasion-associated proteins is dispensable for ERK activation by the pathogen. Furthermore, the pathways used by Salmonella and LPS to stimulate ERK are identical, suggesting that kinase activation might be solely mediated by LPS. Both stimuli activate ERK by a mechanism involving herbimycin-dependent tyrosine kinase(s) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase. Phospholipase D activation and stimulation of protein kinase C appear to be intermediates in this novel pathway of MEK/ERK activation. (+info)

Non-serum-dependent chemotactic factors produced by Candida albicans stimulate chemotaxis by binding to the formyl peptide receptor on neutrophils and to an unknown receptor on macrophages. (8/32182)

Serum-free culture filtrates of six Candida species and Saccharomyces cerevisiae were found to contain chemoattractants for human polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) and a mouse macrophage-like cell line, J774. The chemotactic factors differed for the PMN and J774 cells, however, in terms of heat stability, kinetics of liberation by the yeast cells, and divalent cation requirements for production. The chemoattractant in Candida albicans culture filtrates appeared to act through the formyl peptide receptor (FPR) of PMNs, since it was found to induce chemotaxis of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells that were expressing the human FPR but did not induce chemotaxis of wild-type CHO cells. The C. albicans culture filtrates also induced migration of PMNs across confluent monolayers of a human gastrointestinal epithelial cell line, T84; migration occurred in the basolateral-to-apical direction but not the reverse direction, unless the epithelial tight junctions were disrupted. J774 cells did not migrate toward the formylated peptide (fMet-Leu-Phe; fMLF), and chemotaxis toward the C. albicans culture filtrate was not inhibited by an FPR antagonist (t-butoxycarbonyl-Met-Leu-Phe), suggesting that a different receptor mediated J774 cell chemotaxis. In conclusion, we have identified a receptor by which a non-serum-dependent chemotactic factor (NSCF) produced by C. albicans induced chemotaxis of PMNs. Additionally, we have shown that NSCF was active across epithelial monolayers. These findings suggest that NSCFs produced by C. albicans and other yeast species may influence host-pathogen interactions at the gastrointestinal tract mucosal surface by inducing phagocytic-cell infiltration. (+info)

Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (M-CSF) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the development and function of macrophages, a type of white blood cell that is an important component of the immune system. M-CSF is produced by a variety of cells, including macrophages, monocytes, and osteoblasts, and it acts on macrophages to stimulate their proliferation and differentiation. M-CSF is also involved in the regulation of the inflammatory response, and it has been shown to play a role in the development of certain types of cancer, such as multiple myeloma and breast cancer. In addition, M-CSF has been used as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of certain types of cancer, such as myelodysplastic syndromes and acute myeloid leukemia. Overall, M-CSF is an important molecule in the immune system and has a number of potential therapeutic applications.

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are a type of complex carbohydrate found on the surface of gram-negative bacteria. They are composed of a lipid A moiety, a core polysaccharide, and an O-specific polysaccharide. LPS are important components of the bacterial cell wall and play a role in the innate immune response of the host. In the medical field, LPS are often studied in the context of sepsis, a life-threatening condition that occurs when the body's response to an infection causes widespread inflammation. LPS can trigger a strong immune response in the host, leading to the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and other mediators that can cause tissue damage and organ failure. As a result, LPS are often used as a model for studying the pathophysiology of sepsis and for developing new treatments for this condition. LPS are also used in research as a tool for studying the immune system and for developing vaccines against bacterial infections. They can be purified from bacterial cultures and used to stimulate immune cells in vitro or in animal models, allowing researchers to study the mechanisms of immune responses to bacterial pathogens. Additionally, LPS can be used as an adjuvant in vaccines to enhance the immune response to the vaccine antigen.

Macrophage Migration-Inhibitory Factors (MIF) are a group of proteins that are produced by various cells in the body, including macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells. MIF plays a role in regulating the immune response by inhibiting the migration of macrophages and other immune cells to sites of inflammation or infection. It also has other functions, such as regulating the production of cytokines and modulating the activity of certain enzymes. MIF has been implicated in a number of diseases, including autoimmune disorders, cancer, and infectious diseases.

Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is a cytokine, a type of signaling protein, that plays a crucial role in the immune response and inflammation. It is produced by various cells in the body, including macrophages, monocytes, and T cells, in response to infection, injury, or other stimuli. TNF-alpha has multiple functions in the body, including regulating the immune response, promoting cell growth and differentiation, and mediating inflammation. It can also induce programmed cell death, or apoptosis, in some cells, which can be beneficial in fighting cancer. However, excessive or prolonged TNF-alpha production can lead to chronic inflammation and tissue damage, which can contribute to the development of various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, inflammatory bowel disease, and certain types of cancer. In the medical field, TNF-alpha is often targeted in the treatment of these conditions. For example, drugs called TNF inhibitors, such as infliximab and adalimumab, are used to block the action of TNF-alpha and reduce inflammation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease, and other inflammatory conditions.

Cytokines are small proteins that are produced by various cells of the immune system, including white blood cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells. They play a crucial role in regulating immune responses and inflammation, and are involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. Cytokines can be classified into different groups based on their function, including pro-inflammatory cytokines, anti-inflammatory cytokines, and regulatory cytokines. Pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-1 (IL-1), promote inflammation and recruit immune cells to the site of infection or injury. Anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-10 (IL-10) and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta), help to dampen the immune response and prevent excessive inflammation. Regulatory cytokines, such as interleukin-4 (IL-4) and interleukin-13 (IL-13), help to regulate the balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses. Cytokines play a critical role in many diseases, including autoimmune disorders, cancer, and infectious diseases. They are also important in the development of vaccines and immunotherapies.

Thioglycolates are a class of compounds that contain a sulfur atom bonded to a glycolate group (-COO-) and are commonly used in the medical field as disinfectants and antiseptics. They are effective against a wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi, and are often used in hospital settings to clean and disinfect surfaces and equipment. One common thioglycolate is chlorhexidine gluconate, which is a widely used antiseptic in healthcare settings. It is effective against a broad range of microorganisms and is often used in mouthwashes, throat lozenges, and surgical scrubs. Other thioglycolates include benzethonium chloride and cetrimide, which are also used as disinfectants and antiseptics in healthcare settings. Thioglycolates are generally considered safe for use on skin and surfaces, but they can be irritating to the eyes and respiratory system if inhaled or ingested in large quantities. They should be used according to the manufacturer's instructions and precautions should be taken to avoid contact with the eyes and skin.

Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins (MIPs) are a family of small proteins that are produced by macrophages, a type of white blood cell. These proteins play a role in the immune response by promoting inflammation and attracting other immune cells to the site of infection or injury. MIPs are also involved in the regulation of angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels, and in the development of certain types of cancer. There are several different types of MIPs, including MIP-1α, MIP-1β, and MIP-2, each with its own specific functions and effects on the immune system.

Inflammation is a complex biological response of the body to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is a protective mechanism that helps to eliminate the cause of injury, remove damaged tissue, and initiate the healing process. Inflammation involves the activation of immune cells, such as white blood cells, and the release of chemical mediators, such as cytokines and prostaglandins. This leads to the characteristic signs and symptoms of inflammation, including redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function. Inflammation can be acute or chronic. Acute inflammation is a short-term response that lasts for a few days to a few weeks and is usually beneficial. Chronic inflammation, on the other hand, is a prolonged response that lasts for months or years and can be harmful if it persists. Chronic inflammation is associated with many diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and autoimmune disorders.

The Receptor, Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (M-CSFR) is a protein receptor that is expressed on the surface of various types of cells, including macrophages, osteoclasts, and dendritic cells. It is also known as c-fms and is a member of the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) family. M-CSFR plays a critical role in the development and function of macrophages, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune system. M-CSFR is activated by its ligand, macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), which is a cytokine that is produced by a variety of cells, including macrophages and osteoblasts. When M-CSF binds to M-CSFR, it triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the proliferation, differentiation, and survival of macrophages. M-CSFR is also involved in the regulation of bone metabolism, as it is expressed on osteoclasts, which are cells that break down bone tissue. In the medical field, M-CSFR is an important target for the development of drugs for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, inflammation, and bone disorders. For example, drugs that block the activity of M-CSFR have been shown to be effective in reducing the growth and spread of certain types of cancer, such as multiple myeloma and breast cancer.

In the medical field, RNA, Messenger (mRNA) refers to a type of RNA molecule that carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus of a cell to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized. During the process of transcription, the DNA sequence of a gene is copied into a complementary RNA sequence called messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA molecule then leaves the nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm of the cell, where it binds to ribosomes and serves as a template for the synthesis of a specific protein. The sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule determines the sequence of amino acids in the protein that is synthesized. Therefore, changes in the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule can result in changes in the amino acid sequence of the protein, which can affect the function of the protein and potentially lead to disease. mRNA molecules are often used in medical research and therapy as a way to introduce new genetic information into cells. For example, mRNA vaccines work by introducing a small piece of mRNA that encodes for a specific protein, which triggers an immune response in the body.

Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is produced by various immune cells, including T cells, natural killer cells, and macrophages, in response to viral or bacterial infections, as well as in response to certain types of cancer. IFN-γ has a wide range of effects on the immune system, including the activation of macrophages and other immune cells, the inhibition of viral replication, and the promotion of T cell differentiation and proliferation. It also plays a role in the regulation of the immune response, helping to prevent excessive inflammation and tissue damage. In the medical field, IFN-γ is used as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of certain types of cancer, such as Hodgkin's lymphoma and multiple myeloma. It is also being studied as a potential treatment for other conditions, such as autoimmune diseases and viral infections.

Clodronic acid is a bisphosphonate medication that is used to treat and prevent osteoporosis, a condition in which the bones become weak and brittle. It works by inhibiting the activity of osteoclasts, which are cells that break down bone tissue. This helps to slow down bone loss and increase bone density. Clodronic acid is also used to treat Paget's disease of the bone, a condition in which the bone tissue is overactive and causes the bones to become enlarged and misshapen. It is usually taken orally in the form of tablets or as a solution that is injected into a vein.

Scavenger receptors, class A (SR-A) are a family of cell surface receptors that play a crucial role in the immune system and in the clearance of cellular debris and modified lipoproteins. They are found on a variety of cell types, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and endothelial cells. SR-A receptors recognize and bind to a wide range of ligands, including oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL), apoptotic cells, and bacterial and fungal components. They are involved in the recognition and clearance of these ligands, as well as in the regulation of inflammation and immune responses. In addition to their role in immune function, SR-A receptors have also been implicated in the development of a number of diseases, including atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and cancer. They are therefore an important target for the development of new therapeutic strategies for these conditions.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a colorless, odorless gas that is produced naturally in the body by various cells, including endothelial cells in the lining of blood vessels. It plays a crucial role in the regulation of blood flow and blood pressure, as well as in the immune response and neurotransmission. In the medical field, NO is often studied in relation to cardiovascular disease, as it is involved in the regulation of blood vessel dilation and constriction. It has also been implicated in the pathogenesis of various conditions, including hypertension, atherosclerosis, and heart failure. NO is also used in medical treatments, such as in the treatment of erectile dysfunction, where it is used to enhance blood flow to the penis. It is also used in the treatment of pulmonary hypertension, where it helps to relax blood vessels in the lungs and improve blood flow. Overall, NO is a critical molecule in the body that plays a vital role in many physiological processes, and its study and manipulation have important implications for the treatment of various medical conditions.

Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II (NOS II) is an enzyme that is primarily found in the cells of the immune system, particularly in macrophages and neutrophils. It is responsible for producing nitric oxide (NO), a gas that plays a key role in the immune response by regulating inflammation and blood flow. NOS II is activated in response to various stimuli, such as bacterial or viral infections, and it produces large amounts of NO, which can help to kill invading pathogens and promote the recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection. However, excessive production of NO by NOS II can also lead to tissue damage and contribute to the development of chronic inflammatory diseases. In the medical field, NOS II is often studied in the context of inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and asthma, as well as in the development of cancer and cardiovascular disease. In some cases, drugs that inhibit NOS II activity have been used to treat these conditions, although their effectiveness and potential side effects are still being studied.

Macrophage-activating factors (MAFs) are a group of molecules that stimulate the activity of macrophages, a type of immune cell that plays a crucial role in the body's defense against infections and diseases. MAFs can be endogenous (produced by the body) or exogenous (from external sources such as bacteria or viruses). MAFs can activate macrophages by binding to specific receptors on their surface, leading to changes in the macrophage's phenotype and function. Activated macrophages can then phagocytose (engulf and destroy) pathogens, produce inflammatory mediators, and stimulate the immune response. Some examples of MAFs include interferons, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-1 (IL-1), and lipopolysaccharides (LPS). MAFs play a critical role in the immune response and are involved in many diseases, including infections, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.

Zymosan is a polysaccharide derived from the cell walls of yeasts and other fungi. It is commonly used in medical research as an activator of the immune system, particularly in the study of inflammation and autoimmune diseases. When zymosan is injected into the body, it triggers an immune response that involves the release of various inflammatory mediators, such as cytokines and chemokines. This response can be used to study the function of immune cells and the signaling pathways involved in inflammation. Zymosan has also been used in clinical trials as a potential treatment for various conditions, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and sepsis. However, more research is needed to fully understand its therapeutic potential and potential side effects.

Lipoproteins, LDL, also known as low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, are a type of lipoprotein that carries cholesterol in the bloodstream. LDL cholesterol is often referred to as "bad" cholesterol because high levels of it in the blood can contribute to the development of atherosclerosis, a condition in which plaque builds up in the arteries, leading to an increased risk of heart attack and stroke. LDL cholesterol is produced by the liver and is transported in the bloodstream to various tissues throughout the body. It is taken up by cells through a process called receptor-mediated endocytosis, which involves the binding of LDL particles to specific receptors on the surface of the cell. In addition to carrying cholesterol, LDL particles also contain other lipids, such as triglycerides and phospholipids, as well as proteins, including apolipoproteins. The ratio of apolipoproteins to lipids in LDL particles determines their density, with LDL particles that contain a higher proportion of lipids being less dense and those that contain a higher proportion of proteins being more dense. Overall, the level of LDL cholesterol in the blood is an important risk factor for cardiovascular disease, and efforts to lower LDL cholesterol levels through lifestyle changes and/or medication are often recommended for individuals with high levels of this type of cholesterol.

Mannose-binding lectins (MBLs) are a group of proteins that are produced by the liver and play an important role in the innate immune system. They are part of the complement system, which is a complex network of proteins that helps to defend the body against infections. MBLs are able to bind to specific carbohydrate structures on the surface of microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses, and mark them for destruction by other components of the immune system. They also play a role in activating the complement system, which helps to recruit immune cells to the site of infection and promote inflammation. In the medical field, MBLs are often measured as a way to assess the body's ability to mount an immune response. Low levels of MBLs have been associated with an increased risk of infections, while high levels have been linked to certain autoimmune disorders. MBLs are also being studied as potential targets for the development of new treatments for infectious diseases and other conditions.

Chemokine CCL2, also known as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), is a small protein that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is a member of the chemokine family of proteins, which are responsible for regulating the movement of immune cells within the body. CCL2 is primarily produced by cells such as monocytes, macrophages, and endothelial cells in response to inflammatory stimuli. It functions as a chemoattractant, drawing immune cells towards the site of inflammation or infection. Specifically, CCL2 attracts monocytes and T cells to the site of injury or infection, where they can help to clear the infection and promote tissue repair. In addition to its role in immune cell recruitment, CCL2 has also been implicated in a variety of other physiological processes, including angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels), tissue repair, and cancer progression. Dysregulation of CCL2 expression or function has been linked to a number of diseases, including atherosclerosis, diabetes, and certain types of cancer.

Receptors, Scavenger are proteins that are present on the surface of cells and are responsible for recognizing and binding to specific molecules, such as waste products or toxins, in the body. These receptors then internalize the bound molecules and transport them to the cell's interior for degradation or elimination. Scavenger receptors play an important role in maintaining the health of cells and tissues by removing harmful substances from the body. They are found in a variety of cell types, including macrophages, neutrophils, and endothelial cells.

NF-kappa B (Nuclear Factor kappa B) is a transcription factor that plays a critical role in regulating the immune response, inflammation, and cell survival. It is a complex of proteins that is found in the cytoplasm of cells and is activated in response to various stimuli, such as cytokines, bacterial and viral infections, and stress. When activated, NF-kappa B translocates to the nucleus and binds to specific DNA sequences, promoting the expression of genes involved in immune and inflammatory responses. This includes genes encoding for cytokines, chemokines, and adhesion molecules, which help to recruit immune cells to the site of infection or injury. NF-kappa B is also involved in regulating cell survival and apoptosis (programmed cell death). Dysregulation of NF-kappa B signaling has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease.

Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is a type of protein that plays a crucial role in the innate immune system. It is a member of the toll-like receptor family, which is a group of proteins that recognize and respond to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on the surface of invading microorganisms. TLR4 is expressed on the surface of immune cells, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, as well as on non-immune cells, such as endothelial cells and fibroblasts. When TLR4 recognizes a PAMP, it triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of immune cells and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. TLR4 is also involved in the recognition of endogenous danger signals, such as those released by damaged or dying cells, and plays a role in the development of chronic inflammatory diseases, such as atherosclerosis, asthma, and inflammatory bowel disease. In the medical field, TLR4 is an important target for the development of new drugs and therapies for a variety of diseases, including infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.

Receptors, cell surface are proteins that are located on the surface of cells and are responsible for receiving signals from the environment. These signals can be chemical, electrical, or mechanical in nature and can trigger a variety of cellular responses. There are many different types of cell surface receptors, including ion channels, G-protein coupled receptors, and enzyme-linked receptors. These receptors play a critical role in many physiological processes, including sensation, communication, and regulation of cellular activity. In the medical field, understanding the function and regulation of cell surface receptors is important for developing new treatments for a wide range of diseases and conditions.

Atherosclerosis is a medical condition characterized by the hardening and narrowing of the arteries due to the buildup of plaque. Plaque is made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances that accumulate on the inner walls of the arteries over time. As the plaque builds up, it can restrict blood flow to the organs and tissues that the arteries supply, leading to a range of health problems. Atherosclerosis is a common condition that can affect any artery in the body, but it is most commonly associated with the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart. When atherosclerosis affects the coronary arteries, it can lead to the development of coronary artery disease (CAD), which is a major cause of heart attacks and strokes. Atherosclerosis can also affect the arteries that supply blood to the brain, legs, kidneys, and other organs, leading to a range of health problems such as peripheral artery disease, stroke, and kidney disease. Risk factors for atherosclerosis include high blood pressure, high cholesterol, smoking, diabetes, obesity, and a family history of the condition.

In the medical field, "Disease Models, Animal" refers to the use of animals to study and understand human diseases. These models are created by introducing a disease or condition into an animal, either naturally or through experimental manipulation, in order to study its progression, symptoms, and potential treatments. Animal models are used in medical research because they allow scientists to study diseases in a controlled environment and to test potential treatments before they are tested in humans. They can also provide insights into the underlying mechanisms of a disease and help to identify new therapeutic targets. There are many different types of animal models used in medical research, including mice, rats, rabbits, dogs, and monkeys. Each type of animal has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of model depends on the specific disease being studied and the research question being addressed.

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a cytokine, a type of signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is produced by a variety of cells, including immune cells such as macrophages, monocytes, and T cells, as well as non-immune cells such as fibroblasts and endothelial cells. IL-6 has a wide range of functions in the body, including regulating the immune response, promoting inflammation, and stimulating the growth and differentiation of immune cells. It is also involved in the regulation of metabolism, bone metabolism, and hematopoiesis (the production of blood cells). In the medical field, IL-6 is often measured as a marker of inflammation and is used to diagnose and monitor a variety of conditions, including autoimmune diseases, infections, and cancer. It is also being studied as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of these conditions, as well as for the management of chronic pain and other conditions.

Receptors, immunologic are proteins on the surface of immune cells that recognize and bind to specific molecules, such as antigens, to initiate an immune response. These receptors play a crucial role in the body's ability to defend against infections and other harmful substances. There are many different types of immunologic receptors, including T cell receptors, B cell receptors, and natural killer cell receptors, each with its own specific function and mechanism of action.

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in the immune system. IL-1 is produced by various types of immune cells, including macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells, in response to infection, injury, or inflammation. IL-1 has multiple functions in the immune system, including promoting the activation and proliferation of immune cells, enhancing the production of other cytokines, and regulating the inflammatory response. It can also stimulate the production of fever, which helps to fight off infections. In the medical field, IL-1 is often studied in the context of various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, inflammatory bowel disease, and rheumatoid arthritis. It is also being investigated as a potential target for the development of new treatments for these conditions.

Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) is a protein that plays a critical role in the development and function of white blood cells, particularly granulocytes and macrophages. It is produced by a variety of cells, including bone marrow cells, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells. In the bone marrow, GM-CSF stimulates the proliferation and differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells into granulocytes and macrophages. These cells are important components of the immune system and play a key role in fighting infections and removing damaged or infected cells from the body. GM-CSF also has a number of other functions in the body, including promoting the survival of granulocytes and macrophages, enhancing their ability to phagocytose (engulf and destroy) pathogens, and stimulating the production of cytokines and other signaling molecules that help to coordinate the immune response. In the medical field, GM-CSF is used as a treatment for a variety of conditions, including cancer, bone marrow suppression, and certain immune disorders. It is typically administered as a recombinant protein, either as a standalone therapy or in combination with other treatments.

Interleukin-10 (IL-10) is a cytokine, which is a type of signaling molecule that plays a role in regulating the immune system. It is produced by various immune cells, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and T cells, in response to infection or inflammation. IL-10 has anti-inflammatory properties and helps to suppress the immune response, which can be beneficial in preventing excessive inflammation and tissue damage. It also has immunosuppressive effects, which can help to prevent autoimmune diseases and transplant rejection. In the medical field, IL-10 is being studied for its potential therapeutic applications in a variety of conditions, including inflammatory diseases, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. For example, IL-10 has been shown to be effective in reducing inflammation and improving symptoms in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease, and other inflammatory conditions. It is also being investigated as a potential treatment for cancer, as it may help to suppress the immune response that allows cancer cells to evade detection and destruction by the immune system.

Chemokines are a family of small signaling proteins that play a crucial role in the immune system. They are produced by various cells in response to infection, injury, or inflammation and act as chemical messengers to attract immune cells to the site of injury or infection. Chemokines bind to specific receptors on the surface of immune cells, such as neutrophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes, and guide them to the site of infection or injury. They also play a role in regulating the migration and activation of immune cells within tissues. In the medical field, chemokines are important for understanding and treating various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases. They are also being studied as potential therapeutic targets for the development of new drugs to treat these conditions.

Chemokine CCL4, also known as macrophage inflammatory protein 1β (MIP-1β), is a small protein that plays a role in the immune system. It is a type of chemokine, which are a group of signaling molecules that help to direct the movement of immune cells to specific areas of the body in response to infection or injury. CCL4 is produced by a variety of cells, including macrophages, monocytes, and T cells. It is involved in the recruitment of immune cells to sites of inflammation and is also thought to play a role in the development of certain types of cancer. In the medical field, CCL4 is often studied as a potential target for the treatment of diseases such as cancer, autoimmune disorders, and viral infections. It is also used as a diagnostic marker for certain conditions, such as HIV infection and liver disease.

Chemokine CCL3, also known as macrophage inflammatory protein 1α (MIP-1α), is a type of chemokine protein that plays a role in the immune system. It is produced by various cells, including macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells, in response to infection or inflammation. CCL3 functions as a chemoattractant, drawing immune cells to the site of infection or injury. It also has other functions, such as promoting the activation and differentiation of immune cells, and regulating the inflammatory response. In the medical field, CCL3 is often studied in the context of various diseases, including HIV/AIDS, cancer, and autoimmune disorders. For example, high levels of CCL3 have been associated with poor outcomes in HIV/AIDS, and it has been proposed as a potential therapeutic target for the disease. Additionally, CCL3 has been implicated in the development and progression of certain types of cancer, such as breast cancer and lung cancer.

Recombinant proteins are proteins that are produced by genetically engineering bacteria, yeast, or other organisms to express a specific gene. These proteins are typically used in medical research and drug development because they can be produced in large quantities and are often more pure and consistent than proteins that are extracted from natural sources. Recombinant proteins can be used for a variety of purposes in medicine, including as diagnostic tools, therapeutic agents, and research tools. For example, recombinant versions of human proteins such as insulin, growth hormones, and clotting factors are used to treat a variety of medical conditions. Recombinant proteins can also be used to study the function of specific genes and proteins, which can help researchers understand the underlying causes of diseases and develop new treatments.

Arginase is an enzyme that plays a role in the metabolism of the amino acid arginine. It is found in a variety of tissues throughout the body, including the liver, kidneys, and spleen. In the medical field, arginase is of interest because it is involved in the production of nitric oxide, a molecule that helps to regulate blood pressure and inflammation. Arginase inhibitors are being studied as potential treatments for a variety of conditions, including hypertension, atherosclerosis, and inflammatory diseases. Arginase is also involved in the metabolism of ornithine, another amino acid, and is important for the production of polyamines, which are essential for cell growth and division.

Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance that is produced by the liver and is also found in some foods. It is an essential component of cell membranes and is necessary for the production of hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D. However, high levels of cholesterol in the blood can increase the risk of developing heart disease and stroke. There are two main types of cholesterol: low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, which is often referred to as "bad" cholesterol because it can build up in the walls of arteries and lead to plaque formation, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, which is often referred to as "good" cholesterol because it helps remove excess cholesterol from the bloodstream and transport it back to the liver for processing.

Receptors, Fc refers to a type of protein receptor found on the surface of immune cells, such as antibodies and immune cells, that recognize and bind to the Fc region of other proteins, particularly antibodies. The Fc region is the portion of an antibody that is located at the base of the Y-shaped structure and is responsible for binding to other proteins, such as antigens or immune cells. When an Fc receptor binds to the Fc region of an antibody, it can trigger a variety of immune responses, such as the activation of immune cells or the destruction of pathogens. Fc receptors play a critical role in the immune system and are involved in many different immune responses, including the clearance of pathogens and the regulation of inflammation.

Lectins, C-Type are a type of carbohydrate-binding proteins that are found in a variety of plants, animals, and microorganisms. They are characterized by the presence of a conserved cysteine residue in their carbohydrate recognition domain, which is responsible for their binding specificity to specific carbohydrate structures. C-Type lectins are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including immune response, cell adhesion, and cell signaling. They are also used in medical research and have potential therapeutic applications, such as in the treatment of cancer, infectious diseases, and inflammatory disorders. In the medical field, C-Type lectins are often studied for their ability to bind to specific carbohydrate structures on the surface of cells, which can be used to target and modulate cellular processes. They are also used as diagnostic tools to detect specific carbohydrate structures in biological samples, such as in the diagnosis of certain diseases or to monitor the progression of a disease.

Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) is a type of protein that plays a crucial role in the innate immune system. It is a member of the Toll-like receptor family, which is a group of proteins that recognize and respond to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on the surface of invading microorganisms. TLR2 is expressed on the surface of various immune cells, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils. When it encounters a PAMP, such as lipoteichoic acid or peptidoglycan, it triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of immune cells and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. TLR2 is also involved in the recognition of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), which are molecules that are released by damaged or dying cells. Activation of TLR2 by DAMPs can lead to the activation of immune cells and the initiation of an inflammatory response. In the medical field, TLR2 is being studied for its potential role in the development of new therapies for a variety of diseases, including infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and cancer. For example, TLR2 agonists are being investigated as potential treatments for bacterial infections, while TLR2 antagonists are being studied as potential therapies for autoimmune diseases and cancer.

Interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is produced by various types of immune cells, including macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells, in response to infection, injury, or inflammation. IL-1β is involved in the regulation of immune responses, including the activation of T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells. It also promotes the production of other cytokines and chemokines, which help to recruit immune cells to the site of infection or injury. In addition to its role in the immune system, IL-1β has been implicated in a variety of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and multiple sclerosis. It is also involved in the pathogenesis of certain types of cancer, such as breast cancer and ovarian cancer. Overall, IL-1β is a key mediator of inflammation and immune responses, and its dysregulation has been linked to a range of diseases and conditions.

Monokines are a type of cytokine, which are signaling molecules secreted by a single type of cell. Monokines are produced by various immune cells, such as macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells, in response to infection, inflammation, or other stimuli. They play a role in regulating immune responses, including the recruitment and activation of other immune cells, the production of antibodies, and the regulation of inflammation. Examples of monokines include interleukin-1 (IL-1), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma).

Opsonin proteins are a type of immune system protein that play a role in the process of phagocytosis, which is the process by which immune cells called phagocytes engulf and destroy foreign particles, such as bacteria or viruses. Opsonins bind to the surface of these foreign particles, marking them for destruction by phagocytes. This process is known as opsonization. There are several different types of opsonin proteins, including antibodies, complement proteins, and mannose-binding lectin (MBL). Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence of a foreign substance, such as a virus or bacteria. They bind to specific molecules on the surface of these foreign particles, marking them for destruction by phagocytes. Complement proteins are a group of proteins that are part of the innate immune system. They are produced by the liver and other organs and circulate in the blood. Complement proteins can bind to foreign particles and mark them for destruction by phagocytes. MBL is a protein that is produced by the liver and circulates in the blood. It binds to specific molecules on the surface of foreign particles, marking them for destruction by phagocytes. Opsonin proteins play an important role in the immune system by helping to identify and destroy foreign particles. They are an important part of the body's defense against infection and disease.

Membrane glycoproteins are proteins that are attached to the cell membrane through a glycosyl group, which is a complex carbohydrate. These proteins play important roles in cell signaling, cell adhesion, and cell recognition. They are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including immune response, cell growth and differentiation, and nerve transmission. Membrane glycoproteins can be classified into two main types: transmembrane glycoproteins, which span the entire cell membrane, and peripheral glycoproteins, which are located on one side of the membrane.

Arteriosclerosis is a medical condition characterized by the hardening and thickening of the walls of arteries due to the buildup of plaque. This buildup can restrict blood flow to the organs and tissues that the arteries supply, leading to a range of health problems, including heart disease, stroke, and peripheral artery disease. The process of arteriosclerosis involves the accumulation of fatty deposits, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances in the inner lining of the arteries. Over time, these deposits can harden and form plaques, which can narrow the arteries and reduce blood flow. The plaques can also rupture, causing blood clots that can block blood flow and lead to serious complications. Arteriosclerosis is a common condition that can affect people of all ages, but it is more likely to occur in older adults and people with certain risk factors, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, smoking, diabetes, and a family history of heart disease. Treatment for arteriosclerosis typically involves lifestyle changes, such as quitting smoking, eating a healthy diet, and exercising regularly, as well as medications to lower blood pressure, cholesterol, and blood sugar levels. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove plaque or open blocked arteries.

Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) is a protein that plays a crucial role in lipid metabolism and transport in the human body. It is a component of lipoproteins, which are complex particles that transport lipids, such as cholesterol and triglycerides, throughout the bloodstream. There are three major isoforms of ApoE, which are designated as ApoE2, ApoE3, and ApoE4. These isoforms differ in the amino acid sequence of the protein, and they have different effects on lipid metabolism and transport. ApoE is synthesized in the liver and secreted into the bloodstream, where it binds to lipids and forms lipoprotein particles. These particles are then transported to various tissues throughout the body, where they deliver lipids to cells for energy production or storage. ApoE also plays a role in the clearance of cholesterol from the bloodstream. It binds to low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles, which are often referred to as "bad" cholesterol, and helps to remove them from the bloodstream. In the medical field, ApoE is an important biomarker for cardiovascular disease risk. Studies have shown that individuals with certain ApoE genotypes, particularly the ApoE4 genotype, are at increased risk for developing cardiovascular disease, including heart attack and stroke.

Receptors, IgG are a type of immune system receptor that recognizes and binds to the Fc region of immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies. These receptors are found on the surface of various immune cells, including macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells. When an IgG antibody binds to its specific antigen, it can activate these immune cells through the interaction with their IgG receptors. This activation can lead to the destruction of the antigen-antibody complex, as well as the recruitment of additional immune cells to the site of infection or inflammation. Receptors, IgG play an important role in the immune response to infections and other diseases, and their dysfunction can contribute to various immune disorders.

Dinoprostone is a synthetic prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) medication that is used in the medical field to induce labor in pregnant women who are past their due date or who are at risk of complications during delivery. It is typically administered vaginally as a gel or tablet, and works by stimulating the muscles of the uterus to contract and push the baby out of the womb. Dinoprostone is also sometimes used to treat certain conditions that can cause bleeding in the uterus, such as uterine fibroids or abnormal bleeding during pregnancy. It is generally considered safe and effective for use in pregnant women, but like all medications, it can cause side effects in some people. These may include cramping, bleeding, and uterine contractions.

Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the production of nitric oxide (NO) in the body. There are three main types of NOS: endothelial NOS (eNOS), neuronal NOS (nNOS), and inducible NOS (iNOS). eNOS is primarily found in the endothelial cells that line blood vessels and is responsible for producing NO in response to various stimuli, such as shear stress, hormones, and neurotransmitters. NO produced by eNOS helps to relax blood vessels and improve blood flow, which is important for maintaining cardiovascular health. nNOS is found in neurons and is involved in neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity. iNOS is induced in response to inflammation and is involved in the production of NO in immune cells and other tissues. Abnormal regulation of NOS activity has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms that regulate NOS activity is an important area of research in the medical field.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in the innate immune system. They are expressed on the surface of immune cells, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, and are responsible for recognizing and responding to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which are molecules that are unique to microorganisms and not found in host cells. When TLRs recognize PAMPs, they trigger a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of immune cells and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. This helps to initiate an immune response against the invading pathogen. TLRs are also involved in the recognition of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), which are molecules that are released by damaged or dying host cells. This can help to trigger an inflammatory response in cases of tissue injury or infection. Overall, TLRs play a critical role in the immune system's ability to detect and respond to pathogens and tissue damage.

ATP Binding Cassette Transporter 1 (ABCA1) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the transport of cholesterol and other lipids out of cells. It is a member of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter family, which are a large group of proteins that use ATP to transport a wide variety of molecules across cell membranes. ABCA1 is expressed in many different tissues, including the liver, brain, and adipose tissue. In the liver, ABCA1 is involved in the production of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, which is often referred to as "good" cholesterol because it helps remove excess cholesterol from the body. ABCA1 also plays a role in the transport of other lipids, such as phospholipids and sphingolipids, out of cells. Mutations in the ABCA1 gene can lead to a number of inherited disorders that affect cholesterol metabolism, including Tangier disease and familial HDL deficiency. These disorders are characterized by low levels of HDL cholesterol and an increased risk of heart disease.

Chemokine CXCL2, also known as neutrophil chemotactic factor 2 (NCF2) or macrophage inflammatory protein 2 (MIP-2), is a small protein that plays a crucial role in the immune response. It is a member of the CXC chemokine family, which is a group of proteins that regulate the movement of immune cells, such as neutrophils and macrophages, to sites of inflammation or infection. CXCL2 is produced by a variety of cells, including monocytes, macrophages, and endothelial cells, in response to inflammatory stimuli such as bacterial or viral infections, tissue damage, or injury. It acts as a chemoattractant, drawing immune cells to the site of inflammation by binding to specific receptors on their surface. Once CXCL2 binds to its receptors, it triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation and migration of immune cells towards the site of inflammation. This process is essential for the clearance of pathogens and the resolution of inflammation. In addition to its role in the immune response, CXCL2 has been implicated in a variety of other physiological processes, including wound healing, angiogenesis, and cancer progression.

In the medical field, superoxides are highly reactive oxygen species that contain one unpaired electron in their outermost shell. They are formed when oxygen molecules (O2) gain an electron and become excited, resulting in the formation of a superoxide radical (O2•-). Superoxides are produced naturally by cells as a byproduct of cellular respiration and are involved in various physiological processes, including the immune response, detoxification, and the regulation of gene expression. However, excessive production of superoxides can also lead to oxidative stress and damage to cellular components, including DNA, proteins, and lipids. In medicine, superoxides are often studied in the context of various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. They are also used as therapeutic agents in the treatment of certain conditions, such as infections and inflammation.

Macrophage-1 Antigen (Mac-1) is a protein that is expressed on the surface of certain immune cells, including macrophages and neutrophils. It is also known as CD11b/CD18 or CR3 (complement receptor 3). Mac-1 plays a role in the immune system by mediating the adhesion and migration of immune cells to sites of inflammation or infection. It also plays a role in the recognition and phagocytosis of pathogens by immune cells. In the medical field, Mac-1 is often used as a diagnostic marker for certain diseases, such as sepsis, and as a target for the development of new therapies for inflammatory and infectious diseases.

Interleukin-12 (IL-12) is a cytokine that plays a critical role in the immune response to infections and cancer. It is produced by activated immune cells, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, and acts on other immune cells, such as natural killer cells and T cells, to enhance their ability to kill pathogens and tumor cells. IL-12 is a heterodimeric cytokine composed of two subunits, p35 and p40, which are encoded by separate genes. The p35 subunit is responsible for the biological activity of IL-12, while the p40 subunit is shared with other cytokines, such as IL-23 and IL-27. IL-12 has several important functions in the immune system. It promotes the differentiation of naive T cells into Th1 cells, which produce IFN-γ and other pro-inflammatory cytokines that are important for the clearance of intracellular pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria. IL-12 also enhances the activity of natural killer cells, which are important for the elimination of tumor cells and virally infected cells. In addition to its role in innate and adaptive immunity, IL-12 has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis and psoriasis, and has been studied as a potential therapeutic agent for cancer and infectious diseases.

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are laboratory-made proteins that can mimic the immune system's ability to fight off harmful pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria. They are produced by genetically engineering cells to produce large quantities of a single type of antibody, which is specific to a particular antigen (a molecule that triggers an immune response). In the medical field, monoclonal antibodies are used to treat a variety of conditions, including cancer, autoimmune diseases, and infectious diseases. They can be administered intravenously, intramuscularly, or subcutaneously, depending on the condition being treated. Monoclonal antibodies work by binding to specific antigens on the surface of cells or pathogens, marking them for destruction by the immune system. They can also block the activity of specific molecules involved in disease processes, such as enzymes or receptors. Overall, monoclonal antibodies have revolutionized the treatment of many diseases, offering targeted and effective therapies with fewer side effects than traditional treatments.

Matrix Metalloproteinase 12 (MMP-12) is a type of protein that belongs to the matrix metalloproteinase family. It is a zinc-dependent endopeptidase that plays a crucial role in the degradation of extracellular matrix proteins, including collagen and elastin. In the medical field, MMP-12 is involved in various physiological and pathological processes, including tissue remodeling, wound healing, and inflammation. It is also implicated in the development and progression of several diseases, including cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and cancer. MMP-12 is produced by various cell types, including macrophages, neutrophils, and fibroblasts. Its activity is regulated by a variety of factors, including tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) and other signaling molecules. In some cases, increased levels of MMP-12 have been associated with tissue damage and disease progression, while decreased levels have been linked to tissue repair and regeneration. Therefore, MMP-12 is a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of various diseases, including those involving inflammation and tissue remodeling.

CD11b is a type of protein found on the surface of certain immune cells, such as neutrophils and monocytes. It is a member of the integrin family of proteins, which are involved in cell adhesion and signaling. CD11b is also known as the alpha chain of the integrin receptor Mac-1 (Macrophage-1 antigen). Antigens, CD11b are molecules that bind to CD11b on the surface of immune cells. These antigens can be foreign substances, such as bacteria or viruses, or they can be self-molecules that have been altered in some way. When CD11b binds to an antigen, it triggers a series of signaling events that activate the immune cell and cause it to respond to the presence of the antigen. This response can include the production of inflammatory molecules, the recruitment of other immune cells to the site of the antigen, and the destruction of the antigen. CD11b and its antigens play an important role in the immune response and are the subject of ongoing research in the field of immunology.

CD36 is a protein that is expressed on the surface of many different types of cells in the body, including macrophages, monocytes, and endothelial cells. It is a member of the class B scavenger receptor family and is involved in the uptake and metabolism of a variety of molecules, including fatty acids, heme, and oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL). In the context of the immune system, CD36 is an antigen-presenting molecule that plays a role in the presentation of antigens to T cells. It is also involved in the regulation of immune responses, particularly those involving T cells and monocytes. CD36 has been implicated in a number of different diseases, including atherosclerosis, diabetes, and inflammatory disorders.

Membrane proteins are proteins that are embedded within the lipid bilayer of a cell membrane. They play a crucial role in regulating the movement of substances across the membrane, as well as in cell signaling and communication. There are several types of membrane proteins, including integral membrane proteins, which span the entire membrane, and peripheral membrane proteins, which are only in contact with one or both sides of the membrane. Membrane proteins can be classified based on their function, such as transporters, receptors, channels, and enzymes. They are important for many physiological processes, including nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and cell growth and division.

A granuloma is a type of inflammatory response in which immune cells, such as macrophages and lymphocytes, aggregate to form a mass of tissue. Granulomas are typically characterized by the presence of giant cells, which are formed by the fusion of multiple macrophages. Granulomas can be caused by a variety of factors, including infections, foreign substances, and autoimmune diseases. They are often associated with chronic inflammatory conditions, such as tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, and leprosy. In the medical field, granulomas are often studied as a way to diagnose and treat various diseases. For example, the presence of granulomas in the lungs can be a sign of tuberculosis, while the presence of granulomas in the skin can be a sign of sarcoidosis. Treatment for granulomas depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, surgery, or other therapies.

Histocompatibility antigens class II are a group of proteins found on the surface of certain cells in the immune system. These proteins play a crucial role in the immune response by presenting foreign substances, such as bacteria or viruses, to immune cells called T cells. The class II antigens are encoded by a group of genes called the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II genes. These genes are located on chromosome 6 in humans and are highly polymorphic, meaning that there are many different versions of the genes. This diversity of MHC class II antigens allows the immune system to recognize and respond to a wide variety of foreign substances.

Sialic Acid Binding Ig-like Lectin 1 (SIGLEC1) is a protein that is expressed on the surface of certain immune cells, such as macrophages and dendritic cells. It is a member of the SIGLEC family of proteins, which are involved in the recognition and binding of sialic acid, a type of carbohydrate found on the surface of many types of cells. SIGLEC1 is thought to play a role in the immune response by binding to sialic acid on the surface of pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria, and marking them for destruction by immune cells. It may also play a role in the regulation of immune cell activation and the development of immune tolerance. In addition to its role in the immune system, SIGLEC1 has been implicated in a number of other biological processes, including cancer, inflammation, and neurodegeneration. It is being studied as a potential target for the development of new therapies for these conditions.

Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88 (MyD88) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the innate immune system. It is a signaling molecule that is activated by various types of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) that are recognized by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on immune cells. When activated, MyD88 triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which help to recruit immune cells to the site of infection or injury. MyD88 is also involved in the activation of TLR4, which is a PRR that recognizes lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on the surface of Gram-negative bacteria. In addition to its role in the innate immune system, MyD88 has also been implicated in the development of various inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and inflammatory bowel disease.

Cholesterol esters are a type of lipid molecule that consists of a cholesterol molecule attached to a fatty acid chain. They are an important component of cell membranes and are also stored in lipid droplets within cells. Cholesterol esters are synthesized in the liver and other tissues from dietary cholesterol and free fatty acids. They are transported in the bloodstream by lipoproteins, such as low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL). In the medical field, cholesterol esters are often measured as a marker of cardiovascular disease risk, as high levels of circulating cholesterol esters, particularly those carried by LDL, can contribute to the development of atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular conditions.

In the medical field, nitrites are compounds that contain the nitrite ion (NO2-). Nitrites are often used as a medication to treat certain types of heart disease, such as angina pectoris, by relaxing the blood vessels and reducing the workload on the heart. They are also used to treat certain types of anemia, such as methemoglobinemia, by converting methemoglobin (a form of hemoglobin that is unable to carry oxygen) back to normal hemoglobin. Nitrites are also used as a preservative in some foods and beverages, and as a chemical in the manufacturing of dyes, explosives, and other products.

Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in regulating the immune system. IL-4 is primarily produced by T-helper 2 (Th2) cells, which are a type of immune cell that helps to fight off parasitic infections and allergies. IL-4 has several important functions in the immune system. It promotes the differentiation of Th2 cells and stimulates the production of other Th2 cytokines, such as IL-5 and IL-13. IL-4 also promotes the activation and proliferation of B cells, which are responsible for producing antibodies. Additionally, IL-4 has anti-inflammatory effects and can help to suppress the activity of T-helper 1 (Th1) cells, which are involved in fighting off bacterial and viral infections. In the medical field, IL-4 is being studied for its potential therapeutic applications. For example, it is being investigated as a treatment for allergies, asthma, and certain autoimmune diseases. IL-4 is also being studied as a potential cancer immunotherapy, as it can help to activate immune cells that can recognize and attack cancer cells.

Tetradecanoylphorbol acetate (TPA) is a synthetic compound that belongs to a class of chemicals called phorbol esters. It is a potent tumor promoter and has been used in research to study the mechanisms of cancer development and progression. TPA works by activating protein kinase C (PKC), a family of enzymes that play a key role in cell signaling and proliferation. When TPA binds to a specific receptor on the cell surface, it triggers a cascade of events that leads to the activation of PKC, which in turn promotes cell growth and division. TPA has been shown to promote the growth of tumors in animal models and has been linked to the development of certain types of cancer in humans, including skin cancer and breast cancer. It is also used in some experimental treatments for cancer, although its use is limited due to its potential toxicity and side effects.

Scavenger receptors, class B (SR-B) are a family of membrane receptors that are expressed on various cell types, including macrophages, hepatocytes, and adipocytes. These receptors play a crucial role in the metabolism and clearance of lipids, including cholesterol and phospholipids, from the bloodstream. SR-B receptors are characterized by their ability to bind and internalize lipoproteins, such as high-density lipoprotein (HDL), which are rich in cholesterol. Once internalized, the lipids are transported to various cellular compartments for processing and recycling. In addition to their role in lipid metabolism, SR-B receptors have also been implicated in the regulation of inflammation, insulin sensitivity, and cancer progression. Dysregulation of SR-B receptor function has been linked to various diseases, including atherosclerosis, diabetes, and obesity. Overall, SR-B receptors are an important component of the cellular machinery that regulates lipid metabolism and homeostasis, and their dysfunction can have significant implications for human health.

Silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is a naturally occurring compound that is commonly used in the medical field. It is a hard, white, crystalline solid that is composed of silicon and oxygen atoms. In the medical field, silicon dioxide is used in a variety of applications, including as a pharmaceutical excipient, a food additive, and a wound dressing material. It is often used as a carrier for other active ingredients in medications, as it can help to improve the stability and bioavailability of the drug. Silicon dioxide is also used in the production of various medical devices, such as implants and prosthetics, as well as in the manufacturing of dental materials and orthopedic implants. In addition to its use in medical applications, silicon dioxide is also used in a variety of other industries, including electronics, construction, and cosmetics.

Receptors, LDL, refer to a type of protein receptor found on the surface of cells in the liver, spleen, and other tissues. These receptors bind to low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles, which are a type of cholesterol-carrying particle in the blood. When LDL particles bind to their receptors, they are internalized by the cell and broken down, which helps to regulate cholesterol levels in the body. Dysfunction of LDL receptors can lead to high levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood, which is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease.

Caspase 1, also known as interleukin-1β converting enzyme (ICE), is a cysteine protease enzyme that plays a critical role in the innate immune response and inflammation. It is a member of the caspase family of enzymes, which are involved in programmed cell death or apoptosis. Caspase 1 is activated in response to various stimuli, such as bacterial or viral infections, and triggers the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-18 (IL-18). These cytokines play a crucial role in regulating the immune response and promoting inflammation. In addition to its role in inflammation, caspase 1 has also been implicated in various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer. Dysregulation of caspase 1 activity has been linked to the development of these diseases, and targeting caspase 1 has been proposed as a potential therapeutic strategy.

Cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) is an enzyme that is involved in the production of prostaglandins, which are hormone-like substances that play a role in various physiological processes in the body, including inflammation, pain, and fever. COX-2 is primarily found in cells of the immune system and in the lining of the gastrointestinal tract. In the medical field, COX-2 inhibitors are a class of drugs that are used to reduce inflammation and relieve pain. They are often prescribed for conditions such as arthritis, menstrual cramps, and headaches. However, long-term use of COX-2 inhibitors has been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular events, such as heart attacks and strokes, which has led to some restrictions on their use.

Receptors, Complement refers to a group of proteins that are part of the complement system, a complex network of proteins in the blood that helps to defend the body against infections. These receptors are located on the surface of immune cells, such as macrophages and neutrophils, and bind to specific molecules on the surface of pathogens, such as bacteria and viruses. This binding triggers a series of reactions that ultimately lead to the destruction of the pathogen. The complement receptors play a crucial role in the immune response and are important for the clearance of pathogens from the body.

Acid phosphatase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphate esters in the presence of acid. It is found in a variety of tissues and cells throughout the body, including bone, liver, and white blood cells. In the medical field, acid phosphatase levels can be measured in blood, urine, and other body fluids as a diagnostic tool for various conditions, such as bone disorders, liver disease, and certain types of cancer. High levels of acid phosphatase may indicate the presence of bone resorption, liver damage, or cancer, while low levels may indicate bone formation or certain types of anemia.

Receptors, Lipoprotein are proteins that are present on the surface of cells and are responsible for binding to lipoproteins, which are complex particles that transport lipids (fats) in the bloodstream. These receptors play a crucial role in regulating the uptake and metabolism of lipids by cells, and are involved in a variety of physiological processes, including cholesterol homeostasis, inflammation, and insulin sensitivity. Dysregulation of lipoprotein receptors has been implicated in the development of a number of diseases, including atherosclerosis, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome.

Receptors, CCR2 are a type of cell surface receptors that are expressed on various immune cells, including monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells. These receptors are activated by a chemokine called CCL2 (also known as MCP-1), which is produced by various cells in response to inflammation or injury. When CCR2 receptors are activated by CCL2, they trigger a signaling cascade within the cell that leads to the recruitment and activation of immune cells to the site of inflammation or injury. This process is important for the body's immune response to infections, tissue damage, and other types of stress. However, excessive activation of CCR2 receptors and the chemokine CCL2 has been implicated in the development of various inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, such as atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis. Therefore, targeting CCR2 receptors has become an area of active research for the development of new therapies for these diseases.

Listeriosis is a rare but serious bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes. It can affect people of all ages, but it is more common in pregnant women, newborns, older adults, and people with weakened immune systems. Listeriosis can cause a range of symptoms, including fever, muscle aches, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. In severe cases, it can lead to meningitis, sepsis, and even death. Listeriosis is typically spread through contaminated food, particularly soft cheeses, deli meats, and raw milk or raw milk products. It can also be transmitted through contact with contaminated soil or water, or from person to person in healthcare settings. Diagnosis of listeriosis typically involves culturing the bacteria from a blood, spinal fluid, or other bodily fluid sample. Treatment typically involves antibiotics, although the effectiveness of treatment can be limited in severe cases. Preventing listeriosis involves avoiding contaminated food and practicing good hygiene, particularly when handling raw meat or dairy products. Healthcare providers should also take precautions to prevent the spread of the bacteria in healthcare settings.

Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) are a group of proteins that stimulate the growth and differentiation of certain types of blood cells in the bone marrow. There are several different types of CSFs, including granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), and colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1). CSFs are typically used to treat conditions that affect the production of blood cells, such as chemotherapy-induced neutropenia (a low white blood cell count), and to stimulate the growth of new blood cells in people with certain types of anemia or bone marrow disorders. They may also be used to stimulate the growth of new bone tissue in people with certain types of bone disease. CSFs are usually administered as injections, either under the skin or into a vein. They can cause side effects, such as fever, chills, and flu-like symptoms, and may also increase the risk of infection. It is important to carefully follow the instructions provided by your healthcare provider when using CSFs.

In the medical field, "latex" refers to a type of rubber that is commonly used to make medical equipment and supplies, such as gloves, catheters, and surgical instruments. Latex is a natural polymer that is derived from the sap of the rubber tree, and it is known for its strength, elasticity, and resistance to chemicals and heat. However, some people may be allergic to latex, which can cause a range of symptoms from mild itching to severe allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis. As a result, many medical facilities have started to use alternative materials, such as nitrile or vinyl, for medical equipment and supplies to accommodate individuals with latex allergies.

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) are highly reactive molecules that are produced as a byproduct of normal cellular metabolism. They include oxygen radicals such as superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radicals, as well as non-radical species such as singlet oxygen and peroxynitrite. In small amounts, ROS play important roles in various physiological processes, such as immune responses, cell signaling, and the regulation of gene expression. However, when produced in excess, ROS can cause oxidative stress, which can damage cellular components such as lipids, proteins, and DNA. This damage can lead to various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, ROS are often studied in the medical field as potential therapeutic targets for the prevention and treatment of diseases associated with oxidative stress.

In the medical field, carrier proteins are proteins that transport molecules across cell membranes or within cells. These proteins bind to specific molecules, such as hormones, nutrients, or waste products, and facilitate their movement across the membrane or within the cell. Carrier proteins play a crucial role in maintaining the proper balance of molecules within cells and between cells. They are involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including nutrient absorption, hormone regulation, and waste elimination. There are several types of carrier proteins, including facilitated diffusion carriers, active transport carriers, and ion channels. Each type of carrier protein has a specific function and mechanism of action. Understanding the role of carrier proteins in the body is important for diagnosing and treating various medical conditions, such as genetic disorders, metabolic disorders, and neurological disorders.

Intramolecular oxidoreductases are a class of enzymes that catalyze redox reactions within a single molecule. These enzymes are involved in various biological processes, including metabolism, signal transduction, and gene expression. They typically contain a redox-active site that undergoes changes in oxidation state during the catalytic cycle, allowing them to transfer electrons between different parts of the molecule. Examples of intramolecular oxidoreductases include thioredoxins, glutaredoxins, and peroxiredoxins. These enzymes play important roles in maintaining cellular redox homeostasis and protecting cells against oxidative stress.

P38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases (MAPKs) are a family of serine/threonine protein kinases that play a crucial role in regulating various cellular processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, survival, and apoptosis. They are activated by a variety of extracellular stimuli, such as cytokines, growth factors, and stress signals, and are involved in the regulation of inflammation, immune responses, and metabolic processes. In the medical field, p38 MAPKs have been implicated in the pathogenesis of various diseases, including cancer, inflammatory disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases. Targeting p38 MAPKs with small molecule inhibitors or other therapeutic agents has been proposed as a potential strategy for the treatment of these diseases. However, further research is needed to fully understand the role of p38 MAPKs in disease pathogenesis and to develop effective therapeutic interventions.

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are a large family of membrane proteins that use the energy from ATP hydrolysis to transport a wide variety of molecules across cell membranes. These transporters are found in all kingdoms of life, from bacteria to humans, and play important roles in many physiological processes, including drug metabolism, detoxification, and the transport of nutrients and waste products across cell membranes. In the medical field, ABC transporters are of particular interest because they can also transport drugs and other xenobiotics (foreign substances) across cell membranes, which can affect the efficacy and toxicity of these compounds. For example, some ABC transporters can pump drugs out of cells, making them less effective, while others can transport toxins into cells, increasing their toxicity. As a result, ABC transporters are an important factor to consider in the development of new drugs and the optimization of drug therapy. ABC transporters are also involved in a number of diseases, including cancer, cystic fibrosis, and certain neurological disorders. In these conditions, the activity of ABC transporters is often altered, leading to the accumulation of toxins or the loss of important molecules, which can contribute to the development and progression of the disease. As a result, ABC transporters are an important target for the development of new therapies for these conditions.

Interleukin-8 (IL-8) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling molecule that plays a role in regulating the immune system. It is produced by various types of cells, including immune cells such as neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages, as well as epithelial cells and fibroblasts. IL-8 is primarily involved in the recruitment and activation of neutrophils, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the body's defense against infection and inflammation. IL-8 binds to receptors on the surface of neutrophils, causing them to migrate to the site of infection or inflammation. It also promotes the production of other pro-inflammatory molecules by neutrophils, which helps to amplify the immune response. IL-8 has been implicated in a variety of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and inflammatory bowel disease. It is also involved in the development of certain types of cancer, such as lung cancer and ovarian cancer. In the medical field, IL-8 is often measured in blood or other bodily fluids as a marker of inflammation or immune activation. It is also being studied as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer and inflammatory disorders.

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a colorless, odorless liquid that is commonly used in the medical field as a disinfectant, antiseptic, and oxidizing agent. It is a strong oxidizing agent that can break down organic matter, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi, making it useful for disinfecting wounds, surfaces, and medical equipment. In addition to its disinfectant properties, hydrogen peroxide is also used in wound care to remove dead tissue and promote healing. It is often used in combination with other wound care products, such as saline solution or antibiotic ointment, to help prevent infection and promote healing. Hydrogen peroxide is also used in some medical procedures, such as endoscopy and bronchoscopy, to help clean and disinfect the equipment before use. It is also used in some dental procedures to help remove stains and whiten teeth. However, it is important to note that hydrogen peroxide can be harmful if not used properly. It should not be ingested or applied directly to the skin or mucous membranes without first diluting it with water. It should also be stored in a cool, dry place away from children and pets.

Chemokine CCL5, also known as RANTES (regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted), is a small protein that plays a role in the immune system. It is a type of chemokine, which are signaling molecules that help to direct the movement of immune cells to specific areas of the body in response to infection or injury. CCL5 is produced by a variety of cells, including immune cells such as T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells, as well as non-immune cells such as endothelial cells and fibroblasts. It acts on specific receptors on the surface of immune cells to attract them to the site of infection or injury. CCL5 has been implicated in a number of different diseases and conditions, including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and certain types of cancer. It is also involved in the recruitment of immune cells to sites of inflammation, and has been shown to play a role in the development of autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis. Overall, CCL5 is an important molecule in the immune system that helps to regulate the movement of immune cells and plays a role in the body's response to infection and injury.

Lymphokines are a type of cytokine, which are signaling molecules secreted by immune cells such as T cells and B cells. They play a crucial role in regulating the immune response and are involved in various immune-related processes, including inflammation, cell proliferation, and differentiation. Lymphokines are produced in response to infections, injuries, or other stimuli that activate the immune system. They can be classified into several categories based on their function, including interleukins, interferons, and tumor necrosis factors. Interleukins are a group of lymphokines that regulate the activity of immune cells, including T cells, B cells, and macrophages. They are involved in various immune responses, including inflammation, cell proliferation, and differentiation. Interferons are another group of lymphokines that are produced in response to viral infections. They have antiviral properties and can also stimulate the immune system to fight off infections. Tumor necrosis factors are a group of lymphokines that are involved in the immune response to infections and tumors. They can stimulate the production of other cytokines and chemokines, which help to recruit immune cells to the site of infection or tumor. Overall, lymphokines play a critical role in the immune response and are involved in many different aspects of immune function.

Interleukin-12 Subunit p40 (IL-12p40) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is a subunit of the cytokine interleukin-12 (IL-12), which is produced by immune cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells in response to infections or other inflammatory stimuli. IL-12p40 is a 13-kDa protein that is encoded by the "IL12B" gene. It is a homodimeric protein, meaning that it consists of two identical subunits, each of which is encoded by the "IL12B" gene. The other subunit of IL-12 is called IL-12p35, which is encoded by the "IL12A" gene. IL-12p40 is an important regulator of the immune response, particularly in the development of T helper 1 (Th1) cells. Th1 cells are a type of immune cell that play a key role in the defense against intracellular pathogens such as viruses and bacteria. IL-12p40 promotes the differentiation of Th1 cells from naive T cells and enhances their ability to produce interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), a cytokine that is important for the immune response against intracellular pathogens. In addition to its role in the development of Th1 cells, IL-12p40 has been implicated in a number of other immune-related disorders, including autoimmune diseases, cancer, and infectious diseases. It is also being studied as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of these conditions.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of protein that is produced by the immune system in response to the presence of foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins. It is the most abundant type of immunoglobulin in the blood and is responsible for the majority of the body's defense against infections. IgG is produced by B cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune response. When a B cell encounters a foreign substance, it produces IgG antibodies that can recognize and bind to the substance, marking it for destruction by other immune cells. IgG antibodies can also be transferred from mother to child through the placenta during pregnancy, providing the baby with some protection against infections during the first few months of life. In addition, some vaccines contain IgG antibodies to help stimulate the immune system and provide protection against specific diseases. Overall, IgG is an important component of the immune system and plays a critical role in protecting the body against infections and diseases.

Orphan nuclear receptors (ONRs) are a class of nuclear receptors that do not have any known endogenous ligands, meaning that they do not bind to any specific hormones or signaling molecules in the body. These receptors were initially referred to as "orphans" because they were discovered before their functions were understood. ONRs are transcription factors that regulate gene expression in response to various stimuli, including hormones, growth factors, and environmental cues. They play important roles in a wide range of physiological processes, including metabolism, inflammation, and cell differentiation. Despite the fact that many ONRs have not yet been fully characterized, research has shown that they may have therapeutic potential for a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders. As such, they are an active area of research in the medical field.

Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence of foreign substances, such as viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens. Antibodies are designed to recognize and bind to specific molecules on the surface of these foreign substances, marking them for destruction by other immune cells. There are five main classes of antibodies: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE. Each class of antibody has a unique structure and function, and they are produced by different types of immune cells in response to different types of pathogens. Antibodies play a critical role in the immune response, helping to protect the body against infection and disease. They can neutralize pathogens by binding to them and preventing them from entering cells, or they can mark them for destruction by other immune cells. In some cases, antibodies can also help to stimulate the immune response by activating immune cells or by recruiting other immune cells to the site of infection. Antibodies are often used in medical treatments, such as in the development of vaccines, where they are used to stimulate the immune system to produce a response to a specific pathogen. They are also used in diagnostic tests to detect the presence of specific pathogens or to monitor the immune response to a particular treatment.

Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) is a type of protein that belongs to the matrix metalloproteinase family. It is also known as gelatinase B or 92 kDa gelatinase. MMP-9 is a protease that breaks down and remodels the extracellular matrix, which is a network of proteins and carbohydrates that provides structural support to cells and tissues. In the medical field, MMP-9 plays a role in various physiological and pathological processes, including tissue remodeling, wound healing, angiogenesis, and cancer invasion and metastasis. MMP-9 is also involved in the development of inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and atherosclerosis. MMP-9 is a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and inflammatory disorders. However, the overexpression of MMP-9 can also contribute to tissue damage and disease progression, making it a double-edged sword. Therefore, the regulation of MMP-9 activity is crucial for maintaining tissue homeostasis and preventing disease.

Necrosis is a type of cell death that occurs when cells in the body die due to injury, infection, or lack of oxygen and nutrients. In necrosis, the cells break down and release their contents into the surrounding tissue, leading to inflammation and tissue damage. Necrosis can occur in any part of the body and can be caused by a variety of factors, including trauma, infection, toxins, and certain diseases. It is different from apoptosis, which is a programmed cell death that occurs as part of normal development and tissue turnover. In the medical field, necrosis is often seen as a sign of tissue injury or disease, and it can be a serious condition if it affects vital organs or tissues. Treatment for necrosis depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, surgery, or other interventions to address the underlying condition and promote healing.

Bacterial proteins are proteins that are synthesized by bacteria. They are essential for the survival and function of bacteria, and play a variety of roles in bacterial metabolism, growth, and pathogenicity. Bacterial proteins can be classified into several categories based on their function, including structural proteins, metabolic enzymes, regulatory proteins, and toxins. Structural proteins provide support and shape to the bacterial cell, while metabolic enzymes are involved in the breakdown of nutrients and the synthesis of new molecules. Regulatory proteins control the expression of other genes, and toxins can cause damage to host cells and tissues. Bacterial proteins are of interest in the medical field because they can be used as targets for the development of antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents. They can also be used as diagnostic markers for bacterial infections, and as vaccines to prevent bacterial diseases. Additionally, some bacterial proteins have been shown to have therapeutic potential, such as enzymes that can break down harmful substances in the body or proteins that can stimulate the immune system.

Receptors, Chemokine are proteins found on the surface of cells that bind to specific chemokines, which are small signaling molecules that play a role in immune cell trafficking and inflammation. These receptors are involved in the regulation of immune cell migration and are important for the recruitment of immune cells to sites of infection or injury. There are several different types of chemokine receptors, each of which is specific to a particular chemokine or group of chemokines. Dysregulation of chemokine receptors has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases.

Chemokines, CC are a family of small proteins that play a crucial role in the immune system by regulating the movement of immune cells, such as white blood cells, to specific areas of the body in response to infection or injury. They are classified based on the number of cysteine residues in their amino acid sequence, with CC chemokines having two cysteines at the amino terminus. CC chemokines are involved in the recruitment of immune cells to sites of inflammation and are also involved in the development of certain types of cancer.

Acetylmuramyl-alanyl-isoglutamine, also known as N-acetyl-muramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine or Maltose-binding protein (MBP), is a compound that plays a role in the immune system's response to bacterial infections. It is a component of the cell wall of many bacteria, and the immune system recognizes it as a foreign substance and mounts a response to it. MBP is also used as an adjuvant in vaccines to enhance the body's immune response to the vaccine.

An antigen-antibody complex is a type of immune complex that forms when an antigen (a foreign substance that triggers an immune response) binds to an antibody (a protein produced by the immune system to recognize and neutralize antigens). When an antigen enters the body, it is recognized by specific antibodies that bind to it, forming an antigen-antibody complex. This complex can then be targeted by other immune cells, such as phagocytes, which engulf and destroy the complex. Antigen-antibody complexes can also deposit in tissues, leading to inflammation and damage. This can occur in conditions such as immune complex-mediated diseases, where the immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissues that have been coated with antigens and antibodies. Overall, the formation of antigen-antibody complexes is a normal part of the immune response, but when it becomes dysregulated, it can lead to a variety of medical conditions.

DNA primers are short, single-stranded DNA molecules that are used in a variety of molecular biology techniques, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. They are designed to bind to specific regions of a DNA molecule, and are used to initiate the synthesis of new DNA strands. In PCR, DNA primers are used to amplify specific regions of DNA by providing a starting point for the polymerase enzyme to begin synthesizing new DNA strands. The primers are complementary to the target DNA sequence, and are added to the reaction mixture along with the DNA template, nucleotides, and polymerase enzyme. The polymerase enzyme uses the primers as a template to synthesize new DNA strands, which are then extended by the addition of more nucleotides. This process is repeated multiple times, resulting in the amplification of the target DNA sequence. DNA primers are also used in DNA sequencing to identify the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. In this application, the primers are designed to bind to specific regions of the DNA molecule, and are used to initiate the synthesis of short DNA fragments. The fragments are then sequenced using a variety of techniques, such as Sanger sequencing or next-generation sequencing. Overall, DNA primers are an important tool in molecular biology, and are used in a wide range of applications to study and manipulate DNA.

Receptors, CCR5, are a type of cell surface receptor protein that are expressed on the surface of certain immune cells, such as T cells and macrophages. These receptors are part of the chemokine receptor family and are activated by certain chemokines, which are signaling molecules that help to regulate the movement and function of immune cells. The CCR5 receptor plays an important role in the immune response to HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), which targets and destroys CD4+ T cells, a type of immune cell that expresses CCR5 on its surface. HIV uses the CCR5 receptor to enter and infect these cells. As a result, individuals who lack functional CCR5 receptors (due to a genetic mutation) are resistant to HIV infection. In addition to its role in HIV infection, the CCR5 receptor has been implicated in a variety of other immune-related disorders, including multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and inflammatory bowel disease. As such, the CCR5 receptor is an important target for the development of new therapies for these conditions.

Lectins are a class of proteins that are found in many plants, animals, and microorganisms. They are characterized by their ability to bind to specific carbohydrates, such as sugars and starches, on the surface of cells. In the medical field, lectins have been studied for their potential therapeutic applications. For example, some lectins have been shown to have antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal properties, and may be useful in the development of new drugs to treat infections. Lectins have also been used as research tools to study cell-cell interactions and to identify specific cell surface markers. In addition, some lectins have been used in diagnostic tests to detect specific diseases or conditions, such as cancer or diabetes. However, it is important to note that not all lectins are safe or effective for medical use, and some may even be toxic. Therefore, the use of lectins in medicine requires careful consideration and testing to ensure their safety and efficacy.

Lipoproteins are complex particles that consist of a lipid core surrounded by a protein shell. They are responsible for transporting lipids, such as cholesterol and triglycerides, throughout the bloodstream. There are several types of lipoproteins, including low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), and intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL). LDL, often referred to as "bad cholesterol," carries cholesterol from the liver to the rest of the body. When there is too much LDL in the bloodstream, it can build up in the walls of arteries, leading to the formation of plaques that can cause heart disease and stroke. HDL, often referred to as "good cholesterol," helps remove excess cholesterol from the bloodstream and transport it back to the liver for processing and elimination. High levels of HDL are generally considered protective against heart disease. VLDL and IDL are intermediate lipoproteins that are produced by the liver and transport triglycerides to other parts of the body. VLDL is converted to IDL, which is then converted to LDL. Lipoprotein levels can be measured through blood tests, and their levels are often used as a diagnostic tool for assessing cardiovascular risk.

Immune sera refers to a type of blood serum that contains antibodies produced by the immune system in response to an infection or vaccination. These antibodies are produced by B cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune response. Immune sera can be used to diagnose and treat certain infections, as well as to prevent future infections. For example, immune sera containing antibodies against a specific virus or bacteria can be used to diagnose a current infection or to prevent future infections in people who have been exposed to the virus or bacteria. Immune sera can also be used as a research tool to study the immune response to infections and to develop new vaccines and treatments. In some cases, immune sera may be used to treat patients with severe infections or allergies, although this is less common than using immune sera for diagnostic or preventive purposes.

Leishmaniasis is a group of infectious diseases caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania. The disease is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected sandflies. There are several different forms of leishmaniasis, including cutaneous leishmaniasis, visceral leishmaniasis, and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. Cutaneous leishmaniasis is the most common form of the disease and typically causes skin sores that can be painful, itchy, and disfiguring. Visceral leishmaniasis, also known as kala-azar, is a more severe form of the disease that affects internal organs such as the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis is a rare but severe form of the disease that affects the skin and mucous membranes. Leishmaniasis can be treated with a variety of medications, including antimonial drugs, amphotericin B, and miltefosine. Prevention measures include avoiding areas where sandflies are known to be present, using insect repellent, and wearing protective clothing.

Atherosclerotic plaque is a hard, fatty deposit that builds up inside the walls of arteries. It is a common condition that can lead to serious health problems, such as heart attack and stroke. Atherosclerosis is the medical term for the buildup of plaque in the arteries. The plaque can narrow the arteries, reducing blood flow to the heart or brain. Over time, the plaque can rupture, causing a blood clot that can block blood flow and lead to a heart attack or stroke.

Macrophage Activation Syndrome (MAS) is a rare but life-threatening complication that can occur in patients with certain underlying medical conditions, such as systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis (SJIA), Kawasaki disease, and certain viral infections. MAS is characterized by the excessive activation and proliferation of macrophages, a type of immune cell that plays a crucial role in fighting infections and removing damaged cells. This leads to the release of large amounts of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which can cause widespread inflammation throughout the body, leading to symptoms such as high fever, rash, joint pain, and organ damage. MAS can be classified into two types: the classic form, which is associated with infections, and the secondary form, which is associated with autoimmune diseases or other underlying medical conditions. Treatment for MAS typically involves the use of high-dose corticosteroids, immunosuppressive drugs, and supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent organ damage. Early recognition and prompt treatment are critical for improving outcomes in patients with MAS.

Receptors, Purinergic P2X7 are a type of ion channel receptors found on the surface of many different types of cells in the body. These receptors are activated by the neurotransmitter ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is a molecule that is involved in many different cellular processes. When ATP binds to P2X7 receptors, it causes the channel to open and allow positively charged ions to flow into the cell. This can trigger a variety of cellular responses, including the release of other signaling molecules and the activation of immune cells. P2X7 receptors are thought to play a role in a number of different physiological processes, including pain sensation, inflammation, and neurodegeneration. They are also implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Interferon-beta (IFN-beta) is a type of cytokine that is naturally produced by the body's immune system in response to viral infections. It is also used as a medication to treat certain autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS), by reducing inflammation and slowing the progression of the disease. IFN-beta is typically administered as an injection or infusion, and its effects can last for several days. It works by activating immune cells and inhibiting the growth of virus-infected cells. In MS, IFN-beta is thought to reduce the frequency and severity of relapses by modulating the immune response and reducing inflammation in the central nervous system. There are several different types of IFN-beta available, including beta-1a, beta-1b, and beta-2a. These different forms of IFN-beta have slightly different mechanisms of action and are used in different ways to treat MS and other autoimmune diseases.

Disease susceptibility refers to an individual's increased risk of developing a particular disease or condition due to genetic, environmental, or lifestyle factors. Susceptibility to a disease is not the same as having the disease itself, but rather an increased likelihood of developing it compared to someone who is not susceptible. Genetic factors play a significant role in disease susceptibility. Certain genetic mutations or variations can increase an individual's risk of developing certain diseases, such as breast cancer, diabetes, or heart disease. Environmental factors, such as exposure to toxins or pollutants, can also increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases. Lifestyle factors, such as diet, exercise, and smoking, can also impact disease susceptibility. For example, a diet high in saturated fats and sugar can increase an individual's risk of developing heart disease, while regular exercise can reduce the risk. Understanding an individual's disease susceptibility can help healthcare providers develop personalized prevention and treatment plans to reduce the risk of developing certain diseases or to manage existing conditions more effectively.

In the medical field, "Neoplasms, Experimental" refers to the study of neoplasms (abnormal growths of cells) in experimental settings, such as in laboratory animals or in vitro cell cultures. These studies are typically conducted to better understand the underlying mechanisms of neoplasms and to develop new treatments for cancer and other types of neoplastic diseases. Experimental neoplasms may be induced by various factors, including genetic mutations, exposure to carcinogens, or other forms of cellular stress. The results of these studies can provide valuable insights into the biology of neoplasms and help to identify potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

STAT1 (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 1) is a transcription factor that plays a crucial role in the regulation of the immune response and the response to viral infections. It is activated by various cytokines, including IFN-γ (interferon-gamma), and upon activation, STAT1 translocates to the nucleus where it binds to specific DNA sequences and promotes the transcription of target genes. STAT1 is involved in the regulation of a wide range of cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. It is also involved in the regulation of the immune response, including the production of cytokines and chemokines, the activation of immune cells, and the clearance of pathogens. In addition, STAT1 has been implicated in the development of various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and viral infections.

Peritonitis is a medical condition characterized by the inflammation of the peritoneum, which is the thin, flexible membrane that lines the inside of the abdominal cavity. The peritoneum plays an important role in protecting the abdominal organs and helping to move them around the body. Peritonitis can be caused by a variety of factors, including bacterial infections, viral infections, parasitic infections, and physical injury to the peritoneum. It can also be caused by the spread of infection from another part of the body, such as the urinary tract or the reproductive system. Symptoms of peritonitis can include abdominal pain, fever, nausea and vomiting, abdominal tenderness, and a low-grade fever. In severe cases, peritonitis can lead to sepsis, a life-threatening condition characterized by widespread inflammation throughout the body. Treatment for peritonitis typically involves antibiotics to treat the underlying infection, as well as supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove infected tissue or drain fluid from the abdomen.

Transforming Growth Factor beta (TGF-β) is a family of cytokines that play a crucial role in regulating cell growth, differentiation, and migration. TGF-βs are secreted by a variety of cells, including immune cells, fibroblasts, and epithelial cells, and act on neighboring cells to modulate their behavior. TGF-βs have both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects, depending on the context in which they are released. They can promote the differentiation of immune cells into effector cells that help to fight infections, but they can also suppress the immune response to prevent excessive inflammation. In addition to their role in immune regulation, TGF-βs are also involved in tissue repair and fibrosis. They can stimulate the production of extracellular matrix proteins, such as collagen, which are essential for tissue repair. However, excessive production of TGF-βs can lead to fibrosis, a condition in which excessive amounts of connective tissue accumulate in the body, leading to organ dysfunction. Overall, TGF-βs are important signaling molecules that play a critical role in regulating a wide range of cellular processes in the body.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It primarily affects the lungs, but can also affect other parts of the body, such as the brain, spine, and kidneys. TB is spread through the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks, and can be transmitted to others who are nearby. TB is a serious and sometimes fatal disease, but it is treatable with a combination of antibiotics taken over several months. However, if left untreated, TB can be life-threatening and can spread to others. There are two main types of TB: latent TB and active TB. Latent TB is when the bacteria are present in the body but do not cause symptoms or harm. Active TB, on the other hand, is when the bacteria are multiplying and causing symptoms such as coughing, fever, and weight loss. TB is a major global health problem, with an estimated 10 million new cases and 1.5 million deaths each year. It is most common in low- and middle-income countries, where access to healthcare and treatment may be limited.

Concanavalin A (Con A) is a lectin, a type of protein that binds to specific carbohydrate structures on the surface of cells. It was first isolated from the seeds of the jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis) in the 1960s and has since been widely used in research and medical applications. In the medical field, Con A is often used as a tool to study cell-cell interactions and immune responses. It can bind to a variety of cell types, including T cells, B cells, and macrophages, and has been shown to activate these cells and stimulate their proliferation. Con A is also used as a diagnostic tool to detect and quantify certain types of cells in the blood, such as T cells and natural killer cells. In addition to its use in research and diagnostics, Con A has also been studied for its potential therapeutic applications. For example, it has been shown to have anti-tumor effects in some cancer models by activating the immune system and promoting the destruction of cancer cells. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential therapeutic benefits of Con A and to determine its safety and efficacy in humans.

Prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthases, also known as cyclooxygenases (COXs), are enzymes that play a crucial role in the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes, which are hormone-like substances that regulate various physiological processes in the body. There are two main isoforms of COX: COX-1 and COX-2. COX-1 is constitutively expressed in most tissues and is involved in the maintenance of normal physiological functions, such as platelet aggregation, gastric mucosal protection, and renal blood flow regulation. In contrast, COX-2 is induced in response to various stimuli, such as inflammation, injury, and stress, and is primarily involved in the production of prostaglandins that mediate inflammatory and pain responses. Prostaglandins and thromboxanes are synthesized from arachidonic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid that is released from membrane phospholipids in response to various stimuli. COXs catalyze the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandin H2 (PGH2), which is then further metabolized to various prostaglandins and thromboxanes by other enzymes. In the medical field, COX inhibitors are commonly used as anti-inflammatory and analgesic drugs. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen are examples of COX inhibitors that are widely used to treat pain, inflammation, and fever. However, long-term use of NSAIDs can have adverse effects on the gastrointestinal tract and cardiovascular system, which has led to the development of newer COX-2 selective inhibitors, such as celecoxib and rofecoxib, that are thought to have fewer gastrointestinal side effects.

DNA-binding proteins are a class of proteins that interact with DNA molecules to regulate gene expression. These proteins recognize specific DNA sequences and bind to them, thereby affecting the transcription of genes into messenger RNA (mRNA) and ultimately the production of proteins. DNA-binding proteins play a crucial role in many biological processes, including cell division, differentiation, and development. They can act as activators or repressors of gene expression, depending on the specific DNA sequence they bind to and the cellular context in which they are expressed. Examples of DNA-binding proteins include transcription factors, histones, and non-histone chromosomal proteins. Transcription factors are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences and regulate the transcription of genes by recruiting RNA polymerase and other factors to the promoter region of a gene. Histones are proteins that package DNA into chromatin, and non-histone chromosomal proteins help to organize and regulate chromatin structure. DNA-binding proteins are important targets for drug discovery and development, as they play a central role in many diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and infectious diseases.

Pneumonia is a respiratory infection that affects the lungs. It is caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi, and can be acute or chronic. Symptoms of pneumonia include cough, fever, chest pain, difficulty breathing, and fatigue. Pneumonia can be treated with antibiotics, antiviral medication, or antifungal medication, depending on the cause of the infection. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary.

Galectin 3 is a protein that is produced by various cells in the body, including immune cells, fibroblasts, and epithelial cells. It is a member of a family of proteins called galectins, which are known to play important roles in cell signaling, cell adhesion, and immune function. In the medical field, galectin 3 is often measured in blood tests as a biomarker for various conditions. For example, high levels of galectin 3 have been associated with an increased risk of heart failure, as well as with the development and progression of certain types of cancer, such as breast cancer, colon cancer, and lung cancer. Galectin 3 has also been studied as a potential therapeutic target for these conditions, as it may play a role in the growth and spread of cancer cells, as well as in the development of fibrosis (scarring) in the heart and other organs.

Sterol O-Acyltransferase (SOAT) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the biosynthesis of cholesterol and other sterols in the human body. It catalyzes the transfer of an acyl group from an acyl-CoA molecule to a hydroxyl group on a sterol molecule, resulting in the formation of a new ester bond. There are two types of SOAT enzymes: SOAT1 and SOAT2. SOAT1 is primarily responsible for the synthesis of cholesterol esters in the liver, while SOAT2 is responsible for the synthesis of cholesterol esters in the intestine and other tissues. Cholesterol esters are important for the proper functioning of cells and are transported in the bloodstream as lipoproteins. SOAT enzymes are therefore essential for maintaining proper cholesterol homeostasis in the body. Mutations in the genes encoding SOAT enzymes have been linked to various diseases, including hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis.

Arachidonic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid that is found in the cell membranes of all living organisms. It is an essential fatty acid, meaning that it cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained through the diet. In the medical field, arachidonic acid plays a significant role in various physiological processes, including inflammation, immune function, and blood clotting. It is also a precursor to the production of eicosanoids, a group of biologically active compounds that have diverse effects on the body, including vasodilation, vasoconstriction, and pain perception. Arachidonic acid is commonly found in foods such as fish, nuts, and seeds, and is also available as a dietary supplement. However, excessive consumption of arachidonic acid has been linked to an increased risk of certain health conditions, such as heart disease and cancer. Therefore, it is important to consume arachidonic acid in moderation as part of a balanced diet.

Interleukin-13 (IL-13) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling molecule that plays a role in regulating the immune system. It is produced by various types of immune cells, including T cells, B cells, and mast cells, and is involved in the inflammatory response. IL-13 has a number of effects on the body, including: 1. Anti-inflammatory effects: IL-13 can reduce inflammation by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and by promoting the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines. 2. Mucosal protection: IL-13 has been shown to protect the mucous membranes of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, helping to prevent infections and maintain tissue integrity. 3. Fibrosis inhibition: IL-13 can inhibit the production of fibrotic tissue, which is the excessive accumulation of connective tissue that can lead to organ damage and scarring. 4. Allergy and asthma: IL-13 plays a key role in the development of allergic reactions and asthma, by promoting the production of IgE antibodies and by increasing the sensitivity of airways to allergens. Overall, IL-13 is an important mediator of the immune response and has a number of important functions in the body.

Interleukin-18 (IL-18) is a cytokine, which is a type of signaling molecule that plays a role in regulating the immune system. It is produced by a variety of cells, including macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells, and is involved in the activation of T cells and natural killer cells. IL-18 is also thought to play a role in the development of inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. In the medical field, IL-18 is often measured in blood samples as a way to assess immune system function and to monitor the progression of certain diseases.

Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases (MAPKs) are a family of enzymes that play a crucial role in cellular signaling pathways. They are involved in regulating various cellular processes such as cell growth, differentiation, proliferation, survival, and apoptosis. MAPKs are activated by extracellular signals such as growth factors, cytokines, and hormones, which bind to specific receptors on the cell surface. This activation leads to a cascade of phosphorylation events, where MAPKs phosphorylate and activate downstream effector molecules, such as transcription factors, that regulate gene expression. In the medical field, MAPKs are of great interest due to their involvement in various diseases, including cancer, inflammatory disorders, and neurological disorders. For example, mutations in MAPK signaling pathways are commonly found in many types of cancer, and targeting these pathways has become an important strategy for cancer therapy. Additionally, MAPKs are involved in the regulation of immune responses, and dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in various inflammatory disorders. Finally, MAPKs play a role in the development and maintenance of the nervous system, and dysfunction of these pathways has been linked to neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.

Cathepsins are a family of proteolytic enzymes that are found in the lysosomes of cells. They are responsible for breaking down a variety of proteins, including enzymes, hormones, and cellular debris. In the medical field, cathepsins are of interest because they play a role in many physiological processes, including cell growth and differentiation, immune function, and the degradation of damaged proteins. They are also involved in a number of pathological conditions, including cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and inflammatory disorders. As such, cathepsins are the subject of ongoing research in the field of medicine, with the goal of developing new therapeutic strategies based on their activity.

Chemokines, CXC are a family of small proteins that play a crucial role in the immune system. They are secreted by various cells in response to infection, injury, or inflammation and act as chemoattractants to recruit immune cells to the site of injury or infection. CXC chemokines are characterized by the presence of a conserved cysteine (C) at the first position and a glutamine (Q) or glutamic acid (E) at the second position in their amino acid sequence. They are classified into four subfamilies based on the position of the second cysteine residue: CX3C, CXCL, CXCL1, and CXCL2. CXC chemokines play a critical role in the recruitment and activation of immune cells, including neutrophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes, to the site of infection or injury. They also play a role in the development of chronic inflammatory diseases, such as asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and atherosclerosis. In the medical field, CXC chemokines are used as diagnostic markers for various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and autoimmune disorders. They are also being investigated as potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of these diseases.

Interferon Type I is a group of signaling proteins produced by the body's immune system in response to viral infections. These proteins are also known as cytokines and are released by cells that have been infected with a virus. Interferon Type I helps to activate other immune cells and proteins, such as natural killer cells and macrophages, which can help to destroy the virus and prevent it from spreading to other cells. Interferon Type I also has antiviral effects on the infected cells themselves, which can help to limit the severity of the infection. In the medical field, interferon Type I is often used as a treatment for viral infections, such as hepatitis B and C, and certain types of cancer.

Phosphatidylserines (PS) are a type of phospholipid that are important components of cell membranes. They are composed of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group, with a serine residue attached to the phosphate group. In the medical field, PS is often studied for its potential health benefits, particularly in relation to cognitive function and aging. Some research suggests that PS supplements may improve memory and cognitive function in older adults, and may also have anti-inflammatory and anti-aging effects. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential benefits and risks of PS supplementation.

PPAR gamma, also known as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, is a type of nuclear receptor that plays a critical role in regulating glucose and lipid metabolism in the body. It is a transcription factor that is activated by certain hormones and lipids, and it regulates the expression of genes involved in fatty acid synthesis, glucose uptake, and insulin sensitivity. In the medical field, PPAR gamma is an important target for the treatment of a variety of metabolic disorders, including type 2 diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disease. Drugs that activate PPAR gamma, known as PPAR gamma agonists, have been developed and are used to improve insulin sensitivity and reduce blood sugar levels in people with type 2 diabetes. They can also help to reduce body weight and improve lipid profiles, which can help to reduce the risk of heart disease. PPAR gamma is also being studied as a potential target for the treatment of other conditions, such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, inflammatory bowel disease, and certain types of cancer.

Pulmonary fibrosis is a chronic lung disease characterized by the scarring and thickening of the lung tissue, which can lead to difficulty breathing and a reduced ability to transfer oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream. This scarring, or fibrosis, is caused by damage to the lungs, which can be the result of a variety of factors, including exposure to environmental pollutants, certain medications, infections, and autoimmune diseases. Pulmonary fibrosis can be a progressive disease, meaning that the scarring and thickening of the lung tissue can worsen over time, leading to more severe symptoms and a reduced quality of life. Treatment for pulmonary fibrosis typically involves managing symptoms and slowing the progression of the disease, but there is currently no cure.

Interleukins are a group of signaling proteins that are produced by various cells of the immune system, including white blood cells, and play a crucial role in regulating immune responses. They are also involved in a wide range of other physiological processes, such as cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). Interleukins are classified into different groups based on their structure and function. Some of the most well-known interleukins include interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-2 (IL-2), interleukin-4 (IL-4), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), and interleukin-12 (IL-12). Interleukins can act locally within tissues or be transported through the bloodstream to other parts of the body. They can also bind to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, triggering a signaling cascade that leads to changes in gene expression and cellular function. In the medical field, interleukins are often used as therapeutic agents to treat a variety of conditions, including autoimmune diseases, cancer, and infections. They can also be used as diagnostic tools to help identify and monitor certain diseases.

BCG vaccine is a live attenuated vaccine that is used to prevent tuberculosis (TB) in children and adults. It is made from a strain of Mycobacterium bovis, which is a close relative of the bacterium that causes TB. The vaccine is given by intradermal injection, usually in the left upper arm, and is typically given to infants within the first few weeks of life. It is also sometimes given to adults who are at high risk of developing TB, such as healthcare workers, people with HIV/AIDS, and people who live in areas where TB is common. The BCG vaccine is not 100% effective in preventing TB, but it can help to reduce the severity of the disease if a person who has been vaccinated does develop TB.

In the medical field, isoenzymes refer to different forms of enzymes that have the same chemical structure and catalytic activity, but differ in their amino acid sequence. These differences can arise due to genetic variations or post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation or glycosylation. Isoenzymes are often used in medical diagnosis and treatment because they can provide information about the function and health of specific organs or tissues. For example, the presence of certain isoenzymes in the blood can indicate liver or kidney disease, while changes in the levels of specific isoenzymes in the brain can be indicative of neurological disorders. In addition, isoenzymes can be used as biomarkers for certain diseases or conditions, and can be targeted for therapeutic intervention. For example, drugs that inhibit specific isoenzymes can be used to treat certain types of cancer or heart disease.

Inflammasomes are multi-protein complexes that play a critical role in the innate immune system. They are responsible for activating the inflammatory response by cleaving and activating caspase-1, which in turn leads to the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-18 (IL-18). Inflammasomes are activated by various stimuli, including pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). PAMPs are molecules that are present on the surface of pathogens, while DAMPs are molecules that are released by damaged or dying cells. Inflammasomes are found in various cell types, including macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells. They play a crucial role in the defense against infections and tissue damage, but they can also contribute to the development of chronic inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis, type 2 diabetes, and inflammatory bowel disease.

RNA, Small Interfering (siRNA) is a type of non-coding RNA molecule that plays a role in gene regulation. siRNA is approximately 21-25 nucleotides in length and is derived from double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecules. In the medical field, siRNA is used as a tool for gene silencing, which involves inhibiting the expression of specific genes. This is achieved by introducing siRNA molecules that are complementary to the target mRNA sequence, leading to the degradation of the mRNA and subsequent inhibition of protein synthesis. siRNA has potential applications in the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, viral infections, and genetic disorders. It is also used in research to study gene function and regulation. However, the use of siRNA in medicine is still in its early stages, and there are several challenges that need to be addressed before it can be widely used in clinical practice.

Transcription factors are proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences and controlling the transcription of genetic information from DNA to RNA. They play a crucial role in the development and function of cells and tissues in the body. In the medical field, transcription factors are often studied as potential targets for the treatment of diseases such as cancer, where their activity is often dysregulated. For example, some transcription factors are overexpressed in certain types of cancer cells, and inhibiting their activity may help to slow or stop the growth of these cells. Transcription factors are also important in the development of stem cells, which have the ability to differentiate into a wide variety of cell types. By understanding how transcription factors regulate gene expression in stem cells, researchers may be able to develop new therapies for diseases such as diabetes and heart disease. Overall, transcription factors are a critical component of gene regulation and have important implications for the development and treatment of many diseases.

A foreign-body reaction is a type of immune response that occurs when the body recognizes a foreign substance, such as a foreign particle or implant, as a threat and mounts an inflammatory response to try to remove it. This response can lead to the formation of scar tissue around the foreign body, which can cause pain, swelling, and other symptoms. In some cases, the foreign body may also cause an infection or other complications. Foreign-body reactions can occur in response to a wide range of foreign substances, including medications, metals, plastics, and biological materials. They are a common occurrence in the medical field and can be managed with a variety of treatments, depending on the specific cause and severity of the reaction.

Proteins are complex biomolecules made up of amino acids that play a crucial role in many biological processes in the human body. In the medical field, proteins are studied extensively as they are involved in a wide range of functions, including: 1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the body, such as digestion, metabolism, and energy production. 2. Hormones: Proteins that regulate various bodily functions, such as growth, development, and reproduction. 3. Antibodies: Proteins that help the immune system recognize and neutralize foreign substances, such as viruses and bacteria. 4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across cell membranes, such as oxygen and nutrients. 5. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide support and shape to cells and tissues, such as collagen and elastin. Protein abnormalities can lead to various medical conditions, such as genetic disorders, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of proteins is essential for developing effective treatments and therapies for these conditions.

In the medical field, "iron" refers to a mineral that is essential for the production of red blood cells, which carry oxygen throughout the body. Iron is also important for the proper functioning of the immune system, metabolism, and energy production. Iron deficiency is a common condition that can lead to anemia, a condition in which the body does not have enough red blood cells to carry oxygen to the body's tissues. Symptoms of iron deficiency anemia may include fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath, and pale skin. Iron supplements are often prescribed to treat iron deficiency anemia, and dietary changes may also be recommended to increase iron intake. However, it is important to note that excessive iron intake can also be harmful, so it is important to follow the recommended dosage and consult with a healthcare provider before taking any iron supplements.

Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that are involved in regulating cell growth and division. When these genes are mutated or overexpressed, they can become oncogenes, which can lead to the development of cancer. Proto-oncogenes are also known as proto-oncogene proteins.

Pyran copolymers are a class of polymers that are composed of repeating units of pyran monomers. Pyran monomers are a type of monomer that contain a six-membered ring with an oxygen atom at the center. Pyran copolymers are used in a variety of medical applications, including as drug delivery systems, as coatings for medical devices, and as biomaterials for tissue engineering. They are known for their biocompatibility, mechanical strength, and chemical stability, which make them useful for a wide range of medical applications.

NADPH oxidase is a membrane-bound enzyme complex that is responsible for generating reactive oxygen species (ROS), particularly superoxide anions, in various cells and tissues. It plays a crucial role in the immune response, where it is involved in the killing of pathogens by phagocytic cells such as neutrophils and macrophages. NADPH oxidase is also involved in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. In the medical field, NADPH oxidase is of interest because its dysregulation has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and inflammatory disorders.

Osteopetrosis is a rare genetic disorder that affects the bones. It is also known as "marble bone disease" because the bones become very dense and hard, like marble. This is due to a defect in the bone remodeling process, which normally breaks down old bone and replaces it with new bone. In osteopetrosis, the bone remodeling process is impaired, leading to a buildup of old bone and a lack of new bone formation. There are several different types of osteopetrosis, which are classified based on the severity of the symptoms and the age at which they appear. Some forms of the disorder are very severe and can be life-threatening, while others are milder and may not cause any symptoms until later in life. Symptoms of osteopetrosis can include bone pain, fractures, and deformities. It can also affect other organs, such as the eyes, ears, and kidneys. Treatment for osteopetrosis typically involves managing symptoms and preventing complications. This may include medications to relieve pain, surgery to correct bone deformities, and regular monitoring by a healthcare provider.

Pulmonary Surfactant-Associated Protein A (SP-A) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the function of the lungs. It is a member of the collectin family of proteins, which are involved in the innate immune system and the clearance of pathogens and debris from the lungs. SP-A is synthesized and secreted by type II alveolar cells, which are specialized cells in the lungs that produce and secrete pulmonary surfactant. Pulmonary surfactant is a complex mixture of lipids and proteins that helps to reduce surface tension in the alveoli, allowing them to expand and contract properly during breathing. SP-A functions by binding to and aggregating phospholipids and other molecules in the airways and alveoli, forming a protective layer that helps to prevent the accumulation of excess fluid and debris. It also plays a role in the clearance of pathogens and other foreign substances from the lungs. Abnormalities in SP-A levels or function have been associated with a number of lung diseases, including acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF).

Fibrosis is a medical condition characterized by the excessive accumulation of fibrous connective tissue in the body. This tissue is made up of collagen fibers, which are responsible for providing strength and support to tissues. Fibrosis can occur in any part of the body, but it is most commonly seen in the lungs, liver, heart, and kidneys. It can be caused by a variety of factors, including injury, infection, inflammation, and chronic diseases such as diabetes and scleroderma. The accumulation of fibrous tissue can lead to a range of symptoms, depending on the affected organ. For example, in the lungs, fibrosis can cause shortness of breath, coughing, and chest pain. In the liver, it can lead to liver failure and other complications. In the heart, it can cause heart failure and arrhythmias. Fibrosis is often a progressive condition, meaning that it can worsen over time if left untreated. Treatment options depend on the underlying cause of the fibrosis and the severity of the symptoms. In some cases, medications or surgery may be used to slow the progression of the disease or to manage symptoms.

Dexamethasone is a synthetic glucocorticoid hormone that is used in the medical field as an anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, and antipyretic agent. It is a potent corticosteroid that has a wide range of therapeutic applications, including the treatment of allergic reactions, inflammatory diseases, autoimmune disorders, and cancer. Dexamethasone is available in various forms, including tablets, injections, and inhalers, and is used to treat a variety of conditions, such as asthma, COPD, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, and inflammatory bowel disease. It is also used to treat severe cases of COVID-19, as it has been shown to reduce inflammation and improve outcomes in patients with severe illness. However, dexamethasone is a potent drug that can have significant side effects, including weight gain, fluid retention, high blood pressure, increased risk of infection, and mood changes. Therefore, it is typically prescribed only when other treatments have failed or when the potential benefits outweigh the risks.

Glomerulonephritis is a type of kidney disease that involves inflammation of the glomeruli, which are tiny blood vessels in the kidneys responsible for filtering waste products from the blood. This inflammation can cause damage to the glomeruli, leading to a range of symptoms and complications. There are many different types of glomerulonephritis, which can be classified based on their underlying cause. Some common causes include infections (such as strep throat or hepatitis B), autoimmune disorders (such as lupus or rheumatoid arthritis), and certain medications or toxins. Symptoms of glomerulonephritis can vary depending on the severity and underlying cause of the condition. Common symptoms may include blood in the urine, swelling in the legs or feet, high blood pressure, fatigue, and changes in urine output. Treatment for glomerulonephritis typically involves managing symptoms and addressing the underlying cause of the inflammation. This may include medications to reduce inflammation, control blood pressure, and prevent further damage to the kidneys. In some cases, more aggressive treatments such as dialysis or kidney transplantation may be necessary.

Actins are a family of globular, cytoskeletal proteins that are essential for the maintenance of cell shape and motility. They are found in all eukaryotic cells and are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell division, muscle contraction, and intracellular transport. Actins are composed of two globular domains, the N-terminal and C-terminal domains, which are connected by a flexible linker region. They are capable of polymerizing into long, filamentous structures called actin filaments, which are the main component of the cytoskeleton. Actin filaments are dynamic structures that can be rapidly assembled and disassembled in response to changes in the cellular environment. They are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including the formation of cellular structures such as the cell membrane, the cytoplasmic cortex, and the contractile ring during cell division. In addition to their role in maintaining cell shape and motility, actins are also involved in a number of other cellular processes, including the regulation of cell signaling, the organization of the cytoplasm, and the movement of organelles within the cell.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that carries genetic information in living organisms. It is composed of four types of nitrogen-containing molecules called nucleotides, which are arranged in a specific sequence to form the genetic code. In the medical field, DNA is often studied as a tool for understanding and diagnosing genetic disorders. Genetic disorders are caused by changes in the DNA sequence that can affect the function of genes, leading to a variety of health problems. By analyzing DNA, doctors and researchers can identify specific genetic mutations that may be responsible for a particular disorder, and develop targeted treatments or therapies to address the underlying cause of the condition. DNA is also used in forensic science to identify individuals based on their unique genetic fingerprint. This is because each person's DNA sequence is unique, and can be used to distinguish one individual from another. DNA analysis is also used in criminal investigations to help solve crimes by linking DNA evidence to suspects or victims.

Glucuronidase is an enzyme that breaks down glucuronides, which are conjugated forms of various substances, including drugs, hormones, and toxins. In the medical field, glucuronidase is often used as a diagnostic tool to detect the presence of specific substances in the body. For example, in the field of forensic toxicology, glucuronidase can be used to detect the presence of drugs such as cocaine, amphetamines, and opioids in biological samples, such as urine or blood. This is because these drugs are often metabolized in the body by conjugation with glucuronic acid, forming glucuronides. By measuring the levels of glucuronides in a sample, forensic toxicologists can determine whether a person has recently used these drugs. In addition to its use in forensic toxicology, glucuronidase is also used in the treatment of certain medical conditions. For example, in the treatment of certain types of cancer, glucuronidase can be used to break down conjugated toxins that have accumulated in the body, potentially reducing their toxicity and improving patient outcomes.

Heme Oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the metabolism of heme, a component of hemoglobin found in red blood cells. HO-1 is induced in response to various stressors, including inflammation, oxidative stress, and exposure to toxins. The primary function of HO-1 is to break down heme into biliverdin, carbon monoxide (CO), and iron (Fe). Biliverdin is then converted into bilirubin, which is excreted from the body. CO has several biological effects, including vasodilation and anti-inflammatory properties. Fe is recycled and used for the synthesis of new heme. HO-1 has been shown to have a number of beneficial effects in the body, including protection against oxidative stress, inflammation, and tissue damage. It has been implicated in the prevention and treatment of a variety of diseases, including cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer. In the medical field, HO-1 is often studied as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of various diseases. For example, drugs that induce HO-1 activity have been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer effects in preclinical studies. However, more research is needed to fully understand the role of HO-1 in disease and to develop effective therapies that target this enzyme.

Cation transport proteins are a group of proteins that are responsible for transporting positively charged ions, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, across cell membranes. These proteins play a crucial role in maintaining the proper balance of ions inside and outside of cells, which is essential for many cellular processes, including nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and the regulation of blood pressure. There are several types of cation transport proteins, including ion channels, ion pumps, and ion cotransporters. Ion channels are pore-forming proteins that allow ions to pass through the cell membrane in response to changes in voltage or other stimuli. Ion pumps are proteins that use energy from ATP to actively transport ions against their concentration gradient. Ion cotransporters are proteins that move two or more ions in the same direction, often in exchange for each other. Cation transport proteins can be found in many different types of cells and tissues throughout the body, and their dysfunction can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including hypertension, heart disease, neurological disorders, and kidney disease.

Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are proteins that mediate the attachment of cells to each other or to the extracellular matrix. They play a crucial role in various physiological processes, including tissue development, wound healing, immune response, and cancer progression. There are several types of CAMs, including cadherins, integrins, selectins, and immunoglobulin superfamily members. Each type of CAM has a unique structure and function, and they can interact with other molecules to form complex networks that regulate cell behavior. In the medical field, CAMs are often studied as potential targets for therapeutic interventions. For example, drugs that block specific CAMs have been developed to treat cancer, autoimmune diseases, and cardiovascular disorders. Additionally, CAMs are used as diagnostic markers to identify and monitor various diseases, including cancer, inflammation, and neurodegenerative disorders.

CD11c is a type of antigen that is expressed on the surface of immune cells called dendritic cells. Dendritic cells are a type of white blood cell that play a crucial role in the immune system by capturing and presenting antigens to T cells, which are another type of immune cell. CD11c is a member of the integrin family of proteins, which are involved in cell adhesion and migration. In the medical field, CD11c is often used as a marker to identify and study dendritic cells, as well as to monitor the activity of the immune system in various diseases and conditions.

Mast-cell sarcoma is a rare type of cancer that arises from mast cells, which are immune cells that play a role in the body's response to injury and infection. Mast cells are found in various tissues throughout the body, including the skin, gastrointestinal tract, and lungs. Mast-cell sarcoma typically occurs in adults and is more common in women than men. The symptoms of mast-cell sarcoma can vary depending on the location of the tumor, but may include pain, swelling, and a mass or lump in the affected area. Other symptoms may include fever, fatigue, and weight loss. Mast-cell sarcoma is usually diagnosed through a combination of imaging tests, such as X-rays and MRI scans, and a biopsy, in which a small sample of tissue is removed from the tumor for examination under a microscope. Treatment for mast-cell sarcoma typically involves surgery to remove the tumor, followed by radiation therapy or chemotherapy to kill any remaining cancer cells. In some cases, targeted therapy or immunotherapy may also be used. The prognosis for mast-cell sarcoma depends on the stage of the cancer at the time of diagnosis and the overall health of the patient.

Lung diseases refer to a wide range of medical conditions that affect the lungs and their ability to function properly. These conditions can be acute or chronic, and can range from mild to severe. Some common examples of lung diseases include: 1. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): A group of lung diseases that includes chronic bronchitis and emphysema, characterized by difficulty breathing and shortness of breath. 2. Asthma: A chronic inflammatory disease of the airways that causes wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing. 3. Pulmonary Fibrosis: A progressive lung disease that causes scarring and thickening of the lung tissue, making it difficult to breathe. 4. Tuberculosis: A bacterial infection that primarily affects the lungs, causing coughing, fever, and weight loss. 5. Pneumonia: An infection of the lungs that can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi, and can cause fever, cough, and difficulty breathing. 6. Emphysema: A lung disease that causes damage to the air sacs in the lungs, making it difficult to breathe. 7. Interstitial Lung Disease: A group of lung diseases that affect the tissue between the air sacs in the lungs, causing difficulty breathing and shortness of breath. 8. Lung Cancer: A type of cancer that starts in the lungs and can spread to other parts of the body. These are just a few examples of the many different types of lung diseases that can affect people. Treatment for lung diseases depends on the specific condition and can include medications, lifestyle changes, and in some cases, surgery.

Arginine is an amino acid that plays a crucial role in various physiological processes in the human body. It is an essential amino acid, meaning that it cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained through the diet. In the medical field, arginine is used to treat a variety of conditions, including: 1. Erectile dysfunction: Arginine is a precursor to nitric oxide, which helps to relax blood vessels and improve blood flow to the penis, leading to improved sexual function. 2. Cardiovascular disease: Arginine has been shown to improve blood flow and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease by lowering blood pressure and improving the function of the endothelium, the inner lining of blood vessels. 3. Wound healing: Arginine is involved in the production of collagen, a protein that is essential for wound healing. 4. Immune function: Arginine is involved in the production of antibodies and other immune system components, making it important for maintaining a healthy immune system. 5. Cancer: Arginine has been shown to have anti-cancer properties and may help to slow the growth of tumors. However, it is important to note that the use of arginine as a supplement is not without risks, and it is important to consult with a healthcare provider before taking any supplements.

Extracellular Signal-Regulated MAP Kinases (ERKs) are a family of protein kinases that play a crucial role in cellular signaling pathways. They are activated by various extracellular signals, such as growth factors, cytokines, and hormones, and regulate a wide range of cellular processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, survival, and migration. ERKs are part of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway, which is a highly conserved signaling cascade that is involved in the regulation of many cellular processes. The MAPK pathway consists of three main kinase modules: the MAPK kinase kinase (MAP3K), the MAPK kinase (MAP2K), and the MAPK. ERKs are the downstream effector kinases of the MAPK pathway and are activated by phosphorylation by MAP2Ks in response to extracellular signals. ERKs are widely expressed in many different cell types and tissues, and their activity is tightly regulated by various mechanisms, including feedback inhibition by phosphatases and protein-protein interactions. Dysregulation of ERK signaling has been implicated in many human diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and inflammatory diseases. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of ERK signaling and developing targeted therapies to modulate ERK activity are important areas of ongoing research in the medical field.

Reactive Nitrogen Species (RNS) are a group of highly reactive molecules that are formed as a byproduct of the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds in the body. These molecules include nitric oxide (NO), peroxynitrite (ONOO-), and other nitrogen-containing radicals. In the medical field, RNS play important roles in various physiological processes, including vasodilation, neurotransmission, and immune function. However, excessive production of RNS can also lead to cellular damage and contribute to the development of various diseases, including cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer. RNS are produced by a variety of cells in the body, including immune cells, endothelial cells, and neurons. They are also generated by the interaction of oxygen and nitrogen-containing compounds, such as nitrite and nitrate, which are found in the diet and are converted to NO by enzymes in the body. Overall, RNS are a complex and dynamic group of molecules that play important roles in both health and disease. Understanding the mechanisms by which RNS are produced and regulated is an active area of research in the medical field.

Muramidase is an enzyme that is involved in the degradation of peptidoglycan, a major component of bacterial cell walls. It is also known as lysozyme or muramidase lysozyme. The enzyme cleaves the bond between the N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid residues in the peptidoglycan chain, leading to the breakdown of the cell wall and ultimately the death of the bacterium. Muramidase is found in various organisms, including humans, and is used as an antimicrobial agent in some medications. It is also used in laboratory research to study bacterial cell wall structure and function.

I-kappa B proteins are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in regulating the activity of the transcription factor NF-kappa B. NF-kappa B is a key regulator of the immune response, inflammation, and cell survival, and is involved in a wide range of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and inflammatory diseases. Under normal conditions, NF-kappa B is sequestered in the cytoplasm by binding to I-kappa B proteins. However, when cells are stimulated by various signals, such as cytokines or bacterial or viral infections, the I-kappa B proteins are degraded, allowing NF-kappa B to translocate to the nucleus and activate the expression of target genes. I-kappa B proteins are therefore important regulators of NF-kappa B activity and have been the subject of extensive research in the medical field, particularly in the development of new therapies for diseases involving NF-kappa B dysregulation.

Glycoproteins are a type of protein that contains one or more carbohydrate chains covalently attached to the protein molecule. These carbohydrate chains are made up of sugars and are often referred to as glycans. Glycoproteins play important roles in many biological processes, including cell signaling, cell adhesion, and immune response. They are found in many different types of cells and tissues throughout the body, and are often used as markers for various diseases and conditions. In the medical field, glycoproteins are often studied as potential targets for the development of new drugs and therapies.

Mannose is a simple sugar that is a monosaccharide with the chemical formula C6H12O6. It is a component of many complex carbohydrates, including glycans and glycoproteins, which are found in the human body and play important roles in various biological processes. In the medical field, mannose is used as a diagnostic tool to detect certain diseases and conditions. For example, it is used in the diagnosis of certain types of cancer, such as ovarian cancer, by detecting changes in the levels of mannose in the blood or urine. Mannose is also used in the treatment of certain conditions, such as diabetes, by helping to regulate blood sugar levels. It is also used in the development of vaccines and as a component of some dietary supplements. In addition, mannose has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and immune-boosting properties, which may make it useful in the treatment of a variety of conditions, including infections, autoimmune diseases, and allergies.

Chemokine CXCL1, also known as Interleukin-8 (IL-8), is a type of protein that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is a chemokine, which means that it is a type of signaling molecule that attracts immune cells to specific areas of the body in response to infection or injury. CXCL1 is produced by a variety of cells, including immune cells such as neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages, as well as epithelial cells and fibroblasts. It is primarily involved in the recruitment of neutrophils to sites of inflammation, where they help to fight off infection and clear damaged tissue. In addition to its role in inflammation, CXCL1 has been implicated in a number of other biological processes, including cancer progression, angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels), and tissue repair. It is also a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and inflammatory conditions.

Lysosome-Associated Membrane Glycoproteins (LAMPs) are a family of proteins that are found on the surface of lysosomes, which are organelles within cells that are responsible for breaking down and recycling cellular waste. LAMPs are glycoproteins, which means that they are made up of both proteins and carbohydrates. They are characterized by their ability to bind to mannose, a type of sugar, and are involved in the regulation of lysosomal function. LAMPs have been studied in a variety of medical contexts, including their role in the immune response, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Peroxidase is an enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of various substrates, including hydrogen peroxide, by transferring an electron from the substrate to molecular oxygen. In the medical field, peroxidase is often used as a diagnostic tool to detect the presence of certain diseases or conditions. One common use of peroxidase is in the detection of cancer. Certain types of cancer cells produce higher levels of peroxidase than normal cells, and this can be detected using peroxidase-based assays. For example, the Papanicolaou (Pap) test, which is used to screen for cervical cancer, relies on the detection of peroxidase activity in cells from the cervix. Peroxidase is also used in the diagnosis of other conditions, such as autoimmune diseases, infections, and liver disease. In these cases, peroxidase activity is often measured in blood or other body fluids, and elevated levels can indicate the presence of a particular disease or condition. Overall, peroxidase is an important tool in the medical field for the diagnosis and monitoring of various diseases and conditions.

Dextrans are a group of polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates) that are derived from cornstarch. They are used in a variety of medical applications, including as a thickening agent in intravenous fluids, as a diagnostic tool for measuring kidney function, and as a component of certain medications. Dextrans are also used in some medical devices, such as catheters and wound dressings. They are generally considered safe and well-tolerated, but like all medications and medical treatments, they can have potential side effects and risks.

Amino acid oxidoreductases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of amino acids to produce various intermediates, including ammonia, carbon dioxide, and aldehydes or ketones. These enzymes play important roles in various metabolic pathways, including the catabolism of amino acids for energy production and the synthesis of other biomolecules. There are several types of amino acid oxidoreductases, including flavin-dependent enzymes, copper-containing enzymes, and iron-containing enzymes. Some examples of amino acid oxidoreductases include alanine aminotransferase, glutamate dehydrogenase, and ornithine transcarbamylase. In the medical field, amino acid oxidoreductases are often studied in the context of various diseases and disorders, such as liver disease, muscle wasting, and neurodegenerative diseases. Abnormalities in the activity or expression of these enzymes have been implicated in the pathogenesis of these conditions, and targeted therapies based on modulating the activity of amino acid oxidoreductases are being explored as potential treatments.

Ketocholesterols are a type of cholesterol that are synthesized in the liver from excess dietary fat and are characterized by the presence of a keto group (-COO-) on the side chain. They are also known as cholesteryl esters or cholesteryl esterified fatty acids. Ketocholesterols are an important component of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) particles, which are often referred to as "good" cholesterol because they help transport cholesterol from the bloodstream back to the liver for excretion. However, high levels of circulating ketocholesterols can also contribute to the development of atherosclerosis, a condition in which plaque builds up in the arteries and can lead to heart attack or stroke. In the medical field, the measurement of serum levels of ketocholesterols is often used as a marker of cardiovascular risk and to monitor the effectiveness of cholesterol-lowering therapies.

Hypersensitivity, delayed, also known as type IV hypersensitivity or cell-mediated hypersensitivity, is a type of immune response that occurs after an initial exposure to a foreign substance, such as a protein or a drug. Unlike immediate hypersensitivity, which occurs within minutes or hours of exposure, delayed hypersensitivity takes several days to develop. In delayed hypersensitivity, immune cells called T cells recognize and remember the foreign substance. When the immune system encounters the same substance again, the T cells become activated and release chemicals that cause inflammation and damage to the tissue where the substance is located. This can lead to symptoms such as redness, swelling, and itching, and in severe cases, can cause tissue damage or even organ failure. Delayed hypersensitivity is often associated with allergic reactions to certain drugs, metals, or chemicals, as well as with certain infections, such as tuberculosis and leprosy. It is also a key component of the immune response to transplanted organs, as the immune system recognizes the foreign tissue and mounts an attack against it.

Lipid A is a component of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which is a type of endotoxin found on the surface of many Gram-negative bacteria. Lipid A is a lipid molecule that is essential for the toxicity of LPS and plays a key role in the innate immune response to bacterial infections. In the medical field, Lipid A is often studied as a potential target for the development of new antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs. It is also used as a diagnostic tool to detect bacterial infections, as the presence of Lipid A in the blood or other bodily fluids can indicate the presence of Gram-negative bacteria. However, it is important to note that Lipid A can also trigger a strong immune response, which can lead to sepsis or other serious complications in some cases. Therefore, the use of Lipid A-based therapies must be carefully monitored and controlled to minimize the risk of adverse effects.

Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as ether or chloroform. They are an essential component of cell membranes and play a crucial role in energy storage, insulation, and signaling in the body. In the medical field, lipids are often measured as part of a routine blood test to assess an individual's risk for cardiovascular disease. The main types of lipids that are measured include: 1. Total cholesterol: This includes both low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, which is often referred to as "bad" cholesterol, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, which is often referred to as "good" cholesterol. 2. Triglycerides: These are a type of fat that is stored in the body and can be converted into energy when needed. 3. Phospholipids: These are a type of lipid that is a major component of cell membranes and helps to regulate the flow of substances in and out of cells. 4. Steroids: These are a type of lipid that includes hormones such as testosterone and estrogen, as well as cholesterol. Abnormal levels of lipids in the blood can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease, including heart attack and stroke. Therefore, monitoring and managing lipid levels is an important part of maintaining overall health and preventing these conditions.

Osteopontin (OPN) is a protein that is involved in various biological processes, including bone remodeling, inflammation, and cancer. In the medical field, OPN is often studied in relation to diseases such as osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and cancer. OPN is synthesized by a variety of cells, including osteoblasts (cells that form bone), osteoclasts (cells that break down bone), and immune cells such as macrophages and T cells. It is secreted into the extracellular matrix, where it can interact with other proteins and cells to regulate bone remodeling and inflammation. In osteoporosis, OPN is thought to play a role in bone loss by promoting osteoclast activity and inhibiting osteoblast activity. In rheumatoid arthritis, OPN is involved in the inflammatory response and may contribute to joint damage. In cancer, OPN is often upregulated in tumors and can promote tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis. Overall, OPN is a complex protein with multiple functions in the body, and its role in various diseases is an active area of research in the medical field.

Indomethacin is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that is commonly used to relieve pain, reduce inflammation, and lower fever. It works by blocking the production of prostaglandins, which are chemicals that cause pain, inflammation, and fever. Indomethacin is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and suppositories. It is often prescribed for conditions such as arthritis, menstrual cramps, and headaches. It can also be used to treat gout, kidney stones, and other inflammatory conditions. However, indomethacin can have side effects, including stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. It can also increase the risk of bleeding and ulcers in the stomach and intestines. Therefore, it is important to use indomethacin only as directed by a healthcare provider and to report any side effects immediately.

Carrageenan is a type of polysaccharide that is extracted from certain red seaweed species. It is commonly used as a thickener, stabilizer, and emulsifier in a variety of food products, including ice cream, yogurt, and processed meats. In the medical field, carrageenan has been studied for its potential therapeutic effects. Some research suggests that carrageenan may have anti-inflammatory properties and may be useful in the treatment of conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease, arthritis, and cancer. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential benefits and risks of carrageenan in the medical field.

Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1 (ICAM-1) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the immune system and cell signaling. It is expressed on the surface of various cell types, including immune cells, endothelial cells, and epithelial cells. ICAM-1 functions as a receptor for immune cells, allowing them to adhere to and migrate across the endothelial cells that line blood vessels. This process is essential for the immune system to respond to infections and other inflammatory stimuli. ICAM-1 also plays a role in cell signaling, mediating the interaction between cells and their environment. It can be activated by various stimuli, including cytokines, hormones, and growth factors, and can regulate processes such as cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. In the medical field, ICAM-1 is often studied in the context of various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. For example, increased expression of ICAM-1 has been associated with the development and progression of several types of cancer, including breast cancer and lung cancer. Additionally, ICAM-1 has been implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis.

Arachidonic acid (AA) is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid that is found in the cell membranes of all living organisms. It is an essential fatty acid, meaning that it cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained through the diet. In the medical field, arachidonic acid is known for its role in the production of eicosanoids, a group of signaling molecules that play important roles in various physiological processes, including inflammation, blood clotting, and immune function. Eicosanoids are synthesized from arachidonic acid by enzymes called cyclooxygenases (COXs) and lipoxygenases (LOXs). Arachidonic acid is also a precursor to the synthesis of prostaglandins, which are another group of eicosanoids that have a wide range of effects on the body, including regulating blood pressure, controlling inflammation, and modulating pain and fever. In addition to its role in eicosanoid production, arachidonic acid is also important for maintaining the fluidity and integrity of cell membranes, and for regulating the activity of various enzymes and signaling molecules. Abnormal levels of arachidonic acid or disruptions in its metabolism have been linked to a number of medical conditions, including cardiovascular disease, inflammatory disorders, and neurological disorders. As a result, arachidonic acid is an important area of research in the medical field, with efforts focused on developing new treatments and therapies for these conditions.

Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) is a biologically active lipid mediator that plays a key role in the inflammatory response. It is produced by leukocytes, particularly neutrophils, in response to various stimuli such as bacterial or fungal infections, tissue damage, or allergic reactions. LTB4 acts as a chemoattractant, recruiting more leukocytes to the site of inflammation and promoting their activation and migration. It also stimulates the release of other pro-inflammatory mediators, such as prostaglandins and cytokines, from leukocytes and other cells. In the medical field, LTB4 is often measured in blood or other body fluids as a marker of inflammation. It is also a target for the development of anti-inflammatory drugs, such as leukotriene receptor antagonists, which block the effects of LTB4 and reduce inflammation.

The complement system is a complex network of proteins that plays a crucial role in the immune system's defense against infections. Complement system proteins are a group of proteins that are produced by the liver and other cells in the body and circulate in the blood. These proteins work together to identify and destroy invading pathogens, such as bacteria and viruses, by forming a membrane attack complex (MAC) that punctures the pathogen's cell membrane, causing it to burst and die. There are several different types of complement system proteins, including: 1. Complement proteins: These are the primary components of the complement system and include C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, C7, C8, and C9. 2. Complement regulatory proteins: These proteins help to control the activation of the complement system and prevent it from attacking healthy cells. Examples include C1 inhibitor, C4 binding protein, and decay-accelerating factor. 3. Complement receptors: These proteins are found on the surface of immune cells and help to bind to and activate complement proteins. Examples include CR1, CR2, and CR3. Complement system proteins play a critical role in the immune response and are involved in a wide range of diseases, including autoimmune disorders, infections, and cancer.

Poly I-C is a synthetic double-stranded RNA molecule that is commonly used in the field of virology and immunology research. It is a type of interferon inducer, meaning that it can stimulate the production of interferons, which are proteins that help the body fight off viral infections. Poly I-C is often used as a positive control in experiments to study the immune response to viral infections, as it can activate the innate immune system and induce the production of interferons. It is also used in vaccine development, as it can stimulate the production of antibodies and activate immune cells. In addition to its use in research, Poly I-C has also been studied for its potential therapeutic applications in the treatment of viral infections and cancer. However, more research is needed to fully understand its potential benefits and risks.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disorder that primarily affects the joints. It is characterized by inflammation and damage to the lining of the joint capsule, which leads to pain, stiffness, and reduced range of motion. RA can also affect other organs, such as the lungs, heart, and eyes. RA is a systemic disease, meaning that it affects the entire body, not just the joints. It is an inflammatory disease, meaning that it is caused by the immune system attacking healthy cells and tissues in the body. RA is a progressive disease, meaning that it can worsen over time if left untreated. However, with proper treatment, it is possible to manage the symptoms and slow down the progression of the disease. The exact cause of RA is not fully understood, but it is believed to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Risk factors for RA include being female, having a family history of the disease, and smoking.

Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that are composed of long chains of monosaccharide units linked together by glycosidic bonds. They are found in many different types of biological materials, including plant cell walls, animal tissues, and microorganisms. In the medical field, polysaccharides are often used as drugs or therapeutic agents, due to their ability to modulate immune responses, promote wound healing, and provide other beneficial effects. Some examples of polysaccharides that are used in medicine include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, heparin, and dextran.

Apolipoprotein A-I (ApoA-I) is a protein that plays a crucial role in lipid metabolism and transport in the human body. It is the major protein component of high-density lipoprotein (HDL), often referred to as "good" cholesterol, which helps to remove excess cholesterol from the bloodstream and transport it back to the liver for excretion. ApoA-I is synthesized in the liver and intestine and is also found in the blood plasma. It binds to lipids, such as cholesterol and triglycerides, and forms complexes with them, which are then transported through the bloodstream. ApoA-I also has antioxidant properties and helps to protect cells from oxidative stress. In addition to its role in lipid metabolism, ApoA-I has been implicated in various diseases, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders. Low levels of ApoA-I have been associated with an increased risk of these conditions, while high levels have been linked to a reduced risk. Overall, ApoA-I is a critical protein in maintaining healthy lipid metabolism and preventing the development of various diseases.

In the medical field, "trans-activators" refer to proteins or molecules that activate the transcription of a gene, which is the process by which the information in a gene is used to produce a functional product, such as a protein. Trans-activators can bind to specific DNA sequences near a gene and recruit other proteins, such as RNA polymerase, to initiate transcription. They can also modify the chromatin structure around a gene to make it more accessible to transcription machinery. Trans-activators play important roles in regulating gene expression and are involved in many biological processes, including development, differentiation, and disease.

Cycloheximide is a synthetic antibiotic that is used in the medical field as an antifungal agent. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of proteins in fungal cells, which ultimately leads to their death. Cycloheximide is commonly used to treat fungal infections of the skin, nails, and hair, as well as systemic fungal infections such as candidiasis and aspergillosis. It is usually administered orally or topically, and its effectiveness can be enhanced by combining it with other antifungal medications. However, cycloheximide can also have side effects, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and allergic reactions, and it may interact with other medications, so it should be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional.

Collagen is a protein that is found in the extracellular matrix of connective tissues throughout the body. It is the most abundant protein in the human body and is responsible for providing strength and support to tissues such as skin, bones, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage. In the medical field, collagen is often used in various medical treatments and therapies. For example, it is used in dermal fillers to plump up wrinkles and improve skin texture, and it is also used in wound healing to promote tissue regeneration and reduce scarring. Collagen-based products are also used in orthopedic and dental applications, such as in the production of artificial joints and dental implants. In addition, collagen is an important biomarker for various medical conditions, including osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and liver disease. It is also used in research to study the mechanisms of tissue repair and regeneration, as well as to develop new treatments for various diseases and conditions.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases (PI3Ks) are a family of enzymes that play a critical role in cellular signaling pathways. They are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell growth, proliferation, differentiation, survival, migration, and metabolism. PI3Ks are activated by various extracellular signals, such as growth factors, hormones, and neurotransmitters, and they generate second messengers by phosphorylating phosphatidylinositol lipids on the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane. This leads to the recruitment and activation of downstream effector molecules, such as protein kinases and phosphatases, which regulate various cellular processes. Dysregulation of PI3K signaling has been implicated in the development of various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders. Therefore, PI3Ks are important targets for the development of therapeutic agents for these diseases.

CD4 antigens, also known as CD4 molecules, are a type of protein found on the surface of certain cells in the immune system. These cells, called T cells, play a crucial role in the body's defense against infection and disease. CD4 antigens are specifically associated with helper T cells, which are a type of T cell that works to coordinate the immune response by activating other immune cells. Helper T cells express high levels of CD4 antigens on their surface, which allows them to bind to and activate other immune cells, such as B cells and macrophages. In the context of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the virus specifically targets and destroys CD4+ T cells, leading to a weakened immune system and an increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections and certain types of cancer. Therefore, CD4+ T cell count is often used as a key indicator of HIV infection and disease progression.

Arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase (ALOX15) is an enzyme that is involved in the metabolism of arachidonic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid that is a precursor to various eicosanoids, which are signaling molecules that play important roles in inflammation, blood clotting, and other physiological processes. ALOX15 is primarily expressed in the liver, but it is also found in other tissues, including the brain, lungs, and immune cells. The enzyme catalyzes the conversion of arachidonic acid to 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (15-HETE), which is a potent mediator of inflammation and has been implicated in the pathogenesis of various diseases, including cardiovascular disease, asthma, and cancer. In addition to its role in the production of 15-HETE, ALOX15 has been shown to generate other eicosanoids, such as 12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-HETE) and epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs), which have diverse biological activities. The regulation of ALOX15 activity is complex and involves multiple factors, including transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms, as well as the availability of arachidonic acid and other substrates.

Legionnaires' disease is a severe form of pneumonia caused by the bacterium Legionella pneumophila. It is a type of atypical pneumonia, meaning that it is not caused by the typical bacteria that cause pneumonia, such as Streptococcus pneumoniae or Mycoplasma pneumoniae. The disease is typically spread through the air when people breathe in small water droplets that contain the bacteria. Legionella bacteria are commonly found in natural water sources, such as lakes and rivers, but they can also grow in man-made water systems, such as air conditioning systems, hot tubs, and cooling towers. Symptoms of Legionnaires' disease can include fever, chills, cough, shortness of breath, muscle aches, headache, nausea, and diarrhea. In severe cases, the disease can lead to pneumonia, respiratory failure, and even death. Diagnosis of Legionnaires' disease is typically made through a combination of clinical symptoms, laboratory testing, and imaging studies. Treatment typically involves the use of antibiotics to kill the bacteria causing the infection. Prevention of Legionnaires' disease involves proper maintenance and cleaning of water systems to prevent the growth and spread of the bacteria.

Serum Albumin, Bovine is a type of albumin, which is a type of protein found in the blood plasma of mammals. It is derived from the blood of cows and is used as a source of albumin for medical purposes. Albumin is an important protein in the body that helps to maintain the osmotic pressure of blood and transport various substances, such as hormones, drugs, and fatty acids, throughout the body. It is often used as a plasma expander in patients who have lost a significant amount of blood or as a replacement for albumin in patients with liver disease or other conditions that affect albumin production.

In the medical field, "Poly I" typically refers to a type of nucleic acid called polyinosinic acid, which is a synthetic polymer of the nucleotide adenosine monophosphate (AMP) with the base inosine (I). Polyinosinic acid is often used in research and clinical applications as a control or reference material for nucleic acid analysis, such as in the detection and quantification of viral or bacterial infections. It is also used as a component of gene therapy vectors, where it can help protect the therapeutic gene from degradation and enhance its expression in target cells. Overall, "Poly I" is a useful tool in the field of molecular biology and medicine, and its applications continue to expand as new technologies and techniques are developed.

Eicosanoids are a group of biologically active molecules derived from the 20-carbon fatty acid, arachidonic acid. They are produced by various cells in the body, including immune cells, endothelial cells, and smooth muscle cells, in response to various stimuli such as injury, inflammation, or stress. Eicosanoids play a crucial role in many physiological processes, including inflammation, blood clotting, and blood pressure regulation. They are also involved in the regulation of pain, fever, and immune responses. There are several types of eicosanoids, including prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, and lipoxins. Each type of eicosanoid has a specific function and can have both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects, depending on the context in which they are produced. In the medical field, eicosanoids are often targeted for therapeutic purposes, particularly in the treatment of inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases. For example, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin and ibuprofen work by inhibiting the production of prostaglandins, which are key mediators of inflammation. Similarly, drugs that target specific eicosanoid receptors can be used to treat conditions such as asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and cardiovascular disease.

HLA-DR antigens are a group of proteins that are expressed on the surface of cells of the immune system. They play a crucial role in the recognition and presentation of antigens to T cells, which is a key step in the immune response. HLA-DR antigens are encoded by the HLA-DR gene, which is located on chromosome 6. There are many different HLA-DR antigens, each with a unique sequence of amino acids that determines its specificity for different antigens. HLA-DR antigens are also known as human leukocyte antigen (HLA) DR antigens or major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II DR antigens.

Receptors, CCR1 are a type of cell surface receptor protein that belongs to the CC chemokine receptor family. These receptors are expressed on various immune cells, including monocytes, macrophages, and T cells, and play a role in the recruitment and activation of these cells in response to inflammatory stimuli. The CCR1 receptor is activated by certain chemokines, which are small signaling molecules that help to regulate the movement of immune cells within the body. When activated, CCR1 receptors can trigger a variety of cellular responses, including the production of inflammatory cytokines, the migration of immune cells to sites of inflammation, and the activation of immune cell signaling pathways. In the medical field, the CCR1 receptor is of interest because it has been implicated in a number of inflammatory and immune-related diseases, including asthma, multiple sclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis. In some cases, drugs that target the CCR1 receptor have been developed as potential treatments for these conditions.

Phospholipases A are a group of enzymes that hydrolyze the sn-2 ester bond of phospholipids, releasing fatty acids and lysophospholipids. There are several types of phospholipases A, including phospholipase A1, phospholipase A2, and phospholipase A3, each with different substrate specificities and functions. In the medical field, phospholipases A play important roles in various physiological and pathological processes. For example, they are involved in the metabolism of cellular membranes, the regulation of inflammation, and the activation of signaling pathways. Phospholipases A are also involved in the pathogenesis of various diseases, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders. Pharmacological agents that target phospholipases A have been developed for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, inflammation, and cardiovascular disease. For example, some phospholipase A inhibitors have been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer effects, while some phospholipase A activators have been shown to have beneficial effects in cardiovascular disease.

Leukemia P388 is a type of cancer cell line that is commonly used in laboratory research to study various aspects of cancer biology, including drug development and testing. It is a type of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) that is derived from a mouse and has been extensively characterized in the laboratory. The P388 cell line is known for its rapid proliferation and sensitivity to chemotherapy drugs, making it a useful model for studying the effects of different drugs on cancer cells. It is also commonly used to study the mechanisms of cancer cell growth and survival, as well as the development of resistance to chemotherapy. In addition to its use in laboratory research, the P388 cell line has also been used in preclinical studies to evaluate the safety and efficacy of new cancer drugs before they are tested in humans. Overall, the P388 cell line is an important tool in the fight against cancer and has contributed significantly to our understanding of the biology of this disease.

Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear are proteins that are found within the cytoplasm and nucleus of cells. These receptors are responsible for binding to specific molecules, such as hormones or neurotransmitters, and triggering a response within the cell. This response can include changes in gene expression, enzyme activity, or other cellular processes. In the medical field, understanding the function and regulation of these receptors is important for understanding how cells respond to various stimuli and for developing treatments for a wide range of diseases.

Pancreatic elastase is a digestive enzyme that is produced by the pancreas and is responsible for breaking down proteins in the small intestine. It is a serine protease that cleaves peptide bonds in proteins, particularly those that contain the amino acids arginine and lysine. Pancreatic elastase is secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine, where it helps to break down dietary proteins into smaller peptides and amino acids that can be absorbed by the body. It also plays a role in the breakdown of certain hormones and other proteins in the body. Abnormalities in the production or function of pancreatic elastase can lead to a variety of digestive disorders, including chronic pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis, and certain types of cancer. In these conditions, the pancreas may not produce enough elastase, or the enzyme may not function properly, leading to malabsorption of nutrients and other digestive problems.

Leishmaniasis, cutaneous (also known as cutaneous leishmaniasis) is a skin disease caused by the protozoan parasite Leishmania. It is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected sandflies. The symptoms of cutaneous leishmaniasis can vary depending on the species of Leishmania that causes the infection. Common symptoms include skin sores or ulcers that may be painful, itchy, or crusty. The sores may also be accompanied by fever, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes. Cutaneous leishmaniasis is typically treated with antimonial drugs, which are effective in most cases. However, treatment may not be necessary in some cases, particularly if the infection is mild and resolves on its own. In severe cases, surgery may be necessary to remove the infected tissue. Cutaneous leishmaniasis is most common in tropical and subtropical regions of the world, particularly in parts of Africa, Asia, and South America. It is a significant public health problem in many of these areas, and efforts are underway to control the spread of the disease through vector control and other measures.

CD86 is a protein that is expressed on the surface of certain immune cells, including dendritic cells and B cells. It is a member of the B7 family of proteins, which play a key role in regulating the immune response. CD86 is involved in the activation of T cells, which are a type of immune cell that plays a central role in the body's defense against infection and disease. When dendritic cells present an antigen (a foreign substance that triggers an immune response) to a T cell, they also express CD86 on their surface. This allows the T cell to recognize the antigen and become activated, leading to the production of immune cells that can attack and destroy the invading pathogen. In addition to its role in activating T cells, CD86 has also been shown to play a role in the regulation of the immune response. For example, it has been shown to promote the differentiation of regulatory T cells, which are a type of immune cell that helps to prevent autoimmune diseases by suppressing the activity of other immune cells. Overall, CD86 is an important protein in the immune system that plays a role in both the activation and regulation of immune responses.

Protein kinase C (PKC) is a family of enzymes that play a crucial role in various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. In the medical field, PKC is often studied in relation to its involvement in various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. PKC enzymes are activated by the binding of diacylglycerol (DAG) and calcium ions, which leads to the phosphorylation of target proteins. This phosphorylation can alter the activity, localization, or stability of the target proteins, leading to changes in cellular signaling pathways. PKC enzymes are divided into several subfamilies based on their structure and activation mechanisms. The different subfamilies have distinct roles in cellular signaling and are involved in different diseases. For example, some PKC subfamilies are associated with cancer progression, while others are involved in the regulation of the immune system. Overall, PKC enzymes are an important area of research in the medical field, as they have the potential to be targeted for the development of new therapeutic strategies for various diseases.

Interferons are a group of signaling proteins that are produced and released by cells in response to viral infections, cancer, and other types of cellular stress. They play a critical role in the body's immune response by activating immune cells and inhibiting the growth and spread of viruses and cancer cells. There are three main types of interferons: Type I interferons (IFN-alpha and IFN-beta), Type II interferon (IFN-gamma), and Type III interferons (IFN-lambda). Type I interferons are the most well-studied and are produced by most cells in response to viral infections. They bind to receptors on the surface of nearby cells and trigger a signaling cascade that leads to the production of antiviral proteins and the activation of immune cells. Type II interferons are primarily produced by immune cells and are important for the immune response to intracellular pathogens such as viruses and bacteria. Type III interferons are produced by immune cells and some non-immune cells and are important for the immune response to viruses and cancer. Interferons are used in the treatment of several viral infections, including hepatitis B and C, and some types of cancer, such as melanoma and kidney cancer. They are also being studied for their potential use in the treatment of other diseases, such as multiple sclerosis and certain types of viral infections.

Transcription factor RelA, also known as NF-kappaB p65, is a protein that plays a critical role in regulating gene expression in response to various stimuli, including inflammation, infection, and stress. In the context of the medical field, RelA is often studied in the context of immune responses and inflammation. It is a subunit of the NF-kappaB transcription factor complex, which is activated in response to various stimuli and regulates the expression of genes involved in immune responses, cell survival, and apoptosis. RelA is activated by the phosphorylation of serine 536, which leads to its nuclear translocation and binding to DNA at specific regulatory elements called kappaB sites. This binding results in the recruitment of other transcription factors and coactivators, leading to the activation of target genes. Abnormal regulation of RelA has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms that regulate RelA activity is an important area of research in the medical field.

Salmonella infections in animals refer to a group of bacterial infections caused by the Salmonella species, which are commonly found in the intestines of animals such as birds, reptiles, and mammals. These infections can be transmitted to humans through direct contact with infected animals or their environment, or through the consumption of contaminated food products. Salmonella infections in animals can cause a range of clinical signs, depending on the species and strain of the bacteria involved. In some cases, animals may show no signs of illness at all, while in others, they may develop symptoms such as diarrhea, fever, abdominal pain, and loss of appetite. In severe cases, Salmonella infections can lead to systemic illness and even death. In humans, Salmonella infections can also cause a range of symptoms, including fever, diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting. In some cases, the infection can spread to other parts of the body, such as the bloodstream or the joints, leading to more serious complications. Prevention of Salmonella infections in animals involves proper hygiene and sanitation practices, such as regular cleaning and disinfection of animal housing and equipment, proper handling and cooking of food products, and vaccination of animals where appropriate. In humans, prevention involves practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands thoroughly after handling animals or their environment, and avoiding cross-contamination of food and surfaces.

Transcription factor AP-1 (Activator Protein 1) is a protein complex that plays a crucial role in regulating gene expression in various biological processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. It is composed of two subunits, Jun and Fos, which can form homo- or heterodimers depending on the specific cellular context. In the medical field, AP-1 is often studied in the context of cancer, as its dysregulation has been implicated in the development and progression of various types of tumors. For example, overexpression of AP-1 has been observed in many human cancers, including breast, lung, and colon cancer, and is associated with increased cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. AP-1 can also be targeted for therapeutic intervention in cancer. For instance, small molecule inhibitors of AP-1 have been developed and shown to have anti-cancer activity in preclinical studies. Additionally, AP-1 has been identified as a potential biomarker for cancer diagnosis and prognosis, as its expression levels can be used to predict patient outcomes and response to treatment.

Lipoproteins, High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL) are a type of lipoprotein that transport cholesterol in the bloodstream. HDL is often referred to as "good cholesterol" because it helps remove excess cholesterol from the bloodstream and carries it back to the liver, where it can be broken down and eliminated from the body. This process helps prevent the buildup of cholesterol in the arteries, which can lead to the development of heart disease. HDL is made up of a core of cholesterol, triglycerides, and other lipids, surrounded by a shell of proteins. The proteins in HDL are called apolipoproteins, and they play a crucial role in regulating cholesterol levels in the body. HDL is produced in the liver and small intestine, and it is also found in the blood plasma. In addition to its role in cholesterol metabolism, HDL has been shown to have other important functions in the body, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. HDL levels are an important factor in cardiovascular health, and low levels of HDL are a risk factor for heart disease.

Sialoglycoproteins are a type of glycoprotein that are found in the saliva of humans and other animals. They are composed of a protein core and one or more carbohydrate chains attached to the protein. Sialoglycoproteins play important roles in a variety of biological processes, including the lubrication and protection of the oral mucosa, the breakdown of food in the mouth, and the immune response. They are also involved in the development and progression of certain diseases, such as cancer and autoimmune disorders. In the medical field, sialoglycoproteins are often studied as potential biomarkers for these and other conditions.

Phospholipids are a type of lipid molecule that are essential components of cell membranes in living organisms. They are composed of a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and two hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails, which together form a bilayer structure that separates the interior of the cell from the external environment. Phospholipids are important for maintaining the integrity and fluidity of cell membranes, and they also play a role in cell signaling and the transport of molecules across the membrane. They are found in all types of cells, including animal, plant, and bacterial cells, and are also present in many types of lipoproteins, which are particles that transport lipids in the bloodstream. In the medical field, phospholipids are used in a variety of applications, including as components of artificial cell membranes for research purposes, as components of liposomes (small vesicles that can deliver drugs to specific cells), and as ingredients in dietary supplements and other health products. They are also the subject of ongoing research in the fields of nutrition, metabolism, and disease prevention.

Interleukin-3 (IL-3) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in regulating the immune system. IL-3 is produced by a variety of cells, including immune cells such as T cells, B cells, and mast cells, as well as by some non-immune cells such as fibroblasts and endothelial cells. In the medical field, IL-3 is primarily used as a therapeutic agent to treat certain types of blood disorders and cancers. For example, IL-3 has been shown to stimulate the growth and differentiation of certain types of blood cells, such as neutrophils and eosinophils, which are important for fighting infections and allergies. It has also been used to treat certain types of leukemia and lymphoma, as well as myelodysplastic syndrome, a group of blood disorders characterized by abnormal blood cell production. However, IL-3 can also have harmful effects if it is produced in excess or if it is not properly regulated. For example, it has been implicated in the development of certain types of autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis, where the immune system mistakenly attacks healthy cells and tissues. As a result, the use of IL-3 as a therapeutic agent is carefully monitored and regulated to minimize the risk of adverse effects.

Calcium is a chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It is a vital mineral for the human body and is essential for many bodily functions, including bone health, muscle function, nerve transmission, and blood clotting. In the medical field, calcium is often used to diagnose and treat conditions related to calcium deficiency or excess. For example, low levels of calcium in the blood (hypocalcemia) can cause muscle cramps, numbness, and tingling, while high levels (hypercalcemia) can lead to kidney stones, bone loss, and other complications. Calcium supplements are often prescribed to people who are at risk of developing calcium deficiency, such as older adults, vegetarians, and people with certain medical conditions. However, it is important to note that excessive calcium intake can also be harmful, and it is important to follow recommended dosages and consult with a healthcare provider before taking any supplements.

Lysophosphatidylcholines (LPCs) are a type of phospholipid that are found in cell membranes and are involved in various cellular processes. They are characterized by the presence of a fatty acid chain attached to a glycerol backbone with a phosphate group and a choline head group. In the medical field, LPCs have been studied for their potential role in various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. They have been shown to modulate cell signaling pathways, affect cell proliferation and migration, and contribute to inflammation and oxidative stress. LPCs have also been used as a tool in diagnostic imaging and as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of certain diseases. For example, LPCs have been used as a contrast agent in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to visualize the blood-brain barrier and to detect brain tumors. They have also been investigated as a potential treatment for Alzheimer's disease, as they have been shown to improve cognitive function in animal models of the disease.

Prostaglandins E (PGE) are a group of lipid signaling molecules that are produced in the body from arachidonic acid. They are synthesized by enzymes called cyclooxygenases (COX) and are involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including inflammation, pain, fever, and blood clotting. PGEs are produced in response to various stimuli, such as injury, infection, or stress, and act as messengers to regulate cellular responses. They can also act as vasodilators, increasing blood flow to tissues, and as bronchodilators, relaxing smooth muscle in the airways. In the medical field, PGEs are used as drugs to treat a variety of conditions, including pain, inflammation, and asthma. They are also used in research to study the mechanisms of these processes and to develop new treatments.

Phospholipases A2 (PLA2s) are a family of enzymes that hydrolyze the sn-2 ester bond of phospholipids, releasing fatty acids and lysophospholipids. There are several types of PLA2s, including secreted PLA2s (sPLA2s), cytosolic PLA2s (cPLA2s), and calcium-independent PLA2s (iPLA2s), each with distinct properties and functions. In the medical field, PLA2s have been implicated in various diseases and conditions, including inflammation, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders. For example, sPLA2s are involved in the production of arachidonic acid, a precursor of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids, and have been shown to play a role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and asthma. cPLA2s are involved in the regulation of cell signaling and have been implicated in the development of cancer. iPLA2s have been shown to play a role in the regulation of membrane fluidity and have been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Overall, PLA2s are important enzymes that play a role in various physiological and pathological processes, and their study has led to the development of potential therapeutic targets for a range of diseases.

CD18 is a cluster of differentiation antigens that are expressed on the surface of many immune cells, including neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages. CD18 is a component of the integrin family of cell adhesion molecules, which play a critical role in the recruitment and activation of immune cells at sites of inflammation or infection. Antigens, CD18 are proteins that are recognized by the immune system as foreign or non-self. They are often used as markers to identify and study immune cells, and they can also be targeted by therapeutic agents to modulate immune responses. In the context of infectious diseases, CD18 antigens may be recognized by the immune system as part of the pathogen, leading to the activation and recruitment of immune cells to eliminate the infection.

Protein-tyrosine kinases (PTKs) are a family of enzymes that play a crucial role in various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, metabolism, and signal transduction. These enzymes catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to the hydroxyl group of tyrosine residues on specific target proteins, thereby modifying their activity, localization, or interactions with other molecules. PTKs are involved in many diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurological disorders. They are also targets for many drugs, including those used to treat cancer and other diseases. In the medical field, PTKs are studied to understand their role in disease pathogenesis and to develop new therapeutic strategies.

Sterol esterases are a group of enzymes that hydrolyze ester bonds in sterols, which are a type of lipid. These enzymes are found in various tissues throughout the body, including the liver, adipose tissue, and the small intestine. In the medical field, sterol esterases are important because they play a role in the metabolism of cholesterol and other lipids. For example, in the liver, sterol esterases are involved in the breakdown of cholesterol esters, which are stored in lipid droplets within liver cells. This process helps to regulate cholesterol levels in the body. Sterol esterases are also important in the digestion and absorption of dietary lipids. In the small intestine, these enzymes help to break down dietary cholesterol esters into free cholesterol and fatty acids, which can then be absorbed into the bloodstream. Abnormalities in the activity of sterol esterases can lead to various health problems. For example, mutations in the gene that encodes for the enzyme acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT), which is involved in cholesterol esterification, have been linked to familial hypercholesterolemia, a genetic disorder that increases the risk of heart disease. Similarly, defects in the activity of lipoprotein lipase, another enzyme involved in lipid metabolism, can lead to high levels of triglycerides in the blood, which can also increase the risk of heart disease.

Recombinant fusion proteins are proteins that are produced by combining two or more genes in a single molecule. These proteins are typically created using genetic engineering techniques, such as recombinant DNA technology, to insert one or more genes into a host organism, such as bacteria or yeast, which then produces the fusion protein. Fusion proteins are often used in medical research and drug development because they can have unique properties that are not present in the individual proteins that make up the fusion. For example, a fusion protein might be designed to have increased stability, improved solubility, or enhanced targeting to specific cells or tissues. Recombinant fusion proteins have a wide range of applications in medicine, including as therapeutic agents, diagnostic tools, and research reagents. Some examples of recombinant fusion proteins used in medicine include antibodies, growth factors, and cytokines.

Chemokine CCL20, also known as macrophage inflammatory protein 3 alpha (MIP-3α), is a small protein that plays a role in the immune system. It is a type of chemokine, which are signaling molecules that help to direct the movement of immune cells to specific areas of the body in response to infection or injury. CCL20 is produced by a variety of cells, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and epithelial cells. It is involved in the recruitment of immune cells, such as T cells and B cells, to the lymph nodes and other areas of the body where they can help to fight infection. In the context of the medical field, CCL20 has been studied in relation to a number of different conditions, including cancer, autoimmune diseases, and infectious diseases. For example, CCL20 has been shown to play a role in the development and progression of certain types of cancer, such as breast cancer and lung cancer. It has also been implicated in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, and in the recruitment of immune cells to sites of infection. Overall, CCL20 is an important molecule in the immune system that helps to regulate the movement of immune cells and plays a role in the body's response to infection and injury.

Proto-oncogene proteins c-hck, also known as c-Kit or CD117, are a type of protein that plays a role in cell signaling and proliferation. They are encoded by the c-kit gene and are expressed on the surface of certain types of cells, including cells of the immune system, hematopoietic cells, and cells of the gastrointestinal tract. In the context of cancer, mutations in the c-kit gene can lead to the production of abnormal c-hck proteins that are constitutively activated, meaning they are always turned on and signaling even when they should not be. This can result in uncontrolled cell growth and the development of cancer. Proto-oncogene proteins c-hck are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, and migration. They are also involved in the development and function of certain types of immune cells, such as mast cells and basophils. In the medical field, c-hck is often targeted for the treatment of certain types of cancer, such as gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) and leukemias. In these cases, drugs called tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are used to block the activity of c-hck and prevent the growth of cancer cells.

AIDS Dementia Complex (ADC) is a neurological disorder that occurs in people with advanced HIV/AIDS. It is characterized by a gradual decline in cognitive function, memory loss, confusion, and changes in personality. ADC is caused by the damage to the brain and nervous system that occurs as a result of HIV infection and the immune system's response to the virus. The symptoms of ADC can range from mild to severe and can affect a person's ability to perform daily activities. Treatment for ADC typically involves managing the underlying HIV infection and addressing the specific symptoms of the disorder.

In the medical field, "quartz" typically refers to a type of mineral that is commonly used in the production of medical devices and instruments. Quartz is a hard, crystalline mineral that is composed of silicon dioxide (SiO2) and is known for its high refractive index, which makes it useful for producing lenses and other optical components. Quartz is often used in the production of medical devices such as microscopes, spectrometers, and lasers. It is also used in the manufacture of surgical instruments, such as scalpels and forceps, due to its durability and resistance to corrosion. In addition to its use in medical devices, quartz is also used in the production of certain types of medical implants, such as dental fillings and orthopedic implants. However, it is important to note that the use of quartz in medical implants is relatively uncommon, and other materials such as titanium and stainless steel are more commonly used for this purpose.

Disease progression refers to the worsening or progression of a disease over time. It is a natural course of events that occurs in many chronic illnesses, such as cancer, heart disease, and diabetes. Disease progression can be measured in various ways, such as changes in symptoms, physical examination findings, laboratory test results, or imaging studies. In some cases, disease progression can be slowed or stopped through medical treatment, such as medications, surgery, or radiation therapy. However, in other cases, disease progression may be inevitable, and the focus of treatment may shift from trying to cure the disease to managing symptoms and improving quality of life. Understanding disease progression is important for healthcare providers to develop effective treatment plans and to communicate with patients about their condition and prognosis. It can also help patients and their families make informed decisions about their care and treatment options.

HMGB1 protein, also known as high mobility group box 1 protein, is a protein that is found in the nuclei of most cells in the human body. It is a member of a family of proteins called high mobility group (HMG) proteins, which are involved in the regulation of gene expression and the maintenance of chromatin structure. HMGB1 protein is normally located in the nucleus of cells, where it helps to regulate the activity of genes by binding to specific DNA sequences. However, under certain conditions, such as inflammation or tissue damage, HMGB1 can be released from the nucleus and enter the bloodstream. This can have a number of effects on the body, including the activation of immune cells and the promotion of tissue repair. In the medical field, HMGB1 protein is being studied as a potential biomarker for a variety of diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. It is also being investigated as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of these conditions.

Neovascularization, pathologic, refers to the abnormal growth of new blood vessels in the body. This can occur in response to a variety of factors, including injury, inflammation, and certain diseases. In some cases, neovascularization can be a normal part of the healing process, but in other cases it can be a sign of a more serious underlying condition. Pathologic neovascularization is often associated with conditions such as cancer, diabetes, and age-related macular degeneration. It can also be seen in the development of certain types of tumors, where the new blood vessels help to provide the tumor with the nutrients and oxygen it needs to grow. Treatment for pathologic neovascularization may involve medications, laser therapy, or surgery, depending on the underlying cause and the severity of the condition.

Leishmaniasis, visceral is a serious and potentially life-threatening infection caused by the protozoan parasite Leishmania donovani. It is also known as kala-azar, which is a term that originated in India and means "black fever" due to the characteristic black spots that can appear on the skin of infected individuals. Visceral leishmaniasis primarily affects the internal organs, particularly the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. The disease is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected sandflies, which are found in many parts of the world, including Africa, Asia, and South America. Symptoms of visceral leishmaniasis can include fever, fatigue, weight loss, anemia, and enlargement of the liver and spleen. In severe cases, the disease can lead to organ failure and death if left untreated. Treatment for visceral leishmaniasis typically involves a combination of antimonial drugs and amphotericin B. Prevention measures include the use of insect repellent, bed nets, and indoor residual spraying to reduce sandfly populations, as well as public education about the risks of the disease and how to avoid it.

Platelet Activating Factor (PAF) is a signaling molecule that plays a role in the immune response and inflammation. It is produced by various cells, including platelets, leukocytes, and endothelial cells, and acts on a specific receptor on the surface of these cells to trigger a variety of cellular responses. PAF is involved in the recruitment and activation of immune cells, such as neutrophils and monocytes, to sites of inflammation. It also promotes the release of other inflammatory mediators, such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes, and can cause vasodilation and increased permeability of blood vessels, leading to edema and tissue damage. In addition to its role in inflammation, PAF has been implicated in a variety of other conditions, including allergic reactions, asthma, and certain types of heart disease. It is also a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of these conditions.

Intercellular signaling peptides and proteins are molecules that are secreted by cells and act as messengers to communicate with other cells. These molecules can be hormones, growth factors, cytokines, or other signaling molecules that are capable of transmitting information between cells. They play a crucial role in regulating various physiological processes, such as cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis, as well as immune responses and inflammation. In the medical field, understanding the function and regulation of intercellular signaling peptides and proteins is important for developing new treatments for various diseases and disorders, including cancer, autoimmune diseases, and neurological disorders.

Nitroblue Tetrazolium (NBT) is a chemical compound that is commonly used in medical research and diagnostics. It is a diazo dye that is reduced to a formazan product when it comes into contact with certain enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), which is an antioxidant enzyme found in many cells. In medical research, NBT is often used as a colorimetric assay to measure the activity of SOD in cells or tissues. The reduction of NBT to formazan is a color change that can be easily detected and quantified using a spectrophotometer or other colorimetric methods. In addition to its use as a research tool, NBT has also been used in clinical diagnostics to detect certain types of infections and inflammatory conditions. For example, the presence of certain bacteria or white blood cells can cause an increase in SOD activity, which can be detected using NBT assays. Overall, NBT is a useful tool in medical research and diagnostics due to its ability to detect and quantify the activity of SOD, which is an important enzyme involved in many cellular processes.

Polymyxin B is an antibiotic medication that is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections, including pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and skin infections. It is a member of a class of antibiotics called polypeptide antibiotics, which are derived from soil bacteria and have a broad spectrum of activity against gram-negative bacteria. Polymyxin B works by disrupting the cell membrane of bacteria, causing it to leak and eventually leading to cell death. It is often used in combination with other antibiotics to treat infections that are resistant to other types of antibiotics. Side effects of polymyxin B may include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and allergic reactions. It is important to note that polymyxin B can be toxic to the kidneys, so it should be used with caution in patients with kidney disease. It is also important to avoid using polymyxin B in patients who are allergic to it or who have a history of allergic reactions to other antibiotics.

Complement C3 is a protein that plays a crucial role in the immune system's defense against infections. It is one of the proteins that make up the complement system, a series of proteins that work together to help the immune system identify and destroy invading pathogens. C3 is synthesized in the liver and circulates in the bloodstream. When it encounters a pathogen, it becomes activated and splits into two fragments: C3a and C3b. C3a is a small protein that acts as a signaling molecule, attracting immune cells to the site of infection and promoting inflammation. C3b, on the other hand, binds to the surface of the pathogen and helps to recruit other immune cells to destroy it. In medical testing, the level of complement C3 in the blood can be measured to help diagnose and monitor certain medical conditions. For example, low levels of C3 can be a sign of complement deficiency, which can increase the risk of infections. High levels of C3 can be a sign of certain autoimmune disorders, such as lupus or rheumatoid arthritis.

Sepsis is a serious medical condition that occurs when the body's response to an infection causes widespread inflammation throughout the body. It is a life-threatening condition that can lead to organ failure, septic shock, and even death if not treated promptly and effectively. Sepsis can develop from any type of infection, including bacterial, viral, fungal, or parasitic infections. The body's immune system responds to the infection by releasing chemicals called cytokines, which can cause inflammation throughout the body. This inflammation can damage tissues and organs, leading to a range of symptoms, including fever, chills, rapid heartbeat, rapid breathing, confusion, and decreased urine output. Diagnosis of sepsis typically involves a combination of clinical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment typically involves antibiotics to treat the underlying infection, as well as supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications. In severe cases, treatment may include fluid resuscitation, vasopressors to maintain blood pressure, and organ support. Early recognition and prompt treatment of sepsis are critical for improving outcomes and reducing the risk of death.

Growth Differentiation Factor 15 (GDF15) is a protein that plays a role in regulating cell growth, differentiation, and survival. It is also known as macrophage inhibitory cytokine 1 (MIC-1) or transforming growth factor beta-induced protein (TGF-beta-induced protein). In the medical field, GDF15 has been studied for its potential role in various diseases, including cancer, heart disease, and kidney disease. For example, some research suggests that GDF15 may be a biomarker for certain types of cancer, such as lung cancer and ovarian cancer, and that it may also be involved in the development and progression of these cancers. In addition, GDF15 has been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects and may play a role in protecting against tissue damage and promoting tissue repair. It has also been studied for its potential use as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of various diseases, including heart failure and kidney disease. Overall, GDF15 is a protein that has a number of potential applications in the medical field, and ongoing research is exploring its potential uses in the diagnosis and treatment of various diseases.

Beta-glucans are a type of polysaccharide (a complex carbohydrate) that are found in the cell walls of fungi, yeast, and some types of bacteria. They are also found in certain grains, such as oats and barley, and in some dietary supplements. In the medical field, beta-glucans have been studied for their potential health benefits. Some research suggests that they may have immune-boosting properties and may help to reduce inflammation in the body. They may also have a role in reducing the risk of certain diseases, such as heart disease and cancer. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential health benefits of beta-glucans and to determine the appropriate dosage and duration of use. It is important to speak with a healthcare provider before taking any dietary supplements, including beta-glucans.

Immunoglobulin Fc Fragments, also known as Fc fragments, are a part of the immune system's antibodies. The Fc fragment is the portion of the antibody that interacts with immune cells, such as macrophages and neutrophils, to help eliminate pathogens from the body. The Fc fragment contains two domains, the Fcα and Fcβ, which bind to different receptors on immune cells. These interactions help to activate immune cells and enhance their ability to destroy pathogens. Fc fragments are often used in medical research and drug development as they can be used to enhance the immune response to specific pathogens or to target immune cells for treatment.

Adaptor proteins, signal transducing are a class of proteins that play a crucial role in transmitting signals from the cell surface to the interior of the cell. These proteins are involved in various cellular processes such as cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. Adaptor proteins function as molecular bridges that connect signaling receptors on the cell surface to downstream signaling molecules inside the cell. They are characterized by their ability to bind to both the receptor and the signaling molecule, allowing them to transmit the signal from the receptor to the signaling molecule. There are several types of adaptor proteins, including SH2 domain-containing adaptor proteins, phosphotyrosine-binding (PTB) domain-containing adaptor proteins, and WW domain-containing adaptor proteins. These proteins are involved in a wide range of signaling pathways, including the insulin, growth factor, and cytokine signaling pathways. Disruptions in the function of adaptor proteins can lead to various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and immune disorders. Therefore, understanding the role of adaptor proteins in signal transduction is important for the development of new therapeutic strategies for these diseases.

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infections refer to the presence of the HIV virus in the body. HIV is a retrovirus that attacks and weakens the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to infections and diseases. HIV is transmitted through contact with infected bodily fluids, such as blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk. The most common modes of transmission include unprotected sexual contact, sharing needles or syringes, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. HIV infections can be diagnosed through blood tests that detect the presence of the virus or antibodies produced in response to the virus. Once diagnosed, HIV can be managed with antiretroviral therapy (ART), which helps to suppress the virus and prevent the progression of the disease to AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome). It is important to note that HIV is not the same as AIDS. HIV is the virus that causes AIDS, but not everyone with HIV will develop AIDS. With proper treatment and management, individuals with HIV can live long and healthy lives.

RNA, or ribonucleic acid, is a type of nucleic acid that is involved in the process of protein synthesis in cells. It is composed of a chain of nucleotides, which are made up of a sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are three types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). In the medical field, RNA is often studied as a potential target for the development of new drugs and therapies. For example, some researchers are exploring the use of RNA interference (RNAi) to silence specific genes and treat diseases such as cancer and viral infections. Additionally, RNA is being studied as a potential biomarker for various diseases, as changes in the levels or structure of certain RNA molecules can indicate the presence of a particular condition.

Plant extracts refer to the active compounds or bioactive molecules that are extracted from plants and used in the medical field for various therapeutic purposes. These extracts are obtained through various extraction methods, such as solvent extraction, steam distillation, and cold pressing, and can be used in the form of powders, liquids, or capsules. Plant extracts have been used for centuries in traditional medicine and are now widely used in modern medicine as well. They are used to treat a wide range of conditions, including inflammation, pain, anxiety, depression, and cancer. Some examples of plant extracts used in medicine include aspirin (extracted from willow bark), quinine (extracted from cinchona bark), and morphine (extracted from opium poppy). Plant extracts are also used in the development of new drugs and therapies. Researchers extract compounds from plants and test them for their potential therapeutic effects. If a compound shows promise, it can be further developed into a drug that can be used to treat a specific condition. It is important to note that while plant extracts can be effective in treating certain conditions, they can also have side effects and may interact with other medications. Therefore, it is important to consult with a healthcare professional before using plant extracts as a form of treatment.

JNK Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases (JNK MAPKs) are a family of serine/threonine protein kinases that play a crucial role in cellular signaling pathways. They are activated in response to various cellular stresses, including oxidative stress, UV radiation, and cytokines. JNK MAPKs are involved in the regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis, as well as the inflammatory response. Dysregulation of JNK MAPK signaling has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and inflammatory diseases. Therefore, JNK MAPKs are an important target for the development of new therapeutic strategies.

Mannans are a type of polysaccharide, which are complex carbohydrates made up of long chains of sugar molecules. In the medical field, mannans are often used as a dietary supplement or as an ingredient in certain medications. Mannans are found in many foods, including fruits, vegetables, and grains, but they are also produced by certain types of fungi and bacteria. Some studies have suggested that mannans may have immune-boosting properties and may be beneficial for people with certain health conditions, such as allergies, autoimmune disorders, and cancer. In the medical field, mannans are sometimes used as an ingredient in dietary supplements or as an active ingredient in certain medications. For example, some dietary supplements contain mannan-chitosan complexes, which are believed to help reduce cholesterol levels and improve digestion. Mannans are also used in some medications to treat certain types of infections, such as fungal infections of the skin and nails. It's important to note that while mannans may have potential health benefits, more research is needed to fully understand their effects on the body. As with any dietary supplement or medication, it's important to talk to a healthcare provider before starting to take mannans or any other supplement or medication.

Cytochalasin D is a fungal metabolite that is used in the medical field as a research tool to study cell biology and cell motility. It is a potent inhibitor of actin polymerization, which is a key process in cell movement and shape change. Cytochalasin D is often used to study the dynamics of actin filaments and their role in cell migration, endocytosis, and cytokinesis. It is also used to study the effects of actin polymerization on the structure and function of other cellular components, such as microtubules and intermediate filaments. In addition, Cytochalasin D has been used in the treatment of certain types of cancer, as it can inhibit the growth and spread of cancer cells by disrupting their actin cytoskeleton.

Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the metabolism of lipids (fats) in the human body. It is primarily found in the capillary endothelial cells of adipose tissue (fat tissue) and muscle tissue, where it is responsible for hydrolyzing triglycerides (fatty acids) from circulating lipoproteins, such as chylomicrons and very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL). The hydrolysis of triglycerides by LPL releases free fatty acids, which can then be taken up by adipose tissue and muscle cells for energy production or storage. LPL also plays a role in the metabolism of high-density lipoproteins (HDL), the "good" cholesterol, by hydrolyzing triglycerides in HDL particles. Abnormalities in LPL activity can lead to a variety of metabolic disorders, including hypertriglyceridemia (elevated levels of triglycerides in the blood), familial chylomicronemia syndrome, and lipemia retinalis. In addition, LPL has been implicated in the development of atherosclerosis, a condition characterized by the buildup of plaque in the arteries, which can lead to heart attack and stroke.

Fibronectins are a family of large, soluble glycoproteins that are found in the extracellular matrix of connective tissues. They are synthesized by a variety of cells, including fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and epithelial cells, and are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell adhesion, migration, and differentiation. Fibronectins are composed of two large subunits, each containing three distinct domains: an N-terminal domain, a central domain, and a C-terminal domain. The central domain contains a high-affinity binding site for fibronectin receptors on the surface of cells, which allows cells to adhere to the extracellular matrix and migrate through it. Fibronectins play a critical role in the development and maintenance of tissues, and are involved in a variety of pathological processes, including wound healing, tissue fibrosis, and cancer. They are also important in the immune response, as they can bind to and activate immune cells, and can modulate the activity of various cytokines and growth factors.

Wallerian degeneration is a process that occurs in the nervous system following damage to a nerve or neuron. It is named after the scientist Sir Charles Bell's student, John Charles Waller, who first described it in the 19th century. When a nerve or neuron is damaged, the part of the nerve that is closest to the site of injury begins to break down and die. This is called the axon. The axon is surrounded by a layer of supportive cells called the myelin sheath, which helps to insulate and protect the nerve fibers. As the axon dies, the myelin sheath begins to break down as well. The process of Wallerian degeneration is a natural response to injury, and it helps to prevent the spread of damage to healthy tissue. However, it can also lead to the loss of function in the affected nerve or neuron. This is because the myelin sheath is important for transmitting electrical signals along the nerve fibers, and its breakdown can disrupt this process. Wallerian degeneration can occur in a variety of conditions that affect the nervous system, including traumatic injuries, infections, and certain neurological disorders. It is an important area of study in the field of neuroscience, as it helps researchers to understand the mechanisms of nerve damage and repair.

Beta-N-Acetylhexosaminidases are a group of enzymes that are involved in the degradation of complex carbohydrates, specifically those that contain the sugar N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc). These enzymes are found in a variety of tissues throughout the body, including the liver, kidneys, and brain. There are several different types of beta-N-Acetylhexosaminidases, which are classified based on their specific substrate preferences and other characteristics. Some of the most well-known types include beta-N-Acetylhexosaminidase A (Hex A), which is involved in the breakdown of gangliosides, and beta-N-Acetylhexosaminidase B (Hex B), which is involved in the breakdown of heparan sulfate. Deficiencies in beta-N-Acetylhexosaminidases can lead to a group of rare genetic disorders known as lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs). These disorders are characterized by the accumulation of undigested complex carbohydrates in the lysosomes of cells, leading to a range of symptoms and complications depending on the specific enzyme deficiency. Some of the most well-known LSDs that involve beta-N-Acetylhexosaminidases include Tay-Sachs disease, which is caused by a deficiency in Hex A, and Sandhoff disease, which is caused by a deficiency in both Hex A and Hex B.

Interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinases (IRAKs) are a family of proteins that play a critical role in the signaling pathway of the interleukin-1 (IL-1) receptor. The IL-1 receptor is a cell surface receptor that is activated by the binding of IL-1 cytokines, such as IL-1α and IL-1β. When the IL-1 receptor is activated, it triggers a signaling cascade that involves the recruitment and activation of IRAKs. IRAKs are serine/threonine kinases that are involved in the regulation of various cellular processes, including inflammation, innate immunity, and cell survival. They are activated by the binding of IL-1 receptor-associated molecules (IRAMs) to the IL-1 receptor, which leads to the recruitment and activation of IRAKs. Once activated, IRAKs phosphorylate downstream signaling molecules, such as tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6), which in turn activates the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways. The activation of these signaling pathways leads to the production of various pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which recruit immune cells to the site of inflammation and promote the inflammatory response. IRAKs are also involved in the regulation of cell survival and the development of various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and inflammatory diseases.

CD47 is a protein that is expressed on the surface of many types of cells in the body, including red blood cells, platelets, and some types of cancer cells. It is a member of a family of proteins called "immune checkpoint" molecules that help regulate the immune system. Antigens, CD47 are molecules that bind to CD47 on the surface of cells and can trigger immune responses. These antigens are often found on the surface of cancer cells, and they can help the immune system recognize and attack these cells. Some researchers are exploring the use of CD47-targeting therapies as a way to treat cancer. In addition to its role in the immune system, CD47 has other functions in the body. For example, it can help regulate the process of phagocytosis, which is the process by which immune cells engulf and destroy foreign particles or damaged cells. It can also play a role in the regulation of blood clotting.

CD40 is a protein found on the surface of certain cells in the immune system, including B cells and dendritic cells. Antigens, CD40 refers to molecules that bind to the CD40 protein on these cells, activating them and triggering an immune response. This can help the immune system to recognize and attack foreign substances, such as viruses and bacteria. CD40 ligands, which are also known as CD154, are proteins that bind to CD40 and can act as antigens. They are produced by activated T cells and other immune cells and play a role in the activation and differentiation of B cells.

Arachidonate 12-lipoxygenase (ALOX12) is an enzyme that is involved in the metabolism of arachidonic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid that is a major component of cell membranes. ALOX12 is primarily expressed in immune cells, such as neutrophils and macrophages, and plays a role in the production of inflammatory mediators, such as leukotrienes and prostaglandins. These mediators can contribute to the development of inflammation and other inflammatory-related diseases, such as asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and cardiovascular disease. ALOX12 is also involved in the regulation of cell growth and differentiation, and has been implicated in the development of certain types of cancer.

Monocyte chemoattractant proteins (MCPs) are a family of small proteins that are produced by various cells in the body, including immune cells, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts. These proteins play a crucial role in the recruitment of monocytes, a type of white blood cell, to sites of inflammation or injury. MCPs function by binding to specific receptors on the surface of monocytes, which triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation and migration of these cells towards the site of inflammation. This process is known as chemotaxis. There are several different types of MCPs, including MCP-1, MCP-2, MCP-3, MCP-4, and MCP-5, each with its own specific properties and functions. MCPs are also involved in other physiological processes, such as the regulation of angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels) and the development of atherosclerosis (the buildup of plaque in the arteries). In the medical field, MCPs are often studied as potential biomarkers for various diseases, including inflammatory disorders, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. They are also being investigated as potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of these conditions.

Acute Monocytic Leukemia (AML) is a type of cancer that affects the bone marrow and blood cells. It is characterized by the rapid growth of abnormal white blood cells called monocytoid cells, which do not function properly and can build up in the blood and bone marrow, crowding out healthy blood cells. AML is a type of leukemia that is classified as acute because it progresses rapidly and requires prompt treatment. It is also classified as monocytic because the abnormal white blood cells are primarily monocytoid cells. Symptoms of AML may include fatigue, weakness, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and easy bruising or bleeding. Diagnosis is typically made through a combination of blood tests, bone marrow biopsy, and imaging studies. Treatment for AML typically involves chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and/or stem cell transplantation. The goal of treatment is to destroy the abnormal white blood cells and restore normal blood cell production. The prognosis for AML depends on various factors, including the age and overall health of the patient, the type and stage of the disease, and the response to treatment.

Mycobacterium infections are a group of diseases caused by bacteria of the Mycobacterium genus. These bacteria are known for their ability to cause persistent infections in the body, often in the lungs, but can also affect other organs such as the lymph nodes, skin, and bones. The most well-known mycobacterial infection is tuberculosis (TB), which is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. TB is a highly contagious disease that spreads through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Other mycobacterial infections include leprosy (caused by Mycobacterium leprae), which affects the skin and nerves, and Buruli ulcer (caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans), which affects the skin and underlying tissue. Mycobacterial infections can be difficult to diagnose and treat because the bacteria are slow-growing and can become resistant to antibiotics. Treatment typically involves a combination of antibiotics taken over a long period of time, and in some cases, surgery or other medical interventions may be necessary.

STAT3 (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3) is a transcription factor that plays a critical role in regulating gene expression in response to various signaling pathways, including cytokines, growth factors, and hormones. In the medical field, STAT3 is often studied in the context of cancer, as it is frequently activated in many types of tumors and is involved in promoting cell proliferation, survival, and invasion. Dysregulation of STAT3 signaling has been implicated in the development and progression of various cancers, including breast, prostate, and lung cancer. Additionally, STAT3 has been shown to play a role in other diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and inflammatory diseases. Targeting STAT3 signaling is therefore an active area of research in the development of new cancer therapies and other treatments.

Chemokine CCL7, also known as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), is a small protein that plays a role in the immune system. It is a type of chemokine, which are a group of signaling molecules that help to direct the movement of immune cells to specific areas of the body in response to infection or injury. CCL7 is produced by a variety of cells, including monocytes, macrophages, and endothelial cells, and it is involved in the recruitment of monocytes and other immune cells to sites of inflammation. It does this by binding to specific receptors on the surface of immune cells, which triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation and movement of these cells. In the medical field, CCL7 is often studied in the context of various diseases and conditions, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases. For example, high levels of CCL7 have been associated with the development and progression of certain types of cancer, such as breast cancer and lung cancer. It is also involved in the recruitment of immune cells to sites of inflammation in autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis, and it plays a role in the immune response to infections, such as tuberculosis. Overall, CCL7 is an important molecule in the immune system that helps to regulate the movement of immune cells to specific areas of the body. It is involved in a variety of physiological processes and has been implicated in the development and progression of certain diseases and conditions.

Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) is a type of protein that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is a member of the Toll-like receptor family, which is a group of proteins that recognize and respond to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on the surface of invading microorganisms. TLR9 is primarily expressed in immune cells such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells, and it recognizes a specific type of PAMP called unmethylated CpG DNA, which is found in the genomes of many viruses and bacteria. When TLR9 detects CpG DNA, it triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of immune cells and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. TLR9 is also involved in the regulation of adaptive immune responses, including the activation of B cells and the differentiation of T cells into various subsets. In addition, TLR9 has been implicated in the development of autoimmune diseases, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis, as well as in the pathogenesis of certain types of cancer. Overall, TLR9 plays a critical role in the immune system's ability to detect and respond to invading pathogens, and its dysfunction has been linked to a variety of diseases and conditions.

Transforming Growth Factor beta1 (TGF-β1) is a protein that plays a crucial role in regulating cell growth, differentiation, and tissue repair in the human body. It is a member of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) family of cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help to regulate various cellular processes. TGF-β1 is produced by a variety of cells, including fibroblasts, immune cells, and endothelial cells, and it acts on a wide range of cell types to regulate their behavior. In particular, TGF-β1 is known to play a key role in the regulation of fibrosis, which is the excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins in tissues. TGF-β1 signaling is initiated when the protein binds to specific receptors on the surface of cells, which triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to changes in gene expression and cellular behavior. TGF-β1 has been implicated in a wide range of medical conditions, including cancer, fibrosis, and autoimmune diseases, and it is the subject of ongoing research in the field of medicine.

Receptors, Complement 3b (CR3b) are a type of immune cell receptor found on the surface of certain white blood cells, such as neutrophils and macrophages. These receptors bind to complement protein C3b, which is a component of the complement system, a part of the immune system that helps to identify and destroy pathogens. CR3b receptors play an important role in the immune response by recognizing and binding to C3b-coated pathogens, such as bacteria and viruses. This binding triggers a series of events that lead to the destruction of the pathogen, including the release of chemicals that attract other immune cells to the site of infection and the formation of a membrane attack complex that can directly damage the pathogen. CR3b receptors are also involved in the process of phagocytosis, in which immune cells engulf and destroy pathogens. By binding to C3b-coated pathogens, CR3b receptors help to facilitate the engulfment of the pathogen by the immune cell. In addition to their role in the immune response, CR3b receptors have been implicated in a number of other physiological processes, including the regulation of blood clotting and the clearance of apoptotic cells (cells that are undergoing programmed cell death).

In the medical field, RANK ligand, also known as osteoprotegerin ligand (OPGL), is a protein that plays a crucial role in bone remodeling and the regulation of bone homeostasis. It is a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily of cytokines and is primarily produced by osteoblasts, which are cells responsible for bone formation. RANK ligand binds to a receptor called RANK (receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B) on the surface of osteoclasts, which are cells responsible for bone resorption or breakdown. The binding of RANK ligand to RANK triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation and differentiation of osteoclasts, promoting bone resorption. In addition to its role in bone remodeling, RANK ligand has been implicated in various other physiological and pathological processes, including inflammation, cancer, and autoimmune diseases. Therefore, targeting RANK ligand has become an attractive therapeutic strategy for the treatment of these conditions.

Interferon Regulatory Factors (IRFs) are a family of transcription factors that play a critical role in the regulation of interferon (IFN) signaling pathways. IFNs are a group of signaling molecules that are produced and released by cells in response to viral infections, bacterial infections, and other types of cellular stress. IRFs are activated by IFNs and other signaling molecules, and they regulate the expression of genes that are involved in the antiviral response, immune cell activation, and inflammation. There are nine known IRFs in humans, and they are classified into two subfamilies: type I IFN-stimulated IRFs (ISIRFs) and type III IFN-stimulated IRFs (ISIRFs). ISIRFs include IRF1, IRF2, IRF3, IRF5, IRF7, and IRF9, while ISIRFs include IRF6, IRF8, and IRF10. Each IRF has a unique function and is activated by different signaling pathways. IRFs play a critical role in the regulation of the immune response to viral infections. They activate the expression of genes that are involved in the production of IFNs, which in turn activate immune cells and stimulate the production of antiviral proteins. IRFs also regulate the expression of genes that are involved in the activation of immune cells, such as natural killer cells and T cells. In addition to their role in the immune response, IRFs have also been implicated in the regulation of other biological processes, such as cell growth and differentiation, and the development of certain types of cancer.

In the medical field, an acute disease is a condition that develops suddenly and progresses rapidly over a short period of time. Acute diseases are typically characterized by severe symptoms and a high degree of morbidity and mortality. Examples of acute diseases include pneumonia, meningitis, sepsis, and heart attacks. These diseases require prompt medical attention and treatment to prevent complications and improve outcomes. In contrast, chronic diseases are long-term conditions that develop gradually over time and may persist for years or even decades.

Fluorescein-5-isothiocyanate (FITC) is a fluorescent dye that is commonly used in the medical field for various diagnostic and research purposes. It is a water-soluble, yellow-green fluorescent dye that is highly sensitive to light and can be easily excited by ultraviolet light. In medical applications, FITC is often used as a fluorescent marker to label cells, proteins, and other molecules. It can be conjugated to antibodies, nucleic acids, and other molecules to enable visualization and analysis of these molecules in cells and tissues. FITC is also used in diagnostic tests, such as flow cytometry and immunofluorescence microscopy, to detect and quantify specific cells or molecules in biological samples. It is also used in research to study cell biology, immunology, and other areas of biomedical science. Overall, FITC is a valuable tool in the medical field due to its high sensitivity, specificity, and ease of use.

Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling (SOCS) proteins are a family of proteins that play a role in regulating the immune system and other signaling pathways in the body. They are induced by cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help regulate immune responses and other cellular processes. SOCS proteins function as negative regulators of cytokine signaling by binding to and inhibiting the activity of specific enzymes called Janus kinases (JAKs). JAKs are involved in the activation of cytokine receptors, which in turn activate downstream signaling pathways that regulate immune responses and other cellular processes. By inhibiting JAK activity, SOCS proteins help to dampen the effects of cytokines and prevent overactivation of immune responses. This is important for maintaining immune homeostasis and preventing autoimmune diseases, as well as for regulating other signaling pathways in the body. SOCS proteins have been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases. They are also being studied as potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of these conditions.

Tularemia is a bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Francisella tularensis. It is a zoonotic disease, meaning it can be transmitted from animals to humans. The disease can be acquired through contact with infected animals or their tissues, as well as through the bites of infected insects, such as ticks or deerflies. Symptoms of tularemia can vary depending on how the infection was acquired and the severity of the disease. Common symptoms include fever, headache, muscle aches, and swollen lymph nodes. In severe cases, the infection can spread to the lungs, eyes, or brain, leading to more serious complications. Tularemia is typically treated with antibiotics, such as streptomycin or doxycycline. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary. Prevention measures include avoiding contact with infected animals and their tissues, using insect repellent, and wearing protective clothing when in areas where the disease is common.

Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 3 (MAPK3), also known as extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 (ERK1), is a protein kinase enzyme that plays a crucial role in cellular signaling pathways. It is part of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family, which is involved in regulating various cellular processes such as cell proliferation, differentiation, survival, and apoptosis. MAPK3 is activated by a variety of extracellular signals, including growth factors, cytokines, and hormones, and it transduces these signals into the cell by phosphorylating and activating downstream target proteins. These target proteins include transcription factors, cytoskeletal proteins, and enzymes involved in metabolism. In the medical field, MAPK3 is of interest because it has been implicated in the development and progression of various diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and inflammatory diseases. For example, dysregulation of MAPK3 signaling has been observed in many types of cancer, and targeting this pathway has been proposed as a potential therapeutic strategy. Additionally, MAPK3 has been shown to play a role in the pathogenesis of conditions such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, as well as in the regulation of immune responses and inflammation.

In the medical field, "DNA, Complementary" refers to the property of DNA molecules to pair up with each other in a specific way. Each strand of DNA has a unique sequence of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine), and the nucleotides on one strand can only pair up with specific nucleotides on the other strand in a complementary manner. For example, adenine (A) always pairs up with thymine (T), and guanine (G) always pairs up with cytosine (C). This complementary pairing is essential for DNA replication and transcription, as it ensures that the genetic information encoded in one strand of DNA can be accurately copied onto a new strand. The complementary nature of DNA also plays a crucial role in genetic engineering and biotechnology, as scientists can use complementary DNA strands to create specific genetic sequences or modify existing ones.

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Thymidine is a nucleoside that is a building block of DNA and RNA. It is composed of a deoxyribose sugar molecule and a thymine base. Thymidine is an essential component of DNA and is involved in the replication and transcription of genetic material. It is also a precursor to the synthesis of thymine triphosphate (dTTP), which is a nucleotide used in DNA and RNA synthesis. In the medical field, thymidine is used as a diagnostic tool to detect and measure the activity of certain enzymes involved in DNA synthesis, and it is also used as a component of certain antiviral drugs.

Complement C5a is a protein that is produced as a result of the activation of the complement system, which is a part of the immune system. The complement system is a series of proteins that work together to help the body fight off infections and other foreign substances. Complement C5a is a potent inflammatory mediator that is involved in the recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection or injury. It does this by binding to receptors on the surface of immune cells, such as neutrophils and macrophages, and triggering a signaling cascade that leads to the release of these cells from the blood vessels and their migration to the site of inflammation. Complement C5a also has other functions, such as promoting the activation of the complement system and enhancing the ability of immune cells to phagocytose (engulf and destroy) pathogens. In the medical field, complement C5a is often measured as a marker of inflammation and immune system activation. It is also being studied as a potential therapeutic target for a variety of conditions, including autoimmune diseases, infections, and cancer.

In the medical field, glucans refer to a group of polysaccharides that are composed of glucose molecules linked together by glycosidic bonds. Glucans are found in various organisms, including plants, fungi, and bacteria, and they play important roles in their biology and physiology. In humans, glucans have been studied for their potential health benefits, particularly in the context of immune function. Some types of glucans, such as beta-glucans, have been shown to stimulate the immune system and enhance the body's ability to fight off infections and diseases. Glucans have also been used in the development of dietary supplements and functional foods, as well as in the treatment of certain medical conditions, such as cancer and HIV/AIDS. Overall, glucans are an important class of biomolecules that have a wide range of biological and medical applications.

Toxoplasmosis, Animal refers to a parasitic infection caused by the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii, which is commonly found in cats and other animals. The infection can be transmitted to humans through contact with infected animal feces, ingestion of undercooked meat containing the parasite, or congenital transmission from an infected mother to her fetus. In animals, the infection can cause a range of clinical signs, including fever, anorexia, and weight loss. However, many animals are asymptomatic carriers of the parasite. In severe cases, the infection can lead to neurological and ocular complications. Treatment for toxoplasmosis in animals typically involves the use of anti-parasitic medications.

Sarcoidosis is a chronic inflammatory disease that affects multiple organs in the body. It is characterized by the formation of small, non-cancerous (benign) lumps or granulomas, which are collections of immune cells and other tissue. These granulomas can form in almost any part of the body, but they are most commonly found in the lungs, lymph nodes, and skin. The exact cause of sarcoidosis is not known, but it is thought to be related to an abnormal immune response to an unknown substance or agent. The disease can affect people of any age, but it is most common in young adults between the ages of 20 and 40. Symptoms of sarcoidosis can vary widely depending on which organs are affected and the severity of the disease. Common symptoms include cough, shortness of breath, fatigue, fever, and skin rashes. In some cases, sarcoidosis can cause more serious complications, such as damage to the heart, lungs, or eyes. Sarcoidosis is usually diagnosed based on a combination of symptoms, physical examination, and imaging tests such as chest X-rays or CT scans. A biopsy of the affected tissue may also be performed to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment for sarcoidosis depends on the severity and location of the disease. In many cases, the symptoms of sarcoidosis can be managed with medications such as corticosteroids or immunosuppressants. In more severe cases, other treatments such as radiation therapy or surgery may be necessary.

Metalloendopeptidases are a class of enzymes that contain a metal ion, typically zinc, as a cofactor. These enzymes are involved in the cleavage of peptide bonds in proteins, specifically at the N-terminal end of the peptide chain. They are found in a variety of organisms, including bacteria, plants, and animals, and play important roles in many biological processes, such as blood clotting, digestion, and the regulation of hormone levels. Metalloendopeptidases are classified based on the specific metal ion they contain and the mechanism by which they cleave peptide bonds. For example, zinc metalloendopeptidases use a nucleophilic attack by a water molecule coordinated to the zinc ion to cleave the peptide bond, while copper metalloendopeptidases use a different mechanism involving the coordination of a histidine residue to the copper ion. In the medical field, metalloendopeptidases are the target of several drugs, including ACE inhibitors, which are used to treat high blood pressure and heart failure. These drugs block the action of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), a zinc metalloendopeptidase that plays a key role in the regulation of blood pressure. Other metalloendopeptidases are being studied as potential targets for the treatment of a variety of diseases, including cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and diabetes.

Pulmonary Alveolar Proteinosis (PAP) is a rare lung disease characterized by the accumulation of a thick, tenacious, and white-gray material called surfactant in the tiny air sacs of the lungs called alveoli. Surfactant is a mixture of lipids and proteins that helps to keep the air sacs open and reduce the surface tension of the air-liquid interface within them. In PAP, the accumulation of surfactant in the alveoli leads to a decrease in the surface area available for gas exchange, resulting in shortness of breath, coughing, and fatigue. The disease can be classified into two types: primary PAP and secondary PAP. Primary PAP is an autoimmune disorder in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys the cells that produce surfactant. Secondary PAP is caused by exposure to certain toxins or medications, such as amiodarone or thorotrast, or by certain infections or genetic disorders. The diagnosis of PAP is typically made through a combination of clinical examination, imaging studies, and lung function tests. Treatment options for PAP include bronchoscopic lavage, which involves washing out the accumulated surfactant from the lungs, and the use of medications to stimulate the production of surfactant. In severe cases, lung transplantation may be necessary.

Intracellular signaling peptides and proteins are molecules that are involved in transmitting signals within cells. These molecules can be either proteins or peptides, and they play a crucial role in regulating various cellular processes, such as cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. Intracellular signaling peptides and proteins can be activated by a variety of stimuli, including hormones, growth factors, and neurotransmitters. Once activated, they initiate a cascade of intracellular events that ultimately lead to a specific cellular response. There are many different types of intracellular signaling peptides and proteins, and they can be classified based on their structure, function, and the signaling pathway they are involved in. Some examples of intracellular signaling peptides and proteins include growth factors, cytokines, kinases, phosphatases, and G-proteins. In the medical field, understanding the role of intracellular signaling peptides and proteins is important for developing new treatments for a wide range of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is a cytokine, a type of signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is produced by activated T cells, a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the body's defense against infection and disease. IL-2 has several important functions in the immune system. It promotes the growth and differentiation of T cells, which helps to increase the number of immune cells available to fight infection. It also stimulates the production of other cytokines, which can help to amplify the immune response. IL-2 is used in the treatment of certain types of cancer, such as melanoma and kidney cancer. It works by stimulating the immune system to attack cancer cells. It is typically given as an injection or infusion, and can cause side effects such as fever, chills, and flu-like symptoms. In addition to its use in cancer treatment, IL-2 has also been studied for its potential role in treating other conditions, such as autoimmune diseases and viral infections.

In the medical field, peptides are short chains of amino acids that are linked together by peptide bonds. They are typically composed of 2-50 amino acids and can be found in a variety of biological molecules, including hormones, neurotransmitters, and enzymes. Peptides play important roles in many physiological processes, including growth and development, immune function, and metabolism. They can also be used as therapeutic agents to treat a variety of medical conditions, such as diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. In the pharmaceutical industry, peptides are often synthesized using chemical methods and are used as drugs or as components of drugs. They can be administered orally, intravenously, or topically, depending on the specific peptide and the condition being treated.

Receptors, Interferon are proteins found on the surface of cells that bind to interferons, which are signaling molecules produced by the body in response to viral infections. Interferons activate immune cells and help to prevent the spread of viruses within the body. The binding of interferons to their receptors on cells triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the expression of genes involved in antiviral defense and the regulation of the immune response. Interferon receptors are important for the body's ability to fight off viral infections and are the target of some antiviral therapies.

Chemokine CXCL10, also known as interferon-gamma-inducible protein 10 (IP-10), is a small protein that plays a role in the immune system. It is produced by various cells in response to infection, inflammation, or other stimuli, and it functions as a chemoattractant, recruiting immune cells to the site of infection or injury. CXCL10 is a member of the CXC chemokine family, which is a group of proteins that are involved in the recruitment and activation of immune cells. It is particularly important in the immune response to viral infections, as it helps to recruit and activate T cells and natural killer (NK) cells, which are important for controlling viral infections. In addition to its role in the immune response, CXCL10 has been implicated in a number of other physiological processes, including angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels), tissue repair, and the regulation of inflammation. It has also been studied in the context of various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases.

NF-kappa B p50 Subunit is a protein that plays a role in the regulation of the immune system and inflammation. It is a subunit of the NF-kappa B transcription factor complex, which is involved in the regulation of gene expression in response to various stimuli, including cytokines, bacterial and viral infections, and stress. The NF-kappa B p50 subunit is a member of the Rel family of transcription factors and is encoded by the NFKB1 gene. It is known to play a role in the development and function of immune cells, as well as in the regulation of cell growth and survival. In the medical field, the NF-kappa B p50 subunit is often studied in the context of various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and inflammatory diseases.

Imidazoles are a class of organic compounds that contain a five-membered heterocyclic ring with two nitrogen atoms and three carbon atoms. In the medical field, imidazoles are commonly used as antifungal agents, particularly for the treatment of dermatophytic infections such as athlete's foot, ringworm, and jock itch. They work by inhibiting the growth of fungi by interfering with their metabolism. One of the most well-known imidazole antifungal agents is clotrimazole, which is used topically to treat skin and nail infections caused by fungi. Other imidazole antifungal agents include miconazole, ketoconazole, and itraconazole, which are used to treat a variety of fungal infections, including systemic infections such as cryptococcal meningitis and aspergillosis. Imidazoles are also used in other medical applications, such as in the treatment of parasitic infections, as well as in the development of new drugs for the treatment of cancer and other diseases.

CD80 is a protein that is expressed on the surface of certain cells in the immune system, including antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells and macrophages. CD80 is also known as B7-1, and it plays a critical role in the activation of T cells, which are a type of immune cell that helps to fight off infections and diseases. When an APC encounters a pathogen, it engulfs the pathogen and processes its antigens, which are small pieces of the pathogen that can be recognized by the immune system. The APC then presents these antigens on its surface, along with the CD80 protein, to T cells. This interaction between the APC and the T cell is a key step in the activation of the T cell, which then becomes activated and begins to divide and differentiate into effector T cells that can directly attack the pathogen or into memory T cells that can provide long-term protection against future infections by the same pathogen. Antigens, CD80 are often used in medical research and as a tool for developing vaccines and other immune-based therapies. They can be used to stimulate the immune system to recognize and attack specific pathogens or cancer cells, or they can be used to suppress the immune system in cases where it is overactive or causing autoimmune diseases.

Antimicrobial cationic peptides (ACPs) are a class of naturally occurring peptides that have the ability to kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses. They are characterized by their positive charge, which allows them to interact with the negatively charged cell membranes of microorganisms and disrupt their integrity, leading to cell death. ACPs are found in a variety of organisms, including plants, insects, and animals, and are often part of the innate immune system. They are also being studied for their potential use in the development of new antibiotics and antifungal agents, as well as for their potential therapeutic applications in the treatment of a range of infections and inflammatory diseases. Some examples of ACPs include defensins, cathelicidins, and histatins. These peptides are typically small, ranging in size from 10 to 50 amino acids, and are highly conserved across different species, suggesting that they have an important biological function.

Thromboplastin is a protein complex that plays a crucial role in the blood clotting process, also known as coagulation. It is produced by the liver and stored in the blood as an inactive form called prothrombin. When the body experiences an injury or damage to a blood vessel, thromboplastin is activated, which triggers a series of chemical reactions that ultimately lead to the formation of a blood clot. This clot helps to stop bleeding and prevent further damage to the blood vessel. Thromboplastin is also used in medical tests to assess the function of the blood clotting system. Abnormal levels of thromboplastin can indicate a variety of medical conditions, including liver disease, vitamin K deficiency, and certain blood disorders.

In the medical field, "Shock, Septic" refers to a severe and life-threatening condition that occurs when the body's immune system overreacts to an infection, leading to widespread inflammation and damage to organs and tissues. Septic shock is a type of sepsis, which is a condition that occurs when the body's response to an infection causes inflammation throughout the body. In septic shock, the immune system releases large amounts of chemicals that cause blood vessels to narrow and blood pressure to drop, leading to reduced blood flow to vital organs such as the heart, brain, and kidneys. Symptoms of septic shock may include fever, chills, rapid heartbeat, rapid breathing, confusion, and decreased urine output. Treatment for septic shock typically involves antibiotics to treat the underlying infection, fluids and medications to maintain blood pressure and oxygen levels, and supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.，。

Cryptococcosis is a fungal infection caused by the Cryptococcus neoformans or Cryptococcus gattii species of yeast. It can affect the lungs, brain, and other organs in the body. Cryptococcosis is commonly found in soil and bird droppings, and can be transmitted to humans through the inhalation of spores. The infection can also be acquired through contact with contaminated food or water, or through the transplantation of contaminated tissue or organs. Symptoms of cryptococcosis can include fever, cough, headache, and fatigue. In severe cases, the infection can lead to meningitis or other life-threatening complications. Treatment typically involves antifungal medications, and may also include surgery or other supportive care.

Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) is a type of protein that plays a crucial role in the innate immune system. It is a member of the Toll-like receptor family, which is a group of proteins that recognize and respond to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on the surface of invading microorganisms. TLR3 is expressed on the surface of immune cells, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and epithelial cells, and is activated by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), which is a common feature of viruses. When TLR3 detects dsRNA, it triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, as well as the activation of immune cells. TLR3 is also involved in the recognition of self-DNA and RNA, which can be released from damaged cells and trigger an inflammatory response in the absence of an infection. This process, known as sterile inflammation, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including autoimmune disorders, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. Overall, TLR3 plays a critical role in the recognition and response to viral infections and the regulation of immune responses to self-DNA and RNA.

Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 1 (MAPK1), also known as Extracellular Signal-regulated Kinase 1 (ERK1), is a protein kinase enzyme that plays a crucial role in cellular signaling pathways. It is part of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family, which is involved in regulating various cellular processes such as cell proliferation, differentiation, survival, and apoptosis. MAPK1 is activated by a variety of extracellular signals, including growth factors, cytokines, and hormones, and it transduces these signals into the cell by phosphorylating and activating downstream target proteins. These target proteins include transcription factors, cytoskeletal proteins, and enzymes involved in metabolism. In the medical field, MAPK1 is of interest because it is involved in the development and progression of many diseases, including cancer, inflammatory disorders, and neurological disorders. For example, mutations in the MAPK1 gene have been associated with various types of cancer, including breast cancer, colon cancer, and glioblastoma. In addition, MAPK1 has been implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis, as well as neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Therefore, understanding the role of MAPK1 in cellular signaling pathways and its involvement in various diseases is important for the development of new therapeutic strategies for these conditions.

Antibodies, blocking, also known as blocking antibodies, are a type of immunoglobulin that specifically bind to and neutralize or inhibit the activity of a particular antigen or molecule. They are often used in medical research and diagnostic tests to block the activity of a specific protein or molecule, allowing for the study of its function or to prevent its interaction with other molecules. Blocking antibodies can also be used as therapeutic agents to treat certain diseases by inhibiting the activity of a specific protein or molecule that is involved in the disease process. For example, blocking antibodies have been developed to treat autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, by inhibiting the activity of proteins that contribute to inflammation. Blocking antibodies are typically produced by immunizing animals with an antigen or molecule of interest, and then isolating the antibodies from the animal's blood. They can also be produced using recombinant DNA technology, in which the gene encoding the antibody is inserted into a host cell and the antibody is produced in large quantities.

In the medical field, a peptide fragment refers to a short chain of amino acids that are derived from a larger peptide or protein molecule. Peptide fragments can be generated through various techniques, such as enzymatic digestion or chemical cleavage, and are often used in diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Peptide fragments can be used as biomarkers for various diseases, as they may be present in the body at elevated levels in response to specific conditions. For example, certain peptide fragments have been identified as potential biomarkers for cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and cardiovascular disease. In addition, peptide fragments can be used as therapeutic agents themselves. For example, some peptide fragments have been shown to have anti-inflammatory or anti-cancer properties, and are being investigated as potential treatments for various diseases. Overall, peptide fragments play an important role in the medical field, both as diagnostic tools and as potential therapeutic agents.

Ferrosoferric oxide is a synthetic iron oxide that is used in various medical applications. It is also known as magnetite or iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) and is commonly used as a contrast agent in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. In the medical field, ferrosoferric oxide is used to enhance the visibility of certain tissues and organs in MRI scans. It is particularly useful in imaging the brain, liver, and spleen. The nanoparticles are administered intravenously and are attracted to the magnetic field of the MRI machine, causing them to concentrate in the targeted tissue. This concentration of the nanoparticles enhances the contrast between the tissue and the surrounding areas, making it easier for doctors to diagnose and monitor various medical conditions. Ferrosoferric oxide is also being studied for its potential use in other medical applications, such as drug delivery and cancer therapy. Its ability to be targeted to specific tissues and its low toxicity make it a promising candidate for these applications.

Green Fluorescent Proteins (GFPs) are a class of proteins that emit green light when excited by blue or ultraviolet light. They were first discovered in the jellyfish Aequorea victoria and have since been widely used as a tool in the field of molecular biology and bioimaging. In the medical field, GFPs are often used as a marker to track the movement and behavior of cells and proteins within living organisms. For example, scientists can insert a gene for GFP into a cell or organism, allowing them to visualize the cell or protein in real-time using a fluorescent microscope. This can be particularly useful in studying the development and function of cells, as well as in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. GFPs have also been used to develop biosensors, which can detect the presence of specific molecules or changes in cellular environment. For example, researchers have developed GFP-based sensors that can detect the presence of certain drugs or toxins, or changes in pH or calcium levels within cells. Overall, GFPs have become a valuable tool in the medical field, allowing researchers to study cellular processes and diseases in new and innovative ways.

Tuftsin is a protein that is produced by the immune system in response to bacterial infections. It is a fragment of the C3 component of complement, which is a part of the body's natural defense system against infections. Tuftsin has been shown to have immune-stimulating properties and has been used in the treatment of various infections, including bacterial, viral, and fungal infections. It is also being studied for its potential use in the treatment of cancer and other diseases.

Esterases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of esters, which are compounds formed by the reaction of an acid and an alcohol. In the medical field, esterases are important in the metabolism of many drugs and other substances, as well as in the breakdown of fats and other lipids in the body. There are many different types of esterases, including carboxylesterases, lipases, and cholinesterases. Carboxylesterases are found in many tissues throughout the body and are involved in the metabolism of a wide range of drugs and other substances. Lipases are enzymes that break down fats and other lipids, and are important in the digestion and absorption of dietary fats. Cholinesterases are enzymes that break down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, and are important in the regulation of muscle movement and other functions. Esterases can be inhibited or activated by various substances, and changes in their activity can have important effects on the body. For example, certain drugs can inhibit the activity of esterases, leading to an accumulation of drugs or other substances in the body and potentially causing toxicity. On the other hand, esterase activators can increase the activity of these enzymes, leading to faster metabolism and elimination of drugs and other substances from the body.

Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) is an enzyme that plays a critical role in protecting cells from damage caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as superoxide radicals. ROS are naturally produced by cells as a byproduct of metabolism, but in excess, they can cause oxidative stress and damage to cellular components, including DNA, proteins, and lipids. SOD catalyzes the dismutation of superoxide radicals into molecular oxygen and hydrogen peroxide, which are less reactive and less harmful to cells. There are several different forms of SOD, including copper-zinc SOD (CuZnSOD), manganese SOD (MnSOD), and iron SOD (FeSOD), which are found in different cellular compartments and have different substrate specificities. In the medical field, SOD is of interest because of its potential therapeutic applications in treating a variety of diseases and conditions that are associated with oxidative stress, including cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular disease, and aging. SOD supplements are also sometimes used as dietary supplements to enhance the body's natural antioxidant defenses. However, the efficacy and safety of SOD supplements have not been well-established, and more research is needed to fully understand their potential benefits and risks.

Ovalbumin is a protein found in egg whites. It is a major allergen and can cause allergic reactions in some people. In the medical field, ovalbumin is often used as a model antigen for studying allergic reactions and for developing allergy vaccines. It is also used in research to study the structure and function of proteins, as well as in the production of various medical products, such as diagnostic reagents and pharmaceuticals.

In the medical field, oligopeptides are short chains of amino acids that typically contain between two and 50 amino acids. They are often used in various medical applications due to their unique properties and potential therapeutic effects. One of the main benefits of oligopeptides is their ability to penetrate the skin and reach underlying tissues, making them useful in the development of topical treatments for a variety of conditions. For example, oligopeptides have been shown to improve skin elasticity, reduce the appearance of wrinkles, and promote the growth of new skin cells. Oligopeptides are also used in the development of medications for a variety of conditions, including osteoporosis, diabetes, and hypertension. They work by interacting with specific receptors in the body, which can help to regulate various physiological processes and improve overall health. Overall, oligopeptides are a promising area of research in the medical field, with potential applications in a wide range of therapeutic areas.

Cytochalasin B is a fungal metabolite that is used in the medical field as a research tool to study cell biology and cell motility. It is a potent inhibitor of actin polymerization, which is a key process in cell movement and division. Cytochalasin B is often used to study the dynamics of actin filaments and their role in cell migration, endocytosis, and cytokinesis. It is also used to study the effects of actin polymerization on the structure and function of other cellular components, such as microtubules and membrane proteins. In addition, cytochalasin B has been used in the treatment of certain types of cancer, as it can inhibit the growth and spread of cancer cells by disrupting their actin cytoskeleton.

Interferon Regulatory Factor-1 (IRF-1) is a transcription factor that plays a critical role in the regulation of immune responses and inflammation. It is a member of the IRF family of transcription factors, which are involved in the regulation of interferon (IFN) gene expression. IRF-1 is primarily expressed in immune cells, such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and T cells, and is activated in response to various stimuli, including viral infections, bacterial infections, and inflammatory signals. Once activated, IRF-1 translocates to the nucleus and binds to specific DNA sequences in the promoter regions of IFN genes, leading to the production of IFN and other immune mediators. In addition to its role in IFN gene regulation, IRF-1 has also been implicated in the regulation of other genes involved in immune responses and inflammation, such as cytokines, chemokines, and costimulatory molecules. Dysregulation of IRF-1 expression or function has been implicated in various diseases, including viral infections, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.

In the medical field, oxygen is a gas that is essential for the survival of most living organisms. It is used to treat a variety of medical conditions, including respiratory disorders, heart disease, and anemia. Oxygen is typically administered through a mask, nasal cannula, or oxygen tank, and is used to increase the amount of oxygen in the bloodstream. This can help to improve oxygenation of the body's tissues and organs, which is important for maintaining normal bodily functions. In medical settings, oxygen is often used to treat patients who are experiencing difficulty breathing due to conditions such as pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or asthma. It may also be used to treat patients who have suffered from a heart attack or stroke, as well as those who are recovering from surgery or other medical procedures. Overall, oxygen is a critical component of modern medical treatment, and is used in a wide range of clinical settings to help patients recover from illness and maintain their health.

Cathepsin B is a protease enzyme that is found in the lysosomes of cells in the human body. It plays a role in the degradation of proteins and other molecules within the cell, and is involved in a number of cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). In the medical field, cathepsin B has been studied in relation to a number of diseases and conditions, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and infections. For example, cathepsin B has been shown to be involved in the development and progression of certain types of cancer, including breast cancer and pancreatic cancer. It has also been implicated in the development of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, and in the pathogenesis of certain viral infections, including HIV and influenza. In addition to its role in disease, cathepsin B has also been studied as a potential therapeutic target. For example, drugs that inhibit the activity of cathepsin B have been investigated as potential treatments for cancer and other diseases.

STAT6 (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 6) is a transcription factor that plays a crucial role in the regulation of immune responses and inflammation. It is activated by cytokines such as interleukin-4 (IL-4) and interleukin-13 (IL-13), which are important for the development of immune responses against parasites and allergens. In the medical field, STAT6 is often studied in the context of diseases such as asthma, allergies, and autoimmune disorders. For example, STAT6 is involved in the development of Th2-type immune responses, which are characterized by the production of IL-4 and IL-13 and are associated with allergic diseases such as asthma. In addition, STAT6 has been implicated in the development of autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. Targeting STAT6 has been proposed as a potential therapeutic strategy for these diseases. For example, drugs that inhibit STAT6 activity have shown promise in preclinical studies as a way to reduce inflammation and improve symptoms in animal models of asthma and other allergic diseases. However, more research is needed to fully understand the role of STAT6 in these diseases and to develop effective therapies that target this transcription factor.

Arthritis, Experimental refers to the study of arthritis using experimental methods, such as animal models or in vitro studies, to better understand the underlying mechanisms of the disease and to develop new treatments. Experimental arthritis is often induced in animals through the use of chemicals or by introducing an infectious agent, such as bacteria or viruses, into the joints. These studies can help researchers identify potential targets for therapy and test the effectiveness of new drugs or other interventions in a controlled setting before they are tested in humans.

Receptors, CXCR4 are a type of protein found on the surface of certain cells in the human body. These proteins are known as chemokine receptors, and they play a role in regulating the movement of cells within the body. Specifically, CXCR4 receptors are activated by a chemical messenger called CXCL12, which is produced by cells in various tissues throughout the body. When CXCR4 receptors are activated by CXCL12, they trigger a signaling cascade within the cell that can lead to a variety of cellular responses, including changes in cell migration, proliferation, and survival. In the medical field, CXCR4 receptors and their interactions with CXCL12 are of interest because they have been implicated in a number of different diseases and conditions, including cancer, HIV infection, and cardiovascular disease.

Sarcoma, Experimental refers to a type of cancer research that involves studying the development and treatment of sarcomas, which are tumors that arise from connective tissue such as bone, muscle, fat, and blood vessels. Experimental sarcoma research typically involves the use of laboratory animals, such as mice or rats, to study the biology of sarcomas and to test new treatments for the disease. This type of research is often conducted in collaboration with other scientists and medical professionals, and the findings may eventually lead to the development of new and more effective treatments for sarcomas in humans.

Calgranulin A, also known as S100A8 or calprotectin, is a protein that is expressed in neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages. It is a member of the S100 family of calcium-binding proteins, which are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including cell signaling, gene expression, and cell migration. In the medical field, Calgranulin A is often used as a marker of inflammation and immune activation. It is released by activated immune cells and can be detected in the blood, urine, and other body fluids of patients with various inflammatory and infectious diseases, such as sepsis, pneumonia, and inflammatory bowel disease. Calgranulin A has also been implicated in the pathogenesis of certain autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. In addition to its role in inflammation, Calgranulin A has been shown to have antimicrobial properties and may play a role in protecting against bacterial and fungal infections. It has also been studied as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.

Monoglycerides are a type of lipid molecule that consists of one fatty acid chain attached to a glycerol molecule. They are commonly found in foods and are also produced by the body as a byproduct of fat metabolism. In the medical field, monoglycerides are sometimes used as a dietary supplement or as a component of certain medications. They have been shown to have a number of potential health benefits, including improving cholesterol levels, reducing inflammation, and improving insulin sensitivity. However, more research is needed to fully understand the effects of monoglycerides on human health.

Calgranulin B, also known as S100A9, is a protein that is expressed in a variety of cells, including neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages. It is a member of the S100 family of calcium-binding proteins, which are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell signaling, cytoskeletal organization, and immune response. In the context of the medical field, Calgranulin B has been implicated in a number of diseases and conditions, including inflammatory disorders, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. For example, elevated levels of Calgranulin B have been observed in the serum and cerebrospinal fluid of patients with Alzheimer's disease, suggesting that it may play a role in the pathogenesis of this condition. Similarly, Calgranulin B has been shown to be upregulated in various types of cancer, including breast, prostate, and lung cancer, and may contribute to tumor growth and progression. Overall, Calgranulin B is a protein of interest in the medical field due to its potential role in a variety of diseases and conditions, and ongoing research is aimed at further elucidating its function and potential therapeutic applications.

Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF receptors) are proteins found on the surface of cells that bind to the cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF). TNF is a signaling molecule that plays a role in the immune response and inflammation. There are two main types of TNF receptors: TNFR1 (also known as TNFRp55) and TNFR2 (also known as TNFRp75). TNFR1 is expressed on most cell types and is involved in the regulation of cell survival, proliferation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). TNFR2 is primarily expressed on immune cells and is involved in immune cell activation and differentiation. TNF receptors can be activated by binding to TNF, which triggers a signaling cascade within the cell. This signaling cascade can lead to a variety of cellular responses, including the activation of immune cells, the induction of inflammation, and the promotion of cell survival or death. Abnormalities in TNF receptor signaling have been implicated in a number of diseases, including autoimmune disorders, inflammatory diseases, and certain types of cancer. As a result, TNF receptors are the targets of several drugs used to treat these conditions, including TNF inhibitors.

... (Mregs) represent a subset of anti-inflammatory macrophages. In general, macrophages are a very dynamic ... Coculture of macrophages with regulatory T cells (Tregs) caused differentiation of macrophages toward Mreg phenotype. Similar ... M2a, mainly known as alternatively activated macrophages, are macrophages associated with tissue healing due to the production ... Surprisingly, Mregs resemble classically activated macrophages more than alternatively activated macrophages, due to higher ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulatory_macrophages

M1 macrophage demonstrates high TF, HAMP, and FTH1 gene activities that mediates iron uptake. M2 macrophage on the other hand ... The reprogram of macrophage implies a dysregulated inflammation that can damage healthy lung cells. Macrophage polarization is ... The presence of these dirty macrophages has been a characteristic of many smoke-related lung diseases. A macrophage can be ... Some of the smoker's macrophages are recruited from the circulating monocytes while some are the original alveolar macrophages ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoker's_macrophages

For example, macrophages stimulated with IL-4 and IL-13 are defined as M2a, whereas macrophages stimulated with LPS and ... Macrophages displaying M1 phenotype have been characterized by expression of F4/80, CD11c and iNOS whereas macrophages ... Adipose tissue macrophages (abbr. ATMs) comprise tissue resident macrophages present in adipose tissue. Adipose tissue apart ... M1 macrophages are microbicidal and tumoricidal, and stimulate adaptive immune response. M2 macrophages are associated with ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adipose_tissue_macrophages

... and the activated macrophages are known as classically activated macrophages, or M1 macrophages. The M1 macrophages in turn ... or M1 macrophages, and the alternatively activated macrophages, or M2 macrophages. M1 macrophages are proinflammatory, while M2 ... which activate macrophages to become M2 macrophages, also known as alternatively activated macrophages. M2 macrophages express ... M1 macrophages: as mentioned earlier (previously referred to as classically activated macrophages), M1 "killer" macrophages are ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage

Skin Hair follicle Macrophage Dendritic cell Langerhans cell Macrophage polarisation Inflammation Phenotypes of macrophages ... Numerous dermal macrophages are present in the skin at birth due to the infiltration of yolk-sac derived macrophages and ... Dermal macrophages are macrophages in the skin that facilitate skin homeostasis by mediating wound repair, hair growth, and ... M1 macrophages can suppress tumour growth in the skin by their pro-inflammatory properties. However, M2 macrophages support ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermal_macrophage

... (EC 3.4.24.65, metalloelastase, human macrophage metalloelastase (HME), MMP-12) is an enzyme. This enzyme ... Macrophage+elastase at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Portal: Biology (EC 3.4.24). ... Kettner C, Shaw E, White R, Janoff A (May 1981). "The specificity of macrophage elastase on the insulin B-chain". The ... Matrix metallopeptidase 12 Banda MJ, Werb Z (February 1981). "Mouse macrophage elastase. Purification and characterization as a ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage_elastase

The diversity of macrophage phenotypes still remain to be fully characterized in vivo. The imbalance of the macrophage types is ... Macrophage polarization is a process by which macrophages adopt different functional programs in response to the signals from ... This plasticity of macrophage phenotype has added to the confusion regarding the existence of individual macrophage sub-types ... By simplified classification, macrophage phenotype has been divided into 2 groups: M1 (classically activated macrophages) and ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage_polarization

The terms "macrophage" and "microphage" are used in ecology to describe heterotrophs that consume food in two different ways. ... Both macrophages and microphages "ingest solid food and may process it through some sort of alimentary canal." However, a ... The terms "macrophage" and "microphage" were originally used in this sense by Jordan and Hirsch (1927; cited in Yonge 1928). ... Although they have been used in ecology texts as recently as 2002, the terms macrophage and microphage today are primarily used ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage_(ecology)

An alveolar macrophage, pulmonary macrophage, (or dust cell) is a type of macrophage, a professional phagocyte, found in the ... The alveolar macrophage is the third cell type in the alveolus; the others are the type I and type II pneumocytes. Alveolar ... Alveolar macrophages are also involved in the phagocytosis of apoptotic and necrotic cells. They need to be selective of the ... Alveolar macrophages are frequently seen to contain granules of exogenous material such as particulate carbon that they have ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_macrophage

The phrase 'alternatively activated macrophage' is used to refer to M2 macrophages. Regulatory macrophages do not fit into the ... Analysis of the macrophage population and signaling in a tumor may provide useful clinical data. Macrophages have been ... A macrophage-activating factor (MAF) is a lymphokine or other receptor based signal that primes macrophages towards ... Macrophages inherently display tissue and environment-dependent plasticity. In addition, the phenotypes of the macrophages in a ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage-activating_factor

A tingible body macrophage (TBMs) is a type of macrophage predominantly found in germinal centers, containing many phagocytized ... v t e (Articles with short description, Short description matches Wikidata, Macrophages, All stub articles, Immunology stubs). ... Smith JP, Burton GF, Tew JG, Szakal AK (1998). "Tingible body macrophages in regulation of germinal center reactions". ... Horst Ibelgaufts' COPE: Cytokines & Cells Online Pathfinder Encyclopaedia > tingible body macrophages Retrieved on June 27, ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tingible_body_macrophage

Islet resident macrophages are the predominant myeloid cell of the pancreatic islets of langerhans. Islet resident macrophages ... showing that islet resident macrophages promote beta cell proliferation suggest that islet macrophages are likely important ... Islet resident macrophages depend on the expression of colony stimulating factor (CSF1). Knockout mice for the CSF-1 gene cause ... As opposed to macrophages in the islet stroma (tissue), whose developmental origin is from the yolk sac (primitive ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancreatic_islet_macrophage

Macrophages are known to originate from bone marrow-derived blood monocytes (monocyte-derived macrophages) or yolk sac ... The composition of monocyte-derived macrophages and tissue-resident macrophages in the tumor microenvironment depends on the ... M1 macrophages are seen to have a pro-inflammatory and cytotoxic (anti-tumoral) function; M2 macrophages are anti-inflammatory ... quickly turn into tumor-associated macrophages. Additionally, the crosstalk between M-MDSCs and other macrophages enhance the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumor-associated_macrophage

... (CAPG) also known as actin regulatory protein CAP-G is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ... Dabiri GA, Young CL, Rosenbloom J, Southwick FS (Sep 1992). "Molecular cloning of human macrophage capping protein cDNA. A ... Southwick FS (1995). "Gain-of-function mutations conferring actin-severing activity to human macrophage cap G". J. Biol. Chem. ... unique member of the gelsolin/villin family expressed primarily in macrophages". J Biol Chem. 267 (23): 16545-52. doi:10.1016/ ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage-capping_protein

A febrile patient with known or suspected SoJIA must be considered for macrophage activation if: Ferritin >684 ng/ml and any 2 ... Macrophage activation syndrome is a severe, potentially life-threatening, complication of several chronic rheumatic diseases of ... There is uncontrolled activation and proliferation of macrophages, and T lymphocytes, with a marked increase in circulating ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage_activation_syndrome

Other macrophage inflammatory proteins include MIP-2, MIP-3 and MIP-5. MIP-1α and MIP-1β are major factors produced by ... Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins (MIP) belong to the family of chemotactic cytokines known as chemokines. In humans, there are ... Macrophage+Inflammatory+Proteins at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) (Articles with short ... ISBN 978-0-8153-4505-3. Qin CC, Liu YN, Hu Y, Yang Y, Chen Z (May 2017). "Macrophage inflammatory protein-2 as mediator of ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage_inflammatory_protein

... (or integrin αMβ2 or macrophage integrin or Mac-1) is a complement receptor ("CR3") consisting of CD11b ( ... CR3 CD11b/CD18 Macrophage 1 antigen (Mac-1) Macrophage Todd R (1996). "The continuing saga of complement receptor type 3 (CR3 ... Macrophage-1 antigen (hereafter complement receptor 3 or CR3) (CD11b/CD18) is a human cell surface receptor found on B and T ... Macrophage-1+antigen at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) (CS1 maint: location missing ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage-1_antigen

... macrophages, and bone marrow progenitor cells. M-CSF affects macrophages and monocytes in several ways, including stimulating ... Macrophage+Colony-Stimulating+Factor at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Overview of all ... The role of M-CSF is not only restricted to the monocyte/macrophage cell lineage. By interacting with its membrane receptor ( ... "Entrez Gene: CSF1 colony stimulating factor 1 (macrophage)". Jang MH, Herber DM, Jiang X, Nandi S, Dai XM, Zeller G, Stanley ER ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage_colony-stimulating_factor

Bone-marrow-derived macrophage (BMDM) refers to macrophage cells that are generated in a research laboratory from mammalian ... BMDMs provide a large homogenous population of macrophages that play an increasingly important role in making macrophage- ... which then mature into macrophages). Macrophages have a wide variety of functions in the body including phagocytosis of foreign ... the precursor cells to macrophages, which are less helpful for macrophage-specific research Barrett JP, Costello DA, O'Sullivan ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_marrow-derived_macrophage

The lipid-laden macrophage index (LLMI) can be calculated by counting 100 macrophages in a BAL specimen treated with a lipid ... specimens that consist of macrophages containing deposits of lipids (fats). The lipid content of the macrophages can be ... Lipid-laden alveolar macrophages, also known as pulmonary foam cells, are cells found in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) ... Lipid-laden alveolar macrophages have been reported in cases of vaping-associated pulmonary injury. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid-laden_alveolar_macrophage

... has been reported to interact with: BNIPL, CD74, COPS5, CXCR4, and RPS19. MIF is a ... Macrophage migration inhibitory factor assembles into a trimer composed of three identical subunits. Each of these monomers ... Media related to Macrophage migration inhibitory factor at Wikimedia Commons (CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh), Articles with ... Wang F, Shen X, Guo X, Peng Y, Liu Y, Xu S, Yang J (February 2010). "Spinal macrophage migration inhibitory factor contributes ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage_migration_inhibitory_factor

... is an evolutionary conserved protein domain. Macrophage migration inhibitory ... MIF is released from T-cells and macrophages, and acts within the neuroendocrine system. MIF is capable of tautomerase activity ... Matsunaga J, Sinha D, Solano F, Santis C, Wistow G, Hearing V (November 1999). "Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF)-- ... Donn RP, Ray DW (July 2004). "Macrophage migration inhibitory factor: molecular, cellular and genetic aspects of a key ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage_migration_inhibitory_factor_domain

... s (Nramps), also known as metal ion (Mn2+-iron) transporters (TC# 2.A.55), are ... In contrast to the widely expressed NRAMP2, NRAMP1 is expressed primarily in macrophages and monocytes and appears to have a ... The name "natural resistance-associated" macrophage proteins arises from the role in resistance of intracellular bacterial ... for Mn2+ or some other metal prevents the generation of reactive oxygenic and nitrogenic compounds that are used by macrophage ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resistance-associated_macrophage_protein

In macrophages, it has also been shown to signal via STAT3. The cytokine activates macrophages to inhibit fungal survival. It ... "Granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor induced Zn sequestration enhances macrophage superoxide and limits ... Human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor is glycosylated in its mature form.[citation needed] GM-CSF was first ... Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), also known as colony-stimulating factor 2 (CSF2), is a monomeric ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granulocyte-macrophage_colony-stimulating_factor

... (NRAMP 2), also known as divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) and divalent ... Kishi F, Tabuchi M (October 1998). "Human natural resistance-associated macrophage protein 2: gene cloning and protein ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resistance-associated_macrophage_protein_2

... is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC11A1 gene. This gene is a ... Søborg C, Andersen AB, Madsen HO, Kok-Jensen A, Skinhøj P, Garred P (August 2002). "Natural resistance-associated macrophage ... Kishi F, Nobumoto M (1996). "Identification of natural resistance-associated macrophage protein in peripheral blood lymphocytes ... "Nramp1 locus encodes a 65 kDa interferon-gamma-inducible protein in murine macrophages". The Biochemical Journal. 325. 325 ( Pt ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resistance-associated_macrophage_protein_1

The granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor also known as CD116 (Cluster of Differentiation 116), is a ... Remaining extracellular domain acts as a soluble GM-CSFRα and have been identified in bone marrow, monocytes and macrophages, ... Gearing DP, King JA, Gough NM, Nicola NA (Dec 1989). "Expression cloning of a receptor for human granulocyte-macrophage colony- ... Lia F, Rajotte D, Clark SC, Hoang T (Nov 1996). "A dominant negative granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granulocyte-macrophage_colony-stimulating_factor_receptor

"Macrophages". British Society for Immunology. Retrieved 8 November 2018. Annunziato, F; Romagnani, C; Romagnani, S (March 2015 ... By secreting interferon gamma and TNF, TH1, TC1, and group 1 ILCS activate macrophages, converting them to potent effector ... Type 1 immunity is directed primarily at viruses, bacteria, and protozoa and is responsible for activating macrophages, turning ... for macrophages); and Stimulating cells to secrete a variety of cytokines that influence the function of other cells involved ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell-mediated_immunity

Macrophages can be stimulated by T cell secretion of interferon. After this activation, macrophages are able to express MHC ... "Macrophages". Access Science. 2015. doi:10.1036/1097-8542.BR1109151. Dalod M, Chelbi R, Malissen B, Lawrence T (May 2014). " ... At the affected site, the macrophage surrounds the site of infection or tissue damage with its membrane in a mechanism called ... The main types of professional antigen-presenting cells are dendritic cells, macrophages and B cells. Dendritic cells have the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen-presenting_cell

Macrophages are part of the human immune system. They are involved in the detection, phagocytosis and destruction of organisms ... "Macrophages , British Society for Immunology". www.immunology.org. Retrieved 2022-12-15. Saman, S.; Stagno, M. J.; Warmann, S. ... It is a non-invasive form of liquid biopsy, i.e. biopsy from blood, which analyzes activated macrophages (CD14+/CD16+) for ... In case of cancerous tumors, macrophages ingest tumor cells and dissolve them with the help of enzymes, storing tumor proteins ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDIM_technology

A macrophage is a type of immune cell. It destroys foreign substances to protect the body from infection. ... A macrophage is a type of immune cell. It destroys foreign substances to protect the body from infection. ... Macrophages do not travel through the blood. Instead, they remain in one part of the body. ... Resistance of the body to infection: I. Leukocytes, granulocytes, the monocyte-macrophage system, and inflammation. In: Hall JE ...

https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002374.htm

Macrophage activation syndrome is characterized by pancytopenia, liver insufficiency,... ... Macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) is a life-threatening complication of rheumatic disease that, for unknown reasons, occurs ... encoded search term (Macrophage Activation Syndrome) and Macrophage Activation Syndrome What to Read Next on Medscape ... Macrophage activation syndrome in rheumatic diseases in children]. Rev Rhum Ed Fr. 1994 Jun. 61(6):447-51. [QxMD MEDLINE Link] ...

https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1380671-overview

These macrophages expressed prominent levels of monocarboxylate transporter-4 (MCT-4), which is specialized in the secretion of ... Relevance to MS was corroborated by the strong expression of MCT-4, EMMPRIN, and LDHA in perivascular macrophages in MS brains ... The functional relevance of MCT-4-EMMPRIN interaction was confirmed by lower macrophage transmigration in culture using the MCT ... These results detail the metabolism of macrophages for transmigration from perivascular cuffs into the CNS parenchyma and ...

https://www.jci.org/articles/view/124012/ga

Yet the tattoos appearance did not change when the macrophages were killed off. The team determined that the dead macrophages ... "We think that, when tattoo pigment-laden macrophages die during the course of adult life, neighboring macrophages recapture the ... The researchers found that dermal macrophages were the only cell type to take up pigment when they tattooed the mices tails. ... "Tattoo removal can be likely improved by combining laser surgery with the transient ablation of the macrophages present in the ...

https://www.newswise.com/articles/how-tattoos-are-maintained-by-macrophages-could-be-key-to-improving-their-removal

Macrophage Infection by HIV: Implications for Pathogenesis and Cure, from October 13-14, 2021. This video is Day 1. ... Macrophages that may be close to blood vessels, macrophages that may be close to nerves, macrophages that may reside in ... So this meeting will cover macrophages as targets for HIV infection, macrophages as mediators of inflammation, macrophages as a ... We also isolate macrophages from one of our control wells, which only contain macrophages, to look at DNA and RNA from the cell ...

https://www.nimh.nih.gov/news/media/2021/macrophage-infection-by-hiv-implications-for-pathogenesis-and-cure-day-one

A new study investigates whether SARS-CoV-2 can enter and replicate in macrophages and whether ACE2 is involved in these ... A new Science Signaling study evaluates whether macrophage ACE2 expression regulates the susceptibility of macrophages against ... However, macrophages support the early phase of viral infection, particularly the entry and synthesis of new viral RNA and ... Study: Macrophage ACE2 is necessary for SARS-CoV-2 replication and subsequent cytokine responses that restrict continued virion ...

https://www.news-medical.net/news/20230504/Unlocking-the-puzzle-How-ACE2-shapes-macrophage-responses-in-COVID-19.aspx

In this study, murine peritoneal macrophages were isolated and then activated by LPS, HSV and VSV. Integrative proteomic and ... In this study, murine peritoneal macrophages were isolated and then activated by LPS, HSV and VSV. Integrative proteomic and ... Macrophages are important immune cells that participate in both innate and adaptive immune responses, such as phagocytosis, ... Macrophages are important immune cells that participate in both innate and adaptive immune responses, such as phagocytosis, ...

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2021.722293/full

Identification of interferon stimulated genes that control Toxoplasma in pig macrophages. Objective ... The fundamental insights that we will obtain will provide a deeper understanding ISG-Toxoplasma interactions in pig macrophages ... Identification of interferon stimulated genes that control Toxoplasma in pig macrophages ... expressed ISGs directly control Toxoplasma in pig macrophages using pig pluripotent stem cell-derived macrophages and high ...

https://www.nal.usda.gov/research-tools/food-safety-research-projects/identification-interferon-stimulated-genes-control-toxoplasma-pig-macrophages

Macrophage polarisation: an immunohistochemical approach for identifying M1 and M2 macrophages. PLoS One. 2013;8:e80908. DOI ... Macrophage activation syndrome in the era of biologic therapy. Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2016;12:259-68. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar ... Macrophage activation syndrome-associated markers in severe dengue. Int J Med Sci. 2016;13:179-86. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar ... Macrophage phenotype in liver injury and repair. Scand J Immunol. 2017;85:166-74. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar ...

https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/25/2/18-1326-t1

Rhinovirus exposure impairs immune responses to bacterial products in human alveolar macrophages ... Rhinovirus exposure impairs immune responses to bacterial products in human alveolar macrophages ... Rhinovirus exposure impairs immune responses to bacterial products in human alveolar macrophages ...

https://thorax.bmj.com/content/63/6/519.info

Mycobacteria are opportunistic microbes that reside and multiply in host macrophages, mainly by inhibition of host pro- ... Final Activity Report Summary - MACROPHAGE GENOMICS (Genomic Screens to Identify and Characterize Mechanisms of Mycobacterial ... Genomic screens to identify and characterize mechanisms of mycobacterial killing by Macrophages. ...

https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/39351/reporting

... ... The differentiation of Socs3-deficient progenitor cells is skewed toward macrophage production in response to G-CSF or IL-6, ... Mice with Socs3 deleted specifically in hematopoietic cells succumb to severe neutrophil and macrophage-driven inflammation by ...

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18400361/

Macrophages are central to host defense against microbes, but intracellular pathogens have evolved to evade their antimicrobial ... We identify mutants showing decreased growth in macrophage environments that model stages of the host immune response. By ... Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) has successfully exploited macrophages as its primary niche in vivo, but the bacterial genome- ... "From The Cover: Genome-Wide Requirements for Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Adaptation and Survival in Macrophages." Proceedings of ...

https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/41552038

Delivery of antimicrobials to infected tissue macrophages. Publication. Publication. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews , Volume 17 ... Bakker-Woudenberg, I.A.J.M. (1995). Delivery of antimicrobials to infected tissue macrophages. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews ( ...

https://repub.eur.nl/pub/66208

National planning assists in determining the actions that should be taken in the upcoming weeks, months, and years to prevent, detect, and respond to risks and threats. These actions can be identified through comprehensive tools such as all-hazards National Action Plans for Health Security (NAPHS), disease-specific plans, contingency plans, and other sources. ...

https://extranet.who.int/sph/node/22924

... including resident macrophages and circulating monocyte-derived macrophages[34], we propose that macrophages of different ... We found that in vitro, ALI serum sEVs could be taken up by hepatic macrophages and promote macrophage adhesion. Furthermore, ... Key Words: MicroRNA, Small RNA sequencing, Biomarker, Monocyte-derived macrophage, Resident macrophage ... Isolation and culture of mouse hepatic macrophages. Primary mouse hepatic macrophages were isolated from male C57BL/6 mouse ...

https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v27/i43/7509.htm

Cette communication décrit les méthodes disolement et culture des macrophages alvéolaires, des humains et des modèles murins à ... Journal / Immunology and Infection / Isolement et la Culture In Vitro de Macrophages alvéolaires murines et humaines… ... Génération et identification de GM-CSF dérivé alvéolaires comme Macrophages etules dendritiques à partir de moelle osseuse de ... Génération et identification de GM-CSF dérivé alvéolaires comme Macrophages etules dendritiques à partir de moelle osseuse de ...

https://www.jove.com/v/57287/isolation-vitro-culture-murine-human-alveolar?language=French

Quantitative analyses of sacroiliac biopsies in spondyloarthropathies: T cells and macrophages predominate in early and active ... Quantitative analyses of sacroiliac biopsies in spondyloarthropathies: T cells and macrophages predominate in early and active ...

https://ard.bmj.com/content/59/2/135.altmetrics

Oxidized low-density lipoprotein stimulates CD206 positive macrophages upregulating CD44 and CD133 expression in colorectal ... Continuous stimulation of macrophages with ox-LDL induced CD206+ macrophages, which could further promote the increase of CD44 ... We stimulated macrophages with 20 ug/mL ox-LDL and assessed the expression levels of CD206 and cytokines by cell fluorescence ... Our key point is that ox-LDL up-regulates CD44 and CD133 in HFD associated CRC, which is mediated by macrophages. Our study ...

https://wjgnet.com/1007-9327/articlehighlights/v28/i34/4993.htm

Active Macrophage Inflammatory Protein 1 Beta (MIP1b) from Cloud-Clone. Cat#: APA093Hu02. Online Order. ... Active Macrophage Inflammatory Protein 1 Beta (MIP1b) , APA093Hu02 Cloud-Clone Active Macrophage Inflammatory Protein 1 Beta ( ... Active Macrophage Inflammatory Protein 1 Beta (MIP1b) , APA093Hu02 , Cloud-Clone. Description: A recombinant Macrophage ... Active Macrophage Inflammatory Protein 1 Beta (MIP1b) , APA093Hu02. Rating Required Select Rating. 1 star (worst). 2 stars. 3 ...

https://proteomecommons.org/active-macrophage-inflammatory-protein-1-beta-mip1b-apa093hu02/?setCurrencyId=4

Serum macrophage migration inhibitory factor is an early marker of pancreatic necrosis in acute pancreatitis. Ann Surg. 2007 ... Increases in serum macrophage migration inhibitory factor in patients with severe sepsis predict early mortality. Shock. 2007 ... Macrophage migration inhibitory factor levels correlate with fatal outcome in sepsis. Shock. 2004 Oct;22(4):309-13. PMID: ... Le taux du facteur dinhibition de la migration des macrophages était nettement associé à la mortalité dans les cas de ...

http://www.emro.who.int/emhj-volume-21-2015/volume-21-issue-10/functional-and-prognostic-relevance-of-173-gc-gene-polymorphism-of-macrophage-migration-inhibitory-factor-in-sepsis-patients-in-egyptian-intensive-care-units.html

All genes belonging to the secretome have been classified according to function based on Uniprot molecular function and biological processes keywords. The functional annotations are prioritized according to the following hierarchy: Blood coagulation, Complement pathway, Acute phase, Cytokine, Hormone, Neuropeptide, Growth factor, Receptor, Transport, Developmental protein, Defence, Enzyme, Enzyme inhibitor, Transcription, Immunity, Cell adhesion, Other and each gene is assigned a single function.. ...

https://www.proteinatlas.org/search/cell_type_category_rna%3AMacrophages%3BCell+type+enriched%2CGroup+enriched%2CCell+type+enhanced+AND+show_columns%3Atissuespecificity+AND+sort_by%3Atissue+specific+score

Abstract : In a pilot study with five oral cancer patients undergoing radiotherapy (RT) three were given Granulocyte Macrophage ... HomePublicationsEnhancement of myeloperoxidase activity in wbcs in oral cancer patients treated with granulocyte macrophage ... Enhancement of myeloperoxidase activity in wbcs in oral cancer patients treated with granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating ... "Enhancement of myeloperoxidase activity in wbcs in oral cancer patients treated with granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating ...

https://www.amrita.edu/publication/enhancement-of-myeloperoxidase-activity-in-wbcs-in-oral-cancer-patients-treated-with-granulocyte-macrophage-colony-stimulating-factor-gm-csf-a-pilot-study/

Results: Macrophages, CRP, MAC, and oxLDL were simultaneously present in a higher proportion of fibrous tissue and atheroma of ... Simultaneous presence of macrophages, CRP, MAC, and oxLDL in atherectomy specimens of culprit lesions from patients with SA, UA ... Moreno PR, Bernardi VH, Lopez-Cuellar J, et al. Macrophages, smooth muscle cells, and tissue factor in unstable angina. ... This concept is supported by our observation that macrophages, CRP, MAC, and oxLDL show a high incidence of colocalisation, in ...

https://jcp.bmj.com/content/59/2/196?ijkey=63b5783df7b7609f716b1d92ce2c3b56790c63fc&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha

We now demonstrate that within 1 h of exposure of macrophages to Cdt, CdtB is internalized and found primarily within lipid ... These studies provide the first evidence that cellugyrin is expressed in human macrophages and plays a critical role in Cdt ... Recently, we have demonstrated that human macrophages are resistant to Cdt-induced apoptosis but are susceptible to toxin- ... a human macrophage cell line deficient in cellugyrin expression (THP-1Cg−) challenged with Cdt failed to internalize CdtB and ...

https://repository.upenn.edu/items/e417cfa9-6658-4e15-a10e-163c8446eda6

Conclusion: Shexiang Baoxin Pills can promote angiogenesis by activating macrophages to regulate endothelial cell function and ... Activation of macrophages by SBP eventually led to endothelial cell proliferation, migration and tubule formation and increased ... in vitro experiments to assess the effects of SBP on endothelial cell function and signaling pathways by stimulating macrophage ... promotion with Shexiang Baoxin Pills by regulating function and signaling pathway of endothelial cells through macrophages. ...

https://www.visualsonics.com/publication/mechanism-angiogenesis-promotion-shexiang-baoxin-pills-regulating-function-and

Adipokines from local fat cells shape the macrophage compartment of the creeping fat in Crohns disease ... Adipokines from local fat cells shape the macrophage compartment of the creeping fat in Crohns disease ... Adipokines from local fat cells shape the macrophage compartment of the creeping fat in Crohns disease ...

https://gut.bmj.com/content/62/6/852.citation-tools

Inflammatory macrophages in the sciatic nerves facilitate neuropathic pain associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus.. Saika F, ... Inflammatory macrophages in the sciatic nerves facilitate neuropathic pain associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus. ... Objective: To determine whether inflammatory macrophages contribute to neuropathic pain associated with type 2 diabetes- ... Summary: Inhibitory agents for macrophage-driven neuroinflammation could be potential candidates for novel pharmacotherapy ...

https://atsbio.com/docs/ref81/

Dendritic cells and macrophages have been attributed with stimulatory capacity for in vivo and in vitro immune responses. ... Comparative Analysis of Potency of Splenic Dendritic and Adherent Cells (Macrophages) as Alloantigen Presenters In Vivo Cindy M ... Dendritic cells and macrophages have been attributed with stimulatory capacity for in vivo and in vitro immune responses. ... Therefore, the differential ability of dendritic cells and macrophages (splenic adherent cells [SACs]) to stimulate pancreatic ...

https://diabetesjournals.org/diabetes/article/40/12/1719/10383/Comparative-Analysis-of-Potency-of-Splenic

S32.Macrophages are the predominant defense cell in the normal lung and during conditions associated with chronic inflammation ... Macrophage elastase (MMP-12), nearly undetectable in normal macrophages, is expressed in the human alveolar macrophages of ... alveolar macrophages but failed to cause airspace enlargement. Thus, macrophage elastase is required for both macrophage ... macrophage elastase is the predominant mouse macrophage MMP.. Macrophage elastase (MMP-12) was first detected in 1975 when Werb ...

https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/10.1164/ajrccm.160.supplement_1.9

Since human monocyte-derived macrophages (HMDMs) do not express ACE2, these cells were used as in vitro models for ACE2-negative macrophages. (news-medical.net)
Specialized monocyte-derived macrophages, which are rapidly recruited may be contributing to control the excess of adipocyte-released lipids produced during obesity. (ntu.edu.sg)

These tissues harbour the highest number of tumour-associated macrophages, whose therapeutic ablation in experimental models reduced metastasis, and decreased collagen crosslinks and stromal stiffening. (escholarship.org)
This is bad news, because these so-called tumour-associated macrophages then form a strong line of defence against the body's own immune cells and protect the tumour from chemotherapeutics. (sciencelink.net)
Tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) show increased expression of the chemokine receptor CCR2 and increased activity of the enzyme cathepsin. (sciencelink.net)

Integrative proteomic and precision N-glycoproteomic profiling were conducted to assess the underlying macrophage activation. (frontiersin.org)

An evaluation of 2 cohorts of patients with EVD revealed that a marker of macrophage activation (sCD163) but not T-cell activation (sCD25) was associated with severe and fatal EVD. (cdc.gov)

In this study, murine peritoneal macrophages were isolated and then activated by LPS, HSV and VSV. (frontiersin.org)
The N-glycome showed a dramatic change during human monocyte-to-macrophage transition ( 17 ) and murine macrophage polarization ( 18 ). (frontiersin.org)
Without glycoconjugate (GC) activation, murine macrophages were killed by Bacillus toxins. (listlabs.com)

Resistance of the body to infection: I. Leukocytes, granulocytes, the monocyte-macrophage system, and inflammation. (medlineplus.gov)
The meeting will also highlight recent work on macrophage inflammation in the context of SARS-CoV-2 infection and work from recently-funded NIMH, NIDA, and NINDS investigators. (nih.gov)
A panel will discuss research gaps and priorities related to human macrophage reservoirs and inflammation/comorbidities and treatment strategies for HIV remission and cure. (nih.gov)
In a pilot study with five oral cancer patients undergoing radiotherapy (RT) three were given Granulocyte Macrophage Colony Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) as a protective agent to reduce the mucosal inflammation during radiotherapy. (amrita.edu)
The aim of the present study was to determine the pro-angiogenic effects and mechanism of SBP during inflammation or ischemic pathological conditions and elucidate its regulatory effects on endothelial cell function and signaling pathways mediated by macrophages. (visualsonics.com)
AM J RESPIR CRIT CARE MED 1999;160:S29−S32.Macrophages are the predominant defense cell in the normal lung and during conditions associated with chronic inflammation such as COPD. (atsjournals.org)
This review discusses the utility of theranostics in macrophage ablation, phenotype modulation and inhibition of their inflammatory activity leading to resolution of inflammation in several diseases. (thno.org)

The elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines (e.g., interleukin [IL] 6, IL-8, macrophage inflammatory protein 1α and 1β, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, and macrophage colony-stimulating factor) and immunomodulatory cytokines (e.g. (cdc.gov)
During severe infection, macrophages have been identified to be the key source of proinflammatory cytokines. (news-medical.net)

Based on the findings of single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), viral RNA has been detected within macrophages in lung tissue and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid from COVID-19 patients. (news-medical.net)

Consistent with previous in vitro studies, the current study revealed that SARS-CoV-2 did not replicate in BAL macrophages or HMDM. (news-medical.net)
We also performed cell proliferation, cell migration and tubule formation in vitro experiments to assess the effects of SBP on endothelial cell function and signaling pathways by stimulating macrophage activity. (visualsonics.com)
Results: The in vitro experiment results showed that SBP could significantly increase the expression of mRNAs and proteins associated with angiogenesis in endothelial cells by activating macrophages to release pro-angiogenic factors such as Vegf-a. (visualsonics.com)

This Ebook is edited by Sandra Hodge, a recognized expert in the field of macrophage dysfunction in chronic lung disease. (benthambooks.com)
The book consists of 8 chapters which provide a full coverage of macrophage function in both healthy and chronically diseased lungs, starting with the regulation of macrophage homoestasis to altered macrophage recognition and clearance of pathogens and apoptotic cells in the lung before moving on to macrophage targeted treatment options for chronic lung diseases. (benthambooks.com)
The important problem of oxidative and carbonyl stress in the lung and its impact on macrophage function is discussed. (benthambooks.com)
The concept of failed macrophage function with regard to chronic lung disease has recently been the topic of intensive research. (benthambooks.com)

Mycobacteria are opportunistic microbes that reside and multiply in host macrophages, mainly by inhibition of host pro-inflammatory response. (europa.eu)
Inflammatory macrophages in the sciatic nerves facilitate neuropathic pain associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus. (atsbio.com)
Saika F, Kiguchi N, Matsuzaki S, Kobayashi D, Kishioka S (2019) Inflammatory macrophages in the sciatic nerves facilitate neuropathic pain associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus. (atsbio.com)
Objective: To determine whether inflammatory macrophages contribute to neuropathic pain associated with type 2 diabetes-mellitus (T2DM). (atsbio.com)
Perineural administration of Mac-1-SAP improved high-fat diet (HFD)-induced mechanical allodynia and the accumulation of F4/80+ macrophages and the upregulation of inflammatory mediators in the SCN after HFD-feeding. (atsbio.com)
Scientific evidence from a variety of sources is emerging that supports a primary role for the macrophage in regulating the inflammatory response and tissue destruction associated with COPD. (atsjournals.org)
Macrophages are an important cellular component of inflammatory diseases, participating in varied roles of disease exacerbation and resolution. (thno.org)
Janjic, J.M. Macrophage Targeted Theranostics as Personalized Nanomedicine Strategies for Inflammatory Diseases. (thno.org)
Pulmonary cytotoxicity, inflammatory cell influx, and relative mRNA expression of genes related to macrophage function and recruitment (Ccl2, Ccl22, and Arg1) were increased as a result of MWCNT exposure but not affected by OPN deficiency. (cdc.gov)

Activation of macrophages by SBP eventually led to endothelial cell proliferation, migration and tubule formation and increased the expression of p-Akt and p-Erk1/2 proteins in the downstream PI3K/Akt and MAPK/Erk1/2 signaling pathways related to angiogenesis, respectively. (visualsonics.com)

Soluble CD163 (sCD163) is a macrophage specific protein known to be up-regulated in serum from patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). (nih.gov)
The sCD163 CSF/serum ratio was significantly increased in patients with MS and may reflect macrophage activation in MS lesions. (nih.gov)

Summary: Inhibitory agents for macrophage-driven neuroinflammation could be potential candidates for novel pharmacotherapy against intractable neuropathic pain. (atsbio.com)

In contrast to epithelial cells, human macrophages manifest an abortive replication cycle for many viruses, such as rhinovirus and seasonal influenza A viruses. (news-medical.net)

In active rheumatoid arthritis, large numbers of granulocytes and macrophages are found in the inflamed joints. (adacyte.com)

This type of hyperinflammatory state is reminiscent of 2 rheumatologic disorders known as macrophage activation syndrome and hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis, which are characterized by macrophage and T-cell activation. (cdc.gov)
These data suggest that host macrophage activation contributes to EVD pathogenesis and that directed antiinflammatory therapies could be beneficial in the treatment of EVD. (cdc.gov)
Hypercytokinemia accompanied by severe clinical disease seen in EVD is reminiscent of what has been described for macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) and hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH). (cdc.gov)
Macrophages are important immune cells that participate in both innate and adaptive immune responses, such as phagocytosis, recognition of molecular patterns, and activation of the immune response. (frontiersin.org)
Macrophages have different activation states in different microenvironments ( 15 ) and pathogenic stimulation ( 16 ). (frontiersin.org)
Increased levels of inducible nitric oxide (NO) production by macrophages in presence of GCs suggest that GCs provide an activation signal for macrophages and stimulate their function. (listlabs.com)
Results hint to GCs that promote neutralization of Bacillus toxins, block toxin-induced macrophage death, while increasing macrophage activation. (listlabs.com)

Welcome to the Macrophage Infection of HIV Implications for Pathogenesis and Cure meeting, jointly organized by the National Institute of Mental Health and the Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT, and Harvard. (nih.gov)
Although CD4 T cells are the main targets of HIV infection, macrophages also become infected and resist the cytopathic effects of infection, contributing potentially to HIV reservoir persistence. (nih.gov)
So this meeting will examine emerging data relating to macrophage interactions with the immune system during HIV infection, macrophage reservoirs and approaches to their elimination, and the involvement of CNS myeloid reservoirs and associated comorbidities. (nih.gov)
So on day one, Session 1 will focus on macrophages and the immune system during HIV and SARS-CoV-2 infection, Session 2 will focus on challenges to study HIV/SIV reservoirs, and Session 3 will really have the highlights from recent awardees of the NIMH/NINDS/NIDA Myeloid Reservoir RFA. (nih.gov)
Macrophages are associated with innate immunity that protects the respiratory tracts during viral infection. (news-medical.net)
However, macrophages support the early phase of viral infection, particularly the entry and synthesis of new viral RNA and protein. (news-medical.net)
Here, ACE2 was identified to be the key determinant of macrophage susceptibility to COVID-19 infection and sensing of the virus. (news-medical.net)
In one example, phosphate transport, requiring physically unlinked genes, was found to be critical for MTB growth in macrophages and important for establishing persistent infection in lungs. (harvard.edu)
Macrophages secrete substances that attract other white blood cells to the site of the infection. (msdmanuals.com)

Adipose tissue-resident F4/80hi macrophages (ATMs) are the main leukocyte population found in the visceral adipose tissue (VAT). (ntu.edu.sg)
These macrophages comprise several phenotypically distinct subpopulations that rapidly shift in abundance during obesity-induced tissue remodeling. (ntu.edu.sg)
For example, microglia , the longest known tissue -resident macrophages , show a highly branched process tree with which they continuously scan their environment . (bvsalud.org)
Computational image analysis allows to quantify morphology and/or motility from images of tissue -resident macrophages . (bvsalud.org)

So we at the NIMH Division of AIDS Research are very happy to be co-sponsoring this conference with the Ragon Institute, recognizing the importance of macrophages in HIV pathogenesis and cure efforts. (nih.gov)

In people with a disease called Langerhans cell histiocytosis (previously called histiocytosis X ), there is an excess of macrophages and other white blood cells in some bodily tissues. (medlineplus.gov)
Monocytes become macrophages when they move from the bloodstream to the tissues. (msdmanuals.com)
Macrophages stay in the tissues. (msdmanuals.com)

RÉSUMÉ La présente étude visait à évaluer l'association entre le taux facteurs d'initiative de lamigration des macrophages (MIF) plasmatique et le polymorphisme du nucléotide simple - 173 G/C du gène MIF et l'occurrence, la sévérité ainsi que le taux de mortalité chez les patientsprésentant une septicémie. (who.int)

Macrophages are immune cells widely distributed throughout the body and are components of innate immunity. (frontiersin.org)

Macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC/CCL22), in particular, was associated with various MWCNT exposures and was independent of exposure method employed, that is, oropharyngeal aspiration versus inhalation exposure. (cdc.gov)

In healthy nonsmokers, macrophages comprise the major host defense cell in the lower airspace. (atsjournals.org)

Virions were detected within phagosomes, which suggests that SARS-CoV-2 virions can invade the macrophage phagolysosomal system. (news-medical.net)
In addition, during high-fat diet, the subpopulation of CD11c+ macrophages invade the VAT with the fastest turnover kinetics of all three ATM subpopulations. (ntu.edu.sg)

Thus, macrophages not only inhibit viral dissemination but can sense infected cells and infectious viral particles to subsequently elicit antiviral and proinflammatory programs. (news-medical.net)
Glycans are one of the four fundamental macromolecular components of all cells and are highly regulated in immune cells, including macrophages. (frontiersin.org)

Bacillus anthracis toxins may be attenuated if macrophages could neutralize toxins upon contact or exposure. (listlabs.com)
We have demonstrated modulation of macrophage activity following exposure to these toxins. (listlabs.com)
Granuloma formation following a pulmonary exposure is dependent on osteopontin (OPN) production by regulating macrophage accumulation. (cdc.gov)

Morphometric Analyses of Macrophages. (bvsalud.org)

Macrophages develop from a type of white blood cell called monocytes. (msdmanuals.com)
There, over a period of about 8 hours, monocytes enlarge greatly and produce granules within themselves, becoming macrophages. (msdmanuals.com)

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) has successfully exploited macrophages as its primary niche in vivo, but the bacterial genome-wide requirements that promote its intracellular survival remain undefined. (harvard.edu)

Moreover, macrophages are prominent in the respiratory bronchioles of cigarette smokers, where emphysematous changes are first manifest. (atsjournals.org)

The inherent phagocytic nature, abundance and disease homing properties of macrophages can be targeted for imaging and therapeutic purposes. (thno.org)
Key advances in our knowledge of the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in defective macrophage function have paved the way for the development of novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. (benthambooks.com)

ACE2-expressing THP-1 macrophages were able to sense newly synthesized viral RNA and trigger the expression of proinflammatory and antiviral mediators, which inhibited ongoing virion release. (news-medical.net)

An isolation and lymph nodes and macrophage are primary targets for the ward were set up at Bundibugyo hospital and Kikyo health center. (who.int)

Macrophages are central to host defense against microbes, but intracellular pathogens have evolved to evade their antimicrobial functions. (harvard.edu)

Here, I describe a step-by-step protocol for analyzing the morphology (and motility) of macrophages with our recently described, freely available software MotiQ, which provides a broad band of parameters and thereby serves as a versatile tool for studies of morphology and motility. (bvsalud.org)

Une différence statistiquement très importante a été observée entre les taux du facteur d'inhibition de la migration des macrophages des cas de septicémie et des témoins tandis qu'une différence statistiquement significative a été notée entre le taux MIF des différents génotypes des groupes étudiés. (who.int)

So on Day 2, tomorrow, we'll have Session 4 looking at macrophage reservoirs and approaches to their elimination. (nih.gov)

Immunostaining of autopsied lungs of individuals with COVID-19 revealed the presence of viral antigens such as S and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) in macrophages. (news-medical.net)

We identify mutants showing decreased growth in macrophage environments that model stages of the host immune response. (harvard.edu)

Conclusion: Shexiang Baoxin Pills can promote angiogenesis by activating macrophages to regulate endothelial cell function and signal transduction pathways. (visualsonics.com)
Additional chapters deal with the role of disordered macrophage function in cancer progression and the role of chronic alcohol ingestion of macrophage function. (benthambooks.com)

A new Science Signaling study evaluates whether macrophage ACE2 expression regulates the susceptibility of macrophages against SARS-CoV-2 entry and replication. (news-medical.net)
Zheng SM, Chen H, Sha WH, Chen XF, Yin JB, Zhu XB, Zheng ZW, Ma J. Oxidized low-density lipoprotein stimulates CD206 positive macrophages upregulating CD44 and CD133 expression in colorectal cancer with high-fat diet. (wjgnet.com)

Here we comprehensively identify the MTB genes required for survival by screening for transposon mutants that fail to grow within primary macrophages. (harvard.edu)

A macrophage is a type of immune cell. (medlineplus.gov)
However, the mechanistic differences when SARS-CoV-2 infects other cell types, such as macrophage populations, are poorly understood. (news-medical.net)
GCs were shown to have a protective influence, sparing macrophages from toxin-induced cell death, as shown by increased macrophage cell viability based on trypan blue assay. (listlabs.com)

However, the role of the macrophage in the development of COPD has been controversial. (atsjournals.org)
The role of macrophage proteinases in the development of emphysema, a major component of COPD, will be discussed. (atsjournals.org)

Remarkably, the majority of MTB genes found by this analysis to be required for survival are constitutively expressed rather than regulated by macrophages, revealing the host-adapted lifestyle of an evolutionarily selected intracellular pathogen. (harvard.edu)

Macrophages are the 'trashmen' of our immune system. (sciencelink.net)

Une étude a été menée dans des unités de soins intensifs en chirurgie pour adultes de l'hôpital universitaire de Zagazig, (Égypte) auprès de 25 patients atteints de septicémie, de 27 patients atteints d'une septicémie sévère et de 28 témoins. (who.int)

Anatomy38

Organisms26

Diseases10

Chemicals and Drugs112

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment21

Phenomena and Processes50

Disciplines and Occupations1

Technology, Industry, Agriculture2

Information Science3

Hypersensitivity pneumonitis: experimental production in calves with antigens of Micropolyspora faeni. (1/32182)

Cell-mediated immunity: dealing a direct blow to pathogens. (2/32182)

Chlamydial and human heat shock protein 60s activate human vascular endothelium, smooth muscle cells, and macrophages. (3/32182)

Anti-monocyte chemoattractant protein-1/monocyte chemotactic and activating factor antibody inhibits neointimal hyperplasia in injured rat carotid arteries. (4/32182)

Activated macrophages and microglia induce dopaminergic sprouting in the injured striatum and express brain-derived neurotrophic factor and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor. (5/32182)

Overexpression of CuZn superoxide dismutase protects RAW 264.7 macrophages against nitric oxide cytotoxicity. (6/32182)

Salmonella typhimurium and lipopolysaccharide stimulate extracellularly regulated kinase activation in macrophages by a mechanism involving phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and phospholipase D as novel intermediates. (7/32182)

Non-serum-dependent chemotactic factors produced by Candida albicans stimulate chemotaxis by binding to the formyl peptide receptor on neutrophils and to an unknown receptor on macrophages. (8/32182)

Macrophages

Macrophage Activation

Macrophages, Peritoneal

Macrophages, Alveolar

Phagocytosis

Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor

Cells, Cultured

Lipopolysaccharides

Mice, Inbred C57BL

Monocytes

Macrophage Migration-Inhibitory Factors

Cell Line

Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha

Mice, Inbred BALB C

Cytokines

Mice, Knockout

Peritoneal Cavity

Thioglycolates

Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins

Inflammation

Antigens, Differentiation, Myelomonocytic

Ascitic Fluid

Receptor, Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor

RNA, Messenger

Interferon-gamma

Clodronic Acid

Mice, Inbred C3H

Scavenger Receptors, Class A

Phagosomes

Gene Expression Regulation

Nitric Oxide

Pulmonary Alveoli

Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II

Signal Transduction

Spleen

Macrophage-Activating Factors

Zymosan

Bone Marrow Cells

Lipoproteins, LDL

Mannose-Binding Lectins

Chemokine CCL2

Cell Differentiation

Lung

Receptors, Scavenger

Flow Cytometry

NF-kappa B

Toll-Like Receptor 4

Receptors, Cell Surface

Atherosclerosis

Disease Models, Animal

Immunohistochemistry

Immunity, Innate

Neutrophils

Interleukin-6

Receptors, Immunologic

Interleukin-1

Inflammation Mediators

Apoptosis

Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor

T-Lymphocytes

Antigens, CD

Interleukin-10

Time Factors

Mice, Inbred Strains

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction

Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid

Chemokines

Lysosomes

Up-Regulation

Phagocytes

Chemokine CCL4

Chemokine CCL3

Recombinant Proteins

Gene Expression

Arginase

Cholesterol

Receptors, Fc

Cell Movement

Lectins, C-Type

Toll-Like Receptor 2