Lysergic Acid Diethylamide
Lysergic Acid
Ergot Alkaloids
Hallucinogens
Ergotamine
Psilocybine
Mescaline
Bufotenin
Ergonovine
Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT2A
Serotonin Agents
Methysergide
Receptors, Serotonin
Serotonin
Serotonin Antagonists
2,5-Dimethoxy-4-Methylamphetamine
Substance Abuse Detection
Amphetamines
Cyproheptadine
Serotonin 5-HT2 Receptor Agonists
Serotonin Receptor Agonists
Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
Ergoline derivative LEK-8829-induced turning behavior in rats with unilateral striatal ibotenic acid lesions: interaction with bromocriptine. (1/23)
LEK-8829 [9,10-didehydro-N-methyl-(2-propynyl)-6-methyl-8- aminomethylergoline bimaleinate] is an antagonist of dopamine D2 receptors and serotonin (5-HT)2 and 5-HT1A receptors in intact animals and a D1 receptor agonist in dopamine-depleted animals. In the present study, we used rats with unilateral striatal lesions with ibotenic acid (IA) to investigate the dopamine receptor activities of LEK-8829 in a model with innervated dopamine receptors. The IA-lesioned rats circled ipsilaterally when challenged with apomorphine, the mixed agonist on D1/D2 receptors. LEK-8829 induced a dose-dependent contralateral turning that was blocked by D1 receptor antagonist SCH-23390. The treatment with D1 receptor agonist SKF-82958 induced ipsilateral turning, whereas the treatment with D2 receptor antagonist haloperidol induced contralateral posture. The combined treatment with SKF-82958 and haloperidol resulted in a weak contralateral turning, indicating the possible receptor mechanism of contralateral turning induced by LEK-8829. Bromocriptine induced a weak ipsilateral turning that was blocked by haloperidol. The ipsilateral turning induced by bromocriptine was significantly potentiated by the coadministration of a low dose but not by a high dose of LEK-8829. The potentiation of turning was blocked either by SCH-23390 or by haloperidol. The potentiation of ipsilateral turning suggests the costimulation of D2 and D1 receptors by bromocriptine and LEK-8829, respectively, whereas the lack of potentiation by the highest dose of LEK-8829 may be explained by the opposing activity of LEK-8829 and bromocriptine at D2 receptors. We propose that the D2 and 5HT2 receptor-blocking and D1 receptor-stimulating profile of LEK-8829 is promising for the treatment of negative symptoms of schizophrenia. (+info)Vascular smooth muscle proliferation: synergistic interaction between serotonin and low density lipoproteins. (2/23)
OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to examine whether low density lipoproteins (LDLs) or mildly oxidized LDL (mox-LDL) are mitogens for vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and whether they can act synergistically with serotonin (5HT), a known mitogen for VSMC, in potentiating the proliferative effect of 5HT on VSMC. BACKGROUND: Whether LDL or mox-LDL has a mitogenic effect on VSMC has been controversial. It is possible that LDL may not be mitogenic to VSMC but modification of LDL may confer mitogenic properties on LDL. A known mitogen for VSMC is 5HT that is released by aggregating platelets at sites of atherosclerotic changes or endothelial dysfunction. It is possible that LDL may interact with 5HT to enhance VSMC proliferation induced by 5HT. METHODS: Growth arrested primary VSMCs were incubated with different concentrations of LDL or mox-LDL for 24 h followed by incubation with 5HT for another 24 h (mild oxidation of LDL was achieved by incubating LDL with Cu++ which increased the thiobarbituric acid product formation without a change in electrophoretic mobility). The increase in cell number or the amount of 3H-thymidine incorporated into the DNA was then measured. RESULTS: Low density lipoprotein and mox-LDL induced significant VSMC proliferation by themselves and this effect was potentiated by 5HT. The 5HT2 receptor antagonist (LY281067) and pertussis toxin reversed only the proliferative effect of 5HT. Polyinosinic acid (poly-I), an inhibitor of scavenger receptors, did not inhibit the proliferative effect of LDL or mox-LDL or their synergistic interaction with 5HT. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that LDL and mox-LDL act synergistically with 5HT in inducing VSMC proliferation. The synergistic interaction could be blocked by LY281067 and pertussis toxin but not by poly-I acid. (+info)Studies on the mechanism of covalent incorporation of a lysergyl derivative to immunoglobulin peptides in vitro. (3/23)
In vitro incubation of hyperimmune rabbit lymphoid cells with the hallucinogenic indole alkaloid, d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), results in biosynthesis of modified, secretable immunoglobulin peptides. Modification involves covalent attachment of the lysergyl moiety to COOH-terminal portions of the peptides. Aalogous effects occur when cells are incubated in vitro in the presence of the non-hallucinogenic LSD analogue, d-lysergic acid, and N-[3H]-carboxymethyl-d-lysergamide. The phenomenon is reversed by tryptophan and is inhibited by puromycin and cycloheximide. In vitro attachment of the lysergyl moiety occurs in the presence of actinomycin D at levels which inhibit RNA synthesis. While LSD is not attached to intracellular tRNA, the drug binds to 80 S ribosomes from hyperimmune lymphoid cells with high affinity (K A equals 3.5 times 10-8 M-1). Similar binding occurs to nonimmune splenic ribosomes. Implications of these findings are discussed with respect to the degree of involvement of cellular protein translational mechanisms in the covalent attachment of the lysergyl moiety to low molecular weight immunoglobulin peptides. (+info)Ergot alkaloid transport across ruminant gastric tissues. (4/23)
Ergot alkaloids cause fescue toxicosis when livestock graze endophyte-infected tall fescue. It is generally accepted that ergovaline is the toxic component of endophyte-infected tall fescue, but there is no direct evidence to support this hypothesis. The objective of this study was to examine relative and potential transport of ergoline and ergopeptine alkaloids across isolated gastric tissues in vitro. Sheep ruminal and omasal tissues were surgically removed and placed in parabiotic chambers. Equimolar concentrations of lysergic acid, lysergol, ergonovine, ergotamine, and ergocryptine were added to a Kreb's Ringer phosphate (KRP) solution on the mucosal side of the tissue. Tissue was incubated in near-physiological conditions for 240 min. Samples were taken from KRP on the serosal side of the chambers at times 0, 30, 60, 120, 180, and 240 min and analyzed for ergot alkaloids by competitive ELISA. The serosal KRP remaining after incubation was freeze-dried and the alkaloid species quantified by HPLC. The area of ruminal and omasal tissues was measured and the potential transportable alkaloids calculated by multiplying the moles of transported alkaloids per square centimeter of each tissue type by the surface area of the tissue. Studies were conducted to compare alkaloid transport in reticular, ruminal, and omasal tissues and to determine whether transport was active or passive. Ruminal tissue had greater ergot alkaloid transport potential than omasal tissue (85 vs 60 mmol) because of a larger surface area. The ruminal posterior dorsal sac had the greatest potential for alkaloid transport, but the other ruminal tissues were not different from one another. Alkaloid transport was less among reticular tissues than among ruminal tissues. Transport of alkaloids seemed to be an active process. The alkaloids with greatest transport potential were lysergic acid and lysergol. Ergopeptine alkaloids tended to pass across omasal tissues in greater quantities than across ruminal tissues, but their transport was minimal compared to lysergic acid and lysergol. (+info)Lysophosphatidylcholine and reactive oxygen species mediate the synergistic effect of mildly oxidized LDL with serotonin on vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation. (5/23)
BACKGROUND: Mild oxidation of LDL enhances its atherogenic potential and induces a synergistic interaction with serotonin (5HT) on vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation. Because of its complex chemical nature, the mitogenic components of mildly oxidized LDL (moxLDL) remain unclear. METHODS AND RESULTS: We examined both the effects of lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) and hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), a donor of reactive oxygen species, as major components of moxLDL and their interactions with 5HT on VSMC proliferation. Growth-arrested VSMCs were incubated with different concentrations of moxLDL, LPC, H(2)O(2), or LPC with H(2)O(2) in the absence or presence of 5HT. DNA synthesis in VSMCs was examined by [(3)H]thymidine incorporation. MoxLDL, LPC, H(2)O(2), and 5HT stimulated DNA synthesis in a dose-dependent manner. MoxLDL had a maximal stimulatory effect at a concentration of 5 microg/mL (211%), LPC at 15 micromol/L (156%), H(2)O(2) at 5 micromol/L (179%), and 5HT at 50 micromol/L (205%). Added together, moxLDL (50 ng/mL) and 5HT (50 micromol/L) synergistically increased DNA synthesis (443%). Coincubation of LPC (1 micromol/L) with H(2)O(2) (0.5 micromol/L) and 5HT (5 micromol/L) resulted in a synergistic increase in DNA synthesis (439%), which was nearly equal to that of moxLDL with 5HT (443%). The combined effects of LPC, H(2)O(2), and 5HT on DNA synthesis were completely reversed by the combined use of an antioxidant, N:-acetylcysteine (400 micromol/L) or butylated hydroxytoluene (20 micromol/L), with a 5HT(2) receptor antagonist, LY281067 (10 microg/mL). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that both LPC and reactive oxygen species may contribute to the mitogenic effect of moxLDL on VSMCs and its synergistic effect with 5HT. (+info)Semiquantitative determination of ergot alkaloids in seed, straw, and digesta samples using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. (6/23)
Ergot alkaloids present in endophyte-infected (E+) tall fescue cause fescue toxicosis and other toxic effects in livestock that consume infected plant tissue, leading to significant financial losses in livestock production each year. The predominant method currently in use for quantifying ergot alkaloid content in plant tissue is through high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), which quantifies the amount of ergovaline, one of many ergot alkaloids in E+ plant tissue. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method used in this study detects quantities of nonspecific ergot alkaloids and therefore accounts for greater amounts of the total ergot alkaloid content in E+ tissue than does HPLC. The ELISA can also be used to more expediently analyze a larger number of forage samples without sophisticated and costly analytical equipment and therefore could be more desirable in a diagnostic setting. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the between-day and within-run variability of the ELISA and to determine the binding efficiency of 6 ergot alkaloids to the 15F3.E5 antibody used in the competitive ELISA to ascertain its feasibility as a quick analysis tool for ergot alkaloids. Straw samples had an average coefficient of variation (CV) for concentration of 10.2% within runs and 18.4% between runs, and the seed samples had an average CV for concentration of 13.3% within runs and 24.5% between runs. The grass tissue-based lysergic acid standard curve calculated from the ELISA had an average r2 of 0.99, with a CV of 2.1%. Ergocryptine, ergocristine, ergocornine, and ergotamine tartrate did not bind strongly to the 15F3.E5 antibody because of the presence of large side groups on these molecules, which block their binding to the antibody, whereas ergonovine and ergonovine maleate were bound much more efficiently because of their structural similarity to lysergic acid. Clarified rumen fluid was tested as an additional matrix for use in the ergot alkaloid competitive ELISA to determine whether future livestock metabolism experiments on the postingestion fate of ergot alkaloids in ruminants could utilize this assay as a quick screening tool for the presence of nonspecific ergot alkaloids in rumen fluid. HPLC and ELISA procedures were compared for their ability in determining ergot alkaloid toxicity based on the repeatability of the procedures and on the specific compounds they measure. The ratio of ELISA concentration to HPLC concentration (ergovaline) varied from 2.00 to 2.81 in seed samples and from 0.62 to 8.66 in straw samples, showing no consistent pattern between the 2 methods. Based on the lack of data at present for the identity of the toxin causing endophyte toxicosis and the lack of agreement between the ergovaline HPLC and ELISA analyses for ergot alkaloids, each method is equally valid as an indicator of toxicityand is the best means for determining the quantity of the specific toxin(s) they measure. (+info)Modulation of neuroleptic activity of 9,10-didehydro-N-methyl-(2-propynyl)-6-methyl-8-aminomethylergoline bimaleinate (LEK-8829) by D1 intrinsic activity in hemi-parkinsonian rats. (7/23)
Parkinsonism, a common unwanted side effect of typical antipsychotic (neuroleptic) drugs, is induced by the blockade of striatal dopamine D2 receptors. In rats with hemi-parkinsonism induced by unilateral lesion of dopaminergic nigrostriatal neurons with 6-hydroxydopamine, D2 antagonists inhibit contralateral turning induced by D2 agonists and augment the levels of neurotensin mRNA in dopaminergically intact striatum. By contrast, D1 agonists induce contralateral turning and augment neurotensin mRNA levels in dopamine-depleted striatum. These effects could be inhibited by D1 but not by D2 antagonists. Here we used a hemi-parkinsonian model to investigate the effects of putative D1 agonist/D2 antagonist LEK-8829 (9,10-didehydro-N-methyl-(2-propynyl)-6-methyl-8-aminomethylergoline bimaleinate), an experimental antipsychotic, on turning behavior and the expression of striatal neurotensin, preprotachykinin and neurotransmitter-induced early gene protein 4 (ania-4) mRNAs. We found that LEK-8829 inhibited contralateral turning induced by D2 agonist quinpirole, but only if the rats were cotreated with D1 antagonist SCH-23390. In situ hybridization showed that LEK-8829 induced the expression of neurotensin and ania-4 mRNAs in dopamine-intact striatum that could be completely blocked only by the combined treatment with SCH-23390 and quinpirole. In addition, LEK-8829 augmented the expression of neurotensin, preprotachykinin and ania-4 mRNAs in dopamine-depleted striatum that could be completely blocked by SCH-23390. This study clearly demonstrates that in hemi-parkinsonian rats D1 agonistic activity of LEK-8829 confers its anti-parkinsonian drug-like properties and modulates its neuroleptic drug-like properties, which are dependent on the blockade of dopamine D2 receptors. These findings imply that atypical antipsychotics with D1 intrinsic activity might have a reduced propensity for the induction of extrapyramidal syndrome. (+info)Molecular cloning and analysis of the ergopeptine assembly system in the ergot fungus Claviceps purpurea. (8/23)
Claviceps purpurea produces the pharmacological important ergopeptines, a class of cyclol-structured alkaloid peptides containing D-lysergic acid. These compounds are assembled from D-lysergic acid and three different amino acids by the nonribosomal peptide synthetase enzymes LPS1 and LPS2. Cloning of alkaloid biosynthesis genes from C. purpurea has revealed a gene cluster including two NRPS genes, cpps 1 and cpps 2. Protein sequence data had assigned earlier cpps1 to encode the trimodular LPS1 assembling the tripeptide portion of ergopeptines. Here, we show by transcriptional analysis, targeted inactivation, analysis of disruption mutants, and heterologous expression that cpps 2 encodes the monomodular LPS2 responsible for D-lysergic acid activation and incorporation into the ergopeptine backbone. The presence of two distinct NRPS subunits catalyzing formation of ergot peptides is the first example of a fungal NRPS system consisting of different NRPS subunits. (+info)Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) is defined in medical terms as a powerful synthetic hallucinogenic drug. It is derived from lysergic acid, which is found in ergot, a fungus that grows on grains such as rye. LSD is typically distributed as a liquid, tablets, or thin squares of gelatin (commonly known as window panes). It is odorless, colorless, and has a slightly bitter taste.
LSD is considered one of the most potent mood-changing chemicals. Its effects, often called a "trip," can be stimulating, pleasurable, and mind-altering or they can lead to an unpleasant, sometimes terrifying experience called a "bad trip." The effects of LSD are unpredictable depending on factors such as the user's personality, mood, expectations, and the environment in which the drug is used.
In the medical field, LSD has been studied for its potential benefits in treating certain mental health conditions, such as anxiety and depression associated with life-threatening illnesses, but further research is needed to establish its safety and efficacy. It's important to note that the use of LSD outside of approved medical settings and supervision is not legal in most countries and can lead to serious legal consequences.
Lysergic acid is not a medical term per se, but it is a key component in the chemical structure of several psychedelic drugs, including LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide). Medically, lysergic acid itself does not have any approved uses. However, I can provide you with a definition of LSD:
LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide) is a potent synthetic hallucinogenic drug, derived from lysergic acid, a compound found in the ergot fungus that grows on grains. LSD is typically consumed orally, often by placing it on absorbent paper, which is then dried and cut into small squares known as "blotters."
LSD is classified as a Schedule I controlled substance in the United States and in many other countries, indicating that it has a high potential for abuse, no currently accepted medical use, and a lack of safety under medical supervision. Its effects on perception, mood, and thought are highly unpredictable and can vary greatly among users and even between experiences had by the same user.
Ergot alkaloids are a type of chemical compound that is produced naturally by certain fungi belonging to the genus Claviceps. These alkaloids are most famously known for being produced by the ergot fungus (Claviceps purpurea), which infects cereal grains such as rye and causes a condition known as ergotism in humans and animals that consume the contaminated grain.
Ergot alkaloids have a complex chemical structure and can have various effects on the human body. They are known to act as powerful vasoconstrictors, which means that they cause blood vessels to narrow and can increase blood pressure. Some ergot alkaloids also have psychoactive effects and have been used in the past for their hallucinogenic properties.
In modern medicine, certain ergot alkaloids are used in the treatment of various conditions, including migraines and Parkinson's disease. However, these compounds can be highly toxic if not used properly, and their use must be carefully monitored to avoid serious side effects.
Ergotamines are a type of medication that is derived from the ergot fungus (Claviceps purpurea). They are primarily used to treat migraines and cluster headaches. Ergotamines work by narrowing blood vessels around the brain, which helps to alleviate the symptoms of migraines and headaches.
Ergotamines are available in various forms, including tablets, suppositories, and injectable solutions. They can be taken orally, rectally, or intravenously, depending on the severity of the symptoms and the patient's medical history. Ergotamines should be used with caution, as they can cause serious side effects such as nausea, vomiting, muscle pain, and weakness.
Ergotamines are also used in the treatment of other conditions, including postpartum hemorrhage, heart failure, and high blood pressure during pregnancy. However, their use in these conditions is typically reserved for cases where other treatments have been ineffective or contraindicated.
It's important to note that ergotamines can interact with a variety of medications, including certain antidepressants, antibiotics, and HIV medications. Therefore, it's essential to inform your healthcare provider about all the medications you are taking before starting treatment with ergotamines.
Hallucinogens are a class of psychoactive substances that alter perception, mood, and thought, often causing hallucinations, which are profound distortions in a person's perceptions of reality. These substances work by disrupting the normal functioning of the brain, particularly the parts that regulate mood, sensory perception, sleep, hunger, and sexual behavior.
Hallucinogens can be found in various forms, including plants, mushrooms, and synthetic compounds. Some common examples of hallucinogens include LSD (d-lysergic acid diethylamide), psilocybin (found in certain species of mushrooms), DMT (dimethyltryptamine), and ayahuasca (a plant-based brew from South America).
The effects of hallucinogens can vary widely depending on the specific substance, the dose, the individual's personality, mood, and expectations, and the environment in which the drug is taken. These effects can range from pleasant sensory experiences and heightened emotional awareness to terrifying hallucinations and overwhelming feelings of anxiety or despair.
It's important to note that hallucinogens can be dangerous, particularly when taken in high doses or in combination with other substances. They can also cause long-term psychological distress and may trigger underlying mental health conditions. As such, they should only be used under the guidance of a trained medical professional for therapeutic purposes.
Ergotamine is a type of ergopeptine alkaloid, derived from the ergot fungus (Claviceps purpurea) that parasitizes certain grains, particularly rye. It is a potent vasoconstrictor and has been used medically to prevent migraines and treat cluster headaches, as well as for other uses such as controlling postpartum hemorrhage and reducing symptoms of orthostatic hypotension.
Ergotamine works by binding to serotonin receptors in the brain and causing vasoconstriction of cranial blood vessels, which can help to relieve migraine headaches. However, it can also cause serious side effects such as nausea, vomiting, muscle pain, numbness or tingling in the extremities, and in rare cases, more severe reactions such as ergotism, a condition characterized by vasoconstriction of peripheral blood vessels leading to gangrene.
Ergotamine is usually taken orally, but can also be administered rectally or by inhalation. It is important to follow the dosage instructions carefully and avoid taking excessive amounts, as this can increase the risk of serious side effects. Ergotamine should not be taken during pregnancy or while breastfeeding, and it may interact with other medications, so it is important to inform your healthcare provider of all medications you are taking before starting ergotamine therapy.
Psilocybin is defined as a naturally occurring psychedelic compound found in certain species of mushrooms, also known as "magic mushrooms." It is classified as a tryptamine and is structurally similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin. When ingested, psilocybin is converted into psilocin, which acts as a serotonin receptor agonist in the brain, leading to altered consciousness, perception, and thought. Its effects can vary widely depending on the individual, the dose, and the setting in which it is taken.
Ergolines are a group of ergot alkaloids that have been widely used in the development of various pharmaceutical drugs. These compounds are known for their ability to bind to and stimulate specific receptors in the brain, particularly dopamine receptors. As a result, they have been explored for their potential therapeutic benefits in the treatment of various neurological and psychiatric conditions, such as Parkinson's disease, migraine, and depression.
However, ergolines can also have significant side effects, including hallucinations, nausea, and changes in blood pressure. In addition, some ergot alkaloids have been associated with a rare but serious condition called ergotism, which is characterized by symptoms such as muscle spasms, vomiting, and gangrene. Therefore, the use of ergolines must be carefully monitored and managed to ensure their safety and effectiveness.
Some specific examples of drugs that contain ergolines include:
* Dihydroergotamine (DHE): used for the treatment of migraine headaches
* Pergolide: used for the treatment of Parkinson's disease
* Cabergoline: used for the treatment of Parkinson's disease and certain types of hormonal disorders
It is important to note that while ergolines have shown promise in some therapeutic areas, they are not without their risks. As with any medication, it is essential to consult with a healthcare provider before using any drug containing ergolines to ensure that it is safe and appropriate for an individual's specific needs.
Mescaline is a naturally occurring psychoactive alkaloid that is found in several species of cacti, including the peyote (Lophophora williamsii), San Pedro (Echinopsis pachanoi), and Peruvian torch (Echinopsis peruviana) cacti. It is known for its ability to produce profound changes in consciousness, mood, and perception when ingested.
In a medical context, mescaline is classified as a hallucinogen or psychedelic drug. It works by binding to serotonin receptors in the brain, which leads to altered states of consciousness, including visual hallucinations, distorted perceptions of time and space, and altered emotional states.
It's important to note that while mescaline has been used for centuries in religious and spiritual practices among indigenous communities, its use is not without risks. High doses can lead to unpleasant or even dangerous psychological effects, such as anxiety, panic, and psychosis. Additionally, the legal status of mescaline varies by country and region, so it's important to be aware of local laws and regulations before using it.
Bufotenin is a naturally occurring psychoactive compound that can be found in certain plants and animals, including some species of toads. Its chemical name is 5-hydroxy-dimethyltryptamine (5-HO-DMT) and it is a type of tryptamine alkaloid.
Bufotenin has been used in various traditional medicinal and shamanic practices for its psychoactive effects, which can include altered states of consciousness, changes in perception, and feelings of euphoria or relaxation. However, it can also have adverse effects such as nausea, agitation, and increased heart rate.
In the medical field, bufotenin is sometimes studied for its potential therapeutic uses, such as in the treatment of depression and anxiety disorders. However, more research is needed to fully understand its mechanisms of action and potential benefits and risks.
Ergonovine is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called ergot alkaloids. It is derived from the ergot fungus and is used in medical settings as a uterotonic agent, which means it causes the uterus to contract. Ergonovine is often used after childbirth to help the uterus return to its normal size and reduce bleeding.
Ergonovine works by binding to specific receptors in the smooth muscle of the uterus, causing it to contract. It has a potent effect on the uterus and can also cause vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels) in other parts of the body. This is why ergonovine is sometimes used to treat severe bleeding caused by conditions such as uterine fibroids or ectopic pregnancy.
Like other ergot alkaloids, ergonovine can have serious side effects if not used carefully. It should be administered under the close supervision of a healthcare provider and should not be used in women with certain medical conditions, such as high blood pressure or heart disease. Ergonovine can also interact with other medications, so it's important to inform your healthcare provider of all medications you are taking before receiving this drug.
A serotonin receptor, specifically the 5-HT2A subtype (5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptor), is a type of G protein-coupled receptor found in the cell membrane. It is activated by the neurotransmitter serotonin and plays a role in regulating various physiological processes, including mood, cognition, sleep, and sensory perception.
The 5-HT2A receptor is widely distributed throughout the central nervous system and has been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and migraine. It is also the primary target of several psychoactive drugs, including hallucinogens like LSD and psilocybin, as well as atypical antipsychotics used to treat conditions like schizophrenia.
The 5-HT2A receptor signals through a G protein called Gq, which activates a signaling cascade that ultimately leads to the activation of phospholipase C and the production of second messengers such as inositol trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). These second messengers then go on to modulate various cellular processes, including the release of neurotransmitters and the regulation of gene expression.
Tryptamines are a class of organic compounds that contain a tryptamine skeleton, which is a combination of an indole ring and a ethylamine side chain. They are commonly found in nature and can be synthesized in the lab. Some tryptamines have psychedelic properties and are used as recreational drugs, such as dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and psilocybin. Others have important roles in the human body, such as serotonin, which is a neurotransmitter that regulates mood, appetite, and sleep. Tryptamines can also be found in some plants and animals, including certain species of mushrooms, toads, and catnip.
Serotonin agents are a class of drugs that work on the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) in the brain and elsewhere in the body. They include several types of medications such as:
1. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): These drugs block the reabsorption (reuptake) of serotonin into the presynaptic neuron, increasing the availability of serotonin in the synapse to interact with postsynaptic receptors. SSRIs are commonly used as antidepressants and include medications such as fluoxetine, sertraline, and citalopram.
2. Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs): These drugs block the reabsorption of both serotonin and norepinephrine into the presynaptic neuron, increasing the availability of these neurotransmitters in the synapse. SNRIs are also used as antidepressants and include medications such as venlafaxine and duloxetine.
3. Serotonin Receptor Agonists: These drugs bind to and activate serotonin receptors, mimicking the effects of serotonin. They are used for various indications, including migraine prevention (e.g., sumatriptan) and Parkinson's disease (e.g., pramipexole).
4. Serotonin Receptor Antagonists: These drugs block serotonin receptors, preventing the effects of serotonin. They are used for various indications, including nausea and vomiting (e.g., ondansetron) and as mood stabilizers in bipolar disorder (e.g., olanzapine).
5. Serotonin Synthesis Inhibitors: These drugs block the enzymatic synthesis of serotonin, reducing its availability in the brain. They are used as antidepressants and include medications such as monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) like phenelzine and tranylcypromine.
It's important to note that while these drugs all affect serotonin, they have different mechanisms of action and are used for various indications. It's essential to consult a healthcare professional before starting any new medication.
Methysergide is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called ergot alkaloids. It is primarily used for the prophylaxis (prevention) of migraine headaches. Methysergide works by narrowing blood vessels around the brain, which is thought to help prevent migraines.
The medical definition of Methysergide is:
A semisynthetic ergot alkaloid derivative used in the prophylaxis of migraine and cluster headaches. It has both agonist and antagonist properties at serotonin receptors, and its therapeutic effects are thought to be related to its ability to block the binding of serotonin to its receptors. However, methysergide can have serious side effects, including fibrotic reactions in various organs, such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys, so it is usually used only for short periods of time and under close medical supervision.
Serotonin receptors are a type of cell surface receptor that bind to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT). They are widely distributed throughout the body, including the central and peripheral nervous systems, where they play important roles in regulating various physiological processes such as mood, appetite, sleep, memory, learning, and cognition.
There are seven different classes of serotonin receptors (5-HT1 to 5-HT7), each with multiple subtypes, that exhibit distinct pharmacological properties and signaling mechanisms. These receptors are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) or ligand-gated ion channels, which activate intracellular signaling pathways upon serotonin binding.
Serotonin receptors have been implicated in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and migraine. Therefore, selective serotonin receptor agonists or antagonists are used as therapeutic agents for the treatment of these conditions.
Serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is a monoamine neurotransmitter that is found primarily in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, blood platelets, and the central nervous system (CNS) of humans and other animals. It is produced by the conversion of the amino acid tryptophan to 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), and then to serotonin.
In the CNS, serotonin plays a role in regulating mood, appetite, sleep, memory, learning, and behavior, among other functions. It also acts as a vasoconstrictor, helping to regulate blood flow and blood pressure. In the GI tract, it is involved in peristalsis, the contraction and relaxation of muscles that moves food through the digestive system.
Serotonin is synthesized and stored in serotonergic neurons, which are nerve cells that use serotonin as their primary neurotransmitter. These neurons are found throughout the brain and spinal cord, and they communicate with other neurons by releasing serotonin into the synapse, the small gap between two neurons.
Abnormal levels of serotonin have been linked to a variety of disorders, including depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and migraines. Medications that affect serotonin levels, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), are commonly used to treat these conditions.
Serotonin antagonists are a class of drugs that block the action of serotonin, a neurotransmitter, at specific receptor sites in the brain and elsewhere in the body. They work by binding to the serotonin receptors without activating them, thereby preventing the natural serotonin from binding and transmitting signals.
Serotonin antagonists are used in the treatment of various conditions such as psychiatric disorders, migraines, and nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy. They can have varying degrees of affinity for different types of serotonin receptors (e.g., 5-HT2A, 5-HT3, etc.), which contributes to their specific therapeutic effects and side effect profiles.
Examples of serotonin antagonists include ondansetron (used to treat nausea and vomiting), risperidone and olanzapine (used to treat psychiatric disorders), and methysergide (used to prevent migraines). It's important to note that these medications should be used under the supervision of a healthcare provider, as they can have potential risks and interactions with other drugs.
2,5-Dimethoxy-4-Methylamphetamine (also known as DOM) is a psychoactive drug that belongs to the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes. It is a synthetic compound that is not found naturally in any plant or animal sources.
DOM is a potent hallucinogen, with effects similar to those of LSD. It can cause profound changes in perception, thought, and mood, and may also cause physical symptoms such as increased heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature. The effects of DOM can last up to 24 hours or more, and the drug is considered to have a high potential for abuse and psychological dependence.
It's important to note that the possession, sale, and use of DOM are illegal in many countries, including the United States, due to its potential for abuse and lack of accepted medical use. Therefore, it should only be used under the supervision of trained medical professionals in a controlled research setting.
Substance abuse detection refers to the process of identifying the use or misuse of psychoactive substances, such as alcohol, illicit drugs, or prescription medications, in an individual. This can be done through various methods, including:
1. Physical examination: A healthcare professional may look for signs of substance abuse, such as track marks, enlarged pupils, or unusual behavior.
2. Laboratory tests: Urine, blood, hair, or saliva samples can be analyzed to detect the presence of drugs or their metabolites. These tests can provide information about recent use (hours to days) or longer-term use (up to several months).
3. Self-report measures: Individuals may be asked to complete questionnaires or interviews about their substance use patterns and behaviors.
4. Observational assessments: In some cases, such as in a treatment setting, healthcare professionals may observe an individual's behavior over time to identify patterns of substance abuse.
Substance abuse detection is often used in clinical, workplace, or legal settings to assess individuals for potential substance use disorders, monitor treatment progress, or ensure compliance with laws or regulations.
Amphetamines are a type of central nervous system stimulant drug that increases alertness, wakefulness, and energy levels. They work by increasing the activity of certain neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) in the brain, such as dopamine and norepinephrine. Amphetamines can be prescribed for medical conditions such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy, but they are also commonly abused for their ability to produce euphoria, increase confidence, and improve performance in tasks that require sustained attention.
Some common examples of amphetamines include:
* Adderall: a combination of amphetamine and dextroamphetamine, used to treat ADHD and narcolepsy
* Dexedrine: a brand name for dextroamphetamine, used to treat ADHD and narcolepsy
* Vyvanse: a long-acting formulation of lisdexamfetamine, a prodrug that is converted to dextroamphetamine in the body, used to treat ADHD
Amphetamines can be taken orally, snorted, smoked, or injected. Long-term use or abuse of amphetamines can lead to a number of negative health consequences, including addiction, cardiovascular problems, malnutrition, mental health disorders, and memory loss.
Cyproheptadine is an antihistamine and anticholinergic medication that is primarily used to treat symptoms of allergies, such as runny nose, sneezing, and itching. It works by blocking the action of histamine, a substance in the body that causes allergic reactions.
Cyproheptadine also has other uses, including the treatment of migraines and cluster headaches, appetite stimulation in people with certain medical conditions, and as a sedative in some cases. It is available in various forms, such as tablets, capsules, and syrup.
Like all medications, cyproheptadine can have side effects, including drowsiness, dry mouth, dizziness, and blurred vision. It is important to follow the dosage instructions carefully and talk to a healthcare provider if you experience any bothersome or persistent side effects.
Serotonin 5-HT2 receptor agonists are a class of compounds that bind to and activate the serotonin 5-HT2 receptors, which are a type of G protein-coupled receptor found in the central and peripheral nervous systems. These receptors play important roles in various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, vasoconstriction, and smooth muscle contraction.
Serotonin 5-HT2 receptor agonists can produce a range of effects depending on the specific subtype of receptor they activate. For example, activation of 5-HT2A receptors has been associated with hallucinogenic effects, while activation of 5-HT2B receptors has been linked to cardiac valvulopathy.
These drugs are used in a variety of clinical settings, including the treatment of psychiatric disorders such as depression and schizophrenia, migraine headaches, and cluster headaches. Examples of serotonin 5-HT2 receptor agonists include LSD, psilocybin, ergotamine, and sumatriptan.
Serotonin receptor agonists are a class of medications that bind to and activate serotonin receptors in the body, mimicking the effects of the neurotransmitter serotonin. These drugs can have various effects depending on which specific serotonin receptors they act upon. Some serotonin receptor agonists are used to treat conditions such as migraines, cluster headaches, and Parkinson's disease, while others may be used to stimulate appetite or reduce anxiety. It is important to note that some serotonin receptor agonists can have serious side effects, particularly when taken in combination with other medications that affect serotonin levels, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). This can lead to a condition called serotonin syndrome, which is characterized by symptoms such as agitation, confusion, rapid heart rate, high blood pressure, and muscle stiffness.
Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) is a powerful analytical technique that combines the separating power of gas chromatography with the identification capabilities of mass spectrometry. This method is used to separate, identify, and quantify different components in complex mixtures.
In GC-MS, the mixture is first vaporized and carried through a long, narrow column by an inert gas (carrier gas). The various components in the mixture interact differently with the stationary phase inside the column, leading to their separation based on their partition coefficients between the mobile and stationary phases. As each component elutes from the column, it is then introduced into the mass spectrometer for analysis.
The mass spectrometer ionizes the sample, breaks it down into smaller fragments, and measures the mass-to-charge ratio of these fragments. This information is used to generate a mass spectrum, which serves as a unique "fingerprint" for each compound. By comparing the generated mass spectra with reference libraries or known standards, analysts can identify and quantify the components present in the original mixture.
GC-MS has wide applications in various fields such as forensics, environmental analysis, drug testing, and research laboratories due to its high sensitivity, specificity, and ability to analyze volatile and semi-volatile compounds.
Poaceae is not a medical term but a taxonomic category, specifically the family name for grasses. In a broader sense, you might be asking for a medical context where knowledge of this plant family could be relevant. For instance, certain members of the Poaceae family can cause allergies or negative reactions in some people.
In a medical definition, Poaceae would be defined as:
The family of monocotyledonous plants that includes grasses, bamboo, and sedges. These plants are characterized by narrow leaves with parallel veins, jointed stems (called "nodes" and "internodes"), and flowers arranged in spikelets. Some members of this family are important food sources for humans and animals, such as rice, wheat, corn, barley, oats, and sorghum. Other members can cause negative reactions, like skin irritation or allergies, due to their silica-based defense structures called phytoliths.