Body organ that filters blood for the secretion of URINE and that regulates ion concentrations.
Pathological processes of the KIDNEY or its component tissues.
The transference of a kidney from one human or animal to another.
Long convoluted tubules in the nephrons. They collect filtrate from blood passing through the KIDNEY GLOMERULUS and process this filtrate into URINE. Each renal tubule consists of a BOWMAN CAPSULE; PROXIMAL KIDNEY TUBULE; LOOP OF HENLE; DISTAL KIDNEY TUBULE; and KIDNEY COLLECTING DUCT leading to the central cavity of the kidney (KIDNEY PELVIS) that connects to the URETER.
The outer zone of the KIDNEY, beneath the capsule, consisting of KIDNEY GLOMERULUS; KIDNEY TUBULES, DISTAL; and KIDNEY TUBULES, PROXIMAL.
Abrupt reduction in kidney function. Acute kidney injury encompasses the entire spectrum of the syndrome including acute kidney failure; ACUTE KIDNEY TUBULAR NECROSIS; and other less severe conditions.
The end-stage of CHRONIC RENAL INSUFFICIENCY. It is characterized by the severe irreversible kidney damage (as measured by the level of PROTEINURIA) and the reduction in GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE to less than 15 ml per min (Kidney Foundation: Kidney Disease Outcome Quality Initiative, 2002). These patients generally require HEMODIALYSIS or KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION.
Hereditary diseases that are characterized by the progressive expansion of a large number of tightly packed CYSTS within the KIDNEYS. They include diseases with autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive inheritance.
A cluster of convoluted capillaries beginning at each nephric tubule in the kidney and held together by connective tissue.
Tumors or cancers of the KIDNEY.
The renal tubule portion that extends from the BOWMAN CAPSULE in the KIDNEY CORTEX into the KIDNEY MEDULLA. The proximal tubule consists of a convoluted proximal segment in the cortex, and a distal straight segment descending into the medulla where it forms the U-shaped LOOP OF HENLE.
Laboratory tests used to evaluate how well the kidneys are working through examination of blood and urine.
The internal portion of the kidney, consisting of striated conical masses, the renal pyramids, whose bases are adjacent to the cortex and whose apices form prominent papillae projecting into the lumen of the minor calyces.
Stones in the KIDNEY, usually formed in the urine-collecting area of the kidney (KIDNEY PELVIS). Their sizes vary and most contains CALCIUM OXALATE.
Straight tubes commencing in the radiate part of the kidney cortex where they receive the curved ends of the distal convoluted tubules. In the medulla the collecting tubules of each pyramid converge to join a central tube (duct of Bellini) which opens on the summit of the papilla.
Kidney disorders with autosomal dominant inheritance and characterized by multiple CYSTS in both KIDNEYS with progressive deterioration of renal function.
The volume of water filtered out of plasma through glomerular capillary walls into Bowman's capsules per unit of time. It is considered to be equivalent to INULIN clearance.
A heterogeneous group of hereditary and acquired disorders in which the KIDNEY contains one or more CYSTS unilaterally or bilaterally (KIDNEY, CYSTIC).
The ability of the kidney to excrete in the urine high concentrations of solutes from the blood plasma.
The portion of renal tubule that begins from the enlarged segment of the ascending limb of the LOOP OF HENLE. It reenters the KIDNEY CORTEX and forms the convoluted segments of the distal tubule.
Excision of kidney.
The functional units of the kidney, consisting of the glomerulus and the attached tubule.
Accumulation of a drug or chemical substance in various organs (including those not relevant to its pharmacologic or therapeutic action). This distribution depends on the blood flow or perfusion rate of the organ, the ability of the drug to penetrate organ membranes, tissue specificity, protein binding. The distribution is usually expressed as tissue to plasma ratios.
Acute kidney failure resulting from destruction of EPITHELIAL CELLS of the KIDNEY TUBULES. It is commonly attributed to exposure to toxic agents or renal ISCHEMIA following severe TRAUMA.
One of a pair of thick-walled tubes that transports urine from the KIDNEY PELVIS to the URINARY BLADDER.
The domestic dog, Canis familiaris, comprising about 400 breeds, of the carnivore family CANIDAE. They are worldwide in distribution and live in association with people. (Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th ed, p1065)
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
The presence of proteins in the urine, an indicator of KIDNEY DISEASES.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
A nongenetic defect due to malformation of the KIDNEY which appears as a bunch of grapes with multiple renal cysts but lacking the normal renal bean shape, and the collection drainage system. This condition can be detected in-utero with ULTRASONOGRAPHY.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
The survival of a graft in a host, the factors responsible for the survival and the changes occurring within the graft during growth in the host.
A genetic disorder with autosomal recessive inheritance, characterized by multiple CYSTS in both KIDNEYS and associated LIVER lesions. Serious manifestations are usually present at BIRTH with high PERINATAL MORTALITY.
Individuals supplying living tissue, organs, cells, blood or blood components for transfer or transplantation to histocompatible recipients.
An immune response with both cellular and humoral components, directed against an allogeneic transplant, whose tissue antigens are not compatible with those of the recipient.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Devices which can substitute for normally functioning KIDNEYS in removing components from the blood by DIALYSIS that are normally eliminated in the URINE.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
Blockage in any part of the URETER causing obstruction of urine flow from the kidney to the URINARY BLADDER. The obstruction may be congenital, acquired, unilateral, bilateral, complete, partial, acute, or chronic. Depending on the degree and duration of the obstruction, clinical features vary greatly such as HYDRONEPHROSIS and obstructive nephropathy.
A subgroup of TRP cation channels that are widely expressed in various cell types. Defects are associated with POLYCYSTIC KIDNEY DISEASES.
The circulation of the BLOOD through the vessels of the KIDNEY.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Non-cadaveric providers of organs for transplant to related or non-related recipients.
KIDNEY injuries associated with diabetes mellitus and affecting KIDNEY GLOMERULUS; ARTERIOLES; KIDNEY TUBULES; and the interstitium. Clinical signs include persistent PROTEINURIA, from microalbuminuria progressing to ALBUMINURIA of greater than 300 mg/24 h, leading to reduced GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE and END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE.
Characteristic restricted to a particular organ of the body, such as a cell type, metabolic response or expression of a particular protein or antigen.
Conditions in which the KIDNEYS perform below the normal level in the ability to remove wastes, concentrate URINE, and maintain ELECTROLYTE BALANCE; BLOOD PRESSURE; and CALCIUM metabolism. Renal insufficiency can be classified by the degree of kidney damage (as measured by the level of PROTEINURIA) and reduction in GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
Diseases which have one or more of the following characteristics: they are permanent, leave residual disability, are caused by nonreversible pathological alteration, require special training of the patient for rehabilitation, or may be expected to require a long period of supervision, observation, or care. (Dictionary of Health Services Management, 2d ed)
Abnormal enlargement or swelling of a KIDNEY due to dilation of the KIDNEY CALICES and the KIDNEY PELVIS. It is often associated with obstruction of the URETER or chronic kidney diseases that prevents normal drainage of urine into the URINARY BLADDER.
A branch of the abdominal aorta which supplies the kidneys, adrenal glands and ureters.
Adverse functional, metabolic, or structural changes in ischemic tissues resulting from the restoration of blood flow to the tissue (REPERFUSION), including swelling; HEMORRHAGE; NECROSIS; and damage from FREE RADICALS. The most common instance is MYOCARDIAL REPERFUSION INJURY.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
The administrative procedures involved with acquiring TISSUES or organs for TRANSPLANTATION through various programs, systems, or organizations. These procedures include obtaining consent from TISSUE DONORS and arranging for transportation of donated tissues and organs, after TISSUE HARVESTING, to HOSPITALS for processing and transplantation.
Agents that suppress immune function by one of several mechanisms of action. Classical cytotoxic immunosuppressants act by inhibiting DNA synthesis. Others may act through activation of T-CELLS or by inhibiting the activation of HELPER CELLS. While immunosuppression has been brought about in the past primarily to prevent rejection of transplanted organs, new applications involving mediation of the effects of INTERLEUKINS and other CYTOKINES are emerging.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
Inflammation of any part of the KIDNEY.
Therapy for the insufficient cleansing of the BLOOD by the kidneys based on dialysis and including hemodialysis, PERITONEAL DIALYSIS, and HEMODIAFILTRATION.
Measurable and quantifiable biological parameters (e.g., specific enzyme concentration, specific hormone concentration, specific gene phenotype distribution in a population, presence of biological substances) which serve as indices for health- and physiology-related assessments, such as disease risk, psychiatric disorders, environmental exposure and its effects, disease diagnosis, metabolic processes, substance abuse, pregnancy, cell line development, epidemiologic studies, etc.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
The presence of albumin in the urine, an indicator of KIDNEY DISEASES.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
A dead body, usually a human body.
A subspecialty of internal medicine concerned with the anatomy, physiology, and pathology of the kidney.
The measurement of an organ in volume, mass, or heaviness.
Highly differentiated epithelial cells of the visceral layer of BOWMAN CAPSULE of the KIDNEY. They are composed of a cell body with major CELL SURFACE EXTENSIONS and secondary fingerlike extensions called pedicels. They enwrap the KIDNEY GLOMERULUS capillaries with their cell surface extensions forming a filtration structure. The pedicels of neighboring podocytes interdigitate with each other leaving between them filtration slits that are bridged by an extracellular structure impermeable to large macromolecules called the slit diaphragm, and provide the last barrier to protein loss in the KIDNEY.
Death of cells in the KIDNEY CORTEX, a common final result of various renal injuries including HYPOXIA; ISCHEMIA; and drug toxicity.
General dysfunction of an organ occurring immediately following its transplantation. The term most frequently refers to renal dysfunction following KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION.
The urea concentration of the blood stated in terms of nitrogen content. Serum (plasma) urea nitrogen is approximately 12% higher than blood urea nitrogen concentration because of the greater protein content of red blood cells. Increases in blood or serum urea nitrogen are referred to as azotemia and may have prerenal, renal, or postrenal causes. (From Saunders Dictionary & Encyclopedia of Laboratory Medicine and Technology, 1984)
Cells that line the inner and outer surfaces of the body by forming cellular layers (EPITHELIUM) or masses. Epithelial cells lining the SKIN; the MOUTH; the NOSE; and the ANAL CANAL derive from ectoderm; those lining the RESPIRATORY SYSTEM and the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM derive from endoderm; others (CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM and LYMPHATIC SYSTEM) derive from mesoderm. Epithelial cells can be classified mainly by cell shape and function into squamous, glandular and transitional epithelial cells.
The transference of a pancreas from one human or animal to another.
PRESSURE of the BLOOD on the ARTERIES and other BLOOD VESSELS.
An extracellular cystatin subtype that is abundantly expressed in bodily fluids. It may play a role in the inhibition of interstitial CYSTEINE PROTEASES.
Inflammation of the interstitial tissue of the kidney. This term is generally used for primary inflammation of KIDNEY TUBULES and/or surrounding interstitium. For primary inflammation of glomerular interstitium, see GLOMERULONEPHRITIS. Infiltration of the inflammatory cells into the interstitial compartment results in EDEMA, increased spaces between the tubules, and tubular renal dysfunction.
A highly specific (Leu-Leu) endopeptidase that generates ANGIOTENSIN I from its precursor ANGIOTENSINOGEN, leading to a cascade of reactions which elevate BLOOD PRESSURE and increase sodium retention by the kidney in the RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM. The enzyme was formerly listed as EC 3.4.99.19.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. This also includes animals with a long history of closed colony breeding.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
Inflammation of the renal glomeruli (KIDNEY GLOMERULUS) that can be classified by the type of glomerular injuries including antibody deposition, complement activation, cellular proliferation, and glomerulosclerosis. These structural and functional abnormalities usually lead to HEMATURIA; PROTEINURIA; HYPERTENSION; and RENAL INSUFFICIENCY.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
A glycosyl-phosphatidyl-inositol (GPI) - anchored membrane protein found on the thick ascending limb of the LOOP OF HENLE. The cleaved form of the protein is found abundantly in URINE.
Persistent high BLOOD PRESSURE due to KIDNEY DISEASES, such as those involving the renal parenchyma, the renal vasculature, or tumors that secrete RENIN.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
Persistently high systemic arterial BLOOD PRESSURE. Based on multiple readings (BLOOD PRESSURE DETERMINATION), hypertension is currently defined as when SYSTOLIC PRESSURE is consistently greater than 140 mm Hg or when DIASTOLIC PRESSURE is consistently 90 mm Hg or more.
The process by which organs are kept viable outside of the organism from which they were removed (i.e., kept from decay by means of a chemical agent, cooling, or a fluid substitute that mimics the natural state within the organism).
The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.
A clinicopathological syndrome or diagnostic term for a type of glomerular injury that has multiple causes, primary or secondary. Clinical features include PROTEINURIA, reduced GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE, and EDEMA. Kidney biopsy initially indicates focal segmental glomerular consolidation (hyalinosis) or scarring which can progress to globally sclerotic glomeruli leading to eventual KIDNEY FAILURE.
The worsening of a disease over time. This concept is most often used for chronic and incurable diseases where the stage of the disease is an important determinant of therapy and prognosis.
New World marsupials of the family Didelphidae. Opossums are omnivorous, largely nocturnal and arboreal MAMMALS, grow to about three feet in length, including the scaly prehensile tail, and have an abdominal pouch in which the young are carried at birth.
A member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol Na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23.
Recesses of the kidney pelvis which divides into two wide, cup-shaped major renal calices, with each major calix subdivided into 7 to 14 minor calices. Urine empties into a minor calix from collecting tubules, then passes through the major calix, renal pelvis, and ureter to enter the urinary bladder. (From Moore, Clinically Oriented Anatomy, 3d ed, p211)
The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.
Graphic tracing over a time period of radioactivity measured externally over the kidneys following intravenous injection of a radionuclide which is taken up and excreted by the kidneys.
The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.
Procedures which temporarily or permanently remedy insufficient cleansing of body fluids by the kidneys.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
A heterogeneous group of sporadic or hereditary carcinoma derived from cells of the KIDNEYS. There are several subtypes including the clear cells, the papillary, the chromophobe, the collecting duct, the spindle cells (sarcomatoid), or mixed cell-type carcinoma.
Hypertension due to RENAL ARTERY OBSTRUCTION or compression.
Proteins which are found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. They consist of two types, peripheral and integral proteins. They include most membrane-associated enzymes, antigenic proteins, transport proteins, and drug, hormone, and lectin receptors.
Single-stranded complementary DNA synthesized from an RNA template by the action of RNA-dependent DNA polymerase. cDNA (i.e., complementary DNA, not circular DNA, not C-DNA) is used in a variety of molecular cloning experiments as well as serving as a specific hybridization probe.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blot transferring from the electrophoresis gel to strips of nitrocellulose paper, followed by labeling with antibody probes.
Aquaporin 2 is a water-specific channel protein that is expressed in KIDNEY COLLECTING DUCTS. The translocation of aquaporin 2 to the apical PLASMA MEMBRANE is regulated by VASOPRESSIN, and MUTATIONS in AQP2 have been implicated in a variety of kidney disorders including DIABETES INSIPIDUS.
A hypoperfusion of the BLOOD through an organ or tissue caused by a PATHOLOGIC CONSTRICTION or obstruction of its BLOOD VESSELS, or an absence of BLOOD CIRCULATION.
Inflammation of the KIDNEY involving the renal parenchyma (the NEPHRONS); KIDNEY PELVIS; and KIDNEY CALICES. It is characterized by ABDOMINAL PAIN; FEVER; NAUSEA; VOMITING; and occasionally DIARRHEA.
Transplantation between individuals of the same species. Usually refers to genetically disparate individuals in contradistinction to isogeneic transplantation for genetically identical individuals.
Studies in which individuals or populations are followed to assess the outcome of exposures, procedures, or effects of a characteristic, e.g., occurrence of disease.
Test for tissue antigen using either a direct method, by conjugation of antibody with fluorescent dye (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, DIRECT) or an indirect method, by formation of antigen-antibody complex which is then labeled with fluorescein-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin antibody (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, INDIRECT). The tissue is then examined by fluorescence microscopy.
An enzyme that catalyzes the active transport system of sodium and potassium ions across the cell wall. Sodium and potassium ions are closely coupled with membrane ATPase which undergoes phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, thereby providing energy for transport of these ions against concentration gradients.
One or more layers of EPITHELIAL CELLS, supported by the basal lamina, which covers the inner or outer surfaces of the body.
The U-shaped portion of the renal tubule in the KIDNEY MEDULLA, consisting of a descending limb and an ascending limb. It is situated between the PROXIMAL KIDNEY TUBULE and the DISTAL KIDNEY TUBULE.
A technique that localizes specific nucleic acid sequences within intact chromosomes, eukaryotic cells, or bacterial cells through the use of specific nucleic acid-labeled probes.
Narrowing or occlusion of the RENAL ARTERY or arteries. It is due usually to ATHEROSCLEROSIS; FIBROMUSCULAR DYSPLASIA; THROMBOSIS; EMBOLISM, or external pressure. The reduced renal perfusion can lead to renovascular hypertension (HYPERTENSION, RENOVASCULAR).
A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.
The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.
Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body.
A paired box transcription factor that is essential for ORGANOGENESIS of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM and KIDNEY.
Transport proteins that carry specific substances in the blood or across cell membranes.
Minute projections of cell membranes which greatly increase the surface area of the cell.
Treatment process involving the injection of fluid into an organ or tissue.
A BLOOD PRESSURE regulating system of interacting components that include RENIN; ANGIOTENSINOGEN; ANGIOTENSIN CONVERTING ENZYME; ANGIOTENSIN I; ANGIOTENSIN II; and angiotensinase. Renin, an enzyme produced in the kidney, acts on angiotensinogen, an alpha-2 globulin produced by the liver, forming ANGIOTENSIN I. Angiotensin-converting enzyme, contained in the lung, acts on angiotensin I in the plasma converting it to ANGIOTENSIN II, an extremely powerful vasoconstrictor. Angiotensin II causes contraction of the arteriolar and renal VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE, leading to retention of salt and water in the KIDNEY and increased arterial blood pressure. In addition, angiotensin II stimulates the release of ALDOSTERONE from the ADRENAL CORTEX, which in turn also increases salt and water retention in the kidney. Angiotensin-converting enzyme also breaks down BRADYKININ, a powerful vasodilator and component of the KALLIKREIN-KININ SYSTEM.
An increase in the excretion of URINE. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
The procedure established to evaluate the health status and risk factors of the potential DONORS of biological materials. Donors are selected based on the principles that their health will not be compromised in the process, and the donated materials, such as TISSUES or organs, are safe for reuse in the recipients.
The lipid- and protein-containing, selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
A cyclic undecapeptide from an extract of soil fungi. It is a powerful immunosupressant with a specific action on T-lymphocytes. It is used for the prophylaxis of graft rejection in organ and tissue transplantation. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed).
The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and drugs) through a biological system at the cellular level. The transport can be across cell membranes and epithelial layers. It also can occur within intracellular compartments and extracellular compartments.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
Studies in which subsets of a defined population are identified. These groups may or may not be exposed to factors hypothesized to influence the probability of the occurrence of a particular disease or other outcome. Cohorts are defined populations which, as a whole, are followed in an attempt to determine distinguishing subgroup characteristics.
Liquid by-product of excretion produced in the kidneys, temporarily stored in the bladder until discharge through the URETHRA.
The mass or quantity of heaviness of an individual. It is expressed by units of pounds or kilograms.
Any fluid-filled closed cavity or sac that is lined by an EPITHELIUM. Cysts can be of normal, abnormal, non-neoplastic, or neoplastic tissues.
An octapeptide that is a potent but labile vasoconstrictor. It is produced from angiotensin I after the removal of two amino acids at the C-terminal by ANGIOTENSIN CONVERTING ENZYME. The amino acid in position 5 varies in different species. To block VASOCONSTRICTION and HYPERTENSION effect of angiotensin II, patients are often treated with ACE INHIBITORS or with ANGIOTENSIN II TYPE 1 RECEPTOR BLOCKERS.
A polypeptide hormone (84 amino acid residues) secreted by the PARATHYROID GLANDS which performs the essential role of maintaining intracellular CALCIUM levels in the body. Parathyroid hormone increases intracellular calcium by promoting the release of CALCIUM from BONE, increases the intestinal absorption of calcium, increases the renal tubular reabsorption of calcium, and increases the renal excretion of phosphates.
Diabetes mellitus induced experimentally by administration of various diabetogenic agents or by PANCREATECTOMY.
Detection of RNA that has been electrophoretically separated and immobilized by blotting on nitrocellulose or other type of paper or nylon membrane followed by hybridization with labeled NUCLEIC ACID PROBES.
Artifactual vesicles formed from the endoplasmic reticulum when cells are disrupted. They are isolated by differential centrifugation and are composed of three structural features: rough vesicles, smooth vesicles, and ribosomes. Numerous enzyme activities are associated with the microsomal fraction. (Glick, Glossary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 1990; from Rieger et al., Glossary of Genetics: Classical and Molecular, 5th ed)
A complex of cells consisting of juxtaglomerular cells, extraglomerular mesangium lacis cells, the macula densa of the distal convoluted tubule, and granular epithelial peripolar cells. Juxtaglomerular cells are modified SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS found in the walls of afferent glomerular arterioles and sometimes the efferent arterioles. Extraglomerular mesangium lacis cells are located in the angle between the afferent and efferent glomerular arterioles. Granular epithelial peripolar cells are located at the angle of reflection of the parietal to visceral angle of the renal corpuscle.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
An epithelial cell line derived from a kidney of a normal adult female dog.
Hardening of the KIDNEY due to infiltration by fibrous connective tissue (FIBROSIS), usually caused by renovascular diseases or chronic HYPERTENSION. Nephrosclerosis leads to renal ISCHEMIA.
The qualitative or quantitative estimation of the likelihood of adverse effects that may result from exposure to specified health hazards or from the absence of beneficial influences. (Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 1988)
A non-hereditary KIDNEY disorder characterized by the abnormally dilated (ECTASIA) medullary and inner papillary portions of the collecting ducts. These collecting ducts usually contain CYSTS or DIVERTICULA filled with jelly-like material or small calculi (KIDNEY STONES) leading to infections or obstruction. It should be distinguished from congenital or hereditary POLYCYSTIC KIDNEY DISEASES.
Prospective patient listings for appointments or treatments.
Renal syndrome in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients characterized by nephrotic syndrome, severe proteinuria, focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis with distinctive tubular and interstitial changes, enlarged kidneys, and peculiar tubuloreticular structures. The syndrome is distinct from heroin-associated nephropathy as well as other forms of kidney disease seen in HIV-infected patients.
A subfamily in the family MURIDAE, comprising the hamsters. Four of the more common genera are Cricetus, CRICETULUS; MESOCRICETUS; and PHODOPUS.
Inorganic salts of phosphoric acid.
The duct which coveys URINE from the pelvis of the KIDNEY through the URETERS, BLADDER, and URETHRA.
Microscopy using an electron beam, instead of light, to visualize the sample, thereby allowing much greater magnification. The interactions of ELECTRONS with specimens are used to provide information about the fine structure of that specimen. In TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY the reactions of the electrons that are transmitted through the specimen are imaged. In SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY an electron beam falls at a non-normal angle on the specimen and the image is derived from the reactions occurring above the plane of the specimen.
Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
A macrolide isolated from the culture broth of a strain of Streptomyces tsukubaensis that has strong immunosuppressive activity in vivo and prevents the activation of T-lymphocytes in response to antigenic or mitogenic stimulation in vitro.
A suborder of PRIMATES consisting of six families: CEBIDAE (some New World monkeys), ATELIDAE (some New World monkeys), CERCOPITHECIDAE (Old World monkeys), HYLOBATIDAE (gibbons and siamangs), CALLITRICHINAE (marmosets and tamarins), and HOMINIDAE (humans and great apes).
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
A malignant kidney tumor, caused by the uncontrolled multiplication of renal stem (blastemal), stromal (STROMAL CELLS), and epithelial (EPITHELIAL CELLS) elements. However, not all three are present in every case. Several genes or chromosomal areas have been associated with Wilms tumor which is usually found in childhood as a firm lump in a child's side or ABDOMEN.
Aquaporin 6 is an aquaglyceroporin that is found primarily in KIDNEY COLLECTING DUCTS. AQP6 protein functions as an anion-selective channel.
Linear POLYPEPTIDES that are synthesized on RIBOSOMES and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of AMINO ACIDS determines the shape the polypeptide will take, during PROTEIN FOLDING, and the function of the protein.
The balance of fluid in the BODY FLUID COMPARTMENTS; total BODY WATER; BLOOD VOLUME; EXTRACELLULAR SPACE; INTRACELLULAR SPACE, maintained by processes in the body that regulate the intake and excretion of WATER and ELECTROLYTES, particularly SODIUM and POTASSIUM.
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
A technetium diagnostic aid used in renal function determination.
Proteins that are secreted into the blood in increased or decreased quantities by hepatocytes in response to trauma, inflammation, or disease. These proteins can serve as inhibitors or mediators of the inflammatory processes. Certain acute-phase proteins have been used to diagnose and follow the course of diseases or as tumor markers.
The calcium salt of oxalic acid, occurring in the urine as crystals and in certain calculi.
Glomerulonephritis associated with autoimmune disease SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS. Lupus nephritis is histologically classified into 6 classes: class I - normal glomeruli, class II - pure mesangial alterations, class III - focal segmental glomerulonephritis, class IV - diffuse glomerulonephritis, class V - diffuse membranous glomerulonephritis, and class VI - advanced sclerosing glomerulonephritis (The World Health Organization classification 1982).
A class of porins that allow the passage of WATER and other small molecules across CELL MEMBRANES.
A clinical syndrome associated with the retention of renal waste products or uremic toxins in the blood. It is usually the result of RENAL INSUFFICIENCY. Most uremic toxins are end products of protein or nitrogen CATABOLISM, such as UREA or CREATININE. Severe uremia can lead to multiple organ dysfunctions with a constellation of symptoms.
Examination of urine by chemical, physical, or microscopic means. Routine urinalysis usually includes performing chemical screening tests, determining specific gravity, observing any unusual color or odor, screening for bacteriuria, and examining the sediment microscopically.
Structurally related forms of an enzyme. Each isoenzyme has the same mechanism and classification, but differs in its chemical, physical, or immunological characteristics.
Either of the pair of organs occupying the cavity of the thorax that effect the aeration of the blood.
Formation of stones in the KIDNEY.
A compound formed in the liver from ammonia produced by the deamination of amino acids. It is the principal end product of protein catabolism and constitutes about one half of the total urinary solids.
A disturbance in the prooxidant-antioxidant balance in favor of the former, leading to potential damage. Indicators of oxidative stress include damaged DNA bases, protein oxidation products, and lipid peroxidation products (Sies, Oxidative Stress, 1991, pxv-xvi).
The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from PREVALENCE, which refers to all cases, new or old, in the population at a given time.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations, or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. All animals within an inbred strain trace back to a common ancestor in the twentieth generation.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
An antibiotic substance derived from Penicillium stoloniferum, and related species. It blocks de novo biosynthesis of purine nucleotides by inhibition of the enzyme inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase. Mycophenolic acid is important because of its selective effects on the immune system. It prevents the proliferation of T-cells, lymphocytes, and the formation of antibodies from B-cells. It also may inhibit recruitment of leukocytes to inflammatory sites. (From Gilman et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th ed, p1301)
A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes.
Levels within a diagnostic group which are established by various measurement criteria applied to the seriousness of a patient's disorder.
A darkly stained mat-like EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (ECM) that separates cell layers, such as EPITHELIUM from ENDOTHELIUM or a layer of CONNECTIVE TISSUE. The ECM layer that supports an overlying EPITHELIUM or ENDOTHELIUM is called basal lamina. Basement membrane (BM) can be formed by the fusion of either two adjacent basal laminae or a basal lamina with an adjacent reticular lamina of connective tissue. BM, composed mainly of TYPE IV COLLAGEN; glycoprotein LAMININ; and PROTEOGLYCAN, provides barriers as well as channels between interacting cell layers.
The degree of similarity between sequences of amino acids. This information is useful for the analyzing genetic relatedness of proteins and species.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action during the developmental stages of an organism.
A prediction of the probable outcome of a disease based on a individual's condition and the usual course of the disease as seen in similar situations.
The glycine amide of 4-aminobenzoic acid. Its sodium salt is used as a diagnostic aid to measure effective renal plasma flow (ERPF) and excretory capacity.
Tissue, organ, or gamete donation intended for a designated recipient.
The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.
Sodium excretion by URINATION.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
Age as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or the effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from AGING, a physiological process, and TIME FACTORS which refers only to the passage of time.
The gradual irreversible changes in structure and function of an organism that occur as a result of the passage of time.
The unborn young of a viviparous mammal, in the postembryonic period, after the major structures have been outlined. In humans, the unborn young from the end of the eighth week after CONCEPTION until BIRTH, as distinguished from the earlier EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
General increase in bulk of a part or organ due to CELL ENLARGEMENT and accumulation of FLUIDS AND SECRETIONS, not due to tumor formation, nor to an increase in the number of cells (HYPERPLASIA).
Populations of thin, motile processes found covering the surface of ciliates (CILIOPHORA) or the free surface of the cells making up ciliated EPITHELIUM. Each cilium arises from a basic granule in the superficial layer of CYTOPLASM. The movement of cilia propels ciliates through the liquid in which they live. The movement of cilia on a ciliated epithelium serves to propel a surface layer of mucus or fluid. (King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
The range or frequency distribution of a measurement in a population (of organisms, organs or things) that has not been selected for the presence of disease or abnormality.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
Pathologic processes that affect patients after a surgical procedure. They may or may not be related to the disease for which the surgery was done, and they may or may not be direct results of the surgery.
Short sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) of DNA that are complementary to sequences of messenger RNA and allow reverse transcriptases to start copying the adjacent sequences of mRNA. Primers are used extensively in genetic and molecular biology techniques.
A state of prolonged irreversible cessation of all brain activity, including lower brain stem function with the complete absence of voluntary movements, responses to stimuli, brain stem reflexes, and spontaneous respirations. Reversible conditions which mimic this clinical state (e.g., sedative overdose, hypothermia, etc.) are excluded prior to making the determination of brain death. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp348-9)
A non-metal element that has the atomic symbol P, atomic number 15, and atomic weight 31. It is an essential element that takes part in a broad variety of biochemical reactions.
A class of drugs whose main indications are the treatment of hypertension and heart failure. They exert their hemodynamic effect mainly by inhibiting the renin-angiotensin system. They also modulate sympathetic nervous system activity and increase prostaglandin synthesis. They cause mainly vasodilation and mild natriuresis without affecting heart rate and contractility.
An encapsulated lymphatic organ through which venous blood filters.

Lead and mercury residues in kidney and liver of Canadian slaughter animals. (1/37740)

Liver and kidney samples were collected from Canadian slaughter animals during the winter of 1973-1974. A total of 256 samples were analyzed for lead. Mean lead levels of 1.02 ppm in poultry liver, 1.04 ppm in bovine liver, 1.02 ppm in bovine kidney, 0.73 ppm in pork liver and 0.85 ppm in pork kidney were found. A total of 265 samples were analyzed for mercury. Mean mercury levels of 0.003 ppm in poultry liver, 0.007 ppm in bovine liver, 0.008 ppm in bovine kidney, 0.001 ppm in pork liver and 0.013 ppm in pork kidney were found. All levels detected were below the Canadian official tolerance of 2 ppm for lead and administrative tolerance of 0.5 ppm for mercury.  (+info)

Infleuce of dietary levels of vitamin E and selenium on tissue and blood parameters in pigs. (2/37740)

Eighteen barrows approximately three weeks of age were used in a 3 X 3 factorial arrangement to investigate the effect of level of supplemental vitamin E and selenium on tissue and blood parameters. Tissue selenium concentrations increased in a quadratic manner with increased selenium intake with kidney tissue containing considerably greater concentrations than liver, heart or muscle. Supplementation of the diet caused a three-fold increase in serum selenium within the first week with a slight tendency to further increases in subsequent weeks. Serum vitamin E of unsupplemented pigs declined by fifty percent during the experiment, whereas supplemental vitamin E resulted in increased serum vitamin E. There was a considerable viration in percent peroxide hemolysis. Correlation of -0.63 between percent peroxide hemolysis and vitamin E intake and -0.85 between percent peroxide hemolysis and serum vitamin E were observed.  (+info)

Pathological changes in chickens, ducks and turkeys fed high levels of rapeseed oil. (3/37740)

Rations containing 25% of either regular rapeseed oil (36% erucic acid), Oro rapeseed oil (1.9% erucic acid), soybean oil or a mixture of lard and corn oil were fed to chickens, ducks and turkeys. The regular rapeseed oil ration caused growth depression, increased feed conversion and anemia in all species. All the ducks and some of the chickens fed the regular rapeseed oil ration died. These dead birds were affected with hydropericardium and ascites. No deaths in the turkeys could be attributed to the regular rapeseed oil ration but some turkeys fed this ration had degenerative foci characterized by infiltrations of histiocytic and giant cells in the myocardium. Severe fatty change in the heart, skeletal muscles, spleen and kidney was found at an early age in all birds fed the regular rapeseed oil ration. Less severe fatty change but no other lesions were found in birds fed the Oro rapeseed oil and soybean oil rations.  (+info)

Effect of sex difference on the in vitro and in vivo metabolism of aflatoxin B1 by the rat. (4/37740)

Hepatic microsome-catalyzed metabolism of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) to aflatoxin M1 and aflatoxin Q1 and the "metabolic activation" of AFB1 to DNA-alylating metabolite(s) were studied in normal male and female Sprague-Dawley rats, in gonadectomized animals, and in castrated males and normal females treated with testosterone. Microsomes from male animals formed 2 to 5 times more aflatoxin M1, aflatoxin Q1, and DNA-alkylating metabolite(s) than those from females. Castration reduced the metabolism of AFB1 by the microsomes from males by about 50%, whereas ovariectomy had no significant effect on AFB1 metabolism by the microsomes from females. Testosterone treatment (4 mg/rat, 3 times/week for about 6 weeks) of castrated immature males and immature females enhanced the metabolism of AFB1 by their microsomes. A sex difference in the metabolism of AFB1 by liver microsomes was also seen in other strains of rats tested: Wistar, Long-Evans, and Fischer. The activity of kidney microsomes for metabolic activation was 1 to 4% that of the liver activity and was generally lower in microsomes from male rats as compared to those from female rats of Sprague-Dawley, Wistar, and Long-Evans strains. The in vitro results obtained with hepatic microsomes correlated well with the in vivo metabolism of AFB1, in that more AFB1 became bound in vivo to hepatic DNA isolated from male rats and from a female rat treated with testosterone than that isolated from control female rats. These data suggest that the differences in hepatic AFB1 metabolism may be the underlying cause of the sex difference in toxicity and carcinogenicity of AFB1 observed in rats.  (+info)

Intrarenal site of action of calcium on renin secretion in dogs. (5/37740)

We studied the effects of intrarenal calcium infusion on renin secretion in sodium-depleted dogs in an attempt to elucidate the major site of calcium-induced inhibition of renin release. Both calcium chloride and calcium gluconate reduced renal blood flow and renin secretion while renal perfusion pressure was unchanged. These data indicate that calcium inhibition of renin secretion did not occur primarily at the renal vascular receptor; decreased renal blood flow is usually associated with increased renin secretion. Calcium chloride infusion increased urinary chloride excretion without affecting sodium excretion, and calcium gluconate failed to increase either sodium or chloride excretion. Also, the filtered loads of sodium and chloride were unchanged during the calcium infusions. These results give no indication that calcium inhibited renin secretion by increasing the sodium or chloride load at the macula densa. The effects of intrarenal calcium infusion on renin release were also assessed in dogs with a nonfiltering kidney in which renal tubular mechanisms could not influence renin secretion. The observation that calcium still suppressed renin release in these dogs provides additional evidence that the the major effect of calcium involved nontubular mechanisms. Thus, it appears likely that calcium acted directly on the juxtaglomerular cells to inhibit renin secretion.  (+info)

Acute renal failure caused by nephrotoxins. (6/37740)

Renal micropuncture studies have greatly changed our views on the pathophysiology of acute renal failure caused by nephrotoxins. Formerly, this type of renal insufficiency was attributed to a direct effect of the nephrotoxins on tubule epithelial permeability. According to that theory, glomerular filtration was not greatly diminished, the filtrate formed being absorbed almost quantitatively and nonselectively across damaged tubule epithelium. Studies in a wide variety of rat models have now shown glomerular filtration to be reduced to a level which will inevitably cause renal failure in and of itself. Passive backflow of filtrate across tubular epithelium is either of minor degree or nonexistent even in models where frank tubular necrosis has occurred. This failure of filtration cannot be attributed to tubular obstruction since proximal tubule pressure is distinctly subnormal in most models studied. Instead, filtration failure appears best attributed to intrarenal hemodynamic alterations. While certain facts tend to incriminate the renin-angiotensin system as the cause of the hemodynamic aberrations, others argue to the contrary. The issue is underactive investigation.  (+info)

Perinatal nephropathies. (7/37740)

The purpose of this paper is to review the development of the mammalian kidney and to assess the influence that various perinatal manipulations may have on the developmental process either morphologically or functionally. Immature kidneys in general have less functional capacity than adult kidneys and a low rate of glomerular filtration, perhaps related to renal blood flow, which appears to limit the disposition of a fluid or solute load. Tubular reabsorption is also limited leading to the urinary loss of glucose, amino acids, bicarbonate and phosphate. Although the relatively low function of the immature kidney is a normal part of development, its capacity to respond under conditions of stress may be less adequate than in adults. An additional concern is that a variety of perinatal manipulations, such as the incidental or accidental ingestion of a chemical, may lead to varying degrees of altered morphogenesis or functional development of the kidney. Chemical induced renal anomalies may be of several types, but in typical teratology experiments hydronephrosis may be the most frequent observation. The functional consequences of these renal malformations may be lethal or inconsequential or while an animal may be able to survive and develop normally in the presence of a renal malformation, it is possible that a stressful situation would unmask a functional malformation which could compromise survival. Thus, some renal abnormalities may be subtle enough to go unnoticed without experimental tests. Without such tests it is impossible to evaluate the effect of functional alterations on successful adaptation.  (+info)

Determination of human body burden baseline date of platinum through autopsy tissue analysis. (8/37740)

Results of analysis for platinum in 97 autopsy sets are presented. Analysis was performed by a specially developed emission spectrochemical method. Almost half of the individuals studied were found to have detectable platinum in one or more tissue samples. Platinum was found to be deposited in 13 of 21 tissue types investigated. Surprisingly high values were observed in subcutaneous fat, previously not considered to be a target site for platinum deposition. These data will serve as a human tissue platinum burden baseline in EPA's Catalyst Research Program.  (+info)

Types of Kidney Diseases:

1. Acute Kidney Injury (AKI): A sudden and reversible loss of kidney function that can be caused by a variety of factors, such as injury, infection, or medication.
2. Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD): A gradual and irreversible loss of kidney function that can lead to end-stage renal disease (ESRD).
3. End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD): A severe and irreversible form of CKD that requires dialysis or a kidney transplant.
4. Glomerulonephritis: An inflammation of the glomeruli, the tiny blood vessels in the kidneys that filter waste products.
5. Interstitial Nephritis: An inflammation of the tissue between the tubules and blood vessels in the kidneys.
6. Kidney Stone Disease: A condition where small, hard mineral deposits form in the kidneys and can cause pain, bleeding, and other complications.
7. Pyelonephritis: An infection of the kidneys that can cause inflammation, damage to the tissues, and scarring.
8. Renal Cell Carcinoma: A type of cancer that originates in the cells of the kidney.
9. Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS): A condition where the immune system attacks the platelets and red blood cells, leading to anemia, low platelet count, and damage to the kidneys.

Symptoms of Kidney Diseases:

1. Blood in urine or hematuria
2. Proteinuria (excess protein in urine)
3. Reduced kidney function or renal insufficiency
4. Swelling in the legs, ankles, and feet (edema)
5. Fatigue and weakness
6. Nausea and vomiting
7. Abdominal pain
8. Frequent urination or polyuria
9. Increased thirst and drinking (polydipsia)
10. Weight loss

Diagnosis of Kidney Diseases:

1. Physical examination
2. Medical history
3. Urinalysis (test of urine)
4. Blood tests (e.g., creatinine, urea, electrolytes)
5. Imaging studies (e.g., X-rays, CT scans, ultrasound)
6. Kidney biopsy
7. Other specialized tests (e.g., 24-hour urinary protein collection, kidney function tests)

Treatment of Kidney Diseases:

1. Medications (e.g., diuretics, blood pressure medication, antibiotics)
2. Diet and lifestyle changes (e.g., low salt intake, increased water intake, physical activity)
3. Dialysis (filtering waste products from the blood when the kidneys are not functioning properly)
4. Kidney transplantation ( replacing a diseased kidney with a healthy one)
5. Other specialized treatments (e.g., plasmapheresis, hemodialysis)

Prevention of Kidney Diseases:

1. Maintaining a healthy diet and lifestyle
2. Monitoring blood pressure and blood sugar levels
3. Avoiding harmful substances (e.g., tobacco, excessive alcohol consumption)
4. Managing underlying medical conditions (e.g., diabetes, high blood pressure)
5. Getting regular check-ups and screenings

Early detection and treatment of kidney diseases can help prevent or slow the progression of the disease, reducing the risk of complications and improving quality of life. It is important to be aware of the signs and symptoms of kidney diseases and seek medical attention if they are present.

The definition of AKI has evolved over time, and it is now defined as a syndrome characterized by an abrupt or rapid decrease in kidney function, with or without oliguria (decreased urine production), and with evidence of tubular injury. The RIFLE (Risk, Injury, Failure, Loss, and End-stage kidney disease) criteria are commonly used to diagnose and stage AKI based on serum creatinine levels, urine output, and other markers of kidney damage.

There are three stages of AKI, with stage 1 representing mild injury and stage 3 representing severe and potentially life-threatening injury. Treatment of AKI typically involves addressing the underlying cause, correcting fluid and electrolyte imbalances, and providing supportive care to maintain blood pressure and oxygenation. In some cases, dialysis may be necessary to remove waste products from the blood.

Early detection and treatment of AKI are crucial to prevent long-term damage to the kidneys and improve outcomes for patients.

A condition in which the kidneys gradually lose their function over time, leading to the accumulation of waste products in the body. Also known as chronic kidney disease (CKD).

Prevalence:

Chronic kidney failure affects approximately 20 million people worldwide and is a major public health concern. In the United States, it is estimated that 1 in 5 adults has CKD, with African Americans being disproportionately affected.

Causes:

The causes of chronic kidney failure are numerous and include:

1. Diabetes: High blood sugar levels can damage the kidneys over time.
2. Hypertension: Uncontrolled high blood pressure can cause damage to the blood vessels in the kidneys.
3. Glomerulonephritis: An inflammation of the glomeruli, the tiny blood vessels in the kidneys that filter waste and excess fluids from the blood.
4. Interstitial nephritis: Inflammation of the tissue between the kidney tubules.
5. Pyelonephritis: Infection of the kidneys, usually caused by bacteria or viruses.
6. Polycystic kidney disease: A genetic disorder that causes cysts to grow on the kidneys.
7. Obesity: Excess weight can increase blood pressure and strain on the kidneys.
8. Family history: A family history of kidney disease increases the risk of developing chronic kidney failure.

Symptoms:

Early stages of chronic kidney failure may not cause any symptoms, but as the disease progresses, symptoms can include:

1. Fatigue: Feeling tired or weak.
2. Swelling: In the legs, ankles, and feet.
3. Nausea and vomiting: Due to the buildup of waste products in the body.
4. Poor appetite: Loss of interest in food.
5. Difficulty concentrating: Cognitive impairment due to the buildup of waste products in the brain.
6. Shortness of breath: Due to fluid buildup in the lungs.
7. Pain: In the back, flank, or abdomen.
8. Urination changes: Decreased urine production, dark-colored urine, or blood in the urine.
9. Heart problems: Chronic kidney failure can increase the risk of heart disease and heart attack.

Diagnosis:

Chronic kidney failure is typically diagnosed based on a combination of physical examination findings, medical history, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Laboratory tests may include:

1. Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine: Waste products in the blood that increase with decreased kidney function.
2. Electrolyte levels: Imbalances in electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, and phosphorus can indicate kidney dysfunction.
3. Kidney function tests: Measurement of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) to determine the level of kidney function.
4. Urinalysis: Examination of urine for protein, blood, or white blood cells.

Imaging studies may include:

1. Ultrasound: To assess the size and shape of the kidneys, detect any blockages, and identify any other abnormalities.
2. Computed tomography (CT) scan: To provide detailed images of the kidneys and detect any obstructions or abscesses.
3. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): To evaluate the kidneys and detect any damage or scarring.

Treatment:

Treatment for chronic kidney failure depends on the underlying cause and the severity of the disease. The goals of treatment are to slow progression of the disease, manage symptoms, and improve quality of life. Treatment may include:

1. Medications: To control high blood pressure, lower cholesterol levels, reduce proteinuria, and manage anemia.
2. Diet: A healthy diet that limits protein intake, controls salt and water intake, and emphasizes low-fat dairy products, fruits, and vegetables.
3. Fluid management: Monitoring and control of fluid intake to prevent fluid buildup in the body.
4. Dialysis: A machine that filters waste products from the blood when the kidneys are no longer able to do so.
5. Transplantation: A kidney transplant may be considered for some patients with advanced chronic kidney failure.

Complications:

Chronic kidney failure can lead to several complications, including:

1. Heart disease: High blood pressure and anemia can increase the risk of heart disease.
2. Anemia: A decrease in red blood cells can cause fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath.
3. Bone disease: A disorder that can lead to bone pain, weakness, and an increased risk of fractures.
4. Electrolyte imbalance: Imbalances of electrolytes such as potassium, phosphorus, and sodium can cause muscle weakness, heart arrhythmias, and other complications.
5. Infections: A decrease in immune function can increase the risk of infections.
6. Nutritional deficiencies: Poor appetite, nausea, and vomiting can lead to malnutrition and nutrient deficiencies.
7. Cardiovascular disease: High blood pressure, anemia, and other complications can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease.
8. Pain: Chronic kidney failure can cause pain, particularly in the back, flank, and abdomen.
9. Sleep disorders: Insomnia, sleep apnea, and restless leg syndrome are common complications.
10. Depression and anxiety: The emotional burden of chronic kidney failure can lead to depression and anxiety.

There are two main types of PKD: autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) and autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD). ADPKD is the most common form of PKD and accounts for about 90% of all cases. It is caused by mutations in the PKD1 or PKD2 genes, which are inherited from one's parents. ARPKD is less common and is caused by mutations in the PKHD1 gene.

The symptoms of PKD can vary depending on the severity of the disease and the age of onset. Common symptoms include high blood pressure, back pain, kidney stones, urinary tract infections, and frequent urination. As the cysts grow, they can also cause complications such as kidney damage, anemia, and electrolyte imbalances.

PKD is typically diagnosed through a combination of imaging tests such as ultrasound, CT scans, and MRI, as well as genetic testing to identify the presence of the disease-causing mutations. There is no cure for PKD, but treatment options are available to manage the symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. These may include medications to control high blood pressure, pain management, and dialysis in advanced cases.

In conclusion, polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is a genetic disorder that affects the kidneys and can lead to chronic kidney disease and eventually kidney failure. It is important to be aware of the symptoms and risk factors for PKD, as well as to seek medical attention if they are present, in order to receive proper diagnosis and treatment.

Symptoms of Kidney Neoplasms can include blood in the urine, pain in the flank or abdomen, weight loss, fever, and fatigue. Diagnosis is made through a combination of physical examination, imaging studies such as CT scans or ultrasound, and tissue biopsy. Treatment options vary depending on the type and stage of the neoplasm, but may include surgery, ablation therapy, targeted therapy, or chemotherapy.

It is important for individuals with a history of Kidney Neoplasms to follow up with their healthcare provider regularly for monitoring and check-ups to ensure early detection of any recurrences or new tumors.

There are several types of kidney calculi, including:

1. Calcium oxalate calculi: These are the most common type of calculus and are often associated with conditions such as hyperparathyroidism or excessive intake of calcium supplements.
2. Uric acid calculi: These are more common in people with gout or a diet high in meat and sugar.
3. Cystine calculi: These are rare and usually associated with a genetic disorder called cystinuria.
4. Struvite calculi: These are often seen in women with urinary tract infections (UTIs).

Symptoms of kidney calculi may include:

1. Flank pain (pain in the side or back)
2. Pain while urinating
3. Blood in the urine
4. Cloudy or strong-smelling urine
5. Fever and chills
6. Nausea and vomiting

Kidney calculi are diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as X-rays, CT scans, or ultrasound. Treatment options for kidney calculi depend on the size and location of the calculus, as well as the severity of any underlying conditions. Small calculi may be treated with conservative measures such as fluid intake and medication to help flush out the crystals, while larger calculi may require surgical intervention to remove them.

Preventive measures for kidney calculi include staying hydrated to help flush out excess minerals in the urine, maintaining a balanced diet low in oxalate and animal protein, and avoiding certain medications that can increase the risk of calculus formation. Early detection and treatment of underlying conditions such as hyperparathyroidism or gout can also help prevent the development of kidney calculi.

Overall, kidney calculi are a common condition that can be managed with proper diagnosis and treatment. However, they can cause significant discomfort and potentially lead to complications if left untreated, so it is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

There are several types of kidney diseases that are classified as cystic, including:

1. Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD): This is the most common form of cystic kidney disease and is caused by a genetic mutation. It is characterized by the growth of numerous cysts in both kidneys, which can lead to kidney damage and failure.
2. Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD): This is a rare form of cystic kidney disease that is also caused by a genetic mutation. It is characterized by the growth of numerous cysts in both kidneys, as well as other organs such as the liver and pancreas.
3. Cystinosis: This is a rare genetic disorder that causes the accumulation of cystine crystals in the kidneys and other organs. It can lead to the formation of cysts and damage to the kidneys.
4. Medullary cystic kidney disease (MCKD): This is a rare genetic disorder that affects the medulla, the innermost layer of the kidney. It is characterized by the growth of cysts in the medulla, which can lead to kidney damage and failure.
5. Other rare forms of cystic kidney disease: There are several other rare forms of cystic kidney disease that can be caused by genetic mutations or other factors. These include hereditary cystic papillary necrosis, familial juvenile nephropathy, and others.

The symptoms of kidney diseases, cystic can vary depending on the specific type of disease and the severity of the condition. Common symptoms include:

* High blood pressure
* Proteinuria (excess protein in the urine)
* Hematuria (blood in the urine)
* Decreased kidney function
* Abdominal pain
* Weight loss
* Fatigue
* Swelling in the legs and ankles

If you suspect that you or your child may have a cystic kidney disease, it is important to seek medical attention as soon as possible. A healthcare provider can perform a physical examination, take a medical history, and order diagnostic tests such as urinalysis, blood tests, and imaging studies (such as ultrasound or CT scans) to determine the cause of the symptoms.

Treatment for cystic kidney disease will depend on the specific type of disease and the severity of the condition. Treatment options may include:

* Medications to control high blood pressure and proteinuria
* Medications to slow the progression of kidney damage
* Dialysis or kidney transplantation in advanced cases
* Cyst aspiration or surgical removal of cysts in some cases

It is important to note that there is no cure for cystic kidney disease, and the best treatment approach is to slow the progression of the disease and manage its symptoms. Early detection and aggressive management can help improve quality of life and delay the need for dialysis or transplantation.

In addition to medical treatment, there are some lifestyle modifications that may be helpful in managing cystic kidney disease. These include:

* Maintaining a healthy diet with low salt and protein intake
* Staying hydrated by drinking plenty of water
* Engaging in regular physical activity
* Avoiding harmful substances such as tobacco and alcohol
* Monitoring blood pressure and weight regularly

It is important to note that cystic kidney disease can be a serious condition, and it is important to work closely with a healthcare provider to manage the disease and slow its progression. With appropriate treatment and lifestyle modifications, many people with cystic kidney disease are able to lead active and fulfilling lives.

In this answer, we will explore the definition of 'Kidney Tubular Necrosis, Acute' in more detail, including its causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment options.

What is Kidney Tubular Necrosis, Acute?
------------------------------------------

Kidney Tubular Necrosis, Acute (ATN) is a condition that affects the tubules of the kidneys, leading to inflammation and damage. The condition is often caused by various factors such as sepsis, shock, toxins, or medications.

The term "acute" refers to the sudden and severe nature of the condition, which can progress rapidly within hours or days. The condition can be life-threatening if left untreated, and it is important to seek medical attention immediately if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

Causes of Kidney Tubular Necrosis, Acute
--------------------------------------

There are various factors that can cause Kidney Tubular Necrosis, Acute, including:

### 1. Sepsis

Sepsis is a systemic inflammatory response to an infection, which can lead to damage to the tubules of the kidneys.

### 2. Shock

Shock can cause a decrease in blood flow to the kidneys, leading to damage and inflammation.

### 3. Toxins

Exposure to certain toxins, such as heavy metals or certain medications, can damage the tubules of the kidneys.

### 4. Medications

Certain medications, such as antibiotics and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), can cause damage to the tubules of the kidneys.

### 5. Infection

Infections such as pyelonephritis or perinephric abscess can spread to the kidneys and cause inflammation and damage to the tubules.

### 6. Radiation necrosis

Radiation therapy can cause damage to the kidneys, leading to inflammation and scarring.

### 7. Kidney transplant rejection

Rejection of a kidney transplant can lead to inflammation and damage to the tubules of the transplanted kidney.

Symptoms of Kidney Tubular Necrosis, Acute
------------------------------------------

The symptoms of acute tubular necrosis can vary depending on the severity of the condition and the underlying cause. Some common symptoms include:

### 1. Fatigue

Fatigue is a common symptom of acute tubular necrosis, as the condition can lead to a decrease in the kidneys' ability to filter waste products from the blood.

### 2. Nausea and vomiting

Nausea and vomiting can occur due to electrolyte imbalances and changes in fluid levels in the body.

### 3. Decreased urine output

Acute tubular necrosis can cause a decrease in urine production, as the damaged tubules are unable to filter waste products from the blood effectively.

### 4. Swelling (edema)

Swelling in the legs, ankles, and feet can occur due to fluid buildup in the body.

### 5. Abdominal pain

Abdominal pain can be a symptom of acute tubular necrosis, as the condition can cause inflammation and scarring in the kidneys.

### 6. Fever

Fever can occur due to infection or inflammation in the kidneys.

### 7. Blood in urine (hematuria)

Hematuria, or blood in the urine, can be a symptom of acute tubular necrosis, as the damaged tubules can leak blood into the urine.

## Causes and risk factors

The exact cause of acute tubular necrosis is not fully understood, but it is believed to be due to damage to the kidney tubules, which can occur for a variety of reasons. Some possible causes and risk factors include:

1. Sepsis: Bacterial infections can spread to the kidneys and cause inflammation and damage to the tubules.
2. Toxins: Exposure to certain toxins, such as heavy metals or certain medications, can damage the kidney tubules.
3. Medications: Certain medications, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and antibiotics, can cause kidney damage and increase the risk of acute tubular necrosis.
4. Hypotension: Low blood pressure can reduce blood flow to the kidneys and increase the risk of acute tubular necrosis.
5. Shock: Severe shock can lead to damage to the kidney tubules.
6. Burns: Severe burns can cause damage to the kidneys and increase the risk of acute tubular necrosis.
7. Trauma: Traumatic injuries, such as those caused by car accidents or falls, can damage the kidneys and increase the risk of acute tubular necrosis.
8. Surgery: Major surgery can cause damage to the kidneys and increase the risk of acute tubular necrosis.
9. Kidney disease: People with pre-existing kidney disease are at increased risk of developing acute tubular necrosis.
10. Chronic conditions: Certain chronic conditions, such as diabetes and high blood pressure, can increase the risk of developing acute tubular necrosis.

It is important to note that acute tubular necrosis can occur in people with no underlying medical conditions or risk factors, and it is often a diagnosis of exclusion, meaning that other potential causes of the person's symptoms must be ruled out before the diagnosis can be made.

Proteinuria is usually diagnosed by a urine protein-to-creatinine ratio (P/C ratio) or a 24-hour urine protein collection. The amount and duration of proteinuria can help distinguish between different underlying causes and predict prognosis.

Proteinuria can have significant clinical implications, as it is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease, kidney damage, and malnutrition. Treatment of the underlying cause can help reduce or eliminate proteinuria.

MCDK is thought to be caused by genetic mutations that disrupt the normal development of the kidneys during fetal development. The exact cause of the condition is not well understood, but it is believed to be more common in children with a family history of the disorder or other congenital anomalies.

Symptoms of MCDK may include:

* Abnormal urinary tract anatomy
* Kidney damage or failure
* High blood pressure
* Proteinuria (excess protein in the urine)
* Hematuria (blood in the urine)

If you suspect that your child may have MCDK, it is important to consult a healthcare provider as soon as possible. A diagnosis of MCDK can be made through ultrasound examination, kidney biopsy, or other imaging tests.

There is no cure for MCDK, but treatment options are available to manage the symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. These may include:

* Regular monitoring of blood pressure and urine output
* Medications to control high blood pressure and proteinuria
* Dietary modifications to reduce protein intake and increase fluid intake
* Surgery to repair or remove damaged kidney tissue

The prognosis for children with MCDK varies depending on the severity of the condition and the presence of any other underlying health issues. In some cases, MCDK may progress to end-stage renal disease (ESRD), which requires dialysis or a kidney transplant. However, with early detection and appropriate management, many children with MCDK can lead normal, healthy lives.

Note: Autosomal recessive inheritance means that a person must inherit two copies of the mutated gene, one from each parent, to develop the condition. If a person inherits only one copy of the mutated gene, they will be a carrier but are unlikely to develop symptoms themselves.

Treatment for ureteral obstruction depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, endoscopic procedures, or surgery. In some cases, a temporary drainage catheter may be placed in the ureter to help relieve symptoms until the blockage can be fully treated.

Ureteral obstruction can be acute or chronic, and may occur in adults or children. It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time, as untreated ureteral obstruction can lead to complications such as kidney damage or sepsis.

Causes of Ureteral Obstruction:

Ureteral obstruction can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

1. Kidney stones: Small, hard mineral deposits that form in the urine and can block the flow of urine through the ureters.
2. Tumors: Cancerous or non-cancerous growths that can block the ureters.
3. Scar tissue: Scarring from previous surgeries or injuries can cause narrowing or blockages in the ureters.
4. Prostate enlargement: In men, an enlarged prostate gland can press on the urethra and ureters, causing blockages.
5. Bladder neck obstruction: A condition where the bladder neck is narrow or blocked, preventing urine from flowing through the urethra.
6. Trauma: Injuries to the ureters or bladder can cause blockages.
7. Inflammation: Inflammation in the ureters or kidneys can cause swelling and blockages.
8. Congenital conditions: Some people may be born with abnormalities that cause blockages in the urinary tract.
9. Neurological disorders: Conditions such as multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, or spinal cord injuries can affect the nerves that control the bladder and ureters, leading to blockages.
10. Medications: Certain medications, such as certain antibiotics and chemotherapy drugs, can cause damage to the ureters and lead to blockages.

There are several types of diabetic nephropathy, including:

1. Mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis: This is the most common type of diabetic nephropathy and is characterized by an overgrowth of cells in the mesangium, a part of the glomerulus (the blood-filtering unit of the kidney).
2. Segmental sclerosis: This type of diabetic nephropathy involves the hardening of some parts of the glomeruli, leading to decreased kidney function.
3. Fibrotic glomerulopathy: This is a rare form of diabetic nephropathy that is characterized by the accumulation of fibrotic tissue in the glomeruli.
4. Membranous nephropathy: This type of diabetic nephropathy involves the deposition of immune complexes (antigen-antibody complexes) in the glomeruli, leading to inflammation and damage to the kidneys.
5. Minimal change disease: This is a rare form of diabetic nephropathy that is characterized by minimal changes in the glomeruli, but with significant loss of kidney function.

The symptoms of diabetic nephropathy can be non-specific and may include proteinuria (excess protein in the urine), hematuria (blood in the urine), and decreased kidney function. Diagnosis is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, laboratory tests, and imaging studies such as ultrasound or CT scans.

Treatment for diabetic nephropathy typically involves managing blood sugar levels through lifestyle changes (such as diet and exercise) and medication, as well as controlling high blood pressure and other underlying conditions. In severe cases, dialysis or kidney transplantation may be necessary. Early detection and management of diabetic nephropathy can help slow the progression of the disease and improve outcomes for patients with this condition.

There are two main types of Renal Insufficiency:

1. Acute Kidney Injury (AKI): This is a sudden and reversible decrease in kidney function, often caused by injury, sepsis, or medication toxicity. AKI can resolve with appropriate treatment and supportive care.
2. Chronic Renal Insufficiency (CRI): This is a long-standing and irreversible decline in kidney function, often caused by diabetes, high blood pressure, or chronic kidney disease. CRI can lead to ESRD if left untreated.

Signs and symptoms of Renal Insufficiency may include:

* Decreased urine output
* Swelling in the legs and ankles (edema)
* Fatigue
* Nausea and vomiting
* Shortness of breath (dyspnea)
* Pain in the back, flank, or abdomen

Diagnosis of Renal Insufficiency is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Laboratory tests may include urinalysis, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine levels, and a 24-hour urine protein collection. Imaging studies, such as ultrasound or CT scans, may be used to evaluate the kidneys and rule out other possible causes of the patient's symptoms.

Treatment of Renal Insufficiency depends on the underlying cause and the severity of the condition. Treatment may include medications to control blood pressure, manage fluid balance, and reduce proteinuria (excess protein in the urine). In some cases, dialysis or a kidney transplant may be necessary.

Prevention of Renal Insufficiency includes managing underlying conditions such as diabetes and hypertension, avoiding nephrotoxic medications and substances, and maintaining a healthy diet and lifestyle. Early detection and treatment of acute kidney injury can also help prevent the development of chronic renal insufficiency.

In conclusion, Renal Insufficiency is a common condition that can have significant consequences if left untreated. It is important for healthcare providers to be aware of the causes, symptoms, and diagnosis of Renal Insufficiency, as well as the treatment and prevention strategies available. With appropriate management, many patients with Renal Insufficiency can recover and maintain their kidney function over time.

1) They share similarities with humans: Many animal species share similar biological and physiological characteristics with humans, making them useful for studying human diseases. For example, mice and rats are often used to study diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer because they have similar metabolic and cardiovascular systems to humans.

2) They can be genetically manipulated: Animal disease models can be genetically engineered to develop specific diseases or to model human genetic disorders. This allows researchers to study the progression of the disease and test potential treatments in a controlled environment.

3) They can be used to test drugs and therapies: Before new drugs or therapies are tested in humans, they are often first tested in animal models of disease. This allows researchers to assess the safety and efficacy of the treatment before moving on to human clinical trials.

4) They can provide insights into disease mechanisms: Studying disease models in animals can provide valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of a particular disease. This information can then be used to develop new treatments or improve existing ones.

5) Reduces the need for human testing: Using animal disease models reduces the need for human testing, which can be time-consuming, expensive, and ethically challenging. However, it is important to note that animal models are not perfect substitutes for human subjects, and results obtained from animal studies may not always translate to humans.

6) They can be used to study infectious diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study infectious diseases such as HIV, TB, and malaria. These models allow researchers to understand how the disease is transmitted, how it progresses, and how it responds to treatment.

7) They can be used to study complex diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study complex diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. These models allow researchers to understand the underlying mechanisms of the disease and test potential treatments.

8) They are cost-effective: Animal disease models are often less expensive than human clinical trials, making them a cost-effective way to conduct research.

9) They can be used to study drug delivery: Animal disease models can be used to study drug delivery and pharmacokinetics, which is important for developing new drugs and drug delivery systems.

10) They can be used to study aging: Animal disease models can be used to study the aging process and age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. This allows researchers to understand how aging contributes to disease and develop potential treatments.

The burden of chronic diseases is significant, with over 70% of deaths worldwide attributed to them, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). In addition to the physical and emotional toll they take on individuals and their families, chronic diseases also pose a significant economic burden, accounting for a large proportion of healthcare expenditure.

In this article, we will explore the definition and impact of chronic diseases, as well as strategies for managing and living with them. We will also discuss the importance of early detection and prevention, as well as the role of healthcare providers in addressing the needs of individuals with chronic diseases.

What is a Chronic Disease?

A chronic disease is a condition that lasts for an extended period of time, often affecting daily life and activities. Unlike acute diseases, which have a specific beginning and end, chronic diseases are long-term and persistent. Examples of chronic diseases include:

1. Diabetes
2. Heart disease
3. Arthritis
4. Asthma
5. Cancer
6. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
7. Chronic kidney disease (CKD)
8. Hypertension
9. Osteoporosis
10. Stroke

Impact of Chronic Diseases

The burden of chronic diseases is significant, with over 70% of deaths worldwide attributed to them, according to the WHO. In addition to the physical and emotional toll they take on individuals and their families, chronic diseases also pose a significant economic burden, accounting for a large proportion of healthcare expenditure.

Chronic diseases can also have a significant impact on an individual's quality of life, limiting their ability to participate in activities they enjoy and affecting their relationships with family and friends. Moreover, the financial burden of chronic diseases can lead to poverty and reduce economic productivity, thus having a broader societal impact.

Addressing Chronic Diseases

Given the significant burden of chronic diseases, it is essential that we address them effectively. This requires a multi-faceted approach that includes:

1. Lifestyle modifications: Encouraging healthy behaviors such as regular physical activity, a balanced diet, and smoking cessation can help prevent and manage chronic diseases.
2. Early detection and diagnosis: Identifying risk factors and detecting diseases early can help prevent or delay their progression.
3. Medication management: Effective medication management is crucial for controlling symptoms and slowing disease progression.
4. Multi-disciplinary care: Collaboration between healthcare providers, patients, and families is essential for managing chronic diseases.
5. Health promotion and disease prevention: Educating individuals about the risks of chronic diseases and promoting healthy behaviors can help prevent their onset.
6. Addressing social determinants of health: Social determinants such as poverty, education, and employment can have a significant impact on health outcomes. Addressing these factors is essential for reducing health disparities and improving overall health.
7. Investing in healthcare infrastructure: Investing in healthcare infrastructure, technology, and research is necessary to improve disease detection, diagnosis, and treatment.
8. Encouraging policy change: Policy changes can help create supportive environments for healthy behaviors and reduce the burden of chronic diseases.
9. Increasing public awareness: Raising public awareness about the risks and consequences of chronic diseases can help individuals make informed decisions about their health.
10. Providing support for caregivers: Chronic diseases can have a significant impact on family members and caregivers, so providing them with support is essential for improving overall health outcomes.

Conclusion

Chronic diseases are a major public health burden that affect millions of people worldwide. Addressing these diseases requires a multi-faceted approach that includes lifestyle changes, addressing social determinants of health, investing in healthcare infrastructure, encouraging policy change, increasing public awareness, and providing support for caregivers. By taking a comprehensive approach to chronic disease prevention and management, we can improve the health and well-being of individuals and communities worldwide.

Symptoms of hydronephrosis may include flank pain, nausea, vomiting, fever, and blood in the urine. If left untreated, hydronephrosis can lead to kidney damage and even failure. Treatment for hydronephrosis typically involves relieving the obstruction and addressing any underlying causes. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to repair damaged tissue or remove blockages.

Hydronephrosis is a serious medical condition that requires prompt medical attention to prevent complications and preserve kidney function. It is important to seek medical care if symptoms of hydronephrosis are present, as early diagnosis and treatment can improve outcomes.

Reperfusion injury can cause inflammation, cell death, and impaired function in the affected tissue or organ. The severity of reperfusion injury can vary depending on the duration and severity of the initial ischemic event, as well as the promptness and effectiveness of treatment to restore blood flow.

Reperfusion injury can be a complicating factor in various medical conditions, including:

1. Myocardial infarction (heart attack): Reperfusion injury can occur when blood flow is restored to the heart muscle after a heart attack, leading to inflammation and cell death.
2. Stroke: Reperfusion injury can occur when blood flow is restored to the brain after an ischemic stroke, leading to inflammation and damage to brain tissue.
3. Organ transplantation: Reperfusion injury can occur when a transplanted organ is subjected to ischemia during harvesting or preservation, and then reperfused with blood.
4. Peripheral arterial disease: Reperfusion injury can occur when blood flow is restored to a previously occluded peripheral artery, leading to inflammation and damage to the affected tissue.

Treatment of reperfusion injury often involves medications to reduce inflammation and oxidative stress, as well as supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent further complications. In some cases, experimental therapies such as stem cell transplantation or gene therapy may be used to promote tissue repair and regeneration.

Nephritis is often diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as urinalysis and blood tests. Treatment for nephritis depends on the underlying cause, but may include antibiotics, corticosteroids, and immunosuppressive medications. In severe cases, dialysis may be necessary to remove waste products from the blood.

Some common types of nephritis include:

1. Acute pyelonephritis: This is a type of bacterial infection that affects the kidneys and can cause sudden and severe symptoms.
2. Chronic pyelonephritis: This is a type of inflammation that occurs over a longer period of time, often as a result of recurrent infections or other underlying conditions.
3. Lupus nephritis: This is a type of inflammation that occurs in people with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), an autoimmune disorder that can affect multiple organs.
4. IgA nephropathy: This is a type of inflammation that occurs when an antibody called immunoglobulin A (IgA) deposits in the kidneys and causes damage.
5. Mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis: This is a type of inflammation that affects the mesangium, a layer of tissue in the kidney that helps to filter waste products from the blood.
6. Minimal change disease: This is a type of nephrotic syndrome (a group of symptoms that include proteinuria, or excess protein in the urine) that is caused by inflammation and changes in the glomeruli, the tiny blood vessels in the kidneys that filter waste products from the blood.
7. Membranous nephropathy: This is a type of inflammation that occurs when there is an abnormal buildup of antibodies called immunoglobulin G (IgG) in the glomeruli, leading to damage to the kidneys.
8. Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis: This is a type of inflammation that affects one or more segments of the glomeruli, leading to scarring and loss of function.
9. Post-infectious glomerulonephritis: This is a type of inflammation that occurs after an infection, such as streptococcal infections, and can cause damage to the kidneys.
10. Acute tubular necrosis (ATN): This is a type of inflammation that occurs when there is a sudden loss of blood flow to the kidneys, causing damage to the tubules, which are tiny tubes in the kidneys that help to filter waste products from the blood.

Albuminuria is often associated with conditions such as diabetes, high blood pressure, and kidney disease, as these conditions can damage the kidneys and cause albumin to leak into the urine. It is also a common finding in people with chronic kidney disease (CKD), as the damaged kidneys are unable to filter out the excess protein.

If left untreated, albuminuria can lead to complications such as kidney failure, cardiovascular disease, and an increased risk of death. Treatment options for albuminuria include medications to lower blood pressure and control blood sugar levels, as well as dietary changes and lifestyle modifications. In severe cases, dialysis or kidney transplantation may be necessary.

In summary, albuminuria is the presence of albumin in the urine, which can be an indicator of kidney damage or disease. It is often associated with conditions such as diabetes and high blood pressure, and can lead to complications if left untreated.

In medicine, cadavers are used for a variety of purposes, such as:

1. Anatomy education: Medical students and residents learn about the human body by studying and dissecting cadavers. This helps them develop a deeper understanding of human anatomy and improves their surgical skills.
2. Research: Cadavers are used in scientific research to study the effects of diseases, injuries, and treatments on the human body. This helps scientists develop new medical techniques and therapies.
3. Forensic analysis: Cadavers can be used to aid in the investigation of crimes and accidents. By examining the body and its injuries, forensic experts can determine cause of death, identify suspects, and reconstruct events.
4. Organ donation: After death, cadavers can be used to harvest organs and tissues for transplantation into living patients. This can improve the quality of life for those with organ failure or other medical conditions.
5. Medical training simulations: Cadavers can be used to simulate real-life medical scenarios, allowing healthcare professionals to practice their skills in a controlled environment.

In summary, the term "cadaver" refers to the body of a deceased person and is used in the medical field for various purposes, including anatomy education, research, forensic analysis, organ donation, and medical training simulations.

Kidney cortex necrosis is a condition where there is death of the cells in the outer layer of the kidney, known as the renal cortex. This can occur due to various reasons such as injury, infection, or inflammation. The symptoms of kidney cortex necrosis may include fever, pain in the flank or abdomen, nausea, vomiting, and blood in the urine.

Diagnosis is typically made through a combination of imaging studies such as CT scans or ultrasound, and laboratory tests to evaluate kidney function. Treatment may involve supportive care to manage symptoms and address any underlying causes, as well as medications to help protect the remaining healthy kidney tissue. In severe cases, dialysis or a kidney transplant may be necessary.

Kidney cortex necrosis can be acute or chronic, and the prognosis depends on the underlying cause and the extent of the damage. Prompt medical attention is essential to prevent further damage and improve outcomes.

DGF can occur in various types of transplantations, including kidney, liver, heart, and lung transplants. The symptoms of DGF may include decreased urine production, decreased respiratory function, and abnormal liver enzymes. Treatment for DGF typically involves supportive care such as fluid and electrolyte replacement, management of infections, and immunosuppressive medications to prevent rejection. In some cases, additional surgical interventions may be necessary.

The diagnosis of DGF is based on clinical evaluation and laboratory tests such as blood chemistry, urinalysis, and biopsy findings. The prognosis for DGF varies depending on the underlying cause and the severity of the condition. In general, prompt recognition and treatment of DGF can improve outcomes and reduce the risk of complications.

In summary, delayed graft function is a common complication in transplantation that can result from various factors. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are essential to prevent long-term damage and improve outcomes for the transplanted organ or tissue.

A type of inflammatory kidney disease that affects the interstitial tissue surrounding the tubules of the kidney. It is characterized by inflammation and fibrosis (scarring) of the interstitium, leading to impaired kidney function. The exact cause of interstitial nephritis is not always known, but it can be triggered by a variety of factors, including infections, allergic reactions, and certain medications. Symptoms may include fever, joint pain, and loss of appetite, and the condition can progress to end-stage renal disease if left untreated. Treatment typically involves medication to reduce inflammation and manage symptoms, as well as supportive care to help the kidneys function properly.

The symptoms of glomerulonephritis can vary depending on the underlying cause of the disease, but may include:

* Blood in the urine (hematuria)
* Proteinuria (excess protein in the urine)
* Reduced kidney function
* Swelling in the legs and ankles (edema)
* High blood pressure

Glomerulonephritis can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

* Infections such as staphylococcal or streptococcal infections
* Autoimmune disorders such as lupus or rheumatoid arthritis
* Allergic reactions to certain medications
* Genetic defects
* Certain diseases such as diabetes, high blood pressure, and sickle cell anemia

The diagnosis of glomerulonephritis typically involves a physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as urinalysis, blood tests, and kidney biopsy.

Treatment for glomerulonephritis depends on the underlying cause of the disease and may include:

* Antibiotics to treat infections
* Medications to reduce inflammation and swelling
* Diuretics to reduce fluid buildup in the body
* Immunosuppressive medications to suppress the immune system in cases of autoimmune disorders
* Dialysis in severe cases

The prognosis for glomerulonephritis depends on the underlying cause of the disease and the severity of the inflammation. In some cases, the disease may progress to end-stage renal disease, which requires dialysis or a kidney transplant. With proper treatment, however, many people with glomerulonephritis can experience a good outcome and maintain their kidney function over time.

A type of hypertension that is caused by a problem with the kidneys. It can be acute or chronic and may be associated with other conditions such as glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis, or polycystic kidney disease. Symptoms include proteinuria, hematuria, and elevated blood pressure. Treatment options include diuretics, ACE inhibitors, and angiotensin II receptor blockers.

Note: Renal hypertension is also known as renal artery hypertension.

There are two types of hypertension:

1. Primary Hypertension: This type of hypertension has no identifiable cause and is also known as essential hypertension. It accounts for about 90% of all cases of hypertension.
2. Secondary Hypertension: This type of hypertension is caused by an underlying medical condition or medication. It accounts for about 10% of all cases of hypertension.

Some common causes of secondary hypertension include:

* Kidney disease
* Adrenal gland disorders
* Hormonal imbalances
* Certain medications
* Sleep apnea
* Cocaine use

There are also several risk factors for hypertension, including:

* Age (the risk increases with age)
* Family history of hypertension
* Obesity
* Lack of exercise
* High sodium intake
* Low potassium intake
* Stress

Hypertension is often asymptomatic, and it can cause damage to the blood vessels and organs over time. Some potential complications of hypertension include:

* Heart disease (e.g., heart attacks, heart failure)
* Stroke
* Kidney disease (e.g., chronic kidney disease, end-stage renal disease)
* Vision loss (e.g., retinopathy)
* Peripheral artery disease

Hypertension is typically diagnosed through blood pressure readings taken over a period of time. Treatment for hypertension may include lifestyle changes (e.g., diet, exercise, stress management), medications, or a combination of both. The goal of treatment is to reduce the risk of complications and improve quality of life.

The term "segmental" refers to the fact that the scarring or hardening occurs in a specific segment of the glomerulus. Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis can be caused by a variety of factors, including diabetes, high blood pressure, and certain infections or injuries.

Symptoms of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis may include proteinuria (excess protein in the urine), hematuria (blood in the urine), and decreased kidney function. Treatment options vary depending on the underlying cause, but may include medications to control high blood pressure or diabetes, as well as immunosuppressive drugs in cases where the condition is caused by an autoimmune disorder. In severe cases, dialysis or kidney transplantation may be necessary.

Disease progression can be classified into several types based on the pattern of worsening:

1. Chronic progressive disease: In this type, the disease worsens steadily over time, with a gradual increase in symptoms and decline in function. Examples include rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and Parkinson's disease.
2. Acute progressive disease: This type of disease worsens rapidly over a short period, often followed by periods of stability. Examples include sepsis, acute myocardial infarction (heart attack), and stroke.
3. Cyclical disease: In this type, the disease follows a cycle of worsening and improvement, with periodic exacerbations and remissions. Examples include multiple sclerosis, lupus, and rheumatoid arthritis.
4. Recurrent disease: This type is characterized by episodes of worsening followed by periods of recovery. Examples include migraine headaches, asthma, and appendicitis.
5. Catastrophic disease: In this type, the disease progresses rapidly and unpredictably, with a poor prognosis. Examples include cancer, AIDS, and organ failure.

Disease progression can be influenced by various factors, including:

1. Genetics: Some diseases are inherited and may have a predetermined course of progression.
2. Lifestyle: Factors such as smoking, lack of exercise, and poor diet can contribute to disease progression.
3. Environmental factors: Exposure to toxins, allergens, and other environmental stressors can influence disease progression.
4. Medical treatment: The effectiveness of medical treatment can impact disease progression, either by slowing or halting the disease process or by causing unintended side effects.
5. Co-morbidities: The presence of multiple diseases or conditions can interact and affect each other's progression.

Understanding the type and factors influencing disease progression is essential for developing effective treatment plans and improving patient outcomes.

There are several subtypes of RCC, including clear cell, papillary, chromophobe, and collecting duct carcinoma. The most common subtype is clear cell RCC, which accounts for approximately 70-80% of all RCC cases.

RCC can be difficult to diagnose as it may not cause any symptoms in its early stages. However, some common symptoms of RCC include blood in the urine (hematuria), pain in the flank or abdomen, weight loss, and fatigue. RCC is typically diagnosed through a combination of imaging studies such as computed tomography (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET) scans, along with a biopsy to confirm the presence of cancer cells.

Treatment for RCC depends on the stage and location of the cancer. Surgery is the primary treatment for localized RCC, and may involve a partial or complete nephrectomy (removal of the affected kidney). For more advanced cases, treatment may involve a combination of surgery and systemic therapies such as targeted therapy or immunotherapy. Targeted therapy drugs, such as sunitinib and pazopanib, work by blocking specific molecules that promote the growth and spread of cancer cells. Immunotherapy drugs, such as checkpoint inhibitors, work by stimulating the body's immune system to attack cancer cells.

The prognosis for RCC is generally good if the cancer is detected early and treated promptly. However, the cancer can be aggressive and may spread to other parts of the body (metastasize) if left untreated. The 5-year survival rate for RCC is about 73% for patients with localized disease, but it drops to about 12% for those with distant metastases.

There are several risk factors for developing RCC, including:

* Age: RCC is more common in people over the age of 50.
* Gender: Men are slightly more likely to develop RCC than women.
* Family history: People with a family history of RCC or other kidney diseases may be at increased risk.
* Chronic kidney disease: Patients with chronic kidney disease are at higher risk for developing RCC.
* Hypertension: High blood pressure is a common risk factor for RCC.
* Smoking: Smoking may increase the risk of developing RCC.
* Obesity: Being overweight or obese may increase the risk of developing RCC.

There are several complications associated with RCC, including:

* Metastasis: RCC can spread to other parts of the body, such as the lymph nodes, liver, and bones.
* Hematuria: Blood in the urine is a common complication of RCC.
* Pain: RCC can cause pain in the flank or abdomen.
* Fatigue: RCC can cause fatigue and weakness.
* Weight loss: RCC can cause weight loss and loss of appetite.

There are several treatment options for RCC, including:

* Surgery: Surgery is often the first line of treatment for RCC that is localized and has not spread to other parts of the body.
* Ablation: Ablation therapies, such as cryotherapy or radiofrequency ablation, can be used to destroy the tumor.
* Targeted therapy: Targeted therapies, such as sunitinib or pazopanib, can be used to slow the growth of the tumor.
* Immunotherapy: Immunotherapies, such as checkpoint inhibitors, can be used to stimulate the immune system to attack the tumor.
* Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy may be used in combination with other treatments or as a last resort for patients with advanced RCC.

The prognosis for RCC varies depending on the stage and location of the cancer, but in general, the earlier the cancer is detected and treated, the better the outcome. According to the American Cancer Society, the 5-year survival rate for RCC is about 73% for patients with localized disease (cancer that has not spread beyond the kidney) and about 12% for patients with distant disease (cancer that has spread to other parts of the body).

Symptoms of renovascular hypertension may include:

* High blood pressure that is resistant to treatment
* Flank pain or back pain
* Hematuria (blood in the urine)
* Proteinuria (excess protein in the urine)
* Decreased kidney function

Diagnosis of renovascular hypertension typically involves imaging tests such as angiography, CT or MRI angiography, or ultrasound to evaluate the renal arteries and identify any blockages or narrowing. Other tests such as arenography, captopril test, or adrenomedullin testing may also be used to support the diagnosis.

Treatment of renovascular hypertension typically involves medications to lower blood pressure, such as beta blockers, ACE inhibitors, or calcium channel blockers. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to restore blood flow to the kidneys. For example, atherosclerosis can be treated with angioplasty or bypass surgery.

It is important to note that renovascular hypertension is a relatively rare cause of hypertension and only accounts for about 5-10% of all cases of hypertension. However, it is an important differential diagnosis for hypertension that is resistant to treatment or has a sudden onset.

There are several types of ischemia, including:

1. Myocardial ischemia: Reduced blood flow to the heart muscle, which can lead to chest pain or a heart attack.
2. Cerebral ischemia: Reduced blood flow to the brain, which can lead to stroke or cognitive impairment.
3. Peripheral arterial ischemia: Reduced blood flow to the legs and arms.
4. Renal ischemia: Reduced blood flow to the kidneys.
5. Hepatic ischemia: Reduced blood flow to the liver.

Ischemia can be diagnosed through a variety of tests, including electrocardiograms (ECGs), stress tests, and imaging studies such as CT or MRI scans. Treatment for ischemia depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, lifestyle changes, or surgical interventions.

The symptoms of pyelonephritis can vary depending on the severity and location of the infection, but may include:

* Fever
* Chills
* Flank pain (pain in the sides or back)
* Nausea and vomiting
* Frequent urination or difficulty urinating
* Blood in the urine
* Abdominal tenderness
* Loss of appetite

Pyelonephritis can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as urinalysis, blood cultures, and imaging studies (such as CT or ultrasound scans).

Treatment of pyelonephritis typically involves antibiotics to eradicate the underlying bacterial infection, as well as supportive care to manage symptoms such as fever and pain. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and treat the infection.

If left untreated, pyelonephritis can lead to serious complications such as kidney damage, sepsis, and even death. Therefore, prompt recognition and treatment of this condition are crucial to prevent long-term consequences and improve outcomes for affected individuals.

Renal artery obstruction can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

1. Atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries): This is the most common cause of renal artery obstruction and occurs when plaque builds up in the arteries, leading to narrowing or blockages.
2. Stenosis (narrowing of the arteries): This can be caused by inflammation or scarring of the arteries, which can lead to a decrease in blood flow to the kidneys.
3. Fibromuscular dysplasia: This is a rare condition that causes abnormal growth of muscle tissue in the renal arteries, leading to narrowing or blockages.
4. Embolism (blood clot): A blood clot can break loose and travel to the kidneys, causing a blockage in the renal artery.
5. Renal vein thrombosis: This is a blockage of the veins that drain blood from the kidneys, which can lead to decreased blood flow and oxygenation of the kidneys.

Symptoms of renal artery obstruction may include:

1. High blood pressure
2. Decreased kidney function
3. Swelling in the legs or feet
4. Pain in the flank or back
5. Fatigue
6. Nausea and vomiting
7. Weight loss

Diagnosis of renal artery obstruction is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as:

1. Ultrasound: This can help identify any blockages or narrowing in the renal arteries.
2. Computed tomography (CT) scan: This can provide detailed images of the renal arteries and any blockages or narrowing.
3. Magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA): This is a non-invasive test that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the renal arteries.
4. Angiography: This is a minimally invasive test that involves inserting a catheter into the renal artery to visualize any blockages or narrowing.

Treatment for renal artery obstruction depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. Some possible treatment options include:

1. Medications: Drugs such as blood thinners, blood pressure medication, and anticoagulants may be prescribed to manage symptoms and slow the progression of the disease.
2. Endovascular therapy: This is a minimally invasive procedure in which a catheter is inserted into the renal artery to open up any blockages or narrowing.
3. Surgery: In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove any blockages or repair any damage to the renal arteries.
4. Dialysis: This is a procedure in which waste products are removed from the blood when the kidneys are no longer able to do so.
5. Kidney transplantation: In severe cases of renal artery obstruction, a kidney transplant may be necessary.

It is important to note that early detection and treatment of renal artery obstruction can help prevent complications and improve outcomes for patients.

Body weight is an important health indicator, as it can affect an individual's risk for certain medical conditions, such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Maintaining a healthy body weight is essential for overall health and well-being, and there are many ways to do so, including a balanced diet, regular exercise, and other lifestyle changes.

There are several ways to measure body weight, including:

1. Scale: This is the most common method of measuring body weight, and it involves standing on a scale that displays the individual's weight in kg or lb.
2. Body fat calipers: These are used to measure body fat percentage by pinching the skin at specific points on the body.
3. Skinfold measurements: This method involves measuring the thickness of the skin folds at specific points on the body to estimate body fat percentage.
4. Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA): This is a non-invasive method that uses electrical impulses to measure body fat percentage.
5. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA): This is a more accurate method of measuring body composition, including bone density and body fat percentage.

It's important to note that body weight can fluctuate throughout the day due to factors such as water retention, so it's best to measure body weight at the same time each day for the most accurate results. Additionally, it's important to use a reliable scale or measuring tool to ensure accurate measurements.

There are many different types of cysts that can occur in the body, including:

1. Sebaceous cysts: These are small, usually painless cysts that form in the skin, particularly on the face, neck, or torso. They are filled with a thick, cheesy material and can become inflamed or infected.
2. Ovarian cysts: These are fluid-filled sacs that form on the ovaries. They are common in women of childbearing age and can cause pelvic pain, bloating, and other symptoms.
3. Kidney cysts: These are fluid-filled sacs that form in the kidneys. They are usually benign but can cause problems if they become large or infected.
4. Dermoid cysts: These are small, usually painless cysts that form in the skin or organs. They are filled with skin cells, hair follicles, and other tissue and can become inflamed or infected.
5. Pilar cysts: These are small, usually painless cysts that form on the scalp. They are filled with a thick, cheesy material and can become inflamed or infected.
6. Epidermoid cysts: These are small, usually painless cysts that form just under the skin. They are filled with a thick, cheesy material and can become inflamed or infected.
7. Mucous cysts: These are small, usually painless cysts that form on the fingers or toes. They are filled with a clear, sticky fluid and can become inflamed or infected.
8. Baker's cyst: This is a fluid-filled cyst that forms behind the knee. It can cause swelling and pain in the knee and is more common in women than men.
9. Tarlov cysts: These are small, fluid-filled cysts that form in the spine. They can cause back pain and other symptoms, such as sciatica.
10. ganglion cysts: These are noncancerous lumps that form on the joints or tendons. They are filled with a thick, clear fluid and can cause pain, swelling, and limited mobility.

It's important to note that this is not an exhaustive list and there may be other types of cysts that are not included here. If you suspect that you have a cyst, it's always best to consult with a healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and treatment.

Types of Experimental Diabetes Mellitus include:

1. Streptozotocin-induced diabetes: This type of EDM is caused by administration of streptozotocin, a chemical that damages the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, leading to high blood sugar levels.
2. Alloxan-induced diabetes: This type of EDM is caused by administration of alloxan, a chemical that also damages the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas.
3. Pancreatectomy-induced diabetes: In this type of EDM, the pancreas is surgically removed or damaged, leading to loss of insulin production and high blood sugar levels.

Experimental Diabetes Mellitus has several applications in research, including:

1. Testing new drugs and therapies for diabetes treatment: EDM allows researchers to evaluate the effectiveness of new treatments on blood sugar control and other physiological processes.
2. Studying the pathophysiology of diabetes: By inducing EDM in animals, researchers can study the progression of diabetes and its effects on various organs and tissues.
3. Investigating the role of genetics in diabetes: Researchers can use EDM to study the effects of genetic mutations on diabetes development and progression.
4. Evaluating the efficacy of new diagnostic techniques: EDM allows researchers to test new methods for diagnosing diabetes and monitoring blood sugar levels.
5. Investigating the complications of diabetes: By inducing EDM in animals, researchers can study the development of complications such as retinopathy, nephropathy, and cardiovascular disease.

In conclusion, Experimental Diabetes Mellitus is a valuable tool for researchers studying diabetes and its complications. The technique allows for precise control over blood sugar levels and has numerous applications in testing new treatments, studying the pathophysiology of diabetes, investigating the role of genetics, evaluating new diagnostic techniques, and investigating complications.

Nephrosclerosis can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

1. Diabetes: High blood sugar levels over an extended period can damage the kidney tissues and lead to nephrosclerosis.
2. Hypertension: Uncontrolled high blood pressure can cause damage to the kidney blood vessels, leading to scarring and hardening of the tissues.
3. Glomerulonephritis: An inflammation of the glomeruli, the tiny blood vessels in the kidneys that filter waste and excess fluids from the blood, can lead to nephrosclerosis.
4. Obesity: Excess weight can increase the risk of developing diabetes and hypertension, both of which are leading causes of nephrosclerosis.
5. Family history: A family history of kidney disease increases the risk of developing nephrosclerosis.
6. Certain medications: Long-term use of certain medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and certain antibiotics can damage the kidneys and lead to nephrosclerosis.
7. Infections: Certain infections, such as pyelonephritis, can spread to the kidneys and cause inflammation and scarring that leads to nephrosclerosis.
8. Kidney stones: Recurring kidney stones can cause chronic inflammation and damage to the kidney tissues, leading to nephrosclerosis.
9. Certain medical conditions: Certain medical conditions, such as systemic lupus erythematosus and vasculitis, can increase the risk of developing nephrosclerosis.

Symptoms of nephrosclerosis may include:

1. Proteinuria: Excess protein in the urine.
2. Hematuria: Blood in the urine.
3. Reduced kidney function: Decreased ability of the kidneys to filter waste and excess fluids from the blood.
4. High blood pressure: Hypertension is common in people with nephrosclerosis.
5. Swelling: Fluid retention in the legs, ankles, and feet.
6. Fatigue: Weakness and tiredness due to the buildup of waste products in the body.
7. Nausea and vomiting: Due to the buildup of waste products in the body.
8. Skin rash: Some people with nephrosclerosis may develop a skin rash.

Nephrosclerosis can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, urine and blood tests, and imaging studies such as ultrasound and CT scans. Treatment for nephrosclerosis depends on the underlying cause and may include medications to control high blood pressure, reduce proteinuria, and slow the progression of the disease. In severe cases, dialysis or kidney transplantation may be necessary.

It is essential to seek medical attention if you experience any symptoms of nephrosclerosis, as early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent complications and improve outcomes. A healthcare professional can perform a physical examination, take a medical history, and order diagnostic tests to determine the underlying cause of your symptoms. Based on the severity and underlying cause of your condition, a treatment plan will be developed that may include medications, lifestyle modifications, or dialysis. With proper treatment, many people with nephrosclerosis can manage their symptoms and improve their quality of life.

The symptoms of MSK can vary depending on the severity of the condition, but may include:

* High blood pressure
* Kidney pain
* Proteinuria (excess protein in the urine)
* Hematuria (blood in the urine)
* Decreased kidney function
* Increased risk of kidney failure

The exact cause of MSK is not known, but it is believed to be related to genetic mutations that affect the development and growth of the kidneys. The condition is usually diagnosed in adulthood, but can sometimes be present at birth.

There is no cure for MSK, but treatment options may include:

* Medications to control high blood pressure and slow the progression of kidney disease
* Dialysis to filter waste products from the blood when the kidneys are no longer able to do so
* Kidney transplantation

The prognosis for MSK is generally poor, with a median survival age of around 50 years. However, with appropriate treatment and management, some individuals with MSK can live into their 60s or 70s.

In summary, Medullary Sponge Kidney is a rare and inherited kidney disorder characterized by cysts in the medulla of the kidneys, which can cause chronic kidney disease, high blood pressure, and other complications. While there is no cure for MSK, treatment options are available to manage symptoms and slow the progression of the disease.

Symptoms of AAN include:

1. Proteinuria (excess protein in the urine)
2. Hematuria (blood in the urine)
3. Reduced kidney function
4. Swelling in the legs and ankles
5. Fatigue
6. Weight loss

Causes and risk factors:

1. HIV infection
2. Chronic immune activation and inflammation
3. High blood pressure
4. Diabetes mellitus
5. Obesity

Diagnosis:

1. Urine test for protein and blood
2. Kidney function tests (estimated glomerular filtration rate)
3. Biopsy of the kidney to examine for inflammation and scarring

Treatment:

1. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) to control HIV infection
2. Blood pressure-lowering medications
3. Medications to control proteinuria (e.g., angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers)
4. Medications to reduce inflammation and slow progression of the disease (e.g., corticosteroids or immunosuppressive drugs)
5. Dialysis or kidney transplant for advanced ESRD

Prognosis:

The prognosis for AAN is generally poor, with a high risk of progression to ESRD and mortality. However, early detection and treatment can improve outcomes. It is essential for individuals living with HIV/AIDS to receive regular monitoring and screening for kidney disease to prevent or delay the progression of AAN.

Wilms tumor accounts for about 5% of all childhood kidney cancers and usually affects only one kidney. The cancerous cells in the kidney are called blastema cells, which are immature cells that have not yet developed into normal kidney tissue.

The symptoms of Wilms tumor can vary depending on the size and location of the tumor, but they may include:

* Abdominal pain or swelling
* Blood in the urine
* Fever
* Vomiting
* Weight loss
* Loss of appetite

Wilms tumor is diagnosed through a combination of imaging tests such as ultrasound, CT scans, and MRI scans, and a biopsy to confirm the presence of cancer cells.

Treatment for Wilms tumor typically involves a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. The specific treatment plan will depend on the stage and location of the tumor, as well as the age and overall health of the child. In some cases, the affected kidney may need to be removed if the cancer is not completely removable by surgery or if it has spread to other parts of the body.

The prognosis for Wilms tumor has improved significantly over the past few decades due to advances in treatment and early detection. According to the American Cancer Society, the 5-year survival rate for children with Wilms tumor is about 90% if the cancer is diagnosed before it has spread to other parts of the body. However, the cancer can recur in some cases, especially if it has spread to other parts of the body at the time of initial diagnosis.

Overall, while Wilms tumor is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition, with prompt and appropriate treatment, many children with this disease can achieve long-term survival and a good quality of life.

There are several types of lupus nephritis, each with its own unique characteristics and symptoms. The most common forms include:

* Class I (mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis): This type is characterized by the growth of abnormal cells in the glomeruli (blood-filtering units of the kidneys).
* Class II (active lupus nephritis): This type is characterized by widespread inflammation and damage to the kidneys, with or without the presence of antibodies.
* Class III (focal lupus nephritis): This type is characterized by localized inflammation in certain areas of the kidneys.
* Class IV (lupus nephritis with crescentic glomerulonephritis): This type is characterized by widespread inflammation and damage to the kidneys, with crescent-shaped tissue growth in the glomeruli.
* Class V (lupus nephritis with sclerotic changes): This type is characterized by hardening and shrinkage of the glomeruli due to scarring.

Lupus Nephritis can cause a range of symptoms, including:

* Proteinuria (excess protein in the urine)
* Hematuria (blood in the urine)
* Reduced kidney function
* Swelling (edema)
* Fatigue
* Fever
* Joint pain

Lupus Nephritis can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, laboratory tests, and kidney biopsy. Treatment options for lupus nephritis include medications to suppress the immune system, control inflammation, and prevent further damage to the kidneys. In severe cases, dialysis or a kidney transplant may be necessary.

Treatment for uremia typically involves dialysis or kidney transplantation to remove excess urea from the blood and restore normal kidney function. In some cases, medications may be prescribed to help manage symptoms such as high blood pressure, anemia, or electrolyte imbalances.

The term "uremia" is derived from the Greek words "oura," meaning "urea," and "emia," meaning "in the blood." It was first used in the medical literature in the late 19th century to describe a condition caused by excess urea in the blood. Today, it remains an important diagnostic term in nephrology and is often used interchangeably with the term "uremic syndrome."

Nephrolithiasis can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetics, diet, dehydration, and certain medical conditions such as gout or inflammatory bowel disease. The most common types of kidney stones are made of calcium oxalate, uric acid, cystine, or other substances.

Symptoms of nephrolithiasis can include severe pain in the side or back, nausea and vomiting, fever, chills, and blood in the urine. Treatment options for nephrolithiasis depend on the size and location of the kidney stones, as well as the severity of the symptoms.

Small stones may pass on their own with plenty of fluids, while larger stones may require medication or surgical intervention to remove them. In some cases, nephrolithiasis may lead to complications such as chronic kidney disease or sepsis, which can be life-threatening.

Preventative measures for nephrolithiasis include staying hydrated by drinking plenty of water, limiting salt and animal protein intake, and managing underlying medical conditions such as high blood pressure or diabetes. If you suspect you have a kidney stone, it is important to seek medical attention promptly to receive proper diagnosis and treatment.

There are several types of hypertrophy, including:

1. Muscle hypertrophy: The enlargement of muscle fibers due to increased protein synthesis and cell growth, often seen in individuals who engage in resistance training exercises.
2. Cardiac hypertrophy: The enlargement of the heart due to an increase in cardiac workload, often seen in individuals with high blood pressure or other cardiovascular conditions.
3. Adipose tissue hypertrophy: The excessive growth of fat cells, often seen in individuals who are obese or have insulin resistance.
4. Neurological hypertrophy: The enlargement of neural structures such as brain or spinal cord due to an increase in the number of neurons or glial cells, often seen in individuals with neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's or Parkinson's.
5. Hepatic hypertrophy: The enlargement of the liver due to an increase in the number of liver cells, often seen in individuals with liver disease or cirrhosis.
6. Renal hypertrophy: The enlargement of the kidneys due to an increase in blood flow and filtration, often seen in individuals with kidney disease or hypertension.
7. Ovarian hypertrophy: The enlargement of the ovaries due to an increase in the number of follicles or hormonal imbalances, often seen in individuals with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).

Hypertrophy can be diagnosed through various medical tests such as imaging studies (e.g., CT scans, MRI), biopsies, and blood tests. Treatment options for hypertrophy depend on the underlying cause and may include medications, lifestyle changes, and surgery.

In conclusion, hypertrophy is a growth or enlargement of cells, tissues, or organs in response to an excessive stimulus. It can occur in various parts of the body, including the brain, liver, kidneys, heart, muscles, and ovaries. Understanding the underlying causes and diagnosis of hypertrophy is crucial for effective treatment and management of related health conditions.

1. Infection: Bacterial or viral infections can develop after surgery, potentially leading to sepsis or organ failure.
2. Adhesions: Scar tissue can form during the healing process, which can cause bowel obstruction, chronic pain, or other complications.
3. Wound complications: Incisional hernias, wound dehiscence (separation of the wound edges), and wound infections can occur.
4. Respiratory problems: Pneumonia, respiratory failure, and atelectasis (collapsed lung) can develop after surgery, particularly in older adults or those with pre-existing respiratory conditions.
5. Cardiovascular complications: Myocardial infarction (heart attack), cardiac arrhythmias, and cardiac failure can occur after surgery, especially in high-risk patients.
6. Renal (kidney) problems: Acute kidney injury or chronic kidney disease can develop postoperatively, particularly in patients with pre-existing renal impairment.
7. Neurological complications: Stroke, seizures, and neuropraxia (nerve damage) can occur after surgery, especially in patients with pre-existing neurological conditions.
8. Pulmonary embolism: Blood clots can form in the legs or lungs after surgery, potentially causing pulmonary embolism.
9. Anesthesia-related complications: Respiratory and cardiac complications can occur during anesthesia, including respiratory and cardiac arrest.
10. delayed healing: Wound healing may be delayed or impaired after surgery, particularly in patients with pre-existing medical conditions.

It is important for patients to be aware of these potential complications and to discuss any concerns with their surgeon and healthcare team before undergoing surgery.

The committee defined "brain death" as follows:

* The absence of any clinical or electrophysiological signs of consciousness, including the lack of response to pain, light, sound, or other stimuli.
* The absence of brainstem reflexes, such as pupillary reactivity, oculocephalic reflex, and gag reflex.
* The failure of all brain waves, including alpha, beta, theta, delta, and epsilon waves, as detected by electroencephalography (EEG).
* The absence of any other clinical or laboratory signs of life, such as heartbeat, breathing, or blood circulation.

The definition of brain death is important because it provides a clear and consistent criteria for determining death in medical settings. It helps to ensure that patients who are clinically dead are not inappropriately kept on life support, and that organ donation can be performed in a timely and ethical manner.

The presence of blood in urine is typically detected during a urinalysis, which is a routine test performed during a physical examination or when a patient is admitted to the hospital. The amount and color of blood can vary depending on the cause of hematuria, ranging from microscopic (not visible to the naked eye) to gross (visible).

Hematuria can be classified into two main types:

1. Gross hematuria: This type of hematuria is characterized by visible blood in urine, which can range from pink to bright red. It is usually caused by trauma, kidney stones, or tumors.
2. Microscopic hematuria: This type of hematuria is characterized by the presence of red blood cells in urine that are not visible to the naked eye. It can be caused by various factors, including infections, inflammation, and kidney damage.

Hematuria can be a sign of an underlying medical condition, and it is important to consult a healthcare professional if blood is present in urine. A proper diagnosis is essential to determine the cause of hematuria and provide appropriate treatment.

There are several types of acidosis, including:

1. Respiratory acidosis: This occurs when the lung's ability to remove carbon dioxide from the blood is impaired, leading to an increase in blood acidity.
2. Metabolic acidosis: This type of acidosis occurs when there is an excessive production of acid in the body due to factors such as diabetes, starvation, or kidney disease.
3. Mixed acidosis: This type of acidosis is a combination of respiratory and metabolic acidosis.
4. Severe acute respiratory acidosis (SARA): This is a life-threatening condition that occurs suddenly, usually due to a severe lung injury or aspiration of a corrosive substance.

The symptoms of acidosis can vary depending on the type and severity of the condition. Common symptoms include:

1. Fatigue
2. Weakness
3. Confusion
4. Headaches
5. Nausea and vomiting
6. Abdominal pain
7. Difficulty breathing
8. Rapid heart rate
9. Muscle twitching

If left untreated, acidosis can lead to complications such as:

1. Kidney damage
2. Seizures
3. Coma
4. Heart arrhythmias
5. Respiratory failure

Treatment of acidosis depends on the underlying cause and the severity of the condition. Some common treatments include:

1. Oxygen therapy
2. Medications to help regulate breathing and heart rate
3. Fluid and electrolyte replacement
4. Dietary changes
5. Surgery, in severe cases.

In conclusion, acidosis is a serious medical condition that can have severe consequences if left untreated. It is important to seek medical attention immediately if you suspect that you or someone else may have acidosis. With prompt and appropriate treatment, it is possible to effectively manage the condition and prevent complications.

1. Coronary artery disease: The narrowing or blockage of the coronary arteries, which supply blood to the heart.
2. Heart failure: A condition in which the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs.
3. Arrhythmias: Abnormal heart rhythms that can be too fast, too slow, or irregular.
4. Heart valve disease: Problems with the heart valves that control blood flow through the heart.
5. Heart muscle disease (cardiomyopathy): Disease of the heart muscle that can lead to heart failure.
6. Congenital heart disease: Defects in the heart's structure and function that are present at birth.
7. Peripheral artery disease: The narrowing or blockage of blood vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients to the arms, legs, and other organs.
8. Deep vein thrombosis (DVT): A blood clot that forms in a deep vein, usually in the leg.
9. Pulmonary embolism: A blockage in one of the arteries in the lungs, which can be caused by a blood clot or other debris.
10. Stroke: A condition in which there is a lack of oxygen to the brain due to a blockage or rupture of blood vessels.

There are many different types of anemia, each with its own set of causes and symptoms. Some common types of anemia include:

1. Iron-deficiency anemia: This is the most common type of anemia and is caused by a lack of iron in the diet or a problem with the body's ability to absorb iron. Iron is essential for making hemoglobin.
2. Vitamin deficiency anemia: This type of anemia is caused by a lack of vitamins, such as vitamin B12 or folate, that are necessary for red blood cell production.
3. Anemia of chronic disease: This type of anemia is seen in people with chronic diseases, such as kidney disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and cancer.
4. Sickle cell anemia: This is a genetic disorder that affects the structure of hemoglobin and causes red blood cells to be shaped like crescents or sickles.
5. Thalassemia: This is a genetic disorder that affects the production of hemoglobin and can cause anemia, fatigue, and other health problems.

The symptoms of anemia can vary depending on the type and severity of the condition. Common symptoms include fatigue, weakness, pale skin, shortness of breath, and dizziness or lightheadedness. Anemia can be diagnosed with a blood test that measures the number and size of red blood cells, as well as the levels of hemoglobin and other nutrients.

Treatment for anemia depends on the underlying cause of the condition. In some cases, dietary changes or supplements may be sufficient to treat anemia. For example, people with iron-deficiency anemia may need to increase their intake of iron-rich foods or take iron supplements. In other cases, medical treatment may be necessary to address underlying conditions such as kidney disease or cancer.

Preventing anemia is important for maintaining good health and preventing complications. To prevent anemia, it is important to eat a balanced diet that includes plenty of iron-rich foods, vitamin C-rich foods, and other essential nutrients. It is also important to avoid certain substances that can interfere with the absorption of nutrients, such as alcohol and caffeine. Additionally, it is important to manage any underlying medical conditions and seek medical attention if symptoms of anemia persist or worsen over time.

In conclusion, anemia is a common blood disorder that can have significant health implications if left untreated. It is important to be aware of the different types of anemia, their causes, and symptoms in order to seek medical attention if necessary. With proper diagnosis and treatment, many cases of anemia can be successfully managed and prevented.

Symptoms:

* Blood in urine
* Pain in the back or flank
* Fever
* Nausea and vomiting

Diagnosis:

* Imaging tests like ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI to visualize the papillae and assess any damage
* Biopsy to examine kidney tissue under a microscope for signs of inflammation and scarring

Treatment:

* Antibiotics for infections
* Corticosteroids to reduce inflammation
* Immunosuppressive drugs for autoimmune disorders
* Dialysis in severe cases

Prognosis:

* Mild cases may resolve on their own, but severe cases can lead to chronic kidney disease and potentially kidney failure.

Complications:

* Chronic kidney disease
* Kidney failure
* High blood pressure
* Recurrent infections

In medical terms, death is defined as the irreversible cessation of all bodily functions that are necessary for life. This includes the loss of consciousness, the absence of breathing, heartbeat, and other vital signs. Brain death, which occurs when the brain no longer functions, is considered a definitive sign of death.

The medical professionals use various criteria to determine death, such as:

1. Cessation of breathing: When an individual stops breathing for more than 20 minutes, it is considered a sign of death.
2. Cessation of heartbeat: The loss of heartbeat for more than 20 minutes is another indicator of death.
3. Loss of consciousness: If an individual is unresponsive and does not react to any stimuli, it can be assumed that they have died.
4. Brain death: When the brain no longer functions, it is considered a definitive sign of death.
5. Decay of body temperature: After death, the body's temperature begins to decrease, which is another indicator of death.

In some cases, medical professionals may use advanced technologies such as electroencephalography (EEG) or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to confirm brain death. These tests can help determine whether the brain has indeed ceased functioning and if there is no hope of reviving the individual.

It's important to note that while death is a natural part of life, it can be a difficult and emotional experience for those who are left behind. It's essential to provide support and care to the family members and loved ones of the deceased during this challenging time.

Nephrosis is a condition that affects the function of the kidneys, leading to damage and loss of their filtering ability. It can be caused by a variety of factors and can lead to a range of symptoms and complications. In this article, we will explore the definition and causes of nephrosis, as well as treatment options and outcomes for patients with this condition.

Definition of Nephrosis

Nephrosis is a medical term used to describe damage to the kidneys that leads to a loss of their function. The kidneys play a critical role in filtering waste products and excess fluids from the blood, and when they are not functioning properly, these waste products can build up in the body. Nephrosis can be caused by a variety of factors, including diabetes, high blood pressure, and certain medications.

Causes of Nephrosis

There are several factors that can cause nephrosis. Some of the most common causes include:

1. Diabetes: High blood sugar levels can damage the kidneys over time, leading to nephrosis.
2. High Blood Pressure: Uncontrolled high blood pressure can damage the blood vessels in the kidneys, leading to nephrosis.
3. Medications: Certain medications, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and certain antibiotics, can be harmful to the kidneys and cause nephrosis.
4. Infections: Severe infections, such as pyelonephritis, can damage the kidneys and lead to nephrosis.
5. Glomerulonephritis: This is a type of inflammation of the glomeruli, the tiny blood vessels in the kidneys that filter waste products from the blood.
6. Interstitial Nephritis: This is a type of inflammation of the tissue between the nephrons, the tiny tubules in the kidneys that filter waste products from the blood.
7. Kidney Disease: Any type of kidney disease, such as polycystic kidney disease or membranous nephropathy, can cause nephrosis.
8. Obesity: Excess weight can increase the risk of developing high blood pressure and diabetes, both of which are leading causes of nephrosis.
9. Family History: A family history of kidney disease increases the risk of developing nephrosis.
10. Age: The risk of developing nephrosis increases with age, especially after the age of 50.

Symptoms of Nephrosis

The symptoms of nephrosis can vary depending on the underlying cause and the severity of the condition. Some common symptoms include:

1. Proteinuria: The presence of protein in the urine, which can be detected by a simple urine test.
2. Hematuria: The presence of blood in the urine, which can be seen with the naked eye or detected by a urine test.
3. Edema: Swelling in the legs, ankles, and feet caused by fluid retention.
4. High Blood Pressure: Hypertension is common in people with nephrosis and can further damage the kidneys.
5. Fatigue: Weakness and fatigue are common symptoms of nephrosis due to anemia and nutrient deficiencies.
6. Nausea and Vomiting: Some people with nephrosis may experience nausea and vomiting due to electrolyte imbalances.
7. Weight Loss: Weight loss can occur in advanced cases of nephrosis as the body is unable to retain enough fluid.
8. Decreased Urine Output: A decrease in urine output can be a sign of nephrosis, especially if it is accompanied by other symptoms such as proteinuria and hematuria.
9. Flank Pain: Some people with nephrosis may experience flank pain, which is pain in the side or back of the abdomen.
10. Pericarditis: Inflammation of the pericardium, the membrane surrounding the heart, can occur in some cases of nephrosis.

It's important to note that not everyone with nephrosis will experience all of these symptoms, and the severity of the disease can vary from person to person. If you suspect you or someone you know may have nephrosis, it is important to seek medical attention as soon as possible for proper diagnosis and treatment.

There are several key features of inflammation:

1. Increased blood flow: Blood vessels in the affected area dilate, allowing more blood to flow into the tissue and bringing with it immune cells, nutrients, and other signaling molecules.
2. Leukocyte migration: White blood cells, such as neutrophils and monocytes, migrate towards the site of inflammation in response to chemical signals.
3. Release of mediators: Inflammatory mediators, such as cytokines and chemokines, are released by immune cells and other cells in the affected tissue. These molecules help to coordinate the immune response and attract more immune cells to the site of inflammation.
4. Activation of immune cells: Immune cells, such as macrophages and T cells, become activated and start to phagocytose (engulf) pathogens or damaged tissue.
5. Increased heat production: Inflammation can cause an increase in metabolic activity in the affected tissue, leading to increased heat production.
6. Redness and swelling: Increased blood flow and leakiness of blood vessels can cause redness and swelling in the affected area.
7. Pain: Inflammation can cause pain through the activation of nociceptors (pain-sensing neurons) and the release of pro-inflammatory mediators.

Inflammation can be acute or chronic. Acute inflammation is a short-term response to injury or infection, which helps to resolve the issue quickly. Chronic inflammation is a long-term response that can cause ongoing damage and diseases such as arthritis, asthma, and cancer.

There are several types of inflammation, including:

1. Acute inflammation: A short-term response to injury or infection.
2. Chronic inflammation: A long-term response that can cause ongoing damage and diseases.
3. Autoimmune inflammation: An inappropriate immune response against the body's own tissues.
4. Allergic inflammation: An immune response to a harmless substance, such as pollen or dust mites.
5. Parasitic inflammation: An immune response to parasites, such as worms or fungi.
6. Bacterial inflammation: An immune response to bacteria.
7. Viral inflammation: An immune response to viruses.
8. Fungal inflammation: An immune response to fungi.

There are several ways to reduce inflammation, including:

1. Medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, and disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs).
2. Lifestyle changes, such as a healthy diet, regular exercise, stress management, and getting enough sleep.
3. Alternative therapies, such as acupuncture, herbal supplements, and mind-body practices.
4. Addressing underlying conditions, such as hormonal imbalances, gut health issues, and chronic infections.
5. Using anti-inflammatory compounds found in certain foods, such as omega-3 fatty acids, turmeric, and ginger.

It's important to note that chronic inflammation can lead to a range of health problems, including:

1. Arthritis
2. Diabetes
3. Heart disease
4. Cancer
5. Alzheimer's disease
6. Parkinson's disease
7. Autoimmune disorders, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis.

Therefore, it's important to manage inflammation effectively to prevent these complications and improve overall health and well-being.

Symptoms of nephrocalcinosis may include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, frequent urination, and blood in the urine. Diagnosis is typically made through imaging tests such as X-rays, CT scans, or ultrasound, and blood tests to determine calcium levels and kidney function.

Treatment for nephrocalcinosis depends on the underlying cause of the condition and may include medications to lower calcium levels, dietary changes to reduce calcium intake, and in severe cases, dialysis or kidney transplantation may be necessary. It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time, as early detection and treatment can help prevent long-term damage to the kidneys.

Some common types of fish diseases include:

1. Bacterial infections: These are caused by bacteria such as Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, and Mycobacterium. Symptoms can include fin and tail rot, body slime, and ulcers.
2. Viral infections: These are caused by viruses such as viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS) and infectious hematopoietic necrosis (IHN). Symptoms can include lethargy, loss of appetite, and rapid death.
3. Protozoan infections: These are caused by protozoa such as Cryptocaryon and Ichthyophonus. Symptoms can include flashing, rapid breathing, and white spots on the body.
4. Fungal infections: These are caused by fungi such as Saprolegnia and Achlya. Symptoms can include fuzzy growths on the body and fins, and sluggish behavior.
5. Parasitic infections: These are caused by parasites such as Ichthyophonus and Cryptocaryon. Symptoms can include flashing, rapid breathing, and white spots on the body.

Diagnosis of fish diseases is typically made through a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and observation of the fish's behavior and environment. Treatment options vary depending on the type of disease and the severity of symptoms, and can include antibiotics, antifungals, and medicated baths. Prevention is key in managing fish diseases, and this includes maintaining good water quality, providing a balanced diet, and keeping the fish in a healthy environment.

Note: The information provided is a general overview of common fish diseases and their symptoms, and should not be considered as professional medical advice. If you suspect your fish has a disease, it is recommended that you consult with a veterinarian or a qualified aquarium expert for proper diagnosis and treatment.

ROD can lead to a range of symptoms, including:

* Weakened bones and increased risk of fractures
* Tooth decay and gum disease
* Rickets-like symptoms in children
* Osteoporosis
* Difficulty healing from injuries or surgery

The condition is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests (such as blood and urine tests), and imaging studies (such as X-rays or bone density scans).

Treatment for ROD typically involves managing the underlying kidney disease, correcting any nutritional imbalances, and implementing measures to strengthen bones. This may include:

* Medications to lower phosphate levels and increase calcium absorption
* Dietary modifications to reduce phosphate intake and increase calcium intake
* Vitamin D and calcium supplements
* Regular exercise and weight-bearing activities to promote bone strength

In severe cases of ROD, surgical interventions may be necessary, such as bone transplantation or the use of bone-forming medications.

ROD is a serious complication of CKD that can significantly impact quality of life and increase the risk of mortality. Early detection and management are essential to prevent or delay the progression of this condition.

Examples of acute diseases include:

1. Common cold and flu
2. Pneumonia and bronchitis
3. Appendicitis and other abdominal emergencies
4. Heart attacks and strokes
5. Asthma attacks and allergic reactions
6. Skin infections and cellulitis
7. Urinary tract infections
8. Sinusitis and meningitis
9. Gastroenteritis and food poisoning
10. Sprains, strains, and fractures.

Acute diseases can be treated effectively with antibiotics, medications, or other therapies. However, if left untreated, they can lead to chronic conditions or complications that may require long-term care. Therefore, it is important to seek medical attention promptly if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

VUR occurs when the muscles in the ureteral walls are weak or underdeveloped, allowing urine to flow back into the bladder instead of emptying properly into the ureters. It can also be caused by an abnormal connection between the bladder and the ureter, such as a birth defect or injury.

Symptoms of VUR may include recurring UTIs, fever, painful urination, and blood in the urine. To diagnose VUR, doctors may use imaging tests such as ultrasound or renal scan to visualize the flow of urine.

Treatment for VUR depends on the severity of the condition and may include antibiotics to treat UTIs, medication to relax the bladder muscle, and in some cases, surgery to repair any abnormal connections or narrowing of the ureters.

The normal range of oxalate in the urine is between 2-5 mg/day. If the level of oxalate in the urine exceeds this range, it can lead to a variety of health problems, including:

1. Kidney stones: Excessive oxalate in the urine can lead to the formation of kidney stones, which can cause severe pain, nausea, and vomiting.
2. Nephrocalcinosis: This is a condition where there is an accumulation of calcium deposits in the kidneys, which can lead to damage and scarring of the kidneys.
3. Chronic kidney disease: Prolonged exposure to high levels of oxalate can cause damage to the kidneys, leading to chronic kidney disease and potentially end-stage renal disease.
4. Gastrointestinal symptoms: Some people with hyperoxaluria may experience gastrointestinal symptoms such as bloating, abdominal pain, and diarrhea.

There are several causes of hyperoxaluria, including:

1. Primary hyperoxaluria: This is a rare genetic disorder that affects the liver's ability to produce oxalate.
2. Enteric hyperoxaluria: This occurs when there is an overgrowth of oxalate-producing bacteria in the gut.
3. Dietary factors: Consuming high amounts of oxalate-rich foods can lead to hyperoxaluria.
4. Intestinal diseases: Certain conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease, Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis can increase the amount of oxalate in the gut and lead to hyperoxaluria.

The diagnosis of hyperoxaluria typically involves a combination of urine tests and imaging studies, such as a kidney-ureter-bladder (KUB) x-ray or a CT scan. A 24-hour urine oxalate test can measure the amount of oxalate in the urine, while a blood test can check for elevated levels of oxalate in the blood.

Treatment for hyperoxaluria depends on the underlying cause and may include:

1. Dietary modifications: Avoiding oxalate-rich foods and reducing the intake of vitamin C, magnesium, and calcium can help lower oxalate levels.
2. Medications: Drugs such as sodium alginate or potassium citrate can help bind oxalate in the gut and reduce its absorption into the bloodstream.
3. Dialysis: In advanced cases of hyperoxaluria, dialysis may be necessary to remove excess oxalate from the blood.
4. Liver transplantation: In cases of primary hyperoxaluria, a liver transplant may be necessary to correct the underlying genetic defect.

In conclusion, hyperoxaluria is a condition characterized by excessive levels of oxalate in the body, which can lead to kidney damage and other complications. Early detection and treatment are essential to prevent long-term damage and improve outcomes for patients with this condition."

Blood group incompatibility can occur in various ways, including:

1. ABO incompatibility: This is the most common type of blood group incompatibility and occurs when the patient's blood type (A or B) is different from the donor's blood type.
2. Rh incompatibility: This occurs when the patient's Rh factor is different from the donor's Rh factor.
3. Other antigens: In addition to ABO and Rh, there are other antigens on red blood cells that can cause incompatibility, such as Kell, Duffy, and Xg.

Blood group incompatibility can be diagnosed through blood typing and cross-matching tests. These tests determine the patient's and donor's blood types and identify any incompatible antigens that may cause an immune response.

Treatment of blood group incompatibility usually involves finding a compatible donor or using specialized medications to reduce the risk of a negative reaction. In some cases, plasmapheresis, also known as plasma exchange, may be used to remove the incompatible antibodies from the patient's blood.

Prevention of blood group incompatibility is important, and this can be achieved by ensuring that patients receive only compatible blood products during transfusions. Blood banks maintain a database of donor blood types and perform thorough testing before releasing blood for transfusion to ensure compatibility. Additionally, healthcare providers should carefully review the patient's medical history and current medications to identify any potential allergies or sensitivities that may affect blood compatibility.

GN IGA is one of the most common forms of idiopathic membranous nephropathy, which means it has no known cause. It can occur at any age but is more common in adults between the ages of 20 and 40. The disease often progresses slowly over several years, and some people may experience no symptoms at all.

The diagnosis of GN IGA is based on a combination of clinical findings, laboratory tests, and kidney biopsy. Laboratory tests may show abnormal levels of proteins in the urine, such as albumin, and a high level of IgA in the blood. A kidney biopsy is often necessary to confirm the diagnosis and to rule out other kidney diseases.

There is no cure for GN IGA, but treatment can help slow the progression of the disease. Treatment options may include medications to control high blood pressure, reduce proteinuria (excess protein in the urine), and suppress the immune system. In severe cases, dialysis or a kidney transplant may be necessary.

Preventive measures for GN IGA are not well established, but maintaining a healthy lifestyle, including a balanced diet, regular exercise, and avoiding exposure to toxins, may help reduce the risk of developing the disease. It is also important to manage any underlying medical conditions, such as high blood pressure or diabetes, which can increase the risk of kidney damage.

In diabetes, polyuria is caused by high levels of glucose in the blood that cannot be properly absorbed by the body. The excess glucose spills into the urine, drawing water with it and increasing the volume of urine. This can lead to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances if left untreated.

In kidney disease, polyuria can be caused by damage to the kidneys that impairs their ability to concentrate urine. As a result, the body produces more urine than usual to compensate for the lack of concentrating ability.

Polyuria can also be a symptom of certain endocrine disorders such as diabetes insipidus, where the body produces too much antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin, which leads to an excessive amount of urine production.

To diagnose polyuria, a healthcare provider may perform a physical examination, take a medical history, and conduct diagnostic tests such as urinalysis, blood glucose testing, and imaging studies. Treatment for polyuria depends on the underlying cause and may include medication, lifestyle changes, and in some cases, dialysis.

Examples of Urogenital Abnormalities:

1. Congenital Anomalies: Conditions that are present at birth and affect the urinary tract or genitalia, such as hypospadias (a condition where the urethra opens on the underside of the penis instead of the tip), undescended testes (testes that fail to descend into the scrotum), or interrupted or absent vas deferens (tubes that carry sperm from the epididymis to the penis).
2. Infections: Bacterial or viral infections that can cause urogenital abnormalities, such as pyelonephritis (a kidney infection) or prostatitis (an inflammation of the prostate gland).
3. Trauma: Injuries to the urinary tract or genitalia, such as those caused by sexual assault or accidents, can lead to urogenital abnormalities.
4. Neurological Conditions: Certain neurological conditions, such as spina bifida (a birth defect that affects the spine and spinal cord), can cause urogenital abnormalities.
5. Cancer: Cancer of the urinary tract or genitalia, such as bladder cancer or prostate cancer, can cause urogenital abnormalities.

Symptoms of Urogenital Abnormalities:

Depending on the specific condition, symptoms of urogenital abnormalities may include:

1. Difficulty urinating or painful urination
2. Blood in the urine or semen
3. Frequent urination or incontinence
4. Pain during sexual activity
5. Abnormalities in the shape or size of the genitalia
6. Testicular atrophy or swelling
7. Discharge from the vagina or penis
8. Foul-smelling urine

Diagnosis and Treatment of Urogenital Abnormalities:

Diagnosis of urogenital abnormalities typically involves a combination of physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as urinalysis, blood tests, and imaging studies (such as X-rays or ultrasound). Treatment depends on the specific condition causing the abnormality. Some common treatments include:

1. Medications to treat infections or inflammation
2. Surgery to repair or remove damaged tissue
3. Lifestyle changes, such as diet and exercise modifications
4. Pelvic floor exercises to strengthen the muscles that control urination and bowel movements
5. Assistive devices, such as catheters or prosthetic limbs
6. Hormone therapy to treat hormonal imbalances or gender identity issues.

There are several types of RTA, including:

1. Type 1 RTA: This is caused by a defect in the genes that code for the proteins involved in acid secretion in the renal tubules.
2. Type 2 RTA: This is caused by damage to the renal tubules, such as from exposure to certain drugs or toxins.
3. Type 4 RTA: This is caused by a deficiency of the hormone aldosterone, which helps regulate electrolyte levels in the body.

Symptoms of RTA can include:

* Nausea and vomiting
* Abdominal pain
* Fatigue
* Weakness
* Dehydration
* Increased heart rate
* Decreased urine production

RTA can be diagnosed through blood tests that measure the pH levels in the body, as well as tests that assess kidney function and electrolyte levels. Treatment for RTA typically involves correcting any underlying causes, such as stopping certain medications or addressing electrolyte imbalances. In some cases, medications may be prescribed to help regulate acid levels in the body.

Prevention of RTA includes maintaining proper hydration, avoiding exposure to harmful substances, and managing any underlying medical conditions that may increase the risk of developing RTA. Early detection and treatment can help prevent complications and improve outcomes for individuals with RTA.

Anuria is often associated with other conditions such as chronic kidney disease, sepsis, or bladder outlet obstruction. The symptoms of anuria may include decreased urine output, swelling in the legs and abdomen, nausea, vomiting, and electrolyte imbalances.

Treatment of anuria depends on the underlying cause, and may involve medications to relieve symptoms, drainage of obstructions, or other interventions such as hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis. In severe cases, anuria can lead to uremia, a buildup of waste products in the blood that can be life-threatening. Therefore, prompt medical attention is essential for effective management and prevention of complications.

There are several different types of calcinosis, each with its own unique causes and symptoms. Some common forms of calcinosis include:

1. Dystrophic calcinosis: This type of calcinosis occurs in people with muscular dystrophy, a group of genetic disorders that affect muscle strength and function. Dystrophic calcinosis can cause calcium deposits to form in the muscles, leading to muscle weakness and wasting.
2. Metastatic calcinosis: This type of calcinosis occurs when cancer cells spread to other parts of the body and cause calcium deposits to form. Metastatic calcinosis can occur in people with a variety of different types of cancer, including breast, lung, and prostate cancer.
3. Idiopathic calcinosis: This type of calcinosis occurs for no apparent reason, and the exact cause is not known. Idiopathic calcinosis can affect people of all ages and can cause calcium deposits to form in a variety of different tissues.
4. Secondary calcinosis: This type of calcidosis occurs as a result of an underlying medical condition or injury. For example, secondary calcinosis can occur in people with kidney disease, hyperparathyroidism (a condition in which the parathyroid glands produce too much parathyroid hormone), or traumatic injuries.

Treatment for calcinosis depends on the underlying cause and the severity of the condition. In some cases, treatment may involve managing the underlying disease or condition that is causing the calcium deposits to form. Other treatments may include medications to reduce inflammation and pain, physical therapy to improve mobility and strength, and surgery to remove the calcium deposits.

The main difference between primary hyperparathyroidism (HPT) and secondary HPT is the underlying cause of the disorder. In primary HPT, the overactive parathyroid glands are due to a genetic mutation or an autoimmune response, while in secondary HPT, the overactivity is caused by another condition or medication that affects vitamin D levels.

The symptoms of SHPT are similar to those of primary HPT and may include:

* Bone pain or weakness
* Osteoporosis or osteopenia
* Kidney stones or other kidney problems
* High blood pressure
* Headaches
* Fatigue
* Nausea or vomiting
* Increased urination

SHPT can be diagnosed with a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies such as ultrasound or CT scans. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the condition and replacing vitamin D deficiency with supplements. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove part or all of the parathyroid glands.

While SHPT is rare, it is important for healthcare providers to be aware of this condition in patients who present with symptoms suggestive of HPT but have normal imaging studies and no family history of the condition. Early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent complications and improve quality of life for affected individuals.

In summary, secondary hyperparathyroidism is a rare endocrine disorder caused by a deficiency in vitamin D that leads to overactive parathyroid glands and an imbalance in calcium levels. It can cause a range of symptoms, including bone pain, osteoporosis, high blood pressure, and kidney problems. Treatment involves addressing the underlying cause of the condition and replacing vitamin D deficiency with supplements. Early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent complications and improve quality of life for affected individuals.

Idiopathic membranous nephropathy (IMN) is an autoimmune disorder that causes GNM without any identifiable cause. Secondary membranous nephropathy, on the other hand, is caused by systemic diseases such as lupus or cancer.

The symptoms of GNM can vary depending on the severity of the disease and may include blood in the urine, proteinuria, edema, high blood pressure, and decreased kidney function. The diagnosis of GNM is based on a combination of clinical findings, laboratory tests, and renal biopsy.

Treatment for GNM is aimed at slowing the progression of the disease and managing symptoms. Medications such as corticosteroids, immunosuppressive drugs, and blood pressure-lowering drugs may be used to treat GNM. In some cases, kidney transplantation may be necessary.

The prognosis for GNM varies depending on the severity of the disease and the underlying cause. In general, the prognosis for IMN is better than for secondary membranous nephropathy. With proper treatment, some patients with GNM can experience a slowing or stabilization of the disease, while others may progress to end-stage renal disease (ESRD).

The cause of GNM is not fully understood, but it is believed to be an autoimmune disorder that leads to inflammation and damage to the glomerular membrane. Genetic factors and environmental triggers may also play a role in the development of GNM.

There are several risk factors for developing GNM, including family history, age (GMN is more common in adults), and certain medical conditions such as hypertension and diabetes.

The main complications of GNM include:

1. ESRD: Progression to ESRD is a common outcome of untreated GNM.
2. High blood pressure: GNM can lead to high blood pressure, which can further damage the kidneys.
3. Infections: GNM increases the risk of infections due to impaired immune function.
4. Kidney failure: GNM can cause chronic kidney failure, leading to the need for dialysis or a kidney transplant.
5. Cardiovascular disease: GNM is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, including heart attack and stroke.
6. Malnutrition: GNM can lead to malnutrition due to decreased appetite, nausea, and vomiting.
7. Bone disease: GNM can cause bone disease, including osteoporosis and bone pain.
8. Anemia: GNM can cause anemia, which can lead to fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath.
9. Increased risk of infections: GNM increases the risk of infections due to impaired immune function.
10. Decreased quality of life: GNM can significantly decrease a person's quality of life, leading to decreased mobility, pain, and discomfort.

It is important for individuals with GNM to receive early diagnosis and appropriate treatment to prevent or delay the progression of these complications.

There are several types of diabetes mellitus, including:

1. Type 1 DM: This is an autoimmune condition in which the body's immune system attacks and destroys the cells in the pancreas that produce insulin, resulting in a complete deficiency of insulin production. It typically develops in childhood or adolescence, and patients with this condition require lifelong insulin therapy.
2. Type 2 DM: This is the most common form of diabetes, accounting for around 90% of all cases. It is caused by a combination of insulin resistance (where the body's cells do not respond properly to insulin) and impaired insulin secretion. It is often associated with obesity, physical inactivity, and a diet high in sugar and unhealthy fats.
3. Gestational DM: This type of diabetes develops during pregnancy, usually in the second or third trimester. Hormonal changes and insulin resistance can cause blood sugar levels to rise, putting both the mother and baby at risk.
4. LADA (Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults): This is a form of type 1 DM that develops in adults, typically after the age of 30. It shares features with both type 1 and type 2 DM.
5. MODY (Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young): This is a rare form of diabetes caused by genetic mutations that affect insulin production. It typically develops in young adulthood and can be managed with lifestyle changes and/or medication.

The symptoms of diabetes mellitus can vary depending on the severity of the condition, but may include:

1. Increased thirst and urination
2. Fatigue
3. Blurred vision
4. Cuts or bruises that are slow to heal
5. Tingling or numbness in hands and feet
6. Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections
7. Flu-like symptoms such as weakness, dizziness, and stomach pain
8. Dark, velvety skin patches (acanthosis nigricans)
9. Yellowish color of the skin and eyes (jaundice)
10. Delayed healing of cuts and wounds

If left untreated, diabetes mellitus can lead to a range of complications, including:

1. Heart disease and stroke
2. Kidney damage and failure
3. Nerve damage (neuropathy)
4. Eye damage (retinopathy)
5. Foot damage (neuropathic ulcers)
6. Cognitive impairment and dementia
7. Increased risk of infections and other diseases, such as pneumonia, gum disease, and urinary tract infections.

It is important to note that not all individuals with diabetes will experience these complications, and that proper management of the condition can greatly reduce the risk of developing these complications.

Symptoms of a UTI can include:

* Painful urination
* Frequent urination
* Cloudy or strong-smelling urine
* Blood in the urine
* Pelvic pain in women
* Rectal pain in men

If you suspect that you have a UTI, it is important to seek medical attention as soon as possible. UTIs can lead to more serious complications if left untreated, such as kidney damage or sepsis.

Treatment for a UTI typically involves antibiotics to clear the infection. It is important to complete the full course of treatment to ensure that the infection is completely cleared. Drinking plenty of water and taking over-the-counter pain relievers may also help alleviate symptoms.

Preventive measures for UTIs include:

* Practicing good hygiene, such as wiping from front to back and washing hands after using the bathroom
* Urinating when you feel the need, rather than holding it in
* Avoiding certain foods that may irritate the bladder, such as spicy or acidic foods
* Drinking plenty of water to help flush bacteria out of the urinary tract.

1. Ureteral stones: Small, hard mineral deposits that form in the ureters and can cause pain, bleeding, and blockage of urine flow.
2. Ureteral tumors: Abnormal growths that can be benign or cancerous and can cause symptoms such as blood in the urine, pain, and difficulty urinating.
3. Ureteral strictures: Narrowing of the ureters due to scarring or inflammation, which can cause pain and blockage of urine flow.
4. Ureteral injuries: Trauma to the ureters during surgery or other medical procedures can cause damage and lead to ureteral diseases.
5. Ureteral ectopia: A rare condition in which the ureters do not properly connect to the bladder, leading to urine leakage and other symptoms.
6. Ureteral tuberculosis: A type of bacterial infection that affects the ureters and can cause symptoms such as fever, weight loss, and blood in the urine.
7. Ureteral cancer: Cancer that affects the ureters and can cause symptoms such as blood in the urine, pain, and difficulty urinating.
8. Ureteral calculus: A small, hard deposit that forms in the ureters and can cause pain, bleeding, and blockage of urine flow.
9. Ureteral stenosis: A narrowing of the ureters due to scarring or inflammation, which can cause pain and blockage of urine flow.
10. Ureteral obstruction: A blockage of the ureters that can be caused by a variety of factors, such as tumors, stones, or inflammation.

Ureteral diseases can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, imaging studies such as X-rays and CT scans, and endoscopic procedures such as ureteroscopy. Treatment options vary depending on the specific condition and may include antibiotics, surgery, or other interventions to address the underlying cause of the disease. It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time, as early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent complications and improve outcomes.

Causes of Hyperphosphatemia:

There are several possible causes of hyperphosphatemia, including:

1. Kidney disease or failure: The kidneys regulate the levels of phosphate in the blood, and if they are not functioning properly, phosphate levels can become elevated.
2. Resistance to parathyroid hormone (PTH): PTH is a hormone that helps regulate calcium and phosphate levels in the body. If there is resistance to PTH, phosphate levels can become elevated.
3. Vitamin D deficiency: Vitamin D is important for the absorption of phosphate from food in the gut. A deficiency in vitamin D can lead to an excessive amount of phosphate in the blood.
4. Certain medications: Some medications, such as certain antacids and nutritional supplements, can contain high levels of phosphate and cause hyperphosphatemia.
5. Poor dietary habits: Consuming a diet that is high in phosphate-rich foods, such as meat and processed foods, can lead to elevated phosphate levels in the blood.

Symptoms of Hyperphosphatemia:

The symptoms of hyperphosphatemia can vary depending on the severity of the condition, but may include:

1. Bone pain or weakness
2. Fatigue
3. Nausea and vomiting
4. Weakness in the muscles
5. Rickets (in children)
6. Osteoporosis (in adults)
7. Kidney damage or failure

Diagnosis of Hyperphosphatemia:

Hyperphosphatemia is typically diagnosed through blood tests that measure the level of phosphate in the blood. Other tests may also be performed to assess kidney function and rule out other potential causes of elevated phosphate levels. These tests may include:

1. Serum creatinine test: This test measures the level of creatinine, a waste product that is produced by the muscles and removed from the blood by the kidneys. Elevated levels of creatinine can indicate kidney damage or failure.
2. Urine test: A urine test may be performed to check for proteinuria (excess protein in the urine), which can be a sign of kidney damage.
3. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) test: This test measures the level of PTH, a hormone that regulates calcium and phosphate levels in the blood. Elevated levels of PTH can indicate hyperparathyroidism, a condition in which the parathyroid glands produce too much PTH.
4. 24-hour urine phosphate test: This test measures the amount of phosphate excreted in the urine over a 24-hour period.

Treatment of Hyperphosphatemia:

The treatment of hyperphosphatemia depends on the underlying cause of the condition. Here are some possible treatment options:

1. Phosphate-binding agents: These medications, such as sevelamer and lanthanum carbonate, bind to phosphate in the gut and prevent it from being absorbed into the bloodstream.
2. Calcium supplements: Calcium can help to lower phosphate levels by binding to it and removing it from the bloodstream.
3. Dietary changes: A dietitian can work with you to develop a meal plan that limits phosphate-rich foods, such as meat, dairy products, and processed foods, while emphasizing fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.
4. Dialysis: In cases where the condition is caused by kidney failure, dialysis may be necessary to remove excess phosphate from the blood.
5. Surgery: In cases where the condition is caused by a parathyroid adenoma or hyperplasia, surgery may be necessary to remove the affected gland(s).

It's important to note that hyperphosphatemia can lead to complications such as mineral bone disease, which can cause weakened bones, bone pain, and an increased risk of fractures. Therefore, it's important to work with your healthcare provider to manage the condition and prevent these complications.

Rhabdomyolysis can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

1. Physical trauma or injury to the muscles
2. Overuse or strain of muscles
3. Poor physical conditioning or training
4. Infections such as viral or bacterial infections that affect the muscles
5. Certain medications or drugs, such as statins and antibiotics
6. Alcohol or drug poisoning
7. Heat stroke or other forms of extreme heat exposure
8. Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid)
9. Genetic disorders that affect muscle function.

Symptoms of rhabdomyolysis can include:

1. Muscle weakness or paralysis
2. Muscle pain or cramping
3. Confusion or disorientation
4. Dark urine or decreased urine output
5. Fever, nausea, and vomiting
6. Shortness of breath or difficulty breathing
7. Abnormal heart rhythms or cardiac arrest.

If you suspect that someone has rhabdomyolysis, it is important to seek medical attention immediately. Treatment typically involves supportive care, such as fluids and electrolyte replacement, as well as addressing any underlying causes of the condition. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and treat complications such as kidney failure or cardiac problems.

There are several possible causes of hyperuricemia, including:

* Overproduction of uric acid: This can occur due to a diet high in purines, certain medical conditions such as gout or leukemia, or certain medications such as aspirin and some antibiotics.
* Underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism): This can cause the body to produce more uric acid than usual.
* Kidney problems: If the kidneys are not functioning properly, they may not be able to remove excess uric acid from the blood, leading to hyperuricemia.
* Dehydration: When the body is dehydrated, it produces more uric acid as a way to conserve water.

Symptoms of hyperuricemia can include joint pain and inflammation, particularly in the big toe (gout), kidney stones, and a burning sensation while urinating. In some cases, hyperuricemia may not cause any symptoms at all.

Treatment for hyperuricemia depends on the underlying cause of the condition. Medications such as allopurinol or probenecid can be used to reduce uric acid production or improve its excretion. In some cases, changes to diet and lifestyle may also be recommended, such as avoiding foods high in purines, drinking plenty of water, and managing underlying medical conditions.

If left untreated, hyperuricemia can lead to complications such as kidney damage, gout attacks, and an increased risk of certain types of kidney stones. Therefore, it is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

Right Kidney Kidney Right Kidney Right kidney Left kidney Kidneys Left kidney Artificial kidney Holonephros Nephromegaly Organ ... Kidney failure Acute kidney failure Stage 5 Chronic Kidney Disease Renal artery stenosis Renovascular hypertension Generally, ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kidneys. Kidney at the Human Protein Atlas electron microscopic images of the kidney (Dr ... Distinct cell types include: Kidney glomerulus parietal cell Kidney glomerulus podocyte Kidney proximal tubule brush border ...
Stage 1 kidney cancer Stage 2 kidney cancer Stage 3 kidney cancer Stage 4 kidney cancer Treatment for kidney cancer depends on ... Kidney cancer, also known as renal cancer, is a group of cancers that starts in the kidney. Symptoms may include blood in the ... In Europe, kidney cancer accounts for nearly 3% of all cancer cases. Kidney cancer is the eighth most common cancer in the UK ( ... Early on, kidney masses do not typically cause any symptoms and are undetectable on physical examination. As kidney cancer ...
"Kidney Bingos" is a single by English post punk band Wire. It was released 1988 and is taken from the album A Bell Is A Cup. ... Production Paul Davis - engineer Simon Hardiman - engineer David Heilmann - engineer Gareth Jones - engineer Kidney Bingos at ...
... describes a kidney that is not located in its usual position. It results from the kidney failing to ascend from ... "Ectopic Kidney". Archived from the original on 2011-06-08. Retrieved 2007-12-01. v t e (Articles with short description, Short ... Crossed dystopia "Ectopic Kidney - Renal Ectopia - Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, Complications". Medindia. 18 March ... its origin in the true pelvis or from a superiorly ascended kidney located in the thorax. It has an incidence of approximately ...
... is a monthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering all aspects of nephrology. It was established in 1972 ... "Kidney International". 2021 Journal Citation Reports. Web of Science (Science ed.). Clarivate. 2022. Official website v t e ( ...
... (born August 29, 1939 in Topeka, Kansas) was an American powerlifter. He was a participant in the 1980 World's ... Kidney was inducted to the California Powerlifting Hall of Fame in 2004 and holds several California Powerlifting Records. " ... http://www.powerliftingca.com/sites/default/files/downloads/records/american_pl_mastermen.pdf[permanent dead link] Kidney Larry ...
Kidney also was involved in promoting light opera in the community, directing and coaching small amateur groups. Kidney was ... Alfred Kidney was an actor, singer, director, producer and dramatic coach who settled in Canada and was involved in a number of ... Kidney had also performed in productions in Scotland and Ireland, beginning in about 1919. "Yeomen at St. Albans", Toronto ...
... s are tumours, or growths, on or in the kidney. These growths can be benign or malignant (kidney cancer). Kidney ... Stage 4, the kidney tumour has spread to a distant organ or lymph node. 16% of kidney cancers are progressed to this stage and ... This accounts for 65% of cases of kidney cancer and 92.5% of people with stage 1 kidney cancer survive 5 years. •Stage 2 and 3 ... There are many forms of kidney tumours: Like other cancers, kidney cancer is measured in stages. •Stage 1, the tumour has not ...
A pelvic kidney, also known as an ectopic kidney, is a normal kidney located in the pelvis, instead of the abdomen. This occurs ... A pelvic kidney can make it more difficult to diagnose kidney infections and kidney cancer. The renal artery and the renal vein ... A pelvic kidney is also known as an ectopic kidney. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pelvic kidney. Cinman, Nadya M.; ... Often, a person with a pelvic kidney will go through their whole life not even knowing they have a pelvic kidney. Typically, ...
The reniculate kidney is a multilobed kidney found in marine and aquatic mammals such as pinnipeds (seals, sea lions and ... Kidneys of this morphology have increased surface area for removing toxins from the body more efficiently than a non-lobed ... kidney. The reniculate structure in cetaceans and pinnipeds does not result in a greater concentrating ability. While many ...
Kidney was born into a fishing family in Blackrock and spent his entire working life as a fisherman. His brother, John Kidney, ... Kidney's last game for Cork was a defeat by Kilkenny in the 1907 All-Ireland final. By that stage he had also won two Munster ... Kidney died at the Cork District Hospital on 24 July 1917. He had been in ill health for a short period with tuberculosis. ... Denis Kidney (18 October 1883 - 24 July 1917) was an Irish hurler. At club level he played with Blackrock and was also a member ...
... located at the beginning of a nephron in the kidney. Each of the two kidneys contains about one million nephrons. The tuft is ... The rate at which blood is filtered through all of the glomeruli, and thus the measure of the overall kidney function, is the ... The glomerulus and its surrounding Bowman's capsule constitute a renal corpuscle, the basic filtration unit of the kidney. ... The glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries located within Bowman's capsule within the kidney. Glomerular mesangial cells ...
Look up kidney belt in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. A kidney belt is a wide elastic band that is placed around the lower ... Kidney belts are often worn by weightlifters, and, sometimes, by manual laborers and medical patients. They are also used by ... Stuttgart physician Peter Falb has stated that the support provided for motorcyclists is purely psychological; kidneys are ...
A kidney dish (British English) or emesis basin (American English) is a shallow basin with a kidney-shaped base and sloping ... Reusable kidney dishes are usually made of stainless steel. During the first half of the 20th century, kidney dishes were ... Disposable molded pulp kidney dishes have been replacing reusable kidney dishes because single-use products can decrease cross- ... Generally, the volume of a pulp kidney dish (or "vomit dish") is 700 mL. Its length is 25 cm-26 cm, its width 11 cm. The shape ...
... , or nephrogenesis, describes the embryologic origins of the kidney, a major organ in the urinary system. ... The ureters will carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder for excretion from the fetus into the amniotic sac. As the fetus ... The development of the kidney proceeds through a series of successive phases, each marked by the development of a more advanced ... The pronephros is the most immature form of kidney, while the metanephros is most developed. The metanephros persists as the ...
"Kidney Overview". WebMD. Retrieved 2015-12-02. "Key Points: About Dialysis For Kidney Failure". www.kidney.org. National Kidney ... "Fast Facts". The National Kidney Foundation. National Kidney Foundation. 2014-08-12. Retrieved 2016-11-13 - via kidney.org. ... Several insights into kidney function and acute kidney failure were made during the war. One in three American adults are at a ... A wearable artificial kidney is a wearable dialysis machine that a person with end-stage kidney disease could use daily or even ...
Since Page kidney is primarily a unilateral process, symptoms will differ depending on if the patient has native kidneys or not ... The biggest shift in cause comes from kidney allograft biopsy, which now accounts for the majority of Page kidney cases.[ ... In patients with one functioning kidney, prompt diagnosis and surgical treatment are needed to prevent irreversible kidney ... Engel published the first case report on Page kidney. McCune, TR; Stone, WJ; Breyer, JA (November 1991). "Page Kidney: Case ...
... the complete loss of kidney function. Kidney failure is known as the end-stage of kidney disease, where dialysis or a kidney ... Acute kidney disease is now termed acute kidney injury and is marked by the sudden reduction in kidney function over seven days ... Kidney transplants are the surgical procedure of transporting a healthy kidney from a donor into an individual with kidney ... Kidney disease usually causes a loss of kidney function to some degree and can result in kidney failure, ...
... (born 30 June 1871) was an Irish hurler who played as a left half-back for the Cork senior team. Kidney made his ... At club level Kidney won multiple county club championship medalist with Blackrock. His brother, Dinny Kidney, was also an All- ...
The kidneys have an important role in maintaining health. When the person is healthy, the kidneys maintain the body's internal ... Dialysis is used as a temporary measure in either acute kidney injury or in those awaiting kidney transplant and as a permanent ... Dialysis may need to be initiated when there is a sudden rapid loss of kidney function, known as acute kidney injury ( ... thus used to purify the blood from toxins when the kidney is not working normally and also used to treat acute kidney injury ( ...
Kidney may also refer to: Kidney (vertebrates), the kidney organ in vertebrate organisms Kidney (Chinese medicine) Kidney (food ... H-L Kidney Island (Alaska) on List of islands of Alaska Kidney Lake on List of lakes in Carbon County, Montana David Kidney ( ... Look up kidney in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. The kidney in animal anatomy is a part of the urinary system. ... with Kidney All pages with titles containing kidney This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Kidney. ...
... official site Guardian Unlimited Politics - Ask Aristotle: David Kidney MP TheyWorkForYou.com - David Kidney MP ... Kidney is also a school governor for Silkmore Primary School. He supports the football team Port Vale. "Minister Kidney beaten ... "David Kidney biography". davidkidney.com. Archived from the original on 29 March 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2009. "David Kidney: ' ... Following this, Kidney was PPS to Rosie Winterton, then Minister of State for Work and Pensions. He also served as Chair and an ...
... and long shape light speckled kidney bean). Red speckled kidney bean (and long shape light speckled kidney bean). White kidney ... There are different classifications of kidney beans, such as: Red kidney bean (also known as: common kidney bean, rajma in ... The kidney bean is a variety of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). It resembles a human kidney and thus is named after such ... Small kidney beans used in La Rioja, Spain, are called caparrones. In the Netherlands and Indonesia, kidney beans are usually ...
BBC - Kidney in new IRFU Role Declan Kidney Factfile Archived 5 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine Sporting Life Declan Kidney at ... Kidney finished with a record of 28 wins, 3 draws and 22 defeats. In August 2013, Kidney was appointed as the Director of Sport ... Kidney joined London Irish in March 2018 as technical consultant. The roles reunited Kidney with Les Kiss who was appointed ... "IRB awards for McCaw, South Africa & Kidney". BBC Sport. 28 November 2009. Retrieved 30 November 2009. Kidney named Phillips ...
The duration of kidney ischemia does not affect kidney function either in the short term or long term. In patients who get a ... The level of cystatin C is used to determine whether the kidney is functioning well or not since it is removed from the kidney ... Acute kidney ischemia is associated with high mortality. Chronic ischemic kidney disease (CIKD) usually involves loss of renal ... This preconditions the kidney to tolerate subsequent ischemia-induced injuries. This reduces cell lysis and apoptosis of kidney ...
"He Needs a Kidney" on iTunes with all proceeds from the sales going to the National Kidney Foundation. "Kidney Now!" was ... "Kidney Now!" was first read by its cast on March 5, 2009; it was filmed on March 16-17, 2009. "He Needs a Kidney", the charity ... I think we had angles that everyone has two kidneys and you'll only need one kidney, and we thought 'Alright, we'll get some ... Rabin, Nathan (2009-05-14). "Kidney Now!". The A.V. Club. Retrieved 2010-05-28. Sassone, Bob (2009-05-15). "30 Rock: Kidney Now ...
... also known as Kidney Hospital & Lifeline Medical Institutions is located in Waryam Nagar in Jalandhar, Punjab, ... "Kidney Hospital & Lifeline Medical Institutions's Profile". indiaheartbeat.com. Retrieved 4 November 2012. v t e (Articles ...
Kidney stones - deviant orientation of kidneys combined with slow urine flow and kidney obstruction may increase the risk of ... It is estimated 36% of patients with horseshoe kidneys will develop kidney stones. Kidney cancer - increased frequency of ... Horseshoe kidney, also known as ren arcuatus (in Latin), renal fusion or super kidney, is a congenital disorder affecting about ... The fused part is the isthmus of the horseshoe kidney. The abnormal anatomy can affect kidney drainage resulting in increased ...
The structure of the avian kidneys differs from the structure of the mammalian kidneys. The avian kidney is lobulated and ... the nephridia are analogous to the kidneys but nephridia are not kidneys. The first system that could claim to be true kidneys ... Kidneys can also be with a single renal papilla (the unipapillary kidneys), as in mice and rats, with several, as in spider ... The kidneys of birds and mammals have nephrons with loop of Henle. All three types of kidneys are developed from the ...
A supernumerary kidney is an additional kidney to the number usually present in an organism. This often develops as the result ... fused supernumerary kidney). Less than a hundred cases are known of one or two supernumerary kidneys. Supernumerary body part ... Luciano A. Favorito; Ana Raquel M. Morais (May-June 2012). "Evaluation of supernumerary kidney with fusion using magnetic ... metanephric blastemas into which partially or completely reduplicated ureteral stalks enter to form separate capsulated kidneys ...
... a procedure in which a health care professional takes small pieces of tissue from your kidney to look for signs of damage or ... What are the risks of a kidney biopsy?. What is a kidney biopsy?. A kidney biopsy is a procedure in which a health care ... Open kidney biopsy (open surgery). A health care professional makes a small cut in your skin close to your kidney, takes a ... In some cases, a kidney biopsy may be used to examine an abnormal mass, or lump, seen on a kidney x-ray or ultrasound and help ...
Trends in Kidney disease deaths from Health, United States. *QuickStats: Percentage of Adults Aged ≥18 Years with Kidney ... Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Chronic Kidney Disease Initiative. *National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive ... Number of adults aged 18 and over with diagnosed kidney disease: 6.0 million ... Percent of adults aged 18 and over with diagnosed kidney disease: 2.4% ...
... rush to the emergency room with pain caused by a kidney stone. ... Kidney Stone Clues. See your health care provider if you have ... Kidney stones are hard, pebble-like pieces of material that form in one or both kidneys. Theyre caused by high levels of ... Kidney stones can form at any age, but they usually appear during middle age (40s to 60s). Of those who develop one stone, half ... To detect kidney stones, your doctor may order lab or imaging tests. Lab tests look in urine for blood, signs of infection, ...
Rates of many types of severe kidney disease are much higher in Black individuals than most other ethnic groups. Much of this ... Kidney Genomics Series; Population; chronic kidney disease; diabetes mellitus; genetic kidney disease; human; hypertension; ... B) The normal function of APOL1 in human kidneys is not known. Risk variant (RV) APOL1 (red) appears to be cytotoxic to kidney ... APOL1 risk variants increase the risk of many different types of kidney disease in Black individuals. APOL1 risk variants ...
... ® comprises more than 36 million citations for biomedical literature from MEDLINE, life science journals, and online books. Citations may include links to full text content from PubMed Central and publisher web sites.
Find symptoms and other information about Polycystic kidney disease. ... About Polycystic kidney disease. Many rare diseases have limited information. Currently GARD aims to provide the following ... When Do Symptoms of Polycystic kidney disease Begin?. This section is currently in development. ...
Diabetes, high blood pressure, or family history can increase risk of kidney disease. ... Properly functioning kidneys are critical for maintaining good health. ... Kidneys and Urinary Tract (For Parents) (Nemours Foundation) Also in Spanish * Your Kidneys and How They Work (National ... Kidney removal (nephrectomy) - series (Medical Encyclopedia) Also in Spanish * Nephrectomy (Kidney Removal) (Mayo Foundation ...
Health care providers carefully consider the risk of kidney damage when recommending specific HIV medicines to include in an ... Damage to the kidneys can lead to kidney disease (also called renal disease). Kidney disease can advance to kidney failure ... Kidney disease can advance to kidney failure. The treatments for kidney failure are dialysis and a kidney transplant. Both ... kidney disease progresses to kidney failure. The treatments for kidney failure are dialysis and a kidney transplant. Both ...
Known as CKDu, this disease is a progressive and fatal loss of kidney function. It is found mostly among agricultural workers ... An epidemic of chronic kidney disease has emerged that cannot be explained by traditional or known risk factors. ... Chronic kidney disease (CKD) occurs when kidneys are diseased or damaged and no longer able to properly filter blood. Health ... Biomarkers of Kidney Injury Among Nicaraguan Sugarcane Workers. Am J Kidney Dis 67(2): 209-17. [Abstract Laws RL, Brooks DR, ...
... kidney disease. This is when your kidneys can no longer support your bodys needs. ... End-stage kidney disease (ESKD) is the last stage of long-term (chronic) ... KIDNEY TRANSPLANT. A kidney transplant is surgery to place a healthy kidney into a person with kidney failure. Your doctor will ... End-stage kidney disease (ESKD) is the last stage of long-term (chronic) kidney disease. This is when your kidneys can no ...
Acute kidney injury in patients hospitalized with COVID-19. Kidney Int. 2020 Jul. 98 (1):209-218. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full ... Kidney Biopsy. Kidney biopsy should be considered in adult patients with persistent proteinuria (usually, above 1 g per day), ... Kidney disease is associated with in-hospital death of patients with COVID-19. Kidney Int. 2020 May. 97 (5):829-838. [QxMD ... Post-Acute Kidney Injury Proteinuria and Subsequent Kidney Disease Progression: The Assessment, Serial Evaluation, and ...
International expert consultation on chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology  Unknown author (‎World Health Organization, ...
No clinical effects on the kidney are seen at low level exposures. Exposures for long periods of time can damage the kidney, ...
... is a multisystemic and progressive disorder characterized by cyst formation and enlargement in the kidney (see the image below ... Estimation of total kidney volume in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 2015 Nov. 66 (5):792-801. [ ... Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease: the last 3 years. Kidney Int. 2009 Jul. 76 (2):149-68. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. [Full ... Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease in young adults. Clin Kidney J. 2023 Jun. 16 (6):985-995. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. ...
BLOOD AND KIDNEY DETOX arsenicum alb, baptisia, carbo veg, chininum sulph, cinchona, conium, echinacea purp, ferrum met, ... BLOOD AND KIDNEY DETOX- arsenicum alb, baptisia, carbo veg, chininum sulph, cinchona, conium, echinacea purp, ferrum met, ...
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES Kidney diseases and disorders place a substantial burden on individuals and on society in the United States ... This RFA, Kidney Research Centers, is related to the area of diabetes and other chronic disabling conditions. Potential ... Full Text DK-93-09 KIDNEY RESEARCH CENTERS NIH GUIDE, Volume 21, Number 44, December 11, 1992 RFA: DK-93-09 P.T. 04 Keywords: ... FUNDS AVAILABLE The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) expects to award up to two center ...
About 1 in 3 candidates for kidney transplantation has a condition that makes it hard to find matching donor organs. A new ... The treatment could lead to thousands more kidney transplants every year.. For patients with renal failure, kidney transplants ... However, nearly one-third of the people who need a kidney transplant have a condition called HLA-sensitization, which makes it ... They proposed that removing anti-HLA antibodies from the blood might make patients bodies more receptive to donor kidneys. The ...
KIQ020 - Ever told you had weak/failing kidneys. Variable Name: KIQ020. SAS Label: Ever told you had weak/failing kidneys. ... The Kidney section (prefix KIQ) provides personal interview data on kidney disease, prostate disease, urologic symptoms, and ... Kidney Conditions (KIQ) Data File: KIQ.xpt First Published: June 2002. Last Revised: NA ... Have you/Has SP} ever been told by a doctor or other health professional that {you/s/he} had weak or failing kidneys? Do not ...
Polycystic kidney disease is a disorder that affects the kidneys and other organs. Explore symptoms, inheritance, genetics of ... Polycystic kidney disease is a disorder that affects the kidneys and other organs. Clusters of fluid-filled sacs, called cysts ... POLYCYSTIC KIDNEY DISEASE 3 WITH OR WITHOUT POLYCYSTIC LIVER DISEASE. *POLYCYSTIC KIDNEY DISEASE 4 WITH OR WITHOUT POLYCYSTIC ... POLYCYSTIC KIDNEY DISEASE 1 WITH OR WITHOUT POLYCYSTIC LIVER DISEASE. *POLYCYSTIC KIDNEY DISEASE 2 WITH OR WITHOUT POLYCYSTIC ...
For example, vascular grafts allow convenient and rapid access to the bloodstream of kidney disease patients to optimize ... showed that the vessels were safe and well-tolerated when used for dialysis in a group of 60 patients with end-stage kidney ... vessels provided a way to reach the blood so that a dialysis machine could remove the waste normally processed by the kidney. ... dialysis, a mechanical process for cleaning the blood when the kidneys are failing. ...
Acute Kidney Injury in Older Adults (R01) PA-13-141. NIA ... Acute kidney injury increases in-hospital death 3-8 fold and ... limit the kidneys appropriate reparative response to stressors. The specific age-related alterations in kidney structure and ... pathophysiology of AKI in the aging kidney and its impact on chronic kidney disease (CKD) and other organ disease 3) early ... National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). Telephone: 301-594-1409. Email: [email protected] ...
Building on early-stage funding by NIBIB to develop an implantable artificial kidney, researchers at the University of ... Building on early-stage funding by NIBIB to develop an implantable artificial kidney, researchers at the University of ...
Establishes detailed guiding principles for the planning of studies designed to investigate the nephrotoxic effects of exposure to chemicals, whether medicinal, industrial, or environmental. Close to 800 recent reports are ...
Early Kidney Allograft Failure after Simultaneous Liver-Kidney Transplantation (SLKT): Evidence for Utilization of the Safety ... Kidney Allograft Function Is a Confounder of Urine Metabolite Profiles in Kidney Allograft Recipients ... A) Kaplan-Meier plot of patient survival after kidney allograft loss. Median patient survival after kidney allograft loss was ... Belatacept-based immunosuppressive regimen in HIV-positive kidney transplant recipients Clin Kidney J. 2021 Aug;14(8):1908-1914 ...
NIMHD-supported coalition tackles large disparities in accessing kidney transplants for dialysis patients in southeastern U.S. ... Patients with kidney failure have two options to stay alive: a kidney transplant or lifelong dialysis. With dialysis, people ... And although African Americans are overall less likely than White patients to get a kidney transplant, these racial disparities ... Teaming Up to Improve Access to Kidney Transplants for Dialysis Patients ...
NIEHS intramural scientists have defined descriptive terms of particular relevance to their own research, and have ranked those terms accordingly. This search feature obtains best-matches with the terms you choose, and shows an overall score based on the scientific rankings.. View our page to search various areas of interest and methodology.. ...
... Grant Number: 5R01DK099199-05. PI Name: De Boer. Project Title ... D clearance is affected by race and kidney function. To accomplish this aim, we have developed a unique deuterated 25(OH)D3 ... Vitamin D Catabolism in Chronic Kidney Disease. Abstract: Vitamin D clearance is an important and often overlooked aspect of ...
  • If your kidneys fail , you will need dialysis or a kidney transplant . (medlineplus.gov)
  • The treatments for kidney failure are dialysis and a kidney transplant. (nih.gov)
  • ESRD may need to be treated with dialysis or kidney transplant . (nih.gov)
  • Dialysis does some of the job of the kidneys when they stop working well. (nih.gov)
  • Dialysis removes waste from your blood when your kidneys can no longer do their job. (nih.gov)
  • Usually, you will go on dialysis when you have only 10% to 15% of your kidney function left. (nih.gov)
  • Even people who are waiting for a kidney transplant may need dialysis while waiting. (nih.gov)
  • End-stage kidney disease leads to death if you do not have dialysis or a kidney transplant. (nih.gov)
  • For patients with renal failure, kidney transplants often offer improved survival and quality of life compared to dialysis. (nih.gov)
  • For example, vascular grafts allow convenient and rapid access to the bloodstream of kidney disease patients to optimize dialysis, a mechanical process for cleaning the blood when the kidneys are failing. (nih.gov)
  • Advanced stages of CKD usually require lifetime dialysis or a kidney transplant to increase survival by a few years. (medicinenet.com)
  • dialysis, and kidney transplantation patients. (nih.gov)
  • Patients with advanced kidney disease who have been on dialysis for a long time may develop renal cell cancer. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • Her husband, Justin Griner, 39, discovered his kidneys were failing before Sammy was born, but he now spends about four hours a day three days a week undergoing dialysis , Griner told ABC News, adding that the longer he's on it, the greater his risk of complications. (go.com)
  • Justin Griner, Sammy's dad, has been on dialysis for six years and needs a kidney transplant. (go.com)
  • Acquired cystic kidney disease may develop in association with long-term kidney problems, especially in people who have kidney failure and who have been on dialysis for a long time. (nationwidechildrens.org)
  • Twenty-six million Americans suffer from kidney disease - that's one in 10 - and West Virginia has the highest per capita rate in the country of patients with kidney failure starting dialysis. (washingtontimes.com)
  • Currently, the father of three is undergoing 10-hour daily dialysis treatments while he awaits a kidney donation. (delcotimes.com)
  • By August, his kidney function dropped to 4% and he underwent surgery at Lankenau Hospital to implant a port so he could begin dialysis in September. (delcotimes.com)
  • People with kidney failure undergo either dialysis, an artificial blood-cleaning process, or transplantation to receive a healthy kidney from a donor. (healthyplace.com)
  • I'm glad to say my mindset is back to where it was and I try and remind myself that medical technology is moving so fast, and I am hopeful that there will be significant breakthroughs for those of us living with kidney disease, awaiting a transplant or going through dialysis. (kidney.ca)
  • Although she received a kidney transplant three years later, 'that kidney has petered out, and Jenna has started dialysis again,' the page writes. (aol.com)
  • My dad died at 28 years old from kidney disease, and my daughter is on dialysis,' the mother told KTLA. (aol.com)
  • When Do Symptoms of Polycystic kidney disease Begin? (nih.gov)
  • Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (ADPKD): Report from a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Controversies Conference, published in 2015. (medscape.com)
  • Consensus document on autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease from the Spanish Working Group on Inherited Kidney Diseases. (medscape.com)
  • Cornec-Le Gall E, Alam A, Perrone RD. Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. (medscape.com)
  • Volume progression in polycystic kidney disease. (medscape.com)
  • Blood pressure in early autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. (medscape.com)
  • Autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD): executive summary from a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Controversies Conference. (medscape.com)
  • Evaluation of ultrasonographic diagnostic criteria for autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease 1. (medscape.com)
  • Extended follow-up of unruptured intracranial aneurysms detected by presymptomatic screening in patients with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. (medscape.com)
  • Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease: the last 3 years. (medscape.com)
  • Matching clinical and genetic diagnoses in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease reveals novel phenocopies and potential candidate genes. (medscape.com)
  • Polycystic kidney disease is a disorder that affects the kidneys and other organs. (nih.gov)
  • Frequent complications of polycystic kidney disease include dangerously high blood pressure ( hypertension ), pain in the back or sides, blood in the urine (hematuria), recurrent urinary tract infections, kidney stones , and heart valve abnormalities. (nih.gov)
  • The two major forms of polycystic kidney disease are distinguished by the usual age of onset and the pattern in which it is passed through families. (nih.gov)
  • Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease can be further divided into type 1 and type 2, depending on the genetic cause. (nih.gov)
  • The autosomal recessive form of polycystic kidney disease (sometimes called ARPKD) is much rarer and is often lethal early in life. (nih.gov)
  • Polycystic kidney disease is a fairly common genetic disorder. (nih.gov)
  • Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease affects 1 in 500 to 1,000 people, while the autosomal recessive type occurs in an estimated 1 in 20,000 to 40,000 people. (nih.gov)
  • Mutations in the PKD1 , PKD2 , and PKHD1 genes cause polycystic kidney disease. (nih.gov)
  • Mutations in the PKHD1 gene cause autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease. (nih.gov)
  • Researchers have not determined how mutations in the PKHD1 gene lead to the formation of numerous cysts characteristic of polycystic kidney disease. (nih.gov)
  • Although polycystic kidney disease is usually a genetic disorder, a small percentage of cases are not caused by gene mutations. (nih.gov)
  • These cases are called acquired polycystic kidney disease. (nih.gov)
  • Most cases of polycystic kidney disease have an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance. (nih.gov)
  • What is Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD)? (nationwidechildrens.org)
  • Polycystic kidney disease is a genetic disorder characterized by the growth of numerous cysts filled with fluid in the kidneys. (nationwidechildrens.org)
  • This is the most common inherited form of polycystic kidney disease, accounting for about 90 percent of all PKD cases. (nationwidechildrens.org)
  • Autosomal recessive PKD is a rare, inherited form of polycystic kidney disease thought to be caused by a particular genetic flaw that is different from the genetic flaw that causes autosomal dominant PKD. (nationwidechildrens.org)
  • Autosomal dominant PKD is often called the adult polycystic kidney disease. (nationwidechildrens.org)
  • A kidney transplant is surgery to place a healthy kidney from a donor into the body of a person with kidney failure. (nih.gov)
  • They will want to make sure that you are a good candidate for kidney transplant. (nih.gov)
  • However, nearly one-third of the people who need a kidney transplant have a condition called HLA-sensitization, which makes it hard to find a matching donor organ. (nih.gov)
  • Father of child in popular meme hoping for kidney transplant. (go.com)
  • That baby is now an 8-year-old boy named Sammy Griner, and his father needs a kidney transplant. (go.com)
  • As of April 3, there were 101,707 people waiting for a kidney transplant in the United States, according to the Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network, which is under contract with the federal government to allocate organs. (go.com)
  • Without that happening, how much could I get this recognition about my husband's kidney transplant? (go.com)
  • According to Mertens' daughter, Kayla Matten, none of her fathers' relatives was a match for a kidney transplant. (abcactionnews.com)
  • Chronic kidney disease damages the nephrons slowly over several years. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Slowly worsening kidney disease is called chronic kidney disease. (nih.gov)
  • Chronic kidney disease (CKD) occurs when kidneys are diseased or damaged and no longer able to properly filter blood. (nih.gov)
  • Over the last few decades, a unique epidemic of chronic kidney disease has emerged that cannot be explained by traditional or known risk factors. (nih.gov)
  • Referred to here as chronic kidney disease of uncertain (or unknown) origin (CKDu), this disease is also known as Mesoamerican Nephropathy (MeN) or CKD of non-traditional origin (CKDnt). (nih.gov)
  • End-stage kidney disease (ESKD) is the last stage of long-term (chronic) kidney disease . (nih.gov)
  • ESRD almost always comes after chronic kidney disease. (nih.gov)
  • You may need to continue following a special diet for chronic kidney disease . (nih.gov)
  • Figure Legend: Figure 1 Kidney - Infarct in a female F344/N rat from a chronic study. (nih.gov)
  • Figure 3 Kidney - Infarct in a female B6C3F1 mouse from a chronic study. (nih.gov)
  • This RFA, Kidney Research Centers, is related to the area of diabetes and other chronic disabling conditions. (nih.gov)
  • Several factors likely contribute to this rise in AKI incidence including more aggressive surgical and medical treatments, increasing numbers of chronic and comorbid illnesses, greater use of nephrotoxic medications and imaging agents, aging of the population, and longer exposure to chronic diseases and nephrotoxins, all of which may be associated with direct or vascular-related kidney injury. (nih.gov)
  • What Is Hypertension-Induced Chronic Kidney Disease? (medicinenet.com)
  • Hypertension -induced chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a long-standing kidney condition that develops over time due to persistent or uncontrolled high blood pressure ( hypertension ). (medicinenet.com)
  • What are the signs and symptoms of hypertension-induced chronic kidney disease? (medicinenet.com)
  • Early chronic kidney disease (CKD) also may not have symptoms. (medicinenet.com)
  • How do doctors diagnose hypertension-induced chronic kidney disease? (medicinenet.com)
  • Anyone who has high blood pressure is more likely to develop chronic kidney disease (CKD) in the absence of treatment. (medicinenet.com)
  • There is no cure for hypertension-induced chronic kidney disease (CKD). (medicinenet.com)
  • Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a significant risk factor for premature cardiovascular disease and death. (nih.gov)
  • In certain chronic pathologic states, the kidney is frequently enlarged and is extensively supplied by neovascularization. (ivis.org)
  • Scientists have identified three biological markers, all found in the blood, that can help predict a person's risk of developing chronic kidney disease. (livescience.com)
  • People with elevated levels of two of these markers were 2.4 times more likely to develop chronic kidney disease nine and a half years later than those with normal levels. (livescience.com)
  • These markers could be used along with known risk factors for chronic kidney disease, such as high blood pressure and diabetes , to improve doctors' ability to predict who will develop this condition. (livescience.com)
  • In chronic kidney disease, the kidneys gradually lose their ability to do their job, that is, to remove waste and excess water from the body. (livescience.com)
  • By this time, 9 percent had developed chronic kidney disease, and 8 percent had macroalbuminuria. (livescience.com)
  • In the blood samples taken at the study's start, the researchers found elevated levels of two markers associated with the later development of chronic kidney disease. (livescience.com)
  • It's possible that reducing levels of homocysteine, or interfering with the processes that involve the other markers, may decrease the risk of chronic kidney disease, the researchers say. (livescience.com)
  • Kidney failure is the final stage of chronic kidney disease (CKD). (healthyplace.com)
  • The AJMC ® Chronic Kidney Disease compendium is a comprehensive resource for clinical news and expert insights on the condition and treatment of loss of kidney function. (ajmc.com)
  • I can't over-emphasize the importance of drinking plenty of water, because that's the most effective way of preventing kidney stone disease. (nih.gov)
  • Rates of many types of severe kidney disease are much higher in Black individuals than most other ethnic groups. (nih.gov)
  • These variants greatly increase rates of hypertension-associated ESKD, FSGS, HIV-associated nephropathy, and other forms of nondiabetic kidney disease. (nih.gov)
  • We then consider clinical issues that arise for the practicing nephrologist caring for the patient who may have APOL1 kidney disease. (nih.gov)
  • You have a higher risk of kidney disease if you have diabetes , high blood pressure , or a close family member with kidney disease. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Your doctor can do blood and urine tests to check if you have kidney disease. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Low Phosphorus Diet: Helpful for Kidney Disease? (medlineplus.gov)
  • Injury or disease, including HIV infection, can damage the kidneys and lead to kidney disease. (nih.gov)
  • High blood pressure and diabetes are the leading causes of kidney disease. (nih.gov)
  • In people with HIV, poorly controlled HIV infection and coinfection with the hepatitis C virus (HCV) also increase the risk of kidney disease. (nih.gov)
  • Kidney disease can advance to kidney failure. (nih.gov)
  • Injury or disease, including HIV infection, can damage the kidneys. (nih.gov)
  • Damage to the kidneys can lead to kidney disease (also called renal disease). (nih.gov)
  • Kidney disease can advance to kidney failure known as end-stage renal disease . (nih.gov)
  • What are the causes of kidney disease? (nih.gov)
  • Other factors that increase the risk of kidney disease include heart disease and a family history of kidney failure. (nih.gov)
  • A person's risk of kidney disease increases as they get older. (nih.gov)
  • The longer a person has diabetes, high blood pressure, or heart disease, the greater their risk of kidney disease. (nih.gov)
  • Are people with HIV at risk for kidney disease? (nih.gov)
  • The risk factors for kidney disease in people with HIV include all those listed above. (nih.gov)
  • If a person with HIV shows signs of kidney disease, their health care provider may adjust the dose of their HIV medicines or change which HIV medicines are included in their treatment regimen. (nih.gov)
  • What are the symptoms of kidney disease? (nih.gov)
  • Kidney disease can advance very slowly. (nih.gov)
  • As kidney disease gets worse, a person may have swelling of the legs, feet, or ankles (called edema). (nih.gov)
  • Blood and urine tests are used to detect kidney disease. (nih.gov)
  • Care for people with HIV includes testing for kidney disease. (nih.gov)
  • What is the treatment for kidney disease? (nih.gov)
  • People with kidney disease can take steps to protect their kidneys from further damage. (nih.gov)
  • For example, many people with kidney disease take medicines to control high blood pressure. (nih.gov)
  • They may also reduce the amount of salt and protein in their diet to manage their kidney disease. (nih.gov)
  • in others, kidney disease progresses to kidney failure. (nih.gov)
  • It occurs in the absence of conditions known to cause kidney disease, like diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, and infections. (nih.gov)
  • End-stage kidney disease is also called end-stage renal disease (ESRD). (nih.gov)
  • The kidneys may slowly stop working during a period of 10 to 20 years before end-stage disease results. (nih.gov)
  • Some people may benefit from taking part in a kidney disease support group . (nih.gov)
  • All patients with evidence of glomerular disease or any reduction in kidney function should be referred to a nephrologist. (medscape.com)
  • Mutations in GANAB, Encoding the Glucosidase IIα Subunit, Cause Autosomal-Dominant Polycystic Kidney and Liver Disease. (medscape.com)
  • Clinical spectrum, prognosis and estimated prevalence of DNAJB11-kidney disease. (medscape.com)
  • The Kidney section (prefix KIQ) provides personal interview data on kidney disease, prostate disease, urologic symptoms, and rectal examinations. (cdc.gov)
  • All participants 20 years of age and older are asked a question about kidney disease and bladder control (KIQ020). (cdc.gov)
  • This form of the disorder occurs most often in people with other types of kidney disease who have been treated for several years with hemodialysis (a procedure that filters waste products from the blood). (nih.gov)
  • People who have certain inherited conditions , such as von Hippel-Lindau disease, have a higher risk of kidney cancer. (cancer.org)
  • It is important to tell your doctor if any of your family members (blood relatives) has or had kidney cancer, especially at a younger age, or if they have been diagnosed with an inherited condition linked to this cancer, such as von Hippel-Lindau disease. (cancer.org)
  • Increased consumption of vegetable protein may be associated with increased survival among people with kidney disease, according to new research. (nutraingredients-usa.com)
  • Large doses of vitamin E could become an important treatment for kidney disease in the future, new research by the UCI College of Medicine suggests. (nutraingredients-usa.com)
  • However, kidney cancer is more prevalent among males, and the disease may be more aggressive. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) , more than 41,000 males and 24,000 females get kidney cancer every year. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • More males than females receive a diagnosis of kidney cancer, and the disease is often more aggressive. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is a known risk factor for kidney cancer and kidney disease, and it is more common in males than in females. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Secondly, hypertension is a risk factor for kidney disease, and impaired kidney function can increase the risk of kidney cancer. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The Broad's Kidney Disease Initiative (KDI) aims to uncover the molecular causes of kidney diseases in order to develop precision, mechanism-based therapies. (broadinstitute.org)
  • Another area of intense focus is MUC1 kidney disease (MKD), a rare genetic condition with no cure. (broadinstitute.org)
  • Gedney has been living with kidney disease since 1997, but it wasn't until 2007 she came face to face with a life altering decision. (washingtontimes.com)
  • After spending a year abroad, Gedney's kidney disease had improved by 50 percent, a miracle she credits to the clean living in Ecuador. (washingtontimes.com)
  • Unlike those with healthy kidneys, Gedney said people that suffer from kidney disease are incapable of removing harmful phosphorus from the blood stream. (washingtontimes.com)
  • One of things that triggered my kidney disease was the chemicals in the water here … because phosphates aren't regulated in the water. (washingtontimes.com)
  • These were homocysteine, a molecule that builds proteins and is also associated with cardiovascular disease , and aldosterone, a hormone that affects the way the kidneys handle salt. (livescience.com)
  • Eventually Rich was diagnosed with focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, a rare, genetic disease that affects the filters in kidneys and causes kidney failure. (delcotimes.com)
  • Info on diabetes kidney disease complications - diagnosis, causes, treatments and diabetes and kidney failure. (healthyplace.com)
  • Even when diabetes is controlled, the disease can lead to CKD and kidney failure. (healthyplace.com)
  • Nor can they explain fully the interplay of factors leading to kidney disease of diabetes-factors including heredity, diet, and other medical conditions, such as high blood pressure. (healthyplace.com)
  • Diabetic kidney disease takes many years to develop. (healthyplace.com)
  • Over several years, people who are developing kidney disease will have small amounts of the blood protein albumin begin to leak into their urine. (healthyplace.com)
  • People with diabetes should be screened regularly for kidney disease. (healthyplace.com)
  • The two key markers for kidney disease are eGFR and urine albumin. (healthyplace.com)
  • Kidney disease is present when eGFR is less than 60 milliliters per minute. (healthyplace.com)
  • Kidney disease is present when urine contains more than 30 milligrams of albumin per gram of creatinine, with or without decreased eGFR. (healthyplace.com)
  • Since being diagnosed I've lived a fantastic life and never let my kidney disease prevent me from achieving goals - work and life wise. (kidney.ca)
  • The most important lesson I've learned whilst living with kidney disease is to be kind to yourself. (kidney.ca)
  • Other people can benefit greatly from hearing about your experience with kidney disease. (kidney.ca)
  • Kidney stones are hard, pebble-like pieces of material that form in one or both kidneys. (nih.gov)
  • Everyone is at some risk for developing kidney stones. (nih.gov)
  • Kidney stones can form at any age, but they usually appear during middle age (40s to 60s). (nih.gov)
  • To detect kidney stones, your doctor may order lab or imaging tests. (nih.gov)
  • There are different procedures for breaking up or removing kidney stones. (nih.gov)
  • NIH-supported scientists are studying ways to prevent kidney stones from returning. (nih.gov)
  • Other NIH-funded studies are trying to unravel why some people seem more at risk of developing kidney stones. (nih.gov)
  • Don't let the pain of kidney stones send you to the emergency room. (nih.gov)
  • Do not include kidney stones, bladder infections, or incontinence. (cdc.gov)
  • Start here for more information about kidney stones. (hartfordhealthcare.org)
  • But many things other than kidney cancer cause blood in the urine, including urinary tract infections, bladder infections, bladder cancer, and benign (non-cancerous) kidney conditions such as kidney stones. (cancer.org)
  • Anna Kendrick is recovering after being hospitalized with kidney stones . (people.com)
  • So, I need to give a shout out to the Atlanta doctors and nurses who helped me through my first experience with kidney stones when I was at my most vulnerable and terrified," she tweeted on Friday. (people.com)
  • Kidney stones are hard clumps of minerals and salt that form in the kidneys, causing severe pain, according to the Mayo Clinic . (people.com)
  • There's no one cause of kidney stones and several different factors, including family history, urinary tract infections and diet, can lead to the painful issue. (people.com)
  • A series of X-rays of the kidney, ureters, and bladder with the injection of a contrast dye into the vein to detect tumors, abnormalities, kidney stones, or any obstructions, and to assess renal blood flow. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • A kidney biopsy can help health care professionals diagnose and treat kidney problems when they need more information after looking at your blood and urine tests. (nih.gov)
  • People with ESRD will make much less urine, or their kidneys no longer make urine. (nih.gov)
  • Exposures for long periods of time can damage the kidney, causing protein and sugar to leak from the blood into the urine. (cdc.gov)
  • These include high blood pressure, abnormal protein in your urine (a sign of kidney damage), and anxiety and depression. (webmd.com)
  • A routine urine test (urinalysis), which is sometimes part of a complete medical checkup, may find small amounts of blood in the urine of some people with early kidney cancer. (cancer.org)
  • Sometimes people with kidney cancer do not have blood in their urine until the cancer is quite large and might have spread to other parts of the body. (cancer.org)
  • When kidneys are damaged, they can no longer carry out their function of removing wastes and extra fluids from the body through the urine. (medicinenet.com)
  • Proteinuria (persistent protein) in the urine is a sign of kidney damage. (medicinenet.com)
  • And those with elevated levels of all three markers were 3.4 times more likely to develop high levels of protein in the urine, a condition known as macroalbuminuria, which is a sign of worsening kidney function. (livescience.com)
  • As the amount of albumin in the urine increases, the kidneys' filtering function usually begins to drop. (healthyplace.com)
  • When the kidneys are healthy, the urine will contain large amounts of creatinine but almost no albumin. (healthyplace.com)
  • The ADA and the NIH recommend annual assessment of urine albumin excretion to assess kidney damage in all people with type 2 diabetes and people who have had type 1 diabetes for 5 years or more. (healthyplace.com)
  • They proposed that removing anti-HLA antibodies from the blood might make patients' bodies more receptive to donor kidneys. (nih.gov)
  • MIDDLETOWN - Rich Green is searching for a kidney donor. (delcotimes.com)
  • He is listed on the National Kidney Registry, but hopes for someone to come forward as a live donor. (delcotimes.com)
  • When Karol Franks' 29-year-old daughter, Jenna, was diagnosed with kidney failure, the family tried everything to find a donor. (aol.com)
  • ALG9 Mutation Carriers Develop Kidney and Liver Cysts. (medscape.com)
  • Patients with hereditary papillary renal cell carcinoma, hereditary leiomyoma-renal cell carcinoma, and hereditary renal oncocytoma are more likely to develop kidney cancer. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • Studies suggest that males are twice as likely as females to develop kidney cancer, although the reasons for this difference remain unclear. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • In addition, males with hypertension are 1.32 times more likely to develop kidney cancer. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Most U.S. citizens who develop kidney failure are eligible for federally funded care. (healthyplace.com)
  • The risk of kidney failure is especially high among African Americans, Hispanics, and American Indians, partially because these communities have high rates of diabetes and high blood pressure. (nih.gov)
  • FUNDS AVAILABLE The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) expects to award up to two center grants (P50) in FY 1993 for research into kidney disorders. (nih.gov)
  • The study was partially funded by NIH's National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). (nih.gov)
  • Hypertension is the second leading cause of kidney failure in the United States after diabetes . (medicinenet.com)
  • Diabetes is the leading cause of kidney failure. (healthyplace.com)
  • Diabetes is the most common cause of kidney failure, accounting for nearly 44 percent of new cases. (healthyplace.com)
  • Most people with diabetes do not develop CKD that is severe enough to progress to kidney failure. (healthyplace.com)
  • Nearly 24 million people in the United States have diabetes, and nearly 180,000 people are living with kidney failure as a result of diabetes. (healthyplace.com)
  • African Americans, American Indians, and Hispanics/Latinos develop diabetes , CKD, and kidney failure at rates higher than Caucasians. (healthyplace.com)
  • They have found that high blood pressure and high levels of blood glucose increase the risk that a person with diabetes will progress to kidney failure. (healthyplace.com)
  • In some people, the filtering function of the kidneys is actually higher than normal in the first few years of their diabetes. (healthyplace.com)
  • Overall, kidney damage rarely occurs in the first 10 years of diabetes, and usually, 15 to 25 years will pass before kidney failure occurs. (healthyplace.com)
  • For people who live with diabetes for more than 25 years without any signs of kidney failure, the risk of ever developing it decreases. (healthyplace.com)
  • Even a small increase in the ratio of albumin to creatinine is a sign of kidney damage. (healthyplace.com)
  • A devastating public health problem, CKDu is a progressive and fatal loss of kidney function. (nih.gov)
  • The rate at which cysts enlarge and cause a loss of kidney function varies widely, and may be influenced by mutations in other genes that have not been identified. (nih.gov)
  • The autosomal dominant form (sometimes called ADPKD) has signs and symptoms that typically begin in adulthood, although cysts in the kidney are often present from birth or childhood. (nih.gov)
  • The signs and symptoms, including a decline in kidney function, tend to appear later in adulthood in people with a PKD2 mutation. (nih.gov)
  • What are the symptoms of kidney cancer in males? (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The symptoms of kidney cancer are similar for males and females. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • This article describes the common symptoms and possible causes of kidney cancer in males. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The kidneys are two fist-sized organs in the body that are located near the middle of the back on either side of the spine. (nih.gov)
  • The kidneys are two fist-sized organs in the body. (nih.gov)
  • Kidneys are vital organs that filter waste and toxins from the blood. (nih.gov)
  • About 1 in 3 candidates for kidney transplantation has a condition that causes their bodies to immediately reject transplanted organs. (nih.gov)
  • which disrupt the normal functions of the kidneys and other organs. (nih.gov)
  • Kidney cancer begins in the kidneys--two large, bean-shaped organs--one located to the left, and the other to the right of the backbone. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • People with PKD can also have cysts in the liver and problems in other organs, such as the heart and blood vessels in the brain.The NKF states that about 50 percent of people with autosomal dominant form of PKD progress to kidney failure by age 60, and about 60 percent will have kidney failure by age 70. (nationwidechildrens.org)
  • Most kidney diseases attack the nephrons. (medlineplus.gov)
  • and (3) to extend the development of innovative clinical and epidemiologic studies of the causes, therapy, and possible prevention of kidney diseases and disorders. (nih.gov)
  • RESEARCH OBJECTIVES Kidney diseases and disorders place a substantial burden on individuals and on society in the United States. (nih.gov)
  • Kidney diseases affect more than 850 million people worldwide, and yet no new therapies have been developed in the last few decades. (broadinstitute.org)
  • Our work on focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) and nephrotic syndrome, the most common cause of kidney failure in children and adolescents, led to the discovery of a TRPC5 ion channel inhibitor as the first targeted, mechanism-based therapeutic strategy for these debilitating diseases. (broadinstitute.org)
  • Although there is no determined cause of kidney cancer, studies indicate that smokers are more likely than non-smokers to develop cancer and that there may be a genetic component. (bcm.edu)
  • As a 2021 article explains, kidney cancers arise when genetic mutations make kidney cells grow abnormally. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Genetic mutations can have different causes, and most people will not find out the cause of their kidney cancer. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Genetic differences between males and females could also explain disparities in the genetic mutations causing kidney cancer. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Automated alerts for AKI can increase the rate of cessation of potentially nephrotoxic medications without endangering patients," said F. Perry Wilson, MD, at Kidney Week 2022, organized by the American Society of Nephrology. (medscape.com)
  • Other types of cancers can develop in the kidneys, but they are less common. (bcm.edu)
  • Many kidney cancers are found fairly early, while they are still limited to the kidney, but others are found at a more advanced stage. (cancer.org)
  • Some tests can find some kidney cancers early, but none of these is recommended to screen for kidney cancer in people at average risk. (cancer.org)
  • Imaging tests such as computed tomography (CT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans can often find small kidney cancers, but these tests are expensive. (cancer.org)
  • Ultrasound is less expensive and can also detect some early kidney cancers. (cancer.org)
  • Often, kidney cancers are found by accident during imaging tests for some other illness or symptom. (cancer.org)
  • The survival rate for these kidney cancers is very high because they are usually found at a very early stage. (cancer.org)
  • Kidney cancers that are found early with these tests can often be cured. (cancer.org)
  • Most cancers are named after the part of the body where the cancer first begins, and kidney cancer is no exception. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • According to the American Cancer Society (ACS), about 81,800 people in the U.S. are expected to be diagnosed with kidney and renal pelvic cancers in 2023. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • Worldwide, kidney cancer accounts for about 5% of cancers in males and 3% of cancers in females. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • In some cases, a kidney biopsy may be used to examine an abnormal mass, or lump, seen on a kidney x-ray or ultrasound and help rule out kidney cancer. (nih.gov)
  • and 8) abnormal kidney drained by an ectopic ureter. (ivis.org)
  • But blood tests for creatinine levels appear abnormal only after the kidneys have already lost a lot of their function, said study researcher Dr. Caroline Fox, of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's Framingham Heart Study, in Framingham, Mass. (livescience.com)
  • Other strategies involve inserting a tool into the body, either through the urinary tract or directly into the kidney through surgery. (nih.gov)
  • Non-proliferative lesions of the kidney and lower urinary tract in rats. (nih.gov)
  • For a patient with a tumor localized in the kidney, the standard of care would be a surgical procedure called a radical nephrectomy (removal of the kidney and adrenal gland). (bcm.edu)
  • Nephrectomy is seldom performed when the architecture and vascular supply of the kidney are normal. (ivis.org)
  • The low-carbohydrate, high-protein diets which have become popular in recent years may be good at helping people lose weight rapidly, but they could also be damaging their kidneys and their bones, according to researchers at the University. (nutraingredients-usa.com)
  • The kidney biopsy is usually performed by a radiologist or nephrologist at a hospital or outpatient center. (nih.gov)
  • Your doctor may refer you to a kidney specialist (nephrologist) to treat your hypertension-induced CKD. (medicinenet.com)
  • The growth of cysts causes the kidneys to become enlarged and can lead to kidney failure. (nih.gov)
  • Both treatments are used to treat kidney failure in people with HIV. (nih.gov)
  • Kibow Biotech has been granted patents for a probiotic dietary supplement it is positioning as an alternative treatment for kidney failure. (nutraingredients-usa.com)
  • Fluid buildup in the blood vessels, due to the damaged kidney, can increase your blood pressure , even more, creating a dangerous cycle that can lead to permanent kidney failure . (medicinenet.com)
  • Sammy's dad, Justin, has been in kidney failure since before he was born. (go.com)
  • About 50 percent of people with autosomal dominant form of PKD progress to kidney failure by age 60, and about 60 percent will have kidney failure by age 70. (nationwidechildrens.org)
  • PKD cysts can reduce kidney function, leading to kidney failure. (nationwidechildrens.org)
  • Each year in the United States, more than 100,000 people are diagnosed with kidney failure, a serious condition in which the kidneys fail to rid the body of wastes. (healthyplace.com)
  • In 2005, care for patients with kidney failure cost the United States nearly $32 billion. (healthyplace.com)
  • Unfortunately, Karol Franks says they've had to deal with kidney failure in the family before. (aol.com)
  • Kidney function declines as people age. (nih.gov)
  • The two proteins work together to promote normal kidney development, organization, and function. (nih.gov)
  • Intake of tocotrienol-rich vitamin E for 12 weeks can improve the renal function of diabetic patients with damaged kidney, and the results persist even nine months after the washout period, a randomised-controlled trial in Malaysia has shown. (nutraingredients-usa.com)
  • It is a measure to estimate the level of kidney function. (medicinenet.com)
  • The diagnosis of these conditions and assessment of adequate function of the contralateral kidney are described elsewhere. (ivis.org)
  • Currently, doctors assess kidney function by looking at levels of the compound creatinine in the blood. (livescience.com)
  • Between 2005 and 2008, the participants had their kidney function checked. (livescience.com)
  • ORLANDO, Florida - Automated alerts sent to clinicians via patients' electronic health records (EHRs) identified patients with diagnosable acute kidney injury (AKI) who were taking one or more medications that could potentially further worsen their renal function. (medscape.com)
  • Kidney function can be checked by estimating how much blood the glomeruli filter in a minute. (healthyplace.com)
  • Most kidney donors get back to their normal, healthy lives, though you should review your personal risks with your doctor. (webmd.com)
  • Firstly, medications for hypertension may increase the risk of kidney cancer. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Each year, more than 1 million people in the U.S. rush to the emergency room with pain caused by a kidney stone. (nih.gov)
  • There are no recommended screening tests for kidney cancer in people who are not at increased risk. (cancer.org)
  • Doctors often recommend that these people get regular imaging tests such as CT, MRI, or ultrasound scans at younger ages, to look for kidney tumors. (cancer.org)
  • Typically afflicted people have to simply wait out a kidney stone until they pass through the urinary system and can take medication to manage the pain, but in some cases they require surgery. (people.com)
  • A series of X-rays with the injection of a contrast dye into a catheter, which is placed into the blood vessels of the kidney, to detect any signs of blockage or abnormalities affecting the blood supply to the kidneys. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • Because the kidneys are deep inside the body, small kidney tumors cannot be seen or felt during a physical exam. (cancer.org)
  • By last summer, he was put on medication to control his potassium and phosphorous since his kidneys were unable to get rid of excess levels of those on their own. (delcotimes.com)
  • ESRD occurs when the kidneys are no longer able to work at a level needed for day-to-day life. (nih.gov)
  • Exposure to TCE increases the risk for getting kidney cancer. (cdc.gov)
  • Smoking increases the risk of kidney cancer. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • This Funding Opportunity Announcement (FOA) invites applications that propose basic, clinical, translational and outcomes research on acute kidney injury (AKI) in older persons. (nih.gov)
  • Among all age groups, older adults are the most vulnerable to develop acute kidney injury (AKI), defined as a precipitous decline in glomerular filtration rate (GFR). (nih.gov)
  • Doctors usually confirm kidney damage on encountering low levels of GFR. (medicinenet.com)
  • He was seen by doctors who thought he may be having minor kidney troubles. (delcotimes.com)
  • Both treatments take over the job of the failed kidneys. (nih.gov)
  • Estrogen levels decline as females age, which may explain why females are usually older than males at the time of kidney cancer diagnosis. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Persistent hypertension can narrow the blood vessels in the whole body, including the kidney. (medicinenet.com)
  • Hypertension also has indirect links with kidney cancer. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The treatment could lead to thousands more kidney transplants every year. (nih.gov)
  • Of the 29,531 kidney transplants that took place in 2014, 23,715 were from living donors, according to OPTN. (go.com)