Blood tests that are used to evaluate how well a patient's liver is working and also to help diagnose liver conditions.
Pathological processes of the LIVER.
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of L-alanine and 2-oxoglutarate to pyruvate and L-glutamate. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.6.1.2.
Enzymes of the transferase class that catalyze the conversion of L-aspartate and 2-ketoglutarate to oxaloacetate and L-glutamate. EC 2.6.1.1.
Liver disease in which the normal microcirculation, the gross vascular anatomy, and the hepatic architecture have been variably destroyed and altered with fibrous septa surrounding regenerated or regenerating parenchymal nodules.
A bile pigment that is a degradation product of HEME.
The transference of a part of or an entire liver from one human or animal to another.
Measurement of the various processes involved in the act of respiration: inspiration, expiration, oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange, lung volume and compliance, etc.
A spectrum of clinical liver diseases ranging from mild biochemical abnormalities to ACUTE LIVER FAILURE, caused by drugs, drug metabolites, and chemicals from the environment.
Tumors or cancer of the LIVER.
An enzyme, sometimes called GGT, with a key role in the synthesis and degradation of GLUTATHIONE; (GSH, a tripeptide that protects cells from many toxins). It catalyzes the transfer of the gamma-glutamyl moiety to an acceptor amino acid.
A clinical manifestation of HYPERBILIRUBINEMIA, characterized by the yellowish staining of the SKIN; MUCOUS MEMBRANE; and SCLERA. Clinical jaundice usually is a sign of LIVER dysfunction.
Lipid infiltration of the hepatic parenchymal cells resulting in a yellow-colored liver. The abnormal lipid accumulation is usually in the form of TRIGLYCERIDES, either as a single large droplet or multiple small droplets. Fatty liver is caused by an imbalance in the metabolism of FATTY ACIDS.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of an orthophosphoric monoester and water to an alcohol and orthophosphate. EC 3.1.3.1.
Blood tests used to evaluate the functioning of the thyroid gland.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER.
Excision of all or part of the liver. (Dorland, 28th ed)
Enlargement of the liver.
Repair or renewal of hepatic tissue.
A chronic self-perpetuating hepatocellular INFLAMMATION of unknown cause, usually with HYPERGAMMAGLOBULINEMIA and serum AUTOANTIBODIES.
Impairment of bile flow due to obstruction in small bile ducts (INTRAHEPATIC CHOLESTASIS) or obstruction in large bile ducts (EXTRAHEPATIC CHOLESTASIS).
A tricarbocyanine dye that is used diagnostically in liver function tests and to determine blood volume and cardiac output.
Impairment of bile flow due to injury to the HEPATOCYTES; BILE CANALICULI; or the intrahepatic bile ducts (BILE DUCTS, INTRAHEPATIC).
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
A disease of cats and mink characterized by a marked inflammation of adipose tissue and the deposition of "ceroid" pigment in the interstices of the adipose cells. It is believed to be caused by feeding diets containing too much unsaturated fatty acid and too little vitamin E. (Merck Veterinary Manual, 5th ed; Stedman, 25th ed)
Severe inability of the LIVER to perform its normal metabolic functions, as evidenced by severe JAUNDICE and abnormal serum levels of AMMONIA; BILIRUBIN; ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE; ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE; LACTATE DEHYDROGENASES; and albumin/globulin ratio. (Blakiston's Gould Medical Dictionary, 4th ed)
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
Tests based on the biochemistry and physiology of the exocrine pancreas and involving analysis of blood, duodenal contents, feces, or urine for products of pancreatic secretion.
Closed vesicles of fragmented endoplasmic reticulum created when liver cells or tissue are disrupted by homogenization. They may be smooth or rough.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER with ongoing hepatocellular injury for 6 months or more, characterized by NECROSIS of HEPATOCYTES and inflammatory cell (LEUKOCYTES) infiltration. Chronic hepatitis can be caused by viruses, medications, autoimmune diseases, and other unknown factors.
A phenolphthalein that is used as a diagnostic aid in hepatic function determination.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans due to infection by VIRUSES. There are several significant types of human viral hepatitis with infection caused by enteric-transmission (HEPATITIS A; HEPATITIS E) or blood transfusion (HEPATITIS B; HEPATITIS C; and HEPATITIS D).
A primary malignant neoplasm of epithelial liver cells. It ranges from a well-differentiated tumor with EPITHELIAL CELLS indistinguishable from normal HEPATOCYTES to a poorly differentiated neoplasm. The cells may be uniform or markedly pleomorphic, or form GIANT CELLS. Several classification schemes have been suggested.
Leisure activities engaged in for pleasure.
Jaundice, the condition with yellowish staining of the skin and mucous membranes, that is due to impaired BILE flow in the BILIARY TRACT, such as INTRAHEPATIC CHOLESTASIS, or EXTRAHEPATIC CHOLESTASIS.
The circulation of BLOOD through the LIVER.
Presence or formation of GALLSTONES in the COMMON BILE DUCT.
Diseases in any part of the BILIARY TRACT including the BILE DUCTS and the GALLBLADDER.
A branch of the celiac artery that distributes to the stomach, pancreas, duodenum, liver, gallbladder, and greater omentum.
Studies in which individuals or populations are followed to assess the outcome of exposures, procedures, or effects of a characteristic, e.g., occurrence of disease.
A short thick vein formed by union of the superior mesenteric vein and the splenic vein.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
Enlargement of the spleen.
Measurable and quantifiable biological parameters (e.g., specific enzyme concentration, specific hormone concentration, specific gene phenotype distribution in a population, presence of biological substances) which serve as indices for health- and physiology-related assessments, such as disease risk, psychiatric disorders, environmental exposure and its effects, disease diagnosis, metabolic processes, substance abuse, pregnancy, cell line development, epidemiologic studies, etc.
The BILE DUCTS and the GALLBLADDER.
Solid crystalline precipitates in the BILIARY TRACT, usually formed in the GALLBLADDER, resulting in the condition of CHOLELITHIASIS. Gallstones, derived from the BILE, consist mainly of calcium, cholesterol, or bilirubin.
Non-cadaveric providers of organs for transplant to related or non-related recipients.
A form of rapid-onset LIVER FAILURE, also known as fulminant hepatic failure, caused by severe liver injury or massive loss of HEPATOCYTES. It is characterized by sudden development of liver dysfunction and JAUNDICE. Acute liver failure may progress to exhibit cerebral dysfunction even HEPATIC COMA depending on the etiology that includes hepatic ISCHEMIA, drug toxicity, malignant infiltration, and viral hepatitis such as post-transfusion HEPATITIS B and HEPATITIS C.
Presence or formation of GALLSTONES in the BILIARY TRACT, usually in the gallbladder (CHOLECYSTOLITHIASIS) or the common bile duct (CHOLEDOCHOLITHIASIS).
A major protein in the BLOOD. It is important in maintaining the colloidal osmotic pressure and transporting large organic molecules.
Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by a member of the ORTHOHEPADNAVIRUS genus, HEPATITIS B VIRUS. It is primarily transmitted by parenteral exposure, such as transfusion of contaminated blood or blood products, but can also be transmitted via sexual or intimate personal contact.
FIBROSIS of the hepatic parenchyma due to obstruction of BILE flow (CHOLESTASIS) in the intrahepatic or extrahepatic bile ducts (BILE DUCTS, INTRAHEPATIC; BILE DUCTS, EXTRAHEPATIC). Primary biliary cirrhosis involves the destruction of small intra-hepatic bile ducts and bile secretion. Secondary biliary cirrhosis is produced by prolonged obstruction of large intrahepatic or extrahepatic bile ducts from a variety of causes.
Analyses for a specific enzyme activity, or of the level of a specific enzyme that is used to assess health and disease risk, for early detection of disease or disease prediction, diagnosis, and change in disease status.
Mitochondria in hepatocytes. As in all mitochondria, there are an outer membrane and an inner membrane, together creating two separate mitochondrial compartments: the internal matrix space and a much narrower intermembrane space. In the liver mitochondrion, an estimated 67% of the total mitochondrial proteins is located in the matrix. (From Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 2d ed, p343-4)
The channels that collect and transport the bile secretion from the BILE CANALICULI, the smallest branch of the BILIARY TRACT in the LIVER, through the bile ductules, the bile ducts out the liver, and to the GALLBLADDER for storage.
Veins which drain the liver.
An epimer of chenodeoxycholic acid. It is a mammalian bile acid found first in the bear and is apparently either a precursor or a product of chenodeoxycholate. Its administration changes the composition of bile and may dissolve gallstones. It is used as a cholagogue and choleretic.
Abnormal increase of resistance to blood flow within the hepatic PORTAL SYSTEM, frequently seen in LIVER CIRRHOSIS and conditions with obstruction of the PORTAL VEIN.
Fiberoptic endoscopy designed for duodenal observation and cannulation of VATER'S AMPULLA, in order to visualize the pancreatic and biliary duct system by retrograde injection of contrast media. Endoscopic (Vater) papillotomy (SPHINCTEROTOMY, ENDOSCOPIC) may be performed during this procedure.
Water-soluble proteins found in egg whites, blood, lymph, and other tissues and fluids. They coagulate upon heating.
Diseases which have one or more of the following characteristics: they are permanent, leave residual disability, are caused by nonreversible pathological alteration, require special training of the patient for rehabilitation, or may be expected to require a long period of supervision, observation, or care. (Dictionary of Health Services Management, 2d ed)
Gastrointestinal agents that stimulate the flow of bile into the duodenum (cholagogues) or stimulate the production of bile by the liver (choleretic).
Levels within a diagnostic group which are established by various measurement criteria applied to the seriousness of a patient's disorder.
The largest bile duct. It is formed by the junction of the CYSTIC DUCT and the COMMON HEPATIC DUCT.
Pathologic processes that affect patients after a surgical procedure. They may or may not be related to the disease for which the surgery was done, and they may or may not be direct results of the surgery.
The volume of air that is exhaled by a maximal expiration following a maximal inspiration.
Surgical removal of the GALLBLADDER.
Non-invasive diagnostic technique for visualizing the PANCREATIC DUCTS and BILE DUCTS without the use of injected CONTRAST MEDIA or x-ray. MRI scans provide excellent sensitivity for duct dilatation, biliary stricture, and intraductal abnormalities.
A local anesthetic and cardiac depressant used as an antiarrhythmia agent. Its actions are more intense and its effects more prolonged than those of PROCAINE but its duration of action is shorter than that of BUPIVACAINE or PRILOCAINE.
Excision of the gallbladder through an abdominal incision using a laparoscope.
Diseases of the COMMON BILE DUCT including the AMPULLA OF VATER and the SPHINCTER OF ODDI.
In screening and diagnostic tests, the probability that a person with a positive test is a true positive (i.e., has the disease), is referred to as the predictive value of a positive test; whereas, the predictive value of a negative test is the probability that the person with a negative test does not have the disease. Predictive value is related to the sensitivity and specificity of the test.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans that is caused by HEPATITIS C VIRUS lasting six months or more. Chronic hepatitis C can lead to LIVER CIRRHOSIS.
Liver diseases associated with ALCOHOLISM. It usually refers to the coexistence of two or more subentities, i.e., ALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER; ALCOHOLIC HEPATITIS; and ALCOHOLIC CIRRHOSIS.
An imaging test of the BILIARY TRACT in which a contrast dye (RADIOPAQUE MEDIA) is injected into the BILE DUCT and x-ray pictures are taken.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by HEPATITIS C VIRUS, a single-stranded RNA virus. Its incubation period is 30-90 days. Hepatitis C is transmitted primarily by contaminated blood parenterally, and is often associated with transfusion and intravenous drug abuse. However, in a significant number of cases, the source of hepatitis C infection is unknown.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by a member of the HEPATOVIRUS genus, HUMAN HEPATITIS A VIRUS. It can be transmitted through fecal contamination of food or water.
A disorder of iron metabolism characterized by a triad of HEMOSIDEROSIS; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; and DIABETES MELLITUS. It is caused by massive iron deposits in parenchymal cells that may develop after a prolonged increase of iron absorption. (Jablonski's Dictionary of Syndromes & Eponymic Diseases, 2d ed)
Chronic inflammatory disease of the BILIARY TRACT. It is characterized by fibrosis and hardening of the intrahepatic and extrahepatic biliary ductal systems leading to bile duct strictures, CHOLESTASIS, and eventual BILIARY CIRRHOSIS.
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
The main structural component of the LIVER. They are specialized EPITHELIAL CELLS that are organized into interconnected plates called lobules.
Tomography using x-ray transmission and a computer algorithm to reconstruct the image.
FIBROSIS of the hepatic parenchyma due to chronic excess ALCOHOL DRINKING.
Those hepatitis B antigens found on the surface of the Dane particle and on the 20 nm spherical and tubular particles. Several subspecificities of the surface antigen are known. These were formerly called the Australia antigen.
Measure of the maximum amount of air that can be expelled in a given number of seconds during a FORCED VITAL CAPACITY determination . It is usually given as FEV followed by a subscript indicating the number of seconds over which the measurement is made, although it is sometimes given as a percentage of forced vital capacity.
The amount of a gas taken up, by the pulmonary capillary blood from the alveolar gas, per minute per unit of average pressure of the gradient of the gas across the BLOOD-AIR BARRIER.
Devices for simulating the activities of the liver. They often consist of a hybrid between both biological and artificial materials.
The type species of the genus ORTHOHEPADNAVIRUS which causes human HEPATITIS B and is also apparently a causal agent in human HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA. The Dane particle is an intact hepatitis virion, named after its discoverer. Non-infectious spherical and tubular particles are also seen in the serum.
Experimentally induced tumors of the LIVER.
Steroid acids and salts. The primary bile acids are derived from cholesterol in the liver and usually conjugated with glycine or taurine. The secondary bile acids are further modified by bacteria in the intestine. They play an important role in the digestion and absorption of fat. They have also been used pharmacologically, especially in the treatment of gallstones.
A prediction of the probable outcome of a disease based on a individual's condition and the usual course of the disease as seen in similar situations.
Time schedule for administration of a drug in order to achieve optimum effectiveness and convenience.
Agents that suppress immune function by one of several mechanisms of action. Classical cytotoxic immunosuppressants act by inhibiting DNA synthesis. Others may act through activation of T-CELLS or by inhibiting the activation of HELPER CELLS. While immunosuppression has been brought about in the past primarily to prevent rejection of transplanted organs, new applications involving mediation of the effects of INTERLEUKINS and other CYTOKINES are emerging.
Derivatives of acetamide that are used as solvents, as mild irritants, and in organic synthesis.
An aldohexose that occurs naturally in the D-form in lactose, cerebrosides, gangliosides, and mucoproteins. Deficiency of galactosyl-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALACTOSE-1-PHOSPHATE URIDYL-TRANSFERASE DEFICIENCY DISEASE) causes an error in galactose metabolism called GALACTOSEMIA, resulting in elevations of galactose in the blood.
Volume of biological fluid completely cleared of drug metabolites as measured in unit time. Elimination occurs as a result of metabolic processes in the kidney, liver, saliva, sweat, intestine, heart, brain, or other site.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by HEPATITIS B VIRUS lasting six months or more. It is primarily transmitted by parenteral exposure, such as transfusion of contaminated blood or blood products, but can also be transmitted via sexual or intimate personal contact.
Extracts of liver tissue containing uncharacterized specific factors with specific activities; a soluble thermostable fraction of mammalian liver is used in the treatment of pernicious anemia.
Experimentally induced chronic injuries to the parenchymal cells in the liver to achieve a model for LIVER CIRRHOSIS.
Either of the pair of organs occupying the cavity of the thorax that effect the aeration of the blood.
The process of observing, recording, or detecting the effects of a chemical substance administered to an individual therapeutically or diagnostically.
Laboratory examination used to monitor and evaluate platelet function in a patient's blood.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
Imino acids are organic compounds containing a nitrogen atom in their structure, classified as derivatives of amino acids, where the carbon atom adjacent to the carboxyl group is bonded to a nitrogen atom instead of a hydrogen atom, forming a characteristic imino functional group.
Studies in which subsets of a defined population are identified. These groups may or may not be exposed to factors hypothesized to influence the probability of the occurrence of a particular disease or other outcome. Cohorts are defined populations which, as a whole, are followed in an attempt to determine distinguishing subgroup characteristics.
The giving of drugs, chemicals, or other substances by mouth.
The survival of a graft in a host, the factors responsible for the survival and the changes occurring within the graft during growth in the host.
Measurement of volume of air inhaled or exhaled by the lung.
Disease having a short and relatively severe course.
Final stage of a liver disease when the liver failure is irreversible and LIVER TRANSPLANTATION is needed.
Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison, referent) group without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing diseased and non-diseased persons with regard to the frequency or levels of the attribute in each group.
A primary, chronic disease with genetic, psychosocial, and environmental factors influencing its development and manifestations. The disease is often progressive and fatal. It is characterized by impaired control over drinking, preoccupation with the drug alcohol, use of alcohol despite adverse consequences, and distortions in thinking, most notably denial. Each of these symptoms may be continuous or periodic. (Morse & Flavin for the Joint Commission of the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence and the American Society of Addiction Medicine to Study the Definition and Criteria for the Diagnosis of Alcoholism: in JAMA 1992;268:1012-4)
INFLAMMATION of the PANCREAS. Pancreatitis is classified as acute unless there are computed tomographic or endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatographic findings of CHRONIC PANCREATITIS (International Symposium on Acute Pancreatitis, Atlanta, 1992). The two most common forms of acute pancreatitis are ALCOHOLIC PANCREATITIS and gallstone pancreatitis.
Solitary or multiple collections of PUS within the liver as a result of infection by bacteria, protozoa, or other agents.
A process involving chance used in therapeutic trials or other research endeavor for allocating experimental subjects, human or animal, between treatment and control groups, or among treatment groups. It may also apply to experiments on inanimate objects.
Therapy with two or more separate preparations given for a combined effect.
Pathological processes involving any part of the LUNG.
Benzoic acids, salts, or esters that contain an amino group attached to carbon number 4 of the benzene ring structure.
Laboratory tests used to evaluate how well the kidneys are working through examination of blood and urine.
The condition of harboring an infective organism without manifesting symptoms of infection. The organism must be readily transmissible to another susceptible host.
The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from INCIDENCE, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time.
The qualitative or quantitative estimation of the likelihood of adverse effects that may result from exposure to specified health hazards or from the absence of beneficial influences. (Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 1988)
A method of studying a drug or procedure in which both the subjects and investigators are kept unaware of who is actually getting which specific treatment.
An immune response with both cellular and humoral components, directed against an allogeneic transplant, whose tissue antigens are not compatible with those of the recipient.
A distribution in which a variable is distributed like the sum of the squares of any given independent random variable, each of which has a normal distribution with mean of zero and variance of one. The chi-square test is a statistical test based on comparison of a test statistic to a chi-square distribution. The oldest of these tests are used to detect whether two or more population distributions differ from one another.
A syndrome characterized by central nervous system dysfunction in association with LIVER FAILURE, including portal-systemic shunts. Clinical features include lethargy and CONFUSION (frequently progressing to COMA); ASTERIXIS; NYSTAGMUS, PATHOLOGIC; brisk oculovestibular reflexes; decorticate and decerebrate posturing; MUSCLE SPASTICITY; and bilateral extensor plantar reflexes (see REFLEX, BABINSKI). ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY may demonstrate triphasic waves. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp1117-20; Plum & Posner, Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma, 3rd ed, p222-5)
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
A solvent for oils, fats, lacquers, varnishes, rubber waxes, and resins, and a starting material in the manufacturing of organic compounds. Poisoning by inhalation, ingestion or skin absorption is possible and may be fatal. (Merck Index, 11th ed)
A generic term for fats and lipoids, the alcohol-ether-soluble constituents of protoplasm, which are insoluble in water. They comprise the fats, fatty oils, essential oils, waxes, phospholipids, glycolipids, sulfolipids, aminolipids, chromolipids (lipochromes), and fatty acids. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "India" is not a medical term that can be defined in a medical context. It is a geographical location, referring to the Republic of India, a country in South Asia. If you have any questions related to medical topics or definitions, I would be happy to help with those!
A gamma-emitting radionuclide imaging agent used for the diagnosis of diseases in many tissues, particularly in cardiovascular and cerebral circulation.
A statistical technique that isolates and assesses the contributions of categorical independent variables to variation in the mean of a continuous dependent variable.
Agents used in the prophylaxis or therapy of VIRUS DISEASES. Some of the ways they may act include preventing viral replication by inhibiting viral DNA polymerase; binding to specific cell-surface receptors and inhibiting viral penetration or uncoating; inhibiting viral protein synthesis; or blocking late stages of virus assembly.
Clotting time of PLASMA recalcified in the presence of excess TISSUE THROMBOPLASTIN. Factors measured are FIBRINOGEN; PROTHROMBIN; FACTOR V; FACTOR VII; and FACTOR X. It is used for monitoring anticoagulant therapy with COUMARINS.
Conditions in which the LIVER functions fall below the normal ranges. Severe hepatic insufficiency may cause LIVER FAILURE or DEATH. Treatment may include LIVER TRANSPLANTATION.
A genus of FLAVIVIRIDAE causing parenterally-transmitted HEPATITIS C which is associated with transfusions and drug abuse. Hepatitis C virus is the type species.
The volume of air contained in the lungs at the end of a maximal inspiration. It is the equivalent to each of the following sums: VITAL CAPACITY plus RESIDUAL VOLUME; INSPIRATORY CAPACITY plus FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY; TIDAL VOLUME plus INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME plus functional residual capacity; or tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve volume plus EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME plus residual volume.
Studies in which the presence or absence of disease or other health-related variables are determined in each member of the study population or in a representative sample at one particular time. This contrasts with LONGITUDINAL STUDIES which are followed over a period of time.
The return of a sign, symptom, or disease after a remission.
Operation for biliary atresia by anastomosis of the bile ducts into the jejunum or duodenum.
The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from PREVALENCE, which refers to all cases, new or old, in the population at a given time.
Maleness or femaleness as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from SEX CHARACTERISTICS, anatomical or physiological manifestations of sex, and from SEX DISTRIBUTION, the number of males and females in given circumstances.

Study of an epidemic of venoocclusive disease in India. (1/1790)

Twenty-five cases of rapidly developing ascites occurring in an epidemic form were observed in a tribal district in Central India during August 1972-May 1973. Eleven of the patients died. Six patients were brought to hospital and studied for periods of two to 17 months. Necropsy was performed on one patient who died. The clinical features suggested an outflow tract obstruction such as a Budd-Chiari-like syndrome or venoocclusive disease. Radiographic and haemodynamic studies demonstrated a combination of post and perisinusoidal blocks. Liver dysfunction was indicated by the presence of a marked bromsulphthalein retention and mild to moderate hypoalbuminaemia. Histological examination of the liver biopsies showed changes that ranged from centrizonal haemorrhagic necrosis to an extensive centrilobular fibrosis associated with central vein occlusion. The disease was apparently caused by a food toxin, and the possible nature of this is discussed.  (+info)

Factor VII as a marker of hepatocellular synthetic function in liver disease. (2/1790)

Factor VII levels have been measured in 100 patients with liver disease following parenteral vitamin K1 therapy. There was good agreement between specific factor VII measurements and the one-stage prothrombin time apart from six patients with compensated cirrhosis in whom the prothrombin time was prolonged despite the presence of normal factor VII levels. A mean activity of 58% was found in patients with cirrhosis. Cirrhotic patients with features of hepatic decompensation had a significantly lower mean level of activity (40%) than the "contrast" patients with surgical obstruction of the major bile ducts (93%). Patients with chronic active liver disease had moderate depression of factor VII levels and those with non-cirrhotic liver damage had mean activities similar to the contrast group. Factor VII levels could not be correlated with BSP retention but there was a correlation with serum albumin concentration. It is concluded that the prothrombin time using Quick test with a standardized thromboplastin showing good sensitivity to factor VII, eg, the Manchester reagent (BCT), provides a reliable index of coagulability in chronic liver disease, and specific factor VII assays are not indicated.  (+info)

A phase I study of the lipophilic thymidylate synthase inhibitor Thymitaq (nolatrexed dihydrochloride) given by 10-day oral administration. (3/1790)

2-Amino-3,4-dihydro-6-methyl-4-oxo-5-(4-pyridylthio)-quinazoline dihydrochloride (nolatrexed dihydrochloride, Thymitaq, AG337), a specific inhibitor of thymidylate synthase, was developed using protein structure-based drug design. Intravenously administered nolatrexed is active clinically. As oral bioavailability is high (70-100%), nolatrexed was administered orally, 6 hourly for 10 days, at 3-week intervals, and dose escalated from 80 to 572 mg m(-2) day(-1) in 23 patients. Common toxicity criteria (CTC) grade 3 toxicities included nausea, vomiting, stomatitis and liver function test (LFT) abnormalities. Thrombocytopenia (grade 1 or 2) occurred at doses > or = 318 mg m(-2) day(-1) and neutropenia (grade 2) at 429 and 572 mg m(-2) day(-1). An erythematous maculopapular rash occurred at dosages > or = 318 mg m(-2) day(-1) (7 out of 19 patients). LFT abnormalities occurred in two out of six patients (grade 3 or 4 bilirubin and grade 3 alanine transaminase) at 572 mg m(-2) day(-1). Nolatrexed plasma concentrations 1 h after dosing were 6-16 microg ml(-1), and trough 3-8 microg ml(-1), at 572 mg m(-2) day(-1). Inhibition of thymidylate synthase was demonstrated by elevation of plasma deoxyuridine. Six-hourly oral nolatrexed for 10 days was associated with antiproliferative effects, but nausea and vomiting was dose limiting at 572 mg m(-2) day(-1). Nine patients were treated at 429 mg m(-2) day(-1); three out of nine experienced grade 3 nausea, but 17 out of 22 treatment courses were completed (with the co-administration of prophylactic antiemetics) and this dose level could be considered for phase II testing.  (+info)

Outcomes of routine testing of liver enzymes in institutionalized geriatric patients. (4/1790)

This study sought to identify any benefit of routine liver function tests (LFTs) in chronically ill, geriatric patients and to assess which patients require evaluation for abnormal LFT levels. A retrospective chart review was carried out on 268 consecutive patients (M:F = 1.2, mean age 77 years, range 61-98 years) presenting for acute care from a long-term care facility. All were without jaundice, right upper quadrant pain, pruritus, bruising, or signs of chronic liver disease. The degree of LFT abnormality (aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, total bilirubin, or alkaline phosphatase) during admission was compared to the clinical diagnosis at the time of discharge. The most common diagnoses were pneumonia, urinary tract infection, and peripheral or coronary disease in 186 (60%). Thirty-seven patients (14%) had elevated LFT levels on admission. The levels normalized within 2 days in 26 of these patients, 25 of whom had a history of vascular disease (96%). Of the 11 remaining patients, 4 had coexistent vascular disease (36%), and 5 had LFT levels twice normal (none with vascular disease) and underwent abdominal ultrasound. One patient had a common bile duct stone successfully extracted. Enzyme abnormalities were due to hepatitis B or medication use in 10 of 11 patients. No patient had liver biopsy. All but one of the 268 patients were discharged without further evaluation. Over one year of follow up, no patient returned for a liver-related problem. Based on these findings, only those patients with LFT levels that are twice normal and which do not normalize within 2 days warrant further evaluation. Transient LFT abnormalities may be due to decreased liver perfusion.  (+info)

Galactose elimination capacity as a prognostic index in patients with fulminant liver failure. (5/1790)

In 25 patients with fulminant hepatic failure the prognostic value of a quantitative liver function test, the galactose elimination capacity, was assessed and comapred with routine liver function tests and clinical features. The galactose elimination capacity was significantly higher (P less than 0-05) in the five patients who survived than in the 20 patients who died. None of the other liver function tests, was significantly different. The values of the galactose elimination capacity overlapped considerably between survivors and non-survivors, but all patients with a galactose elimination capacity below 12-8 mumol galactose/min and kg body weight died. The disease among most patients who died having a galactose elimination capacity greater than 13 mumol ran a subacute course. It is suggested that quantitative liver function tests be included when new treatments of fulminant hepatic failure are investigated.  (+info)

Analysis of hepatitis G virus (HGV) RNA, antibody to HGV envelope protein, and risk factors for blood donors coinfected with HGV and hepatitis C virus. (6/1790)

Serologic, biochemical, and molecular analyses were used to study hepatitis G virus (HGV), antibody to the HGV envelope protein (anti-E2), risk factors, clinical significance, and the impact of HGV on coexistent hepatitis C virus (HCV). Among 329 donors with confirmed HCV infection, 12% were HGV RNA-positive and 44% were anti-E2-positive (total exposure, 56%). HGV RNA and anti-E2 were mutually exclusive except in 9 donors (1.5%); 8 of 9 subsequently lost HGV RNA but anti-E2 persisted. HGV had little impact on alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, or gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase in donors with HGV infection alone or those coinfected with HCV. A multivariate analysis showed that intravenous drug abuse was the leading risk factor for HGV transmission, followed by blood transfusion, snorting cocaine, imprisonment, and a history of sexually transmitted diseases. In summary, HGV and HCV infections were frequently associated and shared common parenteral risk factors; HGV did not appear to cause hepatitis or to worsen the course of coexistent hepatitis C.  (+info)

The natural history of histologically proved drug induced liver disease. (7/1790)

BACKGROUND: The long term outcome of drug related liver disease is unknown. AIMS: To study the natural history of histologically proved drug induced hepatotoxicity. METHODS: 110 patients with liver biopsies coded either as drug induced liver disease or hepatitis/cholestasis of unknown aetiology were identified from hospital records 1978-1996. Review of case notes and histology identified 44 patients with definite drug induced hepatotoxicity. Forty surviving patients were invited to attend a follow up clinic. History, examination, full liver screen, and isotope and ultrasound liver scans were repeated in all patients. Repeat liver biopsies were offered to patients with abnormal liver tests. RESULTS: Presentation at index biopsy was jaundice in 24 patients, abnormal liver tests in 17, and hepatic failure in three. Antibiotics (n=13) and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (n=11) were the most common drugs implicated. Initial histology showed acute hepatitis in six, chronic hepatitis in 20, and cholestasis in 18. At 1-19 years (median 5 years) follow up, 13/33 (39%) patients had persistent significant abnormalities in their liver blood tests and/or scans. Three of the five repeat liver biopsies performed showed significant abnormalities. Factors predicting persistence or development of chronic liver disease were fibrosis and continued exposure to the drug. CONCLUSIONS: Drugs should be considered in the differential diagnosis of abnormal liver function and/or histology, as failure to withdraw the offending drug is associated with a high risk of persistent liver damage.  (+info)

Special considerations in interpreting liver function tests. (8/1790)

A number of pitfalls can be encountered in the interpretation of common blood liver function tests. These tests can be normal in patients with chronic hepatitis or cirrhosis. The normal range for aminotransferase levels is slightly higher in males, nonwhites and obese persons. Severe alcoholic hepatitis is sometimes confused with cholecystitis or cholangitis. Conversely, patients who present soon after passing common bile duct stones can be misdiagnosed with acute hepatitis because aminotransferase levels often rise immediately, but alkaline phosphatase and gamma-glutamyltransferase levels do not become elevated for several days. Asymptomatic patients with isolated, mild elevation of either the unconjugated bilirubin or the gamma-glutamyltransferase value usually do not have liver disease and generally do not require extensive evaluation. Overall hepatic function can be assessed by applying the values for albumin, bilirubin and prothrombin time in the modified Child-Turcotte grading system.  (+info)

Liver function tests (LFTs) are a group of blood tests that are used to assess the functioning and health of the liver. These tests measure the levels of various enzymes, proteins, and waste products that are produced or metabolized by the liver. Some common LFTs include:

1. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT): An enzyme found primarily in the liver, ALT is released into the bloodstream in response to liver cell damage. Elevated levels of ALT may indicate liver injury or disease.
2. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST): Another enzyme found in various tissues, including the liver, heart, and muscles. Like ALT, AST is released into the bloodstream following tissue damage. High AST levels can be a sign of liver damage or other medical conditions.
3. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP): An enzyme found in several organs, including the liver, bile ducts, and bones. Elevated ALP levels may indicate a blockage in the bile ducts, liver disease, or bone disorders.
4. Gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT): An enzyme found mainly in the liver, pancreas, and biliary system. Increased GGT levels can suggest liver disease, alcohol consumption, or the use of certain medications.
5. Bilirubin: A yellowish pigment produced when hemoglobin from red blood cells is broken down. Bilirubin is processed by the liver and excreted through bile. High bilirubin levels can indicate liver dysfunction, bile duct obstruction, or certain types of anemia.
6. Albumin: A protein produced by the liver that helps maintain fluid balance in the body and transports various substances in the blood. Low albumin levels may suggest liver damage, malnutrition, or kidney disease.
7. Total protein: A measure of all proteins present in the blood, including albumin and other types of proteins produced by the liver. Decreased total protein levels can indicate liver dysfunction or other medical conditions.

These tests are often ordered together as part of a routine health checkup or when evaluating symptoms related to liver function or disease. The results should be interpreted in conjunction with clinical findings, medical history, and other diagnostic tests.

Liver diseases refer to a wide range of conditions that affect the normal functioning of the liver. The liver is a vital organ responsible for various critical functions such as detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion.

Liver diseases can be categorized into acute and chronic forms. Acute liver disease comes on rapidly and can be caused by factors like viral infections (hepatitis A, B, C, D, E), drug-induced liver injury, or exposure to toxic substances. Chronic liver disease develops slowly over time, often due to long-term exposure to harmful agents or inherent disorders of the liver.

Common examples of liver diseases include hepatitis, cirrhosis (scarring of the liver tissue), fatty liver disease, alcoholic liver disease, autoimmune liver diseases, genetic/hereditary liver disorders (like Wilson's disease and hemochromatosis), and liver cancers. Symptoms may vary widely depending on the type and stage of the disease but could include jaundice, abdominal pain, fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, and weight loss.

Early diagnosis and treatment are essential to prevent progression and potential complications associated with liver diseases.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

Alanine transaminase (ALT) is a type of enzyme found primarily in the cells of the liver and, to a lesser extent, in the cells of other tissues such as the heart, muscles, and kidneys. Its primary function is to catalyze the reversible transfer of an amino group from alanine to another alpha-keto acid, usually pyruvate, to form pyruvate and another amino acid, usually glutamate. This process is known as the transamination reaction.

When liver cells are damaged or destroyed due to various reasons such as hepatitis, alcohol abuse, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, or drug-induced liver injury, ALT is released into the bloodstream. Therefore, measuring the level of ALT in the blood is a useful diagnostic tool for evaluating liver function and detecting liver damage. Normal ALT levels vary depending on the laboratory, but typically range from 7 to 56 units per liter (U/L) for men and 6 to 45 U/L for women. Elevated ALT levels may indicate liver injury or disease, although other factors such as muscle damage or heart disease can also cause elevations in ALT.

Aspartate aminotransferases (ASTs) are a group of enzymes found in various tissues throughout the body, including the heart, liver, and muscles. They play a crucial role in the metabolic process of transferring amino groups between different molecules.

In medical terms, AST is often used as a blood test to measure the level of this enzyme in the serum. Elevated levels of AST can indicate damage or injury to tissues that contain this enzyme, such as the liver or heart. For example, liver disease, including hepatitis and cirrhosis, can cause elevated AST levels due to damage to liver cells. Similarly, heart attacks can also result in increased AST levels due to damage to heart muscle tissue.

It is important to note that an AST test alone cannot diagnose a specific medical condition, but it can provide valuable information when used in conjunction with other diagnostic tests and clinical evaluation.

Liver cirrhosis is a chronic, progressive disease characterized by the replacement of normal liver tissue with scarred (fibrotic) tissue, leading to loss of function. The scarring is caused by long-term damage from various sources such as hepatitis, alcohol abuse, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and other causes. As the disease advances, it can lead to complications like portal hypertension, fluid accumulation in the abdomen (ascites), impaired brain function (hepatic encephalopathy), and increased risk of liver cancer. It is generally irreversible, but early detection and treatment of underlying causes may help slow down its progression.

Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment that is produced by the liver when it breaks down old red blood cells. It is a normal byproduct of hemoglobin metabolism and is usually conjugated (made water-soluble) in the liver before being excreted through the bile into the digestive system. Elevated levels of bilirubin can cause jaundice, a yellowing of the skin and eyes. Increased bilirubin levels may indicate liver disease or other medical conditions such as gallstones or hemolysis. It is also measured to assess liver function and to help diagnose various liver disorders.

Liver transplantation is a surgical procedure in which a diseased or failing liver is replaced with a healthy one from a deceased donor or, less commonly, a portion of a liver from a living donor. The goal of the procedure is to restore normal liver function and improve the patient's overall health and quality of life.

Liver transplantation may be recommended for individuals with end-stage liver disease, acute liver failure, certain genetic liver disorders, or liver cancers that cannot be treated effectively with other therapies. The procedure involves complex surgery to remove the diseased liver and implant the new one, followed by a period of recovery and close medical monitoring to ensure proper function and minimize the risk of complications.

The success of liver transplantation has improved significantly in recent years due to advances in surgical techniques, immunosuppressive medications, and post-transplant care. However, it remains a major operation with significant risks and challenges, including the need for lifelong immunosuppression to prevent rejection of the new liver, as well as potential complications such as infection, bleeding, and organ failure.

Respiratory Function Tests (RFTs) are a group of medical tests that measure how well your lungs take in and exhale air, and how well they transfer oxygen and carbon dioxide into and out of your blood. They can help diagnose certain lung disorders, measure the severity of lung disease, and monitor response to treatment.

RFTs include several types of tests, such as:

1. Spirometry: This test measures how much air you can exhale and how quickly you can do it. It's often used to diagnose and monitor conditions like asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and other lung diseases.
2. Lung volume testing: This test measures the total amount of air in your lungs. It can help diagnose restrictive lung diseases, such as pulmonary fibrosis or sarcoidosis.
3. Diffusion capacity testing: This test measures how well oxygen moves from your lungs into your bloodstream. It's often used to diagnose and monitor conditions like pulmonary fibrosis, interstitial lung disease, and other lung diseases that affect the ability of the lungs to transfer oxygen to the blood.
4. Bronchoprovocation testing: This test involves inhaling a substance that can cause your airways to narrow, such as methacholine or histamine. It's often used to diagnose and monitor asthma.
5. Exercise stress testing: This test measures how well your lungs and heart work together during exercise. It's often used to diagnose lung or heart disease.

Overall, Respiratory Function Tests are an important tool for diagnosing and managing a wide range of lung conditions.

Drug-Induced Liver Injury (DILI) is a medical term that refers to liver damage or injury caused by the use of medications or drugs. This condition can vary in severity, from mild abnormalities in liver function tests to severe liver failure, which may require a liver transplant.

The exact mechanism of DILI can differ depending on the drug involved, but it generally occurs when the liver metabolizes the drug into toxic compounds that damage liver cells. This can happen through various pathways, including direct toxicity to liver cells, immune-mediated reactions, or metabolic idiosyncrasies.

Symptoms of DILI may include jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), fatigue, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and dark urine. In severe cases, it can lead to complications such as ascites, encephalopathy, and bleeding disorders.

The diagnosis of DILI is often challenging because it requires the exclusion of other potential causes of liver injury. Liver function tests, imaging studies, and sometimes liver biopsies may be necessary to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment typically involves discontinuing the offending drug and providing supportive care until the liver recovers. In some cases, medications that protect the liver or promote its healing may be used.

Liver neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the liver that can be benign or malignant. Benign liver neoplasms are non-cancerous tumors that do not spread to other parts of the body, while malignant liver neoplasms are cancerous tumors that can invade and destroy surrounding tissue and spread to other organs.

Liver neoplasms can be primary, meaning they originate in the liver, or secondary, meaning they have metastasized (spread) to the liver from another part of the body. Primary liver neoplasms can be further classified into different types based on their cell of origin and behavior, including hepatocellular carcinoma, cholangiocarcinoma, and hepatic hemangioma.

The diagnosis of liver neoplasms typically involves a combination of imaging studies, such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI, and biopsy to confirm the type and stage of the tumor. Treatment options depend on the type and extent of the neoplasm and may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or liver transplantation.

Gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), also known as gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, is an enzyme found in many tissues, including the liver, bile ducts, and pancreas. GGT is involved in the metabolism of certain amino acids and plays a role in the detoxification of various substances in the body.

GGT is often measured as a part of a panel of tests used to evaluate liver function. Elevated levels of GGT in the blood may indicate liver disease or injury, bile duct obstruction, or alcohol consumption. However, it's important to note that several other factors can also affect GGT levels, so abnormal results should be interpreted in conjunction with other clinical findings and diagnostic tests.

Jaundice is a medical condition characterized by the yellowing of the skin, sclera (whites of the eyes), and mucous membranes due to an excess of bilirubin in the bloodstream. Bilirubin is a yellow-orange pigment produced when hemoglobin from red blood cells is broken down. Normally, bilirubin is processed by the liver and excreted through bile into the digestive system. However, if there's an issue with bilirubin metabolism or elimination, it can accumulate in the body, leading to jaundice.

Jaundice can be a symptom of various underlying conditions, such as liver diseases (hepatitis, cirrhosis), gallbladder issues (gallstones, tumors), or blood disorders (hemolysis). It is essential to consult a healthcare professional if jaundice is observed, as it may indicate a severe health problem requiring prompt medical attention.

Fatty liver, also known as hepatic steatosis, is a medical condition characterized by the abnormal accumulation of fat in the liver. The liver's primary function is to process nutrients, filter blood, and fight infections, among other tasks. When excess fat builds up in the liver cells, it can impair liver function and lead to inflammation, scarring, and even liver failure if left untreated.

Fatty liver can be caused by various factors, including alcohol consumption, obesity, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), viral hepatitis, and certain medications or medical conditions. NAFLD is the most common cause of fatty liver in the United States and other developed countries, affecting up to 25% of the population.

Symptoms of fatty liver may include fatigue, weakness, weight loss, loss of appetite, nausea, abdominal pain or discomfort, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). However, many people with fatty liver do not experience any symptoms, making it essential to diagnose and manage the condition through regular check-ups and blood tests.

Treatment for fatty liver depends on the underlying cause. Lifestyle changes such as weight loss, exercise, and dietary modifications are often recommended for people with NAFLD or alcohol-related fatty liver disease. Medications may also be prescribed to manage related conditions such as diabetes, high cholesterol, or metabolic syndrome. In severe cases of liver damage, a liver transplant may be necessary.

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme found in various body tissues, including the liver, bile ducts, digestive system, bones, and kidneys. It plays a role in breaking down proteins and minerals, such as phosphate, in the body.

The medical definition of alkaline phosphatase refers to its function as a hydrolase enzyme that removes phosphate groups from molecules at an alkaline pH level. In clinical settings, ALP is often measured through blood tests as a biomarker for various health conditions.

Elevated levels of ALP in the blood may indicate liver or bone diseases, such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, bone fractures, or cancer. Therefore, physicians may order an alkaline phosphatase test to help diagnose and monitor these conditions. However, it is essential to interpret ALP results in conjunction with other diagnostic tests and clinical findings for accurate diagnosis and treatment.

Thyroid function tests (TFTs) are a group of blood tests that assess the functioning of the thyroid gland, which is a small butterfly-shaped gland located in the front of the neck. The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and development in the body.

TFTs typically include the following tests:

1. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) test: This test measures the level of TSH, a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that regulates the production of thyroid hormones. High levels of TSH may indicate an underactive thyroid gland (hypothyroidism), while low levels may indicate an overactive thyroid gland (hyperthyroidism).
2. Thyroxine (T4) test: This test measures the level of T4, a hormone produced by the thyroid gland. High levels of T4 may indicate hyperthyroidism, while low levels may indicate hypothyroidism.
3. Triiodothyronine (T3) test: This test measures the level of T3, another hormone produced by the thyroid gland. High levels of T3 may indicate hyperthyroidism, while low levels may indicate hypothyroidism.
4. Thyroid peroxidase antibody (TPOAb) test: This test measures the level of TPOAb, an antibody that attacks the thyroid gland and can cause hypothyroidism.
5. Thyroglobulin (Tg) test: This test measures the level of Tg, a protein produced by the thyroid gland. It is used to monitor the treatment of thyroid cancer.

These tests help diagnose and manage various thyroid disorders, including hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, thyroiditis, and thyroid cancer.

Hepatitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the liver, often resulting in damage to liver cells. It can be caused by various factors, including viral infections (such as Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E), alcohol abuse, toxins, medications, and autoimmune disorders. Symptoms may include jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, and dark urine. The severity of the disease can range from mild illness to severe, life-threatening conditions, such as liver failure or cirrhosis.

Hepatectomy is a surgical procedure that involves the removal of part or all of the liver. This procedure can be performed for various reasons, such as removing cancerous or non-cancerous tumors, treating liver trauma, or donating a portion of the liver to another person in need of a transplant (live donor hepatectomy). The extent of the hepatectomy depends on the medical condition and overall health of the patient. It is a complex procedure that requires significant expertise and experience from the surgical team due to the liver's unique anatomy, blood supply, and regenerative capabilities.

Hepatomegaly is a medical term that refers to an enlargement of the liver beyond its normal size. The liver is usually located in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen and can be felt during a physical examination. A healthcare provider may detect hepatomegaly by palpating (examining through touch) the abdomen, noticing that the edge of the liver extends past the lower ribcage.

There are several possible causes for hepatomegaly, including:
- Fatty liver disease (both alcoholic and nonalcoholic)
- Hepatitis (viral or autoimmune)
- Liver cirrhosis
- Cancer (such as primary liver cancer, metastatic cancer, or lymphoma)
- Infections (e.g., bacterial, fungal, or parasitic)
- Heart failure and other cardiovascular conditions
- Genetic disorders (e.g., Gaucher's disease, Niemann-Pick disease, or Hunter syndrome)
- Metabolic disorders (e.g., glycogen storage diseases, hemochromatosis, or Wilson's disease)

Diagnosing the underlying cause of hepatomegaly typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies like ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI. Treatment depends on the specific cause identified and may include medications, lifestyle changes, or, in some cases, surgical intervention.

Liver regeneration is the ability of the liver to restore its original mass and function after injury or surgical resection. This complex process involves the proliferation and differentiation of mature hepatocytes, as well as the activation and transdifferentiation of various types of stem and progenitor cells located in the liver. The mechanisms that regulate liver regeneration include a variety of growth factors, hormones, and cytokines, which act in a coordinated manner to ensure the restoration of normal liver architecture and function. Liver regeneration is essential for the survival of individuals who have undergone partial hepatectomy or who have suffered liver damage due to various causes, such as viral hepatitis, alcohol abuse, or drug-induced liver injury.

Autoimmune hepatitis is a chronic (long-term) disease in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks the liver, leading to inflammation and damage. This results in decreased liver function over time if not treated. The exact cause of autoimmune hepatitis is unknown, but it is believed to be associated with genetic factors and exposure to certain environmental triggers, such as viral infections or medications.

There are two main types of autoimmune hepatitis:

1. Type 1 (classic) autoimmune hepatitis: This form can affect both adults and children, and it is more common in women than men. People with this type may also have other autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis, thyroid disease, or ulcerative colitis.
2. Type 2 autoimmune hepatitis: This form primarily affects children and young women. It is less common than type 1 and tends to be more severe. People with this type may also have other autoimmune disorders, such as celiac disease or chronic candidiasis.

Symptoms of autoimmune hepatitis can vary widely, from mild to severe. They may include fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, joint pain, jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), dark urine, and light-colored stools.

Diagnosis typically involves blood tests, imaging studies, and sometimes a liver biopsy to assess the extent of damage. Treatment usually includes medications that suppress the immune system, such as corticosteroids and immunosuppressants, which can help reduce inflammation and slow or stop liver damage. In some cases, lifestyle changes and supportive care may also be necessary.

Cholestasis is a medical condition characterized by the interruption or reduction of bile flow from the liver to the small intestine. Bile is a digestive fluid produced by the liver that helps in the breakdown and absorption of fats. When the flow of bile is blocked or reduced, it can lead to an accumulation of bile components, such as bilirubin, in the blood, which can cause jaundice, itching, and other symptoms.

Cholestasis can be caused by various factors, including liver diseases (such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, or cancer), gallstones, alcohol abuse, certain medications, pregnancy, and genetic disorders. Depending on the underlying cause, cholestasis may be acute or chronic, and it can range from mild to severe in its symptoms and consequences. Treatment for cholestasis typically involves addressing the underlying cause and managing the symptoms with supportive care.

Indocyanine green (ICG) is a sterile, water-soluble, tricarbocyanine dye that is used as a diagnostic agent in medical imaging. It is primarily used in ophthalmology for fluorescein angiography to examine blood flow in the retina and choroid, and in cardiac surgery to assess cardiac output and perfusion. When injected into the body, ICG binds to plasma proteins and fluoresces when exposed to near-infrared light, allowing for visualization of various tissues and structures. It is excreted primarily by the liver and has a half-life of approximately 3-4 minutes in the bloodstream.

Intrahepatic cholestasis is a medical condition characterized by the interruption or reduction of bile flow within the liver. Bile is a digestive fluid produced by the liver that helps in the absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins. Intrahepatic cholestasis occurs when there is a problem with the transport of bile components inside the liver cells (hepatocytes). This can lead to an accumulation of bile acids, bilirubin, and other substances in the liver, which can cause damage to liver cells and result in symptoms such as jaundice, itching, and dark urine.

Intrahepatic cholestasis can be caused by various factors, including medications, alcohol abuse, hepatitis viruses, autoimmune disorders, genetic defects, and cancer. Depending on the underlying cause, intrahepatic cholestasis can be acute or chronic, and it can range from mild to severe. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the condition, as well as providing supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

Steatitis is a medical term that refers to the inflammation of fatty tissue, also known as nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) when it occurs in the liver. It is often caused by the accumulation of large amounts of fat within cells, leading to oxidative stress and an immune response.

Steatitis can occur in various parts of the body, including the abdominal cavity, bone marrow, and other organs. However, when it occurs in the liver, it is often associated with obesity, metabolic syndrome, and diabetes. In severe cases, steatitis in the liver can lead to scarring, cirrhosis, and even liver failure.

Symptoms of steatitis may include fatigue, abdominal pain or discomfort, loss of appetite, weight loss, and nausea. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of physical exam, medical history, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. Treatment options may include lifestyle changes such as diet and exercise, medications to manage underlying conditions, and in some cases, surgery.

Liver failure is a serious condition in which the liver is no longer able to perform its normal functions, such as removing toxins and waste products from the blood, producing bile to help digest food, and regulating blood clotting. This can lead to a buildup of toxins in the body, jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), fluid accumulation in the abdomen, and an increased risk of bleeding. Liver failure can be acute (sudden) or chronic (developing over time). Acute liver failure is often caused by medication toxicity, viral hepatitis, or other sudden illnesses. Chronic liver failure is most commonly caused by long-term damage from conditions such as cirrhosis, hepatitis, alcohol abuse, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

It's important to note that Liver Failure is a life threatening condition and need immediate medical attention.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Pancreatic function tests are a group of medical tests that are used to assess the functionality and health of the pancreas. The pancreas is a vital organ located in the abdomen, which has two main functions: an exocrine function, where it releases digestive enzymes into the small intestine to help break down food; and an endocrine function, where it produces hormones such as insulin and glucagon that regulate blood sugar levels.

Pancreatic function tests typically involve measuring the levels of digestive enzymes in the blood or stool, or assessing the body's ability to digest and absorb certain nutrients. Some common pancreatic function tests include:

1. Serum amylase and lipase tests: These tests measure the levels of digestive enzymes called amylase and lipase in the blood. Elevated levels of these enzymes may indicate pancreatitis or other conditions affecting the pancreas.
2. Fecal elastase test: This test measures the level of elastase, an enzyme produced by the pancreas, in a stool sample. Low levels of elastase may indicate exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), a condition where the pancreas is not producing enough digestive enzymes.
3. Secretin stimulation test: This test involves administering a medication called secretin, which stimulates the pancreas to release digestive enzymes. The levels of these enzymes are then measured in the blood or duodenum (the first part of the small intestine).
4. Fat absorption tests: These tests involve measuring the amount of fat that is absorbed from a meal. High levels of fat in the stool may indicate EPI.
5. Glucose tolerance test: This test involves measuring blood sugar levels after consuming a sugary drink. Low levels of insulin or high levels of glucose may indicate diabetes or other endocrine disorders affecting the pancreas.

Overall, pancreatic function tests are important tools for diagnosing and monitoring conditions that affect the pancreas, such as pancreatitis, EPI, and diabetes.

Microsomes, liver refers to a subcellular fraction of liver cells (hepatocytes) that are obtained during tissue homogenization and subsequent centrifugation. These microsomal fractions are rich in membranous structures known as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), particularly the rough ER. They are involved in various important cellular processes, most notably the metabolism of xenobiotics (foreign substances) including drugs, toxins, and carcinogens.

The liver microsomes contain a variety of enzymes, such as cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, that are crucial for phase I drug metabolism. These enzymes help in the oxidation, reduction, or hydrolysis of xenobiotics, making them more water-soluble and facilitating their excretion from the body. Additionally, liver microsomes also host other enzymes involved in phase II conjugation reactions, where the metabolites from phase I are further modified by adding polar molecules like glucuronic acid, sulfate, or acetyl groups.

In summary, liver microsomes are a subcellular fraction of liver cells that play a significant role in the metabolism and detoxification of xenobiotics, contributing to the overall protection and maintenance of cellular homeostasis within the body.

Chronic hepatitis is a type of liver inflammation that lasts for more than six months and can lead to scarring of the liver (cirrhosis), liver failure, and even liver cancer in some cases. It can be caused by various factors, including viral infections such as Hepatitis B and C, autoimmune disorders, alcohol abuse, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. The symptoms of chronic hepatitis may include fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, joint pain, dark urine, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). Treatment for chronic hepatitis depends on the underlying cause and may include antiviral medications, immunosuppressive drugs, or lifestyle changes.

Sulfobromophthalein (BSP or bromsulphthalein) is not typically defined in a medical dictionary as it is a chemical compound. However, I can provide you with some information about its use in a medical context:

Sulfobromophthalein is a chemical compound primarily used for liver function tests. It is a dye that is injected into the patient's bloodstream, and then its clearance rate from the blood is measured to evaluate liver function. A healthy liver should quickly remove the dye from the blood and excrete it through the bile ducts into the digestive system. If the liver is not functioning properly, the clearance of sulfobromophthalein will be slower, leading to higher levels of the dye remaining in the bloodstream over time.

The test using sulfobromophthalein has largely been replaced by more modern and specific liver function tests; however, it was once widely used for assessing overall liver health and diagnosing conditions such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver damage due to various causes.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Viral hepatitis in humans refers to inflammation of the liver caused by infection with viruses that primarily target the liver. There are five main types of human viral hepatitis, designated as Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E virus (HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV, and HEV). These viruses can cause a range of illnesses, from acute self-limiting hepatitis to chronic hepatitis, which can lead to cirrhosis and liver cancer.

1. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is typically spread through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water. It usually results in an acute self-limiting infection, but rarely can cause chronic hepatitis in individuals with weakened immune systems.
2. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood, semen, and other bodily fluids. It can lead to both acute and chronic hepatitis, which may result in cirrhosis and liver cancer if left untreated.
3. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is predominantly spread through exposure to infected blood, such as through sharing needles or receiving contaminated blood transfusions. Chronic hepatitis C is common, and it can lead to serious liver complications like cirrhosis and liver cancer if not treated.
4. Hepatitis D virus (HDV) is an incomplete virus that requires the presence of HBV for its replication. HDV infection occurs only in individuals already infected with HBV, leading to more severe liver disease compared to HBV monoinfection.
5. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water. It usually results in an acute self-limiting infection but can cause chronic hepatitis in pregnant women and individuals with weakened immune systems.

Prevention measures include vaccination for HAV and HBV, safe sex practices, avoiding sharing needles, and ensuring proper hygiene and sanitation to prevent fecal-oral transmission.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of primary liver cancer in adults. It originates from the hepatocytes, which are the main functional cells of the liver. This type of cancer is often associated with chronic liver diseases such as cirrhosis caused by hepatitis B or C virus infection, alcohol abuse, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and aflatoxin exposure.

The symptoms of HCC can vary but may include unexplained weight loss, lack of appetite, abdominal pain or swelling, jaundice, and fatigue. The diagnosis of HCC typically involves imaging tests such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI, as well as blood tests to measure alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) levels. Treatment options for Hepatocellular carcinoma depend on the stage and extent of the cancer, as well as the patient's overall health and liver function. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or liver transplantation.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "hobbies" is not a term that has a medical definition. Hobbies generally refer to activities or interests that are pursued outside of one's professional or obligatory duties, purely for pleasure and relaxation. They can include a wide range of activities such as painting, hiking, playing a musical instrument, gardening, or bird watching, among many others. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I'd be happy to try to help answer those!

Obstructive Jaundice is a medical condition characterized by the yellowing of the skin, sclera (whites of the eyes), and mucous membranes due to the accumulation of bilirubin in the bloodstream. This occurs when there is an obstruction or blockage in the bile ducts that transport bile from the liver to the small intestine.

Bile, which contains bilirubin, aids in digestion and is usually released from the liver into the small intestine. When the flow of bile is obstructed, bilirubin builds up in the blood, causing jaundice. The obstruction can be caused by various factors, such as gallstones, tumors, or strictures in the bile ducts.

Obstructive jaundice may present with additional symptoms like dark urine, light-colored stools, itching, abdominal pain, and weight loss, depending on the cause and severity of the obstruction. It is essential to seek medical attention if jaundice is observed, as timely diagnosis and management can prevent potential complications, such as liver damage or infection.

Liver circulation, also known as hepatic circulation, refers to the blood flow through the liver. The liver receives blood from two sources: the hepatic artery and the portal vein.

The hepatic artery delivers oxygenated blood from the heart to the liver, accounting for about 25% of the liver's blood supply. The remaining 75% comes from the portal vein, which carries nutrient-rich, deoxygenated blood from the gastrointestinal tract, spleen, pancreas, and gallbladder to the liver.

In the liver, these two sources of blood mix in the sinusoids, small vessels with large spaces between the endothelial cells that line them. This allows for efficient exchange of substances between the blood and the hepatocytes (liver cells). The blood then leaves the liver through the hepatic veins, which merge into the inferior vena cava and return the blood to the heart.

The unique dual blood supply and extensive sinusoidal network in the liver enable it to perform various critical functions, such as detoxification, metabolism, synthesis, storage, and secretion of numerous substances, maintaining body homeostasis.

Choledocholithiasis is a medical condition characterized by the presence of one or more gallstones in the common bile duct, which is the tube that carries bile from the liver and gallbladder to the small intestine. Bile is a digestive fluid produced by the liver that helps break down fats in the small intestine. Gallstones are hardened deposits of digestive fluids that can form in the gallbladder or, less commonly, in the bile ducts.

Choledocholithiasis can cause a variety of symptoms, including abdominal pain, jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), nausea, vomiting, and fever. If left untreated, it can lead to serious complications such as infection or inflammation of the bile ducts or pancreas, which can be life-threatening.

The condition is typically diagnosed through imaging tests such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI, and may require endoscopic or surgical intervention to remove the gallstones from the common bile duct.

Biliary tract diseases refer to a group of medical conditions that affect the biliary system, which includes the gallbladder, bile ducts, and liver. Bile is a digestive juice produced by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and released into the small intestine through the bile ducts to help digest fats.

Biliary tract diseases can cause various symptoms such as abdominal pain, jaundice, fever, nausea, vomiting, and changes in stool color. Some of the common biliary tract diseases include:

1. Gallstones: Small, hard deposits that form in the gallbladder or bile ducts made up of cholesterol or bilirubin.
2. Cholecystitis: Inflammation of the gallbladder, often caused by gallstones.
3. Cholangitis: Infection or inflammation of the bile ducts.
4. Biliary dyskinesia: A motility disorder that affects the contraction and relaxation of the muscles in the biliary system.
5. Primary sclerosing cholangitis: A chronic autoimmune disease that causes scarring and narrowing of the bile ducts.
6. Biliary tract cancer: Rare cancers that affect the gallbladder, bile ducts, or liver.

Treatment for biliary tract diseases varies depending on the specific condition and severity but may include medications, surgery, or a combination of both.

The hepatic artery is a branch of the celiac trunk or abdominal aorta that supplies oxygenated blood to the liver. It typically divides into two main branches, the right and left hepatic arteries, which further divide into smaller vessels to supply different regions of the liver. The hepatic artery also gives off branches to supply other organs such as the gallbladder, pancreas, and duodenum.

It's worth noting that there is significant variability in the anatomy of the hepatic artery, with some individuals having additional branches or variations in the origin of the vessel. This variability can have implications for surgical procedures involving the liver and surrounding organs.

Follow-up studies are a type of longitudinal research that involve repeated observations or measurements of the same variables over a period of time, in order to understand their long-term effects or outcomes. In medical context, follow-up studies are often used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments, interventions, or procedures.

In a typical follow-up study, a group of individuals (called a cohort) who have received a particular treatment or intervention are identified and then followed over time through periodic assessments or data collection. The data collected may include information on clinical outcomes, adverse events, changes in symptoms or functional status, and other relevant measures.

The results of follow-up studies can provide important insights into the long-term benefits and risks of medical interventions, as well as help to identify factors that may influence treatment effectiveness or patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that follow-up studies can be subject to various biases and limitations, such as loss to follow-up, recall bias, and changes in clinical practice over time, which must be carefully considered when interpreting the results.

The portal vein is the large venous trunk that carries blood from the gastrointestinal tract, spleen, pancreas, and gallbladder to the liver. It is formed by the union of the superior mesenteric vein (draining the small intestine and a portion of the large intestine) and the splenic vein (draining the spleen and pancreas). The portal vein then divides into right and left branches within the liver, where the blood flows through the sinusoids and gets enriched with oxygen and nutrients before being drained by the hepatic veins into the inferior vena cava. This unique arrangement allows the liver to process and detoxify the absorbed nutrients, remove waste products, and regulate metabolic homeostasis.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

Splenomegaly is a medical term that refers to an enlargement or expansion of the spleen beyond its normal size. The spleen is a vital organ located in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen, behind the stomach and below the diaphragm. It plays a crucial role in filtering the blood, fighting infections, and storing red and white blood cells and platelets.

Splenomegaly can occur due to various underlying medical conditions, including infections, liver diseases, blood disorders, cancer, and inflammatory diseases. The enlarged spleen may put pressure on surrounding organs, causing discomfort or pain in the abdomen, and it may also lead to a decrease in red and white blood cells and platelets, increasing the risk of anemia, infections, and bleeding.

The diagnosis of splenomegaly typically involves a physical examination, medical history, and imaging tests such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, surgery, or other interventions to manage the underlying condition.

A biological marker, often referred to as a biomarker, is a measurable indicator that reflects the presence or severity of a disease state, or a response to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers can be found in various materials such as blood, tissues, or bodily fluids, and they can take many forms, including molecular, histologic, radiographic, or physiological measurements.

In the context of medical research and clinical practice, biomarkers are used for a variety of purposes, such as:

1. Diagnosis: Biomarkers can help diagnose a disease by indicating the presence or absence of a particular condition. For example, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a biomarker used to detect prostate cancer.
2. Monitoring: Biomarkers can be used to monitor the progression or regression of a disease over time. For instance, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels are monitored in diabetes patients to assess long-term blood glucose control.
3. Predicting: Biomarkers can help predict the likelihood of developing a particular disease or the risk of a negative outcome. For example, the presence of certain genetic mutations can indicate an increased risk for breast cancer.
4. Response to treatment: Biomarkers can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific treatment by measuring changes in the biomarker levels before and after the intervention. This is particularly useful in personalized medicine, where treatments are tailored to individual patients based on their unique biomarker profiles.

It's important to note that for a biomarker to be considered clinically valid and useful, it must undergo rigorous validation through well-designed studies, including demonstrating sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and clinical relevance.

The biliary tract is a system of ducts that transport bile from the liver to the gallbladder and then to the small intestine. Bile is a digestive fluid produced by the liver that helps in the breakdown and absorption of fats in the small intestine. The main components of the biliary tract are:

1. Intrahepatic bile ducts: These are the smaller branches of bile ducts located within the liver that collect bile from the liver cells or hepatocytes.
2. Gallbladder: A small pear-shaped organ located beneath the liver, which stores and concentrates bile received from the intrahepatic bile ducts. The gallbladder releases bile into the small intestine when food is ingested, particularly fats, to aid digestion.
3. Common hepatic duct: This is a duct that forms by the union of the right and left hepatic ducts, which carry bile from the right and left lobes of the liver, respectively.
4. Cystic duct: A short duct that connects the gallbladder to the common hepatic duct, forming the beginning of the common bile duct.
5. Common bile duct: This is a larger duct formed by the union of the common hepatic duct and the cystic duct. It carries bile from the liver and gallbladder into the small intestine.
6. Pancreatic duct: A separate duct that originates from the pancreas, a gland located near the liver and stomach. The pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct just before they both enter the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine.
7. Ampulla of Vater: This is the dilated portion where the common bile duct and the pancreatic duct join together and empty their contents into the duodenum through a shared opening called the papilla of Vater.

Disorders related to the biliary tract include gallstones, cholecystitis (inflammation of the gallbladder), bile duct stones, bile duct strictures or obstructions, and primary sclerosing cholangitis, among others.

Gallstones are small, hard deposits that form in the gallbladder, a small organ located under the liver. They can range in size from as small as a grain of sand to as large as a golf ball. Gallstones can be made of cholesterol, bile pigments, or calcium salts, or a combination of these substances.

There are two main types of gallstones: cholesterol stones and pigment stones. Cholesterol stones are the most common type and are usually yellow-green in color. They form when there is too much cholesterol in the bile, which causes it to become saturated and form crystals that eventually grow into stones. Pigment stones are smaller and darker in color, ranging from brown to black. They form when there is an excess of bilirubin, a waste product produced by the breakdown of red blood cells, in the bile.

Gallstones can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and bloating, especially after eating fatty foods. In some cases, gallstones can lead to serious complications, such as inflammation of the gallbladder (cholecystitis), infection, or blockage of the bile ducts, which can cause jaundice, a yellowing of the skin and eyes.

The exact cause of gallstones is not fully understood, but risk factors include being female, older age, obesity, a family history of gallstones, rapid weight loss, diabetes, and certain medical conditions such as cirrhosis or sickle cell anemia. Treatment for gallstones may involve medication to dissolve the stones, shock wave therapy to break them up, or surgery to remove the gallbladder.

A living donor is a person who voluntarily donates an organ or part of an organ to another person while they are still alive. This can include donations such as a kidney, liver lobe, lung, or portion of the pancreas or intestines. The donor and recipient typically undergo medical evaluation and compatibility testing to ensure the best possible outcome for the transplantation procedure. Living donation is regulated by laws and ethical guidelines to ensure that donors are fully informed and making a voluntary decision.

Acute liver failure is a sudden and severe loss of liver function that occurs within a few days or weeks. It can be caused by various factors such as drug-induced liver injury, viral hepatitis, or metabolic disorders. In acute liver failure, the liver cannot perform its vital functions, including protein synthesis, detoxification, and metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

The symptoms of acute liver failure include jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), coagulopathy (bleeding disorders), hepatic encephalopathy (neurological symptoms such as confusion, disorientation, and coma), and elevated levels of liver enzymes in the blood. Acute liver failure is a medical emergency that requires immediate hospitalization and treatment, which may include medications, supportive care, and liver transplantation.

Cholelithiasis is a medical term that refers to the presence of gallstones in the gallbladder. The gallbladder is a small pear-shaped organ located beneath the liver that stores bile, a digestive fluid produced by the liver. Gallstones are hardened deposits that can form in the gallbladder when substances in the bile, such as cholesterol or bilirubin, crystallize.

Gallstones can vary in size and may be as small as a grain of sand or as large as a golf ball. Some people with gallstones may not experience any symptoms, while others may have severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, fever, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes) if the gallstones block the bile ducts.

Cholelithiasis is a common condition that affects millions of people worldwide, particularly women over the age of 40 and those with certain medical conditions such as obesity, diabetes, and rapid weight loss. If left untreated, gallstones can lead to serious complications such as inflammation of the gallbladder (cholecystitis), infection, or pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas). Treatment options for cholelithiasis include medication, shock wave lithotripsy (breaking up the gallstones with sound waves), and surgery to remove the gallbladder (cholecystectomy).

Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in human blood plasma, synthesized by the liver. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the oncotic pressure or colloid osmotic pressure of blood, which helps to regulate the fluid balance between the intravascular and extravascular spaces.

Serum albumin has a molecular weight of around 66 kDa and is composed of a single polypeptide chain. It contains several binding sites for various endogenous and exogenous substances, such as bilirubin, fatty acids, hormones, and drugs, facilitating their transport throughout the body. Additionally, albumin possesses antioxidant properties, protecting against oxidative damage.

Albumin levels in the blood are often used as a clinical indicator of liver function, nutritional status, and overall health. Low serum albumin levels may suggest liver disease, malnutrition, inflammation, or kidney dysfunction.

A biopsy is a medical procedure in which a small sample of tissue is taken from the body to be examined under a microscope for the presence of disease. This can help doctors diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as cancer, infections, or autoimmune disorders. The type of biopsy performed will depend on the location and nature of the suspected condition. Some common types of biopsies include:

1. Incisional biopsy: In this procedure, a surgeon removes a piece of tissue from an abnormal area using a scalpel or other surgical instrument. This type of biopsy is often used when the lesion is too large to be removed entirely during the initial biopsy.

2. Excisional biopsy: An excisional biopsy involves removing the entire abnormal area, along with a margin of healthy tissue surrounding it. This technique is typically employed for smaller lesions or when cancer is suspected.

3. Needle biopsy: A needle biopsy uses a thin, hollow needle to extract cells or fluid from the body. There are two main types of needle biopsies: fine-needle aspiration (FNA) and core needle biopsy. FNA extracts loose cells, while a core needle biopsy removes a small piece of tissue.

4. Punch biopsy: In a punch biopsy, a round, sharp tool is used to remove a small cylindrical sample of skin tissue. This type of biopsy is often used for evaluating rashes or other skin abnormalities.

5. Shave biopsy: During a shave biopsy, a thin slice of tissue is removed from the surface of the skin using a sharp razor-like instrument. This technique is typically used for superficial lesions or growths on the skin.

After the biopsy sample has been collected, it is sent to a laboratory where a pathologist will examine the tissue under a microscope and provide a diagnosis based on their findings. The results of the biopsy can help guide further treatment decisions and determine the best course of action for managing the patient's condition.

Hepatitis B is a viral infection that attacks the liver and can cause both acute and chronic disease. The virus is transmitted through contact with infected blood, semen, and other bodily fluids. It can also be passed from an infected mother to her baby at birth.

Acute hepatitis B infection lasts for a few weeks to several months and often causes no symptoms. However, some people may experience mild to severe flu-like symptoms, yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice), dark urine, and fatigue. Most adults with acute hepatitis B recover completely and develop lifelong immunity to the virus.

Chronic hepatitis B infection can lead to serious liver damage, including cirrhosis and liver cancer. People with chronic hepatitis B may experience long-term symptoms such as fatigue, joint pain, and depression. They are also at risk for developing liver failure and liver cancer.

Prevention measures include vaccination, safe sex practices, avoiding sharing needles or other drug injection equipment, and covering wounds and skin rashes. There is no specific treatment for acute hepatitis B, but chronic hepatitis B can be treated with antiviral medications to slow the progression of liver damage.

Biliary cirrhosis is a specific type of liver cirrhosis that results from chronic inflammation and scarring of the bile ducts, leading to impaired bile flow, liver damage, and fibrosis. It can be further classified into primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and secondary biliary cirrhosis. PBC is an autoimmune disease, while secondary biliary cirrhosis is often associated with chronic gallstones, biliary tract obstruction, or recurrent pyogenic cholangitis. Symptoms may include fatigue, itching, jaundice, and abdominal discomfort. Diagnosis typically involves blood tests, imaging studies, and sometimes liver biopsy. Treatment focuses on managing symptoms, slowing disease progression, and preventing complications.

Clinical enzyme tests are laboratory tests that measure the amount or activity of certain enzymes in biological samples, such as blood or bodily fluids. These tests are used to help diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, including organ damage, infection, inflammation, and genetic disorders.

Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the body. Some enzymes are found primarily within specific organs or tissues, so elevated levels of these enzymes in the blood can indicate damage to those organs or tissues. For example, high levels of creatine kinase (CK) may suggest muscle damage, while increased levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) can indicate liver damage.

There are several types of clinical enzyme tests, including:

1. Serum enzyme tests: These measure the level of enzymes in the blood serum, which is the liquid portion of the blood after clotting. Examples include CK, AST, ALT, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH).
2. Urine enzyme tests: These measure the level of enzymes in the urine. An example is N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase (NAG), which can indicate kidney damage.
3. Enzyme immunoassays (EIAs): These use antibodies to detect and quantify specific enzymes or proteins in a sample. They are often used for the diagnosis of infectious diseases, such as HIV or hepatitis.
4. Genetic enzyme tests: These can identify genetic mutations that cause deficiencies in specific enzymes, leading to inherited metabolic disorders like phenylketonuria (PKU) or Gaucher's disease.

It is important to note that the interpretation of clinical enzyme test results should be done by a healthcare professional, taking into account the patient's medical history, symptoms, and other diagnostic tests.

I'd be happy to help! However, I believe there might be a slight misunderstanding in your question. Mitochondria are organelles found in the cells of all complex living organisms, including humans, while the liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen. They don't have a medical definition together. I can certainly provide you with separate definitions for each:

1. Mitochondria: These are double-membrane-bound cellular organelles that generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions. Commonly known as the "powerhouse of the cell," mitochondria convert organic substrates, such as glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids, into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through a process called oxidative phosphorylation. Mitochondria are dynamic structures that can change their shape, size, and number through fission (division) and fusion (merging) processes. They play essential roles in various cellular functions, including calcium signaling, apoptosis (programmed cell death), and the regulation of cellular metabolism.

2. Liver: The liver is a large, lobulated organ that lies mainly in the upper right portion of the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm. It plays a crucial role in various physiological functions, such as detoxification, protein synthesis, metabolism, and nutrient storage. The liver is responsible for removing toxins from the bloodstream, producing bile to aid in digestion, regulating glucose levels, synthesizing plasma proteins, and storing glycogen, vitamins, and minerals. It also contributes to the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids, helping maintain energy homeostasis in the body.

I hope this clarifies any confusion! If you have any further questions or need more information, please don't hesitate to ask.

Bile ducts are tubular structures that carry bile from the liver to the gallbladder for storage or directly to the small intestine to aid in digestion. There are two types of bile ducts: intrahepatic and extrahepatic. Intrahepatic bile ducts are located within the liver and drain bile from liver cells, while extrahepatic bile ducts are outside the liver and include the common hepatic duct, cystic duct, and common bile duct. These ducts can become obstructed or inflamed, leading to various medical conditions such as cholestasis, cholecystitis, and gallstones.

The hepatic veins are blood vessels that carry oxygen-depleted blood from the liver back to the heart. There are typically three major hepatic veins - right, middle, and left - that originate from the posterior aspect of the liver and drain into the inferior vena cava just below the diaphragm. These veins are responsible for returning the majority of the blood flow from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to the heart. It's important to note that the hepatic veins do not have valves, which can make them susceptible to a condition called Budd-Chiari syndrome, where blood clots form in the veins and obstruct the flow of blood from the liver.

Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) is a naturally occurring bile acid that is used medically as a therapeutic agent. It is commonly used to treat gallstones, particularly cholesterol gallstones, and other conditions associated with abnormal liver function, such as primary biliary cholangitis (PBC). UDCA works by decreasing the amount of cholesterol in bile and protecting liver cells from damage. It is also known as ursodiol or Ursotan.

Portal hypertension is a medical condition characterized by an increased pressure in the portal vein, which is the large blood vessel that carries blood from the intestines, spleen, and pancreas to the liver. Normal portal venous pressure is approximately 5-10 mmHg. Portal hypertension is defined as a portal venous pressure greater than 10 mmHg.

The most common cause of portal hypertension is cirrhosis of the liver, which leads to scarring and narrowing of the small blood vessels in the liver, resulting in increased resistance to blood flow. Other causes include blood clots in the portal vein, inflammation of the liver or bile ducts, and invasive tumors that block the flow of blood through the liver.

Portal hypertension can lead to a number of complications, including the development of abnormal blood vessels (varices) in the esophagus, stomach, and intestines, which are prone to bleeding. Ascites, or the accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity, is another common complication of portal hypertension. Other potential complications include encephalopathy, which is a condition characterized by confusion, disorientation, and other neurological symptoms, and an increased risk of bacterial infections.

Treatment of portal hypertension depends on the underlying cause and the severity of the condition. Medications to reduce pressure in the portal vein, such as beta blockers or nitrates, may be used. Endoscopic procedures to band or inject varices can help prevent bleeding. In severe cases, surgery or liver transplantation may be necessary.

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is a medical procedure that combines upper gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy and fluoroscopy to diagnose and treat certain problems of the bile ducts and pancreas.

During ERCP, a flexible endoscope (a long, thin, lighted tube with a camera on the end) is passed through the patient's mouth and throat, then through the stomach and into the first part of the small intestine (duodenum). A narrow plastic tube (catheter) is then inserted through the endoscope and into the bile ducts and/or pancreatic duct. Contrast dye is injected through the catheter, and X-rays are taken to visualize the ducts.

ERCP can be used to diagnose a variety of conditions affecting the bile ducts and pancreas, including gallstones, tumors, strictures (narrowing of the ducts), and chronic pancreatitis. It can also be used to treat certain conditions, such as removing gallstones from the bile duct or placing stents to keep the ducts open in cases of stricture.

ERCP is an invasive procedure that carries a risk of complications, including pancreatitis, infection, bleeding, and perforation (a tear in the lining of the GI tract). It should only be performed by experienced medical professionals in a hospital setting.

Albumins are a type of protein found in various biological fluids, including blood plasma. The most well-known albumin is serum albumin, which is produced by the liver and is the most abundant protein in blood plasma. Serum albumin plays several important roles in the body, such as maintaining oncotic pressure (which helps to regulate fluid balance in the body), transporting various substances (such as hormones, fatty acids, and drugs), and acting as an antioxidant.

Albumins are soluble in water and have a molecular weight ranging from 65,000 to 69,000 daltons. They are composed of a single polypeptide chain that contains approximately 585 amino acid residues. The structure of albumin is characterized by a high proportion of alpha-helices and beta-sheets, which give it a stable, folded conformation.

In addition to their role in human physiology, albumins are also used as diagnostic markers in medicine. For example, low serum albumin levels may indicate liver disease, malnutrition, or inflammation, while high levels may be seen in dehydration or certain types of kidney disease. Albumins may also be used as a replacement therapy in patients with severe protein loss, such as those with nephrotic syndrome or burn injuries.

A chronic disease is a long-term medical condition that often progresses slowly over a period of years and requires ongoing management and care. These diseases are typically not fully curable, but symptoms can be managed to improve quality of life. Common chronic diseases include heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes, arthritis, and COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). They are often associated with advanced age, although they can also affect children and younger adults. Chronic diseases can have significant impacts on individuals' physical, emotional, and social well-being, as well as on healthcare systems and society at large.

Cholagogues and choleretics are terms used to describe medications or substances that affect bile secretion and flow in the body. Here is a medical definition for each:

1. Cholagogue: A substance that promotes the discharge of bile from the gallbladder into the duodenum, often by stimulating the contraction of the gallbladder muscle. This helps in the digestion and absorption of fats. Examples include chenodeoxycholic acid, ursodeoxycholic acid, and some herbal remedies like dandelion root and milk thistle.
2. Choleretic: A substance that increases the production of bile by the liver or its flow through the biliary system. This can help with the digestion of fats and the elimination of waste products from the body. Examples include certain medications like ursodeoxycholic acid, as well as natural substances such as lemon juice, artichoke extract, and turmeric.

It is important to note that while cholagogues and choleretics can aid in digestion, they should be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as improper use or overuse may lead to complications like diarrhea or gallstone formation.

A Severity of Illness Index is a measurement tool used in healthcare to assess the severity of a patient's condition and the risk of mortality or other adverse outcomes. These indices typically take into account various physiological and clinical variables, such as vital signs, laboratory values, and co-morbidities, to generate a score that reflects the patient's overall illness severity.

Examples of Severity of Illness Indices include the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) system, the Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS), and the Mortality Probability Model (MPM). These indices are often used in critical care settings to guide clinical decision-making, inform prognosis, and compare outcomes across different patient populations.

It is important to note that while these indices can provide valuable information about a patient's condition, they should not be used as the sole basis for clinical decision-making. Rather, they should be considered in conjunction with other factors, such as the patient's overall clinical presentation, treatment preferences, and goals of care.

The common bile duct is a duct that results from the union of the cystic duct (which drains bile from the gallbladder) and the common hepatic duct (which drains bile from the liver). The common bile duct transports bile, a digestive enzyme, from the liver and gallbladder to the duodenum, which is the first part of the small intestine.

The common bile duct runs through the head of the pancreas before emptying into the second part of the duodenum, either alone or in conjunction with the pancreatic duct, via a small opening called the ampulla of Vater. The common bile duct plays a crucial role in the digestion of fats by helping to break them down into smaller molecules that can be absorbed by the body.

Postoperative complications refer to any unfavorable condition or event that occurs during the recovery period after a surgical procedure. These complications can vary in severity and may include, but are not limited to:

1. Infection: This can occur at the site of the incision or inside the body, such as pneumonia or urinary tract infection.
2. Bleeding: Excessive bleeding (hemorrhage) can lead to a drop in blood pressure and may require further surgical intervention.
3. Blood clots: These can form in the deep veins of the legs (deep vein thrombosis) and can potentially travel to the lungs (pulmonary embolism).
4. Wound dehiscence: This is when the surgical wound opens up, which can lead to infection and further complications.
5. Pulmonary issues: These include atelectasis (collapsed lung), pneumonia, or respiratory failure.
6. Cardiovascular problems: These include abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias), heart attack, or stroke.
7. Renal failure: This can occur due to various reasons such as dehydration, blood loss, or the use of certain medications.
8. Pain management issues: Inadequate pain control can lead to increased stress, anxiety, and decreased mobility.
9. Nausea and vomiting: These can be caused by anesthesia, opioid pain medication, or other factors.
10. Delirium: This is a state of confusion and disorientation that can occur in the elderly or those with certain medical conditions.

Prompt identification and management of these complications are crucial to ensure the best possible outcome for the patient.

Vital capacity (VC) is a term used in pulmonary function tests to describe the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after taking a deep breath. It is the sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume. In other words, it's the total amount of air you can forcibly exhale after inhaling as deeply as possible. Vital capacity is an important measurement in assessing lung function and can be reduced in conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, and other respiratory disorders.

Cholecystectomy is a medical procedure to remove the gallbladder, a small pear-shaped organ located on the right side of the abdomen, just beneath the liver. The primary function of the gallbladder is to store and concentrate bile, a digestive fluid produced by the liver. During a cholecystectomy, the surgeon removes the gallbladder, usually due to the presence of gallstones or inflammation that can cause pain, infection, or other complications.

There are two primary methods for performing a cholecystectomy:

1. Open Cholecystectomy: In this traditional surgical approach, the surgeon makes an incision in the abdomen to access and remove the gallbladder. This method is typically used when there are complications or unique circumstances that make laparoscopic surgery difficult or risky.
2. Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy: This is a minimally invasive surgical procedure where the surgeon makes several small incisions in the abdomen, through which a thin tube with a camera (laparoscope) and specialized surgical instruments are inserted. The surgeon then guides these tools to remove the gallbladder while viewing the internal structures on a video monitor.

After the gallbladder is removed, bile flows directly from the liver into the small intestine through the common bile duct, and the body continues to function normally without any significant issues.

Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) is a non-invasive medical imaging technique that uses magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to visualize the bile ducts and pancreatic duct. This diagnostic test does not use radiation like other imaging techniques such as computed tomography (CT) scans or endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP).

During an MRCP, the patient lies on a table that slides into the MRI machine. Contrast agents may be used to enhance the visibility of the ducts. The MRI machine uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to produce detailed images of the internal structures, allowing radiologists to assess any abnormalities or blockages in the bile and pancreatic ducts.

MRCP is often used to diagnose conditions such as gallstones, tumors, inflammation, or strictures in the bile or pancreatic ducts. It can also be used to monitor the effectiveness of treatments for these conditions. However, it does not allow for therapeutic interventions like ERCP, which can remove stones or place stents.

Lidocaine is a type of local anesthetic that numbs painful areas and is used to prevent pain during certain medical procedures. It works by blocking the nerves that transmit pain signals to the brain. In addition to its use as an anesthetic, lidocaine can also be used to treat irregular heart rates and relieve itching caused by allergic reactions or skin conditions such as eczema.

Lidocaine is available in various forms, including creams, gels, ointments, sprays, solutions, and injectable preparations. It can be applied directly to the skin or mucous membranes, or it can be administered by injection into a muscle or vein. The specific dosage and method of administration will depend on the reason for its use and the individual patient's medical history and current health status.

Like all medications, lidocaine can have side effects, including allergic reactions, numbness that lasts too long, and in rare cases, heart problems or seizures. It is important to follow the instructions of a healthcare provider carefully when using lidocaine to minimize the risk of adverse effects.

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is a surgical procedure to remove the gallbladder using a laparoscope, a thin tube with a camera, which allows the surgeon to view the internal structures on a video monitor. The surgery is performed through several small incisions in the abdomen, rather than a single large incision used in open cholecystectomy. This approach results in less postoperative pain, fewer complications, and shorter recovery time compared to open cholecystectomy.

The procedure is typically indicated for symptomatic gallstones or chronic inflammation of the gallbladder (cholecystitis), which can cause severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and fever. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy has become the standard of care for gallbladder removal due to its minimally invasive nature and excellent outcomes.

Common bile duct diseases refer to conditions that affect the common bile duct, a tube that carries bile from the liver and gallbladder into the small intestine. Some common examples of common bile duct diseases include:

1. Choledocholithiasis: This is the presence of stones (calculi) in the common bile duct, which can cause blockage, inflammation, and infection.
2. Cholangitis: This is an infection or inflammation of the common bile duct, often caused by obstruction due to stones, tumors, or strictures.
3. Common bile duct cancer (cholangiocarcinoma): This is a rare but aggressive cancer that arises from the cells lining the common bile duct.
4. Biliary strictures: These are narrowing or scarring of the common bile duct, which can be caused by injury, inflammation, or surgery.
5. Benign tumors: Non-cancerous growths in the common bile duct can also cause blockage and other symptoms.

Symptoms of common bile duct diseases may include abdominal pain, jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, and dark urine or light-colored stools. Treatment depends on the specific condition and severity but may include medications, endoscopic procedures, surgery, or a combination of these approaches.

The Predictive Value of Tests, specifically the Positive Predictive Value (PPV) and Negative Predictive Value (NPV), are measures used in diagnostic tests to determine the probability that a positive or negative test result is correct.

Positive Predictive Value (PPV) is the proportion of patients with a positive test result who actually have the disease. It is calculated as the number of true positives divided by the total number of positive results (true positives + false positives). A higher PPV indicates that a positive test result is more likely to be a true positive, and therefore the disease is more likely to be present.

Negative Predictive Value (NPV) is the proportion of patients with a negative test result who do not have the disease. It is calculated as the number of true negatives divided by the total number of negative results (true negatives + false negatives). A higher NPV indicates that a negative test result is more likely to be a true negative, and therefore the disease is less likely to be present.

The predictive value of tests depends on the prevalence of the disease in the population being tested, as well as the sensitivity and specificity of the test. A test with high sensitivity and specificity will generally have higher predictive values than a test with low sensitivity and specificity. However, even a highly sensitive and specific test can have low predictive values if the prevalence of the disease is low in the population being tested.

Chronic Hepatitis C is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV) that lasts for more than six months. This long-term infection can lead to scarring of the liver (cirrhosis), which can cause serious health problems, such as liver failure or liver cancer, in some individuals. The infection is usually asymptomatic until complications arise, but it can be detected through blood tests that identify antibodies to the virus or viral RNA. Chronic hepatitis C is typically managed with antiviral therapy, which can help clear the virus from the body and reduce the risk of liver damage.

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a term that encompasses a spectrum of liver disorders caused by excessive alcohol consumption. The three main stages of ALD are:

1. Fatty Liver: This is the earliest stage of ALD, characterized by the accumulation of fat droplets within liver cells (hepatocytes). It's often reversible with abstinence from alcohol.

2. Alcoholic Hepatitis: This is a more severe form of ALD, characterized by inflammation and damage to the liver cells. It can range from mild to severe, and severe cases can lead to liver failure. Symptoms may include jaundice, abdominal pain, and fever.

3. Cirrhosis: This is the most advanced stage of ALD, characterized by widespread scarring (fibrosis) and nodular transformation of the liver. It's irreversible and can lead to complications such as liver failure, portal hypertension, and increased risk of liver cancer.

The development and progression of ALD are influenced by various factors, including the amount and duration of alcohol consumption, genetic predisposition, nutritional status, and co-existing viral hepatitis or other liver diseases. Abstaining from alcohol is the most effective way to prevent and manage ALD.

Cholangiography is a medical procedure that involves taking X-ray images of the bile ducts (the tubes that carry bile from the liver to the small intestine). This is typically done by injecting a contrast dye into the bile ducts through an endoscope or a catheter that has been inserted into the body.

There are several types of cholangiography, including:

* Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP): This procedure involves inserting an endoscope through the mouth and down the throat into the small intestine. A dye is then injected into the bile ducts through a small tube that is passed through the endoscope.
* Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography (PTC): This procedure involves inserting a needle through the skin and into the liver to inject the contrast dye directly into the bile ducts.
* Operative cholangiography: This procedure is performed during surgery to examine the bile ducts for any abnormalities or blockages.

Cholangiography can help diagnose a variety of conditions that affect the bile ducts, such as gallstones, tumors, or inflammation. It can also be used to guide treatment decisions, such as whether surgery is necessary to remove a blockage.

Hepatitis C is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). It's primarily spread through contact with contaminated blood, often through sharing needles or other equipment to inject drugs. For some people, hepatitis C is a short-term illness but for most — about 75-85% — it becomes a long-term, chronic infection that can lead to serious health problems like liver damage, liver failure, and even liver cancer. The virus can infect and inflame the liver, causing symptoms like jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), abdominal pain, fatigue, and dark urine. Many people with hepatitis C don't have any symptoms, so they might not know they have the infection until they experience complications. There are effective treatments available for hepatitis C, including antiviral medications that can cure the infection in most people. Regular testing is important to diagnose and treat hepatitis C early, before it causes serious health problems.

Hepatitis A is a viral infection that specifically targets the liver, causing inflammation and impaired function. This disease is caused by the hepatitis A virus (HAV), which spreads primarily through the fecal-oral route, often due to poor sanitation and hygiene. Individuals can become infected by consuming food or water contaminated with HAV or by coming into direct contact with an infected person's stool.

The symptoms of hepatitis A may include fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dark urine, clay-colored bowel movements, joint pain, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). However, in some cases, particularly in children under six years old, the infection may be asymptomatic.

While hepatitis A can be unpleasant and cause serious complications, it is rarely fatal and most people recover completely within a few months. Preventive measures include vaccination, practicing good hygiene, and avoiding potentially contaminated food and water.

Hemochromatosis is a medical condition characterized by excessive absorption and accumulation of iron in the body, resulting in damage to various organs. It's often referred to as "iron overload" disorder. There are two main types: primary (hereditary) and secondary (acquired). Primary hemochromatosis is caused by genetic mutations that lead to increased intestinal iron absorption, while secondary hemochromatosis can be the result of various conditions such as multiple blood transfusions, chronic liver disease, or certain types of anemia.

In both cases, the excess iron gets stored in body tissues, particularly in the liver, heart, and pancreas, which can cause organ damage and lead to complications like cirrhosis, liver failure, diabetes, heart problems, and skin discoloration. Early diagnosis and treatment through regular phlebotomy (blood removal) or chelation therapy can help manage the condition and prevent severe complications.

Sclerosing cholangitis is a chronic progressive disease characterized by inflammation and scarring (fibrosis) of the bile ducts, leading to their narrowing or obstruction. This results in impaired bile flow from the liver to the small intestine, which can cause damage to the liver cells and eventually result in cirrhosis and liver failure.

The condition often affects both the intrahepatic (within the liver) and extrahepatic (outside the liver) bile ducts. The exact cause of sclerosing cholangitis is not known, but it is believed to involve an autoimmune response, genetic predisposition, and environmental factors.

Symptoms of sclerosing cholangitis may include jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), itching, abdominal pain, fatigue, weight loss, dark urine, and light-colored stools. The diagnosis is typically made through imaging tests such as magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) or endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), which can visualize the bile ducts and detect any abnormalities.

Treatment for sclerosing cholangitis is aimed at managing symptoms, preventing complications, and slowing down the progression of the disease. This may include medications to relieve itching, antibiotics to treat infections, and drugs to reduce inflammation and improve bile flow. In severe cases, a liver transplant may be necessary.

Medical Definition:

"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.

Hepatocytes are the predominant type of cells in the liver, accounting for about 80% of its cytoplasmic mass. They play a key role in protein synthesis, protein storage, transformation of carbohydrates, synthesis of cholesterol, bile salts and phospholipids, detoxification, modification, and excretion of exogenous and endogenous substances, initiation of formation and secretion of bile, and enzyme production. Hepatocytes are essential for the maintenance of homeostasis in the body.

X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging method that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional (tomographic) images (virtual "slices") of the body. These cross-sectional images can then be used to display detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body.

The term "computed tomography" is used instead of "CT scan" or "CAT scan" because the machines take a series of X-ray measurements from different angles around the body and then use a computer to process these data to create detailed images of internal structures within the body.

CT scanning is a noninvasive, painless medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions. CT imaging provides detailed information about many types of tissue including lung, bone, soft tissue and blood vessels. CT examinations can be performed on every part of the body for a variety of reasons including diagnosis, surgical planning, and monitoring of therapeutic responses.

In computed tomography (CT), an X-ray source and detector rotate around the patient, measuring the X-ray attenuation at many different angles. A computer uses this data to construct a cross-sectional image by the process of reconstruction. This technique is called "tomography". The term "computed" refers to the use of a computer to reconstruct the images.

CT has become an important tool in medical imaging and diagnosis, allowing radiologists and other physicians to view detailed internal images of the body. It can help identify many different medical conditions including cancer, heart disease, lung nodules, liver tumors, and internal injuries from trauma. CT is also commonly used for guiding biopsies and other minimally invasive procedures.

In summary, X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging technique that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional images of the body. It provides detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body, allowing physicians to diagnose and treat medical conditions.

Alcoholic Liver Cirrhosis is a medical condition characterized by irreversible scarring (fibrosis) and damage to the liver caused by excessive consumption of alcohol over an extended period. The liver's normal structure and function are progressively impaired as healthy liver tissue is replaced by scarred tissue, leading to the formation of nodules (regenerative noduli).

The condition typically develops after years of heavy drinking, with a higher risk for those who consume more than 60 grams of pure alcohol daily. The damage caused by alcoholic liver cirrhosis can be life-threatening and may result in complications such as:

1. Ascites (accumulation of fluid in the abdomen)
2. Encephalopathy (neurological dysfunction due to liver failure)
3. Esophageal varices (dilated veins in the esophagus that can rupture and bleed)
4. Hepatorenal syndrome (kidney failure caused by liver disease)
5. Increased susceptibility to infections
6. Liver cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma)
7. Portal hypertension (increased blood pressure in the portal vein that supplies blood to the liver)

Abstaining from alcohol and managing underlying medical conditions are crucial for slowing down or halting disease progression. Treatment may involve medications, dietary changes, and supportive care to address complications. In severe cases, a liver transplant might be necessary.

Hepatitis B Surface Antigens (HBsAg) are proteins found on the surface of the Hepatitis B virus. They are present in the blood of individuals infected with the Hepatitis B virus and are used as a marker for the presence of a current Hepatitis B infection. The detection of HBsAg in the blood indicates that an individual is infectious and can transmit the virus to others. It is typically used in diagnostic tests to detect and diagnose Hepatitis B infections, monitor treatment response, and assess the risk of transmission.

Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV) is a medical term used to describe the volume of air that can be forcefully exhaled from the lungs in one second. It is often measured during pulmonary function testing to assess lung function and diagnose conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or asthma.

FEV is typically expressed as a percentage of the Forced Vital Capacity (FVC), which is the total volume of air that can be exhaled from the lungs after taking a deep breath in. The ratio of FEV to FVC is used to determine whether there is obstruction in the airways, with a lower ratio indicating more severe obstruction.

There are different types of FEV measurements, including FEV1 (the volume of air exhaled in one second), FEV25-75 (the average volume of air exhaled during the middle 50% of the FVC maneuver), and FEV0.5 (the volume of air exhaled in half a second). These measurements can provide additional information about lung function and help guide treatment decisions.

Pulmonary diffusing capacity, also known as pulmonary diffusion capacity, is a measure of the ability of the lungs to transfer gas from the alveoli to the bloodstream. It is often used to assess the severity of lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and pulmonary fibrosis.

The most common measurement of pulmonary diffusing capacity is the diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO), which reflects the transfer of carbon monoxide from the alveoli to the red blood cells in the capillaries. The DLCO is measured during a spirometry test, which involves breathing in a small amount of carbon monoxide and then measuring how much of it is exhaled.

A reduced DLCO may indicate a problem with the lung's ability to transfer oxygen to the blood, which can be caused by a variety of factors including damage to the alveoli or capillaries, thickening of the alveolar membrane, or a decrease in the surface area available for gas exchange.

It is important to note that other factors such as hemoglobin concentration, carboxyhemoglobin level, and lung volume can also affect the DLCO value, so these should be taken into account when interpreting the results of a diffusing capacity test.

An artificial liver is not a actual organ replacement but a device designed to perform some of the functions of a liver in patients with liver failure. These devices can be divided into two types: bioartificial and non-bioartificial. Non-bioartificial devices, such as hemodialysis machines and molecular adsorbent recirculating system (MARS), use physical and chemical processes to remove toxins from the blood. Bioartificial livers, on the other hand, contain living cells, usually hepatocytes, which can perform more advanced liver functions such as synthesizing proteins and drugs metabolism.

It's important to note that currently there is no FDA approved artificial liver device available for use in clinical practice. However, research and development of these devices are ongoing with the hope that they may provide a bridge to transplantation or recovery for patients with acute liver failure.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a DNA virus that belongs to the Hepadnaviridae family and causes the infectious disease known as hepatitis B. This virus primarily targets the liver, where it can lead to inflammation and damage of the liver tissue. The infection can range from acute to chronic, with chronic hepatitis B increasing the risk of developing serious liver complications such as cirrhosis and liver cancer.

The Hepatitis B virus has a complex life cycle, involving both nuclear and cytoplasmic phases. It enters hepatocytes (liver cells) via binding to specific receptors and is taken up by endocytosis. The viral DNA is released into the nucleus, where it is converted into a covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) form, which serves as the template for viral transcription.

HBV transcribes several RNAs, including pregenomic RNA (pgRNA), which is used as a template for reverse transcription during virion assembly. The pgRNA is encapsidated into core particles along with the viral polymerase and undergoes reverse transcription to generate new viral DNA. This process occurs within the cytoplasm of the hepatocyte, resulting in the formation of immature virions containing partially double-stranded DNA.

These immature virions are then enveloped by host cell membranes containing HBV envelope proteins (known as surface antigens) to form mature virions that can be secreted from the hepatocyte and infect other cells. The virus can also integrate into the host genome, which may contribute to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic cases.

Hepatitis B is primarily transmitted through exposure to infected blood or bodily fluids containing the virus, such as through sexual contact, sharing needles, or from mother to child during childbirth. Prevention strategies include vaccination, safe sex practices, and avoiding needle-sharing behaviors. Treatment for hepatitis B typically involves antiviral medications that can help suppress viral replication and reduce the risk of liver damage.

Experimental liver neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the liver that are intentionally created or manipulated in a laboratory setting for the purpose of studying their development, progression, and potential treatment options. These experimental models can be established using various methods such as chemical induction, genetic modification, or transplantation of cancerous cells or tissues. The goal of this research is to advance our understanding of liver cancer biology and develop novel therapies for liver neoplasms in humans. It's important to note that these experiments are conducted under strict ethical guidelines and regulations to minimize harm and ensure the humane treatment of animals involved in such studies.

Bile acids and salts are naturally occurring steroidal compounds that play a crucial role in the digestion and absorption of lipids (fats) in the body. They are produced in the liver from cholesterol and then conjugated with glycine or taurine to form bile acids, which are subsequently converted into bile salts by the addition of a sodium or potassium ion.

Bile acids and salts are stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine during digestion, where they help emulsify fats, allowing them to be broken down into smaller molecules that can be absorbed by the body. They also aid in the elimination of waste products from the liver and help regulate cholesterol metabolism.

Abnormalities in bile acid synthesis or transport can lead to various medical conditions, such as cholestatic liver diseases, gallstones, and diarrhea. Therefore, understanding the role of bile acids and salts in the body is essential for diagnosing and treating these disorders.

Prognosis is a medical term that refers to the prediction of the likely outcome or course of a disease, including the chances of recovery or recurrence, based on the patient's symptoms, medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests. It is an important aspect of clinical decision-making and patient communication, as it helps doctors and patients make informed decisions about treatment options, set realistic expectations, and plan for future care.

Prognosis can be expressed in various ways, such as percentages, categories (e.g., good, fair, poor), or survival rates, depending on the nature of the disease and the available evidence. However, it is important to note that prognosis is not an exact science and may vary depending on individual factors, such as age, overall health status, and response to treatment. Therefore, it should be used as a guide rather than a definitive forecast.

A "Drug Administration Schedule" refers to the plan for when and how a medication should be given to a patient. It includes details such as the dose, frequency (how often it should be taken), route (how it should be administered, such as orally, intravenously, etc.), and duration (how long it should be taken) of the medication. This schedule is often created and prescribed by healthcare professionals, such as doctors or pharmacists, to ensure that the medication is taken safely and effectively. It may also include instructions for missed doses or changes in the dosage.

Immunosuppressive agents are medications that decrease the activity of the immune system. They are often used to prevent the rejection of transplanted organs and to treat autoimmune diseases, where the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues. These drugs work by interfering with the immune system's normal responses, which helps to reduce inflammation and damage to tissues. However, because they suppress the immune system, people who take immunosuppressive agents are at increased risk for infections and other complications. Examples of immunosuppressive agents include corticosteroids, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate mofetil, tacrolimus, and sirolimus.

Acetamides are organic compounds that contain an acetamide functional group, which is a combination of an acetyl group (-COCH3) and an amide functional group (-CONH2). The general structure of an acetamide is R-CO-NH-CH3, where R represents the rest of the molecule.

Acetamides are found in various medications, including some pain relievers, muscle relaxants, and anticonvulsants. They can also be found in certain industrial chemicals and are used as intermediates in the synthesis of other organic compounds.

It is important to note that exposure to high levels of acetamides can be harmful and may cause symptoms such as headache, dizziness, nausea, and vomiting. Chronic exposure has been linked to more serious health effects, including liver and kidney damage. Therefore, handling and use of acetamides should be done with appropriate safety precautions.

Galactose is a simple sugar or monosaccharide that is a constituent of lactose, the disaccharide found in milk and dairy products. It's structurally similar to glucose but with a different chemical structure, and it plays a crucial role in various biological processes.

Galactose can be metabolized in the body through the action of enzymes such as galactokinase, galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, and UDP-galactose 4'-epimerase. Inherited deficiencies in these enzymes can lead to metabolic disorders like galactosemia, which can cause serious health issues if not diagnosed and treated promptly.

In summary, Galactose is a simple sugar that plays an essential role in lactose metabolism and other biological processes.

Metabolic clearance rate is a term used in pharmacology to describe the volume of blood or plasma from which a drug is completely removed per unit time by metabolic processes. It is a measure of the body's ability to eliminate a particular substance and is usually expressed in units of volume (e.g., milliliters or liters) per time (e.g., minutes, hours, or days).

The metabolic clearance rate can be calculated by dividing the total amount of drug eliminated by the plasma concentration of the drug and the time over which it was eliminated. It provides important information about the pharmacokinetics of a drug, including its rate of elimination and the potential for drug-drug interactions that may affect metabolism.

It is worth noting that there are different types of clearance rates, such as renal clearance rate (which refers to the removal of a drug by the kidneys) or hepatic clearance rate (which refers to the removal of a drug by the liver). Metabolic clearance rate specifically refers to the elimination of a drug through metabolic processes, which can occur in various organs throughout the body.

Chronic Hepatitis B is a persistent infection of the liver caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV), which can lead to chronic inflammation and scarring of the liver over time. It is defined as the presence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in the blood for more than six months.

The infection can be asymptomatic or may cause nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, and joint pain. A small percentage of people with chronic HBV infection may develop serious complications, including cirrhosis, liver failure, and liver cancer. Treatment options for chronic hepatitis B include antiviral medications that can help to suppress the virus and reduce the risk of liver damage. Vaccination is available to prevent hepatitis B infection.

Liver extracts are preparations made from animal livers, often from cows or pigs, that contain various nutrients, vitamins, and minerals found in liver tissue. They have been used historically in medicine as a source of nutrition and to treat certain medical conditions.

Liver extracts contain high levels of vitamin B12, iron, and other essential nutrients. They were once commonly prescribed to treat anemia, pernicious anemia (a type of anemia caused by vitamin B12 deficiency), and other conditions related to malnutrition. However, with the advent of more modern treatments and better methods for addressing nutritional deficiencies, liver extracts are less commonly used in modern medicine.

It's important to note that while liver extracts can be a good source of nutrition, they should not be used as a substitute for a balanced diet. Moreover, individuals with certain medical conditions, such as liver disease or hemochromatosis (a condition characterized by excessive iron absorption), should avoid liver extracts or use them only under the supervision of a healthcare provider.

Experimental liver cirrhosis refers to a controlled research setting where various factors and substances are intentionally introduced to induce liver cirrhosis in animals or cell cultures. The purpose is to study the mechanisms, progression, potential treatments, and prevention strategies for liver cirrhosis. This could involve administering chemicals, drugs, alcohol, viruses, or manipulating genes associated with liver damage and fibrosis. It's important to note that results from experimental models may not directly translate to human conditions, but they can provide valuable insights into disease pathophysiology and therapeutic development.

A lung is a pair of spongy, elastic organs in the chest that work together to enable breathing. They are responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide through the process of respiration. The left lung has two lobes, while the right lung has three lobes. The lungs are protected by the ribcage and are covered by a double-layered membrane called the pleura. The trachea divides into two bronchi, which further divide into smaller bronchioles, leading to millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli, where the exchange of gases occurs.

Drug monitoring, also known as therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM), is a medical practice that involves testing blood or other bodily fluids to determine the concentration of a particular medication. This information is used to ensure that the patient is receiving an appropriate dosage and to help guide adjustments in medication therapy. It can be especially important for medications with a narrow therapeutic index, meaning that there is a small range between the effective dose and a toxic dose.

The goal of drug monitoring is to optimize medication effectiveness while minimizing potential side effects. This may involve measuring the concentration of a drug at various times after dosing to determine how quickly it is being metabolized or eliminated from the body, as well as to assess compliance with the prescribed treatment regimen.

Drug monitoring can be performed using a variety of methods, including immunoassays, chromatography, and mass spectrometry. The specific method used will depend on the drug being monitored and the level of sensitivity required. Results from drug monitoring tests are typically interpreted in conjunction with other clinical information, such as the patient's age, weight, renal function, liver function, and overall health status.

Platelet function tests are laboratory tests that measure how well platelets, which are small blood cells responsible for clotting, function in preventing or stopping bleeding. These tests are often used to investigate the cause of abnormal bleeding or bruising, or to monitor the effectiveness of antiplatelet therapy in patients with certain medical conditions such as heart disease or stroke.

There are several types of platelet function tests available, including:

1. Platelet count: This test measures the number of platelets present in a sample of blood. A low platelet count can increase the risk of bleeding.
2. Bleeding time: This test measures how long it takes for a small cut to stop bleeding. It is used less frequently than other tests due to its invasiveness and variability.
3. Platelet aggregation tests: These tests measure how well platelets clump together (aggregate) in response to various agents that promote platelet activation, such as adenosine diphosphate (ADP), collagen, or epinephrine.
4. Platelet function analyzer (PFA): This test measures the time it takes for a blood sample to clot under shear stress, simulating the conditions in an injured blood vessel. The PFA can provide information about the overall platelet function and the effectiveness of antiplatelet therapy.
5. Thromboelastography (TEG) or rotational thromboelastometry (ROTEM): These tests measure the kinetics of clot formation, strength, and dissolution in whole blood samples. They provide information about both platelet function and coagulation factors.

These tests can help healthcare providers diagnose bleeding disorders, assess the risk of bleeding during surgery or other invasive procedures, monitor antiplatelet therapy, and guide treatment decisions for patients with abnormal platelet function.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

Imino acids are organic compounds that contain a nitrogen atom as part of an amide-like structure. They are structurally similar to amino acids, which contain a carboxyl group and an amino group, but instead of the amino group, imino acids have a structural unit known as an imine or Schiff base, which is a carbon-nitrogen double bond with a hydrogen atom attached to the nitrogen atom.

One example of an imino acid is proline, which is a cyclic imino acid that plays important roles in protein structure and function. Proline is unique among the 20 standard amino acids because its side chain is linked to the nitrogen atom of the backbone, forming a ring-like structure. This structural feature gives proline unique properties, such as restricted rotation around the bond between the nitrogen and alpha carbon atoms, which can affect protein folding and stability.

Other imino acids may be formed through chemical reactions or enzymatic processes, and they can play important roles in various biological pathways, including the biosynthesis of amino acids, nucleotides, and other biomolecules. However, imino acids are not typically considered to be part of the standard set of 20 amino acids that make up proteins.

A cohort study is a type of observational study in which a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure are followed up over time to determine the incidence of a specific outcome or outcomes. The cohort, or group, is defined based on the exposure status (e.g., exposed vs. unexposed) and then monitored prospectively to assess for the development of new health events or conditions.

Cohort studies can be either prospective or retrospective in design. In a prospective cohort study, participants are enrolled and followed forward in time from the beginning of the study. In contrast, in a retrospective cohort study, researchers identify a cohort that has already been assembled through medical records, insurance claims, or other sources and then look back in time to assess exposure status and health outcomes.

Cohort studies are useful for establishing causality between an exposure and an outcome because they allow researchers to observe the temporal relationship between the two. They can also provide information on the incidence of a disease or condition in different populations, which can be used to inform public health policy and interventions. However, cohort studies can be expensive and time-consuming to conduct, and they may be subject to bias if participants are not representative of the population or if there is loss to follow-up.

Oral administration is a route of giving medications or other substances by mouth. This can be in the form of tablets, capsules, liquids, pastes, or other forms that can be swallowed. Once ingested, the substance is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and enters the bloodstream to reach its intended target site in the body. Oral administration is a common and convenient route of medication delivery, but it may not be appropriate for all substances or in certain situations, such as when rapid onset of action is required or when the patient has difficulty swallowing.

Graft survival, in medical terms, refers to the success of a transplanted tissue or organ in continuing to function and integrate with the recipient's body over time. It is the opposite of graft rejection, which occurs when the recipient's immune system recognizes the transplanted tissue as foreign and attacks it, leading to its failure.

Graft survival depends on various factors, including the compatibility between the donor and recipient, the type and location of the graft, the use of immunosuppressive drugs to prevent rejection, and the overall health of the recipient. A successful graft survival implies that the transplanted tissue or organ has been accepted by the recipient's body and is functioning properly, providing the necessary physiological support for the recipient's survival and improved quality of life.

Spirometry is a common type of pulmonary function test (PFT) that measures how well your lungs work. This is done by measuring how much air you can exhale from your lungs after taking a deep breath, and how quickly you can exhale it. The results are compared to normal values for your age, height, sex, and ethnicity.

Spirometry is used to diagnose and monitor certain lung conditions, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and other respiratory diseases that cause narrowing of the airways. It can also be used to assess the effectiveness of treatment for these conditions. The test is non-invasive, safe, and easy to perform.

An acute disease is a medical condition that has a rapid onset, develops quickly, and tends to be short in duration. Acute diseases can range from minor illnesses such as a common cold or flu, to more severe conditions such as pneumonia, meningitis, or a heart attack. These types of diseases often have clear symptoms that are easy to identify, and they may require immediate medical attention or treatment.

Acute diseases are typically caused by an external agent or factor, such as a bacterial or viral infection, a toxin, or an injury. They can also be the result of a sudden worsening of an existing chronic condition. In general, acute diseases are distinct from chronic diseases, which are long-term medical conditions that develop slowly over time and may require ongoing management and treatment.

Examples of acute diseases include:

* Acute bronchitis: a sudden inflammation of the airways in the lungs, often caused by a viral infection.
* Appendicitis: an inflammation of the appendix that can cause severe pain and requires surgical removal.
* Gastroenteritis: an inflammation of the stomach and intestines, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.
* Migraine headaches: intense headaches that can last for hours or days, and are often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound.
* Myocardial infarction (heart attack): a sudden blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle, often caused by a buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries.
* Pneumonia: an infection of the lungs that can cause coughing, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
* Sinusitis: an inflammation of the sinuses, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.

It's important to note that while some acute diseases may resolve on their own with rest and supportive care, others may require medical intervention or treatment to prevent complications and promote recovery. If you are experiencing symptoms of an acute disease, it is always best to seek medical attention to ensure proper diagnosis and treatment.

End-stage liver disease (ESLD) is a term used to describe advanced and irreversible liver damage, usually caused by chronic liver conditions such as cirrhosis, hepatitis, or alcoholic liver disease. At this stage, the liver can no longer function properly, leading to a range of serious complications.

The symptoms of ESLD may include:

* Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
* Ascites (accumulation of fluid in the abdomen)
* Encephalopathy (confusion, drowsiness, or coma caused by the buildup of toxins in the brain)
* Bleeding from the gastrointestinal tract
* Infections
* Kidney failure

Treatment for ESLD typically focuses on managing symptoms and preventing complications. In some cases, a liver transplant may be necessary to improve survival. However, due to the shortage of available donor livers, many people with ESLD are not eligible for transplantation. The prognosis for individuals with ESLD is generally poor, with a median survival time of less than one year.

A case-control study is an observational research design used to identify risk factors or causes of a disease or health outcome. In this type of study, individuals with the disease or condition (cases) are compared with similar individuals who do not have the disease or condition (controls). The exposure history or other characteristics of interest are then compared between the two groups to determine if there is an association between the exposure and the disease.

Case-control studies are often used when it is not feasible or ethical to conduct a randomized controlled trial, as they can provide valuable insights into potential causes of diseases or health outcomes in a relatively short period of time and at a lower cost than other study designs. However, because case-control studies rely on retrospective data collection, they are subject to biases such as recall bias and selection bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, it is important to carefully design and conduct case-control studies to minimize these potential sources of bias.

Alcoholism is a chronic and often relapsing brain disorder characterized by the excessive and compulsive consumption of alcohol despite negative consequences to one's health, relationships, and daily life. It is also commonly referred to as alcohol use disorder (AUD) or alcohol dependence.

The diagnostic criteria for AUD include a pattern of alcohol use that includes problems controlling intake, continued use despite problems resulting from drinking, development of a tolerance, drinking that leads to risky behaviors or situations, and withdrawal symptoms when not drinking.

Alcoholism can cause a wide range of physical and psychological health problems, including liver disease, heart disease, neurological damage, mental health disorders, and increased risk of accidents and injuries. Treatment for alcoholism typically involves a combination of behavioral therapies, medications, and support groups to help individuals achieve and maintain sobriety.

Pancreatitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the pancreas, a gland located in the abdomen that plays a crucial role in digestion and regulating blood sugar levels. The inflammation can be acute (sudden and severe) or chronic (persistent and recurring), and it can lead to various complications if left untreated.

Acute pancreatitis often results from gallstones or excessive alcohol consumption, while chronic pancreatitis may be caused by long-term alcohol abuse, genetic factors, autoimmune conditions, or metabolic disorders like high triglyceride levels. Symptoms of acute pancreatitis include severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, fever, and increased heart rate, while chronic pancreatitis may present with ongoing abdominal pain, weight loss, diarrhea, and malabsorption issues due to impaired digestive enzyme production. Treatment typically involves supportive care, such as intravenous fluids, pain management, and addressing the underlying cause. In severe cases, hospitalization and surgery may be necessary.

A liver abscess is a localized collection of pus within the liver tissue caused by an infection. It can result from various sources such as bacterial or amebic infections that spread through the bloodstream, bile ducts, or directly from nearby organs. The abscess may cause symptoms like fever, pain in the upper right abdomen, nausea, vomiting, and weight loss. If left untreated, a liver abscess can lead to serious complications, including sepsis and organ failure. Diagnosis typically involves imaging tests like ultrasound or CT scan, followed by drainage of the pus and antibiotic treatment.

"Random allocation," also known as "random assignment" or "randomization," is a process used in clinical trials and other research studies to distribute participants into different intervention groups (such as experimental group vs. control group) in a way that minimizes selection bias and ensures the groups are comparable at the start of the study.

In random allocation, each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group, and the assignment is typically made using a computer-generated randomization schedule or other objective methods. This process helps to ensure that any differences between the groups are due to the intervention being tested rather than pre-existing differences in the participants' characteristics.

Combination drug therapy is a treatment approach that involves the use of multiple medications with different mechanisms of action to achieve better therapeutic outcomes. This approach is often used in the management of complex medical conditions such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, and cardiovascular diseases. The goal of combination drug therapy is to improve efficacy, reduce the risk of drug resistance, decrease the likelihood of adverse effects, and enhance the overall quality of life for patients.

In combining drugs, healthcare providers aim to target various pathways involved in the disease process, which may help to:

1. Increase the effectiveness of treatment by attacking the disease from multiple angles.
2. Decrease the dosage of individual medications, reducing the risk and severity of side effects.
3. Slow down or prevent the development of drug resistance, a common problem in chronic diseases like HIV/AIDS and cancer.
4. Improve patient compliance by simplifying dosing schedules and reducing pill burden.

Examples of combination drug therapy include:

1. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV treatment, which typically involves three or more drugs from different classes to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
2. Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where multiple cytotoxic agents are used to target various stages of the cell cycle and reduce the likelihood of tumor cells developing resistance.
3. Cardiovascular disease management, which may involve combining medications such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, beta-blockers, diuretics, and statins to control blood pressure, heart rate, fluid balance, and cholesterol levels.
4. Treatment of tuberculosis, which often involves a combination of several antibiotics to target different aspects of the bacterial life cycle and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

When prescribing combination drug therapy, healthcare providers must carefully consider factors such as potential drug interactions, dosing schedules, adverse effects, and contraindications to ensure safe and effective treatment. Regular monitoring of patients is essential to assess treatment response, manage side effects, and adjust the treatment plan as needed.

Lung diseases refer to a broad category of disorders that affect the lungs and other structures within the respiratory system. These diseases can impair lung function, leading to symptoms such as coughing, shortness of breath, chest pain, and wheezing. They can be categorized into several types based on the underlying cause and nature of the disease process. Some common examples include:

1. Obstructive lung diseases: These are characterized by narrowing or blockage of the airways, making it difficult to breathe out. Examples include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, bronchiectasis, and cystic fibrosis.
2. Restrictive lung diseases: These involve stiffening or scarring of the lungs, which reduces their ability to expand and take in air. Examples include idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, sarcoidosis, and asbestosis.
3. Infectious lung diseases: These are caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites that infect the lungs. Examples include pneumonia, tuberculosis, and influenza.
4. Vascular lung diseases: These affect the blood vessels in the lungs, impairing oxygen exchange. Examples include pulmonary embolism, pulmonary hypertension, and chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH).
5. Neoplastic lung diseases: These involve abnormal growth of cells within the lungs, leading to cancer. Examples include small cell lung cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, and mesothelioma.
6. Other lung diseases: These include interstitial lung diseases, pleural effusions, and rare disorders such as pulmonary alveolar proteinosis and lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM).

It is important to note that this list is not exhaustive, and there are many other conditions that can affect the lungs. Proper diagnosis and treatment of lung diseases require consultation with a healthcare professional, such as a pulmonologist or respiratory therapist.

Para-aminobenzoates are a group of compounds that contain a para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) molecule. PABA is an organic compound that is related to benzoic acid and aminobenzoic acid. It is not an essential nutrient for humans, but it does play a role in the metabolism of certain bacteria.

Para-aminobenzoates are often used as ingredients in sunscreens because PABA absorbs ultraviolet (UV) light and can help protect the skin from sun damage. However, para-aminobenzoates can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions in some people, so they have largely been replaced by other UV-absorbing compounds in modern sunscreens.

In addition to their use in sunscreens, para-aminobenzoates are also used in the treatment of various medical conditions. For example, they may be used as a topical agent to treat fungal infections or as a systemic therapy to treat rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory conditions.

It is important to note that para-aminobenzoates should not be confused with paracetamol (also known as acetaminophen), which is a commonly used pain reliever and fever reducer. While both compounds contain the word "para," they are chemically distinct and have different uses in medicine.

Kidney function tests (KFTs) are a group of diagnostic tests that evaluate how well your kidneys are functioning by measuring the levels of various substances in the blood and urine. The tests typically assess the glomerular filtration rate (GFR), which is an indicator of how efficiently the kidneys filter waste from the blood, as well as the levels of electrolytes, waste products, and proteins in the body.

Some common KFTs include:

1. Serum creatinine: A waste product that's produced by normal muscle breakdown and is excreted by the kidneys. Elevated levels may indicate reduced kidney function.
2. Blood urea nitrogen (BUN): Another waste product that's produced when protein is broken down and excreted by the kidneys. Increased BUN levels can suggest impaired kidney function.
3. Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR): A calculation based on serum creatinine, age, sex, and race that estimates the GFR and provides a more precise assessment of kidney function than creatinine alone.
4. Urinalysis: An examination of a urine sample to detect abnormalities such as protein, blood, or bacteria that may indicate kidney disease.
5. Electrolyte levels: Measurement of sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate in the blood to ensure they're properly balanced, which is essential for normal kidney function.

KFTs are often ordered as part of a routine check-up or when kidney disease is suspected based on symptoms or other diagnostic tests. Regular monitoring of kidney function can help detect and manage kidney disease early, potentially preventing or slowing down its progression.

A carrier state is a condition in which a person carries and may be able to transmit a genetic disorder or infectious disease, but does not show any symptoms of the disease themselves. This occurs when an individual has a recessive allele for a genetic disorder or is infected with a pathogen, but does not have the necessary combination of genes or other factors required to develop the full-blown disease.

For example, in the case of cystic fibrosis, which is caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, a person who carries one normal allele and one mutated allele for the disease is considered a carrier. They do not have symptoms of cystic fibrosis themselves, but they can pass the mutated allele on to their offspring, who may then develop the disease if they inherit the mutation from both parents.

Similarly, in the case of infectious diseases, a person who is infected with a pathogen but does not show any symptoms may still be able to transmit the infection to others. This is known as being an asymptomatic carrier or a healthy carrier. For example, some people who are infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) may not develop any symptoms of liver disease, but they can still transmit the virus to others through contact with their blood or other bodily fluids.

It's important to note that in some cases, carriers of certain genetic disorders or infectious diseases may have mild or atypical symptoms that do not meet the full criteria for a diagnosis of the disease. In these cases, they may be considered to have a "reduced penetrance" or "incomplete expression" of the disorder or infection.

Prevalence, in medical terms, refers to the total number of people in a given population who have a particular disease or condition at a specific point in time, or over a specified period. It is typically expressed as a percentage or a ratio of the number of cases to the size of the population. Prevalence differs from incidence, which measures the number of new cases that develop during a certain period.

Risk assessment in the medical context refers to the process of identifying, evaluating, and prioritizing risks to patients, healthcare workers, or the community related to healthcare delivery. It involves determining the likelihood and potential impact of adverse events or hazards, such as infectious diseases, medication errors, or medical devices failures, and implementing measures to mitigate or manage those risks. The goal of risk assessment is to promote safe and high-quality care by identifying areas for improvement and taking action to minimize harm.

The double-blind method is a study design commonly used in research, including clinical trials, to minimize bias and ensure the objectivity of results. In this approach, both the participants and the researchers are unaware of which group the participants are assigned to, whether it be the experimental group or the control group. This means that neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving a particular treatment or placebo, thus reducing the potential for bias in the evaluation of outcomes. The assignment of participants to groups is typically done by a third party not involved in the study, and the codes are only revealed after all data have been collected and analyzed.

Graft rejection is an immune response that occurs when transplanted tissue or organ (the graft) is recognized as foreign by the recipient's immune system, leading to the activation of immune cells to attack and destroy the graft. This results in the failure of the transplant and the need for additional medical intervention or another transplant. There are three types of graft rejection: hyperacute, acute, and chronic. Hyperacute rejection occurs immediately or soon after transplantation due to pre-existing antibodies against the graft. Acute rejection typically occurs within weeks to months post-transplant and is characterized by the infiltration of T-cells into the graft. Chronic rejection, which can occur months to years after transplantation, is a slow and progressive process characterized by fibrosis and tissue damage due to ongoing immune responses against the graft.

The Chi-square distribution is a continuous probability distribution that is often used in statistical hypothesis testing. It is the distribution of a sum of squares of k independent standard normal random variables. The resulting quantity follows a chi-square distribution with k degrees of freedom, denoted as χ²(k).

The probability density function (pdf) of the Chi-square distribution with k degrees of freedom is given by:

f(x; k) = (1/ (2^(k/2) * Γ(k/2))) \* x^((k/2)-1) \* e^(-x/2), for x > 0 and 0, otherwise.

Where Γ(k/2) is the gamma function evaluated at k/2. The mean and variance of a Chi-square distribution with k degrees of freedom are k and 2k, respectively.

The Chi-square distribution has various applications in statistical inference, including testing goodness-of-fit, homogeneity of variances, and independence in contingency tables.

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a neuropsychiatric syndrome associated with liver dysfunction and/or portosystemic shunting. It results from the accumulation of toxic substances, such as ammonia and inflammatory mediators, which are normally metabolized by the liver. HE can present with a wide range of symptoms, including changes in sleep-wake cycle, altered mental status, confusion, disorientation, asterixis (flapping tremor), and in severe cases, coma. The diagnosis is based on clinical evaluation, neuropsychological testing, and exclusion of other causes of cognitive impairment. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying liver dysfunction, reducing ammonia production through dietary modifications and medications, and preventing further episodes with lactulose or rifaximin therapy.

Sensitivity and specificity are statistical measures used to describe the performance of a diagnostic test or screening tool in identifying true positive and true negative results.

* Sensitivity refers to the proportion of people who have a particular condition (true positives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true positive rate" or "recall." A highly sensitive test will identify most or all of the people with the condition, but may also produce more false positives.
* Specificity refers to the proportion of people who do not have a particular condition (true negatives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true negative rate." A highly specific test will identify most or all of the people without the condition, but may also produce more false negatives.

In medical testing, both sensitivity and specificity are important considerations when evaluating a diagnostic test. High sensitivity is desirable for screening tests that aim to identify as many cases of a condition as possible, while high specificity is desirable for confirmatory tests that aim to rule out the condition in people who do not have it.

It's worth noting that sensitivity and specificity are often influenced by factors such as the prevalence of the condition in the population being tested, the threshold used to define a positive result, and the reliability and validity of the test itself. Therefore, it's important to consider these factors when interpreting the results of a diagnostic test.

Carbon tetrachloride is a colorless, heavy, and nonflammable liquid with a mild ether-like odor. Its chemical formula is CCl4. It was previously used as a solvent and refrigerant, but its use has been largely phased out due to its toxicity and ozone-depleting properties.

Inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact with carbon tetrachloride can cause harmful health effects. Short-term exposure can lead to symptoms such as dizziness, headache, nausea, and vomiting. Long-term exposure has been linked to liver and kidney damage, as well as an increased risk of cancer.

Carbon tetrachloride is also a potent greenhouse gas and contributes to climate change. Its production and use are regulated by international agreements aimed at protecting human health and the environment.

Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents. They include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, and phospholipids. Lipids serve many important functions in the body, including energy storage, acting as structural components of cell membranes, and serving as signaling molecules. High levels of certain lipids, particularly cholesterol and triglycerides, in the blood are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Cholesterol is a type of lipid (fat) molecule that is an essential component of cell membranes and is also used to make certain hormones and vitamins in the body. It is produced by the liver and is also obtained from animal-derived foods such as meat, dairy products, and eggs.

Cholesterol does not mix with blood, so it is transported through the bloodstream by lipoproteins, which are particles made up of both lipids and proteins. There are two main types of lipoproteins that carry cholesterol: low-density lipoproteins (LDL), also known as "bad" cholesterol, and high-density lipoproteins (HDL), also known as "good" cholesterol.

High levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood can lead to a buildup of cholesterol in the walls of the arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke. On the other hand, high levels of HDL cholesterol are associated with a lower risk of these conditions because HDL helps remove LDL cholesterol from the bloodstream and transport it back to the liver for disposal.

It is important to maintain healthy levels of cholesterol through a balanced diet, regular exercise, and sometimes medication if necessary. Regular screening is also recommended to monitor cholesterol levels and prevent health complications.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "India" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country in South Asia, the second-most populous country in the world, known for its rich history, diverse culture, and numerous contributions to various fields including medicine. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to help answer them!

Technetium Tc 99m Aggregated Albumin is a radiopharmaceutical preparation used in diagnostic imaging. It consists of radioactive technetium-99m (^99m^Tc) chemically bonded to human serum albumin, which has been aggregated to increase its size and alter its clearance from the body.

The resulting compound is injected into the patient's bloodstream, where it accumulates in the reticuloendothelial system (RES), including the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. The radioactive emission of technetium-99m can then be detected by a gamma camera, producing images that reflect the distribution and function of the RES.

This imaging technique is used to diagnose and monitor various conditions, such as liver disease, inflammation, or tumors. It provides valuable information about the patient's health status and helps guide medical decision-making.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique used to compare the means of two or more groups and determine whether there are any significant differences between them. It is a way to analyze the variance in a dataset to determine whether the variability between groups is greater than the variability within groups, which can indicate that the groups are significantly different from one another.

ANOVA is based on the concept of partitioning the total variance in a dataset into two components: variance due to differences between group means (also known as "between-group variance") and variance due to differences within each group (also known as "within-group variance"). By comparing these two sources of variance, ANOVA can help researchers determine whether any observed differences between groups are statistically significant, or whether they could have occurred by chance.

ANOVA is a widely used technique in many areas of research, including biology, psychology, engineering, and business. It is often used to compare the means of two or more experimental groups, such as a treatment group and a control group, to determine whether the treatment had a significant effect. ANOVA can also be used to compare the means of different populations or subgroups within a population, to identify any differences that may exist between them.

Antiviral agents are a class of medications that are designed to treat infections caused by viruses. Unlike antibiotics, which target bacteria, antiviral agents interfere with the replication and infection mechanisms of viruses, either by inhibiting their ability to replicate or by modulating the host's immune response to the virus.

Antiviral agents are used to treat a variety of viral infections, including influenza, herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, hepatitis B and C, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections.

These medications can be administered orally, intravenously, or topically, depending on the type of viral infection being treated. Some antiviral agents are also used for prophylaxis, or prevention, of certain viral infections.

It is important to note that antiviral agents are not effective against all types of viruses and may have significant side effects. Therefore, it is essential to consult with a healthcare professional before starting any antiviral therapy.

Prothrombin time (PT) is a medical laboratory test that measures the time it takes for blood to clot. It's often used to evaluate the functioning of the extrinsic and common pathways of the coagulation system, which is responsible for blood clotting. Specifically, PT measures how long it takes for prothrombin (a protein produced by the liver) to be converted into thrombin, an enzyme that converts fibrinogen into fibrin and helps form a clot.

Prolonged PT may indicate a bleeding disorder or a deficiency in coagulation factors, such as vitamin K deficiency or the use of anticoagulant medications like warfarin. It's important to note that PT is often reported with an international normalized ratio (INR), which allows for standardization and comparison of results across different laboratories and reagent types.

Hepatic insufficiency, also known as liver insufficiency, refers to the reduced ability of the liver to perform its vital functions due to damage or disease. The liver plays a crucial role in metabolism, detoxification, synthesis, storage, and secretion. When it becomes insufficient, it can lead to various complications such as:

1. Impaired metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
2. Buildup of toxic substances in the blood due to reduced detoxification capacity
3. Decreased synthesis of essential proteins, including clotting factors
4. Reduced glycogen storage and impaired glucose regulation
5. Fluid accumulation in the abdomen (ascites) and legs (edema) due to decreased production of albumin and increased pressure in the portal vein
6. Impaired immune function, making the individual more susceptible to infections
7. Hormonal imbalances leading to various symptoms such as changes in appetite, weight loss, and sexual dysfunction

Hepatic insufficiency can range from mild to severe, and if left untreated, it may progress to liver failure, a life-threatening condition requiring immediate medical attention.

Hepacivirus is a genus of viruses in the family Flaviviridae. The most well-known member of this genus is Hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is a major cause of liver disease worldwide. HCV infection can lead to chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer.

Hepaciviruses are enveloped viruses with a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome. They have a small icosahedral capsid and infect a variety of hosts, including humans, non-human primates, horses, and birds. The virus enters the host cell by binding to specific receptors on the cell surface and is then internalized through endocytosis.

HCV has a high degree of genetic diversity and is classified into seven major genotypes and numerous subtypes based on differences in its RNA sequence. This genetic variability can affect the virus's ability to evade the host immune response, making treatment more challenging.

In addition to HCV, other hepaciviruses have been identified in various animal species, including equine hepacivirus (EHCV), rodent hepacivirus (RHV), and bat hepacivirus (BtHepCV). These viruses are being studied to better understand the biology of hepaciviruses and their potential impact on human health.

Total Lung Capacity (TLC) is the maximum volume of air that can be contained within the lungs at the end of a maximal inspiration. It includes all of the following lung volumes: tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, and residual volume. TLC can be measured directly using gas dilution techniques or indirectly by adding residual volume to vital capacity. Factors that affect TLC include age, sex, height, and lung health status.

A cross-sectional study is a type of observational research design that examines the relationship between variables at one point in time. It provides a snapshot or a "cross-section" of the population at a particular moment, allowing researchers to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition and identify potential risk factors or associations.

In a cross-sectional study, data is collected from a sample of participants at a single time point, and the variables of interest are measured simultaneously. This design can be used to investigate the association between exposure and outcome, but it cannot establish causality because it does not follow changes over time.

Cross-sectional studies can be conducted using various data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, or medical examinations. They are often used in epidemiology to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition in a population and to identify potential risk factors that may contribute to its development. However, because cross-sectional studies only provide a snapshot of the population at one point in time, they cannot account for changes over time or determine whether exposure preceded the outcome.

Therefore, while cross-sectional studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying potential associations between variables, further research using other study designs, such as cohort or case-control studies, is necessary to establish causality and confirm any findings.

Recurrence, in a medical context, refers to the return of symptoms or signs of a disease after a period of improvement or remission. It indicates that the condition has not been fully eradicated and may require further treatment. Recurrence is often used to describe situations where a disease such as cancer comes back after initial treatment, but it can also apply to other medical conditions. The likelihood of recurrence varies depending on the type of disease and individual patient factors.

A hepatic portoenterostomy, also known as Kasai procedure, is a surgical operation performed on infants with extrahepatic biliary atresia. This condition is characterized by the absence or abnormal formation of the bile ducts that carry bile from the liver to the small intestine, leading to obstruction and damage to the liver.

During a hepatic portoenterostomy, the surgeon creates an anastomosis (connection) between the portal vein, which brings blood to the liver, and a loop of intestine. This connection allows bile to flow directly from the liver into the intestine, bypassing the blocked or absent bile ducts. The goal of the procedure is to restore bile flow and prevent further damage to the liver.

The success of the procedure varies, but it can help improve the child's quality of life and delay or prevent the need for a liver transplant in some cases. However, many children with biliary atresia will eventually require a liver transplant as the disease progresses.

In epidemiology, the incidence of a disease is defined as the number of new cases of that disease within a specific population over a certain period of time. It is typically expressed as a rate, with the number of new cases in the numerator and the size of the population at risk in the denominator. Incidence provides information about the risk of developing a disease during a given time period and can be used to compare disease rates between different populations or to monitor trends in disease occurrence over time.

"Sex factors" is a term used in medicine and epidemiology to refer to the differences in disease incidence, prevalence, or response to treatment that are observed between males and females. These differences can be attributed to biological differences such as genetics, hormones, and anatomy, as well as social and cultural factors related to gender.

For example, some conditions such as autoimmune diseases, depression, and osteoporosis are more common in women, while others such as cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancer are more prevalent in men. Additionally, sex differences have been observed in the effectiveness and side effects of various medications and treatments.

It is important to consider sex factors in medical research and clinical practice to ensure that patients receive appropriate and effective care.

... at Lab Tests Online Overview at Mayo Clinic Abnormal Liver Function Tests Overview of liver enzymes ... it is more accurate to call these liver chemistries or liver tests rather than liver function tests. Several biochemical tests ... "Liver Function Test: How Often Should you Check Your Liver Function?". LetsGetChecked. "Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) Test: ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to Liver function tests. Liver Function Tests at the U.S. National Library of Medicine ...
A number of liver function tests are available to test the proper function of the liver. These test for the presence of enzymes ... Model for end-stage liver disease (MELD) "Liver Diseases". MedlinePlus. MedlinePlus Encyclopedia: Liver function tests "NHS ... Liver biopsy can be performed to examine liver tissue to distinguish between various conditions; tests such as elastography may ... Liver disease, or hepatic disease, is any of many diseases of the liver. If long-lasting it is termed chronic liver disease. ...
No single test can differentiate between various classifications of jaundice. A combination of liver function tests and other ... "Liver Function Tests". MedlinePlus. US National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 16 January 2021. Roche SP, Kobos R (2004). " ... Other primary lab tests for liver function include gamma glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) and prothrombin time (PT). ... The typical liver panel includes blood levels of enzymes found primarily from the liver, such as the aminotransferases (ALT, ...
Genetic testing Blood sugar level Liver function testing Calcium testing Testing for electrolytes in the blood, such as sodium ... "Liver Function Tests". Lab Tests Online UK. 10 January 2020. Archived from the original on 5 December 2011. Retrieved 10 ... Medical tests may also have indirect risks, such as the stress of testing, and riskier tests may be required as follow-up for a ... In monitoring tests of an individual, the test results from previous tests on that individual may be used as a reference to ...
AA: Aminoaciduria; AD:autosomal dominant; AR: autosomal recessive; LFT's: Liver function tests; LMWP: low molecular weight ...
Liver disease - Elevated liver function tests. Pericardial effusion - Fluid around the heart. Peripheral neuropathy (PN) - ... Patients do not respond well to reflex tests. Strabismus - Crossed eyes, mainly presented as infantile Esotropia Nystagmus - ... "Liver involvement in congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDG). A systematic review of the literature". Journal of Inherited ...
Allen, JG: Tests of Liver Function. Kansas City Academy, Kansas City. 57. Finkel, M. P., & Hirsch, G. M. (1950). URANIUM ... liver, and skeleton of the rat at different times after intravenous administration. BIOLOGICAL AND MEDICAL DIVISIONS QUARTERLY ...
Acid phosphatase Liver function tests PDB: 1ALK​: Kim EE, Wyckoff HW (March 1991). "Reaction mechanism of alkaline phosphatase ... "Alkaline phosphatase: Liver Function Test - Viral Hepatitis". www.hepatitis.va.gov. Retrieved 2016-05-02. Delmas PD (December ... Blood tests should always be interpreted using the reference range from the laboratory that performed the test. High alkaline ... The level of alkaline phosphatase in the blood is checked through the ALP test, which is often part of routine blood tests. The ...
The liver function tests are usually elevated. A low level of the protein albumin in the blood is common.[citation needed] The ... Molecular genetic testing for four of the causative genes, PRF1 (FHL2), UNC13D (FHL3), STX11 (FHL4), and STXBP2 (FHL5), is ... HLH clinically manifests with fever, enlargement of the liver and spleen, enlarged lymph nodes, yellow discoloration of the ... Hayden, Anna (December 2017). "Soluble interleukin-2 receptor is a sensitive diagnostic test in adult HLH". Blood Advances. 1 ( ...
Liver and kidney function tests are often abnormal.[citation needed] Thrombosis of the internal jugular vein can be displayed ... Liver enlargement and spleen enlargement can be found, but are not always associated with liver or spleen abscesses. Other ... Other sites involved in septic metastasis and abscess formation are the muscles and soft tissues, liver, spleen, kidneys and ...
... itch can occur without abnormal liver function tests; itch does not correlate with progression of liver disease, and may even ... having been referred to the hepatologist for abnormal liver function tests (mostly raised GGT or alkaline phosphatase) ... Liver biopsy is also useful to assess the relative contribution of each liver injury when a comorbid liver disease is present, ... The basis for a definite diagnosis are: Abnormalities in liver enzyme tests are usually present and elevated gamma-glutamyl ...
Liver function tests should be restudied as needed during the postoperative recovery period. The average hospital stay ranges ... liver function tests are carried out. An ultrasound is conducted to establish the location of biliary tract obstruction as well ... Liver tests are performed before and after the operation. During surgery, the duodenum should be repositioned in close ... It can be sent for a bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase test if there are concerns regarding the output. After the surgery, ...
"Albumin: Liver Function Test - Viral Hepatitis and Liver Disease". Archived from the original on September 13, 2021. Retrieved ... Some tests can be done only on plasma and some only on serum. Some can be done on both, but depending on the test, use of ... In addition, some tests have to be done with whole blood, such as the determination of the amount of blood cells in blood via ... Alpha-1 and Alpha-2 globulins are formed in the liver and play an important role in mineral transport and the inhibition of ...
Liver function tests and lipase would identify pancreaticobiliary diseases. Abdominal X-rays showing air-fluid levels indicate ... When a history and physical exam are not enough to determine the cause of nausea and vomiting, certain diagnostic tests may ... Abnormal GI motility can be assessed using specific tests like gastric scintigraphy, wireless motility capsules, and small- ... Endocrine/metabolic disease Pregnancy Uremia Ketoacidosis Thyroid and parathyroid disease Adrenal insufficiency Toxins Liver ...
... liver complications including jaundice and abnormal liver function tests; reproductive effects including reduction in sperm ... It is not recommended in people with severe liver or kidney problems. Use in pregnancy is known to harm the baby. Procarbazine ... Procarbazine is metabolized in the liver to an azo-derivative and then further metabolized by the cytochrome P-450 system to an ... Dose should be adjusted for kidney disease or liver disease. Very common (greater than 10% of people experience them) adverse ...
Upon discovery of hypoalbuminemia, a common work-up will include liver function tests to assess for liver disease, urine ... The serum albumin level is part of a standard panel of liver function tests (LFT) that also includes levels of plasma protein, ... Laboratory tests aimed at assessing liver function diagnose hypoalbuminemia. Once identified, it is a poor prognostic indicator ... In the liver, the liver synthesizes albumin as pre-proalbumin, converts it first into proalbumin and then albumin in ...
Liver function tests among Michigan and Wisconsin dairy farmers. Environmental health perspectives. 1978 Apr;23:333-9. Daum SM ... liver function among dairy farmers, and techniques for measuring polybrominated biphenyl exposure. In 1998, Holstein founded ... Living people, Children's rights activists, American human rights activists, Physicians from Massachusetts, American ...
FLD is the most common cause of abnormal liver function tests in the United States. Fatty liver is more prevalent in Hispanic ... Most individuals are asymptomatic and are usually discovered incidentally because of abnormal liver function tests or ... Non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL) or simple fatty liver Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) Alcoholic liver disease (ALD). ... Fatty livers can be induced via gavage in geese or ducks to produce foie gras. Fatty liver can also be induced in ruminants ...
Sperm test Liver function, renal function and inflammation marker testing. Karyotype to check for chromosomal abnormalities. ... Early morning hormonal testing including FSH, LH, testosterone, oestrogen and prolactin. GnRH and/or hCG stimulation test to ... The bone density scan is known as a dual energy X-ray absorptiometry scan (DEXA or DXA scan). It is a simple test, taking less ... Some cases of KS/HH appear to reverse during adult life where the HPG axis resumes its normal function and GnRH, LH, and FSH ...
Liver Function Test: A series of tests used to assess liver function some of the tests are also used in the assessment of ... Serum cholinesterase test: a test of liver enzymes (acetylcholinesterase and pseudocholinesterase) useful as a test of liver ... chlorine and sodium and tests specific to liver and kidney function. Glucose tolerance test: Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT ... Thyroid function tests: tests used to assess thyroid functioning by checking levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), ...
ISBN 0 642 82328 6. Clough, Alan R.; Bailie, Ross S.; Currie, Bart (1 January 2003). "Liver Function Test Abnormalities in ... Liver Function, Addiction, and Sexual Effects". Phytotherapy Research. 27 (11): 1723-1728. doi:10.1002/ptr.4916. ISSN 1099-1573 ... particularly liver injury, is not known... Between 50 and 100 cases of clinically apparent liver injury have been published or ... Heavy, long-term use of kava has been found to be free of association with reduced ability in saccade and cognitive tests, but ...
... and abnormal liver function tests. Allergic reactions include rashes and anaphylaxis. Less common side effects (. 2.0.co;2. ... Liver problems have been reported. It may cause harm if taken during pregnancy. It is in the macrolide class and works by ... It should not be used with colchicine in people with kidney or liver impairment. Concomitant use with cholesterol medications ... Clarithromycin should not be used by people with a history of cholestatic jaundice and/or liver dysfunction associated with ...
... therefore periodic liver function tests are recommended for those taking oxymetholone. Like other AAS, oxymetholone is an ... It can also cause liver damage. The drug is a synthetic androgen and anabolic steroid and hence is an agonist of the androgen ... The drug is metabolized in the liver by oxidation at the C2 position, reduction at the C3 position, hydroxylation at the C17 ... Long term use of the drug can cause a variety of serious ailments, including hepatitis, liver cancer, and cirrhosis; ...
Baseline blood tests typically include liver function tests and tumour markers. During surgery, intraoperative ultrasound can ... Previously, liver metastasectomy was limited to patients with less than four sites of metastasis in the liver, with a tumour- ... Of patients who die from metastasised colorectal cancer, 20% have metastasis in the liver alone. Surgical resection of liver ... If there are both liver and lung metastases, a resection of both can be attempted. In general, only 10% of patients with ...
Long-term use can also lead to abnormal liver function tests; specifically, prolonged morphine use can increase ALT and AST ... Oral doses of opium tincture are rapidly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract and metabolized in the liver. Peak plasma ... Adkins L, Adkins R (2013). Eavesdropping on Jane Austen's England: How our ancestors lived two centuries ago. London: Little, ... one only has to consider the living conditions at the time". In the 1850s, "cholera and dysentery regularly ripped through ...
The protocol includes twice-weekly blood tests and liver function tests; measurement of serum lactate levels, for early ... It can be used in people of all ages and in people with liver disease or poor kidney function. Common side effects with short- ... No dosage adjustments are required in the elderly, in people with mild-to-moderate liver failure, or in those with impaired ... Linezolid is metabolized in the liver, by oxidation of the morpholine ring, without involvement of the cytochrome P450 system. ...
His continued work on liver function tests resulted in the use of bromsulphthalein, which remains in use. Rosenthal discovered ... Rosenthal, S.M. (1922). "An improved method for using phenoltetrachlorphthlalein as a liver function test". Journal of ... He showed that the rate at which the liver metabolizes an ingested dye can be used to quantify how well this organ functions. ... Rosenthal, S.M.; White, E.C. (1925). "Clinical application of the bromsulphalein test for hepatic function". Journal of the ...
Abnormal liver-function tests have been reported with all three NSAAs. The incidence of abnormalities varies widely, from 2-3% ... n\n] Drug-induced changes were more likely when liver function test values were above the ULN at more than one assessment. This ... Incidences of abnormal liver function test results have been variously reported from 2%-33% in nilutamide groups [13, 32, 33, ... The incidence of abnormal liver-function tests has been reported in variable percentages, ranging from 4 to 62% of the patients ...
... pioneered liver function tests, discovered rongalite as the antidote for mercury poisoning, discovered an antibiotic cure for ... "An improved method for using phenoltetrachlorphthlalein as a liver function test". Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental ... Plaa, G.L. (2010). "Evaluation of hepatotoxicity: physiological and biochemical measures of hepatic function in animals". In ...
... tests of renal function, liver function, and lipid and glucose metabolism; and monitoring of prolactin levels, body weight, and ... Cyproterone acetate can cause elevated liver enzymes and liver damage, including liver failure. However, this occurs mostly in ... blood work is done frequently to assess hormone levels and liver function. The Endocrine Society recommends that patients have ... "Estrogen therapy and liver function--metabolic effects of oral and parenteral administration". The Prostate. 14 (4): 389-395. ...
... but the prognostic significance of liver function tests (LFTs) remains controversial. Heart failure with preserved ejection ... span,,b,Background:,/b, Liver dysfunction is prevalent in patients with heart failure (HF), ... Effect of minor liver function test abnormalities and values within the normal range on survival in heart failure. Am J Cardiol ... Prognostic Implication of Liver Function Tests in Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction Without Chronic Hepatic ...
Learn about the most common liver function tests, why theyre used, and more. ... Liver function tests help determine the health of your liver. ... Liver function tests are blood tests that can be used to ... medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/ast-test/. *. Hall P, et al. (2012). What is the real function of the liver function tests?. https ... Liver function tests are blood tests used to help determine the health of your liver. Changes in certain levels of proteins or ...
Liver function tests are common tests that are used to see how well the liver is working. Tests include: ... Liver function tests are common tests that are used to see how well the liver is working. Tests include: ... Liver chemistry and function tests. In: Feldman M, Friedman LS, Brandt LJ, eds. Sleisenger and Fordtrans Gastrointestinal and ... Evaluation of liver function. In: McPherson RA, Pincus MR, eds. Henrys Clinical Diagnosis and Management by Laboratory Methods ...
When is it appropriate--and cost effective--to further test for chronic viral hepatitis? ... Abnormal liver function tests are a common finding in primary care, but often dont indicate any serious condition. ... Liver Function Tests are Ordered in Large Numbers in Primary Care. Liver function tests (LFTs) are comprised of a panel of five ... Should Patients with Abnormal Liver Function Tests in Primary Care be Tested for Chronic Viral Hepatitis. ...
Liver Function Tests. Liver inflammation during hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection can be identified by elevations in alanine ... Serologic Tests. Specific antibody tests for HAV confirm infection. Anti-HAV immunoglobulin M (IgM) is present at the onset of ... Liver biopsy is not indicated, because of the self-limited nature of HAV infection and the absence of a chronic infectious ... Ultrasonography of the liver may be helpful when cholelithiasis is a consideration. However, imaging studies are generally not ...
Liver function tests among Michigan and Wisconsin dairy farmers.. *H A Anderson ... no obvious relationship between serum PBB values and liver function tests was observed. However, this is a tentative conclusion ... not differ from the remaining five randomly selected subgroups combined in prevalence of these abnormal liver function tests. ... The caffeine breath test and caffeine urinary metabolite ratios in the Michigan cohort exposed to polybrominated biphenyls: a ...
Liver Function Tests at Lab Tests Online Overview at Mayo Clinic Abnormal Liver Function Tests Overview of liver enzymes ... it is more accurate to call these liver chemistries or liver tests rather than liver function tests. Several biochemical tests ... "Liver Function Test: How Often Should you Check Your Liver Function?". LetsGetChecked. "Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) Test: ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to Liver function tests. Liver Function Tests at the U.S. National Library of Medicine ...
How does one go about detoxing a liver? I had colon cancer surgery in e3arly 2001 and 7 months of chemo. Now my liver function ... Hi Secondchance48,The chemo they use on colon cancer is hell on livers,dont worry until they do a pet or cat scan. Im 5 years ... Have you tried detoxing your liver? Everything I read about long term cancer survival involves detoxifying our systems-- ... Have you tried detoxing your liver? Everything I read about long term cancer survival involves detoxifying our systems-- ...
Omeprazole and liver function tests B K Sharma, I A Santana, R P Walt, R E Pounder ... Omeprazole and liver function tests B K Sharma et al. Lancet. 1983. . ...
... - Download as a PDF or view online for free ... Similar to Liver function tests (LFTs) B-QuiCK - bpacnz.pdf(. 20. ). Correlation Of Alpha Fetoprotein & Lf Ts In Liver. Zahoor ... Similar to Liver function tests (LFTs) B-QuiCK - bpacnz.pdf. Correlation Of Alpha Fetoprotein & Lf Ts In LiverZahoor Ahmed4K. ... Choose another topic Liver function tests (LFTs) Summary: interpreting abnormal LFTs in primary care Summary: tiered testing ...
LFTs are a group of tests that are looked at to see how healthy the liver is, any causes of illness and how serious the illness ... Liver function tests (LFT) check how your liver is working. The liver helps clean your blood, makes blood clotting factors, ... Adult Primary Liver Cancer Treatment (Patients) Childhood Liver Cancer Treatment (Patients) Primary Liver Cancer Treatment (PDQ ... LFTs are a group of tests that are looked at to see how healthy the liver is, any causes of illness, and how serious the ...
Find out why doctors do liver function tests and whats involved for teens. ... If your liver isnt working properly, it can affect your overall health. ... What Is a Hepatic (Liver) Function Panel?. A hepatic (pronounced: hih-PAT-ik) function panel is a blood test that helps doctors ... Why Are Liver Function Panels Done?. Doctors order a liver function panel to learn about the levels of:. *Albumin (pronounced: ...
Find out why doctors do liver function tests and whats involved for teens. ... If your liver isnt working properly, it can affect your overall health. ... What Is a Hepatic (Liver) Function Panel?. A hepatic (pronounced: hih-PAT-ik) function panel is a blood test that helps doctors ... Why Are Liver Function Panels Done?. Doctors order a liver function panel to learn about the levels of:. *Albumin (pronounced: ...
Novel Test Reportedly Detects Liver Disease Years Before It Can Become Fatal ...
... abnormal results on liver function tests include decreased albumin levels and prolonged prothrombin time. ... How frequently are liver function test results abnormal in patients with autoimmune hepatitis (AIH)?. Updated: Jun 11, 2019 ... In 50% of patients, abnormal results on liver function tests include decreased albumin levels and prolonged prothrombin time. ... Recurrence of autoimmune liver diseases after liver transplantation. World J Hepatol. 2015 Dec 18. 7(29):2896-905. [Medline]. ...
30 Liver Function Test, revolutionizing healthcare with accurate results. ... In Diagnostics has launched a $30 liver function test that provides rapid and accurate results by analyzing ALT and AST liver ... The Significance of Liver Function Monitoring. Monitoring liver function is essential due to the organs ability to decline in ... New $30 Liver Function Test Launched By In Diagnostics. Written by: Camila Salter , Published: 20 September 2023 ...
Take Liver Function Test for a Healthy Liver. March 11, 2022. March 15, 2022. by admin The liver is vital to the general health ... Kinds of Liver Disorders. From brief to more genuine in nature, here are a portion of the liver problems that can happen check ... Cirrhosis makes stringy tissue in the liver which diminishes the typical functioning capacity. However, when you have cirrhosis ... If you need to keep your liver healthy or you as of now have liver damage, having a healthy way of life will assist with ...
Peripheral T-cell lymphoma presenting as fever of unknown origin in a man with deranged liver function tests and pancytopenia ... Peripheral T-cell lymphoma presenting as fever of unknown origin in a man with deranged liver function tests and pancytopenia ... Peripheral T-cell lymphoma presenting as fever of unknown origin in a man with deranged liver function tests and pancytopenia ...
... more tests such as imaging tests or other procedures might be done to confirm the diagnosis. ... Liver function tests. If you have been diagnosed with eye melanoma, your doctor may order blood tests to see how well your ... Abnormal test results can sometimes be a sign that the cancer has spread to the liver. ... Blood tests. Blood tests cant be used to diagnose melanoma of the eye, but they may be done once a diagnosis is made. ...
Read on to learn more about what liver tests screen for and where to buy at-home liver tests online. ... At-home liver tests can provide information on how well a persons liver functions. ... A liver test, or a liver panel or hepatic function panel, is a blood test that assesses the health and function of the liver. A ... The following are some commonly asked questions about liver tests. Can you test liver function at home? Liver tests are ...
Liver Function Tests. Elevations of liver enzymes and/or serum bilirubin have occurred (see WARNINGS, Hepatic Failure). ... Impaired Renal Function. As a consequence of inhibiting the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, changes in renal function may ... Fetal testing may be appropriate, based on the week of pregnancy. Patients and physicians should be aware, however, that ... Monitor renal function periodically in patients receiving enalapril and NSAID therapy.. In a clinical pharmacology study, ...
Liver Function Tests Rarely, elevations of liver enzymes and/or serum bilirubin have occurred (see WARNINGS, Hepatic Failure). ... Thiazides should be used with caution in patients with impaired hepatic function or progressive liver disease, since minor ... Thiazides should be discontinued before carrying out tests for parathyroid function.. Increases in cholesterol and triglyceride ... Impaired Renal Function As a consequence of inhibiting the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, changes in renal function may ...
... means inflammation of the liver. There are five main hepatitis viruses (A, B, C, D or E). Learn about the different types here. ... Liver Function Tests (National Library of Medicine) Also in Spanish * Smooth Muscle Antibody (SMA) Test (National Library of ... Will likely do blood tests, including tests for viral hepatitis. *Might do imaging tests, such as an ultrasound, CT scan, or ... It can damage your liver. This swelling and damage can affect how well your liver functions. ...
To provide updated guidance for management and evaluation of routine clinical specimens for differential testing and diagnoses ... Liver function tests. *Coagulation testing, specifically prothrombin time (PT), expressed as an international normalized ratio ... CDC to find information on testing for SARS-CoV-2 with nucleic acid amplification tests and antigen tests, as well as specific ... Routine testing to monitor the patients clinical status and diagnostic testing for other potential causes of the patients ...
... and to correlate the changes of these markers with the changes of serum liver function tests and liver ultrasound and biopsy. ... Liver function tests for the HBV, HCV, schistosomiasis and control groups are presented in Table 2. Except for total protein, ... Liver function tests. Serum levels of AST, ALT, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), total and direct bilirubin, total protein, serum ... Currently, liver function tests such as alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) are used in the ...
... Website URL: https://extracarediagnostics.com/liver-functioning-test-lft ... Extracare provides Liver Function Tests, Full Body checkups, and all other human body-related tests. It is currently functional ... We provide fast and accurate test reports. We have a special price on each rest and Extra Care package. We have already ... We have attractive packages for full body check-ups and all other tests. ...
Liver function tests. Alkaline phosphatase. 60 IU/L. 30-130 IU/L. 3. ... Plasmodium lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH) test (OptiMAL-IT, Bio-Rad, http://www.bio-rad.com). ...
Liver function tests.. *None of the above.. *Treatment for a patient with acute exposure to CCl4 might include all of the ... Clinical Assessment - Laboratory Tests *Identify tests that may assist with diagnosis of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) toxicity ... Mixed function oxidase inducers can increase the toxicity of CCl4.. *Unmetabolized CCl4 is eliminated primarily in exhaled air. ...
Live Chat with us, Monday through Friday, 8:30 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. EST. ... Your healthcare provider will consider your symptoms and health history before conducting tests to diagnose pulmonary ...
  • Liver dysfunction is prevalent in patients with heart failure (HF), but the prognostic significance of liver function tests (LFTs) remains controversial. (nih.gov)
  • Liver function tests (LFTs) are comprised of a panel of five to eight analytes that are processed inexpensively in large batches. (medscape.com)
  • The doctor is likely to be aware, or at least suspicious, of these behaviours when ordering LFTs, but this does not exclude the presence of other diseases that may aggravate liver damage. (medscape.com)
  • Liver function tests (LFTs or LFs), also referred to as a hepatic panel, are groups of blood tests that provide information about the state of a patient's liver. (wikipedia.org)
  • LFTs are a group of tests that are looked at to see how healthy the liver is, any causes of illness, and how serious the illness is. (oncolink.org)
  • Abnormal LFTs are most commonly a result of liver inflammation. (shifa4u.com)
  • Liver function tests (LFTs) are a series of blood tests that assess the liver's health and functioning. (prestigeer.com)
  • LFTs measure the levels of enzymes, proteins, and other substances in the blood that are produced by the liver. (prestigeer.com)
  • LFTs are an essential tool in assessing liver health and function. (prestigeer.com)
  • Regular LFTs can also monitor the effectiveness of treatment for liver disease and evaluate the potential side effects of certain medications. (prestigeer.com)
  • However, LFTs can be useful for anyone who wants to ensure their liver is functioning properly and may be performed as part of a routine health checkup. (prestigeer.com)
  • Generally, if you have a higher risk of liver disease, you should receive LFTs at least once a year. (prestigeer.com)
  • Your doctor may also recommend LFTs before and after surgery to evaluate liver function and assess the risk of complications. (prestigeer.com)
  • If you are at a higher risk of liver disease or have symptoms that may indicate liver damage, you should speak to your doctor about receiving LFTs. (prestigeer.com)
  • LFTs (liver function tests) - Is my liver failing? (fever.pk)
  • Abnormal LFTs (liver function tests) are frequently detected in asymptomatic individuals during screening. (fever.pk)
  • In the western world, alcohol and obesity are the most common causes of deranged LFTs (liver function tests) in asymptomatic patients. (fever.pk)
  • Is the pattern of LFTs suggestive of liver dysfunction or a disease of the bile ducts with defective bile flow? (fever.pk)
  • LFTs are crucial blood tests that evaluate the condition of the liver. (newskarter.com)
  • LFTs, or liver function tests, are important blood tests that reveal important details regarding the condition of the liver. (newskarter.com)
  • Our aim was to assess in clinical practice, whether F508del homozygous paediatric CF patients had a derangement of liver functions tests (LFTs) while on lumacaftor/ivacaftor therapy. (rcsi.com)
  • A similar trend of improved LFTs was seen in a subgroup of patients with pre-existing liver disease (6/15.4% of patients). (rcsi.com)
  • Liver function tests , also known as liver chemistries, help determine the health of your liver by measuring the levels of proteins, liver enzymes, and bilirubin in your blood. (healthline.com)
  • Depending on the test, either higher- or lower-than-typical levels of these enzymes or proteins can indicate a problem with your liver. (healthline.com)
  • Liver function tests are used to measure specific enzymes and proteins in your blood. (healthline.com)
  • Liver enzymes: Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) are enzymes that help the liver convert food into energy. (kidshealth.org)
  • Their first product, the Quic ALT+AST test, provides rapid measurements of ALT and AST liver enzymes from just a drop of blood in as little as 5 minutes. (robots.net)
  • In Diagnostics has launched a $30 liver function test that provides rapid and accurate results by analyzing ALT and AST liver enzymes from a small blood sample. (robots.net)
  • The presence of elevated ALT and AST enzymes in the bloodstream indicates liver stress and potential damage. (robots.net)
  • A traditional liver panel may vary in what enzymes and functions it tests. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Learn more about liver enzymes. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The test measures certain enzymes and proteins in your blood which can indicate liver problems. (letsgetchecked.com)
  • If you are currently taking anabolic steroids, or you recently stopped taking anabolic steroids, liver function tests may be useful to monitor some of the specific proteins and enzymes that are affected by taking steroids and/or various medications. (letsgetchecked.com)
  • Liver function tests assist determine the health of your liver by measuring the levels of proteins, liver enzymes, or bilirubin in your blood. (iytmed.com)
  • The ALT and AST tests measure enzymes that your liver releases in reaction to damage or disease. (iytmed.com)
  • There are certain kinds of proteins and enzymes that start to show up in the blood when liver damage takes place. (diagnosticcentres.in)
  • includes 11 tests that screens proteins and liver enzymes to get the overall picture of liver working condition. (healthcheckuppackages.in)
  • Liver function tests, commonly known as a liver panel, are blood tests used to measure liver performance through the analysis of various substances found in the blood, such as proteins, enzymes, and bilirubin. (elispot.biz)
  • Liver enzyme lab tests measure the levels of certain enzymes in the blood that are released by liver cells. (elispot.biz)
  • Albumin is a protein produced by the liver that carries substances such as hormones, medicines, and enzymes throughout the body. (homediq.com)
  • Aspartate Transaminase (AST) is one of two liver enzymes that helps metabolize amino acids and usually is present in the blood at low levels. (homediq.com)
  • Serum bilirubin and plasma levels of liver enzymes ALT, ASTand ALK were measured. (edu.pk)
  • Measuring liver enzymes like ALT and AST, which signify liver damage or inflammation, is one of them. (newskarter.com)
  • What can cause elevated AST and ALT liver enzymes besides hepatit. (healthlinkusa.com)
  • For example, elevated alanine transaminase and aspartate transaminase disproportional to bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase levels often indicates liver disease. (healthline.com)
  • Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme found in your bones, bile ducts, and liver. (healthline.com)
  • Some tests are associated with functionality (e.g., albumin), some with cellular integrity (e.g., transaminase), and some with conditions linked to the biliary tract (gamma-glutamyl transferase and alkaline phosphatase). (wikipedia.org)
  • citation needed] Standard liver tests for assessing liver damage include alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alkaline phosphatases (APs). (wikipedia.org)
  • The liver panel usually includes alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine transaminase (ALT), albumin, and total protein. (letsgetchecked.com)
  • There are several types of liver function tests that your doctor may perform, including the alanine transaminase (ALT) test, aspartate transaminase (AST) test, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) test, gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) test, bilirubin test, albumin test, and prothrombin time (PT) test. (prestigeer.com)
  • Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme predominantly found in the liver and bone. (klarity.health)
  • These conditions include liver diseases, such as primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC), diseases of other organs such as Paget's disease of bone, and multi-organ diseases such as haemochromatosis. (medscape.com)
  • [ 10 , 11 ] The disease has a prodromal period lasting many decades and is eminently treatable if caught early, thereby averting cirrhosis and liver cancer. (medscape.com)
  • A high value can be caused by harm to the liver such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, and tumor in the liver. (oncolink.org)
  • From brief to more genuine in nature, here are a portion of the liver problems that can happen check of bile pipes, hepatitis, intense or chronic liver failure, Cirrhosis, augmented increasingly live cancer. (thelincolnshiresite.com)
  • Cirrhosis makes stringy tissue in the liver which diminishes the typical functioning capacity. (thelincolnshiresite.com)
  • Chronic hepatitis can lead to complications such as cirrhosis (scarring of the liver), liver failure, and liver cancer . (nih.gov)
  • Blood in vomitus is especially a problem in patients with cirrhosis or pre-existing liver disease. (fever.pk)
  • Unusual levels of these markers may be a sign of liver diseases such as cirrhosis, hepatitis, or obstructive jaundice. (newskarter.com)
  • The liver often exhibits unclear signs that are simple to overlook and can result in many significant problems such as cirrhosis, liver failure, and liver cancer. (salexy.in)
  • Liver function test can reflect the abnormality of our liver's synthesis, metabolism, detoxification, and digestive functions , although it cannot determine liver cirrhosis, liver cancer and other problems, it can still help most people evaluate the health of the liver, so it is worth doing. (articles01.com)
  • Certain inherited diseases can raise bilirubin levels, even when liver function works as expected. (healthline.com)
  • The liver is responsible for clearing the blood of unconjugated bilirubin, by 'conjugating' it (modified to make it water-soluble) through an enzyme named UDP-glucuronyl-transferase. (wikipedia.org)
  • An enzyme released into the blood when the liver is harmed. (oncolink.org)
  • In addition to its applications in human medicine, In Diagnostics' liver enzyme test is also poised to revolutionize the veterinary and research market. (robots.net)
  • High levels of this enzyme can indicate acute liver cell damage. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • High amounts of this enzyme could suggest acute liver cell damage. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • High levels of this enzyme can indicate liver or bile duct damage. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • High amounts of this enzyme may suggest liver or bile duct damage. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Aspartate transaminase (AST) is an enzyme discovered in several parts of your body, consisting of the heart, liver, and muscles. (iytmed.com)
  • This is an enzyme found in the cell of the liver,when the liver is damaged ALT is released into the blood. (healthcheckuppackages.in)
  • is a liver enzyme to that is useful in diagnose liver disease. (healthcheckuppackages.in)
  • The enzyme ALT is mainly found in the cells of the liver and in smaller amounts within the kidneys, heart and muscle tissue. (homediq.com)
  • Gamma-glutamyltransferase (Gamma-GT or GGT) is an enzyme made in the liver that helps convert and digest substances that enter the body through food and drink. (homediq.com)
  • Gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) is a common enzyme found in many of your body's tissues and organs (such as your liver). (klarity.health)
  • Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) is an enzyme that is primarily located in the liver. (klarity.health)
  • This enzyme helps to assess the health status of the liver, typically when ALT is high there may be some damage that occurred to the liver cells. (klarity.health)
  • Some of the reasons liver function tests may be performed include screening for diseases such as hepatitis, monitoring the side effects of your medications, and examining the severity of liver disease. (healthline.com)
  • Moreover, chronic viral hepatitis can be reliably confirmed or excluded by means of a relatively inexpensive blood test. (medscape.com)
  • Histologic findings are similar to those in other forms of acute viral hepatitis and include inflammatory cell infiltration, hepatocellular necrosis, and liver cell regeneration. (medscape.com)
  • Check hereditary haemochromatosis (HFE) genotype if repeat testing remains high in fasting and otherwise well patients Hepatitis screening (HBsAg and anti-HCVAb) Positive Suggests hepatitis B or C infection. (slideshare.net)
  • full AUDIT tool assessment should then be undertaken Second tier Abdominal/ liver ultrasound Echogenic liver, mass or dilated ducts Can be used to detect fatty liver, malignancy or gall stones/obstruction Testing for other causes of viral hepatitis, e.g. (slideshare.net)
  • How frequently are liver function test results abnormal in patients with autoimmune hepatitis (AIH)? (medscape.com)
  • Hepatitis is inflammation of the liver . (nih.gov)
  • Autoimmune hepatitis is a chronic type in which your body's immune system attacks your liver. (nih.gov)
  • If your chronic hepatitis leads to liver failure or liver cancer, you may need a liver transplant . (nih.gov)
  • GR was more sensitive in hepatitis C infection, while MDA reflected changes in liver ultrasound and GST-α was the best indicator for histopathological changes. (who.int)
  • Certain viral infections and drugs causing hepatitis can also cause abnormality of these tests. (shifa4u.com)
  • Critical liver infections like hepatitis can be detected through a liver function test. (diagnosticcentres.in)
  • When a medical expert suspects that you have liver damage or diseases like hepatitis then you can be recommended to go for a liver function test. (diagnosticcentres.in)
  • Liver function tests are typically recommended for individuals who have a higher risk of liver disease, including those who consume alcohol regularly, have a history of liver disease or infection, are overweight or obese, have diabetes or metabolic syndrome, take certain medications, or have been exposed to hepatitis viruses. (prestigeer.com)
  • It's generally recommended to get a liver panel if you're diagnosed with obesity or being overweight, are a heavy alcohol drinker, have been exposed to hepatitis viruses, or have a genetic disposition for liver disease," says Edward Salko, MD, a board-certified physician and a medical director at PersonaLabs. (elispot.biz)
  • My brother-in-law had hepatitis C and underwent a liver transplan. (healthlinkusa.com)
  • Children who are exposed to hepatitis B infection at an early age, or those who have biliary atresia, are also at increased risk for developing liver cancer. (chop.edu)
  • This liver function test package comes with a bunch of blood tests that can detect any disease or damage or monitor any kind of inflammation in the liver. (diagnosticcentres.in)
  • The tests can provide important insight into problems with the liver, such as inflammation, scarring, or liver damage. (elispot.biz)
  • C-Reactive Protein (CRP) is a protein that is made in the liver and released into the bloodstream in response to inflammation. (klarity.health)
  • Albumin is the main protein made by your liver. (healthline.com)
  • An albumin test measures how well your liver is making this particular protein. (healthline.com)
  • A protein made by the liver. (oncolink.org)
  • This protein helps the immune system function - low levels of globulin can indicate liver damage and other liver conditions. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • An albumin test screens for how well the liver creates protein. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Low levels of this protein can suggest liver damage and other liver conditions. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • High levels of prothrombin, a protein that aids blood clotting, can indicate liver damage. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Learn more about liver protein tests. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The albumin and bilirubin tests determine how well the liver produces albumin, a protein, and how well it disposes of bilirubin, a waste product of the blood. (iytmed.com)
  • An albumin test determines how well your liver is making this certain protein. (iytmed.com)
  • Important tests like AST, ALP, ALT, GGT tests as well as Albumin tests and protein tests are included. (diagnosticcentres.in)
  • It is protein made by liver,the level of Albumin helps to diagnose any liver diseases,this test also measure how well it make the required protein for the body. (healthcheckuppackages.in)
  • is a protein produced in the liver that helps immune system to fight infection.lower level of globulin can be a sign of liver damage. (healthcheckuppackages.in)
  • This test helps to diagnose liver diseases,this test measures the amount of protein in blood,the two protein the albumin and globulin. (healthcheckuppackages.in)
  • Albumin is a protein which is made in the liver and is a good indicator of liver or kidney disease. (klarity.health)
  • Globulins are made by both the liver and the immune system and make up a large proportion of blood serum protein. (klarity.health)
  • Protein synthesis is also carried out in the liver. (articles01.com)
  • Even mildly elevated results can be associated with liver disease. (healthline.com)
  • For example, a high AST:ALT ratio may indicate alcoholic liver disease . (healthline.com)
  • An abnormal LFT may signify a serious disease that can be identified only through further testing. (medscape.com)
  • These tests can be used to detect the presence of liver disease. (wikipedia.org)
  • When the total bilirubin level exceeds 17 μmol/L, it indicates liver disease. (wikipedia.org)
  • In parenchymal liver disease and incomplete extrahepatic obstruction, the rise in conjugated bilirubin is less than the complete common bile duct obstruction due to malignant causes. (wikipedia.org)
  • Also common in chronic liver disease. (slideshare.net)
  • MAFLD is common in these patient groups Lipid profile Abnormal Contributor to fatty liver diseases, i.e. alcohol-related liver disease or MAFLD Iron studies, inc. ferritin and TSAT Elevated Possible haemochromatosis. (slideshare.net)
  • A prolonged PT/INR result means that it is taking longer than normal for the blood to clot which can be caused by liver disease, vitamin K deficiency, or coagulation factor deficiency. (oncolink.org)
  • Note that liver disease from drinking too much alcohol or a viral infection can cause LFT results that are out of normal range. (oncolink.org)
  • A hepatic (pronounced: hih-PAT-ik) function panel is a blood test that helps doctors check for liver injury, infection, or disease. (kidshealth.org)
  • Low levels can be a sign of liver or kidney disease, or nutritional problems. (kidshealth.org)
  • Extreme hypergammaglobulinemia in young women with liver disease of unknown etiology. (medscape.com)
  • The problems of chronic liver disease in young women. (medscape.com)
  • Liu ZX, Kaplowitz N. Immune-mediated drug-induced liver disease. (medscape.com)
  • Helicobacter species DNA in liver and gastric tissues in children and adolescents with chronic liver disease. (medscape.com)
  • A liver test can check for and help monitor liver disease . (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • While home tests may not screen for all of these biomarkers, they may still provide helpful information about potential liver damage, disease, or other liver conditions. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Up to 50% of people living with acute liver disease have no symptoms. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • According to the American Liver Foundation , early detection of liver disease can help improve outcomes. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Learn more about liver disease and treatment. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Clinical teams should coordinate with STLT public health officials and CDC to assess the risk of Ebola disease based on the clinical presentation and epidemiologic risk factors to determine if ebolavirus testing is needed, and if other causes of illness should be considered (e.g., malaria). (cdc.gov)
  • Prior travel to an Ebola disease-affected region should not be a reason to defer diagnostic testing needed for patient care. (cdc.gov)
  • If a hospital facility is unable to provide appropriate clinical care and laboratory diagnostic testing for a suspect case of Ebola disease, the patient should be transferred to a facility that is able to provide appropriate management until ebolavirus testing is completed. (cdc.gov)
  • ABSTRACT Serum levels of glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione S-transferase-α (GST-α) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were determined to evaluate their use in diagnosing hepatocellular damage in 75 children with liver disease. (who.int)
  • Liver disease does not always cause noticeable signs and symptoms. (letsgetchecked.com)
  • Unusual outcomes on any of the liver function tests don't always suggest you have liver disease or damage. (iytmed.com)
  • High levels of ALP might suggest liver damage, obstruction of the bile ducts, or a bone disease. (iytmed.com)
  • The different liver function tests can also check for infection, monitor the development or treatment of a disease, and test for the side effects of specific medications. (iytmed.com)
  • Besides, liver function tests are also performed for the purpose of monitoring the growth of any particular liver disease and also to assess the side effects of medications on the liver. (diagnosticcentres.in)
  • They can help detect liver damage or disease early on, allowing for timely intervention and treatment. (prestigeer.com)
  • If you have a history of liver disease or are currently being treated for liver disease, your doctor may recommend more frequent testing. (prestigeer.com)
  • Liver function tests can help detect liver damage and disease early on and monitor the effectiveness of treatment for liver disease. (prestigeer.com)
  • Abnormal levels of ALP could be an indicator of chronic liver disease, bone disease, or chronic kidney disease. (elispot.biz)
  • Passing little urine or oliguria in a patient with liver disease is suggestive of renal failure. (fever.pk)
  • AST (SGOT) or Aspartate aminotransferase (ratio of AST: ALT is often used when the diagnosis of muscle disorders, fatty liver, and alcoholic liver disease is suspected. (fever.pk)
  • Elevated creatinine levels indicate impaired kidney function or kidney disease. (homediq.com)
  • An early and proper diagnosis of acute on chronic liver failure (ACLF), together with the identification of indicators associated with disease severity is critical for outcome prediction and therapy. (nih.gov)
  • The age, hepatic encephalopathy, model for end-stage liver disease score, total bilirubin and International normalized ratio (prothrombin time) appeared to be promising candidates for evaluation in future studies. (nih.gov)
  • Pregnancy and liver disease. (edu.pk)
  • Childhood liver cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the liver. (vicc.org)
  • Some patients with tyrosinemia will have a liver transplant to treat this disease before there are signs or symptoms of cancer. (vicc.org)
  • It's crucial to understand that LFT results are not always unambiguous signs of liver disease. (newskarter.com)
  • People who are at risk for liver disease should think about changing their lifestyles to reduce their alcohol use, maintain a healthy weight, and take care of underlying medical disorders. (newskarter.com)
  • We also include other key biomarkers related to your heart's health as nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is associated with an increased risk for developing cardiovascular disease. (klarity.health)
  • A high GGT concentration in the blood can be a sign of damage to the liver or bile ducts disease. (klarity.health)
  • This biomarker and ALP helps to identify between bone or liver disease. (klarity.health)
  • Used to identify Liver disease. (klarity.health)
  • Blood tests are crucial for monitoring the progress of a disease or the effectiveness of a prescribed treatment. (total-health-care.com)
  • Additionally, blood tests aid in monitoring the progress of a disease or the effectiveness of a prescribed treatment. (total-health-care.com)
  • Donated plasma is tested and treated to reduce the risk of contamination, but there is still a small possibility it could transmit disease. (drugs.com)
  • In emergency departments, medical professionals have access to various tests to measure electrolytes, blood gases, and kidney function. (robots.net)
  • Kidney function tests. (cdc.gov)
  • Your child's pediatric rheumatologist will monitor your child for kidney problems frequently using blood and urine tests and checking blood pressure. (healthychildren.org)
  • This test measures several key indicators to determine liver and kidney function. (homediq.com)
  • Both liver and kidney damage do not always cause detectable symptoms until they are in an advanced stage and irreversible damage has occurred. (homediq.com)
  • This test allows you to monitor liver and kidney function routinely without visiting a doctor's office. (homediq.com)
  • An elevated EGFR means that the filtration abilities of the kidneys are lowered, which may indicate impaired kidney function. (homediq.com)
  • Abnormal levels can indicate malnutrition as well as a liver or kidney disorder. (klarity.health)
  • Kidney and liver are especially important. (tamu.edu)
  • Examining the urine is also a good way to know if anything is wrong with kidney function. (tamu.edu)
  • Liver biopsy is not indicated, because of the self-limited nature of HAV infection and the absence of a chronic infectious state. (medscape.com)
  • Test methods to detect indicators related to liver function and metabolism, including white blood cell ratio, albumin, globulin , and hepatocytes Destructive related indicators such as bilirubin, alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase etc. (articles01.com)
  • A variety of aminotransferases, such as aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase, are required for metabolism in the liver. (articles01.com)
  • Maintaining a healthy liver function is crucial for overall health and well-being. (prestigeer.com)
  • Many people think that a normal liver function test can represent a healthy liver, but this is actually a misunderstanding. (articles01.com)
  • A quick and easy finger prick blood test can give a great insight into your liver's health status and also including the male hormones. (klarity.health)
  • Specific antibody tests for HAV confirm infection. (medscape.com)
  • This document provides guidance for hospitals and clinical laboratories on performing routine diagnostic (non-ebolavirus) testing necessary for management and care of patients with suspected ebolavirus infection, while minimizing risk to laboratory personnel. (cdc.gov)
  • Liver function tests in patients with dengue viral infection. (who.int)
  • To assess the frequency and degree of hepatic dysfunction in patients with dengue infection, records of214 serologically confirmed cases of dengue infection with available biochemical liver tests, admittedto our tertiary-care institute, were analysed. (who.int)
  • Albumin and globulin have a range of functions including keeping blood within vessels, transporting nutrients and fighting infection. (klarity.health)
  • Your liver function tests can be abnormal because: Your liver is inflamed (for example, by infection, toxic substances like alcohol and some medicines, or by an immune condition). (sunrisediagnosis.com)
  • Sometimes, blood tests can help them see how well an organ (such as the liver or kidneys ) is working. (kidshealth.org)
  • It is the body's biggest organ and it holds more than 500 critical functions to your health. (thelincolnshiresite.com)
  • Some of these screenings may look at different markers to screen for liver and other organ health. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The liver is a vital organ that plays a crucial role in many bodily functions, including producing bile to aid digestion, filtering toxins from the blood, and metabolizing drugs and alcohol. (prestigeer.com)
  • Your liver is an organ with many important functions. (homediq.com)
  • To ensure that the liver is functioning properly, which is a crucial organ involved in a variety of metabolic activities, careful monitoring is necessary. (newskarter.com)
  • The liver is an essential organ that performs over 500 vital functions. (klarity.health)
  • They can provide valuable information about your overall health, including your body's functioning, nutrient levels, organ function, hormonal balance, and the presence of any diseases or infections. (total-health-care.com)
  • The organ systems involved include the lungs, the skin, and the digestive tract, but two organs are especially important: the liver and the kidneys. (tamu.edu)
  • In addition, the liver is a very "strong" organ with strong reserve function and regeneration ability. (articles01.com)
  • What are the different types of liver function tests? (healthline.com)
  • They can help distinguish among different types of liver disorders, gauge the extent of known liver damage, and monitor the response to treatment. (wikipedia.org)
  • There are a variety of different types of liver function tests, and each one screens for different aspects of liver health. (elispot.biz)
  • Here's a look at the most common types of liver function tests, as well as their normal ranges and what abnormal results may mean. (elispot.biz)
  • These tests include prothrombin time (PT/INR), activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), albumin, bilirubin (direct and indirect), and others. (wikipedia.org)
  • In 50% of patients, abnormal results on liver function tests include decreased albumin levels and prolonged prothrombin time. (medscape.com)
  • Prothrombin time may be tested in such patients. (fever.pk)
  • Several biochemical tests are useful in the evaluation and management of patients with hepatic dysfunction. (wikipedia.org)
  • Liver function tests are blood sample tests that can help monitor liver health and detect liver damage or liver dysfunction. (letsgetchecked.com)
  • What are the Symptoms of Liver Dysfunction? (letsgetchecked.com)
  • Liver ischemia-reperfusion injury is a major cause of postoperative liver dysfunction, morbidity and mortality following liver resection and transplantation. (wjgnet.com)
  • If an eye exam suggests you might have eye cancer, more tests such as imaging tests or other procedures might be done to confirm the diagnosis. (cancer.org)
  • They will make a diagnosis of lupus based on your child's symptoms, physical examination findings, and your child's laboratory test results. (healthychildren.org)
  • However, additional laboratory tests are often needed to make the diagnosis. (elispot.biz)
  • Healthcare practitioners should evaluate LFT results combined with clinical symptoms and other diagnostic tests to make an accurate diagnosis. (newskarter.com)
  • A diagnosis may need to be confirmed through additional testing, such as imaging examinations or blood tests, if the results are abnormal. (newskarter.com)
  • These tests help in the diagnosis of diseases or conditions, allowing for accurate treatment plans to be initiated. (total-health-care.com)
  • there were no abnormal arrows on the checklist, but the sudden diagnosis of liver cancer really made Mr. Xu unacceptable. (articles01.com)
  • Liver function tests are blood tests that can be used to monitor the health of your liver. (healthline.com)
  • If the liver is damaged or not functioning properly, ALT can be released into the blood. (healthline.com)
  • This testing is performed on a patient's blood sample. (wikipedia.org)
  • What Is a Blood Test? (kidshealth.org)
  • A blood test is when a sample of blood is taken from the body to be tested in a lab. (kidshealth.org)
  • Doctors order blood tests to check things such as the levels of glucose , hemoglobin, or white blood cells. (kidshealth.org)
  • The company has developed a blood-testing platform that utilizes a custom-made microchip with a high-precision spectrophotometer to analyze blood samples. (robots.net)
  • A liver test , or a liver panel or hepatic function panel, is a blood test that assesses the health and function of the liver. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • A healthcare professional will perform this test in an office by drawing blood from a person's arm and testing it. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Home tests require a blood sample, often from a finger prick. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Timely identification of other more likely pathogens and access to routine laboratory testing, such as blood counts and chemistries, is essential for providing appropriate patient care. (cdc.gov)
  • Liver function test (LFT) are a group of blood tests that measure liver function and liver injury. (shifa4u.com)
  • If the liver is harmed or not functioning correctly, ALT is launched into the blood. (iytmed.com)
  • A liver function test is a specific category of blood test that is mainly performed for the purpose of detecting the presence of liver damage or liver diseases. (diagnosticcentres.in)
  • damaged liver cells release more amount of ALP into the blood. (healthcheckuppackages.in)
  • Basic tests such as serum urea and electrolytes, creatinine, full blood count, and liver and thyroid function tests are recommended to differentiate HF from other conditions, to provide prognostic information, and to guide potential therapy. (medscape.com)
  • Laboratory studies should include a complete blood cell (CBC) count, serum electrolyte levels (including calcium and magnesium), and renal and liver function studies. (medscape.com)
  • Liver function tests involve a simple blood draw and are typically not painful. (prestigeer.com)
  • A liver function test is a blood test used to measure various substances in the blood that are indicative of hepatic function. (elispot.biz)
  • During the test, a small blood sample is taken from a vein in the arm using a small needle. (elispot.biz)
  • Low blood pressure is always a serious problem but in a patient, with a diseased liver, it may be a clue to underlying gastrointestinal bleeding. (fever.pk)
  • If the liver is damaged, blood ALT levels can increase. (homediq.com)
  • This value is derived using the amount of creatinine in the blood and indicates how well the kidneys are functioning. (homediq.com)
  • Normally the concentration of GGT in the blood is very low, but can become elevated when the liver is overloaded. (homediq.com)
  • Some of its functions are that it removes wastes and toxins from your blood, produces bile which aids in food digestion, produces cholesterol and other fat-carrying proteins for the rest of the body, processes hemoglobin, regulates blood clotting, and converts excess glucose to glycogen for storage. (homediq.com)
  • Vascular liver tumors: These tumors form in the liver from cells that make blood vessels or lymph vessels . (vicc.org)
  • Tests that examine the liver and the blood are used to diagnose childhood liver cancer and find out whether the cancer has spread. (vicc.org)
  • Blood is drawn during the minimally invasive process, and the results are used to measure liver health and precisely diagnose any probable liver-related disorders. (newskarter.com)
  • Your liver helps to regulate your blood glucose (sugar) levels by removing excess glucose from the blood stream and so we include a diabetes check as well as measuring your male sex hormones. (klarity.health)
  • MRI shows more detailed images than CT and ultrasound and can help doctors see if the cancer has invaded one of the major blood vessels located near the liver. (chop.edu)
  • In today's rapidly advancing field of medicine, blood tests play a crucial role in diagnosing and monitoring various health conditions. (total-health-care.com)
  • However, understanding the complexity and significance of blood tests can be overwhelming for many individuals. (total-health-care.com)
  • That's why it's essential to decode the basics of blood tests, empowering you to take charge of your health journey. (total-health-care.com)
  • Blood tests, also known as blood work or laboratory tests, involve analyzing a sample of blood to evaluate various components within it. (total-health-care.com)
  • Blood tests help doctors identify and confirm the presence of certain diseases or conditions. (total-health-care.com)
  • Regular blood tests can help detect potential health issues before they become more severe. (total-health-care.com)
  • Blood tests play a vital role in diagnosing and monitoring various health conditions. (total-health-care.com)
  • There is a wide range of blood tests available, each serving a specific purpose and providing unique insights into your health. (total-health-care.com)
  • A complete blood count is one of the most frequently performed blood tests. (total-health-care.com)
  • A complete blood count (CBC) is a comprehensive blood test that measures various components of your blood. (total-health-care.com)
  • Overall, a CBC is a versatile blood test that provides valuable insights into your overall health and can help identify various conditions. (total-health-care.com)
  • The lipid profile test measures the levels of various types of fats, such as cholesterol and triglycerides, in your blood. (total-health-care.com)
  • A lipid profile test is conducted to measure the levels of different types of fats, including cholesterol and triglycerides, in your blood. (total-health-care.com)
  • Clinical examination of liver function mainly relies on blood drawing , and biochemical tests. (articles01.com)
  • This is because hepatocyte membrane after liver damage Incomplete, enhanced permeability, resulting in more transaminase influx into the blood , resulting in elevated transaminase during detection. (articles01.com)
  • Normally, red blood cells ruptureinto indirect bilirubin, which is then converted into direct bilirubin in the liver and excreted with excretion. (articles01.com)
  • A higher result than what's typical on this test can be a sign of liver damage. (healthline.com)
  • Since AST levels aren't as specific of a marker for liver damage as ALT, it's usually measured together with ALT to check for liver problems. (healthline.com)
  • It is a massive problem worldwide [ 7-9 ] and Table 1 shows that it is the most common of the specific liver diseases in the UK population after alcohol damage. (medscape.com)
  • A high value can be caused by damage to ducts within the liver. (oncolink.org)
  • The liver can become unhealthy from an assortment of causes and can be impermanent bringing about long haul damage. (thelincolnshiresite.com)
  • Coming up next are gambles with that you ought to keep away from to forestall liver damage. (thelincolnshiresite.com)
  • There are different home grown supplements as well as specific doctor prescribed drugs that are related with likely liver damage. (thelincolnshiresite.com)
  • If you need to keep your liver healthy or you as of now have liver damage, having a healthy way of life will assist with keeping your liver in the most ideal shape. (thelincolnshiresite.com)
  • If a person has liver damage , bilirubin can enter the bloodstream, causing jaundice. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • It can damage your liver. (nih.gov)
  • This swelling and damage can affect how well your liver functions. (nih.gov)
  • If you have been living with alcoholism or you have been binge-drinking alcohol over a prolonged period of time, liver function tests may be helpful to monitor the reversible damage of drinking over a prolonged period of time. (letsgetchecked.com)
  • A high outcome on this test can be a sign of liver damage. (iytmed.com)
  • Because AST levels aren't certain for liver damage, it's usually measured together with ALT to check for liver issues. (iytmed.com)
  • Elevated levels of ALP can indicate damage to any of these areas, particularly the liver or bones. (homediq.com)
  • While increased levels of AST can indicate damage to any of the parts of the body where AST is present, it is most commonly associated with liver damage. (homediq.com)
  • GGT values will also rise when the bile ducts are blocked, with gallbladder problems, or as a result of liver damage. (homediq.com)
  • Background: Preeclampsia is a multisystem disorder that can induce damage to cardiovascular system,kidneys, brain and liver. (edu.pk)
  • This test can help identify if you have a healthy functioning liver or signs of liver damage, as well as checking your male hormone levels. (klarity.health)
  • Nausea, anorexia, mild elevation of liver function tests, and tissue damage at injection site. (cdc.gov)
  • The liver produces different proteins that incorporate compounds and chemicals of different sorts. (thelincolnshiresite.com)
  • However, some cases of liver injury can be severe, and people may require hospitalization and a liver transplant . (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The patient's medical history, especially any liver disorders, drug use, and alcohol use, must be taken into account first because these can affect the results of the LFT. (newskarter.com)
  • Test can identify bone or liver disorders. (klarity.health)
  • The liver transaminases aspartate transaminase (AST or SGOT) and alanine transaminase (ALT or SGPT) are useful biomarkers of liver injury in a patient with some degree of intact liver function. (wikipedia.org)
  • The early symptoms of liver cancer are not obvious, and it is difficult to detect liver cancer through liver function tests, so it is often It is easy to be ignored by patients and delay the treatment. (articles01.com)
  • In some cases you may need to avoid food or certain medications before the test. (healthline.com)
  • Some or all of these measurements are also carried out (usually about twice a year for routine cases) on individuals taking certain medications, such as anticonvulsants, to ensure that these medications are not adversely impacting the person's liver. (wikipedia.org)
  • Some foods and medications can affect the results of the test. (oncolink.org)
  • People who take a liver test may need to fast and avoid taking any medications for a set amount of time. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • A healthcare professional or home test will instruct if someone needs to avoid food, medications, or both, before taking the test. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Liver tests are usually carried out to screen for viral infections, monitor medical conditions, and monitor the side effects of certain medications. (letsgetchecked.com)
  • Taking performance-enhancing drugs such as anabolic steroids or other potent medications may lead to liver abnormalities and tumors. (letsgetchecked.com)
  • If you have been taking medications and have exceeded the recommended doses on a number of occasions, liver function testing is recommended to monitor the effects that taking these medications has had. (letsgetchecked.com)
  • You should also inform your doctor of any medications, supplements, or herbal remedies you are taking, as they may affect the test results. (prestigeer.com)
  • Apart from these common diseases affecting the liver, medications are also a major cause of abnormal liver function tests. (fever.pk)
  • This happens when the liver must process a high quantity of certain substances in a short period of time, for example with excessive use of certain medications or alcohol. (homediq.com)
  • Regular lipid profile tests help assess your cardiovascular health and guide lifestyle modifications or medications if necessary. (total-health-care.com)
  • The results of a lipid profile test provide valuable information about your lipid levels and help determine if any lifestyle modifications or medications are necessary. (total-health-care.com)
  • Viral, genetic, and autoimmune diseases of the liver (tested for by a "liver panel"), their prevalence in the British population and diagnostic algorithms. (medscape.com)
  • In most cases however, no unambiguous clinical indication for follow-on testing exists. (medscape.com)
  • The Quic test allows researchers and veterinarians to monitor the liver health of laboratory animals, particularly useful in clinical trials and drug toxicity studies. (robots.net)
  • Obviously assuming you experience the ill effects of a liver condition you should be under the consideration of a clinical supplier. (thelincolnshiresite.com)
  • These patients should be isolated at a healthcare facility, in a private room and continue to undergo appropriate clinical assessment and management while determining whether ebolavirus testing is indicated. (cdc.gov)
  • Routine testing to monitor the patient's clinical status and diagnostic testing for other potential causes of the patient's illness should be pursued while ebolavirus testing is underway. (cdc.gov)
  • Find Lab Test is not endorsing any particular clinical laboratory or a lab test offered on the site. (findlabtest.com)
  • Certain clinical features are indicative of a chronically diseased liver. (fever.pk)
  • In clinical trials, elevated liver transaminase levels in patients taking lumacaftor/ivacaftor therapy were reported. (rcsi.com)
  • Bleeding or bruisability is another important sign of liver failure. (fever.pk)
  • A low value (hypoproteinemia) can be caused by malfunction of the kidneys or liver, malnutrition, and malabsorption. (oncolink.org)
  • However, low albumin levels can indicate problems with the liver or kidneys. (homediq.com)
  • If your albumin level is lower than normal, follow-up with your healthcare provider is needed to rule out problems with your liver or kidneys. (homediq.com)
  • The best way to learn what kidneys do is to examine the product of their function- urine. (tamu.edu)
  • An ALP test can be used to evaluate the bile duct system of the liver. (healthline.com)
  • Bilirubin may be used to estimate the excretory function of the liver and coagulation tests and albumin can be used to evaluate the metabolic activity of the liver. (wikipedia.org)
  • Corresponding changes can be better assessed by a functional capacity test incorporating multitasking, such as the Glittre Activities of Daily Living Test (GA-T). OBJECTIVES: To evaluate functional capacity in adults with acromegaly using the GA-T and to correlate functional capacity with hand function and health-related quality of life. (scienceopen.com)
  • These laboratory tests will help evaluate liver function. (chop.edu)
  • The liver is in the upper abdomen near the stomach, intestines, gallbladder, and pancreas. (vicc.org)
  • Because some of these tests do not measure function, it is more accurate to call these liver chemistries or liver tests rather than liver function tests. (wikipedia.org)
  • Please visit a healthcare professional before ordering any of laboratory tests presented on the website. (findlabtest.com)
  • Hepatic (liver) involvement in some diseases can be of crucial importance. (wikipedia.org)
  • In Diagnostics has unveiled a groundbreaking test that aims to determine the functionality of the liver, offering crucial insights for emergency surgeries and medical treatments. (robots.net)
  • That's why it is crucial to keep a close eye on your liver health and function to avoid any long-term complications. (letsgetchecked.com)
  • It performs many crucial physical functions. (iytmed.com)
  • Let's look at some crucial details regarding LFT, its importance, its parts, its interpretation, and its function in preserving general health are covered in this article. (newskarter.com)
  • It performs many important bodily functions. (healthline.com)
  • Responsible for over 500 vital bodily functions, your liver is one of the most hard-working organs in the body. (letsgetchecked.com)
  • A high result on the bilirubin test suggests that the liver isn't functioning correctly. (iytmed.com)
  • 3- Can I order different tests from different lab centers? (shifa4u.com)
  • Seek medical attention immediately in case the LFT test result shows any abnormalities. (diagnosticcentres.in)
  • There are so many kinds of abnormalities that may be detected through a liver function test, some of those are mentioned below. (diagnosticcentres.in)
  • [ 3 ] However, other studies and/or tests may be necessary to identify structural abnormalities or conditions that can lead to or exacerbate HF. (medscape.com)
  • Echocardiography is recommended as the key investigative tool to assess cardiac function and provide information on other parameters such as chamber size, eccentric or concentric LVH, regional wall motion abnormalities, RV function, pulmonary hypertension, valvular function, and markers of diastolic function. (medscape.com)
  • In general, elevated levels of these two transaminases are indicative of liver abnormalities, but this elevated result is sometimes It will be affected by factors such as drinking, excessive exercise, poor sleep, abnormal heart, etc. , so when you get the test report, you should consult the doctor's opinion, and don't be confused. (articles01.com)
  • In this article, we take a look at when you might need a liver function test, the different types of tests used, and how to interpret results. (healthline.com)
  • Having atypical results on any of these liver tests usually requires a follow-up to determine the cause of the atypical characteristics. (healthline.com)
  • Following any liver function test, you should have a discussion with your doctor about your test results and what they mean for you. (healthline.com)
  • Individual results should always be interpreted using the reference range provided by the laboratory that performed the test. (wikipedia.org)
  • The range of values that are considered normal for most people is given with your lab test results. (oncolink.org)
  • Your health care team will help interpret the results of this test. (oncolink.org)
  • If you have questions about the liver function panel or what the test results mean, talk to your doctor. (kidshealth.org)
  • In Diagnostics recognized this deficiency and developed a solution to fill this gap, providing quick and accurate liver function results for imaging, anesthetic, and heavy-duty drug treatments. (robots.net)
  • People can purchase at-home liver tests online and discuss the results with their healthcare provider. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Individuals taking an at-home test may also need to contact their healthcare provider to discuss their results. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • This subgroup analysis of patients with liver impairment used the final 3-year results. (nih.gov)
  • Also, the doctor is responsible for treatment after receiving test results. (findlabtest.com)
  • In a single appointment, your healthcare provider can gain a better overall picture of your liver health and make diagnoses or recommendations for further testing based on the results. (elispot.biz)
  • RESULTS: Relative to the comparison group, patients with acromegaly required more time to perform the GA-T, showed worse hand function, and reported that squatting to accomplish shelving tasks was the major difficulty. (scienceopen.com)
  • What can affect liver function test results? (sunrisediagnosis.com)
  • In the early and middle stages of liver cancer, liver cancer cells have not spread , It may just be that the tissue surrounding the cancer cell is invaded and compressed, and the transaminases results are slightly elevated, or it may remain normal. (articles01.com)
  • Liver ultrasound is first tier investigation if cholestasis is suspected. (slideshare.net)
  • Ultrasound is a very common test used to help diagnose eye melanomas. (cancer.org)
  • Your healthcare provider will consider your symptoms and health history before conducting tests to diagnose pulmonary hypertension. (nih.gov)
  • There are certain symptoms of liver diseases that may arrive at the earlier stages and the doctors may suggest you to go for a liver function test if these signs and symptoms start to get visible in your body. (diagnosticcentres.in)
  • What are the symptoms of liver problems? (diagnosticcentres.in)