The gradual expansion in complexity and meaning of symbols and sounds as perceived and interpreted by the individual through a maturational and learning process. Stages in development include babbling, cooing, word imitation with cognition, and use of short sentences.
Conditions characterized by deficiencies of comprehension or expression of written and spoken forms of language. These include acquired and developmental disorders.
Conditions characterized by language abilities (comprehension and expression of speech and writing) that are below the expected level for a given age, generally in the absence of an intellectual impairment. These conditions may be associated with DEAFNESS; BRAIN DISEASES; MENTAL DISORDERS; or environmental factors.
A system of hand gestures used for communication by the deaf or by people speaking different languages.
Specific languages used to prepare computer programs.
Rehabilitation of persons with language disorders or training of children with language development disorders.
Computer processing of a language with rules that reflect and describe current usage rather than prescribed usage.
The science of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and historical linguistics. (Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2d ed)
Skills in the use of language which lead to proficiency in written or spoken communication.
The relationships between symbols and their meanings.
A research and development program initiated by the NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE to build knowledge sources for the purpose of aiding the development of systems that help health professionals retrieve and integrate biomedical information. The knowledge sources can be used to link disparate information systems to overcome retrieval problems caused by differences in terminology and the scattering of relevant information across many databases. The three knowledge sources are the Metathesaurus, the Semantic Network, and the Specialist Lexicon.
Includes both producing and responding to words, either written or spoken.
A discipline concerned with relations between messages and the characteristics of individuals who select and interpret them; it deals directly with the processes of encoding (phonetics) and decoding (psychoacoustics) as they relate states of messages to states of communicators.
The act or fact of grasping the meaning, nature, or importance of; understanding. (American Heritage Dictionary, 4th ed) Includes understanding by a patient or research subject of information disclosed orally or in writing.
The artificial language of schizophrenic patients - neologisms (words of the patient's own making with new meanings).
Those factors, such as language or sociocultural relationships, which interfere in the meaningful interpretation and transmission of ideas between individuals or groups.
The science or study of speech sounds and their production, transmission, and reception, and their analysis, classification, and transcription. (Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2d ed)
A general term for the complete loss of the ability to hear from both ears.
The continuous developmental process of a culture from simple to complex forms and from homogeneous to heterogeneous qualities.
Acquired or developmental conditions marked by an impaired ability to comprehend or generate spoken forms of language.
Measurement of parameters of the speech product such as vocal tone, loudness, pitch, voice quality, articulation, resonance, phonation, phonetic structure and prosody.
Persons with any degree of loss of hearing that has an impact on their activities of daily living or that requires special assistance or intervention.
Behavioral manifestations of cerebral dominance in which there is preferential use and superior functioning of either the left or the right side, as in the preferred use of the right hand or right foot.
Conversion from one language to another language.
Treatment for individuals with speech defects and disorders that involves counseling and use of various exercises and aids to help the development of new speech habits.
Learning to respond verbally to a verbal stimulus cue.
Imaging techniques used to colocalize sites of brain functions or physiological activity with brain structures.
Non-invasive method of demonstrating internal anatomy based on the principle that atomic nuclei in a strong magnetic field absorb pulses of radiofrequency energy and emit them as radiowaves which can be reconstructed into computerized images. The concept includes proton spin tomographic techniques.
Dominance of one cerebral hemisphere over the other in cerebral functions.
A language dysfunction characterized by the inability to name people and objects that are correctly perceived. The individual is able to describe the object in question, but cannot provide the name. This condition is associated with lesions of the dominant hemisphere involving the language areas, in particular the TEMPORAL LOBE. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p484)
The terms, expressions, designations, or symbols used in a particular science, discipline, or specialized subject area.
Disorders of the quality of speech characterized by the substitution, omission, distortion, and addition of phonemes.
The teaching or training of those individuals with hearing disability or impairment.
Tests designed to assess neurological function associated with certain behaviors. They are used in diagnosing brain dysfunction or damage and central nervous system disorders or injury.
An aphasia characterized by impairment of expressive LANGUAGE (speech, writing, signs) and relative preservation of receptive language abilities (i.e., comprehension). This condition is caused by lesions of the motor association cortex in the FRONTAL LOBE (BROCA AREA and adjacent cortical and white matter regions).
Intellectual or mental process whereby an organism obtains knowledge.
A specified list of terms with a fixed and unalterable meaning, and from which a selection is made when CATALOGING; ABSTRACTING AND INDEXING; or searching BOOKS; JOURNALS AS TOPIC; and other documents. The control is intended to avoid the scattering of related subjects under different headings (SUBJECT HEADINGS). The list may be altered or extended only by the publisher or issuing agency. (From Harrod's Librarians' Glossary, 7th ed, p163)
Transmission of emotions, ideas, and attitudes between individuals in ways other than the spoken language.
A concept that stands for or suggests something else by reason of its relationship, association, convention, or resemblance. The symbolism may be mental or a visible sign or representation. (From Webster, 3d ed)
Lower lateral part of the cerebral hemisphere responsible for auditory, olfactory, and semantic processing. It is located inferior to the lateral fissure and anterior to the OCCIPITAL LOBE.
Organized activities related to the storage, location, search, and retrieval of information.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
A disorder beginning in childhood. It is marked by the presence of markedly abnormal or impaired development in social interaction and communication and a markedly restricted repertoire of activity and interest. Manifestations of the disorder vary greatly depending on the developmental level and chronological age of the individual. (DSM-V)
Relatively permanent change in behavior that is the result of past experience or practice. The concept includes the acquisition of knowledge.
Electronic hearing devices typically used for patients with normal outer and middle ear function, but defective inner ear function. In the COCHLEA, the hair cells (HAIR CELLS, VESTIBULAR) may be absent or damaged but there are residual nerve fibers. The device electrically stimulates the COCHLEAR NERVE to create sound sensation.
The part of the cerebral hemisphere anterior to the central sulcus, and anterior and superior to the lateral sulcus.
A cognitive process involving the formation of ideas generalized from the knowledge of qualities, aspects, and relations of objects.
The act or practice of literary composition, the occupation of writer, or producing or engaging in literary work as a profession.
Sequential operating programs and data which instruct the functioning of a digital computer.
The act, process, or an instance of narrating, i.e., telling a story. In the context of MEDICINE or ETHICS, narration includes relating the particular and the personal in the life story of an individual.
The ability to acquire general or special types of knowledge or skill.
Disorders of verbal and nonverbal communication caused by receptive or expressive LANGUAGE DISORDERS, cognitive dysfunction (e.g., MENTAL RETARDATION), psychiatric conditions, and HEARING DISORDERS.
Personal names, given or surname, as cultural characteristics, as ethnological or religious patterns, as indications of the geographic distribution of families and inbreeding, etc. Analysis of isonymy, the quality of having the same or similar names, is useful in the study of population genetics. NAMES is used also for the history of names or name changes of corporate bodies, such as medical societies, universities, hospitals, government agencies, etc.
Impairment in the comprehension of speech and meaning of words, both spoken and written, and of the meanings conveyed by their grammatical relationships in sentences. It is caused by lesions that primarily affect Wernicke's area, which lies in the posterior perisylvian region of the temporal lobe of the dominant hemisphere. (From Brain & Bannister, Clinical Neurology, 7th ed, p141; Kandel et al., Principles of Neural Science, 3d ed, p846)
Use of sound to elicit a response in the nervous system.
Terms or expressions which provide the major means of access by subject to the bibliographic unit.
The continuous sequential physiological and psychological maturing of an individual from birth up to but not including ADOLESCENCE.
A barbiturate with hypnotic and sedative properties (but not antianxiety). Adverse effects are mainly a consequence of dose-related CNS depression and the risk of dependence with continued use is high. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p565)
Severe distortions in the development of many basic psychological functions that are not normal for any stage in development. These distortions are manifested in sustained social impairment, speech abnormalities, and peculiar motor movements.
Products resulting from the conversion of one language to another.
The process by which an observer comprehends speech by watching the movements of the speaker's lips without hearing the speaker's voice.
The acoustic aspects of speech in terms of frequency, intensity, and time.
The thin layer of GRAY MATTER on the surface of the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES that develops from the TELENCEPHALON and folds into gyri and sulchi. It reaches its highest development in humans and is responsible for intellectual faculties and higher mental functions.
A progressive form of dementia characterized by the global loss of language abilities and initial preservation of other cognitive functions. Fluent and nonfluent subtypes have been described. Eventually a pattern of global cognitive dysfunction, similar to ALZHEIMER DISEASE, emerges. Pathologically, there are no Alzheimer or PICK DISEASE like changes, however, spongiform changes of cortical layers II and III are present in the TEMPORAL LOBE and FRONTAL LOBE. (From Brain 1998 Jan;121(Pt 1):115-26)
Comparison of various psychological, sociological, or cultural factors in order to assess the similarities or diversities occurring in two or more different cultures or societies.
The portion of an interactive computer program that issues messages to and receives commands from a user.
A technique of inputting two-dimensional images into a computer and then enhancing or analyzing the imagery into a form that is more useful to the human observer.
Surgical insertion of an electronic hearing device (COCHLEAR IMPLANTS) with electrodes to the COCHLEAR NERVE in the inner ear to create sound sensation in patients with residual nerve fibers.
The process whereby auditory stimuli are selected, organized, and interpreted by the organism.
The application of a concept to that which it is not literally the same but which suggests a resemblance and comparison. Medical metaphors were widespread in ancient literature; the description of a sick body was often used by ancient writers to define a critical condition of the State, in which one corrupt part can ruin the entire system. (From Med Secoli Arte Sci, 1990;2(3):abstract 331)
A disturbance in the normal fluency and time patterning of speech that is inappropriate for the individual's age. This disturbance is characterized by frequent repetitions or prolongations of sounds or syllables. Various other types of speech dysfluencies may also be involved including interjections, broken words, audible or silent blocking, circumlocutions, words produced with an excess of physical tension, and monosyllabic whole word repetitions. Stuttering may occur as a developmental condition in childhood or as an acquired disorder which may be associated with BRAIN INFARCTIONS and other BRAIN DISEASES. (From DSM-IV, 1994)
Disorders in which there is a delay in development based on that expected for a given age level or stage of development. These impairments or disabilities originate before age 18, may be expected to continue indefinitely, and constitute a substantial impairment. Biological and nonbiological factors are involved in these disorders. (From American Psychiatric Glossary, 6th ed)
A group of cognitive disorders characterized by the inability to perform previously learned skills that cannot be attributed to deficits of motor or sensory function. The two major subtypes of this condition are ideomotor (see APRAXIA, IDEOMOTOR) and ideational apraxia, which refers to loss of the ability to mentally formulate the processes involved with performing an action. For example, dressing apraxia may result from an inability to mentally formulate the act of placing clothes on the body. Apraxias are generally associated with lesions of the dominant PARIETAL LOBE and supramarginal gyrus. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp56-7)
The period of history before 500 of the common era.
Persons living in the United States of Mexican (MEXICAN AMERICANS), Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South American, or other Spanish culture or origin. The concept does not include Brazilian Americans or Portuguese Americans.
The time from the onset of a stimulus until a response is observed.
Ability to make speech sounds that are recognizable.
Process of cultural change in which one group or members of a group assimilate various cultural patterns from another.
Acquired or developmental cognitive disorders of AUDITORY PERCEPTION characterized by a reduced ability to perceive information contained in auditory stimuli despite intact auditory pathways. Affected individuals have difficulty with speech perception, sound localization, and comprehending the meaning of inflections of speech.
The statistical reproducibility of measurements (often in a clinical context), including the testing of instrumentation or techniques to obtain reproducible results. The concept includes reproducibility of physiological measurements, which may be used to develop rules to assess probability or prognosis, or response to a stimulus; reproducibility of occurrence of a condition; and reproducibility of experimental results.
The ability to learn and to deal with new situations and to deal effectively with tasks involving abstractions.
Cultural and linguistic competence is a set of congruent behaviors, attitudes, and policies that come together in a system, agency, or among professionals that enables effective work in cross-cultural situations. Competence implies the capacity to function effectively as an individual and an organization within the context of the cultural beliefs, behaviors, and needs presented by consumers and their communities.
Disturbances in mental processes related to learning, thinking, reasoning, and judgment.
Activities performed to identify concepts and aspects of published information and research reports.
The science that investigates the principles governing correct or reliable inference and deals with the canons and criteria of validity in thought and demonstration. This system of reasoning is applicable to any branch of knowledge or study. (Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2d ed & Sippl, Computer Dictionary, 4th ed)
A loose confederation of computer communication networks around the world. The networks that make up the Internet are connected through several backbone networks. The Internet grew out of the US Government ARPAnet project and was designed to facilitate information exchange.
The mimicking of the behavior of one individual by another.
Educational attainment or level of education of individuals.
A collective expression for all behavior patterns acquired and socially transmitted through symbols. Culture includes customs, traditions, and language.
A procedure consisting of a sequence of algebraic formulas and/or logical steps to calculate or determine a given task.
Extensive collections, reputedly complete, of facts and data garnered from material of a specialized subject area and made available for analysis and application. The collection can be automated by various contemporary methods for retrieval. The concept should be differentiated from DATABASES, BIBLIOGRAPHIC which is restricted to collections of bibliographic references.
Neural tracts connecting one part of the nervous system with another.
Those aspects or characteristics which identify a culture.
Recording of electric currents developed in the brain by means of electrodes applied to the scalp, to the surface of the brain, or placed within the substance of the brain.
Conceptual functions or thinking in all its forms.
Software designed to store, manipulate, manage, and control data for specific uses.
Computer-based systems for input, storage, display, retrieval, and printing of information contained in a patient's medical record.
Lists of words, usually in alphabetical order, giving information about form, pronunciation, etymology, grammar, and meaning.
Electrical responses recorded from nerve, muscle, SENSORY RECEPTOR, or area of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM following stimulation. They range from less than a microvolt to several microvolts. The evoked potential can be auditory (EVOKED POTENTIALS, AUDITORY), somatosensory (EVOKED POTENTIALS, SOMATOSENSORY), visual (EVOKED POTENTIALS, VISUAL), or motor (EVOKED POTENTIALS, MOTOR), or other modalities that have been reported.
Standardized tests that measure the present general ability or aptitude for intellectual performance.
Method of nonverbal communication utilizing hand movements as speech equivalents.
Computerized compilations of information units (text, sound, graphics, and/or video) interconnected by logical nonlinear linkages that enable users to follow optimal paths through the material and also the systems used to create and display this information. (From Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors, 1994)
The coordination of a sensory or ideational (cognitive) process and a motor activity.
Coexistence of numerous distinct ethnic, racial, religious, or cultural groups within one social unit, organization, or population. (From American Heritage Dictionary, 2d college ed., 1982, p955)
A statistical technique that isolates and assesses the contributions of categorical independent variables to variation in the mean of a continuous dependent variable.
Numeric or quantitative entities, descriptions, properties, relationships, operations, and events.
The measurement of magnetic fields over the head generated by electric currents in the brain. As in any electrical conductor, electric fields in the brain are accompanied by orthogonal magnetic fields. The measurement of these fields provides information about the localization of brain activity which is complementary to that provided by ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY. Magnetoencephalography may be used alone or together with electroencephalography, for measurement of spontaneous or evoked activity, and for research or clinical purposes.
Predetermined sets of questions used to collect data - clinical data, social status, occupational group, etc. The term is often applied to a self-completed survey instrument.
Remembrance of information for a few seconds to hours.
Use of sophisticated analysis tools to sort through, organize, examine, and combine large sets of information.
People who leave their place of residence in one country and settle in a different country.
Involuntary ("parrot-like"), meaningless repetition of a recently heard word, phrase, or song. This condition may be associated with transcortical APHASIA; SCHIZOPHRENIA; or other disorders. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p485)
Procedures and programs that facilitate the development or skill acquisition in infants and young children who have disabilities, who are at risk for developing disabilities, or who are gifted. It includes programs that are designed to prevent handicapping conditions in infants and young children and family-centered programs designed to affect the functioning of infants and children with special needs. (From Journal of Early Intervention, Editorial, 1989, vol. 13, no. 1, p. 3; A Discursive Dictionary of Health Care, prepared for the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, 1976)
Assessment of psychological variables by the application of mathematical procedures.
Software capable of recognizing dictation and transcribing the spoken words into written text.
Focusing on certain aspects of current experience to the exclusion of others. It is the act of heeding or taking notice or concentrating.
A meshlike structure composed of interconnecting nerve cells that are separated at the synaptic junction or joined to one another by cytoplasmic processes. In invertebrates, for example, the nerve net allows nerve impulses to spread over a wide area of the net because synapses can pass information in any direction.
Studies in which variables relating to an individual or group of individuals are assessed over a period of time.
A general term for the complete or partial loss of the ability to hear from one or both ears.
Systematic study of the body and the use of its static and dynamic position as a means of communication.
Derived from TELENCEPHALON, cerebrum is composed of a right and a left hemisphere. Each contains an outer cerebral cortex and a subcortical basal ganglia. The cerebrum includes all parts within the skull except the MEDULLA OBLONGATA, the PONS, and the CEREBELLUM. Cerebral functions include sensorimotor, emotional, and intellectual activities.
The sounds produced by humans by the passage of air through the LARYNX and over the VOCAL CORDS, and then modified by the resonance organs, the NASOPHARYNX, and the MOUTH.
Theory and development of COMPUTER SYSTEMS which perform tasks that normally require human intelligence. Such tasks may include speech recognition, LEARNING; VISUAL PERCEPTION; MATHEMATICAL COMPUTING; reasoning, PROBLEM SOLVING, DECISION-MAKING, and translation of language.
Complex mental function having four distinct phases: (1) memorizing or learning, (2) retention, (3) recall, and (4) recognition. Clinically, it is usually subdivided into immediate, recent, and remote memory.
Disorders of speech articulation caused by imperfect coordination of pharynx, larynx, tongue, or face muscles. This may result from CRANIAL NERVE DISEASES; NEUROMUSCULAR DISEASES; CEREBELLAR DISEASES; BASAL GANGLIA DISEASES; BRAIN STEM diseases; or diseases of the corticobulbar tracts (see PYRAMIDAL TRACTS). The cortical language centers are intact in this condition. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p489)
A disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of paroxysmal brain dysfunction due to a sudden, disorderly, and excessive neuronal discharge. Epilepsy classification systems are generally based upon: (1) clinical features of the seizure episodes (e.g., motor seizure), (2) etiology (e.g., post-traumatic), (3) anatomic site of seizure origin (e.g., frontal lobe seizure), (4) tendency to spread to other structures in the brain, and (5) temporal patterns (e.g., nocturnal epilepsy). (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p313)
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of systems, processes, or phenomena. They include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
A group of people with a common cultural heritage that sets them apart from others in a variety of social relationships.
Wearable sound-amplifying devices that are intended to compensate for impaired hearing. These generic devices include air-conduction hearing aids and bone-conduction hearing aids. (UMDNS, 1999)
The analysis of a critical number of sensory stimuli or facts (the pattern) by physiological processes such as vision (PATTERN RECOGNITION, VISUAL), touch, or hearing.
The phenomenon of an organism's responding to all situations similar to one in which it has been conditioned.
The process of leaving one's country to establish residence in a foreign country.
Works containing information articles on subjects in every field of knowledge, usually arranged in alphabetical order, or a similar work limited to a special field or subject. (From The ALA Glossary of Library and Information Science, 1983)
Conditions characterized by a significant discrepancy between an individual's perceived level of intellect and their ability to acquire new language and other cognitive skills. These disorders may result from organic or psychological conditions. Relatively common subtypes include DYSLEXIA, DYSCALCULIA, and DYSGRAPHIA.
Sound that expresses emotion through rhythm, melody, and harmony.
Persons living in the United States having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent.
Writings having excellence of form or expression and expressing ideas of permanent or universal interest. The body of written works produced in a particular language, country, or age. (Webster, 3d ed)
Periodic movement of human settlement from one geographical location to another.
Success in bringing an effort to the desired end; the degree or level of success attained in some specified area (esp. scholastic) or in general.
Mental activity, not predominantly perceptual, by which one apprehends some aspect of an object or situation based on past learning and experience.
A publication issued at stated, more or less regular, intervals.
The ability to attribute mental states (e.g., beliefs, desires, feelings, intentions, thoughts, etc.) to self and to others, allowing an individual to understand and infer behavior on the basis of the mental states. Difference or deficit in theory of mind is associated with ASPERGER SYNDROME; AUTISTIC DISORDER; and SCHIZOPHRENIA, etc.
Spontaneous or voluntary recreational activities pursued for enjoyment and accessories or equipment used in the activities; includes games, toys, etc.
The selecting and organizing of visual stimuli based on the individual's past experience.
The knowledge or perception that someone or something present has been previously encountered.
Specifications and instructions applied to the software.
The electric response evoked in the CEREBRAL CORTEX by ACOUSTIC STIMULATION or stimulation of the AUDITORY PATHWAYS.
Age as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or the effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from AGING, a physiological process, and TIME FACTORS which refers only to the passage of time.
The process of discovering or asserting an objective or intrinsic relation between two objects or concepts; a faculty or power that enables a person to make judgments; the process of bringing to light and asserting the implicit meaning of a concept; a critical evaluation of a person or situation.
Performance of complex motor acts.
Standardized tests designed to measure abilities, as in intelligence, aptitude, and achievement tests, or to evaluate personality traits.
The process of cumulative change over successive generations through which organisms acquire their distinguishing morphological and physiological characteristics.
The ability or act of sensing and transducing ACOUSTIC STIMULATION to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. It is also called audition.
Tests for central hearing disorders based on the competing message technique (binaural separation).
Any behavior caused by or affecting another individual, usually of the same species.
Those psychological characteristics which differentiate individuals from one another.
Procedures for correcting HEARING DISORDERS.
Media that facilitate transportability of pertinent information concerning patient's illness across varied providers and geographic locations. Some versions include direct linkages to online consumer health information that is relevant to the health conditions and treatments related to a specific patient.
Tests of the ability to hear and understand speech as determined by scoring the number of words in a word list repeated correctly.
Persons functioning as natural, adoptive, or substitute parents. The heading includes the concept of parenthood as well as preparation for becoming a parent.
A field of biology concerned with the development of techniques for the collection and manipulation of biological data, and the use of such data to make biological discoveries or predictions. This field encompasses all computational methods and theories for solving biological problems including manipulation of models and datasets.
The science devoted to the comparative study of man.
Theoretical representations that simulate psychological processes and/or social processes. These include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
Modifying, carrying, or manipulating an item external to itself by an animal, before using it to effect a change on the environment or itself (from Beck, Animal Tool Behavior, 1980).
The procedures involved in combining separately developed modules, components, or subsystems so that they work together as a complete system. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
The interactions between physician and patient.
A set of cognitive functions that controls complex, goal-directed thought and behavior. Executive function involves multiple domains, such as CONCEPT FORMATION, goal management, cognitive flexibility, INHIBITION control, and WORKING MEMORY. Impaired executive function is seen in a range of disorders, e.g., SCHIZOPHRENIA; and ADHD.
The detailed examination of observable activity or behavior associated with the execution or completion of a required function or unit of work.
Equipment that provides mentally or physically disabled persons with a means of communication. The aids include display boards, typewriters, cathode ray tubes, computers, and speech synthesizers. The output of such aids includes written words, artificial speech, language signs, Morse code, and pictures.
Loss or impairment of the ability to write (letters, syllables, words, or phrases) due to an injury to a specific cerebral area or occasionally due to emotional factors. This condition rarely occurs in isolation, and often accompanies APHASIA. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p485; APA, Thesaurus of Psychological Index Terms, 1994)
Investigative technique commonly used during ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY in which a series of bright light flashes or visual patterns are used to elicit brain activity.
Study of the anatomy of the nervous system as a specialty or discipline.
The field of information science concerned with the analysis and dissemination of medical data through the application of computers to various aspects of health care and medicine.
Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison, referent) group without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing diseased and non-diseased persons with regard to the frequency or levels of the attribute in each group.
The region of the cerebral cortex that receives the auditory radiation from the MEDIAL GENICULATE BODY.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Levels within a diagnostic group which are established by various measurement criteria applied to the seriousness of a patient's disorder.
Specialized instruction for students deviating from the expected norm.
A dimension of auditory sensation varying with cycles per second of the sound stimulus.
Non-invasive methods of visualizing the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, especially the brain, by various imaging modalities.
Upper central part of the cerebral hemisphere. It is located posterior to central sulcus, anterior to the OCCIPITAL LOBE, and superior to the TEMPORAL LOBES.
The use of diffusion ANISOTROPY data from diffusion magnetic resonance imaging results to construct images based on the direction of the faster diffusing molecules.
The process of pictorial communication, between human and computers, in which the computer input and output have the form of charts, drawings, or other appropriate pictorial representation.
Education of the individual who markedly deviates intellectually, physically, socially, or emotionally from those considered to be normal, thus requiring special instruction.
Procedures for assisting a person with a speech or language disorder to communicate with maximum efficiency.
Part of an ear examination that measures the ability of sound to reach the brain.
Change in learning in one situation due to prior learning in another situation. The transfer can be positive (with second learning improved by first) or negative (where the reverse holds).
The human male sex chromosome, being the differential sex chromosome carried by half the male gametes and none of the female gametes in humans.
Extensive collections, reputedly complete, of references and citations to books, articles, publications, etc., generally on a single subject or specialized subject area. Databases can operate through automated files, libraries, or computer disks. The concept should be differentiated from DATABASES, FACTUAL which is used for collections of data and facts apart from bibliographic references to them.
The capacity of the NERVOUS SYSTEM to change its reactivity as the result of successive activations.
Information systems, usually computer-assisted, designed to store, manipulate, and retrieve information for planning, organizing, directing, and controlling administrative activities associated with the provision and utilization of radiology services and facilities.
Tests of accuracy in pronouncing speech sounds, e.g., Iowa Pressure Articulation Test, Deep Test of Articulation, Templin-Darley Tests of Articulation, Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation, Screening Speech Articulation Test, Arizona Articulation Proficiency Scale.
Collections of facts, assumptions, beliefs, and heuristics that are used in combination with databases to achieve desired results, such as a diagnosis, an interpretation, or a solution to a problem (From McGraw Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed).
A love or pursuit of wisdom. A search for the underlying causes and principles of reality. (Webster, 3d ed)
Conditions that impair the transmission of auditory impulses and information from the level of the ear to the temporal cortices, including the sensorineural pathways.
A receptive visual aphasia characterized by the loss of a previously possessed ability to comprehend the meaning or significance of handwritten words, despite intact vision. This condition may be associated with posterior cerebral artery infarction (INFARCTION, POSTERIOR CEREBRAL ARTERY) and other BRAIN DISEASES.

Descriptive study of cooperative language in primary care consultations by male and female doctors. (1/3485)

OBJECTIVE: To compare the use of some of the characteristics of male and female language by male and female primary care practitioners during consultations. DESIGN: Doctors' use of the language of dominance and support was explored by using concordancing software. Three areas were examined: mean number of words per consultation; relative frequency of question tags; and use of mitigated directives. The analysis of language associated with cooperative talk examines relevant words or phrases and their immediate context. SUBJECTS: 26 male and 14 female doctors in general practice, in a total of 373 consecutive consultations. SETTING: West Midlands. RESULTS: Doctors spoke significantly more words than patients, but the number of words spoken by male and female doctors did not differ significantly. Question tags were used far more frequently by doctors (P<0.001) than by patients or companions. Frequency of use was similar in male and female doctors, and the speech styles in consultation were similar. CONCLUSIONS: These data show that male and female doctors use a speech style which is not gender specific, contrary to findings elsewhere; doctors consulted in an overtly non-directive, negotiated style, which is realised through suggestions and affective comments. This mode of communication is the core teaching of communication skills courses. These results suggest that men have more to learn to achieve competence as professional communicators.  (+info)

Disrupted temporal lobe connections in semantic dementia. (2/3485)

Semantic dementia refers to the variant of frontotemporal dementia in which there is progressive semantic deterioration and anomia in the face of relative preservation of other language and cognitive functions. Structural imaging and SPECT studies of such patients have suggested that the site of damage, and by inference the region critical to semantic processing, is the anterolateral temporal lobe, especially on the left. Recent functional imaging studies of normal participants have revealed a network of areas involved in semantic tasks. The present study used PET to examine the consequences of focal damage to the anterolateral temporal cortex for the operation of this semantic network. We measured PET activation associated with a semantic decision task relative to a visual decision task in four patients with semantic dementia compared with six age-matched normal controls. Normals activated a network of regions consistent with previous studies. The patients activated some areas consistently with the normals, including some regions of significant atrophy, but showed substantially reduced activity particularly in the left posterior inferior temporal gyrus (iTG) (Brodmann area 37/19). Voxel-based morphometry, used to identify the regions of structural deficit, revealed significant anterolateral temporal atrophy (especially on the left), but no significant structural damage to the posterior inferior temporal lobe. Other evidence suggests that the left posterior iTG is critically involved in lexical-phonological retrieval: the lack of activation here is consistent with the observation that these patients are all anomic. We conclude that changes in activity in regions distant from the patients' structural damage support the argument that their prominent anomia is due to disrupted temporal lobe connections.  (+info)

Language processing is strongly left lateralized in both sexes. Evidence from functional MRI. (3/3485)

Functional MRI (fMRI) was used to examine gender effects on brain activation during a language comprehension task. A large number of subjects (50 women and 50 men) was studied to maximize the statistical power to detect subtle differences between the sexes. To estimate the specificity of findings related to sex differences, parallel analyses were performed on two groups of randomly assigned subjects. Men and women showed very similar, strongly left lateralized activation patterns. Voxel-wise tests for group differences in overall activation patterns demonstrated no significant differences between women and men. In further analyses, group differences were examined by region of interest and by hemisphere. No differences were found between the sexes in lateralization of activity in any region of interest or in intrahemispheric cortical activation patterns. These data argue against substantive differences between men and women in the large-scale neural organization of language processes.  (+info)

Is grammar special? (4/3485)

Recent studies of children with developmental disorders provide striking insights into the nature of language. These studies suggest that, although much of language arises from more general cognitive capacities, certain aspects of grammar have an autonomous psychological and neural basis.  (+info)

Linguistic diversity of the Americas can be reconciled with a recent colonization. (5/3485)

The Americas harbor a very great diversity of indigenous language stocks, many more than are found in any other continent. J. Nichols [(1990) Language 66, 475-521] has argued that this diversity indicates a great time depth of in situ evolution. She thus infers that the colonization of the Americas must have begun around 35,000 years ago. This estimate is much earlier than the date for which there is strong archaeological support, which does not much exceed 12,000 years. Nichols' assumption is that the diversity of linguistic stocks increases linearly with time. This paper compares the major continents of the world to show that this assumption is not correct. In fact, stock diversity is highest in the Americas, which are by consensus the youngest continents, intermediate in Australia and New Guinea, and lowest in Africa and Eurasia where the time depth is greatest. If anything, then, after an initial radiation, stock diversity decreases with time. A simple model is outlined that predicts these dynamics. It assumes that early in the peopling of continents, there are many unfilled niches for communities to live in, and so fissioning into new lineages is frequent. As the habitat is filled up, the rate of fissioning declines and lineage extinction becomes the dominant evolutionary force.  (+info)

Molecular genetic evidence for the human settlement of the Pacific: analysis of mitochondrial DNA, Y chromosome and HLA markers. (6/3485)

Present-day Pacific islanders are thought to be the descendants of Neolithic agriculturalists who expanded from island South-east Asia several thousand years ago. They speak languages belonging to the Austronesian language family, spoken today in an area spanning half of the circumference of the world, from Madagascar to Easter Island, and from Taiwan to New Zealand. To investigate the genetic affinities of the Austronesian-speaking peoples, we analysed mitochondrial DNA, HLA and Y-chromosome polymorphisms in individuals from eight geographical locations in Asia and the Pacific (China, Taiwan, Java, New Guinea highlands, New Guinea coast, Trobriand Islands, New Britain and Western Samoa). Our results show that the demographic expansion of the Austronesians has left a genetic footprint. However, there is no simple correlation between languages and genes in the Pacific.  (+info)

Language outcome following multiple subpial transection for Landau-Kleffner syndrome. (7/3485)

Landau-Kleffner syndrome is an acquired epileptic aphasia occurring in normal children who lose previously acquired speech and language abilities. Although some children recover some of these abilities, many children with Landau-Kleffner syndrome have significant language impairments that persist. Multiple subpial transection is a surgical technique that has been proposed as an appropriate treatment for Landau-Kleffner syndrome in that it is designed to eliminate the capacity of cortical tissue to generate seizures or subclinical epileptiform activity, while preserving the cortical functions subserved by that tissue. We report on the speech and language outcome of 14 children who underwent multiple subpial transection for treatment of Landau-Kleffner syndrome. Eleven children demonstrated significant postoperative improvement on measures of receptive or expressive vocabulary. Results indicate that early diagnosis and treatment optimize outcome, and that gains in language function are most likely to be seen years, rather than months, after surgery. Since an appropriate control group was not available, and that the best predictor of postoperative improvements in language function was that of length of time since surgery, these data might best be used as a benchmark against other Landau-Kleffner syndrome outcome studies. We conclude that multiple subpial transection may be useful in allowing for a restoration of speech and language abilities in children diagnosed with Landau-Kleffner syndrome.  (+info)

Laterality in animals: relevance to schizophrenia. (8/3485)

Anomalies in the laterality of numerous neurocognitive dimensions associated with schizophrenia have been documented, but their role in the etiology and early development of the disorder remain unclear. In the study of normative neurobehavioral organization, animal models have shed much light on the mechanisms underlying and the factors affecting adult patterns of both functional and structural asymmetry. Nonhuman species have more recently been used to investigate the environmental, genetic, and neuroendocrine factors associated with developmental language disorders in humans. We propose that the animal models used to study the basis of lateralization in normative development and language disorders such as dyslexia could be modified to investigate lateralized phenomena in schizophrenia.  (+info)

Types of Language Disorders:

1. Developmental Language Disorder (DLD): This is a condition where children have difficulty learning language skills, such as grammar, vocabulary, and sentence structure, despite being exposed to language in their environment. DLD can be diagnosed in children between the ages of 2 and 5.
2. Acquired Language Disorder: This is a condition that occurs when an individual experiences brain damage or injury that affects their ability to understand and produce language. Acquired language disorders can be caused by stroke, traumatic brain injury, or other neurological conditions.
3. Aphasia: This is a condition that occurs when an individual experiences damage to the language areas of their brain, typically as a result of stroke or traumatic brain injury. Aphasia can affect an individual's ability to understand, speak, read, and write language.
4. Dysarthria: This is a condition that affects an individual's ability to produce speech sounds due to weakness, paralysis, or incoordination of the muscles used for speaking. Dysarthria can be caused by stroke, cerebral palsy, or other neurological conditions.
5. Apraxia: This is a condition that affects an individual's ability to coordinate the movements of their lips, tongue, and jaw to produce speech sounds. Apraxia can be caused by stroke, head injury, or other neurological conditions.

Causes and Risk Factors:

1. Genetic factors: Some language disorders may be inherited from parents or grandparents.
2. Brain damage or injury: Stroke, traumatic brain injury, or other neurological conditions can cause acquired language disorders.
3. Developmental delays: Children with developmental delays or disorders, such as autism or Down syndrome, may experience language disorders.
4. Hearing loss or impairment: Children who have difficulty hearing may experience language delays or disorders.
5. Environmental factors: Poverty, poor nutrition, and limited access to educational resources can contribute to language disorders in children.

Signs and Symptoms:

1. Difficulty articulating words or sentences
2. Slurred or distorted speech
3. Limited vocabulary or grammar skills
4. Difficulty understanding spoken language
5. Avoidance of speaking or social interactions
6. Behavioral difficulties, such as aggression or frustration
7. Delayed language development in children
8. Difficulty with reading and writing skills

Treatment and Interventions:

1. Speech therapy: A speech-language pathologist (SLP) can work with individuals to improve their language skills through exercises, activities, and strategies.
2. Cognitive training: Individuals with language disorders may benefit from cognitive training programs that target attention, memory, and other cognitive skills.
3. Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices: These devices can help individuals with severe language disorders communicate more effectively.
4. Behavioral interventions: Behavioral therapy can help individuals with language disorders manage their behavior and improve their social interactions.
5. Family support: Family members can provide support and encouragement to individuals with language disorders, which can help improve outcomes.
6. Educational accommodations: Individuals with language disorders may be eligible for educational accommodations, such as extra time to complete assignments or the use of a tape recorder during lectures.
7. Medication: In some cases, medication may be prescribed to help manage symptoms of language disorders, such as anxiety or depression.

Prognosis and Quality of Life:

The prognosis for individuals with language disorders varies depending on the severity of their condition and the effectiveness of their treatment. With appropriate support and intervention, many individuals with language disorders are able to improve their language skills and lead fulfilling lives. However, some individuals may experience ongoing challenges with communication and social interaction, which can impact their quality of life.

In conclusion, language disorders can have a significant impact on an individual's ability to communicate and interact with others. While there is no cure for language disorders, there are many effective treatments and interventions that can help improve outcomes. With appropriate support and accommodations, individuals with language disorders can lead fulfilling lives and achieve their goals.

There are several types of LDDs, including:

1. Expressive Language Disorder: This condition is characterized by difficulty with verbal expression, including difficulty with word choice, sentence structure, and coherence.
2. Receptive Language Disorder: This condition is characterized by difficulty with understanding spoken language, including difficulty with comprehending vocabulary, grammar, and tone of voice.
3. Mixed Receptive-Expressive Language Disorder: This condition is characterized by both receptive and expressive language difficulties.
4. Language Processing Disorder: This condition is characterized by difficulty with processing language, including difficulty with auditory processing, syntax, and semantics.
5. Social Communication Disorder: This condition is characterized by difficulty with social communication, including difficulty with understanding and using language in social contexts, eye contact, facial expressions, and body language.

Causes of LDDs include:

1. Genetic factors: Some LDDs may be inherited from parents or grandparents.
2. Brain injury: Traumatic brain injury or stroke can damage the areas of the brain responsible for language processing.
3. Infections: Certain infections, such as meningitis or encephalitis, can damage the brain and result in LDDs.
4. Nutritional deficiencies: Severe malnutrition or a lack of certain nutrients, such as vitamin B12, can lead to LDDs.
5. Environmental factors: Exposure to toxins, such as lead, and poverty can increase the risk of developing an LDD.

Signs and symptoms of LDDs include:

1. Difficulty with word retrieval
2. Incomplete or inappropriate sentences
3. Difficulty with comprehension
4. Limited vocabulary
5. Difficulty with understanding abstract concepts
6. Difficulty with social communication
7. Delayed language development compared to peers
8. Difficulty with speech sounds and articulation
9. Stuttering or repetition of words
10. Limited eye contact and facial expressions

Treatment for LDDs depends on the underlying cause and may include:

1. Speech and language therapy to improve communication skills
2. Cognitive training to improve problem-solving and memory skills
3. Occupational therapy to improve daily living skills
4. Physical therapy to improve mobility and balance
5. Medication to manage symptoms such as anxiety or depression
6. Surgery to repair any physical abnormalities or damage to the brain.

It is important to note that each individual with an LDD may have a unique combination of strengths, weaknesses, and challenges, and treatment plans should be tailored to meet their specific needs. Early diagnosis and intervention are key to improving outcomes for individuals with LDDs.

There are several types of deafness, including:

1. Conductive hearing loss: This type of deafness is caused by problems with the middle ear, including the eardrum or the bones of the middle ear. It can be treated with hearing aids or surgery.
2. Sensorineural hearing loss: This type of deafness is caused by damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve. It is typically permanent and cannot be treated with medication or surgery.
3. Mixed hearing loss: This type of deafness is a combination of conductive and sensorineural hearing loss.
4. Auditory processing disorder (APD): This is a condition in which the brain has difficulty processing sounds, even though the ears are functioning normally.
5. Tinnitus: This is a condition characterized by ringing or other sounds in the ears when there is no external source of sound. It can be a symptom of deafness or a separate condition.

There are several ways to diagnose deafness, including:

1. Hearing tests: These can be done in a doctor's office or at a hearing aid center. They involve listening to sounds through headphones and responding to them.
2. Imaging tests: These can include X-rays, CT scans, or MRI scans to look for any physical abnormalities in the ear or brain.
3. Auditory brainstem response (ABR) testing: This is a test that measures the electrical activity of the brain in response to sound. It can be used to diagnose hearing loss in infants and young children.
4. Otoacoustic emissions (OAE) testing: This is a test that measures the sounds produced by the inner ear in response to sound. It can be used to diagnose hearing loss in infants and young children.

There are several ways to treat deafness, including:

1. Hearing aids: These are devices that amplify sound and can be worn in or behind the ear. They can help improve hearing for people with mild to severe hearing loss.
2. Cochlear implants: These are devices that are implanted in the inner ear and can bypass damaged hair cells to directly stimulate the auditory nerve. They can help restore hearing for people with severe to profound hearing loss.
3. Speech therapy: This can help people with hearing loss improve their communication skills, such as speaking and listening.
4. Assistive technology: This can include devices such as captioned phones, alerting systems, and assistive listening devices that can help people with hearing loss communicate more effectively.
5. Medications: There are several medications available that can help treat deafness, such as antibiotics for bacterial infections or steroids to reduce inflammation.
6. Surgery: In some cases, surgery may be necessary to treat deafness, such as when there is a blockage in the ear or when a tumor is present.
7. Stem cell therapy: This is a relatively new area of research that involves using stem cells to repair damaged hair cells in the inner ear. It has shown promising results in some studies.
8. Gene therapy: This involves using genes to repair or replace damaged or missing genes that can cause deafness. It is still an experimental area of research, but it has shown promise in some studies.
9. Implantable devices: These are devices that are implanted in the inner ear and can help restore hearing by bypassing damaged hair cells. Examples include cochlear implants and auditory brainstem implants.
10. Binaural hearing: This involves using a combination of hearing aids and technology to improve hearing in both ears, which can help improve speech recognition and reduce the risk of falls.

It's important to note that the best treatment for deafness will depend on the underlying cause of the condition, as well as the individual's age, overall health, and personal preferences. It's important to work with a healthcare professional to determine the best course of treatment.

1. Articulation Disorders: Difficulty articulating sounds or words due to poor pronunciation, misplaced sounds, or distortion of sounds.
2. Stuttering: A disorder characterized by the repetition or prolongation of sounds, syllables, or words, as well as the interruption or blocking of speech.
3. Voice Disorders: Abnormalities in voice quality, pitch, or volume due to overuse, misuse, or structural changes in the vocal cords.
4. Language Disorders: Difficulty with understanding, using, or interpreting spoken language, including grammar, vocabulary, and sentence structure.
5. Apraxia of Speech: A neurological disorder that affects the ability to plan and execute voluntary movements of the articulatory organs for speech production.
6. Dysarthria: A condition characterized by slurred or distorted speech due to weakness, paralysis, or incoordination of the articulatory muscles.
7. Cerebral Palsy: A group of disorders that affect movement, balance, and posture, often including speech and language difficulties.
8. Aphasia: A condition that results from brain damage and affects an individual's ability to understand, speak, read, and write language.
9. Dyslexia: A learning disorder that affects an individual's ability to read and spell words correctly.
10. Hearing Loss: Loss of hearing in one or both ears can impact speech development and language acquisition.

Speech disorders can be diagnosed by a speech-language pathologist (SLP) through a comprehensive evaluation, including speech and language samples, medical history, and behavioral observations. Treatment options vary depending on the specific disorder and may include therapy exercises, technology assistance, and counseling. With appropriate support and intervention, individuals with speech disorders can improve their communication skills and lead fulfilling lives.

Anomia is a condition characterized by memory loss or impairment of word-finding ability, especially for proper nouns (e.g., names of people and places). Also called nominal anomia or dysnomia.

Anomia can be caused by various factors, such as brain injury, stroke, traumatic brain injury, neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's disease), infections (e.g., encephalitis), and certain medications.

Symptoms of anomia may include difficulty naming objects or people, trouble finding the right words to describe something, and confusion about the meaning of words. In some cases, anomia can be treated with speech and language therapy, but in more severe cases, it may be a permanent condition.

Articulation disorders can be classified into different types based on the severity and nature of the speech difficulties. Some common types of articulation disorders include:

1. Articulation errors: These occur when individuals produce speech sounds differently than the expected norm, such as pronouncing "k" and "s" sounds as "t" or "z."
2. Speech sound distortions: This type of disorder involves the exaggeration or alteration of speech sounds, such as speaking with a lisp or a nasal tone.
3. Speech articulation anomalies: These are abnormalities in the production of speech sounds that do not fit into any specific category, such as difficulty pronouncing certain words or sounds.
4. Apraxia of speech: This is a neurological disorder that affects the ability to plan and execute voluntary movements of the articulators (lips, tongue, jaw), resulting in distorted or slurred speech.
5. Dysarthria: This is a speech disorder characterized by weakness, slowness, or incoordination of the muscles used for speaking, often caused by a neurological condition such as a stroke or cerebral palsy.

Articulation disorders can be diagnosed by a speech-language pathologist (SLP) through a comprehensive evaluation of an individual's speech and language skills. The SLP may use standardized assessments, clinical observations, and interviews with the individual and their family to determine the nature and severity of the articulation disorder.

Treatment for articulation disorders typically involves speech therapy with an SLP, who will work with the individual to improve their speech skills through a series of exercises and activities tailored to their specific needs. Treatment may focus on improving the accuracy and clarity of speech sounds, increasing speech rate and fluency, and enhancing communication skills.

In addition to speech therapy, other interventions that may be helpful for individuals with articulation disorders include:

1. Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems: For individuals with severe articulation disorders or those who have difficulty using speech to communicate, AAC systems such as picture communication symbols or electronic devices can provide an alternative means of communication.
2. Supportive technology: Assistive devices such as speech-generating devices, text-to-speech software, and other technology can help individuals with articulation disorders to communicate more effectively.
3. Parent-child interaction therapy (PCIT): This type of therapy focuses on improving the communication skills of young children with articulation disorders by training parents to use play-based activities and strategies to enhance their child's speech and language development.
4. Social skills training: For individuals with articulation disorders who also have difficulty with social interactions, social skills training can help them develop better communication and social skills.
5. Cognitive communication therapy: This type of therapy focuses on improving the cognitive processes that underlie communication, such as attention, memory, and problem-solving skills.
6. Articulation therapy: This type of therapy focuses specifically on improving articulation skills, and may involve exercises and activities to strengthen the muscles used for speech production.
7. Stuttering modification therapy: For individuals who stutter, this type of therapy can help them learn to speak more fluently and with less effort.
8. Voice therapy: This type of therapy can help individuals with voice disorders to improve their vocal quality and communication skills.
9. Counseling and psychotherapy: For individuals with articulation disorders who are experiencing emotional or psychological distress, counseling and psychotherapy can be helpful in addressing these issues and improving overall well-being.

It's important to note that the most effective treatment approach will depend on the specific needs and goals of the individual with an articulation disorder, as well as their age, severity of symptoms, and other factors. A speech-language pathologist can work with the individual and their family to develop a personalized treatment plan that addresses their unique needs and helps them achieve their communication goals.

Broca's aphasia is characterized by difficulty speaking in complete sentences, using correct grammar, and articulating words clearly. Individuals with Broca's aphasia may also experience difficulty understanding spoken language, although comprehension of written language may be relatively preserved.

Common symptoms of Broca's aphasia include:

1. Difficulty speaking in complete sentences or using correct grammar.
2. Slurred or slow speech.
3. Difficulty articulating words clearly.
4. Difficulty understanding spoken language.
5. Preservation of comprehension of written language.
6. Word-finding difficulties.
7. Difficulty with naming objects.
8. Difficulty with sentence construction.

Broca's aphasia is often caused by damage to the brain due to stroke, traumatic brain injury, or neurodegenerative diseases such as primary progressive aphasia. Treatment for Broca's aphasia typically involves speech and language therapy to improve communication skills and cognitive rehabilitation to improve language processing abilities.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5) defines Autistic Disorder as a pervasive developmental disorder that meets the following criteria:

A. Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts, including:

1. Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity (e.g., abnormal or absent eye contact, impaired understanding of facial expressions, delayed or lack of response to social overtures).
2. Deficits in developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships (e.g., difficulty initiating or sustaining conversations, impairment in understanding social norms, rules, and expectations).
3. Deficits in using nonverbal behaviors to regulate social interaction (e.g., difficulty with eye contact, facial expressions, body language, gestures).

B. Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities, as manifested by at least one of the following:

1. Stereotyped or repetitive motor movements, use of objects, or speech (e.g., hand flapping, head banging, repeating words or phrases).
2. Insistence on sameness, inflexibility, and adherence to routines or rituals.
3. Preoccupation with specific interests or activities that are repeated in a rigid and restricted manner (e.g., preoccupation with a particular topic, excessive focus on a specific activity).

C. Symptoms must be present in the early developmental period and significantly impact social, occupational, or other areas of functioning.

D. The symptoms do not occur exclusively during a medical or neurological condition (e.g., intellectual disability, hearing loss).

It is important to note that Autistic Disorder is a spectrum disorder and individuals with this diagnosis may have varying degrees of severity in their symptoms. Additionally, there are several other Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDDs) that have similar diagnostic criteria but may differ in severity and presentation. These include:

A. Asperger's Disorder: Characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication, but without the presence of significant delay or retardation in language development.

B. Rett Syndrome: A rare genetic disorder that is characterized by difficulties with social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors.

C. Childhood Disintegrative Disorder: Characterized by a loss of language and social skills that occurs after a period of normal development.

It is important to consult with a qualified professional, such as a psychologist or psychiatrist, for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment.

Some common types of communication disorders include:

1. Speech disorders: These are conditions that affect an individual's ability to produce speech sounds correctly or fluently. Examples include stuttering, articulation disorders, and apraxia of speech.
2. Language disorders: These are conditions that affect an individual's ability to understand and use language effectively. Examples include agrammatism (difficulty with sentence structure), anomia (word-finding difficulties), and semantic-dyslexia (difficulty with word meaning).
3. Reading disorders: These are conditions that affect an individual's ability to read and spell written words. Examples include dyslexia and other reading disabilities.
4. Hearing impairments: These are conditions that affect an individual's ability to hear or process sound. Examples include conductive hearing loss, sensorineural hearing loss, and auditory processing disorders.
5. Cognitive communication disorders: These are conditions that affect an individual's ability to think, reason, and understand language. Examples include traumatic brain injury, dementia, and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.

The symptoms of communication disorders can vary depending on the specific condition and the individual affected. Some common symptoms include:

* Difficulty articulating words or sounds
* Slurred or slow speech
* Difficulty understanding spoken language
* Difficulty with word-finding
* Difficulty with reading and spelling
* Difficulty with comprehending written text
* Difficulty with nonverbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions

Communication disorders can be diagnosed by a speech-language pathologist (SLP) through a series of tests and assessments. Treatment options for communication disorders vary depending on the specific condition and the individual affected, but may include:

* Speech and language therapy to improve articulation, fluency, and comprehension skills
* Cognitive therapy to improve memory, attention, and problem-solving skills
* Use of technology such as hearing aids or communication devices
* Counseling and support for individuals and their families.

It is important to seek professional help if you or someone you know is experiencing difficulty with communication. With appropriate diagnosis and treatment, individuals with communication disorders can improve their communication skills and lead fulfilling lives.

The main features of Wernicke's aphasia include:

1. Difficulty comprehending spoken language: Individuals with Wernicke's aphasia may have difficulty understanding the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences when spoken to them. They may also struggle to follow conversations or understand complex sentences.
2. Impaired speech production: People with Wernicke's aphasia may experience difficulty speaking in complete sentences or using correct grammar. Their speech may be slow, halting, or contain made-up words (neologisms). They may also have trouble initiating conversations or responding to questions.
3. Preservation of literacy skills: In contrast to other types of aphasia, individuals with Wernicke's aphasia typically retain their ability to read and write, as these skills are mediated by different areas of the brain.
4. Right hemisphere involvement: Wernicke's aphasia is often associated with damage to the right hemisphere of the brain, particularly in the area known as the anterior superior temporal gyrus (Tanenhaus et al., 2010). This can lead to difficulties with speech production and comprehension, as well as other cognitive and behavioral changes.
5. Sensory deficits: Some individuals with Wernicke's aphasia may also experience sensory deficits, such as difficulty with hearing or vision (Kertesz, 1994).

Wernicke's aphasia is often seen in individuals who have suffered a stroke or other brain injury, particularly in the left hemisphere of the brain. It is important for clinicians to recognize and diagnose Wernicke's aphasia accurately, as it can help guide treatment and rehabilitation efforts.

References:

Kertesz, A. (1994). Wernicke's aphasia: A review of the clinical and neuroanatomical features. Cortex, 30(2), 267-285.

Tanenhaus, M. K., Spivey, M. J., Eberhard, K. M., & Sedivy, J. C. (1999). Integration of visual and linguistic information in spoken language comprehension. Science, 283(5408), 1323-1326.

Tanenhaus, M. K., Bienkowski, M., & Levitan, C. A. (2010). Language and the brain: Anatomical and functional bases of Wernicke's aphasia. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1204, 235-257.

1. Autism spectrum disorder: Children with autism spectrum disorder struggle with social interaction, communication and repetitive behaviors. They may also have delays or impairments in language development, cognitive and social skills.

2. Rett syndrome: A rare genetic condition that affects girls almost exclusively. Children with Rett syndrome typically develop normally for the first six months of life before losing skills and experiencing difficulties with communication, movement and other areas of functioning.

3. Childhood disintegrative disorder: This is a rare condition in which children develop normally for at least two years before suddenly losing their language and social skills. Children with this disorder may also experience difficulty with eye contact, imitation and imagination.

4. Pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS): A diagnosis that is given to children who display some but not all of the characteristic symptoms of autism spectrum disorder. Children with PDD-NOS may have difficulties in social interaction, communication and repetitive behaviors.

5. Other specified and unspecified pervasive developmental disorders: This category includes a range of rare conditions that affect children's development and functioning. Examples include;
a) Fragile X syndrome: A genetic condition associated with intellectual disability, behavioral challenges and physical characteristics such as large ears and a long face.
b) Williams syndrome: A rare genetic condition that affects about one in 10,000 children. It is characterized by heart problems, developmental delays and difficulties with social interaction and communication.

These disorders can have a significant impact on the child's family and caregivers, requiring early intervention and ongoing support to help the child reach their full potential.

Pervasive child development disorder is a broad term used to describe a range of conditions that affect children's social communication and behavioral development. There are five main types of pervasive developmental disorders:
1. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD): A developmental disorder characterized by difficulties in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication and repetitive behaviors. Children with ASD may have a hard time understanding other people's perspectives, initiating or maintaining conversations and developing and maintaining relationships. They may also exhibit repetitive behaviors such as hand flapping, rocking or repeating words or phrases.

2. Rett syndrome: A rare genetic disorder that affects girls almost exclusively. It is characterized by difficulties in social interaction, communication and repetitive behaviors, as well as physical symptoms such as seizures, tremors and muscle weakness. Children with Rett syndrome may also experience anxiety, depression and sleep disturbances.

3. Childhood disintegrative disorder: A rare condition in which children develop typically for the first few years of life, but then lose their language and social skills and exhibit autistic-like behaviors.

4. Pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS): A diagnosis given to children who exhibit some, but not all, of the symptoms of ASD. Children with PDD-NOS may have difficulty with social interaction and communication, but do not meet the criteria for a full diagnosis of ASD.

5. Asperger's disorder: A milder form of autism that is characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication, but not with language development. Children with Asperger's disorder may have trouble understanding other people's perspectives, developing and maintaining relationships and exhibiting repetitive behaviors.

it's important to note that these categories are not exhaustive and there is some overlap between them. Additionally, each individual with a pervasive developmental disorder may experience a unique set of symptoms and challenges.

There are three main types of primary progressive aphasia:

1. Logopenic progressive aphasia (LPA): This is the most common type of PPA, accounting for approximately 70% of cases. It is characterized by difficulty in finding the right words, using correct grammar, and understanding complex sentences.
2. Semantic dementia (SD): This type of PPA is characterized by difficulties with word meaning, often leading to a loss of semantic knowledge. Affected individuals may have trouble recognizing familiar objects, people, or places.
3. Nonfluent progressive aphasia (NFPA): This type of PPA is characterized by difficulty in speaking and understanding language, as well as slow and effortful speech.

The symptoms of primary progressive aphasia can vary depending on the individual and the progression of the disease. They may include:

* Difficulty finding the right words or understanding complex sentences
* Trouble with word retrieval and naming objects
* Slow and effortful speech
* Difficulty with reading and writing
* Decreased comprehension of spoken language
* Difficulty with social communication and pragmatic skills

Primary progressive aphasia is a degenerative disorder, meaning that it is not reversible and will continue to worsen over time. However, there are several treatment options available to manage the symptoms and improve quality of life for individuals affected by PPA. These may include speech and language therapy, cognitive training, and medications to manage behavioral changes or depression.

In summary, primary progressive aphasia is a rare and degenerative disorder that affects language and communication abilities, with three main types: logopenic progressive aphasia, semantic dementia, and nonfluent progressive aphasia. Symptoms can vary depending on the type of PPA, but may include difficulty finding words, slow and effortful speech, and decreased comprehension of spoken language. Treatment options are available to manage symptoms and improve quality of life for individuals affected by PPA.

Stuttering can be classified into three main types:

1. Developmental stuttering: This type of stuttering usually begins in childhood and may persist throughout life. It is more common in boys than girls.
2. Neurogenic stuttering: This type of stuttering is caused by a brain injury or a neurological disorder such as Parkinson's disease, stroke, or cerebral palsy.
3. Psychogenic stuttering: This type of stuttering is caused by psychological factors such as anxiety, stress, or trauma.

The exact cause of stuttering is not fully understood, but research suggests that it may be related to differences in brain structure and function, particularly in areas responsible for language processing and speech production. There are several theories about the underlying mechanisms of stuttering, including:

1. Neurophysiological theory: This theory proposes that stuttering is caused by irregularities in the timing and coordination of neural activity in the brain.
2. Speech motor theory: This theory suggests that stuttering is caused by difficulties with speech articulation and the coordination of speech movements.
3. Auditory feedback theory: This theory proposes that stuttering is caused by a disruption in the normal auditory feedback loop, leading to an over-reliance on visual feedback for speech production.

There are several treatments available for stuttering, including:

1. Speech therapy: This type of therapy can help individuals with stuttering improve their speaking skills and reduce their stuttering severity. Techniques used in speech therapy may include slowing down speech, using relaxation techniques, and practicing fluency-enhancing strategies such as easy onset and smooth flow.
2. Stuttering modification therapy: This type of therapy focuses on teaching individuals with stuttering to speak more slowly and smoothly, while reducing the occurrence of stuttering.
3. Fluency shaping therapy: This type of therapy aims to improve fluency by teaching individuals to speak more slowly and smoothly, using techniques such as gentle onset and gradual release of sounds.
4. Electronic devices: There are several electronic devices available that can help reduce stuttering, such as speech-output devices that speak for the individual, or devices that provide auditory feedback to help individuals speak more fluently.
5. Surgery: In some cases, surgery may be recommended to treat stuttering. For example, surgery may be used to correct physical abnormalities in the brain or speech mechanisms that are contributing to the stuttering.

It is important to note that no single treatment is effective for everyone who stutters, and the most effective treatment approach will depend on the individual's specific needs and circumstances. A healthcare professional, such as a speech-language pathologist, should be consulted to determine the best course of treatment for each individual.

Developmental disabilities can include a wide range of diagnoses, such as:

1. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): A neurological disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors.
2. Intellectual Disability (ID): A condition in which an individual's cognitive abilities are below average, affecting their ability to learn, reason, and communicate.
3. Down Syndrome: A genetic disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21, characterized by intellectual disability, delayed speech and language development, and a distinctive physical appearance.
4. Cerebral Palsy (CP): A group of disorders that affect movement, balance, and posture, often resulting from brain injury or abnormal development during fetal development or early childhood.
5. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
6. Learning Disabilities: Conditions that affect an individual's ability to learn and process information, such as dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia.
7. Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): An injury to the brain caused by a blow or jolt to the head, often resulting in cognitive, emotional, and physical impairments.
8. Severe Hearing or Vision Loss: A condition in which an individual experiences significant loss of hearing or vision, affecting their ability to communicate and interact with their environment.
9. Multiple Disabilities: A condition in which an individual experiences two or more developmental disabilities simultaneously, such as intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorder.
10. Undiagnosed Developmental Delay (UDD): A condition in which an individual experiences delays in one or more areas of development, but does not meet the diagnostic criteria for a specific developmental disability.

These conditions can have a profound impact on an individual's quality of life, and it is important to provide appropriate support and accommodations to help them reach their full potential.

There are several types of apraxias, each with distinct symptoms and characteristics:

1. Ideomotor apraxia: Difficulty performing specific movements or gestures, such as grasping and manipulating objects, due to a lack of understanding of the intended purpose or meaning of the action.
2. Ideational apraxia: Inability to initiate or perform movements due to a lack of understanding of the task or goal.
3. Kinesthetic apraxia: Difficulty judging the weight, shape, size, and position of objects in space, leading to difficulties with grasping, manipulating, or coordinating movements.
4. Graphomotor apraxia: Difficulty writing or drawing due to a lack of coordination between the hand and the intended movement.
5. Dressing apraxia: Difficulty dressing oneself due to a lack of coordination and planning for the movements required to put on clothes.
6. Gait apraxia: Difficulty walking or maintaining balance due to a lack of coordinated movement of the legs, trunk, and arms.
7. Speech apraxia: Difficulty articulating words or sounds due to a lack of coordination between the mouth, tongue, and lips.

The diagnosis of apraxias typically involves a comprehensive neurological examination, including assessments of motor function, language, and cognitive abilities. Treatment options vary depending on the underlying cause and severity of the apraxia, but may include physical therapy, speech therapy, occupational therapy, and medication.

There are several subtypes of APD, including:

1. Auditory Processing Disorder (APD): A disorder characterized by difficulty processing auditory information due to a deficit in the brain's ability to process speech and language.
2. Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD): A subtype of APD that is caused by a problem in the central nervous system, rather than in the inner ear.
3. Developmental Auditory Perceptual Disorder (DAPD): A disorder that affects children and adolescents, characterized by difficulty with auditory perception and processing.
4. Auditory Memory Deficit: A subtype of APD that is characterized by difficulty with auditory memory and recall.
5. Auditory Discrimination Deficit: A subtype of APD that is characterized by difficulty with distinguishing between similar sounds.

APD can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetics, premature birth, infections during pregnancy or childhood, and head trauma. Treatment for APD typically involves a combination of behavioral therapies, such as auditory training and speech therapy, as well as assistive listening devices and technology.

In addition to the subtypes listed above, there are also several related conditions that may be classified as APD, including:

1. Auditory-Verbal Processing Disorder (AVPD): A disorder characterized by difficulty with auditory processing and language development.
2. Language Processing Deficit: A subtype of APD that is characterized by difficulty with language comprehension and processing.
3. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A neurodevelopmental disorder that can also affect auditory perception and processing.
4. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): A neurodevelopmental disorder that can also affect auditory perception and processing, as well as social communication and behavior.
5. Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD): A type of APD that is characterized by difficulty with central auditory processing, including the ability to understand speech in noisy environments.

Types of Cognition Disorders: There are several types of cognitive disorders that affect different aspects of cognitive functioning. Some common types include:

1. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Characterized by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
2. Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): Caused by a blow or jolt to the head that disrupts brain function, resulting in cognitive, emotional, and behavioral changes.
3. Alzheimer's Disease: A progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss, confusion, and difficulty with communication.
4. Stroke: A condition where blood flow to the brain is interrupted, leading to cognitive impairment and other symptoms.
5. Parkinson's Disease: A neurodegenerative disorder that affects movement, balance, and cognition.
6. Huntington's Disease: An inherited disorder that causes progressive damage to the brain, leading to cognitive decline and other symptoms.
7. Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD): A group of neurodegenerative disorders characterized by changes in personality, behavior, and language.
8. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A condition that develops after a traumatic event, characterized by symptoms such as anxiety, avoidance, and hypervigilance.
9. Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI): A condition characterized by memory loss and other cognitive symptoms that are more severe than normal age-related changes but not severe enough to interfere with daily life.

Causes and Risk Factors: The causes of cognition disorders can vary depending on the specific disorder, but some common risk factors include:

1. Genetics: Many cognitive disorders have a genetic component, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease.
2. Age: As people age, their risk of developing cognitive disorders increases, such as Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, and frontotemporal dementia.
3. Lifestyle factors: Factors such as physical inactivity, smoking, and poor diet can increase the risk of cognitive decline and dementia.
4. Traumatic brain injury: A severe blow to the head or a traumatic brain injury can increase the risk of developing cognitive disorders, such as chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE).
5. Infections: Certain infections, such as meningitis and encephalitis, can cause cognitive disorders if they damage the brain tissue.
6. Stroke or other cardiovascular conditions: A stroke or other cardiovascular conditions can cause cognitive disorders by damaging the blood vessels in the brain.
7. Chronic substance abuse: Long-term use of drugs or alcohol can damage the brain and increase the risk of cognitive disorders, such as dementia.
8. Sleep disorders: Sleep disorders, such as sleep apnea, can increase the risk of cognitive disorders, such as dementia.
9. Depression and anxiety: Mental health conditions, such as depression and anxiety, can increase the risk of cognitive decline and dementia.
10. Environmental factors: Exposure to certain environmental toxins, such as pesticides and heavy metals, has been linked to an increased risk of cognitive disorders.

It's important to note that not everyone with these risk factors will develop a cognitive disorder, and some people without any known risk factors can still develop a cognitive disorder. If you have concerns about your cognitive health, it's important to speak with a healthcare professional for proper evaluation and diagnosis.

Echolalia can take several forms:

1. Immediate echolalia: The individual repeats the words or phrases spoken by others within a few seconds of hearing them.
2. Delayed echolalia: The individual repeats the words or phrases after a brief delay, often with a slight variation in tone or pitch.
3. Palilalia: The individual repeats their own words or phrases, often in response to a question or statement.
4. Neurological echolalia: The individual experiences difficulty filtering out irrelevant sensory information and may repeat words or phrases due to auditory overstimulation.

Echolalia can be differentiated from other forms of language repetition, such as echoing, which is the repetition of words or phrases in response to a question or statement, but without any apparent lack of understanding. Echolalia can also be distinguished from parroting, which is the repeated use of words or phrases without any apparent understanding of their meaning.

Assessment and diagnosis of echolalia typically involve a comprehensive medical history, physical examination, and neuropsychological testing to identify any underlying conditions that may be contributing to the symptom. Treatment for echolalia depends on the underlying condition and may include speech and language therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and medication.

There are three main types of hearing loss: conductive, sensorineural, and mixed. Conductive hearing loss occurs when there is a problem with the middle ear and its ability to transmit sound waves to the inner ear. Sensorineural hearing loss occurs when there is damage to the inner ear or the auditory nerve, which can lead to permanent hearing loss. Mixed hearing loss is a combination of conductive and sensorineural hearing loss.

Symptoms of hearing loss may include difficulty hearing speech, especially in noisy environments, muffled or distorted sound, ringing or buzzing in the ears (tinnitus), and difficulty hearing high-pitched sounds. If you suspect you have hearing loss, it is important to seek medical advice as soon as possible, as early treatment can help improve communication and quality of life.

Hearing loss is diagnosed through a series of tests, including an audiometric test, which measures the softest sounds that can be heard at different frequencies. Treatment options for hearing loss include hearing aids, cochlear implants, and other assistive devices, as well as counseling and support to help manage the condition and improve communication skills.

Overall, hearing loss is a common condition that can have a significant impact on daily life. If you suspect you or someone you know may be experiencing hearing loss, it is important to seek medical advice as soon as possible to address any underlying issues and improve communication and quality of life.

Dysarthria can affect both children and adults, and the symptoms can vary in severity depending on the underlying cause of the condition. Some common symptoms of dysarthria include:

* Slurred or slow speech
* Difficulty articulating words
* Poor enunciation
* Stuttering or hesitation while speaking
* Difficulty with word-finding and language processing
* Limited range of speech sounds
* Difficulty with loudness and volume control

Dysarthria can be diagnosed by a speech-language pathologist (SLP), who will typically conduct a comprehensive evaluation of the individual's speech and language abilities. This may include a series of tests to assess the individual's articulation, fluency, voice quality, and other aspects of their speech.

There are several types of dysarthria, including:

* Hypokinetic dysarthria: characterized by reduced muscle tone and slow movement of the articulatory organs, resulting in slurred or slow speech.
* Hyperkinetic dysarthria: characterized by increased muscle tone and rapid movement of the articulatory organs, resulting in fast but imprecise speech.
* Mixed dysarthria: a combination of hypokinetic and hyperkinetic features.
* Dystonic dysarthria: characterized by involuntary movements and postures of the tongue and lips, resulting in distorted speech.

Treatment for dysarthria typically involves speech therapy with an SLP, who will work with the individual to improve their speech clarity, fluency, and overall communication skills. Treatment may include exercises to strengthen the muscles used in speech production, as well as strategies to improve articulation, pronunciation, and language processing. In some cases, technology such as speech-generating devices may be used to support communication.

In addition to speech therapy, treatment for dysarthria may also involve other healthcare professionals, such as neurologists, physical therapists, or occupational therapists, depending on the underlying cause of the condition.

Overall, dysarthria is a speech disorder that can significantly impact an individual's ability to communicate effectively. However, with the right treatment and support from healthcare professionals and SLPs, many people with dysarthria are able to improve their communication skills and lead fulfilling lives.

There are many different types of epilepsy, each with its own unique set of symptoms and characteristics. Some common forms of epilepsy include:

1. Generalized Epilepsy: This type of epilepsy affects both sides of the brain and can cause a range of seizure types, including absence seizures, tonic-clonic seizures, and atypical absence seizures.
2. Focal Epilepsy: This type of epilepsy affects only one part of the brain and can cause seizures that are localized to that area. There are several subtypes of focal epilepsy, including partial seizures with complex symptoms and simple partial seizures.
3. Tonic-Clonic Epilepsy: This type of epilepsy is also known as grand mal seizures and can cause a loss of consciousness, convulsions, and muscle stiffness.
4. Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome: This is a rare and severe form of epilepsy that typically develops in early childhood and can cause multiple types of seizures, including tonic, atonic, and myoclonic seizures.
5. Dravet Syndrome: This is a rare genetic form of epilepsy that typically develops in infancy and can cause severe, frequent seizures.
6. Rubinstein-Taybi Syndrome: This is a rare genetic disorder that can cause intellectual disability, developmental delays, and various types of seizures.
7. Other forms of epilepsy include Absence Epilepsy, Myoclonic Epilepsy, and Atonic Epilepsy.

The symptoms of epilepsy can vary widely depending on the type of seizure disorder and the individual affected. Some common symptoms of epilepsy include:

1. Seizures: This is the most obvious symptom of epilepsy and can range from mild to severe.
2. Loss of consciousness: Some people with epilepsy may experience a loss of consciousness during a seizure, while others may remain aware of their surroundings.
3. Confusion and disorientation: After a seizure, some people with epilepsy may feel confused and disoriented.
4. Memory loss: Seizures can cause short-term or long-term memory loss.
5. Fatigue: Epilepsy can cause extreme fatigue, both during and after a seizure.
6. Emotional changes: Some people with epilepsy may experience emotional changes, such as anxiety, depression, or mood swings.
7. Cognitive changes: Epilepsy can affect cognitive function, including attention, memory, and learning.
8. Sleep disturbances: Some people with epilepsy may experience sleep disturbances, such as insomnia or sleepiness.
9. Physical symptoms: Depending on the type of seizure, people with epilepsy may experience physical symptoms such as muscle weakness, numbness or tingling, and sensory changes.
10. Social isolation: Epilepsy can cause social isolation due to fear of having a seizure in public or stigma associated with the condition.

It's important to note that not everyone with epilepsy will experience all of these symptoms, and some people may have different symptoms depending on the type of seizure they experience. Additionally, some people with epilepsy may experience additional symptoms not listed here.

There are several types of learning disorders, including:

1. Dyslexia: A learning disorder that affects an individual's ability to read and spell words. Individuals with dyslexia may have difficulty recognizing letters, sounds, or word patterns.
2. Dyscalculia: A learning disorder that affects an individual's ability to understand and perform mathematical calculations. Individuals with dyscalculia may have difficulty with numbers, quantities, or mathematical concepts.
3. Dysgraphia: A learning disorder that affects an individual's ability to write and spell words. Individuals with dysgraphia may have difficulty with hand-eye coordination, fine motor skills, or language processing.
4. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A neurodevelopmental disorder that affects an individual's ability to focus, pay attention, and regulate their behavior. Individuals with ADHD may have difficulty with organization, time management, or following instructions.
5. Auditory Processing Disorder: A learning disorder that affects an individual's ability to process and understand auditory information. Individuals with auditory processing disorder may have difficulty with listening, comprehension, or speech skills.
6. Visual Processing Disorder: A learning disorder that affects an individual's ability to process and understand visual information. Individuals with visual processing disorder may have difficulty with reading, writing, or other tasks that require visual processing.
7. Executive Function Deficits: A learning disorder that affects an individual's ability to plan, organize, and execute tasks. Individuals with executive function deficits may have difficulty with time management, organization, or self-regulation.

Learning disorders can be diagnosed by a trained professional, such as a psychologist, neuropsychologist, or learning specialist, through a comprehensive assessment that includes cognitive and academic testing, as well as a review of the individual's medical and educational history. The specific tests and assessments used will depend on the suspected type of learning disorder and the individual's age and background.

There are several approaches to treating learning disorders, including:

1. Accommodations: Providing individuals with accommodations, such as extra time to complete assignments or the option to take a test orally, can help level the playing field and enable them to succeed academically.
2. Modifications: Making modifications to the curriculum or instructional methods can help individuals with learning disorders access the material and learn in a way that is tailored to their needs.
3. Therapy: Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and other forms of therapy can help individuals with learning disorders develop strategies for managing their challenges and improving their academic performance.
4. Assistive technology: Assistive technology, such as text-to-speech software or speech-to-text software, can help individuals with learning disorders access information and communicate more effectively.
5. Medication: In some cases, medication may be prescribed to help manage symptoms associated with learning disorders, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
6. Multi-sensory instruction: Using multiple senses (such as sight, sound, and touch) to learn new information can be helpful for individuals with learning disorders.
7. Self-accommodations: Teaching individuals with learning disorders how to identify and use their own strengths and preferences to accommodate their challenges can be effective in helping them succeed academically.
8. Parental involvement: Encouraging parents to be involved in their child's education and providing them with information and resources can help them support their child's learning and development.
9. Collaboration: Collaborating with other educators, professionals, and family members to develop a comprehensive treatment plan can help ensure that the individual receives the support they need to succeed academically.

It is important to note that each individual with a learning disorder is unique and may respond differently to different treatments. A comprehensive assessment and ongoing monitoring by a qualified professional is necessary to determine the most effective treatment plan for each individual.

Agraphia can result from various causes such as stroke, traumatic brain injury, neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease), or tumors. The symptoms of agraphia may include difficulty with writing words, inability to initiate writing, poor handwriting, and difficulty with spelling and grammar.

In some cases, agraphia can be seen as a symptom of a larger neurological disorder, such as aphasia, which is a language disorder that affects both speaking and understanding language. Treatment for agraphia typically involves addressing the underlying cause, such as physical therapy to improve hand function or speech therapy to improve language skills. In some cases, adaptive writing tools or technology may also be helpful.

Types of Hearing Disorders:

1. Conductive hearing loss: This type of hearing loss is caused by a problem with the middle ear, including the eardrum or the bones of the middle ear. It can be treated with hearing aids or surgery.
2. Sensorineural hearing loss: This type of hearing loss is caused by damage to the inner ear or the auditory nerve. It is permanent and cannot be treated with medicine or surgery.
3. Mixed hearing loss: This type of hearing loss is a combination of conductive and sensorineural hearing loss.
4. Tinnitus: This is the perception of ringing, buzzing, or other sounds in the ears when there is no external source of the sound. It can be caused by exposure to loud noises, age, or certain medications.
5. Balance disorders: These are conditions that affect the balance center in the inner ear or the brain, causing dizziness, vertigo, and other symptoms.

Causes of Hearing Disorders:

1. Genetics: Some hearing disorders can be inherited from parents or grandparents.
2. Age: As we age, our hearing can decline due to wear and tear on the inner ear.
3. Exposure to loud noises: Prolonged exposure to loud sounds, such as music or machinery, can damage the hair cells in the inner ear and lead to hearing loss.
4. Infections: Certain infections, such as otitis media (middle ear infection), can cause hearing loss if left untreated.
5. Certain medications: Some medications, such as certain antibiotics, chemotherapy drugs, and aspirin at high doses, can be harmful to the inner ear and cause hearing loss.

Symptoms of Hearing Disorders:

1. Difficulty hearing or understanding speech, especially in noisy environments.
2. Ringing, buzzing, or other sounds in the ears (tinnitus).
3. Vertigo or dizziness.
4. Feeling of fullness or pressure in the ears.
5. Hearing loss that worsens over time.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Hearing Disorders:

1. Medical history and physical examination.
2. Audiometry test to measure hearing threshold and speech discrimination.
3. Otoscopy to examine the outer ear and ear canal.
4. Tympanometry to assess the middle ear function.
5. Otoacoustic emissions testing to evaluate the inner ear function.

Treatment options for hearing disorders depend on the underlying cause and may include:

1. Hearing aids or cochlear implants to improve hearing.
2. Medications to treat infections or reduce tinnitus.
3. Surgery to remove earwax, repair the eardrum, or address middle ear problems.
4. Balance rehabilitation exercises to manage vertigo and dizziness.
5. Cognitive therapy to improve communication skills and address psychological effects of hearing loss.

Prevention and Management of Hearing Disorders:

1. Avoiding loud noises and taking regular breaks in noisy environments.
2. Wearing earplugs or earmuffs when exposed to loud sounds.
3. Getting regular hearing checkups and addressing any hearing issues promptly.
4. Managing chronic conditions, such as diabetes and hypertension, that can contribute to hearing loss.
5. Encouraging open communication with family members and healthcare providers about hearing difficulties.

The symptoms of acquired dyslexia may be similar to those of developmental dyslexia, including difficulties with phonological processing, working memory, and language processing. However, individuals with acquired dyslexia may also experience a range of other cognitive impairments, such as difficulty with attention, memory, or executive functions.

The exact causes of acquired dyslexia are not yet fully understood, but it is thought to be related to changes in the brain's language processing networks that occur as a result of brain damage or other forms of cognitive impairment. Treatment for acquired dyslexia typically involves a multimodal approach, including cognitive rehabilitation and remediation strategies tailored to the individual's specific needs and abilities.

Epilepsy, temporal lobe can cause a variety of seizure types, including:

1. Partial seizures: These are seizures that affect only one part of the brain, such as the temporal lobe.
2. Simple partial seizures: These are seizures that do not involve convulsions or loss of consciousness.
3. Complex partial seizures: These are seizures that involve impaired awareness or altered perception, and may involve convulsions or muscle stiffness.
4. Tonic-clonic seizures (formerly known as grand mal seizures): These are seizures that involve convulsions, loss of consciousness, and muscle stiffness.

The symptoms of epilepsy, temporal lobe can vary depending on the location of the seizure focus within the temporal lobe and the individual's age, but may include:

1. Auras (sensory disturbances such as flashing lights or unusual smells)
2. Confusion or disorientation
3. Memory loss or difficulty with memory
4. Emotional changes (such as fear, anxiety, or euphoria)
5. Speech difficulties
6. Muscle stiffness or weakness
7. Coordination problems
8. Vision changes (such as blurred vision or double vision)
9. Hearing changes (such as ringing in the ears)
10. Numbness or tingling sensations

Epilepsy, temporal lobe is typically diagnosed using a combination of medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests such as electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Treatment options may include medication, surgery, or lifestyle modifications.

There are several types of sex chromosome disorders, including:

1. Turner Syndrome: A condition that occurs in females who have only one X chromosome instead of two. This can lead to short stature, infertility, and other health problems.
2. Klinefelter Syndrome: A condition that occurs in males who have an extra X chromosome (XXY). This can lead to tall stature, breast enlargement, and infertility.
3. XXY Syndrome: A condition that occurs in individuals with two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome. This can lead to tall stature, breast enlargement, and fertility problems.
4. XYY Syndrome: A condition that occurs in individuals with an extra Y chromosome (XYY). This can lead to taller stature and fertility problems.
5. Mosaicism: A condition where there is a mixture of normal and abnormal cells in the body, often due to a genetic mutation that occurred during embryonic development.
6. Y chromosome variants: These are variations in the Y chromosome that can affect male fertility or increase the risk of certain health problems.
7. Uniparental disomy: A condition where an individual has two copies of one or more chromosomes, either due to a genetic mutation or because of a mistake during cell division.
8. Structural variations: These are changes in the structure of the sex chromosomes, such as deletions, duplications, or translocations, which can affect gene expression and increase the risk of certain health problems.

Sex chromosome disorders can be diagnosed through chromosomal analysis, which involves analyzing a person's cells to determine their sex chromosome makeup. Treatment for these disorders varies depending on the specific condition and may include hormone therapy, surgery, or other medical interventions.

There are various causes of intellectual disability, including:

1. Genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and Turner syndrome.
2. Congenital conditions, such as microcephaly and hydrocephalus.
3. Brain injuries, such as traumatic brain injury or hypoxic-ischemic injury.
4. Infections, such as meningitis or encephalitis.
5. Nutritional deficiencies, such as iron deficiency or iodine deficiency.

Intellectual disability can result in a range of cognitive and functional impairments, including:

1. Delayed language development and difficulty with communication.
2. Difficulty with social interactions and adapting to new situations.
3. Limited problem-solving skills and difficulty with abstract thinking.
4. Slow learning and memory difficulties.
5. Difficulty with fine motor skills and coordination.

There is no cure for intellectual disability, but early identification and intervention can significantly improve outcomes. Treatment options may include:

1. Special education programs tailored to the individual's needs.
2. Behavioral therapies, such as applied behavior analysis (ABA) and positive behavior support (PBS).
3. Speech and language therapy.
4. Occupational therapy to improve daily living skills.
5. Medications to manage associated behaviors or symptoms.

It is essential to recognize that intellectual disability is a lifelong condition, but with appropriate support and resources, individuals with ID can lead fulfilling lives and reach their full potential.

Physical Features:

* Delayed growth and short stature
* Broad forehead
* Long, narrow face with a wide mouth and full lips
* Wide-set eyes that are often blue or green
* Low-set ears
* Curly or wavy hair

Developmental Features:

* Intellectual disability or cognitive impairment
* Delayed speech and language development
* Difficulty with fine motor skills and hand-eye coordination
* Poor musical ability

Personality Profile:

* Friendly and outgoing personality
* High level of empathy and compassion for others
* Excellent social skills
* Love of music and dance
* Curiosity and playfulness

Causes and Inheritance:

Williams syndrome is caused by a deletion of genetic material from chromosome 7, specifically the q11.23 region. This deletion occurs spontaneously, without a known family history or environmental trigger. The disorder is not inherited in a Mendelian pattern, meaning that it does not follow traditional patterns of inheritance.

Diagnosis:

Williams syndrome can be diagnosed through a combination of physical and developmental assessments, as well as genetic testing. Physical features such as broad foreheads and wide mouths are often present at birth, while developmental delays and cognitive impairments may not become apparent until later in childhood. Genetic testing can confirm the diagnosis by identifying the deletion of genetic material on chromosome 7.

Treatment and Management:

There is no cure for Williams syndrome, but early intervention and specialized management can help individuals with the disorder reach their full potential. Treatment may include:

* Physical therapy to improve fine motor skills and coordination
* Speech and language therapy to improve communication skills
* Occupational therapy to develop daily living skills
* Special education programs tailored to individual needs
* Medications to manage cardiovascular problems, hypertension, and sleep disorders

Prognosis:

The prognosis for individuals with Williams syndrome varies depending on the severity of the symptoms. Some individuals may experience significant developmental delays and cognitive impairments, while others may have fewer or no symptoms. With early intervention and specialized management, many individuals with Williams syndrome can lead fulfilling lives and achieve their full potential.

Inheritance Pattern:

Williams syndrome is not inherited in a Mendelian pattern, meaning that it does not follow traditional patterns of inheritance. The disorder is caused by a spontaneous deletion of genetic material on chromosome 7, and there is no known family history or environmental trigger. Each child of an individual with Williams syndrome has a 50% chance of inheriting the deletion and developing the disorder.

Prenatal Testing:

Prenatal testing for Williams syndrome is available but not routine. The test is typically offered to pregnant women who have a family history of the disorder or who have had a previous child with Williams syndrome. Prenatal testing involves analyzing cells from the developing fetus, usually through chorionic villus sampling (CVS) or amniocentesis.

Genetic Counseling:

Genetic counseling is essential for individuals and families affected by Williams syndrome. A genetic counselor can provide information on the inheritance pattern of the disorder, discuss prenatal testing options, and offer guidance on managing the condition. Genetic counseling can also help families understand the risks and benefits of genetic testing and make informed decisions about their reproductive options.

In conclusion, Williams syndrome is a rare genetic disorder that affects approximately 1 in 10,000 individuals worldwide. It is caused by a spontaneous deletion of genetic material on chromosome 7 and is characterized by developmental delays, cognitive impairments, and cardiovascular problems. Early intervention and specialized management can significantly improve the prognosis for individuals with Williams syndrome. Prenatal testing and genetic counseling are available for families who have a risk of inheriting the disorder. With proper care and support, individuals with Williams syndrome can lead fulfilling lives and achieve their full potential.

Down syndrome can be diagnosed before birth through prenatal testing, such as chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis, or after birth through a blood test. The symptoms of Down syndrome can vary from person to person, but common physical features include:

* A flat face with a short neck and small ears
* A short stature
* A wide, short hands with short fingers
* A small head
* Almond-shaped eyes that are slanted upward
* A single crease in the palm of the hand

People with Down syndrome may also have cognitive delays and intellectual disability, as well as increased risk of certain medical conditions such as heart defects, gastrointestinal problems, and hearing and vision loss.

There is no cure for Down syndrome, but early intervention and proper medical care can greatly improve the quality of life for individuals with the condition. Treatment may include speech and language therapy, occupational therapy, physical therapy, and special education programs. With appropriate support and resources, people with Down syndrome can lead fulfilling and productive lives.

In the medical field, hallucinations are often used as a diagnostic tool to help identify underlying conditions that may be causing them. For example, hallucinations can be a symptom of schizophrenia, depression, anxiety disorders, and other mental health conditions. They can also be caused by neurological disorders such as epilepsy, migraines, and stroke.

Some common types of hallucinations include:

* Visual hallucinations: seeing things that are not there, such as shapes, colors, or objects.
* Auditory hallucinations: hearing sounds or voices that are not real.
* Tactile hallucinations: feeling sensations on the skin that are not real, such as itching, tingling, or pain.
* Olfactory hallucinations: smelling things that are not there.
* Gustatory hallucinations: tasting things that are not there.

The diagnosis of hallucinations typically involves a comprehensive medical history and physical examination, as well as laboratory tests and imaging studies to rule out other possible causes. Treatment for hallucinations depends on the underlying cause, and may include medication, therapy, or a combination of both.

In some cases, hallucinations can be benign and do not require treatment. However, in other cases, they can be a symptom of a more serious underlying condition that requires medical attention. It is important to seek medical advice if you are experiencing hallucinations, as they can be a sign of an underlying condition that needs to be addressed.

The following are some common types of motor skill disorders:

1. Dyspraxia: This is a developmental condition that affects the ability to plan and perform movements. Individuals with dyspraxia may have difficulty with coordination, balance, and spatial awareness.
2. Apraxia: This is a neurological disorder that affects an individual's ability to perform voluntary movements despite having the physical strength and coordination to do so.
3. Ataxia: This is a condition that affects an individual's balance, coordination, and ability to perform purposeful movements. It can be caused by injury or disease to the cerebellum or other parts of the brain.
4. Parkinson's disease: This is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects movement, including fine motor skills such as writing and gross motor skills such as walking and balance.
5. Cerebral palsy: This is a developmental condition that can affect an individual's ability to move and control their body. It can impact both fine and gross motor skills.
6. Stroke: A stroke occurs when the blood supply to the brain is interrupted, leading to damage to the brain tissue. This can result in difficulty with movement, including fine and gross motor skills.
7. Traumatic brain injury: This occurs when the brain is injured as a result of a blow or jolt to the head. It can lead to difficulties with movement, memory, and other cognitive functions.
8. Spinal cord injury: This occurs when the spinal cord is damaged, either from trauma or disease. It can result in loss of movement and sensation below the level of the injury.
9. Multiple sclerosis: This is a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord. It can cause difficulties with movement, balance, and coordination.
10. Spina bifida: This is a congenital condition in which the spine does not properly close during fetal development. It can result in a range of physical and cognitive disabilities, including difficulty with movement and coordination.

It's important to note that these conditions can have varying levels of severity and impact on an individual's ability to move and control their body. Additionally, there are many other conditions and diseases that can affect the nervous system and result in difficulties with movement.

The term "schizophrenia" was first used by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler in 1908 to describe the splitting of mental functions, which he believed was a key feature of the disorder. The word is derived from the Greek words "schizein," meaning "to split," and "phrenos," meaning "mind."

There are several subtypes of schizophrenia, including:

1. Paranoid Schizophrenia: Characterized by delusions of persecution and suspicion, and a tendency to be hostile and defensive.
2. Hallucinatory Schizophrenia: Characterized by hearing voices or seeing things that are not there.
3. Disorganized Schizophrenia: Characterized by disorganized thinking and behavior, and a lack of motivation or interest in activities.
4. Catatonic Schizophrenia: Characterized by immobility, mutism, and other unusual movements or postures.
5. Undifferentiated Schizophrenia: Characterized by a combination of symptoms from the above subtypes.

The exact cause of schizophrenia is still not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and neurochemical factors. It is important to note that schizophrenia is not caused by poor parenting or a person's upbringing.

There are several risk factors for developing schizophrenia, including:

1. Genetics: A person with a family history of schizophrenia is more likely to develop the disorder.
2. Brain chemistry: Imbalances in neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin have been linked to schizophrenia.
3. Prenatal factors: Factors such as maternal malnutrition or exposure to certain viruses during pregnancy may increase the risk of schizophrenia in offspring.
4. Childhood trauma: Traumatic events during childhood, such as abuse or neglect, have been linked to an increased risk of developing schizophrenia.
5. Substance use: Substance use has been linked to an increased risk of developing schizophrenia, particularly cannabis and other psychotic substances.

There is no cure for schizophrenia, but treatment can help manage symptoms and improve quality of life. Treatment options include:

1. Medications: Antipsychotic medications are the primary treatment for schizophrenia. They can help reduce positive symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions, and negative symptoms such as a lack of motivation or interest in activities.
2. Therapy: Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and other forms of talk therapy can help individuals with schizophrenia manage their symptoms and improve their quality of life.
3. Social support: Support from family, friends, and support groups can be an important part of the treatment plan for individuals with schizophrenia.
4. Self-care: Engaging in activities that bring pleasure and fulfillment, such as hobbies or exercise, can help individuals with schizophrenia improve their overall well-being.

It is important to note that schizophrenia is a complex condition, and treatment should be tailored to the individual's specific needs and circumstances. With appropriate treatment and support, many people with schizophrenia are able to lead fulfilling lives and achieve their goals.

Some examples of central auditory diseases include:

1. Central auditory processing disorder (CAPD): A condition where the brain has difficulty processing sounds, leading to difficulties with speech and language development, reading, and social interactions.
2. Auditory neuropathy spectrum disorder (ANSD): A condition that affects the transmission of sound from the inner ear to the brain, leading to difficulties with hearing and understanding speech.
3. Chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM): A condition that causes chronic inflammation and infection of the middle ear, which can lead to hearing loss and difficulty processing sound.
4. Meniere's disease: A condition that affects the inner ear and causes vertigo, tinnitus, and hearing loss.
5. Acoustic neuroma: A benign tumor that grows on the nerve that connects the inner ear to the brain, leading to hearing loss, tinnitus, and balance difficulties.
6. Stroke or traumatic brain injury: These conditions can damage the auditory system and cause hearing loss or difficulty understanding speech.
7. Cochlear implant complications: Complications related to the surgical implantation of a cochlear implant, such as infection or device malfunction, can affect the central auditory system.
8. Chronic tinnitus: A condition characterized by persistent ringing or other sounds in the ears that can lead to hearing loss and difficulty understanding speech.
9. Ototoxicity: Exposure to certain medications or chemicals can damage the inner ear and cause hearing loss or tinnitus.
10. Meningitis or encephalitis: Infections of the brain and its membranes can affect the auditory system and cause hearing loss, tinnitus, and balance difficulties.

These are just a few examples of central auditory diseases. The diagnosis and treatment of these conditions typically involve a team of healthcare professionals, including otolaryngologists (ENT specialists), neurologists, audiologists, and speech-language pathologists.

There are several subtypes of agnosia, each with distinct symptoms:

1. Visual agnosia: Difficulty recognizing objects, colors, or shapes.
2. Auditory agnosia: Inability to recognize familiar sounds or voices.
3. Tactile agnosia: Difficulty identifying objects by touch.
4. Olfactory agnosia: Loss of the ability to smell.
5. Gustatory agnosia: Inability to taste or identify different flavors.
6. Hyperagnosia: Excessive sensitivity to stimuli, leading to over-recognition of objects and excessive memory for details.
7. Hypoagnosia: Under-recognition of objects, leading to difficulty identifying familiar items.

Agnosia can be caused by various factors, such as stroke, traumatic brain injury, infections, neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease), and developmental disorders (e.g., autism spectrum disorder). Treatment options depend on the underlying cause of the agnosia and may include rehabilitation therapies, medications, or surgery.

In summary, agnosia is a neurological condition characterized by difficulty in recognizing objects, voices, or other sensory stimuli due to damage to specific areas of the brain. It can affect one or more senses and can be caused by various factors. Treatment options vary depending on the underlying cause of the disorder.

Some common types of memory disorders include:

1. Amnesia: A condition where an individual experiences memory loss, either partial or total, due to brain damage or other causes.
2. Dementia: A broad term that describes a decline in cognitive function, including memory loss, confusion, and difficulty with communication and daily activities. Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia.
3. Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI): A condition characterized by memory loss and other cognitive symptoms that are more severe than normal age-related changes but not as severe as dementia.
4. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A neurodevelopmental disorder that affects attention, impulse control, and hyperactivity. Memory problems are often a component of ADHD.
5. Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): A condition that occurs when the brain is injured due to a blow or jolt to the head, which can result in memory loss and other cognitive problems.
6. Stroke: A condition where blood flow to the brain is interrupted, leading to brain cell death and potential memory loss.
7. Meningitis: An inflammatory condition that affects the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, which can lead to memory loss and other cognitive problems.
8. Encephalitis: An inflammatory condition that affects the brain directly, leading to memory loss and other cognitive problems.
9. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS): A condition characterized by persistent fatigue, memory loss, and other cognitive symptoms.
10. Sleep Disorders: Sleep disturbances can affect memory and cognitive function, including conditions such as insomnia, sleep apnea, and restless leg syndrome.

The diagnosis of memory disorders typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and neuropsychological evaluations. The specific treatment approach will depend on the underlying cause of the memory loss, but may include medication, behavioral interventions, and lifestyle changes.

1. Ischemic stroke: This is the most common type of stroke, accounting for about 87% of all strokes. It occurs when a blood vessel in the brain becomes blocked, reducing blood flow to the brain.
2. Hemorrhagic stroke: This type of stroke occurs when a blood vessel in the brain ruptures, causing bleeding in the brain. High blood pressure, aneurysms, and blood vessel malformations can all cause hemorrhagic strokes.
3. Transient ischemic attack (TIA): Also known as a "mini-stroke," a TIA is a temporary interruption of blood flow to the brain that lasts for a short period of time, usually less than 24 hours. TIAs are often a warning sign for a future stroke and should be taken seriously.

Stroke can cause a wide range of symptoms depending on the location and severity of the damage to the brain. Some common symptoms include:

* Weakness or numbness in the face, arm, or leg
* Difficulty speaking or understanding speech
* Sudden vision loss or double vision
* Dizziness, loss of balance, or sudden falls
* Severe headache
* Confusion, disorientation, or difficulty with memory

Stroke is a leading cause of long-term disability and can have a significant impact on the quality of life for survivors. However, with prompt medical treatment and rehabilitation, many people are able to recover some or all of their lost functions and lead active lives.

The medical community has made significant progress in understanding stroke and developing effective treatments. Some of the most important advances include:

* Development of clot-busting drugs and mechanical thrombectomy devices to treat ischemic strokes
* Improved imaging techniques, such as CT and MRI scans, to diagnose stroke and determine its cause
* Advances in surgical techniques for hemorrhagic stroke
* Development of new medications to prevent blood clots and reduce the risk of stroke

Despite these advances, stroke remains a significant public health problem. According to the American Heart Association, stroke is the fifth leading cause of death in the United States and the leading cause of long-term disability. In 2017, there were over 795,000 strokes in the United States alone.

There are several risk factors for stroke that can be controlled or modified. These include:

* High blood pressure
* Diabetes mellitus
* High cholesterol levels
* Smoking
* Obesity
* Lack of physical activity
* Poor diet

In addition to these modifiable risk factors, there are also several non-modifiable risk factors for stroke, such as age (stroke risk increases with age), family history of stroke, and previous stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA).

The medical community has made significant progress in understanding the causes and risk factors for stroke, as well as developing effective treatments and prevention strategies. However, more research is needed to improve outcomes for stroke survivors and reduce the overall burden of this disease.

The symptoms of bilateral hearing loss may include difficulty hearing speech, especially in noisy environments, difficulty understanding conversations when there is background noise, listening to loud music or watching television at a low volume, and experiencing ringing or buzzing sounds in the ears (tinnitus).

Bilateral hearing loss can be diagnosed with a thorough medical examination, including a physical examination of the ears, an audiometric test, and imaging tests such as CT or MRI scans.

Treatment options for bilateral hearing loss depend on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. Some possible treatment options include:

Hearing aids: These devices can amplify sounds and improve hearing ability.
Cochlear implants: These are electronic devices that are surgically implanted in the inner ear and can bypass damaged hair cells to directly stimulate the auditory nerve.
Assistive listening devices: These include devices such as FM systems, infrared systems, and alerting devices that can help individuals with hearing loss communicate more effectively.
Speech therapy: This can help improve communication skills and address any difficulties with language development.
Medications: Certain medications may be prescribed to treat underlying conditions that are contributing to the hearing loss, such as infections or excessive earwax.
Surgery: In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove excessive earwax or to repair any damage to the middle ear bones.

This type of hearing loss cannot be treated with medication or surgery, and it is usually permanent. However, there are various assistive devices and technology available to help individuals with sensorineural hearing loss communicate more effectively, such as hearing aids, cochlear implants, and FM systems.

There are several causes of sensorineural hearing loss, including:

1. Exposure to loud noises: Prolonged exposure to loud noises can damage the hair cells in the inner ear and cause permanent hearing loss.
2. Age: Sensorineural hearing loss is a common condition that affects many people as they age. It is estimated that one-third of people between the ages of 65 and 74 have some degree of hearing loss, and nearly half of those over the age of 75 have significant hearing loss.
3. Genetics: Some cases of sensorineural hearing loss are inherited and run in families.
4. Viral infections: Certain viral infections, such as meningitis or encephalitis, can damage the inner ear and cause permanent hearing loss.
5. Trauma to the head or ear: A head injury or a traumatic injury to the ear can cause sensorineural hearing loss.
6. Tumors: Certain types of tumors, such as acoustic neuroma, can cause sensorineural hearing loss by affecting the auditory nerve.
7. Ototoxicity: Certain medications, such as certain antibiotics, chemotherapy drugs, and aspirin at high doses, can be harmful to the inner ear and cause permanent hearing loss.

It is important to note that sensorineural hearing loss cannot be cured, but there are many resources available to help individuals with this condition communicate more effectively and improve their quality of life.

Some common types of brain diseases include:

1. Neurodegenerative diseases: These are progressive conditions that damage or kill brain cells over time, leading to memory loss, cognitive decline, and movement disorders. Examples include Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
2. Stroke: This occurs when blood flow to the brain is interrupted, leading to cell death and potential long-term disability.
3. Traumatic brain injury (TBI): This refers to any type of head injury that causes damage to the brain, such as concussions, contusions, or penetrating wounds.
4. Infections: Viral, bacterial, and fungal infections can all affect the brain, leading to a range of symptoms including fever, seizures, and meningitis.
5. Tumors: Brain tumors can be benign or malignant and can cause a variety of symptoms depending on their location and size.
6. Cerebrovascular diseases: These conditions affect the blood vessels of the brain, leading to conditions such as aneurysms, arteriovenous malformations (AVMs), and Moyamoya disease.
7. Neurodevelopmental disorders: These are conditions that affect the development of the brain and nervous system, such as autism spectrum disorder, ADHD, and intellectual disability.
8. Sleep disorders: Conditions such as insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea can all have a significant impact on brain function.
9. Psychiatric disorders: Mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia can affect the brain and its functioning.
10. Neurodegenerative with brain iron accumulation: Conditions such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington's disease are characterized by the accumulation of abnormal proteins and other substances in the brain, leading to progressive loss of brain function over time.

It is important to note that this is not an exhaustive list and there may be other conditions or factors that can affect the brain and its functioning. Additionally, many of these conditions can have a significant impact on a person's quality of life, and it is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

Some common causes of chronic brain damage include:

1. Traumatic brain injury (TBI): A blow to the head or other traumatic injury that causes the brain to bounce or twist inside the skull, leading to damage to brain cells and tissues.
2. Stroke or cerebral vasculature disorders: A loss of blood flow to the brain due to a blockage or rupture of blood vessels, leading to cell death and tissue damage.
3. Infections such as meningitis or encephalitis: Inflammation of the brain and its membranes caused by viral or bacterial infections, which can lead to damage to brain cells and tissues.
4. Chronic exposure to toxins, such as pesticides or heavy metals: Prolonged exposure to these substances can damage brain cells and tissues over time.
5. Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease or Parkinson's disease: These conditions are characterized by the progressive loss of brain cells and tissue, leading to cognitive decline and other symptoms.

The effects of chronic brain damage can vary depending on the location and severity of the damage. Some common effects include:

1. Cognitive impairments: Difficulty with memory, attention, problem-solving, and other cognitive functions.
2. Emotional and behavioral changes: Depression, anxiety, irritability, and mood swings.
3. Physical symptoms: Weakness or paralysis on one side of the body, difficulty with balance and coordination, and changes in sensation or perception.
4. Communication difficulties: Slurred speech, difficulty finding the right words, and trouble understanding spoken language.
5. Social and occupational impairments: Difficulty with daily activities, social interactions, and work-related tasks.

The good news is that there are several strategies that can help mitigate the effects of chronic brain damage. These include:

1. Physical exercise: Regular physical activity has been shown to promote brain health and reduce the risk of cognitive decline.
2. Cognitive stimulation: Engaging in mentally challenging activities, such as reading, puzzles, or learning a new skill, can help build cognitive reserve and reduce the risk of cognitive decline.
3. Social engagement: Building and maintaining social connections has been shown to promote brain health and reduce the risk of cognitive decline.
4. Stress management: Chronic stress can exacerbate brain damage, so finding ways to manage stress, such as through meditation or exercise, is important.
5. Proper nutrition: Eating a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and omega-3 fatty acids can help support brain health and reduce the risk of cognitive decline.
6. Medication and therapy: In some cases, medication or therapy may be necessary to manage the symptoms of chronic brain damage.
7. Neuroplasticity-based interventions: Techniques that promote neuroplasticity, such as non-invasive brain stimulation, can help improve cognitive function and reduce the risk of cognitive decline.

It's important to note that these strategies may not reverse chronic brain damage, but they can help mitigate its effects and improve overall brain health. If you suspect that you or someone you know may be experiencing chronic brain damage, it is important to seek medical attention as soon as possible. Early diagnosis and treatment can help reduce the risk of long-term cognitive decline and improve quality of life.

There are several types of atrophy that can occur in different parts of the body. For example:

1. Muscular atrophy: This occurs when muscles weaken and shrink due to disuse or injury.
2. Neuronal atrophy: This occurs when nerve cells degenerate, leading to a loss of cognitive function and memory.
3. Cardiac atrophy: This occurs when the heart muscle weakens and becomes less efficient, leading to decreased cardiac output.
4. Atrophic gastritis: This is a type of stomach inflammation that can lead to the wasting away of the stomach lining.
5. Atrophy of the testes: This occurs when the testes shrink due to a lack of use or disorder, leading to decreased fertility.

Atrophy can be diagnosed through various medical tests and imaging studies, such as MRI or CT scans. Treatment for atrophy depends on the underlying cause and may involve physical therapy, medication, or surgery. In some cases, atrophy can be prevented or reversed with proper treatment and care.

In summary, atrophy is a degenerative process that can occur in various parts of the body due to injury, disease, or disuse. It can lead to a loss of function and decreased quality of life, but with proper diagnosis and treatment, it may be possible to prevent or reverse some forms of atrophy.

The symptoms of Asperger syndrome can vary widely from person to person, but may include:

* Difficulty interpreting social cues and understanding other people's perspectives
* Difficulty initiating or maintaining conversations
* Difficulty with executive function skills, such as planning and organization
* Repetitive behaviors or interests
* Sensory sensitivities or difficulties with sensory integration
* Difficulty with changes in routine or transitions
* Delays in motor development, such as delayed walking or difficulty with hand-eye coordination

Asperger syndrome is often diagnosed in childhood, and while there is no cure for the condition, early intervention and support can help individuals with AS to manage their symptoms and lead fulfilling lives. Treatment may include a combination of behavioral therapies, such as applied behavior analysis (ABA) or social skills training, and medication to address specific symptoms, such as anxiety or hyperactivity.

In 2013, the diagnostic criteria for Asperger syndrome were revised by the American Psychiatric Association, and the condition was removed from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). Instead, individuals with AS may be diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), which is a broader category that includes a range of neurodevelopmental disorders.

Overall, Asperger syndrome is a complex and multifaceted condition that affects individuals in different ways. While there is no single definition of AS that applies to all individuals with the condition, it is generally understood as a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors or interests.

Brain neoplasms can arise from various types of cells in the brain, including glial cells (such as astrocytes and oligodendrocytes), neurons, and vascular tissues. The symptoms of brain neoplasms vary depending on their size, location, and type, but may include headaches, seizures, weakness or numbness in the limbs, and changes in personality or cognitive function.

There are several different types of brain neoplasms, including:

1. Meningiomas: These are benign tumors that arise from the meninges, the thin layers of tissue that cover the brain and spinal cord.
2. Gliomas: These are malignant tumors that arise from glial cells in the brain. The most common type of glioma is a glioblastoma, which is aggressive and hard to treat.
3. Pineal parenchymal tumors: These are rare tumors that arise in the pineal gland, a small endocrine gland in the brain.
4. Craniopharyngiomas: These are benign tumors that arise from the epithelial cells of the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus.
5. Medulloblastomas: These are malignant tumors that arise in the cerebellum, specifically in the medulla oblongata. They are most common in children.
6. Acoustic neurinomas: These are benign tumors that arise on the nerve that connects the inner ear to the brain.
7. Oligodendrogliomas: These are malignant tumors that arise from oligodendrocytes, the cells that produce the fatty substance called myelin that insulates nerve fibers.
8. Lymphomas: These are cancers of the immune system that can arise in the brain and spinal cord. The most common type of lymphoma in the CNS is primary central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma, which is usually a type of B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
9. Metastatic tumors: These are tumors that have spread to the brain from another part of the body. The most common types of metastatic tumors in the CNS are breast cancer, lung cancer, and melanoma.

These are just a few examples of the many types of brain and spinal cord tumors that can occur. Each type of tumor has its own unique characteristics, such as its location, size, growth rate, and biological behavior. These factors can help doctors determine the best course of treatment for each patient.

Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects can affect various aspects of the child's development, including:

1. Physical growth and development: PDEDs can lead to changes in the child's physical growth patterns, such as reduced birth weight, short stature, or delayed puberty.
2. Brain development: Prenatal exposure to certain substances can affect brain development, leading to learning disabilities, memory problems, and cognitive delays.
3. Behavioral and emotional development: Children exposed to PDEDs may exhibit behavioral and emotional difficulties, such as anxiety, depression, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
4. Immune system functioning: Prenatal exposure to certain substances can affect the immune system's development, making children more susceptible to infections and autoimmune diseases.
5. Reproductive health: Exposure to certain chemicals during fetal development may disrupt the reproductive system, leading to fertility problems or an increased risk of infertility later in life.

The diagnosis of Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects often requires a comprehensive medical history and physical examination, as well as specialized tests such as imaging studies or laboratory assessments. Treatment for PDEDs typically involves addressing the underlying cause of exposure and providing appropriate interventions to manage any associated symptoms or developmental delays.

In summary, Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects can have a profound impact on a child's growth, development, and overall health later in life. It is essential for healthcare providers to be aware of the potential risks and to monitor children exposed to substances during fetal development for any signs of PDEDs. With early diagnosis and appropriate interventions, it may be possible to mitigate or prevent some of these effects and improve outcomes for affected children.

People with Fragile X syndrome may have intellectual disability, developmental delays, and various physical characteristics such as large ears, long face, and joint hypermobility. They may also experience behavioral problems such as anxiety, hyperactivity, and sensory sensitivities. In addition, they are at increased risk for seizures, sleep disturbances, and other health issues.

Fragile X syndrome is usually diagnosed through a combination of clinical evaluation, genetic testing, and molecular analysis. There is no cure for the condition, but various interventions such as behavioral therapy, speech and language therapy, occupational therapy, and medications can help manage its symptoms.

Prevention of Fragile X syndrome is not possible, as it is a genetic disorder caused by an expansion of CGG repeats in the FMR1 gene. However, early identification and intervention can improve outcomes for individuals with the condition.

Overall, Fragile X syndrome is a complex and multifaceted condition that requires comprehensive and individualized care to help individuals with the condition reach their full potential.

1. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
2. Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): A disorder marked by a pattern of negative, hostile, and defiant behavior toward authority figures.
3. Conduct Disorder (CD): A disorder characterized by a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the child violates the rights of others or major age-appropriate societal norms and rules.
4. Anxiety Disorders: A group of disorders that cause excessive fear, worry, or anxiety that interferes with daily life.
5. Mood Disorders: A group of disorders that affect a child's mood, causing them to feel sad, hopeless, or angry for extended periods of time.
6. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and repetitive behaviors.
7. Tourette Syndrome: A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by multiple motor tics and at least one vocal tic, often involving involuntary sounds or words.
8. Selective Mutism: A disorder characterized by a persistent and excessive fear of speaking in certain situations, such as school or social events.
9. Separation Anxiety Disorder: A disorder characterized by excessive and persistent anxiety related to separation from home or loved ones.
10. Disruptive Behavior Disorders: A group of disorders that include ODD, CD, and conduct disorder, which are characterized by a pattern of behavior that violates the rights of others or major age-appropriate societal norms and rules.

These disorders can be challenging to diagnose and treat, but early identification and intervention can make a significant difference in a child's outcome. It is important for parents and caregivers to seek professional help if they notice any signs of these disorders in their child.

There are several types of prenatal injuries that can occur, including:

1. Maternal infections: Infections such as rubella, toxoplasmosis, and listeriosis can be harmful to the developing fetus.
2. Premature birth: When a baby is born too early, they may not have fully developed organs and may be at risk for developmental delays or other complications.
3. Fetal distress: This occurs when the fetus does not receive enough oxygen or blood flow, which can cause brain damage or even death.
4. Birth defects: These are physical abnormalities that occur during fetal development and can be caused by genetic or environmental factors. Examples include heart defects, cleft palate, and spina bifida.
5. Chromosomal abnormalities: These are changes in the number or structure of the chromosomes that can affect fetal development and survival. Examples include Down syndrome and Turner syndrome.
6. Maternal stress: High levels of stress during pregnancy have been linked to a range of negative outcomes for both the mother and the developing fetus.
7. Substance abuse: The use of drugs or alcohol during pregnancy can be harmful to the developing fetus and increase the risk of prenatal injuries.
8. Physical trauma: Injuries that occur during pregnancy, such as car accidents or falls, can cause harm to both the mother and the developing fetus.

Prenatal injuries can have a range of short-term and long-term consequences for the affected child, including developmental delays, physical disabilities, and cognitive impairments. In some cases, these injuries can be life-threatening or fatal.

Preventing prenatal injuries is essential to ensuring a healthy pregnancy and optimal fetal development. This can involve maintaining good prenatal care, avoiding harmful substances like drugs and alcohol, managing chronic medical conditions, and taking steps to minimize physical trauma during pregnancy.

Early detection of prenatal injuries is critical to ensuring the best possible outcomes for affected children. This may involve monitoring fetal development through regular ultrasound examinations and screening tests, as well as monitoring the mother's health and any potential risks or complications during pregnancy.

Treatment of prenatal injuries will depend on the specific nature and severity of the injury, as well as the timing and stage of fetal development. This may involve a range of medical interventions, such as medication, surgery, or other therapeutic approaches, as well as supportive care for the mother and child. In some cases, early detection and treatment may help to prevent or minimize long-term consequences of prenatal injuries.

Overall, preventing and detecting prenatal injuries is essential to ensuring a healthy pregnancy and optimal fetal development. By understanding the causes and risk factors for these injuries, and by seeking timely medical care if any potential issues are identified, expectant mothers can help to protect their unborn children from harm and promote a healthy, successful pregnancy.

Some common types of perceptual disorders include:

1. Visual perceptual disorders: These disorders affect an individual's ability to interpret and make sense of visual information from the environment. They can result in difficulties with recognizing objects, perceiving depth and distance, and tracking movement.
2. Auditory perceptual disorders: These disorders affect an individual's ability to interpret and make sense of sound. They can result in difficulties with hearing and understanding speech, as well as distinguishing between different sounds.
3. Tactile perceptual disorders: These disorders affect an individual's ability to interpret and make sense of touch. They can result in difficulties with recognizing objects through touch, as well as interpreting tactile sensations such as pain, temperature, and texture.
4. Olfactory perceptual disorders: These disorders affect an individual's ability to interpret and make sense of smells. They can result in difficulties with identifying different odors and distinguishing between them.
5. Gustatory perceptual disorders: These disorders affect an individual's ability to interpret and make sense of tastes. They can result in difficulties with identifying different flavors and distinguishing between them.
6. Balance and equilibrium disorders: These disorders affect an individual's ability to maintain balance and equilibrium. They can result in difficulties with standing, walking, and maintaining posture.

Perceptual disorders can have a significant impact on an individual's daily life, making it difficult to perform everyday tasks and activities. Treatment for perceptual disorders often involves a combination of sensory therapy, behavioral therapy, and assistive technologies. The goal of treatment is to help the individual compensate for any impairments in sensory processing and improve their ability to function in daily life.

Some common types of psychomotor disorders include:

1. Dystonia: A movement disorder characterized by involuntary muscle contractions that can cause abnormal postures or movements.
2. Chorea: A condition marked by brief, irregular movements that can be writhing or jerky.
3. Athetosis: A slow, writhing movement that can affect the hands, face, and other parts of the body.
4. Tics: Sudden, repetitive movements or vocalizations that can be due to a variety of causes, such as Tourette's syndrome.
5. Parkinsonism: A group of disorders characterized by tremors, rigidity, bradykinesia (slowness of movement), and postural instability, often seen in conditions like Parkinson's disease or Huntington's disease.
6. Hemiballism: A condition where one side of the body is affected by involuntary movements, typically due to a stroke or other brain injury.
7. Gait abnormalities: Difficulty with walking or running due to problems with muscle coordination, balance, or other factors.
8. Oculomotor disorders: Abnormalities in eye movement, such as nystagmus (involuntary eye movements), can be a sign of a psychomotor disorder.
9. Stereotypic movements: Repetitive, purposeless movements that can occur in conditions like autism or other developmental disorders.
10. Hyperkinetic syndromes: Conditions characterized by excessive and/or purposeless movement, such as restless legs syndrome or tardive dyskinesia.

Psychomotor disorders can significantly impact an individual's quality of life, affecting their ability to perform daily tasks, communicate effectively, and maintain relationships. Treatment options vary depending on the specific condition but may include medication, physical therapy, occupational therapy, and behavioral interventions.

There are several subtypes of FTLD, including:

1. Behavioral variant FTLD (bvFTD): This is the most common subtype, accounting for about 70% of all cases. It is characterized by changes in personality, behavior, and language, as well as a decline in executive functions such as planning and decision-making.
2. Linguistic variant FTLD (lvFTD): This subtype is characterized by progressive difficulty with language, including agrammatism (difficulty producing grammatically correct sentences), anomia (word-finding difficulties), and semantic decline.
3. Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP): This subtype is characterized by progressive damage to the brainstem and cerebellum, leading to difficulty with movement, balance, and eye movements.
4. Pick's disease: This is a rare subtype of FTLD that is characterized by atrophy of the frontal and temporal lobes, leading to memory loss, confusion, and changes in personality.

FTLD is caused by the degeneration of neurons in the frontal and temporal lobes, which can be due to various factors such as genetics, environmental factors, or a combination of both. The exact cause of FTLD is not yet fully understood, but research suggests that it may be related to the accumulation of abnormal protein aggregates in the brain.

There is currently no cure for FTLD, and treatment is primarily focused on managing symptoms and improving quality of life. Medications such as cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine may be used to manage cognitive and behavioral symptoms, while speech and language therapy may be helpful for individuals with linguistic variant FTLD.

FTLD is a relatively rare disorder, and the prevalence is not well established. However, it is estimated to affect approximately 1 in 100,000 to 1 in 200,000 individuals worldwide. FTLD can affect anyone, regardless of age or gender, but it is more common in older adults.

The prognosis for FTLD is generally poor, with a median survival time of approximately 3-5 years after onset of symptoms. However, the course of the disease can vary widely, and some individuals may survive for many years with relatively mild symptoms, while others may experience rapid decline and death within a few years.

FTLD is often misdiagnosed or underdiagnosed, as it can resemble other conditions such as Alzheimer's disease or frontotemporal dementia. A definitive diagnosis of FTLD requires an autopsy after death, but there are several clinical and imaging markers that can help support a diagnosis during life. These include:

1. Clinical features: FTLD is characterized by a distinct set of cognitive and behavioral symptoms, including changes in personality, language, and social behavior.
2. Imaging markers: FTLD is associated with atrophy of the frontal and temporal lobes, which can be visualized on MRI scans.
3. Genetic testing: Many cases of FTLD are caused by mutations in genes that are involved in the formation and maintenance of synapses, such as the progranulin gene.
4. Electrophysiological markers: FTLD can be associated with abnormalities in brain activity, such as changes in electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetoencephalography (MEG).

There is currently no cure for FTLD, but there are several medications and therapies that can help manage its symptoms and slow its progression. These include:

1. Cholinesterase inhibitors: These drugs, such as donepezil and rivastigmine, can improve cognitive function and slow decline in some individuals with FTLD.
2. Memantine: This medication can help manage neuropsychiatric symptoms, such as agitation and aggression, and may also have a small beneficial effect on cognition.
3. Physical therapy and occupational therapy: These interventions can help individuals with FTLD maintain their physical abilities and perform daily activities.
4. Speech therapy: This can help improve communication and address swallowing difficulties.
5. Psychotherapy: Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and other forms of psychotherapy can help individuals with FTLD cope with the emotional and behavioral changes associated with the disease.

It is important to note that these treatments may not be effective for all individuals with FTLD, and their effectiveness can vary depending on the specific type of FTLD and the individual's overall health. Research into new and more effective treatments for FTLD is ongoing.

Partial epilepsy can be further divided into several subtypes based on the location of the affected brain area, including:

1. Temporal lobe partial epilepsy: This type of partial epilepsy affects the temporal lobe of the brain and can cause seizures that are accompanied by changes in mood, behavior, or cognitive function.
2. Frontal lobe partial epilepsy: This type of partial epilepsy affects the frontal lobe of the brain and can cause seizures that are accompanied by changes in personality, behavior, or movement.
3. Parietal lobe partial epilepsy: This type of partial epilepsy affects the parietal lobe of the brain and can cause seizures that are accompanied by sensory symptoms, such as numbness or tingling in the affected limbs.
4. Occipital lobe partial epilepsy: This type of partial epilepsy affects the occipital lobe of the brain and can cause seizures that are accompanied by visual disturbances, such as flashing lights or blind spots.
5. Temporomesial partial epilepsy: This type of partial epilepsy affects both the temporal and mesial (frontal) lobes of the brain and can cause seizures that are accompanied by changes in mood, behavior, or cognitive function.

Partial epilepsy is typically diagnosed through a combination of medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests such as electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Treatment for partial epilepsy may involve medications, surgery, or other interventions, depending on the specific type and severity of the condition.

CPE can cause a range of symptoms, including:

* Abnormal movements or automatisms (e.g., chewing, grasping, or repetitive gestures)
* Confusion, disorientation, or loss of awareness
* Abnormal sensations (e.g., numbness, tingling, or burning)
* Vision changes (e.g., blurring, double vision, or loss of peripheral vision)
* Difficulty speaking or understanding speech
* Memory impairment or confusion

In contrast to simple partial seizures, which may be brief and non-disruptive, CPE can last longer (up to several minutes) and may cause more significant disruption to daily activities. In addition, people with CPE may experience postictal (post-seizure) symptoms such as confusion, fatigue, or irritability that can last for hours or even days after the seizure ends.

CPE is often difficult to diagnose, as the symptoms can be subtle and may not always be immediately recognizable as a seizure. In addition, people with CPE may experience a variety of other conditions, such as depression, anxiety, or cognitive impairment, which can make it even more challenging to diagnose and manage their epilepsy effectively.

The exact cause of CPE is not always known, but it is believed to be related to abnormal electrical activity in specific areas of the brain. In some cases, CPE may be triggered by certain activities or stimuli (e.g., stress, alcohol, or sleep deprivation), although this is not always the case.

Treatment for CPE typically involves anticonvulsant medications, which can help to reduce or eliminate seizures. In some cases, surgery may be recommended to remove the affected area of the brain that is causing the seizures. Other therapies, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) or relaxation techniques, may also be helpful in managing the symptoms of CPE and improving quality of life for people with this condition.

Overall, CPE can have a significant impact on daily life, but with proper diagnosis and treatment, it is possible to manage the condition and improve outcomes for individuals affected by it.

The symptoms of Alzheimer's disease can vary from person to person and may progress slowly over time. Early symptoms may include memory loss, confusion, and difficulty with problem-solving. As the disease progresses, individuals may experience language difficulties, visual hallucinations, and changes in mood and behavior.

There is currently no cure for Alzheimer's disease, but there are several medications and therapies that can help manage its symptoms and slow its progression. These include cholinesterase inhibitors, memantine, and non-pharmacological interventions such as cognitive training and behavioral therapy.

Alzheimer's disease is a significant public health concern, affecting an estimated 5.8 million Americans in 2020. It is the sixth leading cause of death in the United States, and its prevalence is expected to continue to increase as the population ages.

There is ongoing research into the causes and potential treatments for Alzheimer's disease, including studies into the role of inflammation, oxidative stress, and the immune system. Other areas of research include the development of biomarkers for early detection and the use of advanced imaging techniques to monitor progression of the disease.

Overall, Alzheimer's disease is a complex and multifactorial disorder that poses significant challenges for individuals, families, and healthcare systems. However, with ongoing research and advances in medical technology, there is hope for improving diagnosis and treatment options in the future.

There are several different types of brain injuries that can occur, including:

1. Concussions: A concussion is a type of mild traumatic brain injury that occurs when the brain is jolted or shaken, often due to a blow to the head.
2. Contusions: A contusion is a bruise on the brain that can occur when the brain is struck by an object, such as during a car accident.
3. Coup-contrecoup injuries: This type of injury occurs when the brain is injured as a result of the force of the body striking another object, such as during a fall.
4. Penetrating injuries: A penetrating injury occurs when an object pierces the brain, such as during a gunshot wound or stab injury.
5. Blast injuries: This type of injury occurs when the brain is exposed to a sudden and explosive force, such as during a bombing.

The symptoms of brain injuries can vary depending on the severity of the injury and the location of the damage in the brain. Some common symptoms include:

* Headaches
* Dizziness or loss of balance
* Confusion or disorientation
* Memory loss or difficulty with concentration
* Slurred speech or difficulty with communication
* Vision problems, such as blurred vision or double vision
* Sleep disturbances
* Mood changes, such as irritability or depression
* Personality changes
* Difficulty with coordination and balance

In some cases, brain injuries can be treated with medication, physical therapy, and other forms of rehabilitation. However, in more severe cases, the damage may be permanent and long-lasting. It is important to seek medical attention immediately if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

There are several types of mutism, including:

1. Selective mutism: This is a condition where an individual is unable to speak in certain situations or to specific people, but can speak freely in other situations.
2. Total mutism: This is a condition where an individual is completely unable to speak, and may communicate only through nonverbal means such as gestures or writing.
3. Mutism due to brain damage: This can be caused by head injury, stroke, or other forms of brain damage that affect language processing.
4. Mutism in children: This can be caused by a variety of factors, including developmental delays, hearing loss, or social anxiety.
5. Mutism as a symptom of other conditions: Mutism may be a symptom of other conditions such as autism spectrum disorder, anxiety disorders, or depression.

Diagnosis of mutism typically involves a comprehensive evaluation of the individual's speech and language abilities, as well as any underlying medical or psychological conditions that may be contributing to the mutism. Treatment options may include speech therapy, behavioral therapy, and in some cases, medication to address any underlying conditions.

It is important to note that mutism is not the same as aphasia, which is a condition where an individual experiences difficulty with language processing due to brain damage or other causes. While individuals with mutism may have difficulty with language processing, they do not experience the same level of cognitive impairment as individuals with aphasia.

The symptoms of rolandic epilepsy can vary widely depending on the location and severity of the seizure activity. Some common symptoms include:

1. Altered sensation: Patients may experience unusual sensations such as numbness, tingling, or burning in one limb or side of the body.
2. Emotional changes: Patients may experience sudden shifts in mood, such as anxiety, fear, or happiness, without any obvious reason.
3. Behavioral changes: Patients may exhibit unusual behaviors such as laughing, crying, or becoming agitated for no apparent reason.
4. Loss of consciousness: In some cases, patients may experience a brief loss of consciousness during the seizure activity.
5. Auras: Some patients may experience warning signs, known as auras, before the seizure activity begins. These can include visual disturbances, such as flashing lights or zigzag patterns, or other sensory symptoms.
6. Postictal state: After the seizure activity has stopped, patients may enter a postictal state characterized by confusion, disorientation, and lingering neurological symptoms.

Rolandic epilepsy is often difficult to diagnose because the symptoms can be subtle and may not always be obvious as seizure activity. To diagnose this condition, a comprehensive evaluation including an MRI or CT scan, EEG, and video-EEG monitoring may be necessary. Treatment options for rolandic epilepsy include medications such as anticonvulsants and surgical interventions in some cases.

In summary, rolandic epilepsy is a rare and complex seizure disorder that can cause a wide range of symptoms, including altered sensation, emotional changes, behavioral changes, loss of consciousness, auras, and postictal state. Accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment are essential to manage the condition effectively.

Some common types of mental disorders include:

1. Anxiety disorders: These conditions cause excessive worry, fear, or anxiety that interferes with daily life. Examples include generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder.
2. Mood disorders: These conditions affect a person's mood, causing feelings of sadness, hopelessness, or anger that persist for weeks or months. Examples include depression, bipolar disorder, and seasonal affective disorder.
3. Personality disorders: These conditions involve patterns of thought and behavior that deviate from the norm of the average person. Examples include borderline personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder, and antisocial personality disorder.
4. Psychotic disorders: These conditions cause a person to lose touch with reality, resulting in delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized thinking. Examples include schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and brief psychotic disorder.
5. Trauma and stressor-related disorders: These conditions develop after a person experiences a traumatic event, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
6. Dissociative disorders: These conditions involve a disconnection or separation from one's body, thoughts, or emotions. Examples include dissociative identity disorder (formerly known as multiple personality disorder) and depersonalization disorder.
7. Neurodevelopmental disorders: These conditions affect the development of the brain and nervous system, leading to symptoms such as difficulty with social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors. Examples include autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and Rett syndrome.

Mental disorders can be diagnosed by a mental health professional using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), which provides criteria for each condition. Treatment typically involves a combination of medication and therapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy or psychodynamic therapy, depending on the specific disorder and individual needs.

The burden of chronic diseases is significant, with over 70% of deaths worldwide attributed to them, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). In addition to the physical and emotional toll they take on individuals and their families, chronic diseases also pose a significant economic burden, accounting for a large proportion of healthcare expenditure.

In this article, we will explore the definition and impact of chronic diseases, as well as strategies for managing and living with them. We will also discuss the importance of early detection and prevention, as well as the role of healthcare providers in addressing the needs of individuals with chronic diseases.

What is a Chronic Disease?

A chronic disease is a condition that lasts for an extended period of time, often affecting daily life and activities. Unlike acute diseases, which have a specific beginning and end, chronic diseases are long-term and persistent. Examples of chronic diseases include:

1. Diabetes
2. Heart disease
3. Arthritis
4. Asthma
5. Cancer
6. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
7. Chronic kidney disease (CKD)
8. Hypertension
9. Osteoporosis
10. Stroke

Impact of Chronic Diseases

The burden of chronic diseases is significant, with over 70% of deaths worldwide attributed to them, according to the WHO. In addition to the physical and emotional toll they take on individuals and their families, chronic diseases also pose a significant economic burden, accounting for a large proportion of healthcare expenditure.

Chronic diseases can also have a significant impact on an individual's quality of life, limiting their ability to participate in activities they enjoy and affecting their relationships with family and friends. Moreover, the financial burden of chronic diseases can lead to poverty and reduce economic productivity, thus having a broader societal impact.

Addressing Chronic Diseases

Given the significant burden of chronic diseases, it is essential that we address them effectively. This requires a multi-faceted approach that includes:

1. Lifestyle modifications: Encouraging healthy behaviors such as regular physical activity, a balanced diet, and smoking cessation can help prevent and manage chronic diseases.
2. Early detection and diagnosis: Identifying risk factors and detecting diseases early can help prevent or delay their progression.
3. Medication management: Effective medication management is crucial for controlling symptoms and slowing disease progression.
4. Multi-disciplinary care: Collaboration between healthcare providers, patients, and families is essential for managing chronic diseases.
5. Health promotion and disease prevention: Educating individuals about the risks of chronic diseases and promoting healthy behaviors can help prevent their onset.
6. Addressing social determinants of health: Social determinants such as poverty, education, and employment can have a significant impact on health outcomes. Addressing these factors is essential for reducing health disparities and improving overall health.
7. Investing in healthcare infrastructure: Investing in healthcare infrastructure, technology, and research is necessary to improve disease detection, diagnosis, and treatment.
8. Encouraging policy change: Policy changes can help create supportive environments for healthy behaviors and reduce the burden of chronic diseases.
9. Increasing public awareness: Raising public awareness about the risks and consequences of chronic diseases can help individuals make informed decisions about their health.
10. Providing support for caregivers: Chronic diseases can have a significant impact on family members and caregivers, so providing them with support is essential for improving overall health outcomes.

Conclusion

Chronic diseases are a major public health burden that affect millions of people worldwide. Addressing these diseases requires a multi-faceted approach that includes lifestyle changes, addressing social determinants of health, investing in healthcare infrastructure, encouraging policy change, increasing public awareness, and providing support for caregivers. By taking a comprehensive approach to chronic disease prevention and management, we can improve the health and well-being of individuals and communities worldwide.

Some examples of nervous system malformations include:

1. Neural tube defects: These are among the most common types of nervous system malformations and occur when the neural tube, which forms the brain and spinal cord, fails to close properly during fetal development. Examples include anencephaly (absence of a major portion of the brain), spina bifida (incomplete closure of the spine), and encephalocele (protrusion of the brain or meninges through a skull defect).
2. Cerebral palsy: This is a group of disorders that affect movement, balance, and posture, often resulting from brain damage during fetal development or early childhood. The exact cause may not be known, but it can be related to genetic mutations, infections, or other factors.
3. Hydrocephalus: This is a condition in which there is an abnormal accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the brain, leading to increased pressure and enlargement of the head. It can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetic mutations, infections, or blockages in the CSF circulatory system.
4. Moyamoya disease: This is a rare condition caused by narrowing or blockage of the internal carotid artery and its branches, leading to reduced blood flow to the brain. It can result in stroke-like episodes, seizures, and cognitive impairment.
5. Spinal muscular atrophy: This is a genetic disorder that affects the nerve cells responsible for controlling voluntary muscle movement, leading to progressive muscle weakness and wasting. It can be diagnosed through blood tests or genetic analysis.
6. Neurofibromatosis: This is a genetic disorder that causes non-cancerous tumors to grow on nerve tissue, leading to symptoms such as skin changes, learning disabilities, and eye problems. It can be diagnosed through clinical evaluation and genetic testing.
7. Tuberous sclerosis: This is a rare genetic disorder that causes non-cancerous tumors to grow in the brain and other organs, leading to symptoms such as seizures, developmental delays, and skin changes. It can be diagnosed through clinical evaluation, imaging studies, and genetic testing.
8. Cerebral palsy: This is a group of disorders that affect movement, posture, and muscle tone, often resulting from brain damage sustained during fetal development or early childhood. It can be caused by a variety of factors, including premature birth, infections, and genetic mutations.
9. Down syndrome: This is a genetic disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21, leading to intellectual disability, developmental delays, and physical characteristics such as a flat face and short stature. It can be diagnosed through blood tests or genetic analysis.
10. William syndrome: This is a rare genetic disorder caused by a deletion of genetic material on chromosome 7, leading to symptoms such as cardiovascular problems, growth delays, and learning disabilities. It can be diagnosed through clinical evaluation and genetic testing.

It's important to note that these are just a few examples of developmental disorders, and there are many other conditions that can affect cognitive and physical development in children. If you suspect your child may have a developmental disorder, it's important to speak with a qualified healthcare professional for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment.

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Official languages of India, Subject-object-verb languages, Languages of West Bengal, Languages of Tripura, Languages of Assam ... newspapers Chittagonian language Languages of Bangladesh Rangpuri language Romani people Sylheti language Bengali language at ... the Bengali-Assamese languages, the Bihari languages, and the Odia language. The language was not static: different varieties ... Languages officially written in Indic scripts, Sahitya Akademi recognised languages, Languages of Jharkhand, Languages of Bihar ...
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Languages with Linglist code, Arawakan languages, Languages of Xingu Indigenous Park, All stub articles, Arawakan language ... Waurá (Wauja) is an Arawakan language spoken in the Xingu Indigenous Park of Brazil by the Waujá people. It is "partially ... The entire population speaks the language. A glottal stop [ʔ] occurs phonetically before vowels in word-initial position, or ... v t e (Pages containing links to subscription-only content, Language articles citing Ethnologue 18, Articles with Portuguese- ...
Dâw is a Nadahup language spoken by about one hundred Dâw people in the northwestern part of Amazonas, Brazil, in an area ... An extinct variety, Kurikuria(r)í, named after the Curicuriari River, was a distinct language sociolinguistically, but at least ... with some correspondences coming from the Tukano language. Note that glottalized consonants are marked with the apostrophe ... ISO language articles citing sources other than Ethnologue, Articles containing ...
This language is not utilized as much today. The Thadou language comes from the Tibeto-Burman or Kuki-Chin-Mizo languages ... Languages of Manipur, Languages of Tripura, Endangered languages of India). ... Knowing a language connects one to the culture and traditions of the speakers of the language. This was especially the case ... THE LANGUAGES OF MANIPUR: A CASE STUDY OF THE KUKI-CHIN-MIZO LANGUAGES*, 34.1 (April), 85-118. Retrieved 9 March 2017, from ...
... is a language expressed by movements of the hands and face. Learn more about ASL and NIDCD-supported research. ... Is sign language the same in other countries?. There is no universal sign language. Different sign languages are used in ... American Sign Language (ASL) is a complete, natural language that has the same linguistic properties as spoken languages, with ... Why emphasize early language learning?. Parents should expose a deaf or hard-of-hearing child to language (spoken or signed) as ...
Without extra help, children with hearing loss have problems learning language. ... Its never too early to start thinking about helping your baby learn language. ... or other spoken languages. However, there are other languages such as American Sign Language (ASL), which are visual languages ... Bilingual: This program teaches babies and young children who are deaf or hard of hearing two languages, American Sign Language ...
Find health information in multiple languages on MedlinePlus, arranged by language. ... medlineplus.gov/languages/languages.html Health Information in Multiple Languages. ... Browse health information in multiple languages, arranged by language. You can also browse this information by health topic. ...
"Go Programming Language. March 15, 2022. Retrieved March 16, 2022.. *^ "A Tutorial for the Go Programming Language". The Go ... "The Go Programming Language". YouTube. Retrieved July 1, 2011.. *^ Pike, Rob (November 10, 2009). The Go Programming Language ( ... "The Go Programming Language Specification". golang.org.. *^ "The Go Programming Language Specification". go.dev. Retrieved ... "The Go Programming Language Specification - the Go Programming Language".. *^ a b "Why doesnt Go have "implements" ...
Home ‹ Download phpBB ‹ Language Packs Language Packs. phpBB has been localised to 54 different languages and language ... Language packs for your language. For your convenience, we have highlighted the following language packs based on the languages ... All language packs. If a language you speak is not listed here, please consider becoming a translator. ... In it you will find Extensions, MODs (for 3.0.x), Styles, Language Packs, BBCodes, as well as various tools. ...
... a virtual worlds programmer and visual language expert, reviews the history of avatars, smileys, and other expressive forms, ... Virtual Body Language is also published by ETC Press. Ventrellas latest book, Brain-filling Curves, is currently in review ... Language. English. Category. Computers & Technology. Copyright. All Rights Reserved - Standard Copyright License. Contributors ... a virtual worlds programmer and visual language expert, reviews the history of avatars, smileys, and other expressive forms, ...
... The UMLS integrates and distributes key terminology, classification and coding ... The UMLS, or Unified Medical Language System, is a set of files and software that brings together many health and biomedical ... Bodenreider O. The Unified Medical Language System (UMLS): integrating biomedical terminology. Nucleic Acids Res. 2004 Jan 1;32 ...
This is the main category of the Vietnamese language. It is spoken in Vietnam, Australia, Canada, China, Laos, the United ... Please see Wiktionary:About Vietnamese for information and special considerations for creating Vietnamese language entries. ... Category:Vietnamese entry maintenance: Vietnamese entries, or entries in other languages containing Vietnamese terms, that are ... Pages in category "Vietnamese language". This category contains only the following page. ...
A language of the resource.. Comment. Recommended practice is to use either a non-literal value representing a language from a ... English language in the Library of Congress vocabulary of ISO 639-2 languages) ... English language in the SIL International vocabulary of ISO 639-3 languages) ... A guide to terminology used in the DCMI community, past and present, with reflections on how our language for talking about ...
The Hawaii Association of Language Teachers (HALT) is a group of language teachers from K-12 and higher education institutions ... Our organization provides teachers of languages with the opportunity to meet with their colleagues to exchange ideas and ... Membership is open to all world language professionals. Please visit our Membership page for details. ... and innovative methods and tools in language teaching and learning. ...
Common Language Glossary Review descriptions of vocabulary words related to common language and knowledge representation. ... Listen to presentations to learn more about the development and/or application of common language to enhance the value of ... EHLC has compiled a variety of resources to get started in understanding how to incorporate common language approaches and best ... Gain further insights on the value of applying a common language to environmental health science data. ...
WHAT IS LANGUAGE PANDA?. Language Panda is a crowd-sourced, searchable database for teaching of foreign languages with digital ... THE HOME OF LANGUAGE PANDA: CENTER FOR SECOND LANGUAGE STUDIES (CSLS). The Center for Second Language Studies at Vanderbilt ... Learners can attend language-themed events, play language games, and practice conversation with graduate-student fellows. The ... THE GOALS OF LANGUAGE PANDA:. *Provide a searchable database where instructional materials may be collected and shared at no ...
Your language choice will be stored in a cookie for a year. When unchecked, it will be cleared at the end of browser session. ... Savane uses language negotiation to automatically select the translation the visitor prefers, and this is what we generally ... In order to use this feature, you should configure your preferred languages in your browser. However, this page offers a way to ... Language:. Reset English. español. français. עברית. português do Brasil. русский. Use the topmost item ("Reset") to clear the ...
At the moment we have 14 languages. Every , language is about 32K in trm format what gives us about 470K (too much!). , But if ... Entries in there native language But what then? All languages included or dynamic loaded ? MfG, Hartmut Reply to: *debian-boot@ ... Re: Language support. *To: Michael Sobolev ,[email protected],. *Cc: Nils-Erik Svang?rd ,[email protected],, debian-boot@lists. ... The problem is that the data , , for all the languages doesnt fit on the disk, therefore you have to make , , specific boot- ...
Language is a shared passion for Ms Rillas family, who live in different units in the same HDB block. Ms Rilla read to her son ... Regrettably, there is no longer a visceral connection to the language.. SUCCESS WITH ADIL. Realising that there was a dearth of ... Mind Your Language. Education entrepreneur Ms Rilla Melati (Arts and Social Sciences 96) is reimagining the way Malay is ... "I was surrounded by the Malay language. It was on the radio, on television, in my books," the 48-year-old recalls, adding that ...
... member of the Indo-European family of languages (see Indo-European). It is the language of one of the major civilizations of ... Greek language, member of the Indo-European family of languages (see Indo-European). It is the language of one of the major ... Many modern scientific and technical words in English and other Western languages are derived from Greek, and it has been ...
Giving to Languages. The Department of Languages thanks all who have generously supported our efforts either by donating to ... Language and International Trade (L&IT) Annual Conference Fund. *Program Development Fund (for travel, guest speakers, film ... If you do not find the fund listed, you can give to the Department of Languages Annual Fund and designate where you want your ... Language and International Trade Annual Travel Grant Fund. * ... Languages show submenu for Languages. * American Sign Language ...
Select from the languages below to view the available information. ... The IRS is now offering critical information in multiple languages. ... Choose from the languages listed below to get the information you need to pay your taxes and file a federal tax return. ... We know that tax information can be hard to understand in any language. It can be even harder if that information isnt offered ...
In language transmission this tends to be self-perpetuating unless deliberately interfered with. Children are in general ... The part played by variations within a language in differentiating social and occupational groups in a society has already been ... Home Geography & Travel Languages language Language and social differentiation and assimilation. The part played by variations ... The control of language for cultural ends. Second-language learning. Language, no less than other aspects of human behaviour, ...
XBRL (Extensible Business Reporting Language) is an XML-based language for business and financial data. XBRL provides ... XBRL Extensible Business Reporting Language. The SEC mandates it. How does it work? * ... More than simple identifiers, these tags provide a range of information and allow labels in any language, as well as accounting ... even if its from multiple sources and written in different languages). ...
Information about ASHA certification for speech-language pathologists and audiologists. ... speech-language pathologists; speech, language, and hearing scientists; audiology and speech-language pathology support ... American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. 2200 Research Blvd., Rockville, MD 20850. Members: 800-498-2071. Non-Member: 800- ... American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. Making effective communication, a human right, accessible and achievable for all ...
An emerging body of research dispels old myths about language learning and makes a case for multilingualism. ... "They are mapping the language, so the faster they can map those critical sounds, the faster their language is going to grow," ... Recent studies on how language learning occurs are beginning to chip away at some long-held notions about second-language ... is critical to language learning. Social and emotional areas of the brain mediate language areas, but only now-with an MEG that ...
Pages in category "Lua (programming language)". The following 2 pages are in this category, out of 2 total. ... Media in category "Lua (programming language)". The following 10 files are in this category, out of 10 total. ... godine; мова праграмаваньня; lightweight programming language; програмен език; סקריפט־ און פראגראמיר־שפראך; ohjelmointikieli; ... Not to be confused with the category: Tshiluba language. .mw-parser-output #wdinfobox.mw-content-ltr{float:right;clear:right; ...
My husband is from up here so he has only been around the Cajun language for about 20 years and still has to have me ... Re: Talking about thinking in language varaha 12/12/05 04:49 PM ... Re: Thinking language of troy 12/10/05 03:16 PM Re: Thinking ... Re: Talking about thinking in language musick 12/12/05 05:25 PM ... Re: Thinking language of troy 12/12/05 02:31 PM Re: Thinking ... Re: Talking about thinking in language zmjezhd 12/12/05 07:22 PM ... Re: Thinking language of troy 12/14/05 12:52 PM Re: Thinking ...
Furthermore, I consider the impact of two strategies for language maintenance: adjusting the status of the endangered language ... Attempts to describe language competition and extinction in a mathematical way have enjoyed increased popularity recently. In ... Anne Kandler "Demography and Language Competition," Human Biology, 81(3), 181-210, (1 April 2009) Include:. ... the dynamics of interactions of a population with two monolingual groups and a group that is bilingual in these two languages. ...
Español , Other Languages Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC twenty four seven. Saving Lives, Protecting People ... Restaurant Food Safety Findings in Plain Language. ...
Jeff Lang announces Australian tour in support of his memoir Some Memories Never Die. The tour runs for nearly five months ...
Extending the Macro Language. There are two ways to add functions implemented as Java code to the macro language. One is to use ... The macro language does not have a switch statement but it can be simulated using if/else statements. Here is an example: type ... Use the macro languages built-in run(command, options) function to run any of the 400+ commands in the ImageJ menu bar. The ... The ImageJ macro language has two kinds of functions: built-in and user-defined. A user-defined function has the form: function ...
Promoting Language Learning Through Dual Language and Non-English Books Dual language and non-English books help promote ... 12个提升0-3岁宝宝语言能力的方法 12 Ways to Support Language Development for Infants and Toddlers When you talk to your child, you support ... Exploring Families Language Practices Through a Social Studies Inquiry in Kindergarten his article describes the collaboration ... Through music and language, movement, and the visual arts, rap and other elements of hip-hop culture can support preschoolers ...
Plain language is grammatically correct language that includes complete sentence structure and accurate word usage. ... Plain Language at NIH. Plain language is grammatically correct language that includes complete sentence structure and accurate ... Plain Language Act. The Plain Writing Act of 2010 (H.R. 946/Public Law 111-274) requires the federal government to write ... Plain language is not unprofessional writing or a method of "dumbing down" or "talking down" to the reader. ...
  • Parents are often the source of a child's early acquisition of language, but for children who are deaf, additional people may be models for language acquisition. (nih.gov)
  • The earlier a child is exposed to and begins to acquire language, the better that child's language, cognitive, and social development will become. (nih.gov)
  • Research suggests that the first few years of life are the most crucial to a child's development of language skills, and even the early months of life can be important for establishing successful communication with caregivers. (nih.gov)
  • Parents can then start their child's language learning process during this important early stage of development. (nih.gov)
  • ASL is usually taught as the child's first language and English (or the family's native language) is taught as the child's second language through reading, writing, speech, and use of residual hearing. (cdc.gov)
  • American Sign Language (ASL) is a complete, natural language that has the same linguistic properties as spoken languages , with grammar that differs from English. (nih.gov)
  • ASL is a language completely separate and distinct from English. (nih.gov)
  • The Total Communication program teaches babies and young children that are deaf or hard-of-hearing to use a combination of building blocks to communicate in the English language. (cdc.gov)
  • When most people hear the word "language" they think of languages such as English, Spanish, or other spoken languages. (cdc.gov)
  • Many modern scientific and technical words in English and other Western languages are derived from Greek, and it has been estimated that 12% of the English vocabulary is of Greek origin. (factmonster.com)
  • The five-year, $2.8 million project is intended to bring together neuroscientists, linguists, and cognitive scientists to compare the brain and mental processes of different types of bilingual people, such as a Chinese-English speaker whose languages include different writing systems or a deaf English speaker whose signed and written languages involve different modes of communication. (edweek.org)
  • This page collates resources in non-English languages from elsewhere on the International Research Ethics Resources section. (nih.gov)
  • Beyond our own campus, we also cultivate a community dedicated to teaching and learning via collaborations with other language centers, labs, and departments. (vanderbilt.edu)
  • Below are listed information and materials available on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (cdc.gov) website translated into other languages. (cdc.gov)
  • Likewise, the Washington-based American Association for the Advancement of Science has added a symposium on bilingualism to its 2011 annual conference in February, and the University of Washington this summer opened the world's first brain-imaging center adapted to study language and cognition in infants and young children in Seattle. (edweek.org)
  • NTID researcher Rain Bosworth, pictured right, in 2016, uses eye-tracking technology that offers a non-invasive and powerful tool to study cognition and language learning in pre-verbal infants. (nih.gov)
  • The research uses eye-tracking technology that offers a non-invasive and powerful tool to study cognition and language learning in pre-verbal infants. (nih.gov)
  • How do you process those source models later on, e.g. for code generation, interpreting it at runtime, etc. and what in what language those components that process your source model are developed with? (eclipse.org)
  • Return to the MedlinePlus Health Information in Multiple Languages page. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Other sociological factors, including age and gender, can affect ASL usage and contribute to its variety, just as with spoken languages. (nih.gov)
  • Cued Speech (sometimes called "cueing") is a building block that helps children who are deaf or hard-of-hearing better understand spoken languages. (cdc.gov)
  • Recommended practice is to use either a non-literal value representing a language from a controlled vocabulary such as ISO 639-2 or ISO 639-3, or a literal value consisting of an IETF Best Current Practice 47 [ IETF-BCP47 ] language tag. (dublincore.org)
  • As communication has taken an increasingly digital form, we have come to recognize the value of designing language lessons that practice technology-based interactions. (vanderbilt.edu)
  • Learners can attend language-themed events, play language games, and practice conversation with graduate-student fellows. (vanderbilt.edu)
  • Review descriptions of vocabulary words related to common language and knowledge representation. (nih.gov)
  • Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. (wikipedia.org)
  • For a complete listing of the language packs for phpBB, please scroll down the page. (phpbb.com)
  • However, this page offers a way to override the mechanism of language negotiation for the cases where configuring browser is hard or impossible. (nongnu.org)
  • Click on the first link on a line below to go directly to a page where "A-language" is defined. (onelook.com)
  • EHLC has compiled a variety of resources to get started in understanding how to incorporate common language approaches and best practices into your research and data management plans. (nih.gov)
  • Language Panda is a crowd-sourced, searchable database for teaching of foreign languages with digital resources. (vanderbilt.edu)
  • The Center for Second Language Studies at Vanderbilt University facilitates excellence in teaching and learning by offering spaces, resources, and programs designed for foreign language instruction. (vanderbilt.edu)
  • We're translating our tax resources into more languages. (irs.gov)
  • Furthermore, I consider the impact of two strategies for language maintenance: adjusting the status of the endangered language and adjusting the availability of monolingual and bilingual educational resources. (bioone.org)
  • For more resources and materials on plain language, visit CDC's Plain Language site. (cdc.gov)
  • phpBB has been localised to 54 different languages and language variations by a dedicated team of translators. (phpbb.com)
  • The part played by variations within a language in differentiating social and occupational groups in a society has already been referred to above. (britannica.com)
  • Languages and variations within languages play both a unifying and a diversifying role in human society as a whole. (britannica.com)
  • Bilingualism provides a lens for researchers to examine aspects of the underlying cognitive architecture that are otherwise obscured by native-language skill," Ms. Kroll said. (edweek.org)
  • At 12 months, babies who had worked with a person recognized Mandarin sounds more accurately than did infants who were exposed to the language through video or audio only. (edweek.org)
  • While it isn't surprising that infants and children love to look at people's movements and faces, recent research from Rochester Institute of Technology's National Technical Institute for the Deaf studies exactly where they look when they see someone using sign language. (nih.gov)
  • NTID researcher and Assistant Professor Rain Bosworth and alumnus Adam Stone studied early-language knowledge in young infants and children by recording their gaze patterns as they watched a signer. (nih.gov)
  • The distribution of the various components of cultures differs, and the distribution of languages may differ from that of nonlinguistic cultural features. (britannica.com)
  • HALT coordinates three events per year: a a Spring Conference , a Summer Summit , and a Fall Symposium, all of which have members and guest speakers presenting best practices, pedagogical research, and innovative methods and tools in language teaching and learning. (google.com)
  • Listen to presentations to learn more about the development and/or application of common language to enhance the value of research data. (nih.gov)
  • Yet interdisciplinary research conducted over the past five years at the University of Washington, Pennsylvania State University, and other colleges suggest that the time frame may be more flexible than first thought and that students who learn additional languages become more adaptable in other types of learning, too. (edweek.org)
  • There has been an explosion of research on bilingual-language processing," said Judith F. Kroll, the principal investigator for the Bilingualism, Mind, and Brain project launched this month at Penn State's Center for Language Science in University Park, Pa. (edweek.org)
  • The increased use of neuroscience in language-acquisition research has been fueled in part by the development of brain-imaging equipment scaled for tiny brains and squirmy bodies, according to Patricia K. Kuhl, a co-director of the University of Washington's Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences, known as I-LABS. (edweek.org)
  • Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communication's (LHNCBC) natural language processing (NLP), or text mining, research focuses on the development and evaluation of computer algorithms for automated text analysis. (nih.gov)
  • The SPECIALIST Lexicon and NLP Tools are at the center of NLM's natural language research, providing a foundation for all our natural language processing efforts. (nih.gov)
  • Plain language is grammatically correct language that includes complete sentence structure and accurate word usage. (nih.gov)
  • Plain language is not unprofessional writing or a method of "dumbing down" or "talking down" to the reader. (nih.gov)
  • Using plain language avoids creating barriers that set us apart from the people with whom we are communicating. (nih.gov)
  • The NIH fully supports the Plain Language initiative, which has its origins in a Federal directive that requires agencies to incorporate plain language elements in the development of communications materials for the public. (nih.gov)
  • The NIH is committed to the use of plain language in all new documents written for the public, other government entities, and fellow workers. (nih.gov)
  • Use this handy tool to learn about using plain language in your work. (nih.gov)
  • Using simple, plain language can help your messages reach the people who need to act on them. (cdc.gov)
  • The projects of this repository are not meant to incorporate technology for technology's sake, but rather are meant to enhance language instruction. (vanderbilt.edu)
  • The Indexing Initiative (II) project investigates language-based and machine learning methods for the automatic selection of subject headings for use in both semi-automated and fully automated indexing environments at NLM. (nih.gov)
  • The Center for Second Language Studies, with the support of a team of graduate students and faculty affiliates, researches, gathers, organizes, and moderates content for Language Panda. (vanderbilt.edu)
  • When asked about the reasons for this change, she points to the general lack of creative local Malay content that is age-appropriate and a curriculum that used to focus too heavily on the technical aspects of the language. (nus.edu.sg)
  • It can be even harder if that information isn't offered in the language you know best. (irs.gov)
  • Language changing is harder for the individual and is generally a rarer occurrence, but it is likely to be widespread in any mass immigration movement. (britannica.com)
  • Browse health information in multiple languages, arranged by language. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Hearing parents who choose to have their child learn sign language often learn it along with their child. (nih.gov)
  • Children who are deaf and have hearing parents often learn sign language through deaf peers and become fluent. (nih.gov)
  • It's never too early to start thinking about helping your baby learn language. (cdc.gov)
  • Families who have children with hearing loss often need to learn special skills to help their children learn language. (cdc.gov)
  • Building Blocks" refers to the different skills that parents can use to help their child learn language. (cdc.gov)
  • To them, Malay has become just a 'Mother Tongue Language' - something they learn in school for the sake of exams," she explains. (nus.edu.sg)
  • These are the things that Ms Rilla is trying to change with Mini Monsters, an educational venture that is charting new learning strategies to help young ones - and the young at heart - learn and relearn the Malay language. (nus.edu.sg)
  • Malay has become just a 'Mother Tongue Language'- something [kids] learn in school for the sake of exams. (nus.edu.sg)
  • we all learned our first language and we can learn a second one. (edweek.org)
  • The goal was to learn, just from gaze patterns alone, whether the child was from a family that used spoken language or signed language at home. (nih.gov)
  • A reverse movement, typically by third-generation immigrants, manifests a concern to be in contact again with the ancestral language. (britannica.com)
  • The Hawai'i Association of Language Teachers (HALT) is a group of language teachers from K-12 and higher education institutions in Hawai'i who work to maintain the highest standards in the profession of teaching languages. (google.com)
  • This is the main category of the Vietnamese language . (wiktionary.org)
  • It is the primary language of many North Americans who are deaf and hard of hearing and is used by some hearing people as well. (nih.gov)
  • A deaf child born to parents who are deaf and who already use ASL will begin to acquire ASL as naturally as a hearing child picks up spoken language from hearing parents. (nih.gov)
  • However, for a deaf child with hearing parents who have no prior experience with ASL, language may be acquired differently. (nih.gov)
  • Some hearing parents choose to introduce sign language to their deaf children. (nih.gov)
  • Parents should expose a deaf or hard-of-hearing child to language (spoken or signed) as soon as possible. (nih.gov)
  • The auditory-verbal program teaches babies and young children who are deaf or hard of hearing to use their amplified residual hearing or hearing through electrical stimulation (cochlear implants) to listen, to understand spoken language, and to speak. (cdc.gov)
  • This program teaches babies and young children who are deaf or hard of hearing two languages, American Sign Language (ASL) and the family's native language. (cdc.gov)
  • I analyze the dynamics of interactions of a population with two monolingual groups and a group that is bilingual in these two languages. (bioone.org)
  • Please see Wiktionary:About Vietnamese for information and special considerations for creating Vietnamese language entries. (wiktionary.org)
  • Vietnamese entries, or entries in other languages containing Vietnamese terms, that are being tracked for attention and improvement by editors. (wiktionary.org)
  • Entries in there native language But what then? (debian.org)
  • What Is American Sign Language (ASL)? (nih.gov)
  • However, there are other languages such as American Sign Language (ASL) , which are visual languages. (cdc.gov)
  • It contains all the fundamental features of language, with its own rules for pronunciation, word formation, and word order. (nih.gov)
  • Using one language (Typescript) for your GLSP server and client leads to a more homogeneous developer experience than having to work with two languages (Java and Typescript). (eclipse.org)
  • Computational de-identification uses natural language processing (NLP) tools and techniques to recognize patient-related individually identifiable information (e.g. names, addresses, and telephone and social security numbers) in the text, and redacts them. (nih.gov)
  • You will need to choose which language (or languages) and which building blocks you want for your child. (cdc.gov)
  • Choose from the languages listed below to get the information you need to pay your taxes and file a federal tax return. (irs.gov)
  • Which language do you choose for your GLSP server? (eclipse.org)
  • For your convenience, we have highlighted the following language packs based on the languages your web browser appears to support. (phpbb.com)
  • For a floppy based setup only C is ok, but for CDRom we should support all 14 languages. (debian.org)
  • With XML tagging, the information in a business report is computer-readable and can be extracted, searched and analyzed (even if it's from multiple sources and written in different languages). (computerworld.com)
  • Gain further insights on the value of applying a common language to environmental health science data. (nih.gov)
  • XBRL (Extensible Business Reporting Language) is an XML-based language for business and financial data. (computerworld.com)
  • Information in other languages may also be available on other cdc.gov Web pages by specific topic or disease. (cdc.gov)
  • During the first year of life, a baby starts to specialize in the sounds of his native language and becomes less able to distinguish sounds common only to other languages. (edweek.org)
  • Because you might not be familiar with these languages, there is a section about ASL in this Guide. (cdc.gov)
  • Dr. Lang joined NIBIB in October 2004 when the Clinical Center Radiochemistry Section was realigned and became an organizational component of NIBIB's Intramural Science Program. (nih.gov)
  • Recent studies on how language learning occurs are beginning to chip away at some long-held notions about second-language acquisition and point to potential learning benefits for students who speak more than one language. (edweek.org)
  • Is sign language the same in other countries? (nih.gov)
  • There is no universal sign language. (nih.gov)
  • The exact beginnings of ASL are not clear, but some suggest that it arose more than 200 years ago from the intermixing of local sign languages and French Sign Language (LSF, or Langue des Signes Française). (nih.gov)
  • Why emphasize early language learning? (nih.gov)
  • The same sort of self-perpetuation, in the absence of deliberate rejection, operates in the special languages of sports and games and of trades and professions (these are in the main concerned with special vocabularies). (britannica.com)
  • Language is a shared passion for Ms Rilla's family, who live in different units in the same HDB block. (nus.edu.sg)
  • Greek language, member of the Indo-European family of languages (see Indo-European ). (factmonster.com)
  • Membership is open to all world language professionals. (google.com)
  • It is the language of one of the major civilizations of the world and of one of the greatest literatures of all time. (factmonster.com)