A generic term for any circumscribed mass of foreign (e.g., lead or viruses) or metabolically inactive materials (e.g., ceroid or MALLORY BODIES), within the cytoplasm or nucleus of a cell. Inclusion bodies are in cells infected with certain filtrable viruses, observed especially in nerve, epithelial, or endothelial cells. (Stedman, 25th ed)
An area showing altered staining behavior in the nucleus or cytoplasm of a virus-infected cell. Some inclusion bodies represent "virus factories" in which viral nucleic acid or protein is being synthesized; others are merely artifacts of fixation and staining. One example, Negri bodies, are found in the cytoplasm or processes of nerve cells in animals that have died from rabies.
Circumscribed masses of foreign or metabolically inactive materials, within the CELL NUCLEUS. Some are VIRAL INCLUSION BODIES.
Virus diseases caused by the ADENOVIRIDAE.
A genus of the family HERPESVIRIDAE, subfamily ALPHAHERPESVIRINAE. Its species include those causing CHICKENPOX and HERPES ZOSTER in humans (HERPESVIRUS 3, HUMAN), as well as several animal viruses.
Virus diseases caused by the HERPESVIRIDAE.
A family of enveloped, linear, double-stranded DNA viruses infecting a wide variety of animals. Subfamilies, based on biological characteristics, include: ALPHAHERPESVIRINAE; BETAHERPESVIRINAE; and GAMMAHERPESVIRINAE.
Progressive myopathies characterized by the presence of inclusion bodies on muscle biopsy. Sporadic and hereditary forms have been described. The sporadic form is an acquired, adult-onset inflammatory vacuolar myopathy affecting proximal and distal muscles. Familial forms usually begin in childhood and lack inflammatory changes. Both forms feature intracytoplasmic and intranuclear inclusions in muscle tissue. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp1409-10)
Microscopy using an electron beam, instead of light, to visualize the sample, thereby allowing much greater magnification. The interactions of ELECTRONS with specimens are used to provide information about the fine structure of that specimen. In TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY the reactions of the electrons that are transmitted through the specimen are imaged. In SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY an electron beam falls at a non-normal angle on the specimen and the image is derived from the reactions occurring above the plane of the specimen.
An autosomal dominant hereditary disease that presents in late in life and is characterized by DYSPHAGIA and progressive ptosis of the eyelids. Mutations in the gene for POLY(A)-BINDING PROTEIN II have been associated with oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy.
An increased number of contiguous trinucleotide repeats in the DNA sequence from one generation to the next. The presence of these regions is associated with diseases such as FRAGILE X SYNDROME and MYOTONIC DYSTROPHY. Some CHROMOSOME FRAGILE SITES are composed of sequences where trinucleotide repeat expansion occurs.
An order of BIRDS comprised of several families and more than 300 species. It includes COCKATOOS; PARROTS; PARAKEETS; macaws; and BUDGERIGARS.
A familial disorder inherited as an autosomal dominant trait and characterized by the onset of progressive CHOREA and DEMENTIA in the fourth or fifth decade of life. Common initial manifestations include paranoia; poor impulse control; DEPRESSION; HALLUCINATIONS; and DELUSIONS. Eventually intellectual impairment; loss of fine motor control; ATHETOSIS; and diffuse chorea involving axial and limb musculature develops, leading to a vegetative state within 10-15 years of disease onset. The juvenile variant has a more fulminant course including SEIZURES; ATAXIA; dementia; and chorea. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp1060-4)
A dominantly-inherited ATAXIA first described in people of Azorean and Portuguese descent, and subsequently identified in Brazil, Japan, China, and Australia. This disorder is classified as one of the SPINOCEREBELLAR ATAXIAS (Type 3) and has been associated with a mutation of the MJD1 gene on chromosome 14. Clinical features include progressive ataxia, DYSARTHRIA, postural instability, nystagmus, eyelid retraction, and facial FASCICULATIONS. DYSTONIA is prominent in younger patients (referred to as Type I Machado-Joseph Disease). Type II features ataxia and ocular signs; Type III features MUSCULAR ATROPHY and a sensorimotor neuropathy; and Type IV features extrapyramidal signs combined with a sensorimotor neuropathy. (From Clin Neurosci 1995;3(1):17-22; Ann Neurol 1998 Mar;43(3):288-96)
A condition characterized genotypically by mutation of the distal end of the long arm of the X chromosome (at gene loci FRAXA or FRAXE) and phenotypically by cognitive impairment, hyperactivity, SEIZURES, language delay, and enlargement of the ears, head, and testes. INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY occurs in nearly all males and roughly 50% of females with the full mutation of FRAXA. (From Menkes, Textbook of Child Neurology, 5th ed, p226)
Common name for one of five species of small PARROTS, containing long tails.
Within a eukaryotic cell, a membrane-limited body which contains chromosomes and one or more nucleoli (CELL NUCLEOLUS). The nuclear membrane consists of a double unit-type membrane which is perforated by a number of pores; the outermost membrane is continuous with the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM. A cell may contain more than one nucleus. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
'Nerve tissue proteins' are specialized proteins found within the nervous system's biological tissue, including neurofilaments, neuronal cytoskeletal proteins, and neural cell adhesion molecules, which facilitate structural support, intracellular communication, and synaptic connectivity essential for proper neurological function.
A highly conserved 76-amino acid peptide universally found in eukaryotic cells that functions as a marker for intracellular PROTEIN TRANSPORT and degradation. Ubiquitin becomes activated through a series of complicated steps and forms an isopeptide bond to lysine residues of specific proteins within the cell. These "ubiquitinated" proteins can be recognized and degraded by proteosomes or be transported to specific compartments within the cell.
Impairment of the ability to perform smoothly coordinated voluntary movements. This condition may affect the limbs, trunk, eyes, pharynx, larynx, and other structures. Ataxia may result from impaired sensory or motor function. Sensory ataxia may result from posterior column injury or PERIPHERAL NERVE DISEASES. Motor ataxia may be associated with CEREBELLAR DISEASES; CEREBRAL CORTEX diseases; THALAMIC DISEASES; BASAL GANGLIA DISEASES; injury to the RED NUCLEUS; and other conditions.
Cyclical movement of a body part that can represent either a physiologic process or a manifestation of disease. Intention or action tremor, a common manifestation of CEREBELLAR DISEASES, is aggravated by movement. In contrast, resting tremor is maximal when there is no attempt at voluntary movement, and occurs as a relatively frequent manifestation of PARKINSON DISEASE.
A RNA-binding protein that is found predominately in the CYTOPLASM. It helps regulate GENETIC TRANSLATION in NEURONS and is absent or under-expressed in FRAGILE X SYNDROME.
A heterogenous group of degenerative syndromes marked by progressive cerebellar dysfunction either in isolation or combined with other neurologic manifestations. Sporadic and inherited subtypes occur. Inheritance patterns include autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
Techniques used to add in exogenous gene sequence such as mutated genes; REPORTER GENES, to study mechanisms of gene expression; or regulatory control sequences, to study effects of temporal changes to GENE EXPRESSION.
Diseases of birds not considered poultry, therefore usually found in zoos, parks, and the wild. The concept is differentiated from POULTRY DISEASES which is for birds raised as a source of meat or eggs for human consumption, and usually found in barnyards, hatcheries, etc.
Diseases of Old World and New World monkeys. This term includes diseases of baboons but not of chimpanzees or gorillas (= APE DISEASES).
The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Proteins found in the nucleus of a cell. Do not confuse with NUCLEOPROTEINS which are proteins conjugated with nucleic acids, that are not necessarily present in the nucleus.
Members of the class of compounds composed of AMINO ACIDS joined together by peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids into linear, branched or cyclical structures. OLIGOPEPTIDES are composed of approximately 2-12 amino acids. Polypeptides are composed of approximately 13 or more amino acids. PROTEINS are linear polypeptides that are normally synthesized on RIBOSOMES.
'Lead poisoning' is a type of heavy metal toxicity caused by increased levels of lead in the body, typically resulting from exposure to lead-containing substances or environments, and potentially leading to neurological issues, anemia, and developmental delays, especially in children.
Inflammation of the lung parenchyma that is caused by a viral infection.
A group of dominantly inherited, predominately late-onset, cerebellar ataxias which have been divided into multiple subtypes based on clinical features and genetic mapping. Progressive ataxia is a central feature of these conditions, and in certain subtypes POLYNEUROPATHY; DYSARTHRIA; visual loss; and other disorders may develop. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1997, Ch65, pp 12-17; J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1998 Jun;57(6):531-43)
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
Conformational transitions of a protein from unfolded states to a more folded state.
Visible morphologic changes in cells infected with viruses. It includes shutdown of cellular RNA and protein synthesis, cell fusion, release of lysosomal enzymes, changes in cell membrane permeability, diffuse changes in intracellular structures, presence of viral inclusion bodies, and chromosomal aberrations. It excludes malignant transformation, which is CELL TRANSFORMATION, VIRAL. Viral cytopathogenic effects provide a valuable method for identifying and classifying the infecting viruses.
Microsatellite repeats consisting of three nucleotides dispersed in the euchromatic arms of chromosomes.
The reconstitution of a protein's activity following denaturation.
Death resulting from the presence of a disease in an individual, as shown by a single case report or a limited number of patients. This should be differentiated from DEATH, the physiological cessation of life and from MORTALITY, an epidemiological or statistical concept.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
Electron microscopy in which the ELECTRONS or their reaction products that pass down through the specimen are imaged below the plane of the specimen.
A soft, grayish metal with poisonous salts; atomic number 82, atomic weight 207.19, symbol Pb. (Dorland, 28th)
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Processes involved in the formation of TERTIARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE.
Inflammation of the BRAIN due to infection, autoimmune processes, toxins, and other conditions. Viral infections (see ENCEPHALITIS, VIRAL) are a relatively frequent cause of this condition.
The part of a cell that contains the CYTOSOL and small structures excluding the CELL NUCLEUS; MITOCHONDRIA; and large VACUOLES. (Glick, Glossary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 1990)
Diseases of the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). This term does not include diseases of wild dogs, WOLVES; FOXES; and other Canidae for which the heading CARNIVORA is used.
Test for tissue antigen using either a direct method, by conjugation of antibody with fluorescent dye (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, DIRECT) or an indirect method, by formation of antigen-antibody complex which is then labeled with fluorescein-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin antibody (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, INDIRECT). The tissue is then examined by fluorescence microscopy.
A suborder of PRIMATES consisting of six families: CEBIDAE (some New World monkeys), ATELIDAE (some New World monkeys), CERCOPITHECIDAE (Old World monkeys), HYLOBATIDAE (gibbons and siamangs), CALLITRICHINAE (marmosets and tamarins), and HOMINIDAE (humans and great apes).
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
An acquired organic mental disorder with loss of intellectual abilities of sufficient severity to interfere with social or occupational functioning. The dysfunction is multifaceted and involves memory, behavior, personality, judgment, attention, spatial relations, language, abstract thought, and other executive functions. The intellectual decline is usually progressive, and initially spares the level of consciousness.
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
Substances elaborated by viruses that have antigenic activity.
Inflammation of a muscle or muscle tissue.
Infection with CYTOMEGALOVIRUS, characterized by enlarged cells bearing intranuclear inclusions. Infection may be in almost any organ, but the salivary glands are the most common site in children, as are the lungs in adults.
A disease marked by repeated episodes of increased bone resorption followed by excessive attempts at repair, resulting in weakened, deformed bones of increased mass. The resultant architecture of the bone assumes a mosaic pattern in which the fibers take on a haphazard pattern instead of the normal parallel symmetry.
The pathological process occurring in cells that are dying from irreparable injuries. It is caused by the progressive, uncontrolled action of degradative ENZYMES, leading to MITOCHONDRIAL SWELLING, nuclear flocculation, and cell lysis. It is distinct it from APOPTOSIS, which is a normal, regulated cellular process.
A genus of ADENOVIRIDAE that infects birds. The type species is FOWL ADENOVIRUS A.
The ability of a substance to be dissolved, i.e. to form a solution with another substance. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
A heterogeneous group of genetic disorders characterized by progressive MUSCULAR ATROPHY and MUSCLE WEAKNESS beginning in the hands, the legs, or the feet. Most are adult-onset autosomal dominant forms. Others are autosomal recessive.
Either of the pair of organs occupying the cavity of the thorax that effect the aeration of the blood.
Body organ that filters blood for the secretion of URINE and that regulates ion concentrations.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
A family of snakes comprising the boas, anacondas, and pythons. They occupy a variety of habitats through the tropics and subtropics and are arboreal, aquatic or fossorial (burrowing). Some are oviparous, others ovoviviparous. Contrary to popular opinion, they do not crush the bones of their victims: their coils exert enough pressure to stop a prey's breathing, thus suffocating it. There are five subfamilies: Boinae, Bolyerinae, Erycinae, Pythoninae, and Tropidophiinae. (Goin, Goin, and Zug, Introduction to Herpetology, 3d ed, p315-320)
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
The domestic dog, Canis familiaris, comprising about 400 breeds, of the carnivore family CANIDAE. They are worldwide in distribution and live in association with people. (Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th ed, p1065)
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.
The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.
The predominant milk-clotting enzyme from the true stomach or abomasum of the suckling calf. It is secreted as an inactive precursor called prorennin and converted in the acid environment of the stomach to the active enzyme. EC 3.4.23.4.
Recombinant proteins produced by the GENETIC TRANSLATION of fused genes formed by the combination of NUCLEIC ACID REGULATORY SEQUENCES of one or more genes with the protein coding sequences of one or more genes.
Diseases characterized by inflammation involving multiple muscles. This may occur as an acute or chronic condition associated with medication toxicity (DRUG TOXICITY); CONNECTIVE TISSUE DISEASES; infections; malignant NEOPLASMS; and other disorders. The term polymyositis is frequently used to refer to a specific clinical entity characterized by subacute or slowly progressing symmetrical weakness primarily affecting the proximal limb and trunk muscles. The illness may occur at any age, but is most frequent in the fourth to sixth decade of life. Weakness of pharyngeal and laryngeal muscles, interstitial lung disease, and inflammation of the myocardium may also occur. Muscle biopsy reveals widespread destruction of segments of muscle fibers and an inflammatory cellular response. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp1404-9)
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
A genus of the family PARAMYXOVIRIDAE (subfamily PARAMYXOVIRINAE) where the virions of most members have hemagglutinin but not neuraminidase activity. All members produce both cytoplasmic and intranuclear inclusion bodies. MEASLES VIRUS is the type species.

Adenovirus protein IX sequesters host-cell promyelocytic leukaemia protein and contributes to efficient viral proliferation. (1/182)

The product of adenovirus type 5 (Ad5) gene IX, protein IX (pIX), is a multifunctional protein that stabilizes the viral capsid and has transcriptional activity. We show that pIX also contributes to the Ad5-induced reorganization of the host-cell nuclear ultrastructure: pIX induces the formation of specific and dynamic nuclear inclusions, and the host promyelocytic leukaemia (PML) protein, which is the main structural organizer of PML bodies, is stably relocated and confined within the pIX-induced inclusions late in infection. Our results suggest that Ad5 has evolved a unique strategy that leads to the sustained neutralization of PML bodies throughout infection, thereby ensuring optimal viral proliferation.  (+info)

Intranuclear cytoplasmic pseudoinclusions in pituitary adenomas. (2/182)

Intranuclear pseudoinclusions are well known in papillary carcinomas of the thyroid gland, hepatocellular carcinomas, meningiomas, paragangliomas, pheochromocytomas, and melanomas. Only two papers on the intranuclear inclusions of adenohypophyseal cells in humans have been reported. This study found that intranuclear cytoplasmic pseudoinclusions occur frequently in pituitary adenoma cases (70.3%, 97 of 138 pituitary adenomas) and are uncommon in normal pituitary tissue (11.1%, 1 of 9 normal pituitary tissues). In addition, the frequency of intranuclear cytoplasmic pseudoinclusions between the functional and non-functional pituitary adenomas was found to be similar. Electron microscopy and immunostaining was used to reveal the entity of the intranuclear inclusion. These intranuclear inclusions are due to cytoplasmic invagination because 1) the inclusions are continuous with the cytoplasm, 2) all cytoplasmic organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, and the secretory granules are found in the inclusions, 3) immunoreactivity of the intranuclear inclusion is the same as that of the cytoplasm. In conclusion, intranuclear cytoplasmic pseudoinclusions in pituitary adenomas occur frequently (70.3%) and are formed by cytoplasmic invagination. This study suggests that pituitary intranuclear inclusions caused by cytoplasmic invagination be called "intranuclear cytoplasmic pseudoinclusions".  (+info)

CRE-mediated transcription is increased in Huntington's disease transgenic mice. (3/182)

Disruption of cAMP response element (CRE)-dependent transcription has been hypothesized to contribute to neuronal death and dysfunction in Huntington's disease (HD) and other polyglutamine repeat disorders. Whether dysregulation of CRE-dependent transcription actually occurs in vivo in response to expression of expanded polyglutamine repeats has not been tested. We directly tested whether CRE-dependent transcription is affected in vivo by cross breeding a transgenic mouse model of HD (line R6/2) with a transgenic mouse that expresses a CRE-regulated reporter gene. Instead of compromised CRE-dependent transcription in HD mice, we found a robust upregulation of CRE-dependent transcription in several brain regions (striatum, hippocampus, cortex). CRE-mediated transcription was also evoked by striatal forskolin infusion and by photic stimulation in HD animals. Increased cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation and elevated levels of the CREB-regulated gene product, CCAAT/enhancer binding protein beta, were also found in HD mice. Significant alterations in CREB binding protein expression and localization were not observed in symptomatic R6/2 mice. Thus, rather than repressing CRE-mediated transcription, mutant huntingtin appears to facilitate transcription via a CRE-dependent mechanism in vivo.  (+info)

Promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies associate with transcriptionally active genomic regions. (4/182)

The promyelocytic leukemia (PML) protein is aggregated into nuclear bodies that are associated with diverse nuclear processes. Here, we report that the distance between a locus and its nearest PML body correlates with the transcriptional activity and gene density around the locus. Genes on the active X chromosome are more significantly associated with PML bodies than their silenced homologues on the inactive X chromosome. We also found that a histone-encoding gene cluster, which is transcribed only in S-phase, is more strongly associated with PML bodies in S-phase than in G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle. However, visualization of specific RNA transcripts for several genes showed that PML bodies were not themselves sites of transcription for these genes. Furthermore, knock-down of PML bodies by RNA interference did not preferentially change the expression of genes closely associated with PML bodies. We propose that PML bodies form in nuclear compartments of high transcriptional activity, but they do not directly regulate transcription of genes in these compartments.  (+info)

Calmodulin regulates transglutaminase 2 cross-linking of huntingtin. (5/182)

Striatal and cortical intranuclear inclusions and cytoplasmic aggregates of mutant huntingtin are prominent neuropathological hallmarks of Huntington's disease (HD). We demonstrated previously that transglutaminase 2 cross-links mutant huntingtin in cells in culture and demonstrated the presence of transglutaminase-catalyzed cross-links in the HD cortex that colocalize with transglutaminase 2 and huntingtin. Because calmodulin regulates transglutaminase activity in erythrocytes, platelets, and the gizzard, we hypothesized that calmodulin increases cross-linking of huntingtin in the HD brain. We found that calmodulin colocalizes at the confocal level with transglutaminase 2 and with huntingtin in HD intranuclear inclusions. Calmodulin coimmunoprecipitates with transglutaminase 2 and huntingtin in cells transfected with myc-tagged N-terminal huntingtin fragments containing 148 polyglutamine repeats (htt-N63-148Q-myc) and transglutaminase 2 but not in cells transfected with myc-tagged N-terminal huntingtin fragments containing 18 polyglutamine repeats. Our previous studies demonstrated that transfection with both htt-N63-148Q-myc and transglutaminase 2 resulted in cross-linking of mutant huntingtin protein fragments and the formation of insoluble high-molecular-weight aggregates of huntingtin protein fragments. Transfection with transglutaminase 2 and htt-N63-148Q-myc followed by treatment of cells with N-(6-aminohexyl)-1-naphthalenesulfonamide, a calmodulin inhibitor, resulted in a decrease in cross-linked huntingtin. Inhibiting the interaction of calmodulin with transglutaminase and huntingtin protein could decrease cross-linking and diminish huntingtin aggregate formation in the HD brain.  (+info)

Reversal of mutant myocilin non-secretion and cell killing: implications for glaucoma. (6/182)

Glaucoma is a progressive blinding disease characterized by gradual loss of vision due to optic neuropathy and retinal ganglion cell death. Increased intraocular pressure is a common feature of glaucoma that is thought to arise from an increased resistance to outflow of aqueous humor through the trabecular meshwork. Mutations of the myocilin gene are one cause of autosomal dominant juvenile- and adult-onset primary open angle glaucoma, but the mechanism by which mutant myocilins cause disease is poorly understood. We have found that disease-causing myocilin mutants are misfolded, are highly aggregation-prone and accumulate in large aggregates in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of human embryonic kidney cells and differentiated primary human trabecular meshwork (HTM) cells. In HTM cells, Pro370Leu mutant myocilin is not secreted under normal culture conditions and prolonged expression results in abnormal cell morphology and cell killing. Culturing HTM cells at 30 degrees C, a condition known to facilitate protein folding, promotes secretion of mutant myocilin, normalizes cell morphology and reverses cell lethality. Our results indicate that myocilin-associated glaucoma is an ER storage disease and suggest a progression of events in which chronic expression of misfolded, non-secreted myocilin leads to HTM cell death, trabecular meshwork dysfunction and, ultimately, a dominant glaucoma phenotype. The beneficial effects of facilitating folding and secretion of mutant myocilin suggest a new type of treatment for this form of glaucoma.  (+info)

Sodium butyrate ameliorates phenotypic expression in a transgenic mouse model of spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy. (7/182)

Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is an inherited motor neuron disease caused by the expansion of a polyglutamine (polyQ) tract within the androgen receptor. Unifying mechanisms have been implicated in the pathogenesis of polyQ-dependent neurodegenerative diseases including SBMA, Huntington disease and spinocerebellar ataxias. It has been suggested that mutant protein containing polyQ inhibits histone acetyltransferase activity, resulting in transcriptional dysfunction and subsequent neuronal dysfunction. Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors alleviate neurological phenotypes in fly and mouse models of polyQ disease, although the therapeutic effect is limited by the toxicity of these compounds. We studied the therapeutic effects of sodium butyrate (SB), an HDAC inhibitor, in a transgenic mouse model of SBMA. Oral administration of SB ameliorated neurological phenotypes as well as increased acetylation of nuclear histone in neural tissues. These therapeutic effects, however, were seen only within a narrow range of SB dosage. Our results indicate that SB is a possible therapeutic agent for SBMA and other polyQ diseases, although an appropriate dose should be determined for clinical application.  (+info)

Nuclear-targeting of mutant huntingtin fragments produces Huntington's disease-like phenotypes in transgenic mice. (8/182)

Huntington's disease (HD) results from the expansion of a glutamine repeat near the N-terminus of huntingtin (htt). At post-mortem, neurons in the central nervous system of patients have been found to accumulate N-terminal fragments of mutant htt in nuclear and cytoplasmic inclusions. This pathology has been reproduced in transgenic mice expressing the first 171 amino acids of htt with 82 glutamines along with losses of motoric function, hypoactivity and abbreviated life-span. The relative contributions of nuclear versus cytoplasmic mutant htt to the pathogenesis of disease have not been clarified. To examine whether pathogenic processes in the nucleus disproportionately contribute to disease features in vivo, we fused a nuclear localization signal (NLS) derived from atrophin-1 to the N-terminus of an N171-82Q construct. Two lines of mice (lines 8A and 61) that were identified expressed NLS-N171-82Q at comparable levels and developed phenotypes identical to our previously described HD-N171-82Q mice. Western blot and immunohistochemical analyses revealed that NLS-N171-82Q fragments accumulate in nuclear, but not cytoplasmic, compartments. These data suggest that disruption of nuclear processes may account for many of the disease phenotypes displayed in the mouse models generated by expressing mutant N-terminal fragments of htt.  (+info)

Inclusion bodies are abnormal, intracellular accumulations or aggregations of various misfolded proteins, protein complexes, or other materials within the cells of an organism. They can be found in various tissues and cell types and are often associated with several pathological conditions, including infectious diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and genetic diseases.

Inclusion bodies can vary in size, shape, and location depending on the specific disease or condition. Some inclusion bodies have a characteristic appearance under the microscope, such as eosinophilic (pink) staining with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) histological stain, while others may require specialized stains or immunohistochemical techniques to identify the specific misfolded proteins involved.

Examples of diseases associated with inclusion bodies include:

1. Infectious diseases: Some viral infections, such as HIV, hepatitis B and C, and herpes simplex virus, can lead to the formation of inclusion bodies within infected cells.
2. Neurodegenerative disorders: Several neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by the presence of inclusion bodies, including Alzheimer's disease (amyloid-beta plaques and tau tangles), Parkinson's disease (Lewy bodies), Huntington's disease (Huntingtin aggregates), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (TDP-43 and SOD1 inclusions).
3. Genetic diseases: Certain genetic disorders, such as Danon disease, neuronal intranuclear inclusion disease, and some lysosomal storage disorders, can also present with inclusion bodies due to the accumulation of abnormal proteins or metabolic products within cells.

The exact role of inclusion bodies in disease pathogenesis remains unclear; however, they are often associated with cellular dysfunction, oxidative stress, and increased inflammation, which can contribute to disease progression and neurodegeneration.

Inclusion bodies, viral are typically described as intracellular inclusions that appear as a result of viral infections. These inclusion bodies consist of aggregates of virus-specific proteins, viral particles, or both, which accumulate inside the host cell's cytoplasm or nucleus during the replication cycle of certain viruses.

The presence of inclusion bodies can sometimes be observed through histological or cytological examination using various staining techniques. Different types of viruses may exhibit distinct morphologies and locations of these inclusion bodies, which can aid in the identification and diagnosis of specific viral infections. However, it is important to note that not all viral infections result in the formation of inclusion bodies, and their presence does not necessarily indicate active viral replication or infection.

Intranuclear inclusion bodies are abnormal, rounded structures found within the nucleus of a cell. They are composed of aggregated proteins or other cellular components and can be associated with various viral infections and certain genetic disorders. These inclusion bodies can interfere with normal nuclear functions, leading to cell damage and contributing to the pathogenesis of diseases such as cytomegalovirus infection, rabies, and some forms of neurodegenerative disorders like polyglutamine diseases. The presence of intranuclear inclusion bodies is often used in diagnostic pathology to help identify specific underlying conditions.

Adenoviridae infections refer to diseases caused by members of the Adenoviridae family of viruses, which are non-enveloped, double-stranded DNA viruses. These viruses can infect a wide range of hosts, including humans, animals, and birds. In humans, adenovirus infections can cause a variety of symptoms, depending on the specific type of virus and the age and immune status of the infected individual.

Common manifestations of adenovirus infections in humans include:

1. Respiratory illness: Adenoviruses are a common cause of respiratory tract infections, such as bronchitis, pneumonia, and croup. They can also cause conjunctivitis (pink eye) and pharyngoconjunctival fever.
2. Gastrointestinal illness: Some types of adenoviruses can cause diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain, particularly in children and immunocompromised individuals.
3. Genitourinary illness: Adenoviruses have been associated with urinary tract infections, hemorrhagic cystitis, and nephritis.
4. Eye infections: Epidemic keratoconjunctivitis is a severe form of conjunctivitis caused by certain adenovirus types.
5. Central nervous system infections: Adenoviruses have been linked to meningitis, encephalitis, and other neurological disorders, although these are rare.

Transmission of adenoviruses typically occurs through respiratory droplets, contaminated surfaces, or contaminated water. Preventive measures include good hygiene practices, such as handwashing and avoiding close contact with infected individuals. There is no specific treatment for adenovirus infections, but supportive care can help alleviate symptoms. In severe cases or in immunocompromised patients, antiviral therapy may be considered.

Varicellovirus is a genus of viruses in the family Herpesviridae, subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae. This genus includes several human and animal viruses that are closely related to each other. The most well-known member of this genus is the Varicella-zoster virus (VZV), which causes two distinct diseases: chickenpox (varicella) and shingles (zoster).

The Varicellovirus genus includes the following species:

1. Human alphaherpesvirus 3 (Varicella-zoster virus)
2. Simian varicella virus
3. Bovine herpesvirus 1
4. Bovine herpesvirus 5
5. Pseudorabies virus
6. Equid herpesvirus 1
7. Equid herpesvirus 3
8. Equid herpesvirus 4
9. Equid herpesvirus 8
10. Equid herpesvirus 9
11. Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1 (Herpes B virus)
12. Cercopithecine herpesvirus 2
13. Suid herpesvirus 1 (Aujeszky's disease virus)
14. Canid herpesvirus 1
15. Felid herpesvirus 1

These viruses are characterized by their ability to establish latency in the nervous system of their hosts and reactivate later in life, causing recurrent disease. They typically have a broad host range and can infect multiple species within a family or genus.

Herpesviridae infections refer to diseases caused by the Herpesviridae family of double-stranded DNA viruses, which include herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), human herpesvirus 7 (HHV-7), and human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8). These viruses can cause a variety of clinical manifestations, ranging from mild skin lesions to severe systemic diseases.

After the initial infection, these viruses typically become latent in various tissues and may reactivate later in life, causing recurrent symptoms. The clinical presentation of Herpesviridae infections depends on the specific virus and the immune status of the host. Common manifestations include oral or genital ulcers (HSV-1 and HSV-2), chickenpox and shingles (VZV), mononucleosis (CMV), roseola (HHV-6), and Kaposi's sarcoma (HHV-8).

Preventive measures include avoiding close contact with infected individuals during the active phase of the infection, practicing safe sex, and avoiding sharing personal items that may come into contact with infectious lesions. Antiviral medications are available to treat Herpesviridae infections and reduce the severity and duration of symptoms.

Herpesviridae is a family of large, double-stranded DNA viruses that includes several important pathogens affecting humans and animals. The herpesviruses are characterized by their ability to establish latency in infected host cells, allowing them to persist for the lifetime of the host and leading to recurrent episodes of disease.

The family Herpesviridae is divided into three subfamilies: Alphaherpesvirinae, Betaherpesvirinae, and Gammaherpesvirinae. Each subfamily includes several genera and species that infect various hosts, including humans, primates, rodents, birds, and reptiles.

Human herpesviruses include:

* Alphaherpesvirinae: Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), and Varicella-zoster virus (VZV)
* Betaherpesvirinae: Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), Human herpesvirus 6A (HHV-6A), Human herpesvirus 6B (HHV-6B), and Human herpesvirus 7 (HHV-7)
* Gammaherpesvirinae: Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV, also known as HHV-8)

These viruses are responsible for a wide range of clinical manifestations, from mild skin lesions to life-threatening diseases. Primary infections usually occur during childhood or adolescence and can be followed by recurrent episodes due to virus reactivation from latency.

Inclusion body myositis (IBM) is a rare inflammatory muscle disease characterized by progressive weakness and wasting (atrophy) of skeletal muscles. The term "inclusion body" refers to the presence of abnormal protein accumulations within muscle fibers, which are observed under a microscope during muscle biopsy. These inclusions are primarily composed of aggregated forms of amyloid-β and tau proteins, similar to those found in neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's disease.

IBM typically affects individuals over 50 years old, and it is more common in men than women. The disease usually starts with weakness in the wrist and finger flexors, making it difficult to perform tasks such as gripping, buttoning shirts, or lifting objects. Over time, the weakness spreads to other muscle groups, including the thigh muscles (quadriceps), resulting in difficulty climbing stairs or rising from a seated position.

The exact cause of inclusion body myositis remains unclear; however, both immune-mediated and degenerative mechanisms are believed to contribute to its pathogenesis. Currently, there is no cure for IBM, and treatment options are primarily aimed at managing symptoms and improving quality of life. Immunosuppressive medications may be used to target the inflammatory component of the disease; however, their efficacy varies among patients. Physical therapy and exercise programs can help maintain muscle strength and function as much as possible.

Electron microscopy (EM) is a type of microscopy that uses a beam of electrons to create an image of the sample being examined, resulting in much higher magnification and resolution than light microscopy. There are several types of electron microscopy, including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and reflection electron microscopy (REM).

In TEM, a beam of electrons is transmitted through a thin slice of the sample, and the electrons that pass through the sample are focused to form an image. This technique can provide detailed information about the internal structure of cells, viruses, and other biological specimens, as well as the composition and structure of materials at the atomic level.

In SEM, a beam of electrons is scanned across the surface of the sample, and the electrons that are scattered back from the surface are detected to create an image. This technique can provide information about the topography and composition of surfaces, as well as the structure of materials at the microscopic level.

REM is a variation of SEM in which the beam of electrons is reflected off the surface of the sample, rather than scattered back from it. This technique can provide information about the surface chemistry and composition of materials.

Electron microscopy has a wide range of applications in biology, medicine, and materials science, including the study of cellular structure and function, disease diagnosis, and the development of new materials and technologies.

Oculopharyngeal Muscular Dystrophy (OPMD) is a genetic disorder that affects the muscles, particularly those around the eyes and throat. The medical definition of OPMD, as per the National Organization for Rare Disorders (NORD), is:

"Oculopharyngeal Muscular Dystrophy (OPMD) is an inherited neuromuscular disorder characterized by progressive weakness of specific muscle groups, particularly those around the eyes (ocular) and throat (pharyngeal). The symptoms may include drooping of the eyelids (ptosis), difficulty swallowing (dysphagia), and, in some cases, proximal limb weakness. Onset of the disorder usually occurs in adulthood, typically after age 40, but earlier onsets have been reported."

The underlying cause of OPMD is a genetic mutation that leads to the production of an abnormal protein in muscle cells, ultimately resulting in muscle degeneration and weakness.

Trinucleotide Repeat Expansion is a genetic mutation where a sequence of three DNA nucleotides is repeated more frequently than what is typically found in the general population. In this type of mutation, the number of repeats can expand or increase from one generation to the next, leading to an increased risk of developing certain genetic disorders.

These disorders are often neurological and include conditions such as Huntington's disease, myotonic dystrophy, fragile X syndrome, and Friedreich's ataxia. The severity of these diseases can be related to the number of repeats present in the affected gene, with a higher number of repeats leading to more severe symptoms or an earlier age of onset.

It is important to note that not all trinucleotide repeat expansions will result in disease, and some people may carry these mutations without ever developing any symptoms. However, if the number of repeats crosses a certain threshold, it can lead to genetic instability and an increased risk of disease development.

Psittaciformes is not a medical term but a taxonomic order that includes parrots, cockatoos, and related species. However, in a medical context, "psittacosis" is a relevant term that can be discussed.

Psittacosis is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium Chlamydia psittaci, which can infect humans through contact with infected birds or their droppings. The disease is also known as parrot fever or ornithosis. Psittacosis can cause flu-like symptoms in humans, such as fever, headache, muscle aches, and cough. In severe cases, it can lead to pneumonia and other complications.

Therefore, while "Psittaciformes" is not a medical term itself, the order includes many bird species that can carry and transmit Chlamydia psittaci, leading to the disease known as psittacosis in humans.

Huntington Disease (HD) is a genetic neurodegenerative disorder that affects both cognitive and motor functions. It is characterized by the progressive loss of neurons in various areas of the brain, particularly in the striatum and cortex. The disease is caused by an autosomal dominant mutation in the HTT gene, which codes for the huntingtin protein. The most common mutation is a CAG repeat expansion in this gene, leading to the production of an abnormal form of the huntingtin protein that is toxic to nerve cells.

The symptoms of HD typically appear between the ages of 30 and 50, but they can start earlier or later in life. The early signs of HD may include subtle changes in mood, cognition, and coordination. As the disease progresses, individuals with HD experience uncontrolled movements (chorea), emotional disturbances, cognitive decline, and difficulties with communication and swallowing. Eventually, they become dependent on others for their daily needs and lose their ability to walk, talk, and care for themselves.

There is currently no cure for HD, but medications and therapies can help manage the symptoms of the disease and improve quality of life. Genetic testing is available to confirm the diagnosis and provide information about the risk of passing the disease on to future generations.

Machado-Joseph Disease (MJD) is a genetic disorder that affects the part of the brain that controls movement. It is also known as spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3). MJD is characterized by progressive problems with coordination, speech, and swallowing, along with muscle stiffness, tremors, and in some cases, eye movement abnormalities.

MJD is caused by a mutation in the ATXN3 gene, which results in an expanded CAG repeat sequence. This genetic defect leads to the production of an abnormal protein that accumulates in nerve cells, causing them to die. The severity and age of onset of MJD can vary widely, even within families, but symptoms typically begin between the ages of 10 and 60.

MJD is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner, meaning that a child has a 50% chance of inheriting the disease-causing mutation from an affected parent. Currently, there is no cure for MJD, but treatments can help manage symptoms and improve quality of life.

Fragile X syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by a mutation in the FMR1 gene, which provides instructions for making a protein called fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP). This protein is essential for normal brain development.

In people with Fragile X syndrome, the FMR1 gene is missing a critical piece of DNA, leading to little or no production of FMRP. As a result, the brain's nerve cells cannot develop and function normally, which can cause a range of developmental problems, including learning disabilities, cognitive impairment, and behavioral and emotional difficulties.

Fragile X syndrome is the most common form of inherited intellectual disability, affecting about 1 in 4,000 males and 1 in 8,000 females. The symptoms and severity can vary widely, but most people with Fragile X syndrome have some degree of intellectual disability, ranging from mild to severe. They may also have physical features associated with the condition, such as a long face, large ears, flexible joints, and flat feet.

There is no cure for Fragile X syndrome, but early intervention and treatment can help improve outcomes. Treatment typically involves a combination of educational support, behavioral therapy, speech and language therapy, physical therapy, and medication to manage symptoms such as anxiety, hyperactivity, and aggression.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "parakeets" is not a medical term. It is a common name used to refer to certain types of small to medium-sized parrots, particularly those with long tail feathers. The term is not associated with medical terminology or healthcare. If you have any questions related to animals or pets, I would be happy to try to help with those!

The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in the eukaryotic cells (cells with a true nucleus). It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as DNA molecules in complex with proteins, RNA molecules, and histones to form chromosomes.

The primary function of the cell nucleus is to regulate and control the activities of the cell, including growth, metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction. It also plays a crucial role in the process of mitosis (cell division) by separating and protecting the genetic material during this process. The nuclear membrane, or nuclear envelope, surrounding the nucleus is composed of two lipid bilayers with numerous pores that allow for the selective transport of molecules between the nucleoplasm (nucleus interior) and the cytoplasm (cell exterior).

The cell nucleus is a vital structure in eukaryotic cells, and its dysfunction can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

Nerve tissue proteins are specialized proteins found in the nervous system that provide structural and functional support to nerve cells, also known as neurons. These proteins include:

1. Neurofilaments: These are type IV intermediate filaments that provide structural support to neurons and help maintain their shape and size. They are composed of three subunits - NFL (light), NFM (medium), and NFH (heavy).

2. Neuronal Cytoskeletal Proteins: These include tubulins, actins, and spectrins that provide structural support to the neuronal cytoskeleton and help maintain its integrity.

3. Neurotransmitter Receptors: These are specialized proteins located on the postsynaptic membrane of neurons that bind neurotransmitters released by presynaptic neurons, triggering a response in the target cell.

4. Ion Channels: These are transmembrane proteins that regulate the flow of ions across the neuronal membrane and play a crucial role in generating and transmitting electrical signals in neurons.

5. Signaling Proteins: These include enzymes, receptors, and adaptor proteins that mediate intracellular signaling pathways involved in neuronal development, differentiation, survival, and death.

6. Adhesion Proteins: These are cell surface proteins that mediate cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, playing a crucial role in the formation and maintenance of neural circuits.

7. Extracellular Matrix Proteins: These include proteoglycans, laminins, and collagens that provide structural support to nerve tissue and regulate neuronal migration, differentiation, and survival.

Ubiquitin is a small protein that is present in all eukaryotic cells and plays a crucial role in the regulation of various cellular processes, such as protein degradation, DNA repair, and stress response. It is involved in marking proteins for destruction by attaching to them, a process known as ubiquitination. This modification can target proteins for degradation by the proteasome, a large protein complex that breaks down unneeded or damaged proteins in the cell. Ubiquitin also has other functions, such as regulating the localization and activity of certain proteins. The ability of ubiquitin to modify many different proteins and play a role in multiple cellular processes makes it an essential player in maintaining cellular homeostasis.

Ataxia is a medical term that refers to a group of disorders affecting coordination, balance, and speech. It is characterized by a lack of muscle control during voluntary movements, causing unsteady or awkward movements, and often accompanied by tremors. Ataxia can affect various parts of the body, such as the limbs, trunk, eyes, and speech muscles. The condition can be congenital or acquired, and it can result from damage to the cerebellum, spinal cord, or sensory nerves. There are several types of ataxia, including hereditary ataxias, degenerative ataxias, cerebellar ataxias, and acquired ataxias, each with its own specific causes, symptoms, and prognosis. Treatment for ataxia typically focuses on managing symptoms and improving quality of life, as there is no cure for most forms of the disorder.

A tremor is an involuntary, rhythmic muscle contraction and relaxation that causes a shaking movement. It's a type of motion disorder that can affect any part of your body, but it most often occurs in your hands. Tremors can be harmless, but they can also be a symptom of a more serious neurological disorder. The cause of tremors isn't always known, but they can be the result of damage to the brain from a stroke, multiple sclerosis, or trauma. Certain medications, alcohol abuse, and drug withdrawal can also cause tremors. In some cases, tremors may be inherited and run in families.

Tremors can be classified based on their cause, appearance, and the situation in which they occur. The two most common types of tremors are:

* Resting tremors, which occur when your muscles are relaxed, such as when your hands are resting on your lap. Parkinson's disease is a common cause of this type of tremor.
* Action tremors, which occur with purposeful movement, such as when you're trying to hold something or when you're using a utensil. Essential tremor, the most common type of tremor, is an action tremor.

Tremors can also be classified based on their frequency (how often they occur) and amplitude (the size of the movement). High-frequency tremors are faster and smaller in amplitude, while low-frequency tremors are slower and larger in amplitude.

In general, tremors are not a life-threatening condition, but they can be embarrassing or make it difficult to perform daily activities. In some cases, tremors may indicate a more serious underlying condition that requires treatment. If you're concerned about tremors or have any questions about your symptoms, it's important to speak with a healthcare provider for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment.

Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein (FMRP) is a protein encoded by the FMR1 gene in humans. It is an RNA-binding protein that plays a critical role in regulating the translation and stability of mRNAs, particularly those involved in synaptic plasticity and neuronal development.

Mutations in the FMR1 gene, leading to the absence or reduction of FMRP, have been associated with Fragile X syndrome (FXS), which is the most common inherited form of intellectual disability and the leading genetic cause of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In FXS, the lack of FMRP leads to an overproduction of proteins at synapses, resulting in altered neuronal connectivity and dysfunctional synaptic plasticity.

FMRP is widely expressed in various tissues, but it has a particularly high expression level in the brain, where it regulates the translation of mRNAs involved in learning, memory, and other cognitive functions. FMRP also interacts with several other proteins involved in neuronal development and function, such as ion channels, receptors, and signaling molecules.

Overall, Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein is a crucial regulator of synaptic plasticity and neuronal development, and its dysfunction has been linked to various neurodevelopmental disorders, including Fragile X syndrome, autism spectrum disorder, and intellectual disability.

Spinocerebellar degenerations (SCDs) are a group of genetic disorders that primarily affect the cerebellum, the part of the brain responsible for coordinating muscle movements, and the spinal cord. These conditions are characterized by progressive degeneration or loss of nerve cells in the cerebellum and/or spinal cord, leading to various neurological symptoms.

SCDs are often inherited in an autosomal dominant manner, meaning that only one copy of the altered gene from either parent is enough to cause the disorder. The most common type of SCD is spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA), which includes several subtypes (SCA1, SCA2, SCA3, etc.) differentiated by their genetic causes and specific clinical features.

Symptoms of spinocerebellar degenerations may include:

1. Progressive ataxia (loss of coordination and balance)
2. Dysarthria (speech difficulty)
3. Nystagmus (involuntary eye movements)
4. Oculomotor abnormalities (problems with eye movement control)
5. Tremors or other involuntary muscle movements
6. Muscle weakness and spasticity
7. Sensory disturbances, such as numbness or tingling sensations
8. Dysphagia (difficulty swallowing)
9. Cognitive impairment in some cases

The age of onset, severity, and progression of symptoms can vary significantly among different SCD subtypes and individuals. Currently, there is no cure for spinocerebellar degenerations, but various supportive treatments and therapies can help manage symptoms and improve quality of life.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

"Gene knock-in techniques" refer to a group of genetic engineering methods used in molecular biology to precisely insert or "knock-in" a specific gene or DNA sequence into a specific location within the genome of an organism. This is typically done using recombinant DNA technology and embryonic stem (ES) cells, although other techniques such as CRISPR-Cas9 can also be used.

The goal of gene knock-in techniques is to create a stable and heritable genetic modification in which the introduced gene is expressed at a normal level and in the correct spatial and temporal pattern. This allows researchers to study the function of individual genes, investigate gene regulation, model human diseases, and develop potential therapies for genetic disorders.

In general, gene knock-in techniques involve several steps: first, a targeting vector is constructed that contains the desired DNA sequence flanked by homologous regions that match the genomic locus where the insertion will occur. This vector is then introduced into ES cells, which are cultured and allowed to undergo homologous recombination with the endogenous genome. The resulting modified ES cells are selected for and characterized to confirm the correct integration of the DNA sequence. Finally, the modified ES cells are used to generate chimeric animals, which are then bred to produce offspring that carry the genetic modification in their germline.

Overall, gene knock-in techniques provide a powerful tool for studying gene function and developing new therapies for genetic diseases.

'Bird diseases' is a broad term that refers to the various medical conditions and infections that can affect avian species. These diseases can be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, or toxic substances and can affect pet birds, wild birds, and poultry. Some common bird diseases include:

1. Avian influenza (bird flu) - a viral infection that can cause respiratory symptoms, decreased appetite, and sudden death in birds.
2. Psittacosis (parrot fever) - a bacterial infection that can cause respiratory symptoms, fever, and lethargy in birds and humans who come into contact with them.
3. Aspergillosis - a fungal infection that can cause respiratory symptoms and weight loss in birds.
4. Candidiasis (thrush) - a fungal infection that can affect the mouth, crop, and other parts of the digestive system in birds.
5. Newcastle disease - a viral infection that can cause respiratory symptoms, neurological signs, and decreased egg production in birds.
6. Salmonellosis - a bacterial infection that can cause diarrhea, lethargy, and decreased appetite in birds and humans who come into contact with them.
7. Trichomoniasis - a parasitic infection that can affect the mouth, crop, and digestive system in birds.
8. Chlamydiosis (psittacosis) - a bacterial infection that can cause respiratory symptoms, lethargy, and decreased appetite in birds and humans who come into contact with them.
9. Coccidiosis - a parasitic infection that can affect the digestive system in birds.
10. Mycobacteriosis (avian tuberculosis) - a bacterial infection that can cause chronic weight loss, respiratory symptoms, and skin lesions in birds.

It is important to note that some bird diseases can be transmitted to humans and other animals, so it is essential to practice good hygiene when handling birds or their droppings. If you suspect your bird may be sick, it is best to consult with a veterinarian who specializes in avian medicine.

There is no single medical definition for "Monkey Diseases." However, monkeys can carry and be infected with various diseases that are zoonotic, meaning they can be transmitted from animals to humans. Some examples include:

1. Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV): A virus similar to Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) that causes AIDS in monkeys. It is not typically harmful to monkeys but can cause AIDS in humans if transmitted, which is rare.
2. Herpes B Virus: Also known as Macacine herpesvirus 1 or Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1, it is a virus that commonly infects macaque monkeys. It can be transmitted to humans through direct contact with an infected monkey's saliva, eye fluid, or cerebrospinal fluid, causing a severe and potentially fatal illness called B encephalitis.
3. Tuberculosis (TB): Monkeys can contract and transmit tuberculosis to humans, although it is not common.
4. Simian Retrovirus (SRV): A virus that can infect both monkeys and great apes, causing immunodeficiency similar to HIV/AIDS in humans. It is not known to infect or cause disease in humans.
5. Various parasitic diseases: Monkeys can carry and transmit several parasites, including malaria-causing Plasmodium species, intestinal worms, and other parasites that can affect human health.

It's important to note that while monkeys can carry and transmit these diseases, the risk of transmission is generally low, and most cases occur in individuals who have close contact with monkeys, such as primatologists, zookeepers, or laboratory workers. Always follow safety guidelines when interacting with animals, including monkeys, to minimize the risk of disease transmission.

Neurons, also known as nerve cells or neurocytes, are specialized cells that constitute the basic unit of the nervous system. They are responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information and signals within the body. Neurons have three main parts: the dendrites, the cell body (soma), and the axon. The dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors, while the axon transmits these signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands. The junction between two neurons is called a synapse, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit the signal across the gap (synaptic cleft) to the next neuron. Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure depending on their function and location within the nervous system.

Nuclear proteins are a category of proteins that are primarily found in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. They play crucial roles in various nuclear functions, such as DNA replication, transcription, repair, and RNA processing. This group includes structural proteins like lamins, which form the nuclear lamina, and regulatory proteins, such as histones and transcription factors, that are involved in gene expression. Nuclear localization signals (NLS) often help target these proteins to the nucleus by interacting with importin proteins during active transport across the nuclear membrane.

Peptides are short chains of amino acid residues linked by covalent bonds, known as peptide bonds. They are formed when two or more amino acids are joined together through a condensation reaction, which results in the elimination of a water molecule and the formation of an amide bond between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.

Peptides can vary in length from two to about fifty amino acids, and they are often classified based on their size. For example, dipeptides contain two amino acids, tripeptides contain three, and so on. Oligopeptides typically contain up to ten amino acids, while polypeptides can contain dozens or even hundreds of amino acids.

Peptides play many important roles in the body, including serving as hormones, neurotransmitters, enzymes, and antibiotics. They are also used in medical research and therapeutic applications, such as drug delivery and tissue engineering.

Lead poisoning is a type of metal poisoning caused by the accumulation of lead in the body, often over months or years. Even small amounts of lead can cause serious health problems. Children under the age of 6 are particularly vulnerable to lead poisoning, which can severely affect mental and physical development.

The primary source of lead exposure is lead-based paint and lead-contaminated dust in older buildings. Lead can also be found in water supplied through lead pipes, soil contaminated by historical industrial activity, air (in certain industries and locations), and some consumer products such as toys, cosmetics, and traditional medicines.

Lead poisoning can cause a wide range of symptoms, including developmental delays, learning difficulties, abdominal pain, irritability, fatigue, loss of appetite, weight loss, constipation, vomiting, and memory or concentration problems. In severe cases, it can lead to seizures, coma, and even death.

It's important to note that there is no safe level of lead exposure, and any amount of lead in the body is potentially harmful. If you suspect lead poisoning, consult a healthcare professional for evaluation and treatment options.

Viral pneumonia is a type of pneumonia caused by viral infection. It primarily affects the upper and lower respiratory tract, leading to inflammation of the alveoli (air sacs) in the lungs. This results in symptoms such as cough, difficulty breathing, fever, fatigue, and chest pain. Common viruses that can cause pneumonia include influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and adenovirus. Viral pneumonia is often milder than bacterial pneumonia but can still be serious, especially in young children, older adults, and people with weakened immune systems. Treatment typically involves supportive care, such as rest, hydration, and fever reduction, while the body fights off the virus. In some cases, antiviral medications may be used to help manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a group of genetic disorders that affect the cerebellum, which is the part of the brain responsible for coordinating muscle movements. SCAs are characterized by progressive problems with balance, speech, and coordination. They are caused by mutations in various genes that result in the production of abnormal proteins that accumulate in neurons, leading to their degeneration.

There are over 40 different types of SCAs, each caused by a different genetic mutation. Some of the more common types include SCA1, SCA2, SCA3, SCA6, and SCA7. The symptoms and age of onset can vary widely depending on the type of SCA.

In addition to problems with coordination and balance, people with SCAs may also experience muscle weakness, stiffness, tremors, spasticity, and difficulty swallowing or speaking. Some types of SCAs can also cause visual disturbances, hearing loss, and cognitive impairment. Currently, there is no cure for SCAs, but treatments such as physical therapy, speech therapy, and medications can help manage the symptoms.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.

Protein refolding is the process by which a denatured or misfolded protein reverts to its native, functional three-dimensional structure. Proteins are complex molecules that perform a wide range of functions within living organisms. Their function is heavily dependent on their unique three-dimensional shape, which is determined by the specific sequence of amino acids that make up the protein.

When proteins are exposed to certain environmental conditions, such as changes in temperature, pH, or the presence of denaturing agents, they can lose their native conformation and become denatured or misfolded. This can result in the loss of protein function and, in some cases, the formation of aggregates that can be toxic to cells.

Protein refolding is a crucial process for maintaining proper protein function within cells. It involves several steps:

1. Unfolding: The denatured or misfolded protein must first be unfolded into its linear amino acid sequence. This can be accomplished through various methods, such as exposure to chemical denaturants or changes in pH.
2. Renaturation: Once the protein is unfolded, it can begin to refold into its native conformation. This process is often facilitated by chaperone proteins, which help to stabilize the protein and prevent aggregation during the refolding process.
3. Folding: The protein must then fold into its correct three-dimensional structure. This is a complex process that involves the formation of specific bonds between amino acids, as well as the interaction with other molecules in the cell.
4. Quality control: Once the protein has folded, it must be checked for correct folding and function. Misfolded proteins may be targeted for degradation by the cell's quality control mechanisms.

Protein refolding is a critical process that occurs naturally within cells, but it can also be studied in vitro (outside of the cell) using various techniques. Understanding the mechanisms of protein refolding is important for developing therapies for diseases caused by protein misfolding and aggregation, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.

A Cytopathic Effect (CPE) is a visible change in the cell or group of cells due to infection by a pathogen, such as a virus. When the cytopathic effect is caused specifically by a viral infection, it is referred to as a "Viral Cytopathic Effect" (VCPE).

The VCPE can include various changes in the cell's morphology, size, and structure, such as rounding, shrinkage, multinucleation, inclusion bodies, and formation of syncytia (multinucleated giant cells). These changes are often used to identify and characterize viruses in laboratory settings.

The VCPE is typically observed under a microscope after the virus has infected cell cultures, and it can help researchers determine the type of virus, the degree of infection, and the effectiveness of antiviral treatments. The severity and timing of the VCPE can vary depending on the specific virus and the type of cells that are infected.

Trinucleotide repeats refer to a specific type of DNA sequence expansion where a particular trinucleotide (a sequence made up of three nucleotides) is repeated multiple times. In normal genomic DNA, these repeats are usually present in a relatively stable and consistent range. However, when the number of repeats exceeds a certain threshold, it can result in an unstable genetic variant known as a trinucleotide repeat expansion.

These expansions can occur in various genes and are associated with several neurogenetic disorders, such as Huntington's disease, myotonic dystrophy, fragile X syndrome, and Friedreich's ataxia. The length of the trinucleotide repeat tends to expand further in subsequent generations, which can lead to anticipation – an earlier age of onset and increased severity of symptoms in successive generations.

The most common trinucleotide repeats involve CAG (cytosine-adenine-guanine) or CTG (cytosine-thymine-guanine) repeats, although other combinations like CGG, GAA, and GCT can also be involved. These repeat expansions can result in altered gene function, protein misfolding, aggregation, and toxicity, ultimately leading to the development of neurodegenerative diseases and other clinical manifestations.

Protein renaturation is the process of restoring the native, functional structure of a protein that has been denatured due to exposure to external stressors such as changes in temperature, pH, or the addition of chemical agents. Denaturation causes proteins to lose their unique three-dimensional structure, which is essential for their proper function. Renaturation involves slowly removing these stressors and allowing the protein to refold into its original configuration, restoring its biological activity. This process can be facilitated by various techniques, including dialysis, dilution, or the addition of specific chemical chaperones.

A fatal outcome is a term used in medical context to describe a situation where a disease, injury, or illness results in the death of an individual. It is the most severe and unfortunate possible outcome of any medical condition, and is often used as a measure of the severity and prognosis of various diseases and injuries. In clinical trials and research, fatal outcome may be used as an endpoint to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of different treatments or interventions.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is a type of microscopy in which an electron beam is transmitted through a ultra-thin specimen, interacting with it as it passes through. An image is formed from the interaction of the electrons with the specimen; the image is then magnified and visualized on a fluorescent screen or recorded on an electronic detector (or photographic film in older models).

TEM can provide high-resolution, high-magnification images that can reveal the internal structure of specimens including cells, viruses, and even molecules. It is widely used in biological and materials science research to investigate the ultrastructure of cells, tissues and materials. In medicine, TEM is used for diagnostic purposes in fields such as virology and bacteriology.

It's important to note that preparing a sample for TEM is a complex process, requiring specialized techniques to create thin (50-100 nm) specimens. These include cutting ultrathin sections of embedded samples using an ultramicrotome, staining with heavy metal salts, and positive staining or negative staining methods.

In the context of medicine, "lead" most commonly refers to lead exposure or lead poisoning. Lead is a heavy metal that can be harmful to the human body, even at low levels. It can enter the body through contaminated air, water, food, or soil, and it can also be absorbed through the skin.

Lead poisoning occurs when lead builds up in the body over time, causing damage to the brain, nervous system, red blood cells, and kidneys. Symptoms of lead poisoning may include abdominal pain, constipation, fatigue, headache, irritability, memory problems, and in severe cases, seizures, coma, or even death.

Lead exposure is particularly dangerous for children, as their developing bodies are more sensitive to the harmful effects of lead. Even low levels of lead exposure can cause learning disabilities, behavioral problems, and developmental delays in children. Therefore, it's important to minimize lead exposure and seek medical attention if lead poisoning is suspected.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Protein folding is the process by which a protein molecule naturally folds into its three-dimensional structure, following the synthesis of its amino acid chain. This complex process is determined by the sequence and properties of the amino acids, as well as various environmental factors such as temperature, pH, and the presence of molecular chaperones. The final folded conformation of a protein is crucial for its proper function, as it enables the formation of specific interactions between different parts of the molecule, which in turn define its biological activity. Protein misfolding can lead to various diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease.

Encephalitis is defined as inflammation of the brain parenchyma, which is often caused by viral infections but can also be due to bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infections, autoimmune disorders, or exposure to toxins. The infection or inflammation can cause various symptoms such as headache, fever, confusion, seizures, and altered consciousness, ranging from mild symptoms to severe cases that can lead to brain damage, long-term disabilities, or even death.

The diagnosis of encephalitis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies (such as MRI or CT scans), and laboratory tests (such as cerebrospinal fluid analysis). Treatment may include antiviral medications, corticosteroids, immunoglobulins, and supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Cytoplasm is the material within a eukaryotic cell (a cell with a true nucleus) that lies between the nuclear membrane and the cell membrane. It is composed of an aqueous solution called cytosol, in which various organelles such as mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles are suspended. Cytoplasm also contains a variety of dissolved nutrients, metabolites, ions, and enzymes that are involved in various cellular processes such as metabolism, signaling, and transport. It is where most of the cell's metabolic activities take place, and it plays a crucial role in maintaining the structure and function of the cell.

There is no medical definition for "dog diseases" as it is too broad a term. However, dogs can suffer from various health conditions and illnesses that are specific to their species or similar to those found in humans. Some common categories of dog diseases include:

1. Infectious Diseases: These are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites. Examples include distemper, parvovirus, kennel cough, Lyme disease, and heartworms.
2. Hereditary/Genetic Disorders: Some dogs may inherit certain genetic disorders from their parents. Examples include hip dysplasia, elbow dysplasia, progressive retinal atrophy (PRA), and degenerative myelopathy.
3. Age-Related Diseases: As dogs age, they become more susceptible to various health issues. Common age-related diseases in dogs include arthritis, dental disease, cancer, and cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS).
4. Nutritional Disorders: Malnutrition or improper feeding can lead to various health problems in dogs. Examples include obesity, malnutrition, and vitamin deficiencies.
5. Environmental Diseases: These are caused by exposure to environmental factors such as toxins, allergens, or extreme temperatures. Examples include heatstroke, frostbite, and toxicities from ingesting harmful substances.
6. Neurological Disorders: Dogs can suffer from various neurological conditions that affect their nervous system. Examples include epilepsy, intervertebral disc disease (IVDD), and vestibular disease.
7. Behavioral Disorders: Some dogs may develop behavioral issues due to various factors such as anxiety, fear, or aggression. Examples include separation anxiety, noise phobias, and resource guarding.

It's important to note that regular veterinary care, proper nutrition, exercise, and preventative measures can help reduce the risk of many dog diseases.

The Fluorescent Antibody Technique (FAT) is a type of immunofluorescence assay used in laboratory medicine and pathology for the detection and localization of specific antigens or antibodies in tissues, cells, or microorganisms. In this technique, a fluorescein-labeled antibody is used to selectively bind to the target antigen or antibody, forming an immune complex. When excited by light of a specific wavelength, the fluorescein label emits light at a longer wavelength, typically visualized as green fluorescence under a fluorescence microscope.

The FAT is widely used in diagnostic microbiology for the identification and characterization of various bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. It has also been applied in the diagnosis of autoimmune diseases and certain cancers by detecting specific antibodies or antigens in patient samples. The main advantage of FAT is its high sensitivity and specificity, allowing for accurate detection and differentiation of various pathogens and disease markers. However, it requires specialized equipment and trained personnel to perform and interpret the results.

Haplorhini is a term used in the field of primatology and physical anthropology to refer to a parvorder of simian primates, which includes humans, apes (both great and small), and Old World monkeys. The name "Haplorhini" comes from the Greek words "haploos," meaning single or simple, and "rhinos," meaning nose.

The defining characteristic of Haplorhini is the presence of a simple, dry nose, as opposed to the wet, fleshy noses found in other primates, such as New World monkeys and strepsirrhines (which include lemurs and lorises). The nostrils of haplorhines are located close together at the tip of the snout, and they lack the rhinarium or "wet nose" that is present in other primates.

Haplorhini is further divided into two infraorders: Simiiformes (which includes apes and Old World monkeys) and Tarsioidea (which includes tarsiers). These groups are distinguished by various anatomical and behavioral differences, such as the presence or absence of a tail, the structure of the hand and foot, and the degree of sociality.

Overall, Haplorhini is a group of primates that share a number of distinctive features related to their sensory systems, locomotion, and social behavior. Understanding the evolutionary history and diversity of this group is an important area of research in anthropology, biology, and psychology.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

Dementia is a broad term that describes a decline in cognitive functioning, including memory, language, problem-solving, and judgment, severe enough to interfere with daily life. It is not a specific disease but rather a group of symptoms that may be caused by various underlying diseases or conditions. Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia, accounting for 60-80% of cases. Other causes include vascular dementia, Lewy body dementia, frontotemporal dementia, and Huntington's disease.

The symptoms of dementia can vary widely depending on the cause and the specific areas of the brain that are affected. However, common early signs of dementia may include:

* Memory loss that affects daily life
* Difficulty with familiar tasks
* Problems with language or communication
* Difficulty with visual and spatial abilities
* Misplacing things and unable to retrace steps
* Decreased or poor judgment
* Withdrawal from work or social activities
* Changes in mood or behavior

Dementia is a progressive condition, meaning that symptoms will gradually worsen over time. While there is currently no cure for dementia, early diagnosis and treatment can help slow the progression of the disease and improve quality of life for those affected.

Recombinant proteins are artificially created proteins produced through the use of recombinant DNA technology. This process involves combining DNA molecules from different sources to create a new set of genes that encode for a specific protein. The resulting recombinant protein can then be expressed, purified, and used for various applications in research, medicine, and industry.

Recombinant proteins are widely used in biomedical research to study protein function, structure, and interactions. They are also used in the development of diagnostic tests, vaccines, and therapeutic drugs. For example, recombinant insulin is a common treatment for diabetes, while recombinant human growth hormone is used to treat growth disorders.

The production of recombinant proteins typically involves the use of host cells, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, which are engineered to express the desired protein. The host cells are transformed with a plasmid vector containing the gene of interest, along with regulatory elements that control its expression. Once the host cells are cultured and the protein is expressed, it can be purified using various chromatography techniques.

Overall, recombinant proteins have revolutionized many areas of biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study and manipulate proteins in ways that were previously impossible.

Transgenic mice are genetically modified rodents that have incorporated foreign DNA (exogenous DNA) into their own genome. This is typically done through the use of recombinant DNA technology, where a specific gene or genetic sequence of interest is isolated and then introduced into the mouse embryo. The resulting transgenic mice can then express the protein encoded by the foreign gene, allowing researchers to study its function in a living organism.

The process of creating transgenic mice usually involves microinjecting the exogenous DNA into the pronucleus of a fertilized egg, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother. The offspring that result from this procedure are screened for the presence of the foreign DNA, and those that carry the desired genetic modification are used to establish a transgenic mouse line.

Transgenic mice have been widely used in biomedical research to model human diseases, study gene function, and test new therapies. They provide a valuable tool for understanding complex biological processes and developing new treatments for a variety of medical conditions.

An antigen is any substance that can stimulate an immune response, particularly the production of antibodies. Viral antigens are antigens that are found on or produced by viruses. They can be proteins, glycoproteins, or carbohydrates present on the surface or inside the viral particle.

Viral antigens play a crucial role in the immune system's recognition and response to viral infections. When a virus infects a host cell, it may display its antigens on the surface of the infected cell. This allows the immune system to recognize and target the infected cells for destruction, thereby limiting the spread of the virus.

Viral antigens are also important targets for vaccines. Vaccines typically work by introducing a harmless form of a viral antigen to the body, which then stimulates the production of antibodies and memory T-cells that can recognize and respond quickly and effectively to future infections with the actual virus.

It's worth noting that different types of viruses have different antigens, and these antigens can vary between strains of the same virus. This is why there are often different vaccines available for different viral diseases, and why flu vaccines need to be updated every year to account for changes in the circulating influenza virus strains.

Myositis is a medical term that refers to inflammation of the muscle tissue. This condition can cause various symptoms, including muscle weakness, pain, swelling, and stiffness. There are several types of myositis, such as polymyositis, dermatomyositis, and inclusion body myositis, which have different causes and characteristics.

Polymyositis is a type of myositis that affects multiple muscle groups, particularly those close to the trunk of the body. Dermatomyositis is characterized by muscle inflammation as well as a skin rash. Inclusion body myositis is a less common form of myositis that typically affects older adults and can cause both muscle weakness and wasting.

The causes of myositis vary depending on the type, but they can include autoimmune disorders, infections, medications, and other medical conditions. Treatment for myositis may involve medication to reduce inflammation, physical therapy to maintain muscle strength and flexibility, and lifestyle changes to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infections are caused by the human herpesvirus 5 (HHV-5), a type of herpesvirus. The infection can affect people of all ages, but it is more common in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or who have undergone organ transplantation.

CMV can be spread through close contact with an infected person's saliva, urine, blood, tears, semen, or breast milk. It can also be spread through sexual contact or by sharing contaminated objects, such as toys, eating utensils, or drinking glasses. Once a person is infected with CMV, the virus remains in their body for life and can reactivate later, causing symptoms to recur.

Most people who are infected with CMV do not experience any symptoms, but some may develop a mononucleosis-like illness, characterized by fever, fatigue, swollen glands, and sore throat. In people with weakened immune systems, CMV infections can cause more severe symptoms, including pneumonia, gastrointestinal disease, retinitis, and encephalitis.

Congenital CMV infection occurs when a pregnant woman passes the virus to her fetus through the placenta. This can lead to serious complications, such as hearing loss, vision loss, developmental delays, and mental disability.

Diagnosis of CMV infections is typically made through blood tests or by detecting the virus in bodily fluids, such as urine or saliva. Treatment depends on the severity of the infection and the patient's overall health. Antiviral medications may be prescribed to help manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Osteitis deformans, also known as Paget's disease of bone, is a chronic disorder of the bone characterized by abnormal turnover and remodeling of the bone. In this condition, the bone becomes enlarged, thickened, and deformed due to excessive and disorganized bone formation and resorption.

The process begins when the bone-remodeling cycle is disrupted, leading to an imbalance between the activity of osteoclasts (cells that break down bone) and osteoblasts (cells that form new bone). In Paget's disease, osteoclasts become overactive and increase bone resorption, followed by an overzealous response from osteoblasts, which attempt to repair the damage but do so in a disorganized manner.

The affected bones can become weakened, prone to fractures, and may cause pain, deformities, or other complications such as arthritis, hearing loss, or neurological symptoms if the skull or spine is involved. The exact cause of Paget's disease remains unknown, but it is believed that genetic and environmental factors play a role in its development.

Early diagnosis and treatment can help manage the symptoms and prevent complications associated with osteitis deformans. Treatment options include medications to slow down bone turnover, pain management, and orthopedic interventions when necessary.

Necrosis is the premature death of cells or tissues due to damage or injury, such as from infection, trauma, infarction (lack of blood supply), or toxic substances. It's a pathological process that results in the uncontrolled and passive degradation of cellular components, ultimately leading to the release of intracellular contents into the extracellular space. This can cause local inflammation and may lead to further tissue damage if not treated promptly.

There are different types of necrosis, including coagulative, liquefactive, caseous, fat, fibrinoid, and gangrenous necrosis, each with distinct histological features depending on the underlying cause and the affected tissues or organs.

An Aviadenovirus is a type of virus that belongs to the family *Adenoviridae* and the genus *Aviadenovirus*. These viruses primarily infect avian species, such as birds, and can cause a variety of diseases. The genome of an Aviadenovirus is double-stranded DNA. Some species of Aviadenoviruses have been known to cause respiratory and reproductive problems in poultry, leading to significant economic losses in the poultry industry. It's important to note that Aviadenoviruses are not known to infect or cause disease in humans.

Solubility is a fundamental concept in pharmaceutical sciences and medicine, which refers to the maximum amount of a substance (solute) that can be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent (usually water) at a specific temperature and pressure. Solubility is typically expressed as mass of solute per volume or mass of solvent (e.g., grams per liter, milligrams per milliliter). The process of dissolving a solute in a solvent results in a homogeneous solution where the solute particles are dispersed uniformly throughout the solvent.

Understanding the solubility of drugs is crucial for their formulation, administration, and therapeutic effectiveness. Drugs with low solubility may not dissolve sufficiently to produce the desired pharmacological effect, while those with high solubility might lead to rapid absorption and short duration of action. Therefore, optimizing drug solubility through various techniques like particle size reduction, salt formation, or solubilization is an essential aspect of drug development and delivery.

Viral DNA refers to the genetic material present in viruses that consist of DNA as their core component. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is one of the two types of nucleic acids that are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information in living organisms. Viruses are infectious agents much smaller than bacteria that can only replicate inside the cells of other organisms, called hosts.

Viral DNA can be double-stranded (dsDNA) or single-stranded (ssDNA), depending on the type of virus. Double-stranded DNA viruses have a genome made up of two complementary strands of DNA, while single-stranded DNA viruses contain only one strand of DNA.

Examples of dsDNA viruses include Adenoviruses, Herpesviruses, and Poxviruses, while ssDNA viruses include Parvoviruses and Circoviruses. Viral DNA plays a crucial role in the replication cycle of the virus, encoding for various proteins necessary for its multiplication and survival within the host cell.

Distal myopathies are a group of rare genetic muscle disorders that primarily affect the muscles of the hands, feet, and lower legs. These myopathies are characterized by progressive weakness and wasting (atrophy) of the distal muscles, which are located further from the center of the body. The onset of symptoms can vary widely, ranging from early childhood to late adulthood.

There are several different types of distal myopathies, each caused by mutations in specific genes that affect muscle function. Some common forms include:

1. Nonaka Distal Myopathy: This form is caused by mutations in the GNE gene and typically presents in the third or fourth decade of life with weakness and wasting of the ankle dorsiflexors, foot extensors, and wrist and finger extensors.

2. Miyoshi Distal Myopathy: This form is caused by mutations in the DYSF gene and affects the calf muscles initially, followed by weakness in other distal muscles over time.

3. Welander Distal Myopathy: This form is caused by mutations in the TIA1 gene and typically presents in adulthood with weakness and wasting of the hand and forearm muscles.

4. Laing Distal Myopathy: This form is caused by mutations in the CAV3 gene and affects the anterior compartment of the lower leg, resulting in foot drop and weakness of the ankle dorsiflexors.

5. Gowers Distal Myopathy: This form is caused by mutations in the HNRNPDL gene and typically presents in adulthood with weakness and wasting of the hand and forearm muscles, as well as foot drop.

There is no cure for distal myopathies, but treatment can help manage symptoms and improve quality of life. Physical therapy, bracing, and orthotics may be used to support weakened muscles and maintain mobility. In some cases, medications such as corticosteroids or immunosuppressants may be prescribed to reduce muscle inflammation and slow disease progression.

A lung is a pair of spongy, elastic organs in the chest that work together to enable breathing. They are responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide through the process of respiration. The left lung has two lobes, while the right lung has three lobes. The lungs are protected by the ribcage and are covered by a double-layered membrane called the pleura. The trachea divides into two bronchi, which further divide into smaller bronchioles, leading to millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli, where the exchange of gases occurs.

A kidney, in medical terms, is one of two bean-shaped organs located in the lower back region of the body. They are essential for maintaining homeostasis within the body by performing several crucial functions such as:

1. Regulation of water and electrolyte balance: Kidneys help regulate the amount of water and various electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and calcium in the bloodstream to maintain a stable internal environment.

2. Excretion of waste products: They filter waste products from the blood, including urea (a byproduct of protein metabolism), creatinine (a breakdown product of muscle tissue), and other harmful substances that result from normal cellular functions or external sources like medications and toxins.

3. Endocrine function: Kidneys produce several hormones with important roles in the body, such as erythropoietin (stimulates red blood cell production), renin (regulates blood pressure), and calcitriol (activated form of vitamin D that helps regulate calcium homeostasis).

4. pH balance regulation: Kidneys maintain the proper acid-base balance in the body by excreting either hydrogen ions or bicarbonate ions, depending on whether the blood is too acidic or too alkaline.

5. Blood pressure control: The kidneys play a significant role in regulating blood pressure through the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which constricts blood vessels and promotes sodium and water retention to increase blood volume and, consequently, blood pressure.

Anatomically, each kidney is approximately 10-12 cm long, 5-7 cm wide, and 3 cm thick, with a weight of about 120-170 grams. They are surrounded by a protective layer of fat and connected to the urinary system through the renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Boidae is a family of snakes, also known as boas. This family includes many different species of large, non-venomous snakes found in various parts of the world, particularly in Central and South America, Africa, and Asia. Boas are known for their strong bodies and muscular tails, which they use to constrict their prey before swallowing it whole. Some well-known members of this family include the anaconda, the python, and the boa constrictor.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

I believe there might be a misunderstanding in your question. "Dogs" is not a medical term or condition. It is the common name for a domesticated carnivore of the family Canidae, specifically the genus Canis, which includes wolves, foxes, and other extant and extinct species of mammals. Dogs are often kept as pets and companions, and they have been bred in a wide variety of forms and sizes for different purposes, such as hunting, herding, guarding, assisting police and military forces, and providing companionship and emotional support.

If you meant to ask about a specific medical condition or term related to dogs, please provide more context so I can give you an accurate answer.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Transfection is a term used in molecular biology that refers to the process of deliberately introducing foreign genetic material (DNA, RNA or artificial gene constructs) into cells. This is typically done using chemical or physical methods, such as lipofection or electroporation. Transfection is widely used in research and medical settings for various purposes, including studying gene function, producing proteins, developing gene therapies, and creating genetically modified organisms. It's important to note that transfection is different from transduction, which is the process of introducing genetic material into cells using viruses as vectors.

Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:

1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.

Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.

Chymosin, also known as rennin or rennet, is a proteolytic enzyme that is naturally present in the stomachs of ruminant animals such as cows, goats, and sheep. It plays an essential role in the digestion of milk in these animals by curdling or coagulating the milk protein casein, which helps in the separation of solid curds from liquid whey during the process of stomach digestion.

In the context of food production, chymosin is often used as a coagulant in the manufacturing of cheese and other dairy products. Traditionally, rennet was obtained by extracting it from the fourth stomach chamber (abomasum) of young calves, but nowadays, most commercial chymosin is produced through microbial fermentation using genetically modified bacteria or yeast that have been engineered to produce this enzyme. This method of production allows for a more consistent and animal-friendly source of chymosin for industrial applications.

The primary function of chymosin in cheese making is to catalyze the coagulation of casein, leading to the formation of a curd that can be further processed into various types of cheese. The enzyme specifically cleaves a bond in the casein protein called Phe105-Met106, resulting in the formation of para-κ-casein and paracaseinompholine, which then interact to form the curd. This reaction is crucial for initiating the cheese making process, as it allows for the separation of solid curds from liquid whey, which can then be pressed, aged, and transformed into a wide variety of cheese styles.

Recombinant fusion proteins are artificially created biomolecules that combine the functional domains or properties of two or more different proteins into a single protein entity. They are generated through recombinant DNA technology, where the genes encoding the desired protein domains are linked together and expressed as a single, chimeric gene in a host organism, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells.

The resulting fusion protein retains the functional properties of its individual constituent proteins, allowing for novel applications in research, diagnostics, and therapeutics. For instance, recombinant fusion proteins can be designed to enhance protein stability, solubility, or immunogenicity, making them valuable tools for studying protein-protein interactions, developing targeted therapies, or generating vaccines against infectious diseases or cancer.

Examples of recombinant fusion proteins include:

1. Etaglunatide (ABT-523): A soluble Fc fusion protein that combines the heavy chain fragment crystallizable region (Fc) of an immunoglobulin with the extracellular domain of the human interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R). This fusion protein functions as a decoy receptor, neutralizing IL-6 and its downstream signaling pathways in rheumatoid arthritis.
2. Etanercept (Enbrel): A soluble TNF receptor p75 Fc fusion protein that binds to tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and inhibits its proinflammatory activity, making it a valuable therapeutic option for treating autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and psoriasis.
3. Abatacept (Orencia): A fusion protein consisting of the extracellular domain of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) linked to the Fc region of an immunoglobulin, which downregulates T-cell activation and proliferation in autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis.
4. Belimumab (Benlysta): A monoclonal antibody that targets B-lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS) protein, preventing its interaction with the B-cell surface receptor and inhibiting B-cell activation in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).
5. Romiplostim (Nplate): A fusion protein consisting of a thrombopoietin receptor agonist peptide linked to an immunoglobulin Fc region, which stimulates platelet production in patients with chronic immune thrombocytopenia (ITP).
6. Darbepoetin alfa (Aranesp): A hyperglycosylated erythropoiesis-stimulating protein that functions as a longer-acting form of recombinant human erythropoietin, used to treat anemia in patients with chronic kidney disease or cancer.
7. Palivizumab (Synagis): A monoclonal antibody directed against the F protein of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), which prevents RSV infection and is administered prophylactically to high-risk infants during the RSV season.
8. Ranibizumab (Lucentis): A recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody fragment that binds and inhibits vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A), used in the treatment of age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and other ocular disorders.
9. Cetuximab (Erbitux): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that binds to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), used in the treatment of colorectal cancer and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.
10. Adalimumab (Humira): A fully humanized monoclonal antibody that targets tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and Crohn's disease.
11. Bevacizumab (Avastin): A recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to VEGF-A, used in the treatment of various cancers, including colorectal, lung, breast, and kidney cancer.
12. Trastuzumab (Herceptin): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets HER2/neu receptor, used in the treatment of breast cancer.
13. Rituximab (Rituxan): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that binds to CD20 antigen on B cells, used in the treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and rheumatoid arthritis.
14. Palivizumab (Synagis): A humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to the F protein of respiratory syncytial virus, used in the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection in high-risk infants.
15. Infliximab (Remicade): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
16. Natalizumab (Tysabri): A humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to α4β1 integrin, used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis and Crohn's disease.
17. Adalimumab (Humira): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis.
18. Golimumab (Simponi): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and ulcerative colitis.
19. Certolizumab pegol (Cimzia): A PEGylated Fab' fragment of a humanized monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and Crohn's disease.
20. Ustekinumab (Stelara): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-12 and IL-23, used in the treatment of psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and Crohn's disease.
21. Secukinumab (Cosentyx): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17A, used in the treatment of psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
22. Ixekizumab (Taltz): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17A, used in the treatment of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis.
23. Brodalumab (Siliq): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17 receptor A, used in the treatment of psoriasis.
24. Sarilumab (Kevzara): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 receptor, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
25. Tocilizumab (Actemra): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 receptor, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis, polyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis, giant cell arteritis, and chimeric antigen receptor T-cell-induced cytokine release syndrome.
26. Siltuximab (Sylvant): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6, used in the treatment of multicentric Castleman disease.
27. Satralizumab (Enspryng): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6 receptor alpha, used in the treatment of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder.
28. Sirukumab (Plivensia): A human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6, used in the treatment

Polymyositis is defined as a rare inflammatory disorder that causes muscle weakness and inflammation (swelling) of the muscles. It primarily affects the skeletal muscles, which are the muscles responsible for voluntary movements such as walking, talking, and swallowing. The onset of polymyositis can occur at any age but is most commonly seen in adults between 31 to 60 years old, with women being slightly more affected than men.

The exact cause of polymyositis remains unknown; however, it is believed to be an autoimmune disorder, where the body's immune system mistakenly attacks its own muscle tissue. Certain factors such as genetics, viral infections, and exposure to certain drugs may contribute to the development of this condition.

Polymyositis can cause various symptoms, including:
- Progressive muscle weakness and wasting, particularly affecting the proximal muscles (those closest to the trunk of the body) such as the hips, thighs, shoulders, and upper arms.
- Difficulty climbing stairs, lifting objects, or rising from a seated position.
- Fatigue and stiffness, especially after periods of inactivity.
- Joint pain and swelling.
- Difficulty swallowing or speaking.
- Shortness of breath due to weakened respiratory muscles.

Diagnosis of polymyositis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, electromyography (EMG), and muscle biopsy. Treatment usually includes medications such as corticosteroids and immunosuppressants to reduce inflammation and control the immune response. Physical therapy may also be recommended to help maintain muscle strength and flexibility.

If left untreated, polymyositis can lead to significant disability and complications, including respiratory failure, malnutrition, and cardiovascular disease. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial for improving outcomes and preventing long-term complications.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Morbillivirus is a genus of viruses in the family Paramyxoviridae, order Mononegavirales. It includes several important human and animal pathogens that cause diseases with significant morbidity and mortality. The most well-known member of this genus is Measles virus (MV), which causes measles in humans, a highly contagious disease characterized by fever, rash, cough, and conjunctivitis.

Other important Morbilliviruses include:

* Rinderpest virus (RPV): This virus caused rinderpest, a severe disease in cattle and other cloven-hoofed animals, which was eradicated in 2011 through a global vaccination campaign.
* Canine Distemper Virus (CDV): A pathogen that affects dogs, wild canids, and several other mammalian species, causing a systemic disease with respiratory, gastrointestinal, and neurological symptoms.
* Phocine Distemper Virus (PDV) and Porpoise Morbillivirus (PMV): These viruses affect marine mammals, such as seals and porpoises, causing mass mortality events in their populations.

Morbilliviruses are enveloped, negative-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses with a genome size of approximately 15-16 kilobases. They have a pleomorphic shape and can vary in diameter from 150 to 750 nanometers. The viral envelope contains two glycoproteins: the hemagglutinin (H) protein, which mediates attachment to host cells, and the fusion (F) protein, which facilitates membrane fusion and viral entry.

Transmission of Morbilliviruses typically occurs through respiratory droplets or direct contact with infected individuals or animals. The viruses can cause acute infections with high fatality rates, particularly in naïve populations that lack immunity due to insufficient vaccination coverage or the absence of previous exposure.

In summary, Morbillivirus is a genus of viruses in the family Paramyxoviridae that includes several important human and animal pathogens causing acute respiratory infections with high fatality rates. Transmission occurs through respiratory droplets or direct contact, and vaccination plays a crucial role in preventing outbreaks and controlling disease spread.

Inclusion bodies often then appear in the cell nucleus and/or cytoplasm of the host cell. The inclusion bodies can first be ... They may also be intranuclear or intracytoplasmic and eosinophilic or basophilic. Indirect immunoperoxidase assay Viral culture ... inclusion bodies are present without an active virus and indicate areas of viral scarring. Inclusion bodies vary with viral ... Inclusion bodies - insoluble abnormal structures within cell nuclei or cytoplasm - may only be seen with staining as they ...
In affected cells, this protein builds up and assembles intranuclear inclusion bodies. These insoluble aggregates are ...
Cowdry type A bodies are intranuclear inclusion bodies visible under light microscopy. They show electron dense glycoproteins ... Most people acquire the virus via direct contact, it can enter the body by disrupting the integrity of skin, mucous membranes ... Both Cowdry type A bodies can both be found in varicella zoster and herpetic gingivostomatitis, making it impossible to ... where it travels within axons to reach ganglionic nerve bodies. HSV-1 most commonly infects the trigeminal ganglia, where it ...
CMV infection can be demonstrated microscopically by the detection of intranuclear inclusion bodies. On H&E staining, the ... inclusion bodies stain dark pink and are called "owl's eye" inclusion bodies. HCMV infection is important to certain high-risk ... Persons who have been infected with CMV develop antibodies to the virus, which persist in the body for the lifetime of that ... After infection, the virus remains latent in lymphocytes in the body for the rest of the person's life. Overt disease rarely ...
Short-lived, large, refractile cells that frequently contained intranuclear and/or intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies were ... The most prominent technique is the quantification of viral DNA in blood, other body fluids, and organs by means of real-time ... The prevalence of the virus in the body increases with age (rates of infection are highest among infant between 6 and 12 months ...
BHV-2 is characterized by intranuclear inclusion bodies, as opposed to the intracytoplasmic inclusions characteristic of LSD. ... These lesions, occurring all over the body (but particularly on the head, neck, udder, scrotum, vulva and perineum), may be ... as well as larger lateral bodies. The average size of capripoxvirions is 320 nm by 260 nm.[citation needed] The virus has a 151 ... especially in low-lying areas or near bodies of water, however, outbreaks can also occur during the dry season. Blood-feeding ...
2001). "Interaction between Neuronal Intranuclear Inclusions and Promyelocytic Leukemia Protein Nuclear and Coiled Bodies in ... Mutant atrophin-1 proteins have been found in neuronal intranuclear inclusions (NII) and diffusely accumulated in the neuronal ... 2002). "Two populations of neuronal intranuclear inclusions in SCA7 differ in size and promyelocytic leukaemia protein content ... This has led to two models, one in which PML bodies represent sites for NII formation and a second in which PML bodies are ...
... very few or no neuronal cytoplasmic inclusions, neuronal intranuclear inclusions or glial cytoplasmic inclusions. This is often ... FTLD-tau is characterised by tau positive inclusion bodies often referred to as Pick-bodies. Examples of FTLD-tau include; ... Type D presents with many neuronal intranuclear inclusions and dystrophic neurites, and an unusual absence of inclusions in the ... FTLD-FUS; which is characterised by FUS positive cytoplasmic inclusions, intra nuclear inclusions, and neuritic threads. All of ...
... which may give the appearance of intranuclear inclusions. They may appear in papillary thyroid carcinoma. Inclusion body ... Bollinger bodies in fowlpox Molluscum bodies in Molluscum contagiosum Eosinophilic inclusion bodies in boid inclusion body ... neuroserpin inclusion bodies called Collins bodies in familial encephalopathy with neuroserpin inclusion bodies, inclusion ... neuroserpin inclusion bodies called Collins bodies in familial encephalopathy with neuroserpin inclusion bodies, inclusion ...
... formation on abnormal cystic airspaces and viral eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies in intraluminal macrophages. ...
... pathogenesis by the induction of intranuclear inclusion bodies. ATXN7 is associated with both olivopontocerebellar atrophy type ...
... show multinucleated giant cells and intranuclear inclusion bodies, however, the test is low in sensitivity and specificity. DNA ... Patients with epithelial keratitis complain of foreign-body sensation, light sensitivity, redness and blurred vision. Focal or ...
... heinz bodies MeSH A11.284.420.390 - inclusion bodies, viral MeSH A11.284.420.400 - intranuclear inclusion bodies MeSH A11.284. ... erythrocyte inclusions MeSH A11.118.290.330.315.335 - heinz bodies MeSH A11.118.290.330.531 - megaloblasts MeSH A11.118.290.330 ... nissl bodies MeSH A11.284.430.214.190.500.950 - weibel-palade bodies MeSH A11.284.430.214.190.750 - cytoskeleton MeSH A11.284. ... 420.460 - lewy bodies MeSH A11.284.430.106 - cell nucleus MeSH A11.284.430.106.279 - cell nucleus structures MeSH A11.284. ...
... a necropsy can be performed to look for intranuclear inclusion bodies and necrosis in the liver and inflamed small intestines. ... The virus was first discovered in 1996 in an epizootic of inclusion body hepatitis and enteritis in aplomado and peregrine ... the inflammation of the small intestines Inclusion bodies in the liver Necrotizing hepatitis Splenomegaly, the enlargement of ...
... hearing defects and reduced intelligence The cells of the infected organ show intranuclear inclusion giving the nucleus ... Cytomegalic inclusion body disease (CIBD) also known as cytomegalic inclusion disease (CID) is a series of signs and symptoms ... Cytomegalic inclusion body disease is the most common cause of congenital abnormalities in the United States. It can also cause ...
... that appear on the mucous membrane and microscopically the biopsy will show intranuclear and cytoplasmic inclusion bodies. ...
... forms SCA type-1 and 2 DRPLA intranuclear inclusions (the regular wild-type protein localized to inclusion bodies). SCA type-3 ... cannot be degraded and cause the aggresomes to form inclusion bodies (in Parkinson's disease, Lewy bodies) which contribute to ... the regular wild-type protein localized to inclusion bodies). Parkinson's disease has been linked to this protein when there is ... the regular wild-type protein localized to inclusion bodies). No mutation associated with disease has been linked to this ...
... are eosinophilic or basophilic nuclear inclusions composed of nucleic acid and protein seen in cells infected ... There are two types of intranuclear Cowdry bodies: Type A (as seen in herpes simplex, VZV and measles ) Type B (as seen in ... "Neuropathology blog: Whither the Illusory Cowdry B Inclusion of Polio?". 13 November 2008. v t e (Histopathology, All stub ... Light microscopy is used for detection of Cowdry bodies. "Cytomegalovirus (CMV) colitis". www.pathologyoutlines.com. Retrieved ...
The sporozoites escape from the oocyst and migrate within the body of the vector to the salivary glands where they are injected ... Replication: Mitosis is usually closed, with an intranuclear spindle; in some species, it is open at the poles. Cell division ... Centrioles, chloroplasts, ejectile organelles, and inclusions are absent. The cell is surrounded by a pellicle of three ... The apical complex consists of a set of spirally arranged microtubules (the conoid), a secretory body (the rhoptry) and one or ...
... are inclusion bodies usually found in atypical plasma cells that become known as Mott cells. Russell bodies are ... "Multiple myeloma with numerous intranuclear Russell bodies". Haematologica. 84 (2): 179-80. PMID 10091418. "Dutcher Body in ... Similar inclusion bodies that tend to overlie the nucleus or invaginate into it are known as Dutcher bodies. They are named for ... Russell bodies are not tissue specific; during research they were induced in rat glioma cells. Russell bodies were found to ...
7A). Inflammation and intranuclear inclusions also have been described. In contrast, macroscopic changes have not been reported ... and the accumulation of large amounts of serosanguineous fluids in body cavities. Necrosis of the endothelium is ... Intranuclear inclusions develop but they are often sparsely distributed. Infected cultures may hemadsorb slightly (Fig. 1B). ... Neutralization of infectivity is usually confirmed by the absence or reduction either of intranuclear inclusions or fluorescent ...
Huynh DP, Figueroa K, Hoang N, Pulst SM (September 2000). "Nuclear localization or inclusion body formation of ataxin-2 are not ... "Neuronal intranuclear inclusions in SCA2: a genetic, morphological and immunohistochemical study of two cases". Brain. 125 (Pt ... It is also involved in the formation of stress granules and P-bodies, which also play roles in RNA regulation. The ...
Growth slows during the winter, although eosinophilic intranuclear inclusions may still be found within wintering frogs that ... This raises the question of whether the virus has some way of spreading to the rest of the body, although a lack of evidence ... The virus can be found in the primary tumor and metastatic cells of the bladder, fat body, and liver of the organism. On ... Once these tumors begin to metastasize, however, it is possible for the formation of tumors to spread throughout the body of ...
Arrasate M, Mitra S, Schweitzer ES, Segal MR, Finkbeiner S (Oct 2004). "Inclusion body formation reduces levels of mutant ... The protein fragments form abnormal clumps, known as neuronal intranuclear inclusions (NIIs), inside nerve cells, and may ... "Formation of neuronal intranuclear inclusions underlies the neurological dysfunction in mice transgenic for the HD mutation". ... "Delayed Emergence of Subdiffraction-Sized Mutant Huntingtin Fibrils Following Inclusion Body Formation". Q Rev Biophys. 49: e2 ...
Skin biopsy shows necrotic epidermal cells with intranuclear inclusions.[citation needed] Eczema vaccinatum is a serious ... The child developed the pathognomonic rash which typifies eczema vaccinatum over 80 percent of his body surface area. The boy ...
"Isolation of intranuclear inclusion producing agents from infants with illnesses resembling cytomegalic inclusion disease". ... All herpesviruses share a characteristic ability to remain latent within the body over long periods. Although they may be found ... "Histopathological detection of owl's eye inclusions is still specific for cytomegalovirus in the era of human herpesviruses 6 ... throughout the body, CMV infections are frequently associated with the salivary glands in humans and other mammals. The CMV ...
... are virus infected urothelial cells with a distinct morphology of enlarged nuclei and intranuclear inclusions. In ... the heavily enlarged and altered nuclei as well as the irregular shape of the cell body can mimic the changes observed in ... Sometimes the nuclear inclusion has a vesicular aspect, the chromatin may be clumped, and it may be surrounded by a halo. When ... By Papanicolaou stain, most decoy cells have an enlarged nucleus that bears a basophilic inclusion which is surrounded by ...
... and presence of intranuclear and/or intracytoplasmic eosinophillic inclusions. History and clinical signs enable a presumptive ... Body temperature is high (40.5 to 41 °C) in the beginning of the onset in acute cases. The most typical signs are seen in the ... As the virus soon becomes inactive outside the body, indirect contamination is generally limited. In an affected flock, even in ...
Hsiung was the first to isolate SV40 in cell culture and to recognize the intranuclear inclusions produced by it. She found ... spending the next nine months in a total body cast. She returned to school in 1949 and obtained her Ph.D. in microbiology in ...
Classical mechanics is concerned with bodies acted on by forces and bodies in motion and may be divided into statics (study of ... Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines and, through its inclusion of astronomy, perhaps the oldest. Over much of the ... Atomic physics is influenced by the nucleus (see hyperfine splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomena such as fission and fusion ... which replaced classical mechanics for fast-moving bodies and allowed for a constant speed of light. Black-body radiation ...
The ND10 Component Promyelocytic Leukemia Protein Relocates to Human Papillomavirus Type 1 E4 Intranuclear Inclusion Bodies in ... The ND10 Component Promyelocytic Leukemia Protein Relocates to Human Papillomavirus Type 1 E4 Intranuclear Inclusion Bodies in ... The ND10 Component Promyelocytic Leukemia Protein Relocates to Human Papillomavirus Type 1 E4 Intranuclear Inclusion Bodies in ... The ND10 Component Promyelocytic Leukemia Protein Relocates to Human Papillomavirus Type 1 E4 Intranuclear Inclusion Bodies in ...
Inclusion Bodies. Intranuclear. Organs/Tissues Affected. Category of tropism. ,,,Click on the PDF icon to the left to view a ...
Inclusion Bodies. Intranuclear. Organs/Tissues Affected. Category of tropism. ,,,Click on the PDF icon to the left to view a ...
Intranuclear Inclusion Bodies / pathology * Male * Middle Aged * Motor Neuron Disease / genetics * Motor Neuron Disease / ... including Mackenzie Type 1 TDP-43 pathology with neuronal intranuclear inclusions and hippocampal sclerosis. FTLD-TDP patients ... with oligodendroglial cytoplasmic inclusions and infrequent hippocampal sclerosis. The FTLD-TDP cases had several features ... all had oligodendroglial cytoplasmic inclusions. The FTLD-MND showed predominantly Mackenzie Type 3 TDP-43 pathology, and all ...
Inclusion bodies often then appear in the cell nucleus and/or cytoplasm of the host cell. The inclusion bodies can first be ... They may also be intranuclear or intracytoplasmic and eosinophilic or basophilic. Indirect immunoperoxidase assay Viral culture ... inclusion bodies are present without an active virus and indicate areas of viral scarring. Inclusion bodies vary with viral ... Inclusion bodies - insoluble abnormal structures within cell nuclei or cytoplasm - may only be seen with staining as they ...
Papanicolaou stain - This shows intranuclear eosinophilic inclusion bodies. * Viral culture. * Immunohistochemistry looking for ... from the infected epithelial cells to nearby sensory nerve endings and is transported along the nerve axon to the cell body ...
Title: Immunohistochemical localization of exoribonucleases (DIS3L2 and XRN1) in intranuclear inclusion body disease. ... of the exoribonucleases DIS3L2 and XRN1 to nuclear inclusions may be related to the pathogenesis of intranuclear inclusion body ... located_in neuronal cell body IEA Inferred from Electronic Annotation. more info ...
Micrograph revealing an intranuclear inclusion body in a heart section from a patient with diphtheria-related myocarditis.. ...
Varicella-zoster pneumonia shows focal necrosis, consolidation, a mononuclear infiltrate, and intranuclear inclusion bodies. ... Intranuclear inclusions often exist in cells infected with DNA viruses. Cytoplasmic inclusions usually are present in cells ... The cells containing inclusion bodies can be difficult to detect in mild cases. ... High-power Papanicolaou (Pap) stain of cytomegalovirus (center). This cell has a very large, dark intranuclear inclusion. ...
At 5 dpi, numerous syncytial cells with eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies were present in the conjunctiva epithelium ... and no eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies. At 3 dpi, the conjunctiva epithelium from both CEO-(Figure 3d) and 63140- ... eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies, marked necrosis, sloughing of the mucosa epithelium and mild heterophilic ... but an absence of syncytial cell formation or eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies (Figure 3h). Whereas, the conjunctiva ...
Eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies in a melanocytic nevus. Cutis. 2002 Mar; 69(3):223-6. ...
Chlamydia spp. (intranuclear inclusion bodies). Periodic-Acid Schiff (PAS) stain *Stains glycogen *Distinguish different types ... With copy and paste, stick that plain text between ref tags ,ref,,/ref, and stick the whole thing in the body of the content ...
Basophilic intranuclear inclusions (Cowdry bodies) surrounded by a clear halo; fibrin ring granulomas are uncommon *Other rare ... Acidophilic bodies and intranuclear ground glass inclusions *Fibrin ring granulomas *Mixed inflammatory infiltrate with ... Acidophil bodies and ground glass inclusions are seen in hepatitis B infections. Mixed inflammation with amastigotes is seen in ...
... basophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies are strongly suggestive of adenoviral infection. Currently, there is no noninvasive ... Affected snakes commonly regurgitate their meals, have a mid-body swelling, and are dehydrated. A variety of methods may be ...
It can result in complex neurodegenerative conditions including inclusion body myopathy, frontotemporal dementia, amyotrophic ... binding protein nuclear 1 inclusions in a case of inclusion body myopathy associated with Paget disease of bone and ... Intranuclear TDP-43+ inclusions are demonstrated in patients with frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and/or amyotrophic lateral ... Inclusion body myopathy and frontotemporal dementia caused by a novel VCP mutation. Neurobiol. Aging 2009, 30, 752-758. [Google ...
Eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies were noticed in FAdV infected laryngeal and tracheal epithelium under light ... Eosinophilic intra nuclear (I/N) inclusions typical of adenovirus infections were noticed in affected laryngeal and tracheal ... Note large, single and regular eosinophilic I/N inclusion bodies (black arrow heads) surrounded by a clear halo in the nuclei ... Chicken anemia virus and fowl adenoviruses: Association to induce the inclusion bodyhepatitislhydropericardium syndrome. Avian ...
Dutcher bodies (intranuclear inclusions) and Russell bodies (intracytoplasmic inclusions) may be seen as a manifestation of ... The hematoxylin bodies may also occur free and in groups. In some cases, the hematoxylin body may push the phagocyte nucleus to ... Ascoli V, Lo-Coco F. Body cavity lymphoma. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2002;8:317-22. [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] ... Dutcher bodies) in plasma cells usually indicates a neoplastic process, while cytoplasmic immunoglobulin inclusions (Russell ...
Epithelial hyperplasia, apoptosis, marginated nuclear chromatin, amphophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies, and the occasional ...
... epithelial type cells of swine the virus causes marked cell enlargement and formation of large intranuclear inclusion bodies. ... Inclusion Body Rhinitis (Porcine Cytomegalovirus Infection). Definition. A viral infection usually manifested in nursing or ... Microscopically, intranuclear inclusions usually can be found in nasal mucous glands, Harderian glands and lachrymal glands of ... Porcine cytomegalovirus causes inclusion body rhinitis. The cytomegaloviruses are a subgroup of the herpesviruses. They have ...
Biopsy reveals cells with intranuclear and cytoplasmic inclusion bodies CMV * name the bug for an unimmunized child if:. -rash ... macular rash over body after several days of fever. usually in infants ... "Slapped cheek" rash on face that later spreads to body in a reticular pattern ...
diseases with Lewy bodies * Parkinson disease*Parkinson-plus syndrome. *Lewy body disease ... Neuronal intranuclear hyaline inclusion disease is characterized by accumulation of eosinophilic intranuclear inclusions which ... Neuronal intranuclear hyaline inclusion disease. Last revised by Rohit Sharma on 23 Nov 2023 ... Neuronal intranuclear hyaline inclusion disease (NIID) is a slowly progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by ...
O Muscle fiber inclusion bodies,O Muscle fiber intranuclear inclusion bodies,O Muscle fiber necrosis,O Muscle fiber splitting,O ... O Cerebral hyaline bodies,O Cerebral hypomyelination,O Cerebral hypoplasia,O Cerebral inclusion bodies,O Cerebral ischemia,O ... O Abnormality of body height,O Abnormality of body mass index,O Abnormality of body weight,O Abnormality of bone marrow cell ... O Increased body fat percentage,O Increased body mass index,O Increased body weight,O Increased bone density with cystic ...
Figure 1. Histopathology of pseudorabies infection in a dog with an eosinophilic, intranuclear viral inclusion body (arrow) ... lesions are characterized by non-suppurative inflammation with intranuclear herpesvirus-type viral inclusion bodies (Figure 1 ...
... including the presence of intranuclear inclusion bodies (Fig- ..).. In previous studies, serological evidence was obtained for ... thickening of the interalveolar septum and intranuclear inclusions in endothelial and epithelial cells in ruminants ...
All the moribund animals analyzed displayed the intranuclear basophilic inclusion bodies typical of WSS. Also, pleopods from ... In contrast, the survivors displayed neither the inclusion bodies nor positive results by PCR. This suggested the animals were ... There they were challenged with a single feeding of WSSV-infected minced tissue at a rate of 5 percent body weight. As a ...
... and histopathological visualization of liver necrosis with intranuclear basophilic or amphophilic body inclusions in ...
Histology reveals large basophilic intranuclear owls eye and intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies.. *Transmission via saliva, ...
Intranuclear Inclusion Bodies 11% * Medical Overuse 10% * Glass 8% * Neoplasms 5% * Growth 4% ...
CMV : Intranuclear Owl eye inclusion bodies.. 118. Nystagmus induced by Valsalva maneuver :. *Chiari Malformation ... CMV is in all body secretions. Thus can be isolated - Urine and Saliva are best specimens for CMV culture. Antigen PP65 - PCR ... d. Body wall. e. Cervical Myotome. Types : Read More. *Bochdalek (90% cases) - Left Posterior ( Mnemonic : BPL ) ... Normal Core body temp. - 36.5 - 37.5 degree C. Rectal Temperature is close to it.. 36 - 36.5 -- Cold Stress (Abdomen warm , ...
Cytoplasmic inclusion bodies containing phosphorylated and truncated forms of TDP-43 are hallmarks of amyotrophic lateral ... sclerosis (ALS) and a subset of frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). Additionally, TDP-43 inclusions have been found in up ... is an intranuclear protein encoded by the TARDBP gene that is involved in RNA splicing, trafficking, stabilization, and thus, ... NCI: Neuronal cytoplasmic inclusion; NII: Neuronal intranuclear inclusion; DN: Dystrophic neurite; GCI: Glia cytoplasmic ...
  • Eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies in a melanocytic nevus. (harvard.edu)
  • Eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies were noticed in FAdV infected laryngeal and tracheal epithelium under light microscopy. (scialert.net)
  • Neuronal intranuclear hyaline inclusion disease (NIID) is a slowly progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by eosinophilic hyaline intranuclear inclusions in the central and peripheral nervous system, and also in the visceral organs. (radiopaedia.org)
  • Neuronal intranuclear hyaline inclusion disease is characterized by accumulation of eosinophilic intranuclear inclusions which can be found widely within both the central and peripheral nervous system including sympathetic and myenteric ganglion neurons, dorsal root ganglion neurons, and spinal motor neurons 1-3 . (radiopaedia.org)
  • On light microscopic analysis, there is an endomysial accumulation of mononuclear cells, particularly CD8+ T cells (similar to the findings in PM). Other characteristic findings in muscle include vacuoles lined with basophilic granules, eosinophilic inclusions, abnormal microtubular filaments in nuclear and cytoplasmic inclusions, and ragged red fibers. (rheumaknowledgy.com)
  • Multiple large areas of ulceration covered by a serocellular crust are apparent on the conjunctival surface of the eyelid and moderate neutrophilic and lymphocytic infiltration is apparent in the underlying mucosa. Epithelial cells immediately adjacent to the ulcerated areas are enlarged and occasionally contain large eosinophilic to amphophilic intra-nuclear inclusion bodies with marginated chromatin. There are accompanying necrotic -�-�ghost epithelial cells. (askjpc.org)
  • A skin biopsy revealed eosinophilic spherical inclusion bodies in the nuclei of small sweat gland cells, fibroblasts and fat cells, whilst immunohistochemistry revealed that p62 and ubiquitin antibodies were positive. (unboundmedicine.com)
  • CMV infection characteristically is associated with "owl's-eye" cells, which are large cells with basophilic intranuclear inclusions and a surrounding clear zone. (medscape.com)
  • Histopathological features were necrotizing meningoencephalitis with basophilic intranuclear inclusions bodies in astrocytes and neurons. (edu.br)
  • The FTLD-TDP cases had several features similar to FTLD-TDP due to mutations in the gene for progranulin, including Mackenzie Type 1 TDP-43 pathology with neuronal intranuclear inclusions and hippocampal sclerosis. (nih.gov)
  • Histology reveals large basophilic intranuclear 'owl's eye' and intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies. (hopkinsguides.com)
  • Summary A description of "nuclear bodies", "intranuclear crystalloid tubules" and intracytoplasmic inclusions from eight SSPE cases in clinical stage 2 and 3 is presented. (zib.de)
  • The presence of viral inclusions is diagnostic, although this method has low sensitivity. (medscape.com)
  • Epithelial scrapings with Giemsa stain may show multinucleated giant cells, resulting from coalescence of infected corneal epithelial cells and intranuclear viral inclusions. (medscape.com)
  • More extensive hemorrhage is observed in the subcutaneous tissue, kidneys, lungs, heart, and histopathological visualization of liver necrosis with intranuclear basophilic or amphophilic body inclusions in hepatocytes, Kupffer cells or endothelial cells. (ufrgs.br)
  • Originally considered as primarily a pediatric disease, neuronal intranuclear hyaline inclusion disease has been increasingly recognized to be a heterogeneous disease with highly variable clinical manifestations, and ante-mortem diagnosis has been difficult. (radiopaedia.org)
  • Conventional brain MRI findings of patients with neuronal intranuclear hyaline inclusion disease strongly resemble those seen in fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS) , including symmetric white matter involvement in combination with hyperintense changes of the middle cerebellar peduncles 4 . (radiopaedia.org)
  • Neuronal intranuclear hyaline inclusion disease showing motor-sensory and autonomic neuropathy. (radiopaedia.org)
  • Pale bodies - Pale hyaline inclusion bodies found in the substantia nigra of the brain in patients with Parkinson's disease. (pathologicalbodies.com)
  • The FTLD-MND showed predominantly Mackenzie Type 3 TDP-43 pathology, and all had ALS-like pathology in motor neurons, but more extensive extramotor pathology, with oligodendroglial cytoplasmic inclusions and infrequent hippocampal sclerosis. (nih.gov)
  • Additionally, TDP-43 inclusions have been found in up to 57% of Alzheimer's disease (AD) cases, most often in a limbic distribution, with or without hippocampal sclerosis. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We also demonstrate that E4 induces relocation of the promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) from multiple intranuclear speckles (ND10 bodies) to the periphery of nuclear E4 inclusions and that this activity is specific to full-length E4 protein. (aston.ac.uk)
  • Spherical intranuclear membraneless bodies nucleated by PROMYELOCYTIC LEUKEMIA PROTEIN and various other proteins containing small ubiquitin-related modifier (SUMO) interaction motif (SIM) and/or sumoylated proteins (e.g. (bvsalud.org)
  • After the primary infection, the virus spreads from the infected epithelial cells to nearby sensory nerve endings and is transported along the nerve axon to the cell body located in the trigeminal ganglion. (medscape.com)
  • Oval fat bodies - These are degenerating renal tubular epithelial cells or macrophages containing abundant lipid. (pathologicalbodies.com)
  • Common examples of CPE include rounding of the infected cell, fusion with adjacent cells to form syncytia, and the appearance of nuclear or cytoplasmic inclusion bodies. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cytoplasmic inclusion bodies containing phosphorylated and truncated forms of TDP-43 are hallmarks of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and a subset of frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). (biomedcentral.com)
  • Of note, rhabdoid cells with cytoplasmic inclusion bodies were detected scattered among the tumor cells. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Papp-Lantos bodies - Cytoplasmic inclusion bodies found in glial cells of the brain in multiple-system atrophy (MSA), a degenerative neurological disorder. (pathologicalbodies.com)
  • Neuronal intranuclear inclusion disease (NIID) is a neurodegenerative disease, the clinical manifestations of which are complex and easily misdiagnosed. (unboundmedicine.com)
  • In addition, cytoplasmic vacuoles are not uncommon in large cell lymphomas involving body cavities. (cytojournal.com)
  • Odland bodies - Small, granular, membrane-bound vacuoles found in the cytoplasm of skin keratinocytes. (pathologicalbodies.com)
  • Immunofluorescence analysis showed that progressive formation of inclusions correlated with diminished colocalization between E4 and keratin intermediate filaments (IFs). (aston.ac.uk)
  • Postmortem evaluation can also be confirmed by virus isolation, immunofluorescence, characteristic intranuclear inclusion bodies in the liver or PCR studies of infected tissue. (petboardinganddaycare.com)
  • Histologically, pseudorabies lesions are characterized by non-suppurative inflammation with intranuclear herpesvirus-type viral inclusion bodies (Figure 1). (tamu.edu)
  • The cat presented in poor body condition with pale mucus membranes. Focal areas of alopecia extended over both upper eyelids to the bases of both ears, and red crusted lesions were present over the upper eyelids and lateral canthuses (more extensive on the right). The right third eyelid was thickened and erythematous as were the nasal conchae. (askjpc.org)
  • Many Dutcher bodies, intra-nuclear pseudo-inclusions, were commonly seen. (hematology.org)
  • A bone core biopsy shows diffuse infiltration by small lymphocytes and plasma cells (A). Dutcher bodies (intra-nuclear pseudo-inclusions comprised of immunoglobulin) are readily identified (B). (hematology.org)
  • There were no nuclear grooves or intranuclear inclusions characteristic of papillary carcinoma, no papillary or follicular structure, and no necrosis or calcification. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Another common features is the presence of Dutcher bodies, intranuclear pseudo-inclusions composed of immunoglobulin. (hematology.org)
  • Results: In the first case, monoclonal proliferation was diagnosed with intranuclear inclusions (Dutcher bodies) in plasma cells. (ogu.edu.tr)
  • Dutcher bodies were seen both in the tumoral tissue and bone marrow. (ogu.edu.tr)
  • Owl's eye bodies - These are usually associated with the owl's eye inclusion bodies found in tissues infected with the cytomegalovirus infection, a disease which can cause multiple organ dysfunction. (pathologicalbodies.com)
  • Pampiniform bodies - Rudimentary organs homologous with the male epididymis that lie in the broad ligament of the uterus next to the ovary and fallopian tube. (pathologicalbodies.com)
  • Inclusion bodies may either be accumulation of virus replication byproducts or altered host cell organelles or structures. (wikipedia.org)
  • Materials and Method: We describe in detail two cases of epithelial ovarian carcinoma associated with proliferation of Russell bodies and Mott cells in desmoplastic tumor stroma. (ogu.edu.tr)
  • In both cases, intranuclear inclusion bodies were found on histopathology, but were difficult to detect. (everycat.org)
  • However, with some CPEs, namely inclusion bodies, the cells must be fixed and stained then viewed under light microscopy. (wikipedia.org)
  • Intranuclear inclusions often exist in cells infected with DNA viruses. (medscape.com)
  • Cytoplasmic inclusions usually are present in cells infected with RNA viruses. (medscape.com)
  • Differentiating between low-grade lymphoma and reactive lymphocytes is often difficult by morphology alone as reactive lymphoid cells may acquire activation morphology from being exposed to different cytokines within the body fluid. (cytojournal.com)
  • In large cell lymphoma and leukemia cells involvement of body fluid this concept becomes less challenging. (cytojournal.com)
  • In several epithelial type cells of swine the virus causes marked cell enlargement and formation of large intranuclear inclusion bodies. (iastate.edu)
  • Huntingtin is expressed in the cytoplasm of most cells in the body. (jci.org)
  • Inclusion bodies often then appear in the cell nucleus and/or cytoplasm of the host cell. (wikipedia.org)
  • [ 4 . 5 ] Adding to the challenge, classic lymphoglandular bodies, representing remnants of lymphocyte cytoplasm, are typically inconspicuous or absent in effusion fluids, in contrast to FNA material from solid specimens. (cytojournal.com)
  • From these observations, we propose that "simple" nuclear bodies evolve into paramyxovirus nucleocapsids tubules and that there is a migration of virus or virus-related structures from nuclei to cytoplasm and then to axoplasm. (zib.de)
  • Papillary mesenchymal bodies - These are aggregations of fibroblasts that represent abortive attempts to form the papillary mesenchyme responsible for hair induction. (pathologicalbodies.com)
  • Nonetheless, muscle biopsy with electron microscopic analysis is required to make a diagnosis of inclusion body myositis. (rheumaknowledgy.com)
  • In such instances, inclusion body myositis should be suspected, and muscle biopsy repeated or reviewed with emphasis on electron microscopic findings. (rheumaknowledgy.com)
  • These bodies are membrane-bound, contain granular, electron dense material and are thought to be closely related to rough endoplasmic reticulum. (pathologicalbodies.com)
  • Human papillomavirus type 1 (HPV1) E4 protein is associated with cytoplasmic and nuclear inclusions in productively infected keratinocytes. (aston.ac.uk)
  • E1^E4) protein in keratinocytes to reproduce formation of E4 inclusions. (aston.ac.uk)
  • Here we have used transient expression of HPV1 E4 (also known asE1^E4) protein in keratinocytes to reproduce formation of E4 inclusions. (aston.ac.uk)
  • Transactive response DNA binding protein of 43 kDa (TDP-43) is an intranuclear protein encoded by the TARDBP gene that is involved in RNA splicing, trafficking, stabilization, and thus, the regulation of gene expression. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In contrast to PM/DM, distal muscle weakness, and asymmetric involvement are more commonly seen in inclusion body myositis. (rheumaknowledgy.com)
  • Inclusion body myositis is a form of idiopathic inflammatory myositis (IIM)of unknown etiology. (rheumaknowledgy.com)
  • Often the diagnosis of inclusion body myositis is made when patients with presumed PM or DM either do not respond to steroid therapy or display atypical manifestations (e.g., asymmetry, distal muscle weakness, peripheral neuropathy). (rheumaknowledgy.com)
  • The differential diagnosis of inclusion body myositis includes other types of IIM as well as other endocrinologic, metabolic, infectious, and toxic etiologies (see Myopathy ). (rheumaknowledgy.com)
  • Diagnosis may be difficult as it relies on finding intranuclear viral inclusion bodies on biopsy samples. (everycat.org)
  • Parabasal bodies - Cytoplasmic bodies closely associated with the nuclei, kinetoplasts and basal bodies in certain parasitic flagellate protozoa. (pathologicalbodies.com)
  • No correlation between the clinical stage of the disease and the different morphological aspects of nuclear bodies was found. (zib.de)
  • Intranuclear elongated tubules and/or filamentous paracrystalline bundles, some arranged in lattice-like fashion were also found. (zib.de)
  • Therefore, absence of inclusions does not always exclude infection or active disease. (medscape.com)
  • 1. Severe acute ulcerative conjunctivitis with intralesional intranuclear inclusion bodies consistent with feline herpesvirus infection. (askjpc.org)
  • Inclusion body myositis represents 15% to 30% of IIM cases, which have a prevalence of five to 10 per million population. (rheumaknowledgy.com)
  • Inclusion body myositis: analysis of 32 cases. (rheumaknowledgy.com)
  • The presence of nuclear bodies in SSPE is a consistent feature and consequently these "structures" should have a definite diagnostic value in clinically suspected cases of SSPE. (zib.de)
  • All the cases showed various types of intranuclear inclusions ranging from "simple" nuclear bodies to granular "beaded" nuclear bodies and paramyxovirus nucleocapsids. (zib.de)
  • Analysis of HPV1-induced warts demonstrated that nuclear PML-E4 inclusions were present in productively infected keratinocytes, indicating that reorganization of PML occurs during the virus's replication cycle. (aston.ac.uk)
  • Inclusion body myositis is a slowly progressive disorder, and patients are less likely to respond to therapy than those with other types of IIM. (rheumaknowledgy.com)
  • No apparent morphological relationship was demonstrated between these structures and the "simple" nuclear bodies, granular "beaded" nuclear bodies and "nucleocapsids. (zib.de)
  • Diagnostic criteria for inclusion body myositis have been proposed but not validated (Table 19). (rheumaknowledgy.com)
  • Promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies regulate posttranslational modifications of partner proteins (e.g. (bvsalud.org)
  • The development and evolution of nuclear bodies is proposed. (zib.de)
  • A prospective natural history study of inclusion body myositis: implications for clinical trials. (rheumaknowledgy.com)
  • However, because of the poor response to corticosteroid or immunosuppressive therapies, many physicians do not pursue aggressive or alternative therapies in patients with inclusion body myositis with little or no response to corticosteroids. (rheumaknowledgy.com)
  • Our results support a model in which the HPV1 E4-keratin IF association is transient, occurring only at an early stage of inclusion formation. (aston.ac.uk)
  • It has been suggested that ND10 bodies are the sites for papillomavirus genome replication and virion assembly. (aston.ac.uk)
  • Inclusion body myositis has distinct differences from the more common forms of IIM, PM, and DM . (rheumaknowledgy.com)
  • Histopathologic analysis is the key differentiating feature between inclusion body myositis and other forms of IIM. (rheumaknowledgy.com)