Interferon gamma. Medical search

Proteins secreted by vertebrate cells in response to a wide variety of inducers. They confer resistance against many different viruses, inhibit proliferation of normal and malignant cells, impede multiplication of intracellular parasites, enhance macrophage and granulocyte phagocytosis, augment natural killer cell activity, and show several other immunomodulatory functions.

The major interferon produced by mitogenically or antigenically stimulated LYMPHOCYTES. It is structurally different from TYPE I INTERFERON and its major activity is immunoregulation. It has been implicated in the expression of CLASS II HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS in cells that do not normally produce them, leading to AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.

Interferon secreted by leukocytes, fibroblasts, or lymphoblasts in response to viruses or interferon inducers other than mitogens, antigens, or allo-antigens. They include alpha- and beta-interferons (INTERFERON-ALPHA and INTERFERON-BETA).

Specific molecular sites or structures on or in cells with which interferons react or to which they bind in order to modify the function of the cells. Interferons exert their pleiotropic effects through two different receptors. alpha- and beta-interferon crossreact with common receptors, while gamma-interferon initiates its biological effects through its own specific receptor system.

Agents that promote the production and release of interferons. They include mitogens, lipopolysaccharides, and the synthetic polymers Poly A-U and Poly I-C. Viruses, bacteria, and protozoa have been also known to induce interferons.

One of the type I interferons produced by peripheral blood leukocytes or lymphoblastoid cells. In addition to antiviral activity, it activates NATURAL KILLER CELLS and B-LYMPHOCYTES, and down-regulates VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL GROWTH FACTOR expression through PI-3 KINASE and MAPK KINASES signaling pathways.

Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.

Non-antibody proteins secreted by inflammatory leukocytes and some non-leukocytic cells, that act as intercellular mediators. They differ from classical hormones in that they are produced by a number of tissue or cell types rather than by specialized glands. They generally act locally in a paracrine or autocrine rather than endocrine manner.

One of the type I interferons produced by fibroblasts in response to stimulation by live or inactivated virus or by double-stranded RNA. It is a cytokine with antiviral, antiproliferative, and immunomodulating activity.

An interferon regulatory factor that binds upstream TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATORY ELEMENTS in the GENES for INTERFERON-ALPHA and INTERFERON-BETA. It functions as a transcriptional activator for the INTERFERON TYPE I genes.

An interferon regulatory factor that is expressed constitutively and undergoes POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATION following viral infection. PHOSPHORYLATION of IRF-3 causes the protein to be translocated from the CYTOPLASM to CELL NUCLEUS where it binds DNA, and activates transcription.

Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.

A family of transcription factors that share an N-terminal HELIX-TURN-HELIX MOTIF and bind INTERFERON-inducible promoters to control GENE expression. IRF proteins bind specific DNA sequences such as interferon-stimulated response elements, interferon regulatory elements, and the interferon consensus sequence.

A ubiquitously expressed heterodimeric receptor that is specific for both INTERFERON-ALPHA and INTERFERON-BETA. It is composed of two subunits referred to as IFNAR1 and IFNAR2. The IFNAR2 subunit is believed to serve as the ligand-binding chain; however both chains are required for signal transduction. The interferon alpha-beta receptor signals through the action of JANUS KINASES such as the TYK2 KINASE.

A signal transducer and activator of transcription that mediates cellular responses to INTERFERONS. Stat1 interacts with P53 TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEIN and regulates expression of GENES involved in growth control and APOPTOSIS.

Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.

Serum glycoprotein produced by activated MACROPHAGES and other mammalian MONONUCLEAR LEUKOCYTES. It has necrotizing activity against tumor cell lines and increases ability to reject tumor transplants. Also known as TNF-alpha, it is only 30% homologous to TNF-beta (LYMPHOTOXIN), but they share TNF RECEPTORS.

C57BL mice are a commonly used strain of laboratory mice that are inbred to produce consistent and predictable results in scientific research.

Lymphocytes responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Two types have been identified - cytotoxic (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and helper T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, HELPER-INDUCER). They are formed when lymphocytes circulate through the THYMUS GLAND and differentiate to thymocytes. When exposed to an antigen, they divide rapidly and produce large numbers of new T cells sensitized to that antigen.

RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.

A soluble factor produced by activated T-LYMPHOCYTES that induces the expression of MHC CLASS II GENES and FC RECEPTORS on B-LYMPHOCYTES and causes their proliferation and differentiation. It also acts on T-lymphocytes, MAST CELLS, and several other hematopoietic lineage cells.

Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.

Agents used in the prophylaxis or therapy of VIRUS DISEASES. Some of the ways they may act include preventing viral replication by inhibiting viral DNA polymerase; binding to specific cell-surface receptors and inhibiting viral penetration or uncoating; inhibiting viral protein synthesis; or blocking late stages of virus assembly.

BALB/C is a commonly used strain of inbred mice in medical research, known for their genetic uniformity and susceptibility to various diseases.

An interferon regulatory factor that is induced by INTERFERONS as well as LMP-1 protein from EPSTEIN-BARR VIRUS. IRF-7 undergoes PHOSPHORYLATION prior to nuclear translocation and it activates GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION of multiple interferon GENES.

A heterodimeric cytokine that plays a role in innate and adaptive immune responses. Interleukin-12 is a 70 kDa protein that is composed of covalently linked 40 kDa and 35 kDa subunits. It is produced by DENDRITIC CELLS; MACROPHAGES and a variety of other immune cells and plays a role in the stimulation of INTERFERON-GAMMA production by T-LYMPHOCYTES and NATURAL KILLER CELLS.

The relatively long-lived phagocytic cell of mammalian tissues that are derived from blood MONOCYTES. Main types are PERITONEAL MACROPHAGES; ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES; HISTIOCYTES; KUPFFER CELLS of the liver; and OSTEOCLASTS. They may further differentiate within chronic inflammatory lesions to EPITHELIOID CELLS or may fuse to form FOREIGN BODY GIANT CELLS or LANGHANS GIANT CELLS. (from The Dictionary of Cell Biology, Lackie and Dow, 3rd ed.)

Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.

A soluble substance elaborated by antigen- or mitogen-stimulated T-LYMPHOCYTES which induces DNA synthesis in naive lymphocytes.

Interferon inducer consisting of a synthetic, mismatched double-stranded RNA. The polymer is made of one strand each of polyinosinic acid and polycytidylic acid.

The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.

A critical subpopulation of T-lymphocytes involved in the induction of most immunological functions. The HIV virus has selective tropism for the T4 cell which expresses the CD4 phenotypic marker, a receptor for HIV. In fact, the key element in the profound immunosuppression seen in HIV infection is the depletion of this subset of T-lymphocytes.

An encapsulated lymphatic organ through which venous blood filters.

Penetrating, high-energy electromagnetic radiation emitted from atomic nuclei during NUCLEAR DECAY. The range of wavelengths of emitted radiation is between 0.1 - 100 pm which overlaps the shorter, more energetic hard X-RAYS wavelengths. The distinction between gamma rays and X-rays is based on their radiation source.

Bone marrow-derived lymphocytes that possess cytotoxic properties, classically directed against transformed and virus-infected cells. Unlike T CELLS; and B CELLS; NK CELLS are not antigen specific. The cytotoxicity of natural killer cells is determined by the collective signaling of an array of inhibitory and stimulatory CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS. A subset of T-LYMPHOCYTES referred to as NATURAL KILLER T CELLS shares some of the properties of this cell type.

An interferon regulatory factor that represses transcription of TYPE I INTERFERONS and activates transcription of HISTONE H4.

The most well known avian paramyxovirus in the genus AVULAVIRUS and the cause of a highly infectious pneumoencephalitis in fowl. It is also reported to cause CONJUNCTIVITIS in humans. Transmission is by droplet inhalation or ingestion of contaminated water or food.

Morphologic alteration of small B LYMPHOCYTES or T LYMPHOCYTES in culture into large blast-like cells able to synthesize DNA and RNA and to divide mitotically. It is induced by INTERLEUKINS; MITOGENS such as PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS, and by specific ANTIGENS. It may also occur in vivo as in GRAFT REJECTION.

Subset of helper-inducer T-lymphocytes which synthesize and secrete interleukin-2, gamma-interferon, and interleukin-12. Due to their ability to kill antigen-presenting cells and their lymphokine-mediated effector activity, Th1 cells are associated with vigorous delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions.

The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.

Soluble factors which stimulate growth-related activities of leukocytes as well as other cell types. They enhance cell proliferation and differentiation, DNA synthesis, secretion of other biologically active molecules and responses to immune and inflammatory stimuli.

A cytokine produced by a variety of cell types, including T-LYMPHOCYTES; MONOCYTES; DENDRITIC CELLS; and EPITHELIAL CELLS that exerts a variety of effects on immunoregulation and INFLAMMATION. Interleukin-10 combines with itself to form a homodimeric molecule that is the biologically active form of the protein.

Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.

Mature LYMPHOCYTES and MONOCYTES transported by the blood to the body's extravascular space. They are morphologically distinguishable from mature granulocytic leukocytes by their large, non-lobed nuclei and lack of coarse, heavily stained cytoplasmic granules.

Technique using an instrument system for making, processing, and displaying one or more measurements on individual cells obtained from a cell suspension. Cells are usually stained with one or more fluorescent dyes specific to cell components of interest, e.g., DNA, and fluorescence of each cell is measured as it rapidly transverses the excitation beam (laser or mercury arc lamp). Fluorescence provides a quantitative measure of various biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell, as well as a basis for cell sorting. Other measurable optical parameters include light absorption and light scattering, the latter being applicable to the measurement of cell size, shape, density, granularity, and stain uptake.

A nucleoside antimetabolite antiviral agent that blocks nucleic acid synthesis and is used against both RNA and DNA viruses.

The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.

Lipid-containing polysaccharides which are endotoxins and important group-specific antigens. They are often derived from the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria and induce immunoglobulin secretion. The lipopolysaccharide molecule consists of three parts: LIPID A, core polysaccharide, and O-specific chains (O ANTIGENS). When derived from Escherichia coli, lipopolysaccharides serve as polyclonal B-cell mitogens commonly used in laboratory immunology. (From Dorland, 28th ed)

The assay of INTERFERON-GAMMA released from lymphocytes after their exposure to a specific test antigen, to check for IMMUNOLOGIC MEMORY resulting from a previous exposure to the antigen. The amount of interferon-gamma released is usually assayed by an ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY.

The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.

Large, phagocytic mononuclear leukocytes produced in the vertebrate BONE MARROW and released into the BLOOD; contain a large, oval or somewhat indented nucleus surrounded by voluminous cytoplasm and numerous organelles.

A CXC chemokine that is induced by GAMMA-INTERFERON and is chemotactic for MONOCYTES and T-LYMPHOCYTES. It has specificity for the CXCR3 RECEPTOR.

A multimeric complex that functions as a ligand-dependent transcription factor. ISGF3 is assembled in the CYTOPLASM and translocated to the CELL NUCLEUS in response to INTERFERON signaling. It consists of ISGF3-GAMMA and ISGF3-ALPHA, and it regulates expression of many interferon-responsive GENES.

INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans that is caused by HEPATITIS C VIRUS lasting six months or more. Chronic hepatitis C can lead to LIVER CIRRHOSIS.

The capacity of a normal organism to remain unaffected by microorganisms and their toxins. It results from the presence of naturally occurring ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS, constitutional factors such as BODY TEMPERATURE and immediate acting immune cells such as NATURAL KILLER CELLS.

The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.

A cultured line of C3H mouse FIBROBLASTS that do not adhere to one another and do not express CADHERINS.

The type species of VESICULOVIRUS causing a disease symptomatically similar to FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE in cattle, horses, and pigs. It may be transmitted to other species including humans, where it causes influenza-like symptoms.

An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of ATP into a series of (2'-5') linked oligoadenylates and pyrophosphate in the presence of double-stranded RNA. These oligonucleotides activate an endoribonuclease (RNase L) which cleaves single-stranded RNA. Interferons can act as inducers of these reactions. EC 2.7.7.-.

Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.

The process of altering the morphology and functional activity of macrophages so that they become avidly phagocytic. It is initiated by lymphokines, such as the macrophage activation factor (MAF) and the macrophage migration-inhibitory factor (MMIF), immune complexes, C3b, and various peptides, polysaccharides, and immunologic adjuvants.

A critical subpopulation of regulatory T-lymphocytes involved in MHC Class I-restricted interactions. They include both cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and CD8+ suppressor T-lymphocytes.

Manifestations of the immune response which are mediated by antigen-sensitized T-lymphocytes via lymphokines or direct cytotoxicity. This takes place in the absence of circulating antibody or where antibody plays a subordinate role.

Proteins which bind to DNA. The family includes proteins which bind to both double- and single-stranded DNA and also includes specific DNA binding proteins in serum which can be used as markers for malignant diseases.

Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.

Cell surface molecules on cells of the immune system that specifically bind surface molecules or messenger molecules and trigger changes in the behavior of cells. Although these receptors were first identified in the immune system, many have important functions elsewhere.

A classification of T-lymphocytes, especially into helper/inducer, suppressor/effector, and cytotoxic subsets, based on structurally or functionally different populations of cells.

The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.

The process of intracellular viral multiplication, consisting of the synthesis of PROTEINS; NUCLEIC ACIDS; and sometimes LIPIDS, and their assembly into a new infectious particle.

A soluble factor produced by MONOCYTES; MACROPHAGES, and other cells which activates T-lymphocytes and potentiates their response to mitogens or antigens. Interleukin-1 is a general term refers to either of the two distinct proteins, INTERLEUKIN-1ALPHA and INTERLEUKIN-1BETA. The biological effects of IL-1 include the ability to replace macrophage requirements for T-cell activation.

Cells grown in vitro from neoplastic tissue. If they can be established as a TUMOR CELL LINE, they can be propagated in cell culture indefinitely.

Differentiation antigens residing on mammalian leukocytes. CD stands for cluster of differentiation, which refers to groups of monoclonal antibodies that show similar reactivity with certain subpopulations of antigens of a particular lineage or differentiation stage. The subpopulations of antigens are also known by the same CD designation.

An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.

Connective tissue cells which secrete an extracellular matrix rich in collagen and other macromolecules.

A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.

The phenomenon of target cell destruction by immunologically active effector cells. It may be brought about directly by sensitized T-lymphocytes or by lymphoid or myeloid "killer" cells, or it may be mediated by cytotoxic antibody, cytotoxic factor released by lymphoid cells, or complement.

The dormant form of TUBERCULOSIS where the person shows no obvious symptoms and no sign of the causative agent (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) in the SPUTUM despite being positive for tuberculosis infection skin test.

The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.

A cytokine that promotes differentiation and activation of EOSINOPHILS. It also triggers activated B-LYMPHOCYTES to differentiate into IMMUNOGLOBULIN-secreting cells.

Any of the infectious diseases of man and other animals caused by species of MYCOBACTERIUM.

Diffusible gene products that act on homologous or heterologous molecules of viral or cellular DNA to regulate the expression of proteins.

Polymers of ETHYLENE OXIDE and water, and their ethers. They vary in consistency from liquid to solid depending on the molecular weight indicated by a number following the name. They are used as SURFACTANTS, dispersing agents, solvents, ointment and suppository bases, vehicles, and tablet excipients. Some specific groups are NONOXYNOLS, OCTOXYNOLS, and POLOXAMERS.

Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations, or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. All animals within an inbred strain trace back to a common ancestor in the twentieth generation.

Specialized cells of the hematopoietic system that have branch-like extensions. They are found throughout the lymphatic system, and in non-lymphoid tissues such as SKIN and the epithelia of the intestinal, respiratory, and reproductive tracts. They trap and process ANTIGENS, and present them to T-CELLS, thereby stimulating CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY. They are different from the non-hematopoietic FOLLICULAR DENDRITIC CELLS, which have a similar morphology and immune system function, but with respect to humoral immunity (ANTIBODY PRODUCTION).

One of several skin tests to determine past or present tuberculosis infection. A purified protein derivative of the tubercle bacilli, called tuberculin, is introduced into the skin by scratch, puncture, or interdermal injection.

A cytokine that stimulates the growth and differentiation of B-LYMPHOCYTES and is also a growth factor for HYBRIDOMAS and plasmacytomas. It is produced by many different cells including T-LYMPHOCYTES; MONOCYTES; and FIBROBLASTS.

The fission of a CELL. It includes CYTOKINESIS, when the CYTOPLASM of a cell is divided, and CELL NUCLEUS DIVISION.

DNA sequences which are recognized (directly or indirectly) and bound by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase during the initiation of transcription. Highly conserved sequences within the promoter include the Pribnow box in bacteria and the TATA BOX in eukaryotes.

Subset of helper-inducer T-lymphocytes which synthesize and secrete the interleukins IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, and IL-10. These cytokines influence B-cell development and antibody production as well as augmenting humoral responses.

Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process.

Subpopulation of CD4+ lymphocytes that cooperate with other lymphocytes (either T or B) to initiate a variety of immune functions. For example, helper-inducer T-cells cooperate with B-cells to produce antibodies to thymus-dependent antigens and with other subpopulations of T-cells to initiate a variety of cell-mediated immune functions.

The type species of CARDIOVIRUS causing encephalomyelitis and myocarditis in rodents, pigs, and monkeys. Infection in man has been reported with CNS involvement but without myocarditis.

White blood cells formed in the body's lymphoid tissue. The nucleus is round or ovoid with coarse, irregularly clumped chromatin while the cytoplasm is typically pale blue with azurophilic (if any) granules. Most lymphocytes can be classified as either T or B (with subpopulations of each), or NATURAL KILLER CELLS.

A species of gram-positive, aerobic bacteria that produces TUBERCULOSIS in humans, other primates, CATTLE; DOGS; and some other animals which have contact with humans. Growth tends to be in serpentine, cordlike masses in which the bacilli show a parallel orientation.

A Janus kinase subtype that is involved in signaling from a broad variety of CYTOKINE RECEPTORS.

Glycoproteins found on the membrane or surface of cells.

An interferon regulatory factor that recruits STAT1 PROTEIN and STAT2 PROTEIN heterodimers to interferon-stimulated response elements and functions as an immediate-early protein.

A signal transducer and activator of transcription that mediates cellular responses to TYPE I INTERFERONS. Stat2 protein is associated constitutively with INTERFERON REGULATORY FACTOR-9. After PHOSPHORYLATION Stat2 forms the IFN-STIMULATED GENE FACTOR 3 COMPLEX to regulate expression of target GENES.

C3H mice are a strain of inbred mice commonly used in medical research due to their genetic homogeneity and susceptibility to various diseases.

Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function that leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.

Complex of at least five membrane-bound polypeptides in mature T-lymphocytes that are non-covalently associated with one another and with the T-cell receptor (RECEPTORS, ANTIGEN, T-CELL). The CD3 complex includes the gamma, delta, epsilon, zeta, and eta chains (subunits). When antigen binds to the T-cell receptor, the CD3 complex transduces the activating signals to the cytoplasm of the T-cell. The CD3 gamma and delta chains (subunits) are separate from and not related to the gamma/delta chains of the T-cell receptor (RECEPTORS, ANTIGEN, T-CELL, GAMMA-DELTA).

An INTEFERON-inducible CXC chemokine that is specific for the CXCR3 RECEPTOR.

Substances that augment, stimulate, activate, potentiate, or modulate the immune response at either the cellular or humoral level. The classical agents (Freund's adjuvant, BCG, Corynebacterium parvum, et al.) contain bacterial antigens. Some are endogenous (e.g., histamine, interferon, transfer factor, tuftsin, interleukin-1). Their mode of action is either non-specific, resulting in increased immune responsiveness to a wide variety of antigens, or antigen-specific, i.e., affecting a restricted type of immune response to a narrow group of antigens. The therapeutic efficacy of many biological response modifiers is related to their antigen-specific immunoadjuvanticity.

Lymphoid cells concerned with humoral immunity. They are short-lived cells resembling bursa-derived lymphocytes of birds in their production of immunoglobulin upon appropriate stimulation.

Large, transmembrane, non-covalently linked glycoproteins (alpha and beta). Both chains can be polymorphic although there is more structural variation in the beta chains. The class II antigens in humans are called HLA-D ANTIGENS and are coded by a gene on chromosome 6. In mice, two genes named IA and IE on chromosome 17 code for the H-2 antigens. The antigens are found on B-lymphocytes, macrophages, epidermal cells, and sperm and are thought to mediate the competence of and cellular cooperation in the immune response. The term IA antigens used to refer only to the proteins encoded by the IA genes in the mouse, but is now used as a generic term for any class II histocompatibility antigen.

The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.

A CXC chemokine that is induced by GAMMA-INTERFERON. It is a chemotactic factor for activated T-LYMPHOCYTES and has specificity for the CXCR3 RECEPTOR.

The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.

In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.

White blood cells. These include granular leukocytes (BASOPHILS; EOSINOPHILS; and NEUTROPHILS) as well as non-granular leukocytes (LYMPHOCYTES and MONOCYTES).

A positive regulatory effect on physiological processes at the molecular, cellular, or systemic level. At the molecular level, the major regulatory sites include membrane receptors, genes (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION), mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), and proteins.

The introduction of a phosphoryl group into a compound through the formation of an ester bond between the compound and a phosphorus moiety.

A cytokine which resembles IL-1 structurally and IL-12 functionally. It enhances the cytotoxic activity of NK CELLS and CYTOTOXIC T-LYMPHOCYTES, and appears to play a role both as neuroimmunomodulator and in the induction of mucosal immunity.

Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.

A genus of FLAVIVIRIDAE causing parenterally-transmitted HEPATITIS C which is associated with transfusions and drug abuse. Hepatitis C virus is the type species.

A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.

Interferon-induced DYNAMIN-like GTP-binding proteins localized in the cytoplasm, nuclear pore complex and nucleus. They play a role in antiviral defense and immunity.

Molecules found on the surface of some, but not all, B-lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes, and macrophages, which recognize and combine with the Fc (crystallizable) portion of immunoglobulin molecules.

Either of the pair of organs occupying the cavity of the thorax that effect the aeration of the blood.

The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.

An increase in the rate of synthesis of an enzyme due to the presence of an inducer which acts to derepress the gene responsible for enzyme synthesis.

Genetic loci in the vertebrate major histocompatibility complex that encode polymorphic products which control the immune response to specific antigens. The genes are found in the HLA-D region in humans and in the I region in mice.

Detection of RNA that has been electrophoretically separated and immobilized by blotting on nitrocellulose or other type of paper or nylon membrane followed by hybridization with labeled NUCLEIC ACID PROBES.

Immunized T-lymphocytes which can directly destroy appropriate target cells. These cytotoxic lymphocytes may be generated in vitro in mixed lymphocyte cultures (MLC), in vivo during a graft-versus-host (GVH) reaction, or after immunization with an allograft, tumor cell or virally transformed or chemically modified target cell. The lytic phenomenon is sometimes referred to as cell-mediated lympholysis (CML). These CD8-positive cells are distinct from NATURAL KILLER CELLS and NATURAL KILLER T-CELLS. There are two effector phenotypes: TC1 and TC2.

The genetic region which contains the loci of genes which determine the structure of the serologically defined (SD) and lymphocyte-defined (LD) TRANSPLANTATION ANTIGENS, genes which control the structure of the IMMUNE RESPONSE-ASSOCIATED ANTIGENS, HUMAN; the IMMUNE RESPONSE GENES which control the ability of an animal to respond immunologically to antigenic stimuli, and genes which determine the structure and/or level of the first four components of complement.

Short sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) of DNA that are complementary to sequences of messenger RNA and allow reverse transcriptases to start copying the adjacent sequences of mRNA. Primers are used extensively in genetic and molecular biology techniques.

A group of genetically identical cells all descended from a single common ancestral cell by mitosis in eukaryotes or by binary fission in prokaryotes. Clone cells also include populations of recombinant DNA molecules all carrying the same inserted sequence. (From King & Stansfield, Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)

A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).

The action of a drug in promoting or enhancing the effectiveness of another drug.

An NADPH-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of L-ARGININE and OXYGEN to produce CITRULLINE and NITRIC OXIDE.

A heterogeneous group of immunocompetent cells that mediate the cellular immune response by processing and presenting antigens to the T-cells. Traditional antigen-presenting cells include MACROPHAGES; DENDRITIC CELLS; LANGERHANS CELLS; and B-LYMPHOCYTES. FOLLICULAR DENDRITIC CELLS are not traditional antigen-presenting cells, but because they hold antigen on their cell surface in the form of IMMUNE COMPLEXES for B-cell recognition they are considered so by some authors.

Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blot transferring from the electrophoresis gel to strips of nitrocellulose paper, followed by labeling with antibody probes.

Differentiation antigens found on thymocytes and on cytotoxic and suppressor T-lymphocytes. CD8 antigens are members of the immunoglobulin supergene family and are associative recognition elements in MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex) Class I-restricted interactions.

Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.

The bovine variety of the tubercle bacillus. It is called also Mycobacterium tuberculosis var. bovis.

Substances elaborated by bacteria that have antigenic activity.

Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.

Group of chemokines with paired cysteines separated by a different amino acid. CXC chemokines are chemoattractants for neutrophils but not monocytes.

Process of classifying cells of the immune system based on structural and functional differences. The process is commonly used to analyze and sort T-lymphocytes into subsets based on CD antigens by the technique of flow cytometry.

A subclass of HLA-D antigens that consist of alpha and beta chains. The inheritance of HLA-DR antigens differs from that of the HLA-DQ ANTIGENS and HLA-DP ANTIGENS.

CBA mice are a strain of inbred mice commonly used in medical research due to their genetic homogeneity and susceptibility to various diseases.

Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the ANTIGEN (or a very similar shape) that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially PLASMA CELLS).

Antigens expressed on the cell membrane of T-lymphocytes during differentiation, activation, and normal and neoplastic transformation. Their phenotypic characterization is important in differential diagnosis and studies of thymic ontogeny and T-cell function.

One of the mechanisms by which CELL DEATH occurs (compare with NECROSIS and AUTOPHAGOCYTOSIS). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA; (DNA FRAGMENTATION); at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth.

A pathological process characterized by injury or destruction of tissues caused by a variety of cytologic and chemical reactions. It is usually manifested by typical signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function.

Forceful administration under the skin of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle piercing the skin.

A group of deoxyribonucleotides (up to 12) in which the phosphate residues of each deoxyribonucleotide act as bridges in forming diester linkages between the deoxyribose moieties.

Membrane glycoproteins consisting of an alpha subunit and a BETA 2-MICROGLOBULIN beta subunit. In humans, highly polymorphic genes on CHROMOSOME 6 encode the alpha subunits of class I antigens and play an important role in determining the serological specificity of the surface antigen. Class I antigens are found on most nucleated cells and are generally detected by their reactivity with alloantisera. These antigens are recognized during GRAFT REJECTION and restrict cell-mediated lysis of virus-infected cells.

The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.

A species of RESPIROVIRUS also called hemadsorption virus 2 (HA2), which causes laryngotracheitis in humans, especially children.

RNA consisting of two strands as opposed to the more prevalent single-stranded RNA. Most of the double-stranded segments are formed from transcription of DNA by intramolecular base-pairing of inverted complementary sequences separated by a single-stranded loop. Some double-stranded segments of RNA are normal in all organisms.

A pteridine derivative present in body fluids; elevated levels result from immune system activation, malignant disease, allograft rejection, and viral infections. (From Stedman, 26th ed) Neopterin also serves as a precursor in the biosynthesis of biopterin.

Molecules on the surface of T-lymphocytes that recognize and combine with antigens. The receptors are non-covalently associated with a complex of several polypeptides collectively called CD3 antigens (ANTIGENS, CD3). Recognition of foreign antigen and the major histocompatibility complex is accomplished by a single heterodimeric antigen-receptor structure, composed of either alpha-beta (RECEPTORS, ANTIGEN, T-CELL, ALPHA-BETA) or gamma-delta (RECEPTORS, ANTIGEN, T-CELL, GAMMA-DELTA) chains.

Antibiotic substance isolated from streptomycin-producing strains of Streptomyces griseus. It acts by inhibiting elongation during protein synthesis.

A CALCIUM-independent subtype of nitric oxide synthase that may play a role in immune function. It is an inducible enzyme whose expression is transcriptionally regulated by a variety of CYTOKINES.

The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.

INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by HEPATITIS C VIRUS, a single-stranded RNA virus. Its incubation period is 30-90 days. Hepatitis C is transmitted primarily by contaminated blood parenterally, and is often associated with transfusion and intravenous drug abuse. However, in a significant number of cases, the source of hepatitis C infection is unknown.

The first continuously cultured human malignant CELL LINE, derived from the cervical carcinoma of Henrietta Lacks. These cells are used for VIRUS CULTIVATION and antitumor drug screening assays.

The sum of the weight of all the atoms in a molecule.

Antigens on surfaces of cells, including infectious or foreign cells or viruses. They are usually protein-containing groups on cell membranes or walls and may be isolated.

Any process by which toxicity, metabolism, absorption, elimination, preferred route of administration, safe dosage range, etc., for a drug or group of drugs is determined through clinical assessment in humans or veterinary animals.

A free radical gas produced endogenously by a variety of mammalian cells, synthesized from ARGININE by NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE. Nitric oxide is one of the ENDOTHELIUM-DEPENDENT RELAXING FACTORS released by the vascular endothelium and mediates VASODILATION. It also inhibits platelet aggregation, induces disaggregation of aggregated platelets, and inhibits platelet adhesion to the vascular endothelium. Nitric oxide activates cytosolic GUANYLATE CYCLASE and thus elevates intracellular levels of CYCLIC GMP.

The specific failure of a normally responsive individual to make an immune response to a known antigen. It results from previous contact with the antigen by an immunologically immature individual (fetus or neonate) or by an adult exposed to extreme high-dose or low-dose antigen, or by exposure to radiation, antimetabolites, antilymphocytic serum, etc.

Therapy with two or more separate preparations given for a combined effect.

A protein extracted from boiled culture of tubercle bacilli (MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS). It is used in the tuberculin skin test (TUBERCULIN TEST) for the diagnosis of tuberculosis infection in asymptomatic persons.

A phenomenon in which infection by a first virus results in resistance of cells or tissues to infection by a second, unrelated virus.

A class of enzymes that catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions of amino acids.

Linear POLYPEPTIDES that are synthesized on RIBOSOMES and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of AMINO ACIDS determines the shape the polypeptide will take, during PROTEIN FOLDING, and the function of the protein.

A negative regulatory effect on physiological processes at the molecular, cellular, or systemic level. At the molecular level, the major regulatory sites include membrane receptors, genes (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION), mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), and proteins.

Phosphoproteins are proteins that have been modified by the attachment of a phosphate group, which can regulate their activity and function in various cellular processes.

Deliberate stimulation of the host's immune response. ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of ANTIGENS or IMMUNOLOGIC ADJUVANTS. PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of IMMUNE SERA or LYMPHOCYTES or their extracts (e.g., transfer factor, immune RNA) or transplantation of immunocompetent cell producing tissue (thymus or bone marrow).

The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.

Compounds and molecular complexes that consist of very large numbers of atoms and are generally over 500 kDa in size. In biological systems macromolecular substances usually can be visualized using ELECTRON MICROSCOPY and are distinguished from ORGANELLES by the lack of a membrane structure.

A malignant neoplasm derived from cells that are capable of forming melanin, which may occur in the skin of any part of the body, in the eye, or, rarely, in the mucous membranes of the genitalia, anus, oral cavity, or other sites. It occurs mostly in adults and may originate de novo or from a pigmented nevus or malignant lentigo. Melanomas frequently metastasize widely, and the regional lymph nodes, liver, lungs, and brain are likely to be involved. The incidence of malignant skin melanomas is rising rapidly in all parts of the world. (Stedman, 25th ed; from Rook et al., Textbook of Dermatology, 4th ed, p2445)

Ribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.

A classification of lymphocytes based on structurally or functionally different populations of cells.

The quantity of measurable virus in a body fluid. Change in viral load, measured in plasma, is sometimes used as a SURROGATE MARKER in disease progression.

A proinflammatory cytokine produced primarily by T-LYMPHOCYTES or their precursors. Several subtypes of interleukin-17 have been identified, each of which is a product of a unique gene.

Extrachromosomal, usually CIRCULAR DNA molecules that are self-replicating and transferable from one organism to another. They are found in a variety of bacterial, archaeal, fungal, algal, and plant species. They are used in GENETIC ENGINEERING as CLONING VECTORS.

Substances that are recognized by the immune system and induce an immune reaction.

A general term for diseases produced by viruses.

An acidic glycoprotein of MW 23 kDa with internal disulfide bonds. The protein is produced in response to a number of inflammatory mediators by mesenchymal cells present in the hemopoietic environment and at peripheral sites of inflammation. GM-CSF is able to stimulate the production of neutrophilic granulocytes, macrophages, and mixed granulocyte-macrophage colonies from bone marrow cells and can stimulate the formation of eosinophil colonies from fetal liver progenitor cells. GM-CSF can also stimulate some functional activities in mature granulocytes and macrophages.

Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.

A parasitic hemoflagellate of the subgenus Leishmania leishmania that infects man and animals and causes cutaneous leishmaniasis (LEISHMANIASIS, CUTANEOUS) of the Old World. Transmission is by Phlebotomus sandflies.

Cell surface receptors for INTERLEUKIN-10. They exist as a tetramer of two alpha chains (INTERLEUKIN-10 RECEPTOR ALPHA CHAIN) and two beta chains (INTERLEUKIN-10 RECEPTOR, BETA CHAIN). Signaling from interleukin-10 receptors occurs through their interaction with JANUS KINASES.

MYCOBACTERIUM infections of the lung.

Lining of the INTESTINES, consisting of an inner EPITHELIUM, a middle LAMINA PROPRIA, and an outer MUSCULARIS MUCOSAE. In the SMALL INTESTINE, the mucosa is characterized by a series of folds and abundance of absorptive cells (ENTEROCYTES) with MICROVILLI.

Recombinant proteins produced by the GENETIC TRANSLATION of fused genes formed by the combination of NUCLEIC ACID REGULATORY SEQUENCES of one or more genes with the protein coding sequences of one or more genes.

Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.

A signal transducer and activator of transcription that mediates cellular responses to INTERLEUKIN-12 in T-LYMPHOCYTES. Stat4 is an important signaling molecule for differentiation in TH1 CELLS.

An active immunizing agent and a viable avirulent attenuated strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, var. bovis, which confers immunity to mycobacterial infections. It is used also in immunotherapy of neoplasms due to its stimulation of antibodies and non-specific immunity.

Electrophoresis in which a polyacrylamide gel is used as the diffusion medium.

A cytokine synthesized by T-LYMPHOCYTES that produces proliferation, immunoglobulin isotype switching, and immunoglobulin production by immature B-LYMPHOCYTES. It appears to play a role in regulating inflammatory and immune responses.

Tuberculosis of the serous membrane lining the thoracic cavity and surrounding the lungs.

Infections with bacteria of the genus LISTERIA.

A constitution or condition of the body which makes the tissues react in special ways to certain extrinsic stimuli and thus tends to make the individual more than usually susceptible to certain diseases.

Proteins found in any species of virus.

They are oval or bean shaped bodies (1 - 30 mm in diameter) located along the lymphatic system.

A family of structurally related proteins that are induced by CYTOKINES and negatively regulate cytokine-mediated SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAYS. SOCS proteins contain a central SH2 DOMAIN and a C-terminal region of homology known as the SOCS box.

The biosynthesis of PEPTIDES and PROTEINS on RIBOSOMES, directed by MESSENGER RNA, via TRANSFER RNA that is charged with standard proteinogenic AMINO ACIDS.

The type species of RESPIROVIRUS in the subfamily PARAMYXOVIRINAE. It is the murine version of HUMAN PARAINFLUENZA VIRUS 1, distinguished by host range.

A defect of leukocyte function in which phagocytic cells ingest but fail to digest bacteria, resulting in recurring bacterial infections with granuloma formation. When chronic granulomatous disease is caused by mutations in the CYBB gene, the condition is inherited in an X-linked recessive pattern. When chronic granulomatous disease is caused by CYBA, NCF1, NCF2, or NCF4 gene mutations, the condition is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern.

Surfactant protein A suppresses reactive nitrogen intermediates by alveolar macrophages in response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. (1/21806)

Mycobacterium tuberculosis attaches to, enters, and replicates within alveolar macrophages (AMs). Our previous studies suggest that surfactant protein A (SP-A) can act as a ligand in the attachment of M. tuberculosis to AMs. Reactive nitrogen intermediates (RNIs) play a significant role in the killing of mycobacteria. We have demonstrated that RNI levels generated by AMs were significantly increased when interferon-gamma-primed AMs were incubated with M. tuberculosis. However, the RNI levels were significantly suppressed in the presence of SP-A (10 microg/ml). The specificity of SP-A's effect was demonstrated by the use of F(ab')2 fragments of anti-SP-A monoclonal antibodies and by the use of mannosyl-BSA, which blocked the suppression of RNI levels by SP-A. Furthermore, incubation of deglycosylated SP-A with M. tuberculosis failed to suppress RNI by AMs, suggesting that the oligosaccharide component of SP-A, which binds to M. tuberculosis, is necessary for this effect. These results show that SP-A-mediated binding of M. tuberculosis to AMs significantly decreased RNI levels, suggesting that this may be one mechanism by which M. tuberculosis diminishes the cytotoxic response of activated AMs. (+info)

Shp-2 tyrosine phosphatase functions as a negative regulator of the interferon-stimulated Jak/STAT pathway. (2/21806)

Shp-2 is an SH2 domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase. Although the mechanism remains to be defined, substantial experimental data suggest that Shp-2 is primarily a positive regulator in cell growth and development. We present evidence here that Shp-2, while acting to promote mitogenic signals, also functions as a negative effector in interferon (IFN)-induced growth-inhibitory and apoptotic pathways. Treatment of mouse fibroblast cells lacking a functional Shp-2 with IFN-alpha or IFN-gamma resulted in an augmented suppression of cell viability compared to that of wild-type cells. To dissect the molecular mechanism, we examined IFN-induced activation of signal transducers and activators of transcription (STATs) by electrophoretic mobility shift assay, using a specific DNA probe (hSIE). The amounts of STAT proteins bound to hSIE upon IFN-alpha or IFN-gamma stimulation were significantly increased in Shp-2(-/-) cells. Consistently, tyrosine phosphorylation levels of Stat1 upon IFN-gamma treatment and, to a lesser extent, upon IFN-alpha stimulation were markedly elevated in mutant cells. Furthermore, IFN-gamma induced a higher level of caspase 1 expression in Shp-2(-/-) cells than in wild-type cells. Reintroduction of wild-type Shp-2 protein reversed the hypersensitivity of Shp-2(-/-) fibroblasts to the cytotoxic effect of IFN-alpha and IFN-gamma. Excessive activation of STATs by IFNs was also diminished in mutant cells in which Shp-2 had been reintroduced. Together, these results establish that Shp-2 functions as a negative regulator of the Jak/STAT pathway. We propose that Shp-2 acts to promote cell growth and survival through two mechanisms, i.e., the stimulation of growth factor-initiated mitogenic pathways and the suppression of cytotoxic effect elicited by cytokines, such as IFNs. (+info)

Systemic administration of rIL-12 synergistically enhances the therapeutic effect of a TNF gene-transduced cancer vaccine. (3/21806)

Interleukin-12 (IL-12) is a potent antitumor cytokine, which induces and enhances the activity of natural killer (NK) cells, lymphokine activated killer (LAK) cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL). IL-12 also stimulates IFN-gamma production from both T cells and NK cells. In this study, we transfected methylcholanthrene-induced fibrosarcoma (MCA-D) with TNF gene and investigated the therapeutic effect of TNF gene-transduced cancer vaccine and whether the vaccination effect is enhanced by systemic administration of recombinant IL-12 (rIL-12), in a murine model. TNF gene-transduced cancer vaccine or systemic administration of rIL-12 showed slight or moderate inhibition of pre-established tumor. However, simultaneous application of the vaccine and rIL-12 resulted in complete eradication. The cytotoxicity of CTL against parental tumor cells was enhanced with the combination of the vaccine and rIL-12, and IFN-gamma production from spleen cells also increased synergistically. Our findings show that synergistic enhancement of CTL activity and IFN-gamma production could play an important role in the antitumor effect of combination therapy using TNF gene-transduced cancer vaccine and rIL-12. (+info)

Interleukin-18 binding protein: a novel modulator of the Th1 cytokine response. (4/21806)

An interleukin-18 binding protein (IL-18BP) was purified from urine by chromatography on IL-18 beads, sequenced, cloned, and expressed in COS7 cells. IL-18BP abolished IL-18 induction of interferon-gamma (IFNgamma), IL-8, and activation of NF-kappaB in vitro. Administration of IL-18BP to mice abrogated circulating IFNgamma following LPS. Thus, IL-18BP functions as an inhibitor of the early Th1 cytokine response. IL-18BP is constitutively expressed in the spleen, belongs to the immunoglobulin superfamily, and has limited homology to the IL-1 type II receptor. Its gene was localized on human chromosome 11q13, and no exon coding for a transmembrane domain was found in an 8.3 kb genomic sequence. Several Poxviruses encode putative proteins highly homologous to IL-18BP, suggesting that viral products may attenuate IL-18 and interfere with the cytotoxic T cell response. (+info)

Reciprocal control of T helper cell and dendritic cell differentiation. (5/21806)

It is not known whether subsets of dendritic cells provide different cytokine microenvironments that determine the differentiation of either type-1 T helper (TH1) or TH2 cells. Human monocyte (pDC1)-derived dendritic cells (DC1) were found to induce TH1 differentiation, whereas dendritic cells (DC2) derived from CD4+CD3-CD11c- plasmacytoid cells (pDC2) induced TH2 differentiation by use of a mechanism unaffected by interleukin-4 (IL-4) or IL-12. The TH2 cytokine IL-4 enhanced DC1 maturation and killed pDC2, an effect potentiated by IL-10 but blocked by CD40 ligand and interferon-gamma. Thus, a negative feedback loop from the mature T helper cells may selectively inhibit prolonged TH1 or TH2 responses by regulating survival of the appropriate dendritic cell subset. (+info)

Generation of CD8(+) T-cell responses to Mycobacterium bovis and mycobacterial antigen in experimental bovine tuberculosis. (6/21806)

Protective immunity against tuberculosis is considered to be essentially cell mediated, and an important role for CD8(+) T lymphocytes has been suggested by several studies of murine and human infections. The present work, using an experimental model of infection with Mycobacterium bovis in cattle, showed that live M. bovis elicits the activation of CD8(+) T cells in vitro. However, a sonic extract prepared from M. bovis (MBSE) and protein purified derivative (PPDb) also induced a considerable degree of activation of the CD8(+) T cells. Analysis of proliferative responses of peripheral blood mononuclear cells, purified CD8(+) T cells, and CD8(+) T-cell clones to M. bovis and to soluble antigenic preparations (MBSE, PPDb) showed that the responses of all three types of cells were always superior for live mycobacteria but that strong responses were also obtained with complex soluble preparations. Furthermore, while cytotoxic capabilities were not investigated, the CD8(+) T cells were found to produce and release gamma interferon in response to antigen (live and soluble), which indicated one possible protective mechanism for these cells in bovine tuberculosis. Finally, it was demonstrated by metabolic inhibition with brefeldin A and cytochalasin D at the clonal level that an endogenous pathway of antigen processing is required for presentation to bovine CD8(+) cells and that presentation is also dependent on phagocytosis of the antigen. (+info)

Pathogenicity island 2 mutants of Salmonella typhimurium are efficient carriers for heterologous antigens and enable modulation of immune responses. (7/21806)

The potential use as vaccine delivery system of Salmonella typhimurium strains harboring defined mutations in the sseC (HH104) and sseD (MvP101) genes, which encode putative effector proteins of the type III secretion system of Salmonella pathogenicity island 2, was evaluated and compared with that of the well-characterized aroA mutant strain SL7207 by using beta-galactosidase (beta-Gal) as a model antigen. When orally administered to immune-competent or gamma interferon-deficient (IFN-gamma-/-) BALB/c mice, both mutants were found to be highly attenuated (50% lethal dose, >10(9) bacteria). Both strains were also able to efficiently colonize and persist in Peyer's patches. Immunization with HH104 and MvP101 triggered beta-Gal-specific serum and mucosal antibody responses equivalent to or stronger than those observed in SL7207-immunized mice. Although immunoglobulin G2 (IgG2) serum antibodies were dominant in all groups, IgG1 was also significantly increased in mice vaccinated with MvP101 and SL7207. Comparable beta-Gal-specific IgA and IgG antibodies were detected in intestinal lavages from mice immunized with the different strains. Antigen-specific CD4(+) T-helper cells were generated after vaccination with all vaccine prototypes; however, responses were significantly more efficient when HH104 and MvP101 were used (P < 0.05). Significantly higher levels of IFN-gamma were produced by restimulated spleen cells from mice immunized with HH104 than from those vaccinated with the MvP101 or SL7207 derivatives (P +info)

Enhanced Th1 and dampened Th2 responses synergize to inhibit acute granulomatous and fibrotic responses in murine schistosomiasis mansoni. (8/21806)

In murine schistosomiasis mansoni, CD4(+) Th1 and Th2 cells participate in the ovum-induced granulomatous inflammation. Previous studies showed that the interleukin-12 (IL-12)-induced Th1 response strongly suppressed the Th2-cell-mediated pulmonary granuloma development in naive or primed mice. However, liver granulomas were only moderately suppressed in egg-vaccinated, recombinant IL-12 (rIL-12)-treated infected mice. The present study shows that repeated rIL-12 injections given during early granuloma development at 5 to 7 weeks after infection prolonged the Th1 phase and resulted in gamma interferon-mediated suppression of liver granulomas. The timing is crucial: if given at 6 to 8 weeks, during the Th2-dominated phase of florid granuloma growth, the treatment is ineffective. Daily injections of rIL-12 given between 5 and 7.5 weeks during the period of granuloma growth achieved a somewhat-stronger diminution in granuloma growth with less deposition of collagen but caused 60% mortality and liver pathology. In contrast, combined treatment with rIL-12 and anti-IL-4-anti-IL-10 monoclonal antibody (MAb) injections given during the Th2 phase strongly inhibited liver granuloma growth without mortality. The diminished inflammatory response was accompanied by less deposition of collagen in the liver. Moreover, neutralization of endogenous IL-12 by anti-IL-12 MAbs effectively decreased the early Th1 phase (between 5 and 6 weeks after infection) but not the developing Th2 phase (5 to 7 weeks) of granuloma development. These studies indicate that the granulomatous response in infected mice can be manipulated by utilizing the Th1-Th2-subset antagonism with potential salutary results in the amelioration of fibrous pathology. (+info)

Interferons are a group of signaling proteins that are produced and released by cells in response to viral infections, cancer, and other types of cellular stress. They play a critical role in the body's immune response by activating immune cells and inhibiting the growth and spread of viruses and cancer cells. There are three main types of interferons: Type I interferons (IFN-alpha and IFN-beta), Type II interferon (IFN-gamma), and Type III interferons (IFN-lambda). Type I interferons are the most well-studied and are produced by most cells in response to viral infections. They bind to receptors on the surface of nearby cells and trigger a signaling cascade that leads to the production of antiviral proteins and the activation of immune cells. Type II interferons are primarily produced by immune cells and are important for the immune response to intracellular pathogens such as viruses and bacteria. Type III interferons are produced by immune cells and some non-immune cells and are important for the immune response to viruses and cancer. Interferons are used in the treatment of several viral infections, including hepatitis B and C, and some types of cancer, such as melanoma and kidney cancer. They are also being studied for their potential use in the treatment of other diseases, such as multiple sclerosis and certain types of viral infections.

Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is produced by various immune cells, including T cells, natural killer cells, and macrophages, in response to viral or bacterial infections, as well as in response to certain types of cancer. IFN-γ has a wide range of effects on the immune system, including the activation of macrophages and other immune cells, the inhibition of viral replication, and the promotion of T cell differentiation and proliferation. It also plays a role in the regulation of the immune response, helping to prevent excessive inflammation and tissue damage. In the medical field, IFN-γ is used as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of certain types of cancer, such as Hodgkin's lymphoma and multiple myeloma. It is also being studied as a potential treatment for other conditions, such as autoimmune diseases and viral infections.

Interferon Type I is a group of signaling proteins produced by the body's immune system in response to viral infections. These proteins are also known as cytokines and are released by cells that have been infected with a virus. Interferon Type I helps to activate other immune cells and proteins, such as natural killer cells and macrophages, which can help to destroy the virus and prevent it from spreading to other cells. Interferon Type I also has antiviral effects on the infected cells themselves, which can help to limit the severity of the infection. In the medical field, interferon Type I is often used as a treatment for viral infections, such as hepatitis B and C, and certain types of cancer.

Receptors, Interferon are proteins found on the surface of cells that bind to interferons, which are signaling molecules produced by the body in response to viral infections. Interferons activate immune cells and help to prevent the spread of viruses within the body. The binding of interferons to their receptors on cells triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the expression of genes involved in antiviral defense and the regulation of the immune response. Interferon receptors are important for the body's ability to fight off viral infections and are the target of some antiviral therapies.

Interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling protein produced by immune cells in response to viral infections or other stimuli. IFN-alpha has antiviral, antiproliferative, and immunomodulatory effects, and is used in the treatment of various medical conditions, including viral infections such as hepatitis B and C, certain types of cancer, and autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis. IFN-alpha is typically administered as an injection or infusion, and can cause a range of side effects, including flu-like symptoms, fatigue, and depression.

Recombinant proteins are proteins that are produced by genetically engineering bacteria, yeast, or other organisms to express a specific gene. These proteins are typically used in medical research and drug development because they can be produced in large quantities and are often more pure and consistent than proteins that are extracted from natural sources. Recombinant proteins can be used for a variety of purposes in medicine, including as diagnostic tools, therapeutic agents, and research tools. For example, recombinant versions of human proteins such as insulin, growth hormones, and clotting factors are used to treat a variety of medical conditions. Recombinant proteins can also be used to study the function of specific genes and proteins, which can help researchers understand the underlying causes of diseases and develop new treatments.

Cytokines are small proteins that are produced by various cells of the immune system, including white blood cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells. They play a crucial role in regulating immune responses and inflammation, and are involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. Cytokines can be classified into different groups based on their function, including pro-inflammatory cytokines, anti-inflammatory cytokines, and regulatory cytokines. Pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-1 (IL-1), promote inflammation and recruit immune cells to the site of infection or injury. Anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-10 (IL-10) and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta), help to dampen the immune response and prevent excessive inflammation. Regulatory cytokines, such as interleukin-4 (IL-4) and interleukin-13 (IL-13), help to regulate the balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses. Cytokines play a critical role in many diseases, including autoimmune disorders, cancer, and infectious diseases. They are also important in the development of vaccines and immunotherapies.

Interferon-beta (IFN-beta) is a type of cytokine that is naturally produced by the body's immune system in response to viral infections. It is also used as a medication to treat certain autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS), by reducing inflammation and slowing the progression of the disease. IFN-beta is typically administered as an injection or infusion, and its effects can last for several days. It works by activating immune cells and inhibiting the growth of virus-infected cells. In MS, IFN-beta is thought to reduce the frequency and severity of relapses by modulating the immune response and reducing inflammation in the central nervous system. There are several different types of IFN-beta available, including beta-1a, beta-1b, and beta-2a. These different forms of IFN-beta have slightly different mechanisms of action and are used in different ways to treat MS and other autoimmune diseases.

Interferon Regulatory Factor-1 (IRF-1) is a transcription factor that plays a critical role in the regulation of immune responses and inflammation. It is a member of the IRF family of transcription factors, which are involved in the regulation of interferon (IFN) gene expression. IRF-1 is primarily expressed in immune cells, such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and T cells, and is activated in response to various stimuli, including viral infections, bacterial infections, and inflammatory signals. Once activated, IRF-1 translocates to the nucleus and binds to specific DNA sequences in the promoter regions of IFN genes, leading to the production of IFN and other immune mediators. In addition to its role in IFN gene regulation, IRF-1 has also been implicated in the regulation of other genes involved in immune responses and inflammation, such as cytokines, chemokines, and costimulatory molecules. Dysregulation of IRF-1 expression or function has been implicated in various diseases, including viral infections, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.

Interferon Regulatory Factor-3 (IRF3) is a transcription factor that plays a critical role in the innate immune response to viral infections. It is a member of the IRF family of transcription factors, which are involved in regulating the expression of genes that are involved in antiviral defense, inflammation, and immune cell development. IRF3 is activated in response to viral infections, and it binds to specific DNA sequences in the promoter regions of target genes, leading to their transcription and subsequent production of proteins that help to fight the infection. IRF3 also plays a role in regulating the expression of genes involved in the production of type I interferons, which are important cytokines that help to coordinate the immune response to viral infections. In addition to its role in antiviral defense, IRF3 has also been implicated in the regulation of immune cell development and the response to other types of infections, such as bacterial infections and cancer. Dysregulation of IRF3 has been linked to a number of human diseases, including viral infections, autoimmune disorders, and certain types of cancer.

In the medical field, "Cells, Cultured" refers to cells that have been grown and maintained in a controlled environment outside of their natural biological context, typically in a laboratory setting. This process is known as cell culture and involves the isolation of cells from a tissue or organism, followed by their growth and proliferation in a nutrient-rich medium. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including human or animal tissues, and can be used for a wide range of applications in medicine and research. For example, cultured cells can be used to study the behavior and function of specific cell types, to develop new drugs and therapies, and to test the safety and efficacy of medical products. Cultured cells can be grown in various types of containers, such as flasks or Petri dishes, and can be maintained at different temperatures and humidity levels to optimize their growth and survival. The medium used to culture cells typically contains a combination of nutrients, growth factors, and other substances that support cell growth and proliferation. Overall, the use of cultured cells has revolutionized medical research and has led to many important discoveries and advancements in the field of medicine.

Interferon Regulatory Factors (IRFs) are a family of transcription factors that play a critical role in the regulation of interferon (IFN) signaling pathways. IFNs are a group of signaling molecules that are produced and released by cells in response to viral infections, bacterial infections, and other types of cellular stress. IRFs are activated by IFNs and other signaling molecules, and they regulate the expression of genes that are involved in the antiviral response, immune cell activation, and inflammation. There are nine known IRFs in humans, and they are classified into two subfamilies: type I IFN-stimulated IRFs (ISIRFs) and type III IFN-stimulated IRFs (ISIRFs). ISIRFs include IRF1, IRF2, IRF3, IRF5, IRF7, and IRF9, while ISIRFs include IRF6, IRF8, and IRF10. Each IRF has a unique function and is activated by different signaling pathways. IRFs play a critical role in the regulation of the immune response to viral infections. They activate the expression of genes that are involved in the production of IFNs, which in turn activate immune cells and stimulate the production of antiviral proteins. IRFs also regulate the expression of genes that are involved in the activation of immune cells, such as natural killer cells and T cells. In addition to their role in the immune response, IRFs have also been implicated in the regulation of other biological processes, such as cell growth and differentiation, and the development of certain types of cancer.

In the medical field, a receptor for interferon alpha-beta (IFN-αβ receptor) is a protein complex that is expressed on the surface of certain cells and is responsible for binding to and responding to interferon alpha-beta (IFN-αβ), a type of cytokine that plays an important role in the immune response to viral infections. IFN-αβ is produced by immune cells in response to viral infections and is thought to help protect the body by inhibiting viral replication, activating immune cells, and promoting the production of other cytokines that help to coordinate the immune response. The IFN-αβ receptor is composed of two subunits, IFNAR1 and IFNAR2, which are both transmembrane proteins. When IFN-αβ binds to the receptor, it triggers a signaling cascade within the cell that leads to the activation of various genes and the production of proteins that help to mediate the immune response. Disruptions in the function of the IFN-αβ receptor can lead to impaired immune responses and increased susceptibility to viral infections. Mutations in the IFNAR1 or IFNAR2 genes have been associated with several autoimmune disorders, such as systemic lupus erythematosus and multiple sclerosis.

STAT1 (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 1) is a transcription factor that plays a crucial role in the regulation of the immune response and the response to viral infections. It is activated by various cytokines, including IFN-γ (interferon-gamma), and upon activation, STAT1 translocates to the nucleus where it binds to specific DNA sequences and promotes the transcription of target genes. STAT1 is involved in the regulation of a wide range of cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. It is also involved in the regulation of the immune response, including the production of cytokines and chemokines, the activation of immune cells, and the clearance of pathogens. In addition, STAT1 has been implicated in the development of various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and viral infections.

In the medical field, a cell line refers to a group of cells that have been derived from a single parent cell and have the ability to divide and grow indefinitely in culture. These cells are typically grown in a laboratory setting and are used for research purposes, such as studying the effects of drugs or investigating the underlying mechanisms of diseases. Cell lines are often derived from cancerous cells, as these cells tend to divide and grow more rapidly than normal cells. However, they can also be derived from normal cells, such as fibroblasts or epithelial cells. Cell lines are characterized by their unique genetic makeup, which can be used to identify them and compare them to other cell lines. Because cell lines can be grown in large quantities and are relatively easy to maintain, they are a valuable tool in medical research. They allow researchers to study the effects of drugs and other treatments on specific cell types, and to investigate the underlying mechanisms of diseases at the cellular level.

Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is a cytokine, a type of signaling protein, that plays a crucial role in the immune response and inflammation. It is produced by various cells in the body, including macrophages, monocytes, and T cells, in response to infection, injury, or other stimuli. TNF-alpha has multiple functions in the body, including regulating the immune response, promoting cell growth and differentiation, and mediating inflammation. It can also induce programmed cell death, or apoptosis, in some cells, which can be beneficial in fighting cancer. However, excessive or prolonged TNF-alpha production can lead to chronic inflammation and tissue damage, which can contribute to the development of various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, inflammatory bowel disease, and certain types of cancer. In the medical field, TNF-alpha is often targeted in the treatment of these conditions. For example, drugs called TNF inhibitors, such as infliximab and adalimumab, are used to block the action of TNF-alpha and reduce inflammation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease, and other inflammatory conditions.

In the medical field, RNA, Messenger (mRNA) refers to a type of RNA molecule that carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus of a cell to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized. During the process of transcription, the DNA sequence of a gene is copied into a complementary RNA sequence called messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA molecule then leaves the nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm of the cell, where it binds to ribosomes and serves as a template for the synthesis of a specific protein. The sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule determines the sequence of amino acids in the protein that is synthesized. Therefore, changes in the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule can result in changes in the amino acid sequence of the protein, which can affect the function of the protein and potentially lead to disease. mRNA molecules are often used in medical research and therapy as a way to introduce new genetic information into cells. For example, mRNA vaccines work by introducing a small piece of mRNA that encodes for a specific protein, which triggers an immune response in the body.

Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in regulating the immune system. IL-4 is primarily produced by T-helper 2 (Th2) cells, which are a type of immune cell that helps to fight off parasitic infections and allergies. IL-4 has several important functions in the immune system. It promotes the differentiation of Th2 cells and stimulates the production of other Th2 cytokines, such as IL-5 and IL-13. IL-4 also promotes the activation and proliferation of B cells, which are responsible for producing antibodies. Additionally, IL-4 has anti-inflammatory effects and can help to suppress the activity of T-helper 1 (Th1) cells, which are involved in fighting off bacterial and viral infections. In the medical field, IL-4 is being studied for its potential therapeutic applications. For example, it is being investigated as a treatment for allergies, asthma, and certain autoimmune diseases. IL-4 is also being studied as a potential cancer immunotherapy, as it can help to activate immune cells that can recognize and attack cancer cells.

Antiviral agents are medications that are used to treat viral infections. They work by inhibiting the replication of viruses within host cells, thereby reducing the severity and duration of the infection. Antiviral agents can be classified into several categories, including nucleoside analogues, protease inhibitors, neuraminidase inhibitors, and entry inhibitors. They are commonly used to treat a variety of viral infections, including influenza, herpes simplex virus, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and hepatitis B and C. Antiviral agents are an important tool in the management of viral infections and have been instrumental in reducing the morbidity and mortality associated with these diseases.

Interferon Regulatory Factor-7 (IRF7) is a transcription factor that plays a critical role in the regulation of the immune system. It is a member of the IRF family of proteins, which are involved in the transcriptional regulation of genes that are involved in antiviral defense, inflammation, and immune cell development. IRF7 is primarily expressed in immune cells, including dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells. It is activated in response to viral infections and other stimuli that trigger the immune response. Once activated, IRF7 binds to specific DNA sequences in the promoter regions of target genes, leading to their transcription and the production of proteins that are involved in antiviral defense and immune cell activation. In addition to its role in the immune response, IRF7 has also been implicated in the regulation of other biological processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Dysregulation of IRF7 has been linked to a number of diseases, including autoimmune disorders, cancer, and viral infections.

Interleukin-12 (IL-12) is a cytokine that plays a critical role in the immune response to infections and cancer. It is produced by activated immune cells, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, and acts on other immune cells, such as natural killer cells and T cells, to enhance their ability to kill pathogens and tumor cells. IL-12 is a heterodimeric cytokine composed of two subunits, p35 and p40, which are encoded by separate genes. The p35 subunit is responsible for the biological activity of IL-12, while the p40 subunit is shared with other cytokines, such as IL-23 and IL-27. IL-12 has several important functions in the immune system. It promotes the differentiation of naive T cells into Th1 cells, which produce IFN-γ and other pro-inflammatory cytokines that are important for the clearance of intracellular pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria. IL-12 also enhances the activity of natural killer cells, which are important for the elimination of tumor cells and virally infected cells. In addition to its role in innate and adaptive immunity, IL-12 has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis and psoriasis, and has been studied as a potential therapeutic agent for cancer and infectious diseases.

Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is a cytokine, a type of signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is produced by activated T cells, a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the body's defense against infection and disease. IL-2 has several important functions in the immune system. It promotes the growth and differentiation of T cells, which helps to increase the number of immune cells available to fight infection. It also stimulates the production of other cytokines, which can help to amplify the immune response. IL-2 is used in the treatment of certain types of cancer, such as melanoma and kidney cancer. It works by stimulating the immune system to attack cancer cells. It is typically given as an injection or infusion, and can cause side effects such as fever, chills, and flu-like symptoms. In addition to its use in cancer treatment, IL-2 has also been studied for its potential role in treating other conditions, such as autoimmune diseases and viral infections.

Poly I-C is a synthetic double-stranded RNA molecule that is commonly used in the field of virology and immunology research. It is a type of interferon inducer, meaning that it can stimulate the production of interferons, which are proteins that help the body fight off viral infections. Poly I-C is often used as a positive control in experiments to study the immune response to viral infections, as it can activate the innate immune system and induce the production of interferons. It is also used in vaccine development, as it can stimulate the production of antibodies and activate immune cells. In addition to its use in research, Poly I-C has also been studied for its potential therapeutic applications in the treatment of viral infections and cancer. However, more research is needed to fully understand its potential benefits and risks.

In the medical field, a base sequence refers to the specific order of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine) that make up the genetic material (DNA or RNA) of an organism. The base sequence determines the genetic information encoded within the DNA molecule and ultimately determines the traits and characteristics of an individual. The base sequence can be analyzed using various techniques, such as DNA sequencing, to identify genetic variations or mutations that may be associated with certain diseases or conditions.

CD4-positive T-lymphocytes, also known as CD4+ T-cells or T-helper cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a critical role in the immune system. They are a subset of T-cells that express the CD4 protein on their surface, which allows them to recognize and bind to antigens presented by other immune cells. CD4+ T-cells are involved in many aspects of the immune response, including the activation and proliferation of other immune cells, the production of cytokines (chemical messengers that regulate immune responses), and the regulation of immune tolerance. They are particularly important in the response to infections caused by viruses, such as HIV, and in the development of autoimmune diseases. In HIV infection, the virus specifically targets and destroys CD4+ T-cells, leading to a decline in their numbers and a weakened immune system. This is why CD4+ T-cell count is an important marker of HIV disease progression and treatment response.

Interferon Regulatory Factor-2 (IRF2) is a transcription factor that plays a critical role in regulating the expression of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) in response to viral infections and other types of cellular stress. IRF2 is a member of the IRF family of transcription factors, which are involved in the regulation of immune responses, cell growth, and differentiation. In the context of viral infections, IRF2 is activated by the binding of interferons (IFNs) to their receptors on the cell surface. Once activated, IRF2 translocates to the nucleus and binds to specific DNA sequences in the promoter regions of ISGs, leading to their transcription and subsequent production of proteins that help to combat the viral infection. Mutations in the IRF2 gene have been associated with several human diseases, including B-cell lymphoma, multiple myeloma, and type 1 diabetes. Additionally, dysregulation of IRF2 has been implicated in the pathogenesis of various viral infections, including hepatitis C virus (HCV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

Interleukins are a group of signaling proteins that are produced by various cells of the immune system, including white blood cells, and play a crucial role in regulating immune responses. They are also involved in a wide range of other physiological processes, such as cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). Interleukins are classified into different groups based on their structure and function. Some of the most well-known interleukins include interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-2 (IL-2), interleukin-4 (IL-4), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), and interleukin-12 (IL-12). Interleukins can act locally within tissues or be transported through the bloodstream to other parts of the body. They can also bind to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, triggering a signaling cascade that leads to changes in gene expression and cellular function. In the medical field, interleukins are often used as therapeutic agents to treat a variety of conditions, including autoimmune diseases, cancer, and infections. They can also be used as diagnostic tools to help identify and monitor certain diseases.

Interleukin-10 (IL-10) is a cytokine, which is a type of signaling molecule that plays a role in regulating the immune system. It is produced by various immune cells, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and T cells, in response to infection or inflammation. IL-10 has anti-inflammatory properties and helps to suppress the immune response, which can be beneficial in preventing excessive inflammation and tissue damage. It also has immunosuppressive effects, which can help to prevent autoimmune diseases and transplant rejection. In the medical field, IL-10 is being studied for its potential therapeutic applications in a variety of conditions, including inflammatory diseases, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. For example, IL-10 has been shown to be effective in reducing inflammation and improving symptoms in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease, and other inflammatory conditions. It is also being investigated as a potential treatment for cancer, as it may help to suppress the immune response that allows cancer cells to evade detection and destruction by the immune system.

Ribavirin is an antiviral medication that is used to treat a variety of viral infections, including hepatitis C, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and some types of influenza. It works by inhibiting the replication of the virus, which can help to reduce the severity and duration of the infection. Ribavirin is typically administered orally or intravenously, and it can be used alone or in combination with other antiviral medications. It is important to note that ribavirin can cause side effects, including anemia, nausea, and headache, and it may not be suitable for everyone. It is always important to discuss the potential risks and benefits of any medication with a healthcare provider before starting treatment.

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are a type of complex carbohydrate found on the surface of gram-negative bacteria. They are composed of a lipid A moiety, a core polysaccharide, and an O-specific polysaccharide. LPS are important components of the bacterial cell wall and play a role in the innate immune response of the host. In the medical field, LPS are often studied in the context of sepsis, a life-threatening condition that occurs when the body's response to an infection causes widespread inflammation. LPS can trigger a strong immune response in the host, leading to the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and other mediators that can cause tissue damage and organ failure. As a result, LPS are often used as a model for studying the pathophysiology of sepsis and for developing new treatments for this condition. LPS are also used in research as a tool for studying the immune system and for developing vaccines against bacterial infections. They can be purified from bacterial cultures and used to stimulate immune cells in vitro or in animal models, allowing researchers to study the mechanisms of immune responses to bacterial pathogens. Additionally, LPS can be used as an adjuvant in vaccines to enhance the immune response to the vaccine antigen.

In the medical field, an amino acid sequence refers to the linear order of amino acids in a protein molecule. Proteins are made up of chains of amino acids, and the specific sequence of these amino acids determines the protein's structure and function. The amino acid sequence is determined by the genetic code, which is a set of rules that specifies how the sequence of nucleotides in DNA is translated into the sequence of amino acids in a protein. Each amino acid is represented by a three-letter code, and the sequence of these codes is the amino acid sequence of the protein. The amino acid sequence is important because it determines the protein's three-dimensional structure, which in turn determines its function. Small changes in the amino acid sequence can have significant effects on the protein's structure and function, and this can lead to diseases or disorders. For example, mutations in the amino acid sequence of a protein involved in blood clotting can lead to bleeding disorders.

Chemokine CXCL10, also known as interferon-gamma-inducible protein 10 (IP-10), is a small protein that plays a role in the immune system. It is produced by various cells in response to infection, inflammation, or other stimuli, and it functions as a chemoattractant, recruiting immune cells to the site of infection or injury. CXCL10 is a member of the CXC chemokine family, which is a group of proteins that are involved in the recruitment and activation of immune cells. It is particularly important in the immune response to viral infections, as it helps to recruit and activate T cells and natural killer (NK) cells, which are important for controlling viral infections. In addition to its role in the immune response, CXCL10 has been implicated in a number of other physiological processes, including angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels), tissue repair, and the regulation of inflammation. It has also been studied in the context of various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases.

Interferon-Stimulated Gene Factor 3 (ISGF3) is a transcription factor complex that plays a crucial role in the regulation of gene expression in response to interferons, a type of cytokine that is produced by immune cells in response to viral infections or other types of cellular stress. ISGF3 is composed of three subunits: interferon regulatory factor 9 (IRF9), STAT1, and STAT2. When interferons bind to their receptors on the surface of cells, they activate a signaling cascade that leads to the phosphorylation and dimerization of STAT1 and STAT2. The STAT1-STAT2 heterodimer then binds to the ISGF3 binding site on the promoter region of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs), which are genes that are upregulated in response to interferons. This binding leads to the recruitment of RNA polymerase II and other transcriptional machinery, resulting in the transcription of ISGs. ISGs play a variety of roles in the immune response to viral infections, including the production of antiviral proteins, the regulation of immune cell activation and differentiation, and the induction of apoptosis in infected cells. Dysregulation of ISGF3 signaling has been implicated in a number of diseases, including viral infections, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.

Chronic Hepatitis C (CHC) is a long-term infection caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). It is a serious health condition that can lead to liver damage, cirrhosis, and liver cancer if left untreated. CHC is characterized by the persistence of the HCV virus in the liver for more than six months, despite the body's immune system attempting to clear the virus. The virus can remain dormant for years, and symptoms may not appear until significant liver damage has occurred. CHC is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood, such as through sharing needles or through sexual contact with an infected person. It can also be transmitted from mother to child during childbirth. Treatment for CHC typically involves antiviral medications that can help the body clear the virus and prevent further liver damage. However, some people may not respond to treatment or may experience side effects, so treatment decisions are made on an individual basis.

2',5'-Oligoadenylate synthetase (2',5'-OAS) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the innate immune system of the body. It is responsible for synthesizing short chains of nucleotides called 2',5'-oligoadenylates (2',5'-OA) from adenosine triphosphate (ATP). 2',5'-OA is a powerful activator of the RNase L enzyme, which is involved in the degradation of viral RNA and the inhibition of protein synthesis. This helps to prevent the replication and spread of viruses within the body. 2',5'-OAS is activated by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), which is a common feature of viral infections. When dsRNA is detected, 2',5'-OAS is activated and synthesizes 2',5'-OA, which in turn activates RNase L. In addition to its role in antiviral defense, 2',5'-OAS has also been implicated in the regulation of cell growth and differentiation, as well as in the pathogenesis of certain diseases such as cancer and autoimmune disorders.

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are laboratory-made proteins that can mimic the immune system's ability to fight off harmful pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria. They are produced by genetically engineering cells to produce large quantities of a single type of antibody, which is specific to a particular antigen (a molecule that triggers an immune response). In the medical field, monoclonal antibodies are used to treat a variety of conditions, including cancer, autoimmune diseases, and infectious diseases. They can be administered intravenously, intramuscularly, or subcutaneously, depending on the condition being treated. Monoclonal antibodies work by binding to specific antigens on the surface of cells or pathogens, marking them for destruction by the immune system. They can also block the activity of specific molecules involved in disease processes, such as enzymes or receptors. Overall, monoclonal antibodies have revolutionized the treatment of many diseases, offering targeted and effective therapies with fewer side effects than traditional treatments.

CD8-positive T-lymphocytes, also known as cytotoxic T-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune system's response to infections and diseases. These cells are a subtype of T-lymphocytes, which are a type of immune cell that plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity. CD8-positive T-lymphocytes are characterized by the presence of a protein called CD8 on their surface, which helps them to recognize and bind to infected cells or cancer cells. Once bound, these cells release toxic substances that can kill the infected or cancerous cells. CD8-positive T-lymphocytes are an important part of the immune system's response to viral infections, such as HIV and herpes, and to some types of cancer. They are also involved in the immune response to bacterial infections and in the regulation of immune responses to prevent autoimmune diseases. In the medical field, CD8-positive T-lymphocytes are often studied as a way to understand the immune system's response to infections and diseases, and to develop new treatments for these conditions.

DNA-binding proteins are a class of proteins that interact with DNA molecules to regulate gene expression. These proteins recognize specific DNA sequences and bind to them, thereby affecting the transcription of genes into messenger RNA (mRNA) and ultimately the production of proteins. DNA-binding proteins play a crucial role in many biological processes, including cell division, differentiation, and development. They can act as activators or repressors of gene expression, depending on the specific DNA sequence they bind to and the cellular context in which they are expressed. Examples of DNA-binding proteins include transcription factors, histones, and non-histone chromosomal proteins. Transcription factors are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences and regulate the transcription of genes by recruiting RNA polymerase and other factors to the promoter region of a gene. Histones are proteins that package DNA into chromatin, and non-histone chromosomal proteins help to organize and regulate chromatin structure. DNA-binding proteins are important targets for drug discovery and development, as they play a central role in many diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and infectious diseases.

Receptors, immunologic are proteins on the surface of immune cells that recognize and bind to specific molecules, such as antigens, to initiate an immune response. These receptors play a crucial role in the body's ability to defend against infections and other harmful substances. There are many different types of immunologic receptors, including T cell receptors, B cell receptors, and natural killer cell receptors, each with its own specific function and mechanism of action.

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in the immune system. IL-1 is produced by various types of immune cells, including macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells, in response to infection, injury, or inflammation. IL-1 has multiple functions in the immune system, including promoting the activation and proliferation of immune cells, enhancing the production of other cytokines, and regulating the inflammatory response. It can also stimulate the production of fever, which helps to fight off infections. In the medical field, IL-1 is often studied in the context of various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, inflammatory bowel disease, and rheumatoid arthritis. It is also being investigated as a potential target for the development of new treatments for these conditions.

In the medical field, "Antigens, CD" refers to a group of proteins found on the surface of certain cells in the immune system. These proteins, known as CD antigens, are recognized by other immune cells and play a crucial role in the immune response to infections and diseases. CD antigens are classified into different families based on their structure and function. Some CD antigens are expressed on the surface of immune cells themselves, while others are found on the surface of cells that are targeted by the immune system, such as cancer cells or cells infected with viruses. The identification and characterization of CD antigens has been important for the development of new diagnostic tests and therapies for a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases. For example, monoclonal antibodies that target specific CD antigens have been used in cancer immunotherapy to help the immune system recognize and attack cancer cells.

Cytotoxicity, immunologic refers to the ability of immune cells, such as T cells and natural killer (NK) cells, to directly kill or damage other cells in the body. This process is an important part of the immune response and is involved in the elimination of infected or cancerous cells. Cytotoxic T cells, for example, recognize and kill cells that are infected with viruses or have mutated in a way that makes them cancerous. NK cells can also recognize and kill abnormal cells, such as those that are missing the normal "self" markers on their surface. Cytotoxicity, immunologic can be measured in the laboratory using various assays, such as the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release assay or the chromium release assay.

Latent tuberculosis (LTBI) is a condition in which the bacteria that cause tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) are present in the body but do not cause active disease. People with LTBI do not have symptoms of tuberculosis and are not contagious. However, if their immune system becomes weakened, the bacteria can become active and cause active tuberculosis disease. LTBI is usually diagnosed through a skin test or a blood test that detects the presence of antibodies to M. tuberculosis. Treatment for LTBI typically involves taking antibiotics for several months to prevent the bacteria from becoming active and causing disease.

Interleukin-5 (IL-5) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling molecule that plays a role in regulating the immune system. It is primarily produced by T-helper 2 (Th2) cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a role in the immune response to parasitic infections and allergies. IL-5 has a number of functions in the immune system. One of its main functions is to stimulate the growth and differentiation of eosinophils, which are a type of white blood cell that is involved in the immune response to parasitic infections and allergies. IL-5 also promotes the production of antibodies by B cells, which are another type of white blood cell that plays a role in the immune response. In the medical field, IL-5 is often used as a diagnostic marker for certain types of diseases, such as asthma and eosinophilic disorders. It is also being studied as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of these conditions, as well as for the treatment of other immune-related disorders.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It primarily affects the lungs, but can also affect other parts of the body, such as the brain, spine, and kidneys. TB is spread through the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks, and can be transmitted to others who are nearby. TB is a serious and sometimes fatal disease, but it is treatable with a combination of antibiotics taken over several months. However, if left untreated, TB can be life-threatening and can spread to others. There are two main types of TB: latent TB and active TB. Latent TB is when the bacteria are present in the body but do not cause symptoms or harm. Active TB, on the other hand, is when the bacteria are multiplying and causing symptoms such as coughing, fever, and weight loss. TB is a major global health problem, with an estimated 10 million new cases and 1.5 million deaths each year. It is most common in low- and middle-income countries, where access to healthcare and treatment may be limited.

In the medical field, "trans-activators" refer to proteins or molecules that activate the transcription of a gene, which is the process by which the information in a gene is used to produce a functional product, such as a protein. Trans-activators can bind to specific DNA sequences near a gene and recruit other proteins, such as RNA polymerase, to initiate transcription. They can also modify the chromatin structure around a gene to make it more accessible to transcription machinery. Trans-activators play important roles in regulating gene expression and are involved in many biological processes, including development, differentiation, and disease.

Polyethylene glycols (PEGs) are a group of water-soluble polymers that are commonly used in the medical field as solvents, dispersants, and stabilizers. They are made by polymerizing ethylene oxide and have a hydroxyl (-OH) group at each end of the molecule. PEGs are used in a variety of medical applications, including as a carrier for drugs and other therapeutic agents, as a lubricant for medical devices, and as an ingredient in various medical products such as ointments, creams, and lotions. They are also used in diagnostic imaging agents, such as contrast agents for X-rays and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). PEGs are generally considered to be safe for use in humans, although high doses or prolonged exposure may cause irritation or allergic reactions. They are also used in food and personal care products, and are generally recognized as safe for these applications as well.

Dendritic cells are a type of immune cell that plays a crucial role in the body's immune response. They are found in various tissues throughout the body, including the skin, lymph nodes, and mucous membranes. Dendritic cells are responsible for capturing and processing antigens, which are foreign substances that can trigger an immune response. They do this by engulfing and breaking down antigens, and then presenting them to other immune cells, such as T cells, in a way that activates the immune response. Dendritic cells are also involved in the regulation of immune responses, helping to prevent the body from overreacting to harmless substances and to maintain immune tolerance to self-antigens. In the medical field, dendritic cells are being studied for their potential use in cancer immunotherapy. They can be genetically modified to recognize and attack cancer cells, and are being tested in clinical trials as a way to treat various types of cancer.

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a cytokine, a type of signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is produced by a variety of cells, including immune cells such as macrophages, monocytes, and T cells, as well as non-immune cells such as fibroblasts and endothelial cells. IL-6 has a wide range of functions in the body, including regulating the immune response, promoting inflammation, and stimulating the growth and differentiation of immune cells. It is also involved in the regulation of metabolism, bone metabolism, and hematopoiesis (the production of blood cells). In the medical field, IL-6 is often measured as a marker of inflammation and is used to diagnose and monitor a variety of conditions, including autoimmune diseases, infections, and cancer. It is also being studied as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of these conditions, as well as for the management of chronic pain and other conditions.

Cell division is the process by which a single cell divides into two or more daughter cells. This process is essential for the growth, development, and repair of tissues in the body. There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is the process by which somatic cells (non-reproductive cells) divide to produce two identical daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This process is essential for the growth and repair of tissues in the body. Meiosis, on the other hand, is the process by which germ cells (reproductive cells) divide to produce four genetically diverse daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This process is essential for sexual reproduction. Abnormalities in cell division can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including cancer. In cancer, cells divide uncontrollably and form tumors, which can invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body.

Transcription factors are proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences and controlling the transcription of genetic information from DNA to RNA. They play a crucial role in the development and function of cells and tissues in the body. In the medical field, transcription factors are often studied as potential targets for the treatment of diseases such as cancer, where their activity is often dysregulated. For example, some transcription factors are overexpressed in certain types of cancer cells, and inhibiting their activity may help to slow or stop the growth of these cells. Transcription factors are also important in the development of stem cells, which have the ability to differentiate into a wide variety of cell types. By understanding how transcription factors regulate gene expression in stem cells, researchers may be able to develop new therapies for diseases such as diabetes and heart disease. Overall, transcription factors are a critical component of gene regulation and have important implications for the development and treatment of many diseases.

Janus kinase 1 (JAK1) is a protein that plays a role in the signaling pathways of various cytokines and growth factors. It is a member of the Janus kinase family of enzymes, which are involved in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation, and immune responses. In the medical field, JAK1 is of interest because it is involved in the signaling pathways of several diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and inflammatory diseases. In particular, JAK1 inhibitors have been developed as potential treatments for these conditions, as they can block the activity of JAK1 and thereby inhibit the signaling pathways that contribute to disease progression. JAK1 inhibitors have been approved for the treatment of several conditions, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and myelofibrosis. They are also being investigated as potential treatments for other conditions, such as inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis, and cancer.

Membrane glycoproteins are proteins that are attached to the cell membrane through a glycosyl group, which is a complex carbohydrate. These proteins play important roles in cell signaling, cell adhesion, and cell recognition. They are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including immune response, cell growth and differentiation, and nerve transmission. Membrane glycoproteins can be classified into two main types: transmembrane glycoproteins, which span the entire cell membrane, and peripheral glycoproteins, which are located on one side of the membrane.

Interferon-Stimulated Gene Factor 3, gamma Subunit (ISGF3γ) is a protein that plays a role in the body's immune response to viral infections. It is a subunit of the ISGF3 transcription factor complex, which is activated by interferons, a type of signaling molecule produced by the body in response to viral infections. When a virus infects a cell, it triggers the production of interferons, which then bind to receptors on the surface of nearby cells. This binding activates the ISGF3 transcription factor complex, which in turn stimulates the expression of a group of genes known as interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). These ISGs help to protect the cell from the virus and also help to activate other immune cells to fight off the infection. ISGF3γ is one of the subunits of the ISGF3 transcription factor complex. It is encoded by the "ISG15" gene and is involved in the regulation of ISG expression. Mutations in the "ISG15" gene can lead to a disorder called IFNopathies, which are characterized by an overactive immune response and an increased susceptibility to viral infections.

STAT2 (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 2) is a transcription factor that plays a crucial role in the immune response and antiviral defense mechanisms in the human body. It is a member of the STAT family of proteins, which are involved in the regulation of gene expression in response to various signaling molecules, including cytokines and growth factors. STAT2 is activated by the binding of interferons (IFNs), a type of cytokine that plays a critical role in the body's defense against viral infections. Upon activation, STAT2 forms a homodimer and translocates to the nucleus, where it binds to specific DNA sequences and promotes the transcription of genes involved in antiviral defense, such as interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). In addition to its role in antiviral defense, STAT2 has also been implicated in the regulation of other biological processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. Mutations in the STAT2 gene have been associated with several human diseases, including susceptibility to viral infections, autoimmune disorders, and certain types of cancer.

Cell differentiation is the process by which cells acquire specialized functions and characteristics during development. It is a fundamental process that occurs in all multicellular organisms, allowing cells to differentiate into various types of cells with specific functions, such as muscle cells, nerve cells, and blood cells. During cell differentiation, cells undergo changes in their shape, size, and function, as well as changes in the proteins and other molecules they produce. These changes are controlled by a complex network of genes and signaling pathways that regulate the expression of specific genes in different cell types. Cell differentiation is a critical process for the proper development and function of tissues and organs in the body. It is also involved in tissue repair and regeneration, as well as in the progression of diseases such as cancer, where cells lose their normal differentiation and become cancerous.

CD3 is a protein complex that is found on the surface of T cells, a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the immune system. CD3 is a component of the T cell receptor (TCR), which is responsible for recognizing and binding to specific antigens on the surface of other cells. Antigens, CD3 refers to antigens that are recognized by the CD3 component of the TCR. These antigens are typically proteins or other molecules that are present on the surface of cells, and they can be either self-antigens (present on the body's own cells) or foreign antigens (present on the cells of pathogens or other foreign substances). When a T cell encounters an antigen that is recognized by its CD3 receptor, it becomes activated and begins to divide and differentiate into various types of effector T cells, which can then mount an immune response against the pathogen or foreign substance.

Chemokine CXCL9, also known as interferon-inducible protein 10 (IP-10), is a small protein that plays a role in the immune response. It is a type of chemokine, which are proteins that help to direct the movement of immune cells to specific areas of the body where they are needed. CXCL9 is produced by a variety of cells, including immune cells such as T cells and macrophages, in response to the presence of certain stimuli, such as viral infections or inflammatory signals. It functions by binding to specific receptors on the surface of immune cells, which triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation and recruitment of these cells to the site of inflammation. In the context of medical research, CXCL9 has been studied for its potential role in a variety of conditions, including viral infections, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. For example, high levels of CXCL9 have been associated with the progression of certain types of cancer, and it has been proposed as a potential target for the development of new cancer therapies.

Adjuvants, immunologic are substances that are added to vaccines or other immunotherapeutic agents to enhance the body's immune response to the antigen being administered. They work by stimulating the immune system to produce a stronger and more durable immune response, which can help to improve the effectiveness of the vaccine or immunotherapeutic agent. There are several different types of adjuvants that are used in vaccines and other immunotherapeutic agents, including aluminum salts, oil-based emulsions, and certain types of bacteria or viruses. These adjuvants work by activating immune cells called dendritic cells, which then present the antigen to other immune cells and stimulate an immune response. Adjuvants are an important part of vaccine development and have been used for many years to improve the effectiveness of vaccines and reduce the amount of antigen that is needed to elicit a protective immune response. They are also being studied for their potential to be used in other types of immunotherapeutic agents, such as cancer vaccines.

B-lymphocytes, also known as B-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune system. They are responsible for producing antibodies, which are proteins that help the body recognize and fight off foreign substances such as viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens. B-cells are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the spleen and lymph nodes. When a B-cell encounters an antigen (a foreign substance that triggers an immune response), it becomes activated and begins to divide rapidly. The activated B-cell then differentiates into plasma cells, which produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies specific to the antigen. The antibodies produced by B-cells can neutralize pathogens by binding to them and preventing them from infecting cells, or they can mark them for destruction by other immune cells. B-cells also play a role in memory, meaning that they can remember specific antigens and mount a faster and more effective immune response if they encounter the same antigen again in the future. B-cell disorders, such as autoimmune diseases and certain types of cancer, can result from problems with the development, activation, or function of B-cells.

Histocompatibility antigens class II are a group of proteins found on the surface of certain cells in the immune system. These proteins play a crucial role in the immune response by presenting foreign substances, such as bacteria or viruses, to immune cells called T cells. The class II antigens are encoded by a group of genes called the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II genes. These genes are located on chromosome 6 in humans and are highly polymorphic, meaning that there are many different versions of the genes. This diversity of MHC class II antigens allows the immune system to recognize and respond to a wide variety of foreign substances.

Chemokine CXCL11, also known as interferon-inducible protein 10 (IP-10) or lymphotactin, is a small protein that plays a role in the immune system. It is a type of chemokine, which are proteins that help to direct the movement of immune cells to specific areas of the body in response to infection or injury. CXCL11 is produced by a variety of cells, including immune cells such as T cells, natural killer cells, and macrophages, as well as endothelial cells and fibroblasts. It is induced by a variety of stimuli, including interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), interleukin-12 (IL-12), and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). CXCL11 functions by binding to specific receptors on the surface of immune cells, such as CXCR3, which is expressed on T cells, natural killer cells, and other immune cells. This binding causes the cells to change shape and move towards the source of the chemokine, allowing them to migrate to areas of the body where they are needed to fight infection or injury. In the medical field, CXCL11 is often studied in the context of various diseases and conditions, including infectious diseases, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. For example, CXCL11 has been shown to play a role in the recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection, and it has been implicated in the development of certain types of cancer, such as lung cancer and melanoma. It is also being investigated as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of these diseases.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of protein that is produced by the immune system in response to the presence of foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins. It is the most abundant type of immunoglobulin in the blood and is responsible for the majority of the body's defense against infections. IgG is produced by B cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune response. When a B cell encounters a foreign substance, it produces IgG antibodies that can recognize and bind to the substance, marking it for destruction by other immune cells. IgG antibodies can also be transferred from mother to child through the placenta during pregnancy, providing the baby with some protection against infections during the first few months of life. In addition, some vaccines contain IgG antibodies to help stimulate the immune system and provide protection against specific diseases. Overall, IgG is an important component of the immune system and plays a critical role in protecting the body against infections and diseases.

Interleukin-18 (IL-18) is a cytokine, which is a type of signaling molecule that plays a role in regulating the immune system. It is produced by a variety of cells, including macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells, and is involved in the activation of T cells and natural killer cells. IL-18 is also thought to play a role in the development of inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. In the medical field, IL-18 is often measured in blood samples as a way to assess immune system function and to monitor the progression of certain diseases.

In the medical field, "Disease Models, Animal" refers to the use of animals to study and understand human diseases. These models are created by introducing a disease or condition into an animal, either naturally or through experimental manipulation, in order to study its progression, symptoms, and potential treatments. Animal models are used in medical research because they allow scientists to study diseases in a controlled environment and to test potential treatments before they are tested in humans. They can also provide insights into the underlying mechanisms of a disease and help to identify new therapeutic targets. There are many different types of animal models used in medical research, including mice, rats, rabbits, dogs, and monkeys. Each type of animal has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of model depends on the specific disease being studied and the research question being addressed.

Myxovirus resistance proteins (Mx proteins) are a family of antiviral proteins that are found in a wide range of organisms, including mammals, birds, fish, and insects. These proteins are encoded by genes that are induced in response to viral infections, and they play a key role in the host's defense against viruses. Mx proteins are thought to function by inhibiting the replication of certain types of viruses, including influenza viruses, by interfering with the viral replication cycle. They do this by binding to viral nucleoproteins and preventing them from assembling into viral particles. Mx proteins also have the ability to activate immune cells and stimulate the production of antiviral cytokines, which help to coordinate the host's immune response to the virus. In the medical field, Mx proteins are of interest because of their potential as targets for the development of antiviral therapies. For example, researchers are exploring the use of Mx proteins as a way to enhance the effectiveness of existing antiviral drugs, or as a way to develop new antiviral drugs that target specific viruses. Additionally, Mx proteins are being studied as a way to prevent or treat viral infections, such as influenza, in humans and animals.

Receptors, Fc refers to a type of protein receptor found on the surface of immune cells, such as antibodies and immune cells, that recognize and bind to the Fc region of other proteins, particularly antibodies. The Fc region is the portion of an antibody that is located at the base of the Y-shaped structure and is responsible for binding to other proteins, such as antigens or immune cells. When an Fc receptor binds to the Fc region of an antibody, it can trigger a variety of immune responses, such as the activation of immune cells or the destruction of pathogens. Fc receptors play a critical role in the immune system and are involved in many different immune responses, including the clearance of pathogens and the regulation of inflammation.

Blotting, Northern is a laboratory technique used to detect and quantify specific RNA molecules in a sample. It involves transferring RNA from a gel onto a membrane, which is then hybridized with a labeled complementary DNA probe. The probe binds to the specific RNA molecules on the membrane, allowing their detection and quantification through autoradiography or other imaging methods. Northern blotting is commonly used to study gene expression patterns in cells or tissues, and to compare the expression levels of different RNA molecules in different samples.

DNA primers are short, single-stranded DNA molecules that are used in a variety of molecular biology techniques, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. They are designed to bind to specific regions of a DNA molecule, and are used to initiate the synthesis of new DNA strands. In PCR, DNA primers are used to amplify specific regions of DNA by providing a starting point for the polymerase enzyme to begin synthesizing new DNA strands. The primers are complementary to the target DNA sequence, and are added to the reaction mixture along with the DNA template, nucleotides, and polymerase enzyme. The polymerase enzyme uses the primers as a template to synthesize new DNA strands, which are then extended by the addition of more nucleotides. This process is repeated multiple times, resulting in the amplification of the target DNA sequence. DNA primers are also used in DNA sequencing to identify the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. In this application, the primers are designed to bind to specific regions of the DNA molecule, and are used to initiate the synthesis of short DNA fragments. The fragments are then sequenced using a variety of techniques, such as Sanger sequencing or next-generation sequencing. Overall, DNA primers are an important tool in molecular biology, and are used in a wide range of applications to study and manipulate DNA.

In the medical field, "clone cells" refers to the process of creating genetically identical copies of a single cell. This is typically done through a technique called cell division, in which a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells. The daughter cells are genetically identical to the parent cell because they inherit the same genetic material. Cloning cells is a common technique used in many areas of medicine, including tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, and cancer research. It can also be used in the production of vaccines and other medical treatments.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that carries genetic information in living organisms. It is composed of four types of nitrogen-containing molecules called nucleotides, which are arranged in a specific sequence to form the genetic code. In the medical field, DNA is often studied as a tool for understanding and diagnosing genetic disorders. Genetic disorders are caused by changes in the DNA sequence that can affect the function of genes, leading to a variety of health problems. By analyzing DNA, doctors and researchers can identify specific genetic mutations that may be responsible for a particular disorder, and develop targeted treatments or therapies to address the underlying cause of the condition. DNA is also used in forensic science to identify individuals based on their unique genetic fingerprint. This is because each person's DNA sequence is unique, and can be used to distinguish one individual from another. DNA analysis is also used in criminal investigations to help solve crimes by linking DNA evidence to suspects or victims.

Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the production of nitric oxide (NO) in the body. There are three main types of NOS: endothelial NOS (eNOS), neuronal NOS (nNOS), and inducible NOS (iNOS). eNOS is primarily found in the endothelial cells that line blood vessels and is responsible for producing NO in response to various stimuli, such as shear stress, hormones, and neurotransmitters. NO produced by eNOS helps to relax blood vessels and improve blood flow, which is important for maintaining cardiovascular health. nNOS is found in neurons and is involved in neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity. iNOS is induced in response to inflammation and is involved in the production of NO in immune cells and other tissues. Abnormal regulation of NOS activity has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms that regulate NOS activity is an important area of research in the medical field.

Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) are a type of immune cell that plays a crucial role in the immune response. They are responsible for capturing, processing, and presenting antigens (foreign substances) to T cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the immune response. APCs are found in various tissues throughout the body, including the skin, lungs, and digestive tract. They include dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells. When an APC encounters an antigen, it engulfs and breaks it down into smaller pieces. These pieces are then presented on the surface of the APC in a way that allows T cells to recognize them. This process is known as antigen presentation. Once a T cell recognizes an antigen presented by an APC, it becomes activated and begins to divide, producing a population of T cells that are specific to that antigen. These activated T cells can then migrate to the site of infection or inflammation and mount an immune response against the pathogen. Overall, APCs play a critical role in the immune response by activating T cells and helping to coordinate the immune response against pathogens and other foreign substances.

Blotting, Western is a laboratory technique used to detect specific proteins in a sample by transferring proteins from a gel to a membrane and then incubating the membrane with a specific antibody that binds to the protein of interest. The antibody is then detected using an enzyme or fluorescent label, which produces a visible signal that can be quantified. This technique is commonly used in molecular biology and biochemistry to study protein expression, localization, and function. It is also used in medical research to diagnose diseases and monitor treatment responses.

In the medical field, "Antigens, CD8" refers to a group of proteins found on the surface of certain immune cells called CD8+ T cells, also known as cytotoxic T cells. These proteins, called major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules, bind to specific antigens (foreign substances) that have been processed and presented by antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells. When CD8+ T cells encounter an APC presenting an antigen that matches one of their CD8 receptors, they become activated and differentiate into effector cells that can directly kill infected or cancerous cells. This process is a key part of the immune response to infections and cancer. Antigens, CD8 are important targets for the development of vaccines and cancer immunotherapies, as they can stimulate the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells or pathogens.

In the medical field, the term "cattle" refers to large domesticated animals that are raised for their meat, milk, or other products. Cattle are a common source of food and are also used for labor in agriculture, such as plowing fields or pulling carts. In veterinary medicine, cattle are often referred to as "livestock" and may be treated for a variety of medical conditions, including diseases, injuries, and parasites. Some common medical issues that may affect cattle include respiratory infections, digestive problems, and musculoskeletal disorders. Cattle may also be used in medical research, particularly in the fields of genetics and agriculture. For example, scientists may study the genetics of cattle to develop new breeds with desirable traits, such as increased milk production or resistance to disease.

In the medical field, "Antigens, Bacterial" refers to substances that are produced by bacteria and can trigger an immune response in the body. These antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, or nucleic acids that are unique to a particular bacterial species or strain. When bacteria enter the body, the immune system recognizes these antigens as foreign and mounts a defense against them. This response can include the production of antibodies by B cells, which can neutralize the bacteria or mark them for destruction by other immune cells. The immune response to bacterial antigens is an important part of the body's defense against bacterial infections. Bacterial antigens are used in a variety of medical applications, including the development of vaccines to prevent bacterial infections. By introducing a small amount of a bacterial antigen into the body, vaccines can stimulate the immune system to produce a response that will protect against future infections by the same bacteria.

Chemokines, CXC are a family of small proteins that play a crucial role in the immune system. They are secreted by various cells in response to infection, injury, or inflammation and act as chemoattractants to recruit immune cells to the site of injury or infection. CXC chemokines are characterized by the presence of a conserved cysteine (C) at the first position and a glutamine (Q) or glutamic acid (E) at the second position in their amino acid sequence. They are classified into four subfamilies based on the position of the second cysteine residue: CX3C, CXCL, CXCL1, and CXCL2. CXC chemokines play a critical role in the recruitment and activation of immune cells, including neutrophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes, to the site of infection or injury. They also play a role in the development of chronic inflammatory diseases, such as asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and atherosclerosis. In the medical field, CXC chemokines are used as diagnostic markers for various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and autoimmune disorders. They are also being investigated as potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of these diseases.

HLA-DR antigens are a group of proteins that are expressed on the surface of cells of the immune system. They play a crucial role in the recognition and presentation of antigens to T cells, which is a key step in the immune response. HLA-DR antigens are encoded by the HLA-DR gene, which is located on chromosome 6. There are many different HLA-DR antigens, each with a unique sequence of amino acids that determines its specificity for different antigens. HLA-DR antigens are also known as human leukocyte antigen (HLA) DR antigens or major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II DR antigens.

Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence of foreign substances, such as viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens. Antibodies are designed to recognize and bind to specific molecules on the surface of these foreign substances, marking them for destruction by other immune cells. There are five main classes of antibodies: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE. Each class of antibody has a unique structure and function, and they are produced by different types of immune cells in response to different types of pathogens. Antibodies play a critical role in the immune response, helping to protect the body against infection and disease. They can neutralize pathogens by binding to them and preventing them from entering cells, or they can mark them for destruction by other immune cells. In some cases, antibodies can also help to stimulate the immune response by activating immune cells or by recruiting other immune cells to the site of infection. Antibodies are often used in medical treatments, such as in the development of vaccines, where they are used to stimulate the immune system to produce a response to a specific pathogen. They are also used in diagnostic tests to detect the presence of specific pathogens or to monitor the immune response to a particular treatment.

Antigens, Differentiation, T-Lymphocyte refers to a group of proteins that are expressed on the surface of T-lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the immune system. These antigens are used by the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self cells, and to identify and target specific pathogens or foreign substances for destruction. The differentiation antigens on T-lymphocytes are proteins that are expressed during the development and maturation of these cells in the thymus gland. These antigens are important for the proper functioning of the immune system, as they allow T-lymphocytes to recognize and respond to specific antigens presented by other cells in the body. There are several different types of differentiation antigens on T-lymphocytes, including CD4 and CD8, which are markers for helper T-cells and cytotoxic T-cells, respectively. Other differentiation antigens include CD28, which is important for T-cell activation, and CD25, which is involved in the regulation of T-cell responses. Overall, the antigens, differentiation, and T-lymphocyte are important components of the immune system, and play a critical role in the body's ability to defend against infection and disease.

Apoptosis is a programmed cell death process that occurs naturally in the body. It is a vital mechanism for maintaining tissue homeostasis and eliminating damaged or unwanted cells. During apoptosis, cells undergo a series of changes that ultimately lead to their death and removal from the body. These changes include chromatin condensation, DNA fragmentation, and the formation of apoptotic bodies, which are engulfed by neighboring cells or removed by immune cells. Apoptosis plays a critical role in many physiological processes, including embryonic development, tissue repair, and immune function. However, when apoptosis is disrupted or dysregulated, it can contribute to the development of various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Inflammation is a complex biological response of the body to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is a protective mechanism that helps to eliminate the cause of injury, remove damaged tissue, and initiate the healing process. Inflammation involves the activation of immune cells, such as white blood cells, and the release of chemical mediators, such as cytokines and prostaglandins. This leads to the characteristic signs and symptoms of inflammation, including redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function. Inflammation can be acute or chronic. Acute inflammation is a short-term response that lasts for a few days to a few weeks and is usually beneficial. Chronic inflammation, on the other hand, is a prolonged response that lasts for months or years and can be harmful if it persists. Chronic inflammation is associated with many diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and autoimmune disorders.

Oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODNs) are short chains of DNA or RNA that are synthesized in the laboratory. They are typically used as tools in molecular biology research, as well as in therapeutic applications such as gene therapy. ODNs can be designed to bind to specific DNA or RNA sequences, and can be used to modulate gene expression or to introduce genetic changes into cells. They can also be used as primers in PCR (polymerase chain reaction) to amplify specific DNA sequences. In the medical field, ODNs are being studied for their potential use in treating a variety of diseases, including cancer, viral infections, and genetic disorders. For example, ODNs can be used to silence specific genes that are involved in disease progression, or to stimulate the immune system to attack cancer cells.

Histocompatibility antigens class I (HLA class I) are a group of proteins found on the surface of almost all cells in the human body. These proteins play a crucial role in the immune system by presenting pieces of foreign substances, such as viruses or bacteria, to immune cells called T cells. HLA class I antigens are encoded by a group of genes located on chromosome 6. There are several different HLA class I antigens, each with a unique structure and function. The specific HLA class I antigens present on a person's cells can affect their susceptibility to certain diseases, including autoimmune disorders, infectious diseases, and cancer. In the context of transplantation, HLA class I antigens are important because they can trigger an immune response if the donor tissue is not a close match to the recipient's own tissue. This immune response, known as rejection, can lead to the rejection of the transplanted tissue or organ. Therefore, matching HLA class I antigens between the donor and recipient is an important consideration in transplantation.

Cloning, molecular, in the medical field refers to the process of creating identical copies of a specific DNA sequence or gene. This is achieved through a technique called polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which amplifies a specific DNA sequence to produce multiple copies of it. Molecular cloning is commonly used in medical research to study the function of specific genes, to create genetically modified organisms for therapeutic purposes, and to develop new drugs and treatments. It is also used in forensic science to identify individuals based on their DNA. In the context of human cloning, molecular cloning is used to create identical copies of a specific gene or DNA sequence from one individual and insert it into the genome of another individual. This technique has been used to create transgenic animals, but human cloning is currently illegal in many countries due to ethical concerns.

RNA, Double-Stranded refers to a type of RNA molecule that consists of two complementary strands of nucleotides held together by hydrogen bonds. In contrast to single-stranded RNA, which has only one strand of nucleotides, double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) is more stable and can form more complex structures. Double-stranded RNA is commonly found in viruses, where it serves as the genetic material for the virus. It is also found in some cellular processes, such as the processing of messenger RNA (mRNA) and the regulation of gene expression. Double-stranded RNA can trigger an immune response in cells, which is why it is often targeted by antiviral drugs and vaccines. Additionally, some researchers are exploring the use of dsRNA as a tool for gene editing and gene therapy.

Neopterin is a chemical compound that is produced by the immune system in response to viral or bacterial infections, as well as in certain autoimmune and inflammatory conditions. It is a breakdown product of the amino acid tryptophan and is primarily produced by activated macrophages and T cells. In the medical field, neopterin is often used as a biomarker to diagnose and monitor certain infections and immune disorders. High levels of neopterin in the blood or urine can indicate an active viral or bacterial infection, such as tuberculosis or HIV, or an autoimmune disorder, such as lupus or rheumatoid arthritis. Additionally, neopterin levels may be used to monitor the effectiveness of antiviral or immunosuppressive treatments.

Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell are a type of immune cell receptors found on the surface of T cells in the immune system. These receptors are responsible for recognizing and binding to specific antigens, which are foreign substances or molecules that trigger an immune response. T-cell receptors (TCRs) are a type of antigen receptor that recognizes and binds to specific antigens presented on the surface of infected or abnormal cells by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. TCRs are highly specific and can recognize a wide variety of antigens, including viruses, bacteria, and cancer cells. Once a TCR recognizes an antigen, it sends a signal to the T cell to become activated and initiate an immune response. Activated T cells can then divide and differentiate into different types of effector cells, such as cytotoxic T cells that can directly kill infected or abnormal cells, or helper T cells that can stimulate other immune cells to mount a more robust response. Overall, T-cell receptors play a critical role in the immune system's ability to recognize and respond to foreign antigens, and are an important target for the development of vaccines and immunotherapies.

Cycloheximide is a synthetic antibiotic that is used in the medical field as an antifungal agent. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of proteins in fungal cells, which ultimately leads to their death. Cycloheximide is commonly used to treat fungal infections of the skin, nails, and hair, as well as systemic fungal infections such as candidiasis and aspergillosis. It is usually administered orally or topically, and its effectiveness can be enhanced by combining it with other antifungal medications. However, cycloheximide can also have side effects, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and allergic reactions, and it may interact with other medications, so it should be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional.

Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II (NOS II) is an enzyme that is primarily found in the cells of the immune system, particularly in macrophages and neutrophils. It is responsible for producing nitric oxide (NO), a gas that plays a key role in the immune response by regulating inflammation and blood flow. NOS II is activated in response to various stimuli, such as bacterial or viral infections, and it produces large amounts of NO, which can help to kill invading pathogens and promote the recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection. However, excessive production of NO by NOS II can also lead to tissue damage and contribute to the development of chronic inflammatory diseases. In the medical field, NOS II is often studied in the context of inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and asthma, as well as in the development of cancer and cardiovascular disease. In some cases, drugs that inhibit NOS II activity have been used to treat these conditions, although their effectiveness and potential side effects are still being studied.

Hepatitis C is a viral infection that affects the liver. It is caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is transmitted through contact with infected blood or body fluids. The virus can be transmitted through sharing needles or other equipment used to inject drugs, sexual contact, or from mother to child during childbirth. Hepatitis C can cause a range of symptoms, including fatigue, nausea, abdominal pain, and jaundice. In some cases, the virus can cause chronic liver disease, which can lead to liver failure, cirrhosis, and liver cancer. There are several different strains of the hepatitis C virus, and the severity of the infection can vary depending on the strain and the individual's immune system. Treatment for hepatitis C typically involves antiviral medications, which can help to eliminate the virus from the body and prevent further liver damage. In some cases, a liver transplant may be necessary for people with severe liver damage.

In the medical field, antigens are molecules that can trigger an immune response in the body. Surface antigens are antigens that are located on the surface of cells or viruses. They are recognized by the immune system as foreign and can trigger an immune response, leading to the production of antibodies that can neutralize or destroy the antigen. Surface antigens are important for the development of vaccines, as they can be used to stimulate the immune system to produce a protective response against specific diseases. Examples of surface antigens include the spike protein on the surface of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which is the cause of COVID-19, and the antigens on the surface of cancer cells, which can be targeted by cancer vaccines.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a colorless, odorless gas that is produced naturally in the body by various cells, including endothelial cells in the lining of blood vessels. It plays a crucial role in the regulation of blood flow and blood pressure, as well as in the immune response and neurotransmission. In the medical field, NO is often studied in relation to cardiovascular disease, as it is involved in the regulation of blood vessel dilation and constriction. It has also been implicated in the pathogenesis of various conditions, including hypertension, atherosclerosis, and heart failure. NO is also used in medical treatments, such as in the treatment of erectile dysfunction, where it is used to enhance blood flow to the penis. It is also used in the treatment of pulmonary hypertension, where it helps to relax blood vessels in the lungs and improve blood flow. Overall, NO is a critical molecule in the body that plays a vital role in many physiological processes, and its study and manipulation have important implications for the treatment of various medical conditions.

Amino acid oxidoreductases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of amino acids to produce various intermediates, including ammonia, carbon dioxide, and aldehydes or ketones. These enzymes play important roles in various metabolic pathways, including the catabolism of amino acids for energy production and the synthesis of other biomolecules. There are several types of amino acid oxidoreductases, including flavin-dependent enzymes, copper-containing enzymes, and iron-containing enzymes. Some examples of amino acid oxidoreductases include alanine aminotransferase, glutamate dehydrogenase, and ornithine transcarbamylase. In the medical field, amino acid oxidoreductases are often studied in the context of various diseases and disorders, such as liver disease, muscle wasting, and neurodegenerative diseases. Abnormalities in the activity or expression of these enzymes have been implicated in the pathogenesis of these conditions, and targeted therapies based on modulating the activity of amino acid oxidoreductases are being explored as potential treatments.

Proteins are complex biomolecules made up of amino acids that play a crucial role in many biological processes in the human body. In the medical field, proteins are studied extensively as they are involved in a wide range of functions, including: 1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the body, such as digestion, metabolism, and energy production. 2. Hormones: Proteins that regulate various bodily functions, such as growth, development, and reproduction. 3. Antibodies: Proteins that help the immune system recognize and neutralize foreign substances, such as viruses and bacteria. 4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across cell membranes, such as oxygen and nutrients. 5. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide support and shape to cells and tissues, such as collagen and elastin. Protein abnormalities can lead to various medical conditions, such as genetic disorders, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of proteins is essential for developing effective treatments and therapies for these conditions.

Phosphoproteins are proteins that have been modified by the addition of a phosphate group to one or more of their amino acid residues. This modification is known as phosphorylation, and it is a common post-translational modification that plays a critical role in regulating many cellular processes, including signal transduction, metabolism, and gene expression. Phosphoproteins are involved in a wide range of biological functions, including cell growth and division, cell migration and differentiation, and the regulation of gene expression. They are also involved in many diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Phosphoproteins can be detected and studied using a variety of techniques, including mass spectrometry, Western blotting, and immunoprecipitation. These techniques allow researchers to identify and quantify the phosphorylation status of specific proteins in cells and tissues, and to study the effects of changes in phosphorylation on protein function and cellular processes.

In the medical field, binding sites refer to specific locations on the surface of a protein molecule where a ligand (a molecule that binds to the protein) can attach. These binding sites are often formed by a specific arrangement of amino acids within the protein, and they are critical for the protein's function. Binding sites can be found on a wide range of proteins, including enzymes, receptors, and transporters. When a ligand binds to a protein's binding site, it can cause a conformational change in the protein, which can alter its activity or function. For example, a hormone may bind to a receptor protein, triggering a signaling cascade that leads to a specific cellular response. Understanding the structure and function of binding sites is important in many areas of medicine, including drug discovery and development, as well as the study of diseases caused by mutations in proteins that affect their binding sites. By targeting specific binding sites on proteins, researchers can develop drugs that modulate protein activity and potentially treat a wide range of diseases.

In the medical field, macromolecular substances refer to large molecules that are composed of repeating units, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. These molecules are essential for many biological processes, including cell signaling, metabolism, and structural support. Macromolecular substances are typically composed of thousands or even millions of atoms, and they can range in size from a few nanometers to several micrometers. They are often found in the form of fibers, sheets, or other complex structures, and they can be found in a variety of biological tissues and fluids. Examples of macromolecular substances in the medical field include: - Proteins: These are large molecules composed of amino acids that are involved in a wide range of biological functions, including enzyme catalysis, structural support, and immune response. - Carbohydrates: These are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms that are involved in energy storage, cell signaling, and structural support. - Lipids: These are molecules composed of fatty acids and glycerol that are involved in energy storage, cell membrane structure, and signaling. - Nucleic acids: These are molecules composed of nucleotides that are involved in genetic information storage and transfer. Macromolecular substances are important for many medical applications, including drug delivery, tissue engineering, and gene therapy. Understanding the structure and function of these molecules is essential for developing new treatments and therapies for a wide range of diseases and conditions.

Melanoma is a type of skin cancer that begins in the cells that produce the pigment melanin. It is the most dangerous type of skin cancer, as it has the potential to spread to other parts of the body and be difficult to treat. Melanoma can occur in any part of the body, but it most commonly appears on the skin as a new mole or a change in an existing mole. Other signs of melanoma may include a mole that is asymmetrical, has irregular borders, is a different color than the surrounding skin, is larger than a pencil eraser, or has a raised or scaly surface. Melanoma can also occur in the eye, mouth, and other parts of the body, and it is important to see a doctor if you have any concerning changes in your skin or other parts of your body.

RNA, Viral refers to the genetic material of viruses that are composed of RNA instead of DNA. Viral RNA is typically single-stranded and can be either positive-sense or negative-sense. Positive-sense RNA viruses can be directly translated into proteins by the host cell's ribosomes, while negative-sense RNA viruses require a complementary positive-sense RNA intermediate before protein synthesis can occur. Viral RNA is often encapsidated within a viral capsid and can be further protected by an envelope made of lipids and proteins derived from the host cell. RNA viruses include a wide range of pathogens that can cause diseases in humans and other organisms, such as influenza, hepatitis C, and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus responsible for COVID-19).

Interleukin-17 (IL-17) is a cytokine, a type of signaling molecule, that plays a role in the immune system's response to infection and inflammation. It is produced by certain types of immune cells, including T cells and natural killer T cells, and is involved in the recruitment and activation of other immune cells, such as neutrophils and macrophages, to the site of infection or injury. IL-17 is also involved in the development of autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis, where it contributes to inflammation and tissue damage. In addition, IL-17 has been implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis, and other inflammatory conditions. In the medical field, IL-17 is a target for the development of new therapies for autoimmune diseases and other inflammatory conditions. Inhibitors of IL-17, such as biologic drugs, have been shown to be effective in reducing inflammation and improving symptoms in patients with these conditions.

In the medical field, antigens are substances that can trigger an immune response in the body. They are typically proteins or carbohydrates that are found on the surface of cells or viruses, bacteria, and other microorganisms. When the immune system encounters an antigen, it produces antibodies that can recognize and bind to the antigen, marking it for destruction by immune cells. Antigens can be classified into two main categories: 1. Exogenous antigens: These are antigens that come from outside the body, such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins. They can cause an immune response when they enter the body. 2. Endogenous antigens: These are antigens that are produced by the body itself, such as cancer cells or damaged cells. They can also trigger an immune response if they are recognized as foreign by the immune system. Antigens play a crucial role in the immune system's ability to protect the body against infections and diseases. They are also used in medical treatments such as vaccines, where they are introduced into the body to stimulate an immune response and provide protection against future infections.

In the medical field, a virus disease is a condition caused by a virus, which is a tiny infectious agent that can only replicate inside living cells. Viruses can infect a wide range of organisms, including humans, animals, plants, and even bacteria. When a virus enters the body, it attaches to and invades host cells, taking over the cell's machinery to produce more copies of itself. This can cause damage to the host cells and trigger an immune response, which can lead to symptoms such as fever, cough, sore throat, and fatigue. Some common examples of virus diseases in humans include the common cold, influenza, herpes simplex virus (HSV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and hepatitis B and C. These diseases can range from mild to severe and can be treated with antiviral medications, vaccines, or supportive care.

Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) is a protein that plays a critical role in the development and function of white blood cells, particularly granulocytes and macrophages. It is produced by a variety of cells, including bone marrow cells, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells. In the bone marrow, GM-CSF stimulates the proliferation and differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells into granulocytes and macrophages. These cells are important components of the immune system and play a key role in fighting infections and removing damaged or infected cells from the body. GM-CSF also has a number of other functions in the body, including promoting the survival of granulocytes and macrophages, enhancing their ability to phagocytose (engulf and destroy) pathogens, and stimulating the production of cytokines and other signaling molecules that help to coordinate the immune response. In the medical field, GM-CSF is used as a treatment for a variety of conditions, including cancer, bone marrow suppression, and certain immune disorders. It is typically administered as a recombinant protein, either as a standalone therapy or in combination with other treatments.

Receptors, Interleukin-10 (IL-10) are proteins that are found on the surface of various cells in the immune system. They are responsible for binding to the cytokine Interleukin-10 (IL-10), which is a signaling molecule that plays an important role in regulating immune responses. IL-10 is produced by a variety of immune cells, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and T cells, in response to various stimuli, such as infection or tissue damage. It acts to suppress the activity of other immune cells, such as T cells and B cells, and to reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Receptors, IL-10 are typically found on the surface of immune cells, such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and T cells, as well as on non-immune cells, such as epithelial cells and fibroblasts. When IL-10 binds to its receptor, it triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the suppression of immune responses and the promotion of tissue repair. In the medical field, receptors, IL-10 are of interest because of their role in regulating immune responses and their potential therapeutic applications. For example, drugs that target IL-10 receptors have been developed as potential treatments for autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease, as well as for cancer and other inflammatory conditions.

Pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) is a form of tuberculosis that affects the lungs. It is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis and is typically spread through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes. PTB can cause a range of symptoms, including coughing, chest pain, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. It can also cause coughing up blood or phlegm, shortness of breath, and fatigue.，PTB，、、。

Recombinant fusion proteins are proteins that are produced by combining two or more genes in a single molecule. These proteins are typically created using genetic engineering techniques, such as recombinant DNA technology, to insert one or more genes into a host organism, such as bacteria or yeast, which then produces the fusion protein. Fusion proteins are often used in medical research and drug development because they can have unique properties that are not present in the individual proteins that make up the fusion. For example, a fusion protein might be designed to have increased stability, improved solubility, or enhanced targeting to specific cells or tissues. Recombinant fusion proteins have a wide range of applications in medicine, including as therapeutic agents, diagnostic tools, and research reagents. Some examples of recombinant fusion proteins used in medicine include antibodies, growth factors, and cytokines.

STAT4 (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 4) is a transcription factor that plays a crucial role in the regulation of immune responses and inflammation. It is a member of the STAT family of proteins, which are involved in transmitting signals from the cell surface to the nucleus in response to various cytokines and growth factors. In the context of the immune system, STAT4 is activated by the cytokine interleukin-12 (IL-12) and its receptor, and it plays a key role in the differentiation of T helper 1 (Th1) cells, which are important for the immune response against intracellular pathogens such as viruses and bacteria. STAT4 also regulates the expression of genes involved in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which recruit immune cells to sites of infection or inflammation. In addition to its role in the immune system, STAT4 has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and psoriasis. Mutations in the STAT4 gene have been associated with an increased risk of these diseases, and STAT4 inhibitors are being investigated as potential therapeutic agents for the treatment of autoimmune disorders.

BCG vaccine is a live attenuated vaccine that is used to prevent tuberculosis (TB) in children and adults. It is made from a strain of Mycobacterium bovis, which is a close relative of the bacterium that causes TB. The vaccine is given by intradermal injection, usually in the left upper arm, and is typically given to infants within the first few weeks of life. It is also sometimes given to adults who are at high risk of developing TB, such as healthcare workers, people with HIV/AIDS, and people who live in areas where TB is common. The BCG vaccine is not 100% effective in preventing TB, but it can help to reduce the severity of the disease if a person who has been vaccinated does develop TB.

Interleukin-13 (IL-13) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling molecule that plays a role in regulating the immune system. It is produced by various types of immune cells, including T cells, B cells, and mast cells, and is involved in the inflammatory response. IL-13 has a number of effects on the body, including: 1. Anti-inflammatory effects: IL-13 can reduce inflammation by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and by promoting the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines. 2. Mucosal protection: IL-13 has been shown to protect the mucous membranes of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, helping to prevent infections and maintain tissue integrity. 3. Fibrosis inhibition: IL-13 can inhibit the production of fibrotic tissue, which is the excessive accumulation of connective tissue that can lead to organ damage and scarring. 4. Allergy and asthma: IL-13 plays a key role in the development of allergic reactions and asthma, by promoting the production of IgE antibodies and by increasing the sensitivity of airways to allergens. Overall, IL-13 is an important mediator of the immune response and has a number of important functions in the body.

Pleural tuberculosis is a type of tuberculosis that affects the pleura, which is the thin layer of tissue that covers the lungs and lines the inside of the chest cavity. It is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which can spread to the pleura from other parts of the body, such as the lungs or lymph nodes. Symptoms of pleural tuberculosis may include chest pain, coughing, fever, and difficulty breathing. In some cases, the pleural fluid may build up and cause a condition called pleural effusion, which can lead to shortness of breath and other complications. Treatment for pleural tuberculosis typically involves a combination of antibiotics to kill the bacteria, as well as supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to drain excess fluid from the pleural cavity or to remove infected tissue.

Listeriosis is a rare but serious bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes. It can affect people of all ages, but it is more common in pregnant women, newborns, older adults, and people with weakened immune systems. Listeriosis can cause a range of symptoms, including fever, muscle aches, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. In severe cases, it can lead to meningitis, sepsis, and even death. Listeriosis is typically spread through contaminated food, particularly soft cheeses, deli meats, and raw milk or raw milk products. It can also be transmitted through contact with contaminated soil or water, or from person to person in healthcare settings. Diagnosis of listeriosis typically involves culturing the bacteria from a blood, spinal fluid, or other bodily fluid sample. Treatment typically involves antibiotics, although the effectiveness of treatment can be limited in severe cases. Preventing listeriosis involves avoiding contaminated food and practicing good hygiene, particularly when handling raw meat or dairy products. Healthcare providers should also take precautions to prevent the spread of the bacteria in healthcare settings.

Disease susceptibility refers to an individual's increased risk of developing a particular disease or condition due to genetic, environmental, or lifestyle factors. Susceptibility to a disease is not the same as having the disease itself, but rather an increased likelihood of developing it compared to someone who is not susceptible. Genetic factors play a significant role in disease susceptibility. Certain genetic mutations or variations can increase an individual's risk of developing certain diseases, such as breast cancer, diabetes, or heart disease. Environmental factors, such as exposure to toxins or pollutants, can also increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases. Lifestyle factors, such as diet, exercise, and smoking, can also impact disease susceptibility. For example, a diet high in saturated fats and sugar can increase an individual's risk of developing heart disease, while regular exercise can reduce the risk. Understanding an individual's disease susceptibility can help healthcare providers develop personalized prevention and treatment plans to reduce the risk of developing certain diseases or to manage existing conditions more effectively.

Viral proteins are proteins that are synthesized by viruses during their replication cycle within a host cell. These proteins play a crucial role in the viral life cycle, including attachment to host cells, entry into the cell, replication of the viral genome, assembly of new viral particles, and release of the virus from the host cell. Viral proteins can be classified into several categories based on their function, including structural proteins, non-structural proteins, and regulatory proteins. Structural proteins are the building blocks of the viral particle, such as capsid proteins that form the viral coat. Non-structural proteins are proteins that are not part of the viral particle but are essential for viral replication, such as proteases that cleave viral polyproteins into individual proteins. Regulatory proteins are proteins that control the expression of viral genes or the activity of viral enzymes. Viral proteins are important targets for antiviral drugs and vaccines, as they are essential for viral replication and survival. Understanding the structure and function of viral proteins is crucial for the development of effective antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling (SOCS) proteins are a family of proteins that play a role in regulating the immune system and other signaling pathways in the body. They are induced by cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help regulate immune responses and other cellular processes. SOCS proteins function as negative regulators of cytokine signaling by binding to and inhibiting the activity of specific enzymes called Janus kinases (JAKs). JAKs are involved in the activation of cytokine receptors, which in turn activate downstream signaling pathways that regulate immune responses and other cellular processes. By inhibiting JAK activity, SOCS proteins help to dampen the effects of cytokines and prevent overactivation of immune responses. This is important for maintaining immune homeostasis and preventing autoimmune diseases, as well as for regulating other signaling pathways in the body. SOCS proteins have been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases. They are also being studied as potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of these conditions.

Granulomatous disease is a type of chronic inflammatory condition characterized by the formation of granulomas, which are collections of immune cells, including macrophages, lymphocytes, and giant cells, that form around foreign substances or damaged tissue. Chronic granulomatous disease refers specifically to a group of rare genetic disorders that affect the immune system's ability to fight off certain types of bacteria and fungi. These disorders are caused by mutations in genes that are involved in the production of enzymes that are necessary for the proper functioning of phagocytes, which are immune cells that engulf and destroy foreign substances. Chronic granulomatous disease can manifest in a variety of ways, depending on the specific gene mutation involved. Some common symptoms include recurrent infections, particularly with certain types of bacteria and fungi, as well as skin rashes, fever, and fatigue. Treatment typically involves antibiotics and other medications to manage symptoms and prevent infections. In some cases, bone marrow transplantation may be necessary to replace damaged immune cells.

In the medical field, nitrites are compounds that contain the nitrite ion (NO2-). Nitrites are often used as a medication to treat certain types of heart disease, such as angina pectoris, by relaxing the blood vessels and reducing the workload on the heart. They are also used to treat certain types of anemia, such as methemoglobinemia, by converting methemoglobin (a form of hemoglobin that is unable to carry oxygen) back to normal hemoglobin. Nitrites are also used as a preservative in some foods and beverages, and as a chemical in the manufacturing of dyes, explosives, and other products.

NF-kappa B (Nuclear Factor kappa B) is a transcription factor that plays a critical role in regulating the immune response, inflammation, and cell survival. It is a complex of proteins that is found in the cytoplasm of cells and is activated in response to various stimuli, such as cytokines, bacterial and viral infections, and stress. When activated, NF-kappa B translocates to the nucleus and binds to specific DNA sequences, promoting the expression of genes involved in immune and inflammatory responses. This includes genes encoding for cytokines, chemokines, and adhesion molecules, which help to recruit immune cells to the site of infection or injury. NF-kappa B is also involved in regulating cell survival and apoptosis (programmed cell death). Dysregulation of NF-kappa B signaling has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease.

Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is a type of antibody that plays a key role in the immune system's response to allergens and parasites. It is produced by B cells in response to specific antigens, such as those found in pollen, dust mites, or certain foods. When an allergen enters the body, it triggers the production of IgE antibodies by B cells. These antibodies then bind to mast cells and basophils, which are immune cells that are involved in the inflammatory response. When the same allergen enters the body again, the IgE antibodies on the mast cells and basophils bind to the allergen and cause the release of histamine and other inflammatory chemicals. This leads to symptoms such as itching, swelling, and difficulty breathing. IgE is also involved in the immune response to parasites, such as worms. In this case, the IgE antibodies help to trap and kill the parasites by binding to them and marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Overall, IgE is an important part of the immune system's defense against allergens and parasites, but it can also contribute to allergic reactions and other inflammatory conditions when it binds to inappropriate antigens.

Leishmaniasis, cutaneous (also known as cutaneous leishmaniasis) is a skin disease caused by the protozoan parasite Leishmania. It is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected sandflies. The symptoms of cutaneous leishmaniasis can vary depending on the species of Leishmania that causes the infection. Common symptoms include skin sores or ulcers that may be painful, itchy, or crusty. The sores may also be accompanied by fever, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes. Cutaneous leishmaniasis is typically treated with antimonial drugs, which are effective in most cases. However, treatment may not be necessary in some cases, particularly if the infection is mild and resolves on its own. In severe cases, surgery may be necessary to remove the infected tissue. Cutaneous leishmaniasis is most common in tropical and subtropical regions of the world, particularly in parts of Africa, Asia, and South America. It is a significant public health problem in many of these areas, and efforts are underway to control the spread of the disease through vector control and other measures.

Membrane proteins are proteins that are embedded within the lipid bilayer of a cell membrane. They play a crucial role in regulating the movement of substances across the membrane, as well as in cell signaling and communication. There are several types of membrane proteins, including integral membrane proteins, which span the entire membrane, and peripheral membrane proteins, which are only in contact with one or both sides of the membrane. Membrane proteins can be classified based on their function, such as transporters, receptors, channels, and enzymes. They are important for many physiological processes, including nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and cell growth and division.

In the medical field, cross-linking reagents are compounds that are used to form covalent bonds between molecules, particularly proteins. These reagents are often used in the study of protein structure and function, as well as in the development of new drugs and therapies. Cross-linking reagents can be classified into two main categories: homobifunctional and heterobifunctional. Homobifunctional reagents have two identical reactive groups, while heterobifunctional reagents have two different reactive groups. Homobifunctional reagents are often used to cross-link proteins within a single molecule, while heterobifunctional reagents are used to cross-link proteins between different molecules. Cross-linking reagents can be used to study protein-protein interactions, protein-DNA interactions, and other types of molecular interactions. They can also be used to stabilize proteins and prevent them from unfolding or denaturing, which can be important for maintaining their function. In addition to their use in research, cross-linking reagents are also used in the development of new drugs and therapies. For example, they can be used to modify proteins in order to make them more stable or more effective at binding to specific targets. They can also be used to create new materials with specific properties, such as improved strength or flexibility.

Receptors, Interleukin are proteins found on the surface of cells that bind to specific molecules called interleukins. Interleukins are a type of cytokine, which are signaling molecules that play a role in regulating immune responses and other cellular processes. When an interleukin binds to its receptor on a cell, it can trigger a variety of cellular responses, such as the activation or suppression of immune cells, the proliferation of cells, or the production of other signaling molecules. Interleukin receptors are important for the proper functioning of the immune system and are the targets of many drugs used to treat immune-related diseases.

Receptors, CXCR3 are a type of protein receptors found on the surface of certain cells in the immune system. They are activated by a chemical messenger called CXCL10, which is produced by immune cells in response to infection or inflammation. Activation of CXCR3 receptors triggers a signaling cascade within the cell that leads to the recruitment and activation of immune cells, such as T cells and natural killer cells, to the site of infection or inflammation. CXCR3 receptors play a critical role in the immune response to viral infections, such as HIV and influenza, and in the development of certain autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis.

Viral nonstructural proteins (NSPs) are proteins that are not part of the viral capsid or envelope, but are instead synthesized by the virus after it has entered a host cell. These proteins play important roles in the replication and assembly of the virus, as well as in evading the host immune system. NSPs can be classified into several functional groups, including proteases, helicases, polymerases, and methyltransferases. For example, the NSP1 protein of the influenza virus is a protease that cleaves host cell proteins to create a favorable environment for viral replication. The NSP3 protein of the hepatitis C virus is a helicase that unwinds the viral RNA genome to allow for transcription and replication. NSPs can also be targeted by antiviral drugs, as they are often essential for viral replication. For example, the protease inhibitors used to treat HIV target the viral protease enzyme, which is an NSP. Similarly, the NS5B polymerase inhibitors used to treat hepatitis C target the viral polymerase enzyme, which is also an NSP. Overall, NSPs play important roles in the life cycle of viruses and are an important target for antiviral therapy.

Chemokines are a family of small signaling proteins that play a crucial role in the immune system. They are produced by various cells in response to infection, injury, or inflammation and act as chemical messengers to attract immune cells to the site of injury or infection. Chemokines bind to specific receptors on the surface of immune cells, such as neutrophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes, and guide them to the site of infection or injury. They also play a role in regulating the migration and activation of immune cells within tissues. In the medical field, chemokines are important for understanding and treating various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases. They are also being studied as potential therapeutic targets for the development of new drugs to treat these conditions.

Receptors, Interleukin-2 (IL-2) are proteins found on the surface of certain immune cells, such as T cells and natural killer cells. These receptors are responsible for binding to the cytokine Interleukin-2 (IL-2), which is produced by activated T cells and other immune cells. When IL-2 binds to its receptor, it triggers a signaling cascade within the cell that promotes the growth, survival, and activation of immune cells. This process is important for the proper functioning of the immune system and the body's ability to fight off infections and diseases.

Indoleamine-Pyrrole 2,3,-Dioxygenase (IDO) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the metabolism of tryptophan, an essential amino acid. IDO is primarily expressed in immune cells, such as dendritic cells and macrophages, and in certain cancer cells. The primary function of IDO is to convert tryptophan into kynurenine, a metabolic byproduct that can suppress the immune response. This suppression is thought to occur through several mechanisms, including the depletion of tryptophan, the production of toxic kynurenine metabolites, and the induction of immune cells to express inhibitory receptors. IDO has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases. In cancer, IDO has been shown to promote tumor growth and immune evasion by suppressing anti-tumor immune responses. In autoimmune disorders, IDO has been shown to contribute to the development of tolerance to self-antigens. In infectious diseases, IDO has been shown to play a role in the regulation of immune responses to pathogens. IDO inhibitors are being developed as potential therapeutic agents for a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases. These inhibitors aim to block the activity of IDO and restore immune responses that have been suppressed by this enzyme.

In the medical field, DEAD-box RNA helicases are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in various cellular processes involving RNA metabolism. These proteins are named after the conserved amino acid sequence Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp (DEAD) found in their N-terminal domain. DEAD-box RNA helicases are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including transcription, translation, RNA splicing, ribosome biogenesis, and RNA degradation. They use the energy from ATP hydrolysis to unwind RNA structures, such as secondary structures formed by base pairing between RNA strands, and to facilitate the movement of RNA molecules along RNA or DNA substrates. Mutations in genes encoding DEAD-box RNA helicases have been associated with various human diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, developmental disorders, and cancer. For example, mutations in the DDX41 gene have been linked to susceptibility to certain types of cancer, while mutations in the DDX3X gene have been associated with developmental disorders such as X-linked intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorder.

Phytohemagglutinins are a group of proteins found in certain plants, such as legumes, that have the ability to agglutinate (clump together) red blood cells. They are commonly used as a diagnostic tool in medical laboratories to detect the presence of certain diseases or conditions, such as viral or bacterial infections, autoimmune disorders, and cancer. In addition, phytohemagglutinins have been studied for their potential therapeutic applications, including as an antiviral agent, an immune stimulant, and a treatment for certain types of cancer.

Cytopathogenic effect (CPE) refers to the morphological changes that occur in host cells as a result of viral infection. These changes can be observed under a microscope and are often used as a diagnostic tool to identify viral infections. In the case of viral cytopathogenic effect, the virus infects and replicates within the host cell, causing damage to the cell membrane, organelles, and ultimately leading to cell death. This can result in the formation of characteristic changes in the cell, such as rounding up, swelling, and the appearance of vacuoles or blebs. The cytopathogenic effect of a virus can also be used to assess the virulence of a particular strain of the virus, as more virulent strains tend to cause more severe cytopathic changes in host cells. Additionally, the presence of cytopathic changes can be used to confirm the presence of a viral infection in a clinical sample, as many viruses are known to cause cytopathic effects in infected cells.

The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells that contains the cell's genetic material, or DNA. It is typically located in the center of the cell and is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nucleus is responsible for regulating gene expression and controlling the cell's activities. It contains a dense, irregularly shaped mass of chromatin, which is made up of DNA and associated proteins. The nucleus also contains a small body called the nucleolus, which is responsible for producing ribosomes, the cellular structures that synthesize proteins.

In the medical field, peptides are short chains of amino acids that are linked together by peptide bonds. They are typically composed of 2-50 amino acids and can be found in a variety of biological molecules, including hormones, neurotransmitters, and enzymes. Peptides play important roles in many physiological processes, including growth and development, immune function, and metabolism. They can also be used as therapeutic agents to treat a variety of medical conditions, such as diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. In the pharmaceutical industry, peptides are often synthesized using chemical methods and are used as drugs or as components of drugs. They can be administered orally, intravenously, or topically, depending on the specific peptide and the condition being treated.

In the medical field, a peptide fragment refers to a short chain of amino acids that are derived from a larger peptide or protein molecule. Peptide fragments can be generated through various techniques, such as enzymatic digestion or chemical cleavage, and are often used in diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Peptide fragments can be used as biomarkers for various diseases, as they may be present in the body at elevated levels in response to specific conditions. For example, certain peptide fragments have been identified as potential biomarkers for cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and cardiovascular disease. In addition, peptide fragments can be used as therapeutic agents themselves. For example, some peptide fragments have been shown to have anti-inflammatory or anti-cancer properties, and are being investigated as potential treatments for various diseases. Overall, peptide fragments play an important role in the medical field, both as diagnostic tools and as potential therapeutic agents.

NK cell lectin-like receptor subfamily B (NCRB) is a group of immune receptors expressed on natural killer (NK) cells, a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the body's defense against infections and cancer. The NCRB receptors are a type of lectin-like receptor, which means they recognize and bind to specific carbohydrate structures on the surface of infected or cancerous cells.NCRBNK，，。，NCRB，NK。，NCRB，。

GTP-binding proteins, also known as G proteins, are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in signal transduction in cells. They are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and metabolism. G proteins are composed of three subunits: an alpha subunit, a beta subunit, and a gamma subunit. The alpha subunit is the one that binds to guanosine triphosphate (GTP), a molecule that is involved in regulating the activity of the protein. When GTP binds to the alpha subunit, it causes a conformational change in the protein, which in turn activates or inhibits downstream signaling pathways. G proteins are activated by a variety of extracellular signals, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors. Once activated, they can interact with other proteins in the cell, such as enzymes or ion channels, to transmit the signal and initiate a cellular response. G proteins are found in all eukaryotic cells and play a critical role in many physiological processes. They are also involved in a number of diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases.

Cercopithecus aethiops, commonly known as the vervet monkey, is a species of Old World monkey that is native to Africa. In the medical field, Cercopithecus aethiops is often used in research studies as a model organism to study a variety of diseases and conditions, including infectious diseases, neurological disorders, and cancer. This is because vervet monkeys share many genetic and physiological similarities with humans, making them useful for studying human health and disease.

eIF-2 Kinase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in regulating protein synthesis in cells. It phosphorylates a specific site on the alpha subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2), which is a key component of the machinery that initiates the process of translating messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Under normal conditions, eIF2 is in a dephosphorylated state and is able to bind to initiator tRNA and other components of the translation machinery to initiate protein synthesis. However, when cells are under stress, such as from viral infection or nutrient deprivation, the activity of eIF2 Kinase is increased, leading to the phosphorylation of eIF2. This, in turn, inhibits the ability of eIF2 to bind to initiator tRNA, which slows down or shuts down protein synthesis. The regulation of eIF2 Kinase activity is an important mechanism for controlling protein synthesis in cells and maintaining cellular homeostasis. Dysregulation of eIF2 Kinase activity has been implicated in a number of diseases, including viral infections, neurodegenerative disorders, and certain types of cancer.

CD40 is a protein found on the surface of certain cells in the immune system, including B cells and dendritic cells. Antigens, CD40 refers to molecules that bind to the CD40 protein on these cells, activating them and triggering an immune response. This can help the immune system to recognize and attack foreign substances, such as viruses and bacteria. CD40 ligands, which are also known as CD154, are proteins that bind to CD40 and can act as antigens. They are produced by activated T cells and other immune cells and play a role in the activation and differentiation of B cells.

Cell proliferation refers to the process of cell division and growth, which is essential for the maintenance and repair of tissues in the body. In the medical field, cell proliferation is often studied in the context of cancer, where uncontrolled cell proliferation can lead to the formation of tumors and the spread of cancer cells to other parts of the body. In normal cells, cell proliferation is tightly regulated by a complex network of signaling pathways and feedback mechanisms that ensure that cells divide only when necessary and that they stop dividing when they have reached their full capacity. However, in cancer cells, these regulatory mechanisms can become disrupted, leading to uncontrolled cell proliferation and the formation of tumors. In addition to cancer, cell proliferation is also important in other medical conditions, such as wound healing, tissue regeneration, and the development of embryos. Understanding the mechanisms that regulate cell proliferation is therefore critical for developing new treatments for cancer and other diseases.

Transforming Growth Factor beta (TGF-β) is a family of cytokines that play a crucial role in regulating cell growth, differentiation, and migration. TGF-βs are secreted by a variety of cells, including immune cells, fibroblasts, and epithelial cells, and act on neighboring cells to modulate their behavior. TGF-βs have both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects, depending on the context in which they are released. They can promote the differentiation of immune cells into effector cells that help to fight infections, but they can also suppress the immune response to prevent excessive inflammation. In addition to their role in immune regulation, TGF-βs are also involved in tissue repair and fibrosis. They can stimulate the production of extracellular matrix proteins, such as collagen, which are essential for tissue repair. However, excessive production of TGF-βs can lead to fibrosis, a condition in which excessive amounts of connective tissue accumulate in the body, leading to organ dysfunction. Overall, TGF-βs are important signaling molecules that play a critical role in regulating a wide range of cellular processes in the body.

CD40 Ligand (CD40L) is a protein that is expressed on the surface of activated T cells, B cells, and dendritic cells. It plays a critical role in the immune response by binding to the CD40 receptor on the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), such as dendritic cells and B cells. This interaction triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation and proliferation of APCs, as well as the differentiation of T cells into effector cells that can attack infected cells or cancer cells. CD40L is also involved in the regulation of inflammation and the development of autoimmunity. In the medical field, CD40L is being studied as a potential target for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases.

Tilorone is a synthetic antihistamine medication that was developed in the 1950s. It is a histamine H1 receptor antagonist, which means that it blocks the action of histamine, a chemical that is produced by the body in response to allergies, infections, and other stimuli. Tilorone is primarily used to treat allergic reactions, such as hay fever and urticaria (hives), as well as to relieve symptoms of the common cold and flu. It is available as a tablet and a syrup, and is usually taken orally. Tilorone is generally well-tolerated, but like all medications, it can cause side effects, such as drowsiness, dizziness, and dry mouth.

Protein-tyrosine kinases (PTKs) are a family of enzymes that play a crucial role in various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, metabolism, and signal transduction. These enzymes catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to the hydroxyl group of tyrosine residues on specific target proteins, thereby modifying their activity, localization, or interactions with other molecules. PTKs are involved in many diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurological disorders. They are also targets for many drugs, including those used to treat cancer and other diseases. In the medical field, PTKs are studied to understand their role in disease pathogenesis and to develop new therapeutic strategies.

Repressor proteins are a class of proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences and preventing the transcription of the associated gene. They are often involved in controlling the expression of genes that are involved in cellular processes such as metabolism, growth, and differentiation. Repressor proteins can be classified into two main types: transcriptional repressors and post-transcriptional repressors. Transcriptional repressors bind to specific DNA sequences near the promoter region of a gene, which prevents the binding of RNA polymerase and other transcription factors, thereby inhibiting the transcription of the gene. Post-transcriptional repressors, on the other hand, bind to the mRNA of a gene, which prevents its translation into protein or causes its degradation, thereby reducing the amount of protein produced. Repressor proteins play important roles in many biological processes, including development, differentiation, and cellular response to environmental stimuli. They are also involved in the regulation of many diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and metabolic disorders.

Monokines are a type of cytokine, which are signaling molecules secreted by a single type of cell. Monokines are produced by various immune cells, such as macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells, in response to infection, inflammation, or other stimuli. They play a role in regulating immune responses, including the recruitment and activation of other immune cells, the production of antibodies, and the regulation of inflammation. Examples of monokines include interleukin-1 (IL-1), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma).

Lymphokines are a type of cytokine, which are signaling molecules secreted by immune cells such as T cells and B cells. They play a crucial role in regulating the immune response and are involved in various immune-related processes, including inflammation, cell proliferation, and differentiation. Lymphokines are produced in response to infections, injuries, or other stimuli that activate the immune system. They can be classified into several categories based on their function, including interleukins, interferons, and tumor necrosis factors. Interleukins are a group of lymphokines that regulate the activity of immune cells, including T cells, B cells, and macrophages. They are involved in various immune responses, including inflammation, cell proliferation, and differentiation. Interferons are another group of lymphokines that are produced in response to viral infections. They have antiviral properties and can also stimulate the immune system to fight off infections. Tumor necrosis factors are a group of lymphokines that are involved in the immune response to infections and tumors. They can stimulate the production of other cytokines and chemokines, which help to recruit immune cells to the site of infection or tumor. Overall, lymphokines play a critical role in the immune response and are involved in many different aspects of immune function.

Cricetinae is a subfamily of rodents that includes hamsters, voles, and lemmings. These animals are typically small to medium-sized and have a broad, flat head and a short, thick body. They are found in a variety of habitats around the world, including grasslands, forests, and deserts. In the medical field, Cricetinae are often used as laboratory animals for research purposes, as they are easy to care for and breed, and have a relatively short lifespan. They are also used in studies of genetics, physiology, and behavior.

CD4 antigens, also known as CD4 molecules, are a type of protein found on the surface of certain cells in the immune system. These cells, called T cells, play a crucial role in the body's defense against infection and disease. CD4 antigens are specifically associated with helper T cells, which are a type of T cell that works to coordinate the immune response by activating other immune cells. Helper T cells express high levels of CD4 antigens on their surface, which allows them to bind to and activate other immune cells, such as B cells and macrophages. In the context of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the virus specifically targets and destroys CD4+ T cells, leading to a weakened immune system and an increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections and certain types of cancer. Therefore, CD4+ T cell count is often used as a key indicator of HIV infection and disease progression.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disorder that primarily affects the joints. It is characterized by inflammation and damage to the lining of the joint capsule, which leads to pain, stiffness, and reduced range of motion. RA can also affect other organs, such as the lungs, heart, and eyes. RA is a systemic disease, meaning that it affects the entire body, not just the joints. It is an inflammatory disease, meaning that it is caused by the immune system attacking healthy cells and tissues in the body. RA is a progressive disease, meaning that it can worsen over time if left untreated. However, with proper treatment, it is possible to manage the symptoms and slow down the progression of the disease. The exact cause of RA is not fully understood, but it is believed to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Risk factors for RA include being female, having a family history of the disease, and smoking.

Bone marrow cells are the cells found in the bone marrow, which is the soft, spongy tissue found in the center of bones. These cells are responsible for producing blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. There are two types of bone marrow cells: hematopoietic stem cells and progenitor cells. Hematopoietic stem cells are capable of dividing and differentiating into any type of blood cell, while progenitor cells are capable of dividing and differentiating into specific types of blood cells. In the medical field, bone marrow cells are often used in the treatment of blood disorders, such as leukemia and lymphoma, as well as in the transplantation of bone marrow to replace damaged or diseased bone marrow. In some cases, bone marrow cells may also be used in research to study the development and function of blood cells.

GTP-binding protein gamma subunits, also known as Gγ subunits, are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in signal transduction pathways in the body. They are part of a larger family of proteins called G proteins, which are involved in transmitting signals from cell surface receptors to intracellular effector molecules. Gγ subunits are composed of three domains: an amino-terminal domain, a carboxy-terminal domain, and a linker region that connects the two. They are typically associated with Gα and Gβ subunits to form heterotrimeric G proteins, which are activated by the binding of a ligand to a cell surface receptor. Once activated, the G protein heterotrimer dissociates into Gα-GTP and Gβγ subunits. The Gβγ subunits then interact with various effector molecules, such as adenylyl cyclase, phospholipase C, or ion channels, to initiate a signaling cascade that ultimately leads to a cellular response. Gγ subunits have been implicated in a variety of physiological processes, including neurotransmission, hormone secretion, and immune function. Mutations in Gγ subunit genes have been associated with several human diseases, including neurological disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer.

Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) is a protein that plays a role in the signaling pathways of many different cell types in the body. It is a member of the Janus kinase family of enzymes, which are involved in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation, and immune function. In the context of the medical field, JAK2 is of particular interest because it has been implicated in the development of certain blood disorders, such as myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs). MPNs are a group of blood cancers that involve the overproduction of blood cells, such as red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. JAK2 mutations have been identified in a large proportion of patients with MPNs, and these mutations are thought to contribute to the development and progression of the disease. JAK2 inhibitors are a class of drugs that have been developed to target the JAK2 enzyme and are being used to treat certain types of MPNs. These drugs work by blocking the activity of JAK2, which helps to reduce the overproduction of blood cells and alleviate the symptoms of the disease.

Biological markers, also known as biomarkers, are measurable indicators of biological processes, pathogenic processes, or responses to therapeutic interventions. In the medical field, biological markers are used to diagnose, monitor, and predict the progression of diseases, as well as to evaluate the effectiveness of treatments. Biological markers can be found in various biological samples, such as blood, urine, tissue, or body fluids. They can be proteins, genes, enzymes, hormones, metabolites, or other molecules that are associated with a specific disease or condition. For example, in cancer, biological markers such as tumor markers can be used to detect the presence of cancer cells or to monitor the response to treatment. In cardiovascular disease, biological markers such as cholesterol levels or blood pressure can be used to assess the risk of heart attack or stroke. Overall, biological markers play a crucial role in medical research and clinical practice, as they provide valuable information about the underlying biology of diseases and help to guide diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring.

Dactinomycin is a chemotherapy drug that is used to treat various types of cancer, including Wilms' tumor, Ewing's sarcoma, and Hodgkin's lymphoma. It works by interfering with the production of DNA and RNA, which are essential for the growth and division of cancer cells. Dactinomycin is usually given intravenously or intramuscularly, and it can also be administered as a cream or ointment to treat skin cancer. Common side effects of dactinomycin include nausea, vomiting, hair loss, and damage to the lining of the mouth and throat.

Affinity chromatography is a type of chromatography that is used to separate and purify proteins or other biomolecules based on their specific interactions with a ligand that is immobilized on a solid support. The ligand is typically a molecule that has a high affinity for the biomolecule of interest, such as an antibody or a specific protein. When a mixture of biomolecules is passed through the column, the biomolecules that interact strongly with the ligand will be retained on the column, while those that do not interact or interact weakly will pass through the column. The retained biomolecules can then be eluted from the column using a solution that disrupts the interaction between the biomolecule and the ligand. Affinity chromatography is a powerful tool for purifying and characterizing proteins and other biomolecules, and it is widely used in the fields of biochemistry, molecular biology, and biotechnology.

Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF receptors) are proteins found on the surface of cells that bind to the cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF). TNF is a signaling molecule that plays a role in the immune response and inflammation. There are two main types of TNF receptors: TNFR1 (also known as TNFRp55) and TNFR2 (also known as TNFRp75). TNFR1 is expressed on most cell types and is involved in the regulation of cell survival, proliferation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). TNFR2 is primarily expressed on immune cells and is involved in immune cell activation and differentiation. TNF receptors can be activated by binding to TNF, which triggers a signaling cascade within the cell. This signaling cascade can lead to a variety of cellular responses, including the activation of immune cells, the induction of inflammation, and the promotion of cell survival or death. Abnormalities in TNF receptor signaling have been implicated in a number of diseases, including autoimmune disorders, inflammatory diseases, and certain types of cancer. As a result, TNF receptors are the targets of several drugs used to treat these conditions, including TNF inhibitors.

In the medical field, cell separation refers to the process of isolating specific types of cells from a mixture of cells. This can be done for a variety of reasons, such as to study the properties and functions of a particular cell type, to prepare cells for transplantation, or to remove unwanted cells from a sample. There are several methods for cell separation, including centrifugation, fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), and magnetic bead separation. Centrifugation involves spinning a sample of cells at high speeds to separate them based on their size and density. FACS uses lasers to excite fluorescent markers on the surface of cells, allowing them to be sorted based on their fluorescence intensity. Magnetic bead separation uses magnetic beads coated with antibodies to bind to specific cell surface markers, allowing them to be separated from other cells using a magnetic field. Cell separation is an important technique in many areas of medicine, including cancer research, stem cell biology, and immunology. It allows researchers to study specific cell types in detail and to develop new treatments for diseases based on a better understanding of cell biology.

In the medical field, "culture techniques" refer to the methods used to grow and isolate microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, from clinical samples. These techniques are essential for diagnosing infectious diseases and determining the most effective treatment options. Culture techniques typically involve collecting a sample from a patient, such as blood, urine, or sputum, and then transferring it to a nutrient-rich medium where the microorganisms can grow. The medium is incubated in a controlled environment, and the growth of the microorganisms is monitored over time. There are several types of culture techniques, including: 1. Direct microscopy: This technique involves examining a sample under a microscope to identify microorganisms without the need for culturing. 2. Culture on solid media: This technique involves growing microorganisms on a solid surface, such as agar, where they can be observed and identified. 3. Culture in liquid media: This technique involves growing microorganisms in a liquid medium, where they can be observed and identified using various techniques, such as spectrophotometry or enzyme assays. 4. Molecular techniques: This technique involves using DNA or RNA analysis to identify microorganisms without the need for culturing. Overall, culture techniques are a critical part of medical diagnosis and treatment, allowing healthcare providers to identify and treat infectious diseases effectively.

In the medical field, "cell survival" refers to the ability of cells to survive and continue to function despite exposure to harmful stimuli or conditions. This can include exposure to toxins, radiation, or other forms of stress that can damage or kill cells. Cell survival is an important concept in many areas of medicine, including cancer research, where understanding how cells survive and resist treatment is crucial for developing effective therapies. In addition, understanding the mechanisms that regulate cell survival can also have implications for other areas of medicine, such as tissue repair and regeneration.

Autoimmune diseases are a group of disorders in which the immune system mistakenly attacks healthy cells and tissues in the body. In a healthy immune system, the body recognizes and attacks foreign substances, such as viruses and bacteria, to protect itself. However, in autoimmune diseases, the immune system becomes overactive and begins to attack the body's own cells and tissues. There are over 80 different types of autoimmune diseases, and they can affect various parts of the body, including the joints, skin, muscles, blood vessels, and organs such as the thyroid gland, pancreas, and liver. Some common examples of autoimmune diseases include rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, and inflammatory bowel disease. The exact cause of autoimmune diseases is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Treatment for autoimmune diseases typically involves managing symptoms and reducing inflammation, and may include medications, lifestyle changes, and in some cases, surgery.

Mycobacterium infections are a group of diseases caused by bacteria of the Mycobacterium genus. These bacteria are known for their ability to cause persistent infections in the body, often in the lungs, but can also affect other organs such as the lymph nodes, skin, and bones. The most well-known mycobacterial infection is tuberculosis (TB), which is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. TB is a highly contagious disease that spreads through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Other mycobacterial infections include leprosy (caused by Mycobacterium leprae), which affects the skin and nerves, and Buruli ulcer (caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans), which affects the skin and underlying tissue. Mycobacterial infections can be difficult to diagnose and treat because the bacteria are slow-growing and can become resistant to antibiotics. Treatment typically involves a combination of antibiotics taken over a long period of time, and in some cases, surgery or other medical interventions may be necessary.

Complement C1 Inactivator Proteins (C1INH) are a group of proteins that play a crucial role in regulating the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to defend the body against infections and other harmful substances. The complement system consists of a series of proteins that work together to identify and eliminate pathogens, such as bacteria and viruses. C1INH is a plasma protein that is produced by the liver and circulates in the bloodstream. It functions as an inhibitor of the complement system by binding to and neutralizing the activity of complement protein C1, which is the first protein activated in the complement cascade. By inhibiting the activity of C1, C1INH helps to prevent the overactivation of the complement system, which can lead to tissue damage and inflammation. Deficiencies or mutations in C1INH can lead to a condition called hereditary angioedema (HAE), which is characterized by recurrent episodes of swelling in the face, extremities, and other parts of the body. HAE can be life-threatening if left untreated, as it can cause difficulty breathing and other serious complications. Treatment for HAE typically involves the administration of C1INH replacement therapy, which can help to prevent or reduce the severity of attacks.

Antibody formation, also known as immunoglobulin production, is a process in the immune system where specialized cells called B cells produce antibodies in response to the presence of foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, or toxins, in the body. When a foreign substance enters the body, it is recognized by the immune system as foreign and triggers an immune response. B cells are activated and begin to divide and differentiate into plasma cells, which are specialized cells that produce antibodies. These antibodies are proteins that are designed to recognize and bind to specific antigens, which are molecules found on the surface of foreign substances. Once the antibodies bind to the antigens, they can neutralize the foreign substance, mark it for destruction by other immune cells, or activate the complement system, which is a group of proteins that work together to destroy the foreign substance. Antibody formation is a crucial part of the immune system's defense against infections and diseases. It is also an important aspect of the development of vaccines, which stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies against specific pathogens before the person is exposed to the actual pathogen.

Thioglycolates are a class of compounds that contain a sulfur atom bonded to a glycolate group (-COO-) and are commonly used in the medical field as disinfectants and antiseptics. They are effective against a wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi, and are often used in hospital settings to clean and disinfect surfaces and equipment. One common thioglycolate is chlorhexidine gluconate, which is a widely used antiseptic in healthcare settings. It is effective against a broad range of microorganisms and is often used in mouthwashes, throat lozenges, and surgical scrubs. Other thioglycolates include benzethonium chloride and cetrimide, which are also used as disinfectants and antiseptics in healthcare settings. Thioglycolates are generally considered safe for use on skin and surfaces, but they can be irritating to the eyes and respiratory system if inhaled or ingested in large quantities. They should be used according to the manufacturer's instructions and precautions should be taken to avoid contact with the eyes and skin.

Interleukin-8 (IL-8) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling molecule that plays a role in regulating the immune system. It is produced by various types of cells, including immune cells such as neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages, as well as epithelial cells and fibroblasts. IL-8 is primarily involved in the recruitment and activation of neutrophils, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the body's defense against infection and inflammation. IL-8 binds to receptors on the surface of neutrophils, causing them to migrate to the site of infection or inflammation. It also promotes the production of other pro-inflammatory molecules by neutrophils, which helps to amplify the immune response. IL-8 has been implicated in a variety of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and inflammatory bowel disease. It is also involved in the development of certain types of cancer, such as lung cancer and ovarian cancer. In the medical field, IL-8 is often measured in blood or other bodily fluids as a marker of inflammation or immune activation. It is also being studied as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer and inflammatory disorders.

CD80 is a protein that is expressed on the surface of certain cells in the immune system, including antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells and macrophages. CD80 is also known as B7-1, and it plays a critical role in the activation of T cells, which are a type of immune cell that helps to fight off infections and diseases. When an APC encounters a pathogen, it engulfs the pathogen and processes its antigens, which are small pieces of the pathogen that can be recognized by the immune system. The APC then presents these antigens on its surface, along with the CD80 protein, to T cells. This interaction between the APC and the T cell is a key step in the activation of the T cell, which then becomes activated and begins to divide and differentiate into effector T cells that can directly attack the pathogen or into memory T cells that can provide long-term protection against future infections by the same pathogen. Antigens, CD80 are often used in medical research and as a tool for developing vaccines and other immune-based therapies. They can be used to stimulate the immune system to recognize and attack specific pathogens or cancer cells, or they can be used to suppress the immune system in cases where it is overactive or causing autoimmune diseases.

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infections refer to the presence of the HIV virus in the body. HIV is a retrovirus that attacks and weakens the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to infections and diseases. HIV is transmitted through contact with infected bodily fluids, such as blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk. The most common modes of transmission include unprotected sexual contact, sharing needles or syringes, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. HIV infections can be diagnosed through blood tests that detect the presence of the virus or antibodies produced in response to the virus. Once diagnosed, HIV can be managed with antiretroviral therapy (ART), which helps to suppress the virus and prevent the progression of the disease to AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome). It is important to note that HIV is not the same as AIDS. HIV is the virus that causes AIDS, but not everyone with HIV will develop AIDS. With proper treatment and management, individuals with HIV can live long and healthy lives.

Spondylitis is a medical condition that refers to inflammation of the spinal column, specifically the vertebrae and the surrounding tissues. It can affect any part of the spine, from the neck to the lower back, and can be caused by a variety of factors, including infection, autoimmune disorders, and degenerative conditions. The most common form of spondylitis is ankylosing spondylitis, which is a chronic inflammatory disease that primarily affects the spine and sacroiliac joints. Other forms of spondylitis include reactive arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and enteropathic arthritis. Symptoms of spondylitis can include back pain, stiffness, and reduced range of motion, particularly in the morning or after prolonged periods of inactivity. In severe cases, spondylitis can lead to spinal deformities and loss of mobility. Treatment for spondylitis typically involves a combination of medications, physical therapy, and lifestyle changes, such as exercise and maintaining a healthy weight. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to correct spinal deformities or relieve nerve compression.

Receptors, cell surface are proteins that are located on the surface of cells and are responsible for receiving signals from the environment. These signals can be chemical, electrical, or mechanical in nature and can trigger a variety of cellular responses. There are many different types of cell surface receptors, including ion channels, G-protein coupled receptors, and enzyme-linked receptors. These receptors play a critical role in many physiological processes, including sensation, communication, and regulation of cellular activity. In the medical field, understanding the function and regulation of cell surface receptors is important for developing new treatments for a wide range of diseases and conditions.

Thiocyanates are organic compounds that contain a sulfur atom bonded to a nitrogen atom and a carbon atom. They are commonly found in plants, particularly in cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, cauliflower, and cabbage. In the medical field, thiocyanates have been studied for their potential health effects, including their ability to act as antioxidants and to protect against certain types of cancer. Some studies have suggested that thiocyanates may have anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties, but more research is needed to confirm these findings.

RNA, or ribonucleic acid, is a type of nucleic acid that is involved in the process of protein synthesis in cells. It is composed of a chain of nucleotides, which are made up of a sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are three types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). In the medical field, RNA is often studied as a potential target for the development of new drugs and therapies. For example, some researchers are exploring the use of RNA interference (RNAi) to silence specific genes and treat diseases such as cancer and viral infections. Additionally, RNA is being studied as a potential biomarker for various diseases, as changes in the levels or structure of certain RNA molecules can indicate the presence of a particular condition.

The cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a thin, flexible barrier that surrounds and encloses the cell. It is composed of a phospholipid bilayer, which consists of two layers of phospholipid molecules arranged tail-to-tail. The hydrophobic tails of the phospholipids face inward, while the hydrophilic heads face outward, forming a barrier that separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment. The cell membrane also contains various proteins, including channels, receptors, and transporters, which allow the cell to communicate with its environment and regulate the movement of substances in and out of the cell. In addition, the cell membrane is studded with cholesterol molecules, which help to maintain the fluidity and stability of the membrane. The cell membrane plays a crucial role in maintaining the integrity and function of the cell, and it is involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell signaling, cell adhesion, and cell division.

Lymphotoxin-alpha (LT-alpha) is a cytokine that plays a role in the development and maintenance of lymphoid tissues, such as lymph nodes and spleen. It is produced by activated T cells, B cells, and dendritic cells, and is involved in the recruitment and activation of immune cells in these tissues. In the context of the immune response, LT-alpha is thought to play a role in the development of inflammation and the formation of lymphoid follicles, which are structures that contain immune cells and are important for the production of antibodies. It is also involved in the regulation of T cell responses and the differentiation of B cells into antibody-producing plasma cells. In the medical field, LT-alpha has been studied as a potential therapeutic target for a variety of diseases, including autoimmune disorders, cancer, and viral infections. For example, some researchers have suggested that inhibiting LT-alpha signaling may be useful for treating inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, while others have explored the use of LT-alpha as a vaccine adjuvant to enhance the immune response to vaccines.

Immunoglobulin isotypes, also known as antibodies, are different forms of the same protein produced by the immune system in response to an infection or foreign substance. There are five main classes of immunoglobulin isotypes: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE. Each class of immunoglobulin has a unique structure and function, and they play different roles in the immune response. For example, IgG is the most abundant immunoglobulin in the blood and is involved in neutralizing pathogens, while IgA is found in mucous membranes and bodily fluids and helps to prevent infections in these areas. Understanding the different immunoglobulin isotypes is important for diagnosing and treating various diseases and conditions related to the immune system.

CD28 is a protein found on the surface of T cells, a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the immune system. CD28 is a co-stimulatory molecule, meaning that it works together with other molecules to help activate and regulate T cells. Antigens, CD28 refers to molecules that bind to the CD28 protein on T cells and activate them. These antigens are typically found on the surface of other cells, such as infected cells or cancer cells, and are recognized by T cells as foreign or abnormal. When a T cell encounters an antigen that binds to its CD28 receptor, it becomes activated and begins to divide and produce more T cells, which can then attack and destroy the infected or cancerous cells. CD28-based antigens are being studied as potential targets for immunotherapy, a type of cancer treatment that uses the body's own immune system to fight cancer. By activating T cells with CD28-based antigens, researchers hope to boost the immune system's ability to recognize and attack cancer cells.

Adoptive Transfer is a medical treatment that involves taking immune cells from a donor and introducing them into the recipient's body to boost their immune response against a specific disease or cancer. The immune cells, typically T cells, are collected from the donor's blood and then activated in a laboratory to enhance their ability to recognize and attack cancer cells or other pathogens. The activated immune cells are then infused back into the recipient's bloodstream, where they can migrate to the site of the disease and mount an immune response against it. Adoptive transfer has been used successfully to treat various types of cancer, including melanoma, leukemia, and lymphoma, and is an active area of research in the field of immunotherapy.

Carcinoma, Renal Cell is a type of cancer that originates in the cells of the kidney. It is also known as renal cell carcinoma or RCC. These cells are found in the lining of small tubes in the kidney called nephrons, and when they become cancerous, they can grow and spread to other parts of the body. Renal cell carcinoma is the most common type of kidney cancer in adults, and it is more common in men than in women. The exact cause of RCC is not known, but risk factors include smoking, obesity, high blood pressure, and a family history of the disease. Symptoms of RCC may include blood in the urine, a lump or swelling in the abdomen, back pain, and fatigue. Diagnosis typically involves imaging tests such as CT scans or MRI scans, as well as a biopsy to confirm the presence of cancer cells. Treatment for RCC may include surgery to remove the affected kidney or part of the kidney, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or immunotherapy. The choice of treatment depends on the stage and location of the cancer, as well as the overall health of the patient.

Receptors, Chemokine are proteins found on the surface of cells that bind to specific chemokines, which are small signaling molecules that play a role in immune cell trafficking and inflammation. These receptors are involved in the regulation of immune cell migration and are important for the recruitment of immune cells to sites of infection or injury. There are several different types of chemokine receptors, each of which is specific to a particular chemokine or group of chemokines. Dysregulation of chemokine receptors has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases.

A cell line, tumor is a type of cell culture that is derived from a cancerous tumor. These cell lines are grown in a laboratory setting and are used for research purposes, such as studying the biology of cancer and testing potential new treatments. They are typically immortalized, meaning that they can continue to divide and grow indefinitely, and they often exhibit the characteristics of the original tumor from which they were derived, such as specific genetic mutations or protein expression patterns. Cell lines, tumor are an important tool in cancer research and have been used to develop many of the treatments that are currently available for cancer patients.

Ovalbumin is a protein found in egg whites. It is a major allergen and can cause allergic reactions in some people. In the medical field, ovalbumin is often used as a model antigen for studying allergic reactions and for developing allergy vaccines. It is also used in research to study the structure and function of proteins, as well as in the production of various medical products, such as diagnostic reagents and pharmaceuticals.

Cysteine endopeptidases are a class of enzymes that cleave peptide bonds within proteins, specifically at the carboxyl side of a cysteine residue. These enzymes are involved in a variety of biological processes, including digestion, blood clotting, and the regulation of immune responses. They are also involved in the degradation of extracellular matrix proteins, which is important for tissue remodeling and repair. In the medical field, cysteine endopeptidases are often studied as potential therapeutic targets for diseases such as cancer, inflammatory disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases.

In the medical field, an acute disease is a condition that develops suddenly and progresses rapidly over a short period of time. Acute diseases are typically characterized by severe symptoms and a high degree of morbidity and mortality. Examples of acute diseases include pneumonia, meningitis, sepsis, and heart attacks. These diseases require prompt medical attention and treatment to prevent complications and improve outcomes. In contrast, chronic diseases are long-term conditions that develop gradually over time and may persist for years or even decades.

Antineoplastic agents, also known as cytotoxic agents or chemotherapeutic agents, are drugs that are used to treat cancer by killing or slowing the growth of cancer cells. These agents work by interfering with the normal processes of cell division and growth, which are necessary for the survival and spread of cancer cells. There are many different types of antineoplastic agents, including alkylating agents, antimetabolites, topoisomerase inhibitors, and monoclonal antibodies, among others. These agents are often used in combination with other treatments, such as surgery and radiation therapy, to provide the most effective treatment for cancer.

In the medical field, carrier proteins are proteins that transport molecules across cell membranes or within cells. These proteins bind to specific molecules, such as hormones, nutrients, or waste products, and facilitate their movement across the membrane or within the cell. Carrier proteins play a crucial role in maintaining the proper balance of molecules within cells and between cells. They are involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including nutrient absorption, hormone regulation, and waste elimination. There are several types of carrier proteins, including facilitated diffusion carriers, active transport carriers, and ion channels. Each type of carrier protein has a specific function and mechanism of action. Understanding the role of carrier proteins in the body is important for diagnosing and treating various medical conditions, such as genetic disorders, metabolic disorders, and neurological disorders.

In the medical field, "Antigens, Differentiation" refers to proteins or other molecules that are expressed on the surface of cells and can be recognized by the immune system as foreign or abnormal. These antigens play a crucial role in the process of cell differentiation, which is the process by which cells develop specialized functions and characteristics. There are several types of antigens that are involved in cell differentiation, including surface antigens, cytoplasmic antigens, and nuclear antigens. Surface antigens are located on the surface of cells and are recognized by the immune system as foreign or abnormal. Cytoplasmic antigens are located inside the cytoplasm of cells and are involved in the regulation of cell growth and division. Nuclear antigens are located inside the nucleus of cells and are involved in the regulation of gene expression. Antigens, differentiation are important for the proper functioning of the immune system, as they help to identify and eliminate abnormal or foreign cells. They are also important for the development and maintenance of specialized cell types, as they help to regulate the expression of specific genes and proteins that are necessary for the function of these cells.

Lectins, C-Type are a type of carbohydrate-binding proteins that are found in a variety of plants, animals, and microorganisms. They are characterized by the presence of a conserved cysteine residue in their carbohydrate recognition domain, which is responsible for their binding specificity to specific carbohydrate structures. C-Type lectins are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including immune response, cell adhesion, and cell signaling. They are also used in medical research and have potential therapeutic applications, such as in the treatment of cancer, infectious diseases, and inflammatory disorders. In the medical field, C-Type lectins are often studied for their ability to bind to specific carbohydrate structures on the surface of cells, which can be used to target and modulate cellular processes. They are also used as diagnostic tools to detect specific carbohydrate structures in biological samples, such as in the diagnosis of certain diseases or to monitor the progression of a disease.

Kidney neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors that develop in the kidneys. These tumors can be either benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Kidney neoplasms are also known as renal neoplasms or renal tumors. There are several types of kidney neoplasms, including: 1. Renal cell carcinoma (RCC): This is the most common type of kidney cancer and accounts for about 80-90% of all kidney neoplasms. 2. Wilms tumor: This is a type of kidney cancer that is most common in children. 3. Angiomyolipoma: This is a benign tumor that is made up of fat, smooth muscle, and blood vessels. 4. Oncocytoma: This is a benign tumor that is made up of cells that resemble normal kidney cells. 5. Papillary renal cell carcinoma: This is a type of kidney cancer that is less common than RCC but has a better prognosis. 6. Clear cell renal cell carcinoma: This is a type of kidney cancer that is the most common in adults and has a poor prognosis. The diagnosis of kidney neoplasms typically involves imaging tests such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI, as well as a biopsy to confirm the type and stage of the tumor. Treatment options for kidney neoplasms depend on the type, size, and stage of the tumor, as well as the overall health of the patient. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or targeted therapy.

Phospholipase C gamma (PLCγ) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in signal transduction pathways in cells. It is a member of the phospholipase C family of enzymes, which hydrolyze phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) to produce inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). In the medical field, PLCγ is involved in various cellular processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, and survival. It is also implicated in the regulation of immune responses, as well as in the development and progression of various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurological disorders. PLCγ is activated by a variety of extracellular signals, including growth factors, cytokines, and hormones, through the binding of their receptors to specific intracellular signaling molecules. Once activated, PLCγ cleaves PIP2, leading to the production of IP3 and DAG, which in turn activate downstream signaling pathways that regulate cellular responses. In summary, PLCγ is a key enzyme in cellular signaling pathways that plays a critical role in various physiological and pathological processes.

Colitis is a medical condition that refers to inflammation of the colon, which is the final part of the large intestine. The inflammation can be caused by a variety of factors, including infections, autoimmune disorders, inflammatory bowel disease, and certain medications. Symptoms of colitis can include abdominal pain, diarrhea, rectal bleeding, fever, and weight loss. Treatment for colitis depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, dietary changes, and in severe cases, surgery.

In the medical field, "DNA, Complementary" refers to the property of DNA molecules to pair up with each other in a specific way. Each strand of DNA has a unique sequence of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine), and the nucleotides on one strand can only pair up with specific nucleotides on the other strand in a complementary manner. For example, adenine (A) always pairs up with thymine (T), and guanine (G) always pairs up with cytosine (C). This complementary pairing is essential for DNA replication and transcription, as it ensures that the genetic information encoded in one strand of DNA can be accurately copied onto a new strand. The complementary nature of DNA also plays a crucial role in genetic engineering and biotechnology, as scientists can use complementary DNA strands to create specific genetic sequences or modify existing ones.

Chemokine CCL4, also known as macrophage inflammatory protein 1β (MIP-1β), is a small protein that plays a role in the immune system. It is a type of chemokine, which are a group of signaling molecules that help to direct the movement of immune cells to specific areas of the body in response to infection or injury. CCL4 is produced by a variety of cells, including macrophages, monocytes, and T cells. It is involved in the recruitment of immune cells to sites of inflammation and is also thought to play a role in the development of certain types of cancer. In the medical field, CCL4 is often studied as a potential target for the treatment of diseases such as cancer, autoimmune disorders, and viral infections. It is also used as a diagnostic marker for certain conditions, such as HIV infection and liver disease.

Tyrosine is an amino acid that is essential for the production of certain hormones, neurotransmitters, and other important molecules in the body. It is a non-essential amino acid, which means that it can be synthesized by the body from other amino acids or from dietary sources. In the medical field, tyrosine is often used as a dietary supplement to support the production of certain hormones and neurotransmitters, particularly dopamine and norepinephrine. These hormones play important roles in regulating mood, motivation, and other aspects of brain function. Tyrosine is also used in the treatment of certain medical conditions, such as phenylketonuria (PKU), a genetic disorder that affects the metabolism of phenylalanine, another amino acid. In PKU, tyrosine supplementation can help to prevent the buildup of toxic levels of phenylalanine in the body. In addition, tyrosine has been studied for its potential benefits in the treatment of other conditions, such as depression, anxiety, and fatigue. However, more research is needed to confirm these potential benefits and to determine the optimal dosage and duration of tyrosine supplementation.

Antigen presentation is a process by which cells of the immune system display antigens (foreign substances) on their surface to activate immune cells, such as T cells and B cells. This process is essential for the immune system to recognize and respond to pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria, as well as to distinguish self from non-self. Antigen presentation involves the binding of antigens to specialized proteins called major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules, which are expressed on the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells. The MHC molecules act as a platform for the antigens to be recognized by T cells, which then become activated and initiate an immune response. There are two main types of antigen presentation: cross-presentation and direct presentation. Cross-presentation involves the uptake of antigens by APCs and their presentation to T cells without the need for processing by the APCs themselves. Direct presentation involves the presentation of antigens that have been processed and presented by the APCs themselves. Antigen presentation is a critical process in the immune response, as it allows the immune system to recognize and respond to a wide variety of pathogens and foreign substances. Defects in antigen presentation can lead to immune deficiencies and increased susceptibility to infections.

Receptors, IgG are a type of immune system receptor that recognizes and binds to the Fc region of immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies. These receptors are found on the surface of various immune cells, including macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells. When an IgG antibody binds to its specific antigen, it can activate these immune cells through the interaction with their IgG receptors. This activation can lead to the destruction of the antigen-antibody complex, as well as the recruitment of additional immune cells to the site of infection or inflammation. Receptors, IgG play an important role in the immune response to infections and other diseases, and their dysfunction can contribute to various immune disorders.

STAT3 (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3) is a transcription factor that plays a critical role in regulating gene expression in response to various signaling pathways, including cytokines, growth factors, and hormones. In the medical field, STAT3 is often studied in the context of cancer, as it is frequently activated in many types of tumors and is involved in promoting cell proliferation, survival, and invasion. Dysregulation of STAT3 signaling has been implicated in the development and progression of various cancers, including breast, prostate, and lung cancer. Additionally, STAT3 has been shown to play a role in other diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and inflammatory diseases. Targeting STAT3 signaling is therefore an active area of research in the development of new cancer therapies and other treatments.

TYK2 Kinase, also known as Tyrosine Kinase 2, is a protein that plays a role in the signaling pathways of the immune system. It is a non-receptor tyrosine kinase that is activated by cytokines, which are signaling molecules that regulate immune responses. Activation of TYK2 leads to the phosphorylation of other proteins, which in turn triggers downstream signaling pathways that regulate various immune functions, such as inflammation, cell proliferation, and differentiation. Dysregulation of TYK2 signaling has been implicated in various immune-related disorders, including autoimmune diseases, allergies, and cancer. Therefore, TYK2 Kinase is an important target for the development of new therapeutic strategies for these conditions.

Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) is a type of protein that plays a crucial role in the innate immune system. It is a member of the Toll-like receptor family, which is a group of proteins that recognize and respond to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on the surface of invading microorganisms. TLR3 is expressed on the surface of immune cells, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and epithelial cells, and is activated by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), which is a common feature of viruses. When TLR3 detects dsRNA, it triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, as well as the activation of immune cells. TLR3 is also involved in the recognition of self-DNA and RNA, which can be released from damaged cells and trigger an inflammatory response in the absence of an infection. This process, known as sterile inflammation, has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including autoimmune disorders, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. Overall, TLR3 plays a critical role in the recognition and response to viral infections and the regulation of immune responses to self-DNA and RNA.

Tetradecanoylphorbol acetate (TPA) is a synthetic compound that belongs to a class of chemicals called phorbol esters. It is a potent tumor promoter and has been used in research to study the mechanisms of cancer development and progression. TPA works by activating protein kinase C (PKC), a family of enzymes that play a key role in cell signaling and proliferation. When TPA binds to a specific receptor on the cell surface, it triggers a cascade of events that leads to the activation of PKC, which in turn promotes cell growth and division. TPA has been shown to promote the growth of tumors in animal models and has been linked to the development of certain types of cancer in humans, including skin cancer and breast cancer. It is also used in some experimental treatments for cancer, although its use is limited due to its potential toxicity and side effects.

A cell line, transformed, is a type of cell that has been genetically altered to become cancerous or immortal. This is typically done through exposure to chemicals, radiation, or viruses that cause changes in the DNA of the cell, allowing it to grow and divide uncontrollably. Transformed cell lines are often used in research to study cancer biology and develop new treatments, as they can be easily grown and manipulated in the laboratory. They are also used in the production of vaccines and other medical products.

Concanavalin A (Con A) is a lectin, a type of protein that binds to specific carbohydrate structures on the surface of cells. It was first isolated from the seeds of the jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis) in the 1960s and has since been widely used in research and medical applications. In the medical field, Con A is often used as a tool to study cell-cell interactions and immune responses. It can bind to a variety of cell types, including T cells, B cells, and macrophages, and has been shown to activate these cells and stimulate their proliferation. Con A is also used as a diagnostic tool to detect and quantify certain types of cells in the blood, such as T cells and natural killer cells. In addition to its use in research and diagnostics, Con A has also been studied for its potential therapeutic applications. For example, it has been shown to have anti-tumor effects in some cancer models by activating the immune system and promoting the destruction of cancer cells. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential therapeutic benefits of Con A and to determine its safety and efficacy in humans.

Receptors, Interleukin-12 (IL-12 receptors) are proteins found on the surface of certain cells in the immune system. These receptors are responsible for binding to the cytokine Interleukin-12 (IL-12), which is produced by immune cells in response to infections or other stimuli. There are two types of IL-12 receptors: IL-12Rβ1 and IL-12Rβ2. These receptors are heterodimers, meaning they are made up of two different subunits. IL-12Rβ1 is found on most immune cells, while IL-12Rβ2 is found primarily on natural killer (NK) cells and some subsets of T cells. When IL-12 binds to its receptors, it triggers a signaling cascade within the cell that leads to the activation of immune cells and the production of other cytokines. This helps to coordinate the immune response and promote the elimination of pathogens. Disruptions in the function of IL-12 receptors can lead to immune disorders, such as autoimmune diseases or increased susceptibility to infections.

Antigens, Differentiation, B-Lymphocyte is a term used in the medical field to describe a specific type of antigen that is recognized by B-lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune system. B-lymphocytes are responsible for producing antibodies, which are proteins that recognize and bind to specific antigens, such as viruses, bacteria, and other foreign substances. Antigens, Differentiation, B-Lymphocyte are antigens that are specific to B-lymphocytes and are used to stimulate their differentiation and proliferation, leading to the production of antibodies. These antigens are often used in medical research and clinical practice to study the immune system and to develop vaccines and other treatments for infectious diseases. They are also used in diagnostic tests to detect the presence of B-lymphocytes or antibodies in the body, which can provide information about the immune system's response to a particular infection or disease.

Chromatography, Gel is a technique used in the medical field to separate and analyze different components of a mixture. It involves passing a sample through a gel matrix, which allows different components to move through the gel at different rates based on their size, charge, or other properties. This separation is then detected and analyzed using various techniques, such as UV absorbance or fluorescence. Gel chromatography is commonly used in the purification of proteins, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules, as well as in the analysis of complex mixtures in environmental and forensic science.

Perforin is a protein that is produced by certain immune cells, such as natural killer (NK) cells and cytotoxic T cells. It is a key component of the immune system's ability to destroy infected or cancerous cells. Perforin is stored in granules within the immune cells and is released when the cell encounters a target cell that it needs to destroy. Once released, perforin forms pores in the target cell's membrane, allowing other immune molecules, such as granzymes, to enter the cell and trigger its death. Perforin is also involved in the destruction of virus-infected cells and cancer cells. It is an important part of the immune system's ability to protect the body against infections and diseases.

Chemokine CCL5, also known as RANTES (regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted), is a small protein that plays a role in the immune system. It is a type of chemokine, which are signaling molecules that help to direct the movement of immune cells to specific areas of the body in response to infection or injury. CCL5 is produced by a variety of cells, including immune cells such as T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells, as well as non-immune cells such as endothelial cells and fibroblasts. It acts on specific receptors on the surface of immune cells to attract them to the site of infection or injury. CCL5 has been implicated in a number of different diseases and conditions, including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and certain types of cancer. It is also involved in the recruitment of immune cells to sites of inflammation, and has been shown to play a role in the development of autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis. Overall, CCL5 is an important molecule in the immune system that helps to regulate the movement of immune cells and plays a role in the body's response to infection and injury.

Hypersensitivity, delayed, also known as type IV hypersensitivity or cell-mediated hypersensitivity, is a type of immune response that occurs after an initial exposure to a foreign substance, such as a protein or a drug. Unlike immediate hypersensitivity, which occurs within minutes or hours of exposure, delayed hypersensitivity takes several days to develop. In delayed hypersensitivity, immune cells called T cells recognize and remember the foreign substance. When the immune system encounters the same substance again, the T cells become activated and release chemicals that cause inflammation and damage to the tissue where the substance is located. This can lead to symptoms such as redness, swelling, and itching, and in severe cases, can cause tissue damage or even organ failure. Delayed hypersensitivity is often associated with allergic reactions to certain drugs, metals, or chemicals, as well as with certain infections, such as tuberculosis and leprosy. It is also a key component of the immune response to transplanted organs, as the immune system recognizes the foreign tissue and mounts an attack against it.

Chemokine CCL3, also known as macrophage inflammatory protein 1α (MIP-1α), is a type of chemokine protein that plays a role in the immune system. It is produced by various cells, including macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells, in response to infection or inflammation. CCL3 functions as a chemoattractant, drawing immune cells to the site of infection or injury. It also has other functions, such as promoting the activation and differentiation of immune cells, and regulating the inflammatory response. In the medical field, CCL3 is often studied in the context of various diseases, including HIV/AIDS, cancer, and autoimmune disorders. For example, high levels of CCL3 have been associated with poor outcomes in HIV/AIDS, and it has been proposed as a potential therapeutic target for the disease. Additionally, CCL3 has been implicated in the development and progression of certain types of cancer, such as breast cancer and lung cancer.

DNA vaccines are a type of vaccine that uses a small piece of genetic material, usually DNA, to stimulate an immune response in the body. This genetic material is designed to encode a specific protein that is found on the surface of a pathogen, such as a virus or bacteria. When the DNA is introduced into the body, it is taken up by cells and used to produce the protein. The immune system recognizes the protein as foreign and mounts an immune response against it, which can provide protection against future infections by the pathogen. DNA vaccines are still in the experimental stage and have not yet been widely used in humans. However, they have shown promise in preclinical studies and are being investigated as a potential way to prevent a variety of infectious diseases, including influenza, HIV, and malaria. One advantage of DNA vaccines is that they can be easily and quickly produced, and they do not require the use of live or attenuated pathogens, which can be more difficult to work with and may pose a risk of causing disease.

Coculture techniques refer to the process of growing two or more different cell types together in a single culture dish or flask. This is commonly used in the medical field to study interactions between cells, such as how cancer cells affect normal cells or how immune cells respond to pathogens. Coculture techniques can be used in a variety of ways, including co-culturing cells from different tissues or organs, co-culturing cells with different cell types, or co-culturing cells with microorganisms or other foreign substances. Coculture techniques can also be used to study the effects of drugs or other treatments on cell interactions. Overall, coculture techniques are a valuable tool in the medical field for studying cell interactions and developing new treatments for diseases.

HLA-D antigens are a group of proteins that are expressed on the surface of cells in the human immune system. These proteins play a crucial role in the immune system's ability to recognize and respond to foreign substances, such as viruses and bacteria. HLA-D antigens are part of the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system, which is a group of genes that are located on chromosome 6. There are several different HLA-D antigens, including HLA-DQ, HLA-DR, and HLA-DP. Each of these antigens is encoded by a different gene and has a unique structure and function. HLA-D antigens are involved in the immune system's ability to distinguish between self and non-self cells. They are also important in the development of autoimmune diseases, which occur when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own cells. In addition, HLA-D antigens play a role in the transplantation of organs and tissues, as they can help to determine whether a transplant is likely to be successful or not.

Antibodies, viral, are proteins produced by the immune system in response to a viral infection. They are also known as immunoglobulins or antibodies. Viral antibodies are specific to a particular virus and can help to neutralize and eliminate the virus from the body. They are typically detected in the blood or other bodily fluids using laboratory tests, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) or immunofluorescence assays. The presence of viral antibodies can be used as a diagnostic tool to confirm a viral infection or to determine the immune status of an individual.

Immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies, are proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence of foreign substances, such as viruses, bacteria, and toxins. They are Y-shaped molecules that recognize and bind to specific antigens, which are molecules found on the surface of pathogens. There are five main classes of immunoglobulins: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE. Each class has a unique structure and function, and they are produced by different types of immune cells in response to different types of pathogens. Immunoglobulins play a critical role in the immune response by neutralizing pathogens, marking them for destruction by other immune cells, and activating the complement system, which helps to destroy pathogens. They are also used in medical treatments, such as immunoglobulin replacement therapy for patients with primary immunodeficiencies, and in the development of vaccines and monoclonal antibodies for the treatment of various diseases.

Nuclear proteins are proteins that are found within the nucleus of a cell. The nucleus is the control center of the cell, where genetic material is stored and regulated. Nuclear proteins play a crucial role in many cellular processes, including DNA replication, transcription, and gene regulation. There are many different types of nuclear proteins, each with its own specific function. Some nuclear proteins are involved in the structure and organization of the nucleus itself, while others are involved in the regulation of gene expression. Nuclear proteins can also interact with other proteins, DNA, and RNA molecules to carry out their functions. In the medical field, nuclear proteins are often studied in the context of diseases such as cancer, where changes in the expression or function of nuclear proteins can contribute to the development and progression of the disease. Additionally, nuclear proteins are important targets for drug development, as they can be targeted to treat a variety of diseases.

Antimony is a chemical element that has been used in the medical field for various purposes. In medicine, antimony is used as an antiparasitic agent to treat infections caused by parasites such as leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, and trypanosomiasis. It is also used in the treatment of certain types of cancer, such as acute promyelocytic leukemia. Antimony compounds are available in various forms, including intravenous solutions, tablets, and topical creams. The most commonly used antimony compound in medicine is sodium stibogluconate, which is administered intravenously to treat leishmaniasis. Antimony can cause side effects, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and allergic reactions. It can also be toxic in high doses, so it is important to use it under the supervision of a healthcare professional.

Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) is a detergent that is commonly used in the medical field for various purposes. It is a white, crystalline solid that is highly soluble in water and has a strong cleansing and emulsifying effect. In the medical field, SDS is often used as a surfactant, which means that it helps to lower the surface tension of water and other liquids, allowing them to mix more easily. This property makes SDS useful in a variety of medical applications, including: - Cleaning and disinfecting medical equipment and surfaces - Removing blood and other bodily fluids from clothing and bedding - Breaking up and removing mucus and other secretions from the respiratory tract - Enhancing the effectiveness of other medications and treatments, such as antibiotics and antiviral drugs SDS is generally considered safe for use in the medical field, but it can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions in some people. It is important to follow proper safety protocols when handling SDS, including wearing protective gloves and goggles and avoiding contact with the skin and eyes.

Pore-forming cytotoxic proteins (PFTs) are a class of proteins that are capable of forming pores in the membranes of cells, leading to cell death. These proteins are produced by various organisms, including bacteria, viruses, and some eukaryotic cells, and are used as a mechanism of attack against host cells. PFTs typically function by binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, and then inserting themselves into the cell membrane. Once inside the membrane, the PFTs oligomerize (form multiple copies of themselves) and create a pore that allows ions and other molecules to pass through the membrane. This disruption of the cell membrane can lead to a loss of osmotic balance, cell swelling, and ultimately cell death. PFTs are a major component of the immune response and are used by the immune system to kill infected or cancerous cells. However, some pathogens have evolved to produce PFTs as a means of evading the immune system or causing disease. For example, the anthrax toxin produced by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis is a PFT that is capable of killing host cells and causing severe illness. In the medical field, PFTs are the subject of ongoing research as potential therapeutic agents for a variety of diseases, including cancer, viral infections, and autoimmune disorders. They are also being studied as potential targets for the development of new vaccines and antiviral drugs.

Adaptive immunity is a type of immunity that is acquired by the body over time in response to exposure to a specific pathogen or antigen. It is also known as acquired immunity or specific immunity. Adaptive immunity involves the activation of immune cells, such as B cells and T cells, which are able to recognize and respond to specific pathogens or antigens. These immune cells are able to remember the pathogen or antigen, so that if the body is exposed to it again in the future, they are able to mount a more rapid and effective immune response. Adaptive immunity is characterized by the production of antibodies, which are proteins that are able to recognize and bind to specific antigens on the surface of pathogens. Antibodies can neutralize pathogens, mark them for destruction by other immune cells, or activate the complement system, which helps to destroy pathogens. Adaptive immunity is an important part of the body's defense against infection and disease, and it is the basis for vaccination, which involves exposing the body to a harmless form of a pathogen or antigen in order to stimulate the production of antibodies and activate the adaptive immune response.

Burkitt lymphoma is a type of aggressive and fast-growing cancer that affects the lymphatic system, which is a part of the immune system. It is named after Denis Parsons Burkitt, a British surgeon who first described the disease in African children in the 1950s. Burkitt lymphoma can occur in different parts of the body, including the lymph nodes, bone marrow, and gastrointestinal tract. It is most common in children and young adults, particularly in Africa, Asia, and Central and South America. The exact cause of Burkitt lymphoma is not fully understood, but it is believed to be related to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Some of the risk factors for developing Burkitt lymphoma include exposure to the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), which is a common virus that can cause infectious mononucleosis, and certain genetic mutations. Treatment for Burkitt lymphoma typically involves a combination of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and sometimes stem cell transplantation. The prognosis for Burkitt lymphoma depends on several factors, including the stage of the cancer at diagnosis, the patient's age and overall health, and the response to treatment. With appropriate treatment, the majority of people with Burkitt lymphoma can achieve long-term remission or even a cure.

In the medical field, antigens are substances that can trigger an immune response in the body. Antigens can be found in various forms, including proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids, and they can be produced by viruses, bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms. Viral antigens are specific proteins or other molecules that are produced by viruses and can be recognized by the immune system as foreign. When a virus enters the body, it produces viral antigens, which are then recognized by the immune system as a threat and trigger an immune response. The immune response to viral antigens involves the production of antibodies, which are proteins that can bind to and neutralize the virus. The immune system also produces immune cells, such as T cells and B cells, which can recognize and destroy infected cells. Understanding the properties and behavior of viral antigens is important in the development of vaccines and other treatments for viral infections. By stimulating the immune system to recognize and respond to viral antigens, vaccines can help protect against viral infections and prevent the spread of disease.

In the medical field, recurrence refers to the reappearance of a disease or condition after it has been treated or has gone into remission. Recurrence can occur in various medical conditions, including cancer, infections, and autoimmune diseases. For example, in cancer, recurrence means that the cancer has come back after it has been treated with surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or other treatments. Recurrence can occur months, years, or even decades after the initial treatment. In infections, recurrence means that the infection has returned after it has been treated with antibiotics or other medications. Recurrence can occur due to incomplete treatment, antibiotic resistance, or other factors. In autoimmune diseases, recurrence means that the symptoms of the disease return after they have been controlled with medication. Recurrence can occur due to changes in the immune system or other factors. Overall, recurrence is a significant concern for patients and healthcare providers, as it can require additional treatment and can impact the patient's quality of life.

Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, alpha-beta are a type of immune cell receptor found on the surface of T-cells in the human body. These receptors are responsible for recognizing and binding to specific antigens, which are foreign substances that trigger an immune response. The alpha-beta receptors are a type of T-cell receptor that recognizes antigens presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules on the surface of infected or cancerous cells. When the alpha-beta receptors bind to the antigen-MHC complex, it triggers a series of events that lead to the activation and proliferation of the T-cell, which then mounts an immune response against the infected or cancerous cells.

Carboxymethylcellulose sodium (CMC sodium) is a water-soluble polymer that is commonly used in the medical field as a thickening agent, emulsifier, and stabilizer. It is derived from cellulose, which is a natural polymer found in plant cell walls. CMC sodium is often used in pharmaceuticals to improve the texture and consistency of various products, such as tablets, capsules, and ointments. It can also be used as a binder to help hold ingredients together in a cohesive mixture. In addition to its use in pharmaceuticals, CMC sodium is also used in medical devices, such as wound dressings and catheters, to improve their handling and performance. It is also used in food and beverage products as a thickener and stabilizer. CMC sodium is generally considered safe for use in humans and is listed as a food additive by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). However, it may cause allergic reactions in some people, and its use in certain medical products may be contraindicated in individuals with certain medical conditions.

In the medical field, a chronic disease is a long-term health condition that persists for an extended period, typically for more than three months. Chronic diseases are often progressive, meaning that they tend to worsen over time, and they can have a significant impact on a person's quality of life. Chronic diseases can affect any part of the body and can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetics, lifestyle, and environmental factors. Some examples of chronic diseases include heart disease, diabetes, cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and arthritis. Chronic diseases often require ongoing medical management, including medication, lifestyle changes, and regular monitoring to prevent complications and manage symptoms. Treatment for chronic diseases may also involve rehabilitation, physical therapy, and other supportive care.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in the innate immune system. They are expressed on the surface of immune cells, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, and are responsible for recognizing and responding to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which are molecules that are unique to microorganisms and not found in host cells. When TLRs recognize PAMPs, they trigger a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of immune cells and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. This helps to initiate an immune response against the invading pathogen. TLRs are also involved in the recognition of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), which are molecules that are released by damaged or dying host cells. This can help to trigger an inflammatory response in cases of tissue injury or infection. Overall, TLRs play a critical role in the immune system's ability to detect and respond to pathogens and tissue damage.

The proteasome endopeptidase complex is a large protein complex found in the cells of all eukaryotic organisms. It is responsible for breaking down and recycling damaged or unnecessary proteins within the cell. The proteasome is composed of two main subunits: the 20S core particle, which contains the proteolytic active sites, and the 19S regulatory particle, which recognizes and unfolds target proteins for degradation. The proteasome plays a critical role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and is involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell cycle regulation, immune response, and protein quality control. Dysregulation of the proteasome has been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases.

Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid (BALF) is a type of fluid that is collected from the airways and alveoli of the lungs. It is obtained by washing the airways and alveoli with a sterile saline solution using a bronchoscope, which is a thin, flexible tube that is inserted through the mouth or nose into the airways. BALF is used to diagnose and monitor a variety of lung diseases, including pneumonia, lung infections, lung cancer, and interstitial lung diseases. It can also be used to assess the immune response of the lungs and to detect the presence of foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. The fluid is usually analyzed in a laboratory to determine the number and type of cells present, as well as the levels of various proteins and other substances. This information can help doctors to diagnose and treat the underlying cause of the patient's symptoms.

Chemokine CCL2, also known as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), is a small protein that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is a member of the chemokine family of proteins, which are responsible for regulating the movement of immune cells within the body. CCL2 is primarily produced by cells such as monocytes, macrophages, and endothelial cells in response to inflammatory stimuli. It functions as a chemoattractant, drawing immune cells towards the site of inflammation or infection. Specifically, CCL2 attracts monocytes and T cells to the site of injury or infection, where they can help to clear the infection and promote tissue repair. In addition to its role in immune cell recruitment, CCL2 has also been implicated in a variety of other physiological processes, including angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels), tissue repair, and cancer progression. Dysregulation of CCL2 expression or function has been linked to a number of diseases, including atherosclerosis, diabetes, and certain types of cancer.

Case-control studies are a type of observational study used in the medical field to investigate the relationship between an exposure and an outcome. In a case-control study, researchers identify individuals who have experienced a particular outcome (cases) and compare their exposure history to a group of individuals who have not experienced the outcome (controls). The main goal of a case-control study is to determine whether the exposure was a risk factor for the outcome. To do this, researchers collect information about the exposure history of both the cases and the controls and compare the two groups to see if there is a statistically significant difference in the prevalence of the exposure between the two groups. Case-control studies are often used when the outcome of interest is rare, and it is difficult or unethical to conduct a prospective cohort study. However, because case-control studies rely on retrospective data collection, they are subject to recall bias, where participants may not accurately remember their exposure history. Additionally, because case-control studies only provide information about the association between an exposure and an outcome, they cannot establish causality.

CD45 is a type of protein found on the surface of many different types of immune cells, including white blood cells. It is also known as leukocyte common antigen or lymphocyte common antigen. CD45 plays an important role in the function of the immune system by helping to regulate the activity of immune cells. It is also used as a marker to identify different types of immune cells in the laboratory. Antigens, CD45 refers to molecules that bind to CD45 on the surface of immune cells and trigger an immune response. These antigens can be found on viruses, bacteria, and other foreign substances, as well as on abnormal cells in the body.

Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1 (ICAM-1) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the immune system and cell signaling. It is expressed on the surface of various cell types, including immune cells, endothelial cells, and epithelial cells. ICAM-1 functions as a receptor for immune cells, allowing them to adhere to and migrate across the endothelial cells that line blood vessels. This process is essential for the immune system to respond to infections and other inflammatory stimuli. ICAM-1 also plays a role in cell signaling, mediating the interaction between cells and their environment. It can be activated by various stimuli, including cytokines, hormones, and growth factors, and can regulate processes such as cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. In the medical field, ICAM-1 is often studied in the context of various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. For example, increased expression of ICAM-1 has been associated with the development and progression of several types of cancer, including breast cancer and lung cancer. Additionally, ICAM-1 has been implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis.

In the medical field, "cell count" refers to the measurement of the number of cells present in a specific sample of tissue or fluid. This measurement is typically performed using a microscope and a specialized staining technique to distinguish between different types of cells. For example, a complete blood count (CBC) is a common laboratory test that measures the number and types of cells in the blood, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Similarly, a urine analysis may include a cell count to measure the number of white blood cells or bacteria present in the urine. Cell counts can be used to diagnose a variety of medical conditions, such as infections, inflammation, or cancer. They can also be used to monitor the effectiveness of treatments or to detect any changes in the body's cellular makeup over time.

Dinoprostone is a synthetic prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) medication that is used in the medical field to induce labor in pregnant women who are past their due date or who are at risk of complications during delivery. It is typically administered vaginally as a gel or tablet, and works by stimulating the muscles of the uterus to contract and push the baby out of the womb. Dinoprostone is also sometimes used to treat certain conditions that can cause bleeding in the uterus, such as uterine fibroids or abnormal bleeding during pregnancy. It is generally considered safe and effective for use in pregnant women, but like all medications, it can cause side effects in some people. These may include cramping, bleeding, and uterine contractions.

In the medical field, the brain is the most complex and vital organ in the human body. It is responsible for controlling and coordinating all bodily functions, including movement, sensation, thought, emotion, and memory. The brain is located in the skull and is protected by the skull bones and cerebrospinal fluid. The brain is composed of billions of nerve cells, or neurons, which communicate with each other through electrical and chemical signals. These neurons are organized into different regions of the brain, each with its own specific functions. The brain is also divided into two hemispheres, the left and right, which are connected by a bundle of nerve fibers called the corpus callosum. Damage to the brain can result in a wide range of neurological disorders, including stroke, traumatic brain injury, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and epilepsy. Treatment for brain disorders often involves medications, surgery, and rehabilitation therapies to help restore function and improve quality of life.

Thiazolidinediones (TZDs) are a class of drugs that are used to treat type 2 diabetes. They work by increasing the sensitivity of insulin receptors in muscle, fat, and liver cells, which helps the body to use insulin more effectively and lower blood sugar levels. TZDs are also thought to have anti-inflammatory and anti-atherosclerotic effects, which may help to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in people with diabetes. Some examples of TZDs include pioglitazone (Actos) and rosiglitazone (Avandia). These drugs are typically used in combination with other diabetes medications, such as metformin or sulfonylureas, to achieve better blood sugar control.

Pregnancy proteins are proteins that are produced during pregnancy and are specific to pregnancy. These proteins are produced by the placenta and are present in the mother's blood, urine, and other body fluids. They are used in medical testing to confirm pregnancy and to monitor the health of the pregnancy. Some examples of pregnancy proteins include human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), and unconjugated estriol (uE3). These proteins are important for the development of the fetus and can be used to detect potential problems with the pregnancy, such as fetal abnormalities or complications.

Interleukin-3 (IL-3) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in regulating the immune system. IL-3 is produced by a variety of cells, including immune cells such as T cells, B cells, and mast cells, as well as by some non-immune cells such as fibroblasts and endothelial cells. In the medical field, IL-3 is primarily used as a therapeutic agent to treat certain types of blood disorders and cancers. For example, IL-3 has been shown to stimulate the growth and differentiation of certain types of blood cells, such as neutrophils and eosinophils, which are important for fighting infections and allergies. It has also been used to treat certain types of leukemia and lymphoma, as well as myelodysplastic syndrome, a group of blood disorders characterized by abnormal blood cell production. However, IL-3 can also have harmful effects if it is produced in excess or if it is not properly regulated. For example, it has been implicated in the development of certain types of autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis, where the immune system mistakenly attacks healthy cells and tissues. As a result, the use of IL-3 as a therapeutic agent is carefully monitored and regulated to minimize the risk of adverse effects.

Receptors, GABA-A are a type of ionotropic receptor that are activated by the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). These receptors are found throughout the central nervous system and play a key role in regulating inhibitory neurotransmission. Activation of GABA-A receptors leads to the opening of chloride ion channels, which results in a decrease in the membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron. This decrease in membrane potential makes it more difficult for the neuron to generate an action potential, which in turn reduces the release of neurotransmitters and decreases the overall activity of the neuron. GABA-A receptors are important for a variety of physiological processes, including muscle relaxation, sleep, and the regulation of anxiety and seizures.

Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infection (MAI) is a type of infection caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium intracellulare. These bacteria are commonly found in soil and water, and can also be found in the respiratory tract of some animals. MAI is most commonly seen in people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, or organ transplantation. It can cause a variety of symptoms, including fever, cough, weight loss, and fatigue. Treatment typically involves a combination of antibiotics, although the specific treatment regimen may vary depending on the severity of the infection and the patient's overall health.

Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins (MIPs) are a family of small proteins that are produced by macrophages, a type of white blood cell. These proteins play a role in the immune response by promoting inflammation and attracting other immune cells to the site of infection or injury. MIPs are also involved in the regulation of angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels, and in the development of certain types of cancer. There are several different types of MIPs, including MIP-1α, MIP-1β, and MIP-2, each with its own specific functions and effects on the immune system.

Fas Ligand Protein (FasL) is a type of protein that plays a crucial role in the regulation of the immune system. It is also known as tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) or Apo-2L. FasL is expressed on the surface of certain immune cells, such as natural killer (NK) cells and cytotoxic T cells, and it binds to a protein receptor called Fas (also known as CD95) on the surface of target cells. When FasL binds to Fas, it triggers a process called apoptosis, which is a form of programmed cell death. In the context of the immune system, FasL is important for eliminating infected or cancerous cells. However, when FasL is expressed at high levels, it can also contribute to autoimmune diseases and tissue damage. Therefore, the regulation of FasL expression is tightly controlled in the body.

Hepatocyte Nuclear Factor 3-gamma (HNF3γ) is a transcription factor that plays a crucial role in the development and function of the liver and pancreas. It is encoded by the HNF3G gene, which is located on chromosome 12 in humans. HNF3γ is expressed in the liver, pancreas, and small intestine, where it regulates the expression of genes involved in glucose and lipid metabolism, as well as the development and function of liver and pancreatic cells. It is also involved in the development of the biliary system and the formation of the pancreas. Mutations in the HNF3G gene can lead to a rare genetic disorder called maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY), which is a form of diabetes that typically develops in childhood or adolescence. MODY is caused by mutations in one of several genes that regulate glucose metabolism, including HNF3G. These mutations can lead to impaired insulin production and glucose intolerance, which can cause high blood sugar levels and other complications associated with diabetes.

In the medical field, "Neoplasms, Experimental" refers to the study of neoplasms (abnormal growths of cells) in experimental settings, such as in laboratory animals or in vitro cell cultures. These studies are typically conducted to better understand the underlying mechanisms of neoplasms and to develop new treatments for cancer and other types of neoplastic diseases. Experimental neoplasms may be induced by various factors, including genetic mutations, exposure to carcinogens, or other forms of cellular stress. The results of these studies can provide valuable insights into the biology of neoplasms and help to identify potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

Alanine transaminase (ALT) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the metabolism of amino acids in the liver. It is also known as alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and is found in high concentrations in liver cells. When liver cells are damaged or destroyed, ALT is released into the bloodstream, where it can be measured in a blood test. Elevated levels of ALT in the blood are often an indication of liver damage or disease, such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, or fatty liver disease. ALT is also found in other tissues, including the heart, skeletal muscle, and kidneys, but in lower concentrations than in the liver. In these tissues, elevated levels of ALT can indicate injury or disease. Overall, ALT is an important biomarker for liver function and can be used to diagnose and monitor liver diseases.

In the medical field, brain waves refer to the electrical activity that occurs in the brain. These electrical signals are generated by the movement of ions across the cell membranes of neurons in the brain. Brain waves can be measured using an electroencephalogram (EEG), which is a non-invasive test that records the electrical activity of the brain. There are several different types of brain waves, each with its own characteristic frequency and pattern. The most common types of brain waves are: 1. Alpha waves: These are the most common type of brain wave, and they occur when a person is relaxed and awake. Alpha waves have a frequency of 8-13 Hz. 2. Beta waves: These brain waves occur when a person is alert and focused. Beta waves have a frequency of 14-30 Hz. 3. Theta waves: These brain waves occur when a person is in a light sleep or daydreaming state. Theta waves have a frequency of 4-7 Hz. 4. Delta waves: These brain waves occur when a person is in a deep sleep state. Delta waves have a frequency of less than 4 Hz. Brain waves can be used to diagnose and monitor a variety of neurological conditions, including epilepsy, sleep disorders, and brain injuries. They can also be used to study the effects of drugs and other substances on brain function.

Interleukin-23 (IL-23) is a cytokine that plays a critical role in the regulation of the immune system. It is produced by immune cells called dendritic cells and macrophages, and it acts on other immune cells, such as T cells and B cells, to stimulate their activity. IL-23 is involved in the development and maintenance of autoimmune diseases, such as psoriasis and Crohn's disease, as well as in the regulation of the immune response to infections. It promotes the differentiation and proliferation of T cells that produce the cytokine interleukin-17 (IL-17), which is involved in the recruitment of immune cells to sites of inflammation. In the medical field, IL-23 is being studied as a potential target for the treatment of autoimmune diseases. In particular, monoclonal antibodies that block the action of IL-23 are being developed as therapies for psoriasis and Crohn's disease. These drugs have shown promise in clinical trials, and they are being evaluated for their safety and efficacy in treating these conditions.

In the medical field, cell adhesion refers to the process by which cells stick to each other or to a surface. This is an essential process for the proper functioning of tissues and organs in the body. There are several types of cell adhesion, including: 1. Homophilic adhesion: This occurs when cells adhere to each other through the interaction of specific molecules on their surface. 2. Heterophilic adhesion: This occurs when cells adhere to each other through the interaction of different molecules on their surface. 3. Heterotypic adhesion: This occurs when cells adhere to each other through the interaction of different types of cells. 4. Intercellular adhesion: This occurs when cells adhere to each other through the interaction of molecules within the cell membrane. 5. Intracellular adhesion: This occurs when cells adhere to each other through the interaction of molecules within the cytoplasm. Cell adhesion is important for a variety of processes, including tissue development, wound healing, and the immune response. Disruptions in cell adhesion can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including cancer, autoimmune diseases, and inflammatory disorders.

Mycobacterium infections, nontuberculous, refer to a group of infections caused by mycobacteria other than Mycobacterium tuberculosis. These infections are also known as NTM (nontuberculous mycobacteria) infections. NTM infections can affect various parts of the body, including the lungs, skin, lymph nodes, and bones. NTM infections are typically acquired through inhalation of contaminated water or soil, or through contact with infected individuals or animals. They can also occur as a result of weakened immune systems, such as in people with HIV/AIDS or those taking immunosuppressive medications. Symptoms of NTM infections can vary depending on the affected area of the body. Common symptoms include cough, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and fatigue. Infections of the lungs can also cause chest pain, shortness of breath, and。 Diagnosis of NTM infections typically involves a combination of clinical examination, imaging studies, and laboratory testing. Treatment may involve a combination of antibiotics and surgery, depending on the severity and location of the infection.

Glycoproteins are a type of protein that contains one or more carbohydrate chains covalently attached to the protein molecule. These carbohydrate chains are made up of sugars and are often referred to as glycans. Glycoproteins play important roles in many biological processes, including cell signaling, cell adhesion, and immune response. They are found in many different types of cells and tissues throughout the body, and are often used as markers for various diseases and conditions. In the medical field, glycoproteins are often studied as potential targets for the development of new drugs and therapies.

Dexamethasone is a synthetic glucocorticoid hormone that is used in the medical field as an anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, and antipyretic agent. It is a potent corticosteroid that has a wide range of therapeutic applications, including the treatment of allergic reactions, inflammatory diseases, autoimmune disorders, and cancer. Dexamethasone is available in various forms, including tablets, injections, and inhalers, and is used to treat a variety of conditions, such as asthma, COPD, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, and inflammatory bowel disease. It is also used to treat severe cases of COVID-19, as it has been shown to reduce inflammation and improve outcomes in patients with severe illness. However, dexamethasone is a potent drug that can have significant side effects, including weight gain, fluid retention, high blood pressure, increased risk of infection, and mood changes. Therefore, it is typically prescribed only when other treatments have failed or when the potential benefits outweigh the risks.

Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are proteins that mediate the attachment of cells to each other or to the extracellular matrix. They play a crucial role in various physiological processes, including tissue development, wound healing, immune response, and cancer progression. There are several types of CAMs, including cadherins, integrins, selectins, and immunoglobulin superfamily members. Each type of CAM has a unique structure and function, and they can interact with other molecules to form complex networks that regulate cell behavior. In the medical field, CAMs are often studied as potential targets for therapeutic interventions. For example, drugs that block specific CAMs have been developed to treat cancer, autoimmune diseases, and cardiovascular disorders. Additionally, CAMs are used as diagnostic markers to identify and monitor various diseases, including cancer, inflammation, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Bacterial proteins are proteins that are synthesized by bacteria. They are essential for the survival and function of bacteria, and play a variety of roles in bacterial metabolism, growth, and pathogenicity. Bacterial proteins can be classified into several categories based on their function, including structural proteins, metabolic enzymes, regulatory proteins, and toxins. Structural proteins provide support and shape to the bacterial cell, while metabolic enzymes are involved in the breakdown of nutrients and the synthesis of new molecules. Regulatory proteins control the expression of other genes, and toxins can cause damage to host cells and tissues. Bacterial proteins are of interest in the medical field because they can be used as targets for the development of antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents. They can also be used as diagnostic markers for bacterial infections, and as vaccines to prevent bacterial diseases. Additionally, some bacterial proteins have been shown to have therapeutic potential, such as enzymes that can break down harmful substances in the body or proteins that can stimulate the immune system.

In the medical field, a multienzyme complex is a group of two or more enzymes that are physically and functionally linked together to form a single, larger enzyme complex. These complexes can work together to catalyze a series of sequential reactions, or they can work in parallel to carry out multiple reactions simultaneously. Multienzyme complexes are found in a variety of biological processes, including metabolism, DNA replication and repair, and signal transduction. They can be found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and they can be composed of enzymes from different cellular compartments. One example of a multienzyme complex is the 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complex, which is involved in the citric acid cycle and the metabolism of amino acids. This complex consists of three enzymes that work together to catalyze the conversion of 2-oxoglutarate to succinyl-CoA. Multienzyme complexes can have important implications for human health. For example, mutations in genes encoding enzymes in these complexes can lead to metabolic disorders, such as maple syrup urine disease and glutaric acidemia type II. Additionally, some drugs target specific enzymes in multienzyme complexes as a way to treat certain diseases, such as cancer.

In the medical field, a protein subunit refers to a smaller, functional unit of a larger protein complex. Proteins are made up of chains of amino acids, and these chains can fold into complex three-dimensional structures that perform a wide range of functions in the body. Protein subunits are often formed when two or more protein chains come together to form a larger complex. These subunits can be identical or different, and they can interact with each other in various ways to perform specific functions. For example, the protein hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in red blood cells, is made up of four subunits: two alpha chains and two beta chains. Each of these subunits has a specific structure and function, and they work together to form a functional hemoglobin molecule. In the medical field, understanding the structure and function of protein subunits is important for developing treatments for a wide range of diseases and conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders, and infectious diseases.

Cancer vaccines are a type of vaccine designed to stimulate the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells. They work by introducing cancer-specific antigens, which are proteins or other molecules found on the surface of cancer cells, into the body. The immune system recognizes these antigens as foreign and mounts an immune response against them, which can help to slow the growth of cancer cells or even eliminate them entirely. There are several different types of cancer vaccines, including prophylactic vaccines, which are designed to prevent cancer from developing in the first place, and therapeutic vaccines, which are designed to treat existing cancer. Prophylactic vaccines are typically given to people who are at high risk of developing certain types of cancer, such as those with a family history of the disease or those who have certain genetic mutations. Therapeutic vaccines are given to people who have already been diagnosed with cancer, with the goal of boosting their immune system and helping it to attack cancer cells more effectively. Cancer vaccines are still an active area of research, and while some have shown promise in clinical trials, they are not yet widely available for use in the general population. However, they hold great potential for improving cancer treatment and prevention, and ongoing research is expected to lead to the development of more effective cancer vaccines in the future.

CD95, also known as Fas or Apo-1, is a cell surface protein that plays a role in the regulation of immune responses and cell death. Antigens, CD95 refers to molecules that bind to the CD95 protein on the surface of immune cells, triggering a cascade of events that can lead to cell death. This process is known as apoptosis and is an important mechanism for eliminating damaged or infected cells from the body. CD95 antigens are also involved in the regulation of immune responses, including the activation and differentiation of T cells and B cells. In the medical field, CD95 antigens are often studied as potential targets for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and viral infections.

A biopsy is a medical procedure in which a small sample of tissue is removed from a person's body for examination under a microscope. The sample is usually taken from a lump, growth, or other abnormal area, and is used to help diagnose a medical condition or disease. There are several types of biopsy procedures, including: 1. Fine-needle aspiration biopsy: A sample of tissue is removed using a thin needle inserted into the abnormal area. 2. Core biopsy: A larger sample of tissue is removed using a hollow needle that takes multiple cores of tissue. 3. Excision biopsy: A larger piece of tissue is removed using a scalpel or other surgical instrument. 4. Endoscopic biopsy: A biopsy is performed using a flexible tube with a camera and light on the end, which is inserted into the body through a natural opening or a small incision. Biopsies are commonly used to diagnose cancer, but they can also be used to diagnose other medical conditions, such as infections, autoimmune diseases, and genetic disorders. The results of a biopsy can help guide treatment decisions and provide important information about a person's prognosis.

In the medical field, the colon refers to the large intestine, which is the final part of the digestive system. The colon is responsible for absorbing water and electrolytes from the remaining indigestible food matter, forming and storing feces, and eliminating waste from the body. The colon is divided into several sections, including the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, and rectum. The colon is an important organ for maintaining overall health and wellbeing, and any issues with the colon can lead to a range of medical conditions, including inflammatory bowel disease, colon cancer, and diverticulitis.

In the medical field, cell communication refers to the process by which cells exchange information and signals with each other. This communication is essential for the proper functioning of the body's tissues and organs, as it allows cells to coordinate their activities and respond to changes in their environment. There are several types of cell communication, including direct communication between neighboring cells, as well as communication through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. Some of the key mechanisms of cell communication include the release of signaling molecules, such as hormones and neurotransmitters, as well as the exchange of ions and other small molecules across cell membranes. Disruptions in cell communication can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including cancer, autoimmune diseases, and neurological disorders. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of cell communication is an important area of research in medicine, with potential applications in the development of new treatments and therapies.

In the medical field, gluten refers to a group of proteins found in certain grains, including wheat, barley, and rye. Gluten is a common ingredient in many foods, including bread, pasta, and baked goods. For people with celiac disease, gluten can cause an immune response that damages the lining of the small intestine, leading to a range of symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, and weight loss. Gluten sensitivity, on the other hand, is a condition in which the body reacts to gluten, but it does not cause damage to the small intestine. People with celiac disease or gluten sensitivity are advised to follow a gluten-free diet to avoid symptoms and prevent long-term health complications.

Interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is produced by various types of immune cells, including macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells, in response to infection, injury, or inflammation. IL-1β is involved in the regulation of immune responses, including the activation of T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells. It also promotes the production of other cytokines and chemokines, which help to recruit immune cells to the site of infection or injury. In addition to its role in the immune system, IL-1β has been implicated in a variety of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and multiple sclerosis. It is also involved in the pathogenesis of certain types of cancer, such as breast cancer and ovarian cancer. Overall, IL-1β is a key mediator of inflammation and immune responses, and its dysregulation has been linked to a range of diseases and conditions.

In the medical field, STAT (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription) transcription factors are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in the regulation of gene expression in response to various signaling molecules, such as cytokines, growth factors, and hormones. STAT proteins are activated by phosphorylation, which occurs when they bind to specific signaling molecules and form dimers. Once activated, the STAT dimers translocate to the nucleus and bind to specific DNA sequences, known as STAT response elements, to promote or repress the transcription of target genes. STAT transcription factors are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including immune response, cell growth and differentiation, and cancer development. Dysregulation of STAT signaling has been implicated in various diseases, including inflammatory disorders, autoimmune diseases, and certain types of cancer. Therefore, understanding the role of STAT transcription factors in health and disease is an important area of research in the medical field.

T-Box Domain Proteins are a family of transcription factors that play important roles in the development and differentiation of various cell types in the body. They are characterized by the presence of a conserved T-box DNA binding domain, which allows them to interact with specific DNA sequences and regulate gene expression. T-Box Domain Proteins are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, and apoptosis. They have been implicated in the development and progression of various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurological disorders. In the medical field, T-Box Domain Proteins are the subject of ongoing research, with the goal of understanding their roles in disease pathogenesis and developing targeted therapies for the treatment of these conditions.

Cell culture techniques refer to the methods used to grow and maintain cells in a controlled laboratory environment. These techniques are commonly used in the medical field for research, drug development, and tissue engineering. In cell culture, cells are typically grown in a liquid medium containing nutrients, hormones, and other substances that support their growth and survival. The cells are usually placed in a specialized container called a culture dish or flask, which is incubated in a controlled environment with a specific temperature, humidity, and oxygen level. There are several types of cell culture techniques, including: 1. Monolayer culture: In this technique, cells are grown in a single layer on the surface of the culture dish. This is the most common type of cell culture and is used for many types of research and drug development. 2. Suspension culture: In this technique, cells are grown in a liquid medium and are free to move around. This is commonly used for the cultivation of cells that do not form a monolayer, such as stem cells and cancer cells. 3. Co-culture: In this technique, two or more types of cells are grown together in the same culture dish. This is used to study interactions between different cell types and is commonly used in tissue engineering. 4. 3D culture: In this technique, cells are grown in a three-dimensional matrix, such as a scaffold or hydrogel. This is used to mimic the structure and function of tissues in the body and is commonly used in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Overall, cell culture techniques are essential tools in the medical field for advancing our understanding of cell biology, developing new drugs and therapies, and engineering tissues and organs for transplantation.

Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) are a group of proteins that stimulate the growth and differentiation of certain types of blood cells in the bone marrow. There are several different types of CSFs, including granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), and colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1). CSFs are typically used to treat conditions that affect the production of blood cells, such as chemotherapy-induced neutropenia (a low white blood cell count), and to stimulate the growth of new blood cells in people with certain types of anemia or bone marrow disorders. They may also be used to stimulate the growth of new bone tissue in people with certain types of bone disease. CSFs are usually administered as injections, either under the skin or into a vein. They can cause side effects, such as fever, chills, and flu-like symptoms, and may also increase the risk of infection. It is important to carefully follow the instructions provided by your healthcare provider when using CSFs.

In the medical field, isoenzymes refer to different forms of enzymes that have the same chemical structure and catalytic activity, but differ in their amino acid sequence. These differences can arise due to genetic variations or post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation or glycosylation. Isoenzymes are often used in medical diagnosis and treatment because they can provide information about the function and health of specific organs or tissues. For example, the presence of certain isoenzymes in the blood can indicate liver or kidney disease, while changes in the levels of specific isoenzymes in the brain can be indicative of neurological disorders. In addition, isoenzymes can be used as biomarkers for certain diseases or conditions, and can be targeted for therapeutic intervention. For example, drugs that inhibit specific isoenzymes can be used to treat certain types of cancer or heart disease.

Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that are involved in regulating cell growth and division. When these genes are mutated or overexpressed, they can become oncogenes, which can lead to the development of cancer. Proto-oncogenes are also known as proto-oncogene proteins.

Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections (RSV) are a common viral infection that affects the respiratory system, particularly the nose and throat. RSV is a highly contagious virus that spreads easily through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes. It is most common in young children, especially those under the age of 2, and can also affect older adults, pregnant women, and people with weakened immune systems. Symptoms of RSV infection can range from mild to severe and may include a runny nose, cough, fever, and difficulty breathing. In severe cases, RSV can cause pneumonia, bronchiolitis, and even death, particularly in young children and older adults. RSV is typically diagnosed through a physical examination and laboratory tests, such as a nasal swab or blood test. Treatment for RSV typically involves managing symptoms and providing supportive care, such as fluids and rest. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary for oxygen therapy or other interventions. While there is no specific cure for RSV, vaccination is available for high-risk populations, such as premature infants and young children with chronic lung disease.

Myelin Basic Protein (MBP) is a protein that is found in the myelin sheath, which is a fatty layer that surrounds and insulates nerve fibers in the central nervous system (CNS). MBP plays a crucial role in the formation and maintenance of the myelin sheath, and it is thought to be involved in the development and progression of several neurological disorders, including multiple sclerosis (MS), neuromyelitis optica (NMO), and some forms of leukodystrophy. In these conditions, the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheath, leading to inflammation and damage to the nerve fibers. MBP is also being studied as a potential biomarker for these disorders, as levels of MBP in the blood or cerebrospinal fluid may be elevated in people with these conditions.

Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) is a type of protein that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is a member of the Toll-like receptor family, which is a group of proteins that recognize and respond to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on the surface of invading microorganisms. TLR9 is primarily expressed in immune cells such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells, and it recognizes a specific type of PAMP called unmethylated CpG DNA, which is found in the genomes of many viruses and bacteria. When TLR9 detects CpG DNA, it triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of immune cells and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. TLR9 is also involved in the regulation of adaptive immune responses, including the activation of B cells and the differentiation of T cells into various subsets. In addition, TLR9 has been implicated in the development of autoimmune diseases, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis, as well as in the pathogenesis of certain types of cancer. Overall, TLR9 plays a critical role in the immune system's ability to detect and respond to invading pathogens, and its dysfunction has been linked to a variety of diseases and conditions.

Antibodies, Bacterial are proteins produced by the immune system in response to bacterial infections. They are also known as bacterial antibodies or bacterial immunoglobulins. These antibodies are specific to bacterial antigens, which are molecules found on the surface of bacteria that trigger an immune response. When the immune system detects a bacterial infection, it produces antibodies that bind to the bacterial antigens and mark them for destruction by other immune cells. This helps to neutralize the bacteria and prevent them from causing harm to the body. Bacterial antibodies can be detected in the blood or other bodily fluids using laboratory tests. These tests are often used to diagnose bacterial infections and to monitor the effectiveness of antibiotic treatments.

In the medical field, "Culture Media, Conditioned" refers to a type of growth medium that has been prepared by adding nutrients and other components to a basic medium, such as agar, to support the growth of specific microorganisms. The term "conditioned" indicates that the medium has been treated or modified in some way to enhance the growth of the target microorganisms. Conditioned culture media are often used in diagnostic microbiology to isolate and identify specific microorganisms from clinical samples, such as blood, urine, or sputum. The medium may be further conditioned by adding specific supplements or antibiotics to inhibit the growth of unwanted microorganisms and promote the growth of the target organism. Overall, conditioned culture media are an important tool in the diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases, as they allow healthcare professionals to accurately identify the causative agent and select the most effective antimicrobial therapy.

Celiac disease is a chronic autoimmune disorder that affects the small intestine. It is triggered by the consumption of gluten, a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye. When gluten is ingested, the immune system of people with celiac disease responds by damaging the lining of the small intestine, leading to a range of symptoms and long-term health complications. The symptoms of celiac disease can vary widely and may include abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, constipation, fatigue, anemia, and weight loss. In some cases, people with celiac disease may not experience any symptoms at all. Celiac disease is diagnosed through a combination of blood tests, genetic testing, and a biopsy of the small intestine. Once diagnosed, the only effective treatment is a strict gluten-free diet for life. This means avoiding all foods and products that contain gluten, including wheat, barley, and rye, as well as any processed foods or medications that may contain gluten as an ingredient. With proper management, people with celiac disease can lead healthy, active lives.

CD86 is a protein that is expressed on the surface of certain immune cells, including dendritic cells and B cells. It is a member of the B7 family of proteins, which play a key role in regulating the immune response. CD86 is involved in the activation of T cells, which are a type of immune cell that plays a central role in the body's defense against infection and disease. When dendritic cells present an antigen (a foreign substance that triggers an immune response) to a T cell, they also express CD86 on their surface. This allows the T cell to recognize the antigen and become activated, leading to the production of immune cells that can attack and destroy the invading pathogen. In addition to its role in activating T cells, CD86 has also been shown to play a role in the regulation of the immune response. For example, it has been shown to promote the differentiation of regulatory T cells, which are a type of immune cell that helps to prevent autoimmune diseases by suppressing the activity of other immune cells. Overall, CD86 is an important protein in the immune system that plays a role in both the activation and regulation of immune responses.

In the medical field, cell movement refers to the ability of cells to move from one location to another within a tissue or organism. This movement can occur through various mechanisms, including crawling, rolling, and sliding, and is essential for many physiological processes, such as tissue repair, immune response, and embryonic development. There are several types of cell movement, including: 1. Chemotaxis: This is the movement of cells in response to chemical gradients, such as the concentration of a signaling molecule. 2. Haptotaxis: This is the movement of cells in response to physical gradients, such as the stiffness or topography of a substrate. 3. Random walk: This is the movement of cells in a seemingly random manner, which can be influenced by factors such as cell adhesion and cytoskeletal dynamics. 4. Amoeboid movement: This is the movement of cells that lack a well-defined cytoskeleton and rely on changes in cell shape and adhesion to move. Understanding cell movement is important for many medical applications, including the development of new therapies for diseases such as cancer, the study of tissue regeneration and repair, and the design of new materials for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

Omega-N-Methylarginine (L-NMMA) is a synthetic compound that is structurally similar to the amino acid L-arginine. L-arginine is an important precursor for the production of nitric oxide (NO), a molecule that plays a crucial role in regulating blood flow and blood pressure. L-NMMA inhibits the production of NO by competing with L-arginine for the enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of L-arginine to NO. As a result, L-NMMA can reduce NO levels in the body, leading to vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels) and an increase in blood pressure. L-NMMA has been used in research studies to investigate the role of NO in various physiological and pathophysiological processes, including cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and erectile dysfunction. However, it is not currently used as a therapeutic agent in clinical practice.

Biological factors refer to the various aspects of an individual's biology that can influence their health and disease risk. These factors can include genetics, hormones, immune system function, and other physiological processes. Genetics, for example, can play a significant role in determining an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases. Hormones, such as insulin and estrogen, can also affect an individual's health and disease risk. The immune system's ability to fight off infections and diseases can also be influenced by various biological factors. Other biological factors that can impact an individual's health include age, gender, ethnicity, and lifestyle factors such as diet and exercise. Understanding these biological factors can help healthcare providers develop personalized treatment plans and identify individuals who may be at higher risk for certain diseases.

Gliadin is a type of protein found in wheat, barley, and rye. It is a component of gluten, which is a mixture of proteins that gives bread and other baked goods their elasticity and texture. Gliadin is also a major allergen, and people with celiac disease have an immune response to gliadin that damages the lining of the small intestine. In addition, gliadin has been linked to other health conditions, such as non-celiac gluten sensitivity and autoimmune disorders.

Anti-inflammatory agents are medications that are used to reduce inflammation in the body. Inflammation is a natural response of the immune system to injury or infection, but chronic inflammation can lead to a variety of health problems, including autoimmune diseases, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. Anti-inflammatory agents work by blocking the production of inflammatory molecules, such as prostaglandins and cytokines, which are responsible for causing inflammation. They can also reduce the activity of immune cells that contribute to inflammation. There are several types of anti-inflammatory agents, including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, and biologic agents. NSAIDs, such as aspirin and ibuprofen, are commonly used to relieve pain and reduce inflammation in conditions such as arthritis and headaches. Corticosteroids, such as prednisone, are powerful anti-inflammatory agents that are used to treat a wide range of conditions, including asthma, allergies, and autoimmune diseases. Biologic agents, such as TNF inhibitors, are a newer class of anti-inflammatory agents that are used to treat autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and Crohn's disease. It is important to note that while anti-inflammatory agents can be effective in reducing inflammation, they can also have side effects and may not be appropriate for everyone. It is important to work with a healthcare provider to determine the best treatment plan for your individual needs.

Herpes simplex is a viral infection caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV). There are two types of herpes simplex virus: HSV-1 and HSV-2. HSV-1 is primarily responsible for oral herpes, which can cause cold sores or fever blisters on or around the mouth and lips. HSV-2 is primarily responsible for genital herpes, which can cause painful sores on the genital area. Herpes simplex is highly contagious and can be transmitted through direct contact with the skin or mucous membranes of an infected person. The virus can remain dormant in the body for long periods of time and can reactivate periodically, causing outbreaks of symptoms. There is no cure for herpes simplex, but antiviral medications can help to reduce the frequency and severity of outbreaks and prevent the virus from spreading to other parts of the body or to other people. It is important to practice safe sex and to avoid close contact with an infected person to prevent the spread of herpes simplex.

Intercellular signaling peptides and proteins are molecules that are secreted by cells and act as messengers to communicate with other cells. These molecules can be hormones, growth factors, cytokines, or other signaling molecules that are capable of transmitting information between cells. They play a crucial role in regulating various physiological processes, such as cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis, as well as immune responses and inflammation. In the medical field, understanding the function and regulation of intercellular signaling peptides and proteins is important for developing new treatments for various diseases and disorders, including cancer, autoimmune diseases, and neurological disorders.

Biopterin is a naturally occurring compound that plays a crucial role in various biological processes in the human body. It is a derivative of the amino acid tryptophan and is involved in the metabolism of essential nutrients such as folate, vitamin B12, and vitamin B6. In the medical field, biopterin is often studied in relation to its role in the metabolism of neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and serotonin, which are involved in mood regulation and other neurological functions. Biopterin deficiency has been linked to a number of neurological disorders, including depression, anxiety, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Biopterin is also involved in the metabolism of nitric oxide, a molecule that plays a key role in regulating blood flow and maintaining healthy blood vessels. Deficiencies in biopterin have been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. In addition, biopterin is involved in the metabolism of homocysteine, an amino acid that has been linked to an increased risk of heart disease and stroke. High levels of homocysteine can be caused by deficiencies in vitamins B6, B12, and folate, as well as by a deficiency in biopterin. Overall, biopterin is a critical molecule that plays a vital role in many aspects of human health, and its importance is only beginning to be fully understood.

CHO cells are a type of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line that is commonly used in the biotechnology industry for the production of recombinant proteins. These cells are derived from the ovaries of Chinese hamsters and have been genetically modified to produce large amounts of a specific protein or protein complex. CHO cells are often used as a host cell for the production of therapeutic proteins, such as monoclonal antibodies, growth factors, and enzymes. They are also used in research to study the structure and function of proteins, as well as to test the safety and efficacy of new drugs. One of the advantages of using CHO cells is that they are relatively easy to culture and can be grown in large quantities. They are also able to produce high levels of recombinant proteins, making them a popular choice for the production of biopharmaceuticals. However, like all cell lines, CHO cells can also have limitations and may not be suitable for all types of protein production.

In the medical field, "Shock, Septic" refers to a severe and life-threatening condition that occurs when the body's immune system overreacts to an infection, leading to widespread inflammation and damage to organs and tissues. Septic shock is a type of sepsis, which is a condition that occurs when the body's response to an infection causes inflammation throughout the body. In septic shock, the immune system releases large amounts of chemicals that cause blood vessels to narrow and blood pressure to drop, leading to reduced blood flow to vital organs such as the heart, brain, and kidneys. Symptoms of septic shock may include fever, chills, rapid heartbeat, rapid breathing, confusion, and decreased urine output. Treatment for septic shock typically involves antibiotics to treat the underlying infection, fluids and medications to maintain blood pressure and oxygen levels, and supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.，。

Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental (EAE) is an animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS), a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disorder that affects the central nervous system (CNS). EAE is induced by the administration of myelin antigens, such as myelin basic protein (MBP), to susceptible animals, which triggers an autoimmune response against the myelin sheath that surrounds nerve fibers in the CNS. In EAE, the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheath, leading to inflammation, demyelination, and axonal damage. This results in a range of neurological symptoms, including paralysis, loss of coordination, and cognitive impairment, which are similar to those seen in MS patients. EAE is widely used in research to study the pathogenesis of MS and to test potential treatments for the disease. It is a valuable tool for understanding the complex interplay between the immune system, the nervous system, and the environment that contributes to the development of MS.

Fetal hemoglobin (HbF) is a type of hemoglobin that is produced in the fetus during pregnancy. It is the primary type of hemoglobin found in the fetal circulation and is responsible for carrying oxygen from the mother to the fetus. Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin, which allows it to more efficiently transport oxygen to the developing fetus. Fetal hemoglobin is normally replaced by adult hemoglobin after birth, but in some cases, the production of fetal hemoglobin may continue into adulthood. This can occur in certain genetic disorders, such as sickle cell disease or thalassemia, where the production of fetal hemoglobin can help compensate for the abnormality in adult hemoglobin. In some cases, the production of fetal hemoglobin may also be induced artificially, such as in the treatment of certain types of anemia. However, excessive production of fetal hemoglobin can also be a cause for concern, as it can lead to a condition called fetal hemoglobinemia, which can cause jaundice and other complications.

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory disease that primarily affects the spine and sacroiliac joints. It is also known as Bechterew's disease or Marie-Strumpell disease. The condition is characterized by inflammation of the spinal joints, which can lead to stiffness, pain, and reduced mobility. Over time, the inflammation can cause the affected joints to fuse together, leading to ankylosis, or the complete loss of movement. AS can also affect other joints, such as the hips and shoulders, and can cause inflammation in other parts of the body, such as the eyes, heart, and lungs. The exact cause of AS is not known, but it is thought to be related to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Treatment for AS typically involves medications to reduce inflammation and pain, as well as physical therapy to maintain mobility and flexibility. In severe cases, surgery may be necessary to correct structural damage to the spine or other joints.

In the medical field, "Poly A-U" typically refers to a type of RNA modification known as polyadenylation. This process involves the addition of a string of adenine nucleotides (A's) to the 3' end of an RNA molecule, followed by the addition of a uracil (U) residue. This modification is important for the stability and translation of certain types of RNA, particularly messenger RNA (mRNA), which carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes for protein synthesis.

Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (M-CSF) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the development and function of macrophages, a type of white blood cell that is an important component of the immune system. M-CSF is produced by a variety of cells, including macrophages, monocytes, and osteoblasts, and it acts on macrophages to stimulate their proliferation and differentiation. M-CSF is also involved in the regulation of the inflammatory response, and it has been shown to play a role in the development of certain types of cancer, such as multiple myeloma and breast cancer. In addition, M-CSF has been used as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of certain types of cancer, such as myelodysplastic syndromes and acute myeloid leukemia. Overall, M-CSF is an important molecule in the immune system and has a number of potential therapeutic applications.

Granzymes are a family of serine proteases that are produced by cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells. They are stored in granules within these immune cells and are released upon activation. Granzymes are important mediators of cell death in the immune response, particularly in the elimination of virus-infected cells and cancer cells. They can induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) in target cells by activating caspases, a family of proteases that are essential for the execution of apoptosis. Granzymes are also involved in the regulation of immune cell activation and differentiation.

Orthomyxoviridae infections refer to a group of viral infections caused by viruses belonging to the family Orthomyxoviridae. These viruses are single-stranded RNA viruses that are characterized by their ability to cause both respiratory and systemic infections in humans and animals. The most well-known member of the Orthomyxoviridae family is the influenza virus, which causes seasonal flu outbreaks and pandemics. Other viruses in this family include the parainfluenza viruses, which can cause respiratory infections in humans and animals, and the equine influenza virus, which can cause respiratory infections in horses. Symptoms of Orthomyxoviridae infections can vary depending on the specific virus and the severity of the infection. Common symptoms include fever, cough, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, body aches, and fatigue. In severe cases, infections can lead to pneumonia, bronchitis, and other complications. Treatment for Orthomyxoviridae infections typically involves supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications. Antiviral medications may also be used to treat certain types of Orthomyxoviridae infections, such as influenza. Vaccines are available to prevent influenza and some other Orthomyxoviridae infections.

Chronic hepatitis refers to a long-term or persistent inflammation of the liver that lasts for more than six months. It can be caused by various factors, including viral infections (such as hepatitis B and C), alcohol abuse, autoimmune disorders, and exposure to certain toxins or medications. Chronic hepatitis can lead to liver damage, scarring (fibrosis), and eventually liver failure or liver cancer if left untreated. Symptoms of chronic hepatitis may include fatigue, abdominal pain, jaundice, dark urine, and loss of appetite. Diagnosis typically involves blood tests to detect the presence of liver enzymes, viral markers, and other indicators of liver damage. Treatment for chronic hepatitis depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. Antiviral medications may be used to treat viral infections, while lifestyle changes such as avoiding alcohol and quitting smoking can also help manage the condition. In some cases, liver transplantation may be necessary for severe cases of liver failure.

Leukemia, Hairy Cell is a type of cancer that affects the white blood cells, specifically the B-lymphocytes. It is a rare type of leukemia, accounting for less than 1% of all leukemias. The hallmark feature of hairy cell leukemia is the presence of abnormal white blood cells, called hairy cells, which have a distinctive appearance under a microscope. These cells are larger than normal white blood cells and have a characteristic "hairy" appearance due to the presence of cytoplasmic projections. Hairy cell leukemia is typically a slow-growing cancer, and symptoms may not appear until the disease is advanced. Common symptoms include fatigue, weakness, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. Treatment for hairy cell leukemia typically involves chemotherapy, which can be effective in eliminating the cancer cells. In some cases, targeted therapies or immunotherapies may also be used. The prognosis for hairy cell leukemia is generally good, with a high rate of remission and long-term survival.

A biological assay is a laboratory technique used to measure the biological activity of a substance, such as a drug or a protein. It involves exposing a biological system, such as cells or tissues, to the substance and measuring the resulting response. The response can be anything from a change in cell growth or survival to a change in gene expression or protein activity. Biological assays are used in a variety of fields, including pharmacology, toxicology, and biotechnology, to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of drugs, to study the function of genes and proteins, and to develop new therapeutic agents.

The Interleukin Receptor Common gamma Subunit (IL2RG) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is a component of several interleukin receptors, which are proteins on the surface of immune cells that bind to specific cytokines (chemical messengers) and regulate immune responses. IL2RG is a type I transmembrane protein that is composed of an extracellular domain, a single transmembrane domain, and an intracellular domain. It is expressed on the surface of various immune cells, including T cells, natural killer cells, and dendritic cells. Mutations in the IL2RG gene can lead to a group of rare genetic disorders known as the severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) syndromes. These disorders are characterized by a severe deficiency in the development and function of T and B cells, leading to recurrent infections and an increased risk of cancer. In the medical field, understanding the role of IL2RG in immune responses is important for developing treatments for SCID and other immune disorders. Additionally, targeting IL2RG may be a potential strategy for treating certain types of cancer, as it is involved in the regulation of cell growth and survival.

Receptors, Natural Killer Cell are proteins found on the surface of natural killer (NK) cells that allow them to recognize and bind to specific molecules on the surface of infected or cancerous cells. These receptors play a crucial role in the immune system's ability to identify and eliminate abnormal cells. There are several types of receptors found on NK cells, including activating receptors and inhibitory receptors. Activating receptors bind to specific molecules on the surface of infected or cancerous cells and trigger the NK cell to release cytotoxic molecules that kill the target cell. Inhibitory receptors, on the other hand, bind to molecules on healthy cells and prevent the NK cell from attacking them. The balance between activating and inhibitory receptors determines whether an NK cell will kill a target cell or not.

Apoptosis Regulatory Proteins are a group of proteins that play a crucial role in regulating programmed cell death, also known as apoptosis. These proteins are involved in the initiation, execution, and termination of apoptosis, which is a natural process that occurs in the body to eliminate damaged or unnecessary cells. There are several types of apoptosis regulatory proteins, including caspases, Bcl-2 family proteins, and inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs). Caspases are proteases that cleave specific proteins during apoptosis, leading to the characteristic changes in cell structure and function. Bcl-2 family proteins regulate the permeability of the mitochondrial outer membrane, which is a key step in the execution of apoptosis. IAPs, on the other hand, inhibit the activity of caspases and prevent apoptosis from occurring. Apoptosis regulatory proteins are important in many areas of medicine, including cancer research, neurology, and immunology. Dysregulation of these proteins can lead to a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of apoptosis regulatory proteins is crucial for developing new treatments for these diseases.

Class I phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) is a family of enzymes that play a critical role in cellular signaling pathways. These enzymes phosphorylate the inositol ring of phosphatidylinositol lipids, leading to the production of second messengers that regulate various cellular processes, including cell growth, survival, and metabolism. Class I PI3K is composed of a catalytic subunit (p110) and a regulatory subunit (p85 or p105). The regulatory subunit binds to various upstream signaling molecules, such as receptor tyrosine kinases, G protein-coupled receptors, and integrins, and recruits the catalytic subunit to the plasma membrane. Once activated, the catalytic subunit phosphorylates phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) to produce phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (PIP3), which serves as a docking site for various downstream effector molecules, including Akt, mTOR, and PKC. Abnormal activation of Class I PI3K signaling has been implicated in various human diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders. Therefore, inhibitors of Class I PI3K are being developed as potential therapeutic agents for these diseases.

Macrophage-activating factors (MAFs) are a group of molecules that stimulate the activity of macrophages, a type of immune cell that plays a crucial role in the body's defense against infections and diseases. MAFs can be endogenous (produced by the body) or exogenous (from external sources such as bacteria or viruses). MAFs can activate macrophages by binding to specific receptors on their surface, leading to changes in the macrophage's phenotype and function. Activated macrophages can then phagocytose (engulf and destroy) pathogens, produce inflammatory mediators, and stimulate the immune response. Some examples of MAFs include interferons, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-1 (IL-1), and lipopolysaccharides (LPS). MAFs play a critical role in the immune response and are involved in many diseases, including infections, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.

In the medical field, superoxides are highly reactive oxygen species that contain one unpaired electron in their outermost shell. They are formed when oxygen molecules (O2) gain an electron and become excited, resulting in the formation of a superoxide radical (O2•-). Superoxides are produced naturally by cells as a byproduct of cellular respiration and are involved in various physiological processes, including the immune response, detoxification, and the regulation of gene expression. However, excessive production of superoxides can also lead to oxidative stress and damage to cellular components, including DNA, proteins, and lipids. In medicine, superoxides are often studied in the context of various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. They are also used as therapeutic agents in the treatment of certain conditions, such as infections and inflammation.

Tryptophan Oxygenase (TO) is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of the amino acid tryptophan to N-formylkynurenine, which is a precursor to several important molecules in the body, including niacin (vitamin B3), serotonin, and kynurenine. TO is a heme-containing enzyme that is primarily found in the liver and is involved in the metabolism of tryptophan, which is an essential amino acid that cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained through the diet. In the medical field, TO plays a role in the regulation of tryptophan metabolism and the production of kynurenine, which is a key molecule in the kynurenine pathway. The kynurenine pathway is involved in the metabolism of tryptophan and the production of several important molecules, including kynurenic acid, which is a neuroprotective compound, and quinolinic acid, which is a neurotoxic compound. Dysregulation of the kynurenine pathway has been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, including depression, schizophrenia, and multiple sclerosis. TO is also involved in the regulation of the immune system, as kynurenine and its derivatives have immunomodulatory effects. For example, kynurenine can inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and promote the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines, which can help to regulate the immune response and prevent inflammation. Overall, TO plays a critical role in the metabolism of tryptophan and the regulation of the kynurenine pathway, which has important implications for the development of neurological and psychiatric disorders and the regulation of the immune system.

In the medical field, "Poly I" typically refers to a type of nucleic acid called polyinosinic acid, which is a synthetic polymer of the nucleotide adenosine monophosphate (AMP) with the base inosine (I). Polyinosinic acid is often used in research and clinical applications as a control or reference material for nucleic acid analysis, such as in the detection and quantification of viral or bacterial infections. It is also used as a component of gene therapy vectors, where it can help protect the therapeutic gene from degradation and enhance its expression in target cells. Overall, "Poly I" is a useful tool in the field of molecular biology and medicine, and its applications continue to expand as new technologies and techniques are developed.

Enterovirus infections are a group of viral infections caused by enteroviruses, which are a type of RNA virus that primarily affect the gastrointestinal tract and nervous system. These viruses are highly contagious and can be transmitted through contact with contaminated surfaces, bodily fluids, or respiratory droplets. Enterovirus infections can cause a range of symptoms, depending on the specific virus and the severity of the infection. Common symptoms include fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and rash. In some cases, enterovirus infections can lead to more serious complications, such as meningitis, encephalitis, and paralysis. There is no specific treatment for enterovirus infections, as the viruses cannot be killed by antibiotics. Treatment typically involves managing symptoms and providing supportive care, such as fluids and pain relief. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary. Prevention of enterovirus infections involves practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands frequently and avoiding contact with infected individuals or surfaces. Vaccines are not currently available for all types of enteroviruses, but some vaccines are in development.

Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell, gamma-delta are a type of T-cell receptor (TCR) found on the surface of certain T cells. These receptors are composed of two chains, gamma and delta, that are encoded by the TCR gamma and TCR delta genes, respectively. T cells are a type of white blood cell that play a critical role in the immune system by recognizing and responding to foreign substances, such as viruses and bacteria. The gamma-delta T cells are a subset of T cells that have a unique set of TCRs and are thought to play a role in the immune response to certain infections and tumors. The gamma-delta T cells recognize antigens, which are molecules that are foreign to the body and can trigger an immune response. When a gamma-delta T cell encounters an antigen, it binds to it through its TCR and becomes activated, leading to the production of immune cells and molecules that help to fight off the infection or tumor. Overall, the gamma-delta T cells and their receptors play an important role in the immune system and are the subject of ongoing research in the field of immunology.

Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type I (TNFRI) are a type of protein receptors found on the surface of many different types of cells in the human body. These receptors are responsible for binding to a protein called tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), which is a signaling molecule that plays a role in the body's immune response. When TNF-alpha binds to TNFRI, it triggers a cascade of signaling events within the cell that can lead to a variety of different cellular responses. For example, TNFRI signaling can activate immune cells and promote inflammation, which is an important part of the body's response to infection and injury. However, excessive or chronic TNFRI signaling can also contribute to the development of certain diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and cancer. TNFRI is a type of cytokine receptor, which is a type of protein receptor that is activated by cytokines, which are signaling molecules that play a role in regulating the immune system and other physiological processes. Other examples of cytokine receptors include interleukin receptors and interferon receptors.

Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) is a type of protein that plays a crucial role in the innate immune system. It is a member of the toll-like receptor family, which is a group of proteins that recognize and respond to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). TLR7 is expressed primarily in immune cells such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells. When activated by certain viral and bacterial nucleic acids, TLR7 triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which help to recruit immune cells to the site of infection. In addition to its role in innate immunity, TLR7 has also been implicated in the development of autoimmune diseases such as lupus and Sjogren's syndrome. Activation of TLR7 in these conditions may lead to the production of autoantibodies and the development of chronic inflammation. Overall, TLR7 is an important player in the immune system and its dysfunction can contribute to a variety of diseases.

Colonic neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors that develop in the colon, which is the final part of the large intestine. These growths can be either benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign colonic neoplasms include polyps, which are small, non-cancerous growths that can develop on the inner lining of the colon. Polyps can be further classified as adenomas, which are made up of glandular tissue, or hyperplastic polyps, which are non-glandular. Malignant colonic neoplasms, on the other hand, are cancerous tumors that can invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body. The most common type of colon cancer is adenocarcinoma, which starts in the glandular tissue of the colon. Colonic neoplasms can be detected through various diagnostic tests, including colonoscopy, sigmoidoscopy, and fecal occult blood testing. Treatment options for colonic neoplasms depend on the type, size, and location of the growth, as well as the overall health of the patient. Early detection and treatment of colonic neoplasms can significantly improve the chances of a successful outcome.

In the medical field, neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors of cells that can occur in any part of the body. These growths can be either benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign neoplasms are usually slow-growing and do not spread to other parts of the body. They can cause symptoms such as pain, swelling, or difficulty moving the affected area. Examples of benign neoplasms include lipomas (fatty tumors), hemangiomas (vascular tumors), and fibromas (fibrous tumors). Malignant neoplasms, on the other hand, are cancerous and can spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. They can cause a wide range of symptoms, depending on the location and stage of the cancer. Examples of malignant neoplasms include carcinomas (cancers that start in epithelial cells), sarcomas (cancers that start in connective tissue), and leukemias (cancers that start in blood cells). The diagnosis of neoplasms typically involves a combination of physical examination, imaging tests (such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRI scans), and biopsy (the removal of a small sample of tissue for examination under a microscope). Treatment options for neoplasms depend on the type, stage, and location of the cancer, as well as the patient's overall health and preferences.

Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear are proteins that are found within the cytoplasm and nucleus of cells. These receptors are responsible for binding to specific molecules, such as hormones or neurotransmitters, and triggering a response within the cell. This response can include changes in gene expression, enzyme activity, or other cellular processes. In the medical field, understanding the function and regulation of these receptors is important for understanding how cells respond to various stimuli and for developing treatments for a wide range of diseases.

Neoplasm proteins are proteins that are produced by cancer cells. These proteins are often abnormal and can contribute to the growth and spread of cancer. They can be detected in the blood or other body fluids, and their presence can be used as a diagnostic tool for cancer. Some neoplasm proteins are also being studied as potential targets for cancer treatment.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disorder that affects the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves. In MS, the immune system attacks and damages the protective covering (myelin) that surrounds nerve fibers in the CNS, leading to inflammation, scarring (sclerosis), and loss of nerve function. The symptoms of MS can vary widely and may include: - Fatigue - Muscle weakness - Numbness or tingling in the limbs - Blurred vision - Difficulty with coordination and balance - Difficulty speaking or understanding speech - Seizures - Depression and anxiety MS can be diagnosed through a combination of physical exams, medical history, and imaging tests such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). There is currently no cure for MS, but treatments are available to manage symptoms and slow the progression of the disease.

Herpesviridae infections refer to a group of viral infections caused by viruses belonging to the family Herpesviridae. These viruses are characterized by their ability to establish lifelong infections in their hosts, with periods of latency and reactivation. There are eight known herpesviruses that infect humans, including herpes simplex virus (HSV), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), human herpesvirus 7 (HHV-7), human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8), and human herpesvirus 36 (HHV-36). Herpesviridae infections can cause a wide range of symptoms, depending on the specific virus and the location of the infection. Common symptoms include fever, headache, sore throat, skin rashes, and genital sores. Some infections can also cause more serious complications, such as encephalitis, meningitis, and pneumonia. Herpesviridae infections are typically diagnosed through laboratory tests, such as viral culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and serology. Treatment options for herpesviridae infections include antiviral medications, which can help to reduce symptoms and prevent complications. However, there is currently no cure for herpesviridae infections, and the viruses can remain dormant in the body for long periods of time before reactivating.

Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88 (MyD88) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the innate immune system. It is a signaling molecule that is activated by various types of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) that are recognized by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on immune cells. When activated, MyD88 triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which help to recruit immune cells to the site of infection or injury. MyD88 is also involved in the activation of TLR4, which is a PRR that recognizes lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on the surface of Gram-negative bacteria. In addition to its role in the innate immune system, MyD88 has also been implicated in the development of various inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and inflammatory bowel disease.

Melanoma, Experimental refers to a type of research being conducted to develop new treatments or therapies for melanoma, a type of skin cancer. These experimental treatments may involve the use of new drugs, vaccines, or other interventions that have not yet been approved for use in humans. The goal of this research is to find more effective and safer ways to treat melanoma and improve outcomes for patients with this disease. Experimental melanoma treatments are typically tested in clinical trials, where they are given to a small group of patients to evaluate their safety and effectiveness before they can be approved for widespread use.

Vaccinia is a smallpox-like virus that is used as a vaccine to prevent smallpox. It was first isolated in 1796 by Edward Jenner, who used it to develop the first smallpox vaccine. Vaccinia is a member of the Orthopoxvirus genus and is closely related to variola virus, which causes smallpox. The virus is typically spread through contact with infected skin or respiratory secretions. Symptoms of vaccinia include fever, headache, and a characteristic rash that forms on the skin. The virus can be treated with antiviral medications and supportive care, but there is no specific cure. Vaccinia is no longer a public health concern in most parts of the world, as smallpox has been eradicated through a global vaccination campaign.

Chronic Hepatitis B (CHB) is a long-term infection caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). It is characterized by persistent inflammation of the liver, which can lead to liver damage, cirrhosis, and liver cancer. CHB can develop in people who have been infected with HBV for more than six months. The virus can remain in the body for years or even decades, causing ongoing liver damage. Symptoms of CHB may include fatigue, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, and jaundice. However, many people with CHB do not experience any symptoms and may not know they have the infection. CHB is typically diagnosed through blood tests that detect the presence of the virus and measure liver function. Treatment options for CHB include antiviral medications, lifestyle changes, and in some cases, liver transplantation. It is important to diagnose and treat CHB early to prevent liver damage and reduce the risk of complications.

Oligoribonucleotides are short chains of ribonucleotides, which are the building blocks of RNA. They are typically composed of 5 to 20 ribonucleotides and are often used in medical research and therapy as tools to manipulate gene expression or to study the function of RNA molecules. In the medical field, oligoribonucleotides are used in a variety of applications, including: 1. Gene silencing: Oligoribonucleotides can be designed to bind to specific RNA molecules and prevent their translation into proteins, thereby silencing the expression of the corresponding gene. 2. RNA interference (RNAi): Oligoribonucleotides can be used to induce RNAi, a natural process in which small RNA molecules degrade complementary messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules, leading to the suppression of gene expression. 3. Therapeutic applications: Oligoribonucleotides are being investigated as potential therapeutic agents for a variety of diseases, including cancer, viral infections, and genetic disorders. 4. Research tools: Oligoribonucleotides are commonly used as research tools to study the function of RNA molecules and to investigate the mechanisms of gene regulation. Overall, oligoribonucleotides are a versatile and powerful tool in the medical field, with a wide range of potential applications in research and therapy.

The corpus luteum is a temporary endocrine gland that forms in the ovary after ovulation. It is responsible for producing the hormones progesterone and estrogen, which help to prepare the uterus for pregnancy. If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum will eventually degenerate and be replaced by scar tissue. In some cases, the corpus luteum may continue to produce hormones even if pregnancy does not occur, leading to a condition called luteal phase defect.

Toxoplasmosis, Animal refers to a parasitic infection caused by the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii, which is commonly found in cats and other animals. The infection can be transmitted to humans through contact with infected animal feces, ingestion of undercooked meat containing the parasite, or congenital transmission from an infected mother to her fetus. In animals, the infection can cause a range of clinical signs, including fever, anorexia, and weight loss. However, many animals are asymptomatic carriers of the parasite. In severe cases, the infection can lead to neurological and ocular complications. Treatment for toxoplasmosis in animals typically involves the use of anti-parasitic medications.

Arginine is an amino acid that plays a crucial role in various physiological processes in the human body. It is an essential amino acid, meaning that it cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained through the diet. In the medical field, arginine is used to treat a variety of conditions, including: 1. Erectile dysfunction: Arginine is a precursor to nitric oxide, which helps to relax blood vessels and improve blood flow to the penis, leading to improved sexual function. 2. Cardiovascular disease: Arginine has been shown to improve blood flow and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease by lowering blood pressure and improving the function of the endothelium, the inner lining of blood vessels. 3. Wound healing: Arginine is involved in the production of collagen, a protein that is essential for wound healing. 4. Immune function: Arginine is involved in the production of antibodies and other immune system components, making it important for maintaining a healthy immune system. 5. Cancer: Arginine has been shown to have anti-cancer properties and may help to slow the growth of tumors. However, it is important to note that the use of arginine as a supplement is not without risks, and it is important to consult with a healthcare provider before taking any supplements.

Interleukin-2 receptor alpha subunit (IL-2Rα) is a protein that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is a component of the interleukin-2 receptor complex, which is found on the surface of immune cells such as T cells, natural killer cells, and macrophages. The IL-2Rα subunit is a transmembrane protein that consists of an extracellular domain, a single transmembrane domain, and an intracellular domain. When interleukin-2 (IL-2), a cytokine produced by activated T cells, binds to the IL-2Rα subunit, it triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation and proliferation of immune cells. In the medical field, the IL-2Rα subunit is often studied in the context of autoimmune diseases, cancer, and infectious diseases. For example, in some autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis, the overexpression of IL-2Rα on immune cells can contribute to inflammation and tissue damage. In cancer, the overexpression of IL-2Rα on tumor cells can make them more susceptible to immune attack by T cells. In infectious diseases, the IL-2Rα subunit can play a role in the activation of immune cells that are involved in the immune response to the pathogen.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical method used to compare the means of three or more groups. In the medical field, ANOVA can be used to compare the effectiveness of different treatments, interventions, or medications on a particular outcome or variable of interest. For example, a researcher may want to compare the effectiveness of three different medications for treating a particular disease. They could use ANOVA to compare the mean response (e.g., improvement in symptoms) between the three groups of patients who received each medication. If the results show a significant difference between the groups, it would suggest that one medication is more effective than the others. ANOVA can also be used to compare the means of different groups of patients based on a categorical variable, such as age, gender, or race. For example, a researcher may want to compare the mean blood pressure of patients in different age groups. They could use ANOVA to compare the mean blood pressure between the different age groups and determine if there are significant differences. Overall, ANOVA is a powerful statistical tool that can be used to compare the means of different groups in the medical field, helping researchers to identify which treatments or interventions are most effective and to better understand the factors that influence health outcomes.

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disorder that affects multiple organs and systems in the body. It is characterized by the production of autoantibodies that attack healthy cells and tissues, leading to inflammation and damage. The symptoms of SLE can vary widely and may include joint pain and swelling, skin rashes, fatigue, fever, and kidney problems. Other possible symptoms may include chest pain, shortness of breath, headaches, and memory problems. SLE can affect people of all ages and ethnicities, but it is more common in women than in men. There is no known cure for SLE, but treatment can help manage symptoms and prevent complications. Treatment may include medications to reduce inflammation, suppress the immune system, and prevent blood clots. In some cases, hospitalization may be necessary to manage severe symptoms or complications.

Adaptor proteins, signal transducing are a class of proteins that play a crucial role in transmitting signals from the cell surface to the interior of the cell. These proteins are involved in various cellular processes such as cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. Adaptor proteins function as molecular bridges that connect signaling receptors on the cell surface to downstream signaling molecules inside the cell. They are characterized by their ability to bind to both the receptor and the signaling molecule, allowing them to transmit the signal from the receptor to the signaling molecule. There are several types of adaptor proteins, including SH2 domain-containing adaptor proteins, phosphotyrosine-binding (PTB) domain-containing adaptor proteins, and WW domain-containing adaptor proteins. These proteins are involved in a wide range of signaling pathways, including the insulin, growth factor, and cytokine signaling pathways. Disruptions in the function of adaptor proteins can lead to various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and immune disorders. Therefore, understanding the role of adaptor proteins in signal transduction is important for the development of new therapeutic strategies for these diseases.

HLA-DQ antigens are a group of proteins found on the surface of cells in the human body. They are part of the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system, which plays a critical role in the immune system's ability to recognize and respond to foreign substances, such as viruses and bacteria. HLA-DQ antigens are particularly important in the immune response to certain types of infections, including those caused by viruses such as HIV and hepatitis C. They also play a role in the development of certain autoimmune diseases, such as celiac disease and type 1 diabetes. HLA-DQ antigens are classified into two main groups: HLA-DQ1 and HLA-DQ2. These groups are further divided into several subtypes, each with a unique combination of amino acids in their protein structure. The specific HLA-DQ antigens present on the surface of a person's cells can affect their susceptibility to certain diseases and their response to certain treatments.

In the medical field, "Antigens, Neoplasm" refers to proteins or other molecules that are produced by cancer cells (neoplasms) and are recognized by the immune system as foreign. These antigens can be used as targets for cancer immunotherapy, which aims to stimulate the immune system to attack and destroy cancer cells. Antigens, neoplasm can also be used as diagnostic markers to identify cancer cells in the body or to monitor the effectiveness of cancer treatment.

In the medical field, a chick embryo refers to a fertilized egg of a chicken that has been incubated for a certain period of time, typically between 4 and 21 days, until it has developed into an embryo. Chick embryos are commonly used in scientific research as a model system for studying developmental biology, genetics, and other areas of biology. They are particularly useful for studying the early stages of development, as they can be easily manipulated and observed under a microscope. Chick embryos are also used in some medical treatments, such as in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Chemotaxis, leukocyte refers to the movement of white blood cells (leukocytes) in response to chemical signals in the body. These chemical signals, also known as chemokines, are released by damaged or infected cells, as well as by immune cells themselves. Chemotaxis allows leukocytes to move towards the site of inflammation or infection, where they can help to fight off pathogens and promote tissue repair. This process is an important part of the immune response and plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and wellbeing.

In the medical field, the amnion is a thin, transparent membrane that surrounds and protects the developing fetus in the womb. It is one of the three layers that make up the placenta, along with the chorion and the decidua. The amnion is filled with amniotic fluid, which provides cushioning and buoyancy for the fetus, as well as helping to regulate the temperature and chemical environment of the womb. The amnion also plays a role in the development of the fetus's lungs and immune system. In some cases, the amnion may be ruptured or torn, which can lead to complications during pregnancy or childbirth.

Protozoan vaccines are vaccines that are designed to protect against infections caused by protozoan parasites. Protozoa are single-celled organisms that are found in a variety of environments, including soil, water, and the bodies of animals and humans. Some common examples of protozoan parasites include Plasmodium, which causes malaria, and Trypanosoma, which causes African sleeping sickness. Protozoan vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to recognize and attack specific protozoan parasites. This is typically done by introducing a small piece of the parasite, called an antigen, into the body. The immune system recognizes the antigen as foreign and produces antibodies to fight it. These antibodies can then recognize and attack the parasite if it enters the body again in the future. Protozoan vaccines are still in the early stages of development and are not yet widely available. However, there is ongoing research into the development of effective vaccines against a variety of protozoan parasites, including Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, and Leishmania.

RNA, Small Interfering (siRNA) is a type of non-coding RNA molecule that plays a role in gene regulation. siRNA is approximately 21-25 nucleotides in length and is derived from double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecules. In the medical field, siRNA is used as a tool for gene silencing, which involves inhibiting the expression of specific genes. This is achieved by introducing siRNA molecules that are complementary to the target mRNA sequence, leading to the degradation of the mRNA and subsequent inhibition of protein synthesis. siRNA has potential applications in the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, viral infections, and genetic disorders. It is also used in research to study gene function and regulation. However, the use of siRNA in medicine is still in its early stages, and there are several challenges that need to be addressed before it can be widely used in clinical practice.

In the medical field, alleles refer to the different forms of a gene that exist at a particular genetic locus (location) on a chromosome. Each gene has two alleles, one inherited from each parent. These alleles can be either dominant or recessive, and their combination determines the expression of the trait associated with that gene. For example, the gene for blood type has three alleles: A, B, and O. A person can inherit one or two copies of each allele, resulting in different blood types (A, B, AB, or O). The dominant allele is the one that is expressed when present in one copy, while the recessive allele is only expressed when present in two copies. Understanding the different alleles of a gene is important in medical genetics because it can help diagnose genetic disorders, predict disease risk, and guide treatment decisions. For example, mutations in certain alleles can cause genetic diseases such as sickle cell anemia or cystic fibrosis. By identifying the specific alleles involved in a genetic disorder, doctors can develop targeted therapies or genetic counseling to help affected individuals and their families.

Immune sera refers to a type of blood serum that contains antibodies produced by the immune system in response to an infection or vaccination. These antibodies are produced by B cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune response. Immune sera can be used to diagnose and treat certain infections, as well as to prevent future infections. For example, immune sera containing antibodies against a specific virus or bacteria can be used to diagnose a current infection or to prevent future infections in people who have been exposed to the virus or bacteria. Immune sera can also be used as a research tool to study the immune response to infections and to develop new vaccines and treatments. In some cases, immune sera may be used to treat patients with severe infections or allergies, although this is less common than using immune sera for diagnostic or preventive purposes.

Type C phospholipases are a family of enzymes that hydrolyze phospholipids, which are important components of cell membranes. These enzymes are characterized by the presence of a catalytic cysteine residue in their active site, which is involved in the hydrolysis of the phospholipid substrate. Type C phospholipases are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including signal transduction, membrane trafficking, and cell growth and differentiation. They are also involved in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and inflammatory diseases. There are several subtypes of type C phospholipases, including phospholipase C (PLC), which hydrolyzes phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) to produce inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG), and phospholipase D (PLD), which hydrolyzes phosphatidylcholine (PC) to produce phosphatidic acid (PA) and choline.

Tuberculosis, Bovine, also known as bovine tuberculosis (BTB), is a contagious bacterial disease caused by Mycobacterium bovis that primarily affects cattle and other bovids. The disease can also infect humans who come into contact with infected animals or their products. The symptoms of BTB in cattle can vary, but they may include weight loss, poor appetite, lethargy, and the development of nodules or ulcers on the skin, lymph nodes, or internal organs. In severe cases, the disease can be fatal. BTB is primarily spread through the respiratory route, with infected animals exhaling droplets containing the bacteria into the air. The bacteria can also be transmitted through contaminated milk, meat, or other animal products. The diagnosis of BTB in cattle is typically made through a combination of clinical signs, laboratory testing, and post-mortem examination. Treatment options for BTB in cattle are limited, and the disease is often managed through measures such as quarantine, testing, and culling of infected animals. In addition to its impact on animal health, BTB is also a significant public health concern, as it can be transmitted to humans through the consumption of infected meat or dairy products, or through close contact with infected animals.

In the medical field, "Administration, Intranasal" refers to the delivery of medication or other substances into the nasal cavity through the nostrils. This method of administration is commonly used to treat a variety of conditions, including allergies, colds, and sinusitis. The medication is typically delivered in the form of a spray, drop, or gel, and is absorbed into the bloodstream through the delicate nasal lining. Intranasal administration can be a convenient and effective way to deliver medication, as it can bypass the digestive system and liver, allowing the medication to enter the bloodstream more quickly. However, it is important to follow the instructions provided by a healthcare professional carefully, as improper use can lead to adverse effects.

In the medical field, "Antigens, Ly" refers to a group of antigens that are found on the surface of certain types of white blood cells, specifically lymphocytes. These antigens are important for the immune system to recognize and identify lymphocytes as belonging to the body's own cells, and to distinguish them from foreign cells that may be harmful or infectious. The "Ly" antigens are named after the laboratory technique used to identify them, which involves labeling the antigens with a fluorescent dye and then using a microscope to visualize them. There are several different types of Ly antigens, each of which is specific to a particular type of lymphocyte. Understanding the presence and expression of Ly antigens is important in the diagnosis and treatment of certain medical conditions, such as autoimmune diseases and certain types of cancer. It can also be useful in the development of vaccines and other immune therapies.

In the medical field, cell death refers to the process by which a cell ceases to function and eventually disintegrates. There are two main types of cell death: apoptosis and necrosis. Apoptosis is a programmed form of cell death that occurs naturally in the body as a way to eliminate damaged or unnecessary cells. It is a highly regulated process that involves the activation of specific genes and proteins within the cell. Apoptosis is often triggered by signals from the surrounding environment or by internal cellular stress. Necrosis, on the other hand, is an uncontrolled form of cell death that occurs when cells are damaged or stressed beyond repair. Unlike apoptosis, necrosis is not a programmed process and can be caused by a variety of factors, including infection, toxins, and physical trauma. Both apoptosis and necrosis can have important implications for health and disease. For example, the loss of cells through apoptosis is a normal part of tissue turnover and development, while the uncontrolled death of cells through necrosis can contribute to tissue damage and inflammation in conditions such as infection, trauma, and cancer.

RNA viruses are a type of virus that contains ribonucleic acid (RNA) as their genetic material. RNA viruses can infect a wide range of organisms, including humans, animals, plants, and insects. RNA virus infections refer to illnesses caused by RNA viruses. These viruses can cause a variety of diseases, ranging from mild to severe, and can be transmitted through various means, including respiratory droplets, bodily fluids, and contact with contaminated surfaces. Some examples of RNA virus infections include influenza, hepatitis C, and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus responsible for COVID-19). RNA virus infections can be challenging to treat because the genetic material of RNA viruses is constantly changing, making it difficult for the immune system to recognize and fight off the virus. Additionally, some RNA viruses can develop resistance to antiviral drugs, making treatment even more difficult. Therefore, prevention is often the best strategy for managing RNA virus infections, including vaccination, good hygiene practices, and avoiding contact with infected individuals.

Protein isoforms refer to different forms of a protein that are produced by alternative splicing of the same gene. Alternative splicing is a process by which different combinations of exons (coding regions) are selected from the pre-mRNA transcript of a gene, resulting in the production of different protein isoforms with slightly different amino acid sequences. Protein isoforms can have different functions, localization, and stability, and can play distinct roles in cellular processes. For example, the same gene may produce a protein isoform that is expressed in the nucleus and another isoform that is expressed in the cytoplasm. Alternatively, different isoforms of the same protein may have different substrate specificity or binding affinity for other molecules. Dysregulation of alternative splicing can lead to the production of abnormal protein isoforms, which can contribute to the development of various diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of alternative splicing and the functional consequences of protein isoforms is an important area of research in the medical field.

Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is a condition that can occur after a bone marrow or stem cell transplant. It happens when the transplanted cells (the graft) attack the recipient's (the host) tissues and organs. This can cause a range of symptoms, including skin rash, diarrhea, liver problems, and inflammation of the lungs, gut, and blood vessels. GVHD can be a serious and potentially life-threatening complication of transplantation, but it can also be treated with medications and other therapies.

Arboviruses are a group of viruses that are transmitted to humans and animals by arthropod vectors, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. These viruses can cause a wide range of diseases, including mild fevers, encephalitis, meningitis, and hemorrhagic fever. Arboviruses are classified into several different families, including Bunyaviridae, Flaviviridae, Togaviridae, and Reoviridae. Some well-known examples of arboviruses include West Nile virus, dengue virus, Zika virus, chikungunya virus, and tick-borne encephalitis virus. In the medical field, arboviruses are a significant public health concern, as they can cause widespread outbreaks and epidemics, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. Diagnosis and treatment of arboviral infections often involve supportive care, such as hydration and pain management, as well as antiviral medications in some cases. Prevention measures include avoiding exposure to arthropod vectors through the use of insect repellent, wearing protective clothing, and eliminating breeding sites for mosquitoes and ticks.

Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is a medical procedure in which healthy bone marrow is transplanted into a patient who has damaged or diseased bone marrow. The bone marrow is the spongy tissue found inside bones that produces blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. There are two main types of bone marrow transplantation: autologous and allogeneic. Autologous BMT involves transplanting bone marrow from the patient's own body, usually after it has been harvested and stored before the patient undergoes high-dose chemotherapy or radiation therapy to destroy their diseased bone marrow. Allogeneic BMT involves transplanting bone marrow from a donor who is a genetic match for the patient. BMT is used to treat a variety of conditions, including leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, sickle cell anemia, and some inherited blood disorders. The procedure can also be used to treat certain immune system disorders and some genetic diseases. The success of BMT depends on several factors, including the type and stage of the patient's disease, the patient's overall health, and the availability of a suitable donor. The procedure can be complex and may involve several stages, including preparatory treatment, the actual transplantation, and post-transplantation care.

An antigen-antibody complex is a type of immune complex that forms when an antigen (a foreign substance that triggers an immune response) binds to an antibody (a protein produced by the immune system to recognize and neutralize antigens). When an antigen enters the body, it is recognized by specific antibodies that bind to it, forming an antigen-antibody complex. This complex can then be targeted by other immune cells, such as phagocytes, which engulf and destroy the complex. Antigen-antibody complexes can also deposit in tissues, leading to inflammation and damage. This can occur in conditions such as immune complex-mediated diseases, where the immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissues that have been coated with antigens and antibodies. Overall, the formation of antigen-antibody complexes is a normal part of the immune response, but when it becomes dysregulated, it can lead to a variety of medical conditions.

In the medical field, cytoplasm refers to the gel-like substance that fills the cell membrane of a living cell. It is composed of various organelles, such as mitochondria, ribosomes, and the endoplasmic reticulum, as well as various dissolved molecules, including proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. The cytoplasm plays a crucial role in many cellular processes, including metabolism, protein synthesis, and cell division. It also serves as a site for various cellular activities, such as the movement of organelles within the cell and the transport of molecules across the cell membrane. In addition, the cytoplasm is involved in maintaining the structural integrity of the cell and protecting it from external stressors, such as toxins and pathogens. Overall, the cytoplasm is a vital component of the cell and plays a critical role in its function and survival.

Janus kinases (JAKs) are a family of intracellular protein kinases that play a critical role in signal transduction pathways in the immune system and other tissues. JAKs are activated by the binding of cytokines and growth factors to their respective receptors on the cell surface, and they then phosphorylate and activate downstream signaling molecules, such as STATs (signal transducer and activator of transcription proteins), which regulate gene expression and cellular responses. JAKs are involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including inflammation, immune response, hematopoiesis, and cancer. Dysregulation of JAK signaling has been implicated in various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, inflammatory bowel disease, and certain types of cancer. Therefore, JAK inhibitors are being developed as potential therapeutic agents for these conditions.

Forkhead transcription factors (Fox proteins) are a family of transcription factors that play important roles in regulating gene expression in various biological processes, including development, metabolism, and cell proliferation. They are characterized by a conserved DNA-binding domain called the forkhead domain, which is responsible for recognizing and binding to specific DNA sequences. Fox proteins are involved in a wide range of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders. For example, mutations in FoxA2, a member of the Fox family, have been linked to the development of type 2 diabetes. In cancer, Fox proteins can act as oncogenes or tumor suppressors, depending on the specific gene and the context in which it is expressed. In the medical field, understanding the role of Fox proteins in disease can provide insights into the underlying mechanisms of disease and may lead to the development of new therapeutic strategies. For example, targeting specific Fox proteins with small molecules or other drugs may be a promising approach for treating cancer or other diseases.

Luciferases are enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of luciferin, a small molecule, to produce light. In the medical field, luciferases are commonly used as reporters in bioluminescence assays, which are used to measure gene expression, protein-protein interactions, and other biological processes. One of the most well-known examples of luciferases in medicine is the green fluorescent protein (GFP) luciferase, which is derived from the jellyfish Aequorea victoria. GFP luciferase is used in a variety of applications, including monitoring gene expression in living cells and tissues, tracking the movement of cells and proteins in vivo, and studying the dynamics of signaling pathways. Another example of a luciferase used in medicine is the firefly luciferase, which is derived from the firefly Photinus pyralis. Firefly luciferase is used in bioluminescence assays to measure the activity of various enzymes and to study the metabolism of drugs and other compounds. Overall, luciferases are valuable tools in the medical field because they allow researchers to visualize and quantify biological processes in a non-invasive and sensitive manner.

In the medical field, "DNA, Viral" refers to the genetic material of viruses, which is composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Viruses are infectious agents that can only replicate inside living cells of organisms, including humans. The genetic material of viruses is different from that of cells, as viruses do not have a cellular structure and cannot carry out metabolic processes on their own. Instead, they rely on the host cell's machinery to replicate and produce new viral particles. Understanding the genetic material of viruses is important for developing treatments and vaccines against viral infections. By studying the DNA or RNA (ribonucleic acid) of viruses, researchers can identify potential targets for antiviral drugs and design vaccines that stimulate the immune system to recognize and fight off viral infections.

Transducin is a protein complex that plays a crucial role in the process of vision. It is activated by the binding of light-sensitive molecules called rhodopsin to a photoreceptor cell in the retina of the eye. When rhodopsin is activated, it causes a conformational change in transducin, which in turn activates a second messenger system that ultimately leads to the opening of ion channels in the cell membrane. This allows ions to flow into the cell, which generates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the brain and interpreted as visual information.

Retinoic acid receptors (RARs) are a family of nuclear receptors that play a critical role in the regulation of gene expression in response to the hormone retinoic acid (RA). RA is a metabolite of vitamin A and is involved in a wide range of biological processes, including cell differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis. RARs are encoded by three genes, RARA, RARB, and RARγ, and are expressed as multiple isoforms through alternative splicing. These receptors bind to RA with high affinity and activate or repress the transcription of target genes by interacting with specific DNA sequences in the promoter regions of these genes. RARs are involved in the development and function of many tissues and organs, including the brain, heart, lungs, skin, and eyes. They have been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, inflammatory disorders, and neurological disorders. In the medical field, RARs are the target of several drugs, including retinoids, which are used to treat a variety of conditions, including acne, psoriasis, and certain types of cancer. Understanding the role of RARs in health and disease is an active area of research, with potential implications for the development of new therapeutic strategies.

Antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity (ADCC) is a mechanism by which immune cells, such as natural killer (NK) cells, are activated to destroy cells that have been coated with antibodies. In ADCC, antibodies bind to specific antigens on the surface of a target cell, and then recruit immune cells to the site of the interaction. The immune cells, such as NK cells, recognize the Fc region of the bound antibody and release cytotoxic molecules that kill the target cell. ADCC is an important mechanism in the immune response to infections and cancer, and is also used in the development of some types of immunotherapies.

Astrocytes are a type of glial cell found in the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain and spinal cord. They are star-shaped cells that play a crucial role in supporting and maintaining the health of neurons, which are the nerve cells that transmit information throughout the brain and spinal cord. Astrocytes have many functions in the brain, including: 1. Providing structural support to neurons and synapses, the connections between neurons. 2. Regulating the extracellular environment by controlling the levels of ions, neurotransmitters, and other molecules in the brain. 3. Maintaining the blood-brain barrier, which protects the brain from harmful substances in the bloodstream. 4. Participating in the formation and repair of blood vessels in the brain. 5. Modulating the activity of neurons by releasing signaling molecules called gliotransmitters. Astrocytes are also involved in many neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, and epilepsy. Understanding the role of astrocytes in the brain is an active area of research in neuroscience and may lead to new treatments for these and other neurological conditions.

Lung neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors that develop in the lungs. These growths can be either benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Lung neoplasms can occur in any part of the lung, including the bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. Lung neoplasms can be further classified based on their type, including: 1. Primary lung neoplasms: These are tumors that develop in the lungs and do not spread to other parts of the body. 2. Secondary lung neoplasms: These are tumors that develop in the lungs as a result of cancer that has spread from another part of the body. 3. Benign lung neoplasms: These are non-cancerous tumors that do not spread to other parts of the body. 4. Malignant lung neoplasms: These are cancerous tumors that can spread to other parts of the body. Some common types of lung neoplasms include lung adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, large cell carcinoma, and small cell carcinoma. The diagnosis of lung neoplasms typically involves a combination of imaging tests, such as chest X-rays and CT scans, and a biopsy to examine a sample of tissue from the tumor. Treatment options for lung neoplasms depend on the type, size, and location of the tumor, as well as the overall health of the patient.

In the medical field, "DNA, Recombinant" refers to a type of DNA that has been artificially synthesized or modified to contain specific genes or genetic sequences. This is achieved through a process called genetic engineering, which involves inserting foreign DNA into a host organism's genome. Recombinant DNA technology has revolutionized the field of medicine, allowing scientists to create new drugs, vaccines, and other therapeutic agents. For example, recombinant DNA technology has been used to create insulin for the treatment of diabetes, human growth hormone for the treatment of growth disorders, and vaccines for a variety of infectious diseases. Recombinant DNA technology also has important applications in basic research, allowing scientists to study the function of specific genes and genetic sequences, and to investigate the mechanisms of diseases.

Leukemia, Myelogenous, Chronic, BCR-ABL Positive is a type of cancer that affects the bone marrow and blood cells. It is also known as Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML) and is characterized by the presence of an abnormal Philadelphia chromosome, which is caused by a genetic mutation. This mutation results in the production of an abnormal protein called BCR-ABL, which promotes the uncontrolled growth and division of white blood cells. CML is typically diagnosed in adults and is treatable with medications that target the BCR-ABL protein. However, it is a chronic condition that requires lifelong treatment and monitoring.

Adenine nucleotides are a type of nucleotide that contains the nitrogenous base adenine (A) and a sugar-phosphate backbone. They are important molecules in the cell and play a crucial role in various biological processes, including energy metabolism and DNA synthesis. There are three types of adenine nucleotides: adenosine monophosphate (AMP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). AMP is the simplest form of adenine nucleotide, with only one phosphate group attached to the sugar. ADP has two phosphate groups attached to the sugar, while ATP has three phosphate groups. ATP is often referred to as the "energy currency" of the cell because it stores and releases energy through the transfer of phosphate groups. When ATP is broken down, one of its phosphate groups is released, releasing energy that can be used by the cell for various processes. When ATP is synthesized, energy is required to attach a new phosphate group to the molecule. Adenine nucleotides are involved in many cellular processes, including muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and the synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids. They are also important in the regulation of gene expression and the maintenance of cellular homeostasis.

Protein-Serine-Threonine Kinases (PSTKs) are a family of enzymes that play a crucial role in regulating various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, metabolism, and apoptosis. These enzymes phosphorylate specific amino acids, such as serine and threonine, on target proteins, thereby altering their activity, stability, or localization within the cell. PSTKs are involved in a wide range of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of PSTKs is important for developing new therapeutic strategies for these diseases.

Prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthases, also known as cyclooxygenases (COXs), are enzymes that play a crucial role in the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes, which are hormone-like substances that regulate various physiological processes in the body. There are two main isoforms of COX: COX-1 and COX-2. COX-1 is constitutively expressed in most tissues and is involved in the maintenance of normal physiological functions, such as platelet aggregation, gastric mucosal protection, and renal blood flow regulation. In contrast, COX-2 is induced in response to various stimuli, such as inflammation, injury, and stress, and is primarily involved in the production of prostaglandins that mediate inflammatory and pain responses. Prostaglandins and thromboxanes are synthesized from arachidonic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid that is released from membrane phospholipids in response to various stimuli. COXs catalyze the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandin H2 (PGH2), which is then further metabolized to various prostaglandins and thromboxanes by other enzymes. In the medical field, COX inhibitors are commonly used as anti-inflammatory and analgesic drugs. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen are examples of COX inhibitors that are widely used to treat pain, inflammation, and fever. However, long-term use of NSAIDs can have adverse effects on the gastrointestinal tract and cardiovascular system, which has led to the development of newer COX-2 selective inhibitors, such as celecoxib and rofecoxib, that are thought to have fewer gastrointestinal side effects.

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD) are a group of chronic inflammatory conditions that affect the digestive tract, including the small intestine, colon, and rectum. The two main types of IBD are Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis. Crohn's Disease can affect any part of the digestive tract, from the mouth to the anus, but it most commonly affects the ileum (the last part of the small intestine) and the colon. The inflammation in Crohn's Disease can be patchy and can move from one area to another over time. Ulcerative Colitis, on the other hand, affects only the colon and rectum. The inflammation in Ulcerative Colitis is continuous and affects the entire lining of the affected area. Both Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis are chronic conditions that can cause a range of symptoms, including abdominal pain, diarrhea, fatigue, weight loss, and malnutrition. They can also increase the risk of developing other health problems, such as anemia, osteoporosis, and colon cancer. Treatment for IBD typically involves a combination of medications, lifestyle changes, and sometimes surgery. The goal of treatment is to reduce inflammation, manage symptoms, and prevent complications.

Vesicular Stomatitis (VS) is a viral disease that affects horses, cattle, and other animals. It is caused by the Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV), which is a member of the family Rhabdoviridae. The virus is primarily transmitted through the bites of infected insects, such as flies and mosquitoes. The symptoms of VS include fever, loss of appetite, and a painful, blistering rash on the mouth, tongue, and feet. The rash typically appears as small, fluid-filled blisters that can be painful and itchy. In severe cases, the virus can spread to other parts of the body, including the respiratory system, and can be fatal. VS is not contagious to humans, but it can be a serious disease for animals, particularly horses and cattle. Treatment for VS typically involves supportive care, such as providing fluids and pain relief, and allowing the animal's immune system to fight off the virus. In some cases, antiviral medications may be used to help control the infection. Vaccination is available to prevent VS in animals that are at risk of exposure to the virus.

Endoribonucleases are a class of enzymes that cleave RNA molecules within their strands. They are involved in various cellular processes, including gene expression, RNA processing, and degradation of unwanted or damaged RNA molecules. In the medical field, endoribonucleases have been studied for their potential therapeutic applications. For example, some endoribonucleases have been developed as gene therapy tools to target and degrade specific RNA molecules involved in diseases such as cancer, viral infections, and genetic disorders. Additionally, endoribonucleases have been used as research tools to study RNA biology and to develop new methods for RNA analysis and manipulation. For example, they can be used to selectively label or modify RNA molecules for visualization or manipulation in vitro or in vivo. Overall, endoribonucleases play important roles in RNA biology and have potential applications in both basic research and medical therapy.

NADPH oxidase is a membrane-bound enzyme complex that is responsible for generating reactive oxygen species (ROS), particularly superoxide anions, in various cells and tissues. It plays a crucial role in the immune response, where it is involved in the killing of pathogens by phagocytic cells such as neutrophils and macrophages. NADPH oxidase is also involved in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. In the medical field, NADPH oxidase is of interest because its dysregulation has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and inflammatory disorders.

3T3 cells are a type of mouse fibroblast cell line that are commonly used in biomedical research. They are derived from the mouse embryo and are known for their ability to grow and divide indefinitely in culture. 3T3 cells are often used as a model system for studying cell growth, differentiation, and other cellular processes. They are also used in the development of new drugs and therapies, as well as in the testing of cosmetic and other products for safety and efficacy.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common virus that belongs to the herpesvirus family. It is a large, enveloped virus that can infect a wide range of hosts, including humans, animals, and birds. In humans, CMV is usually asymptomatic or causes mild flu-like symptoms in healthy individuals. However, it can cause serious complications in immunocompromised individuals, such as those with HIV/AIDS, organ transplant recipients, and pregnant women. CMV can infect various organs and tissues in the body, including the liver, spleen, lungs, and central nervous system. It can also cause congenital CMV infection, which occurs when a pregnant woman is infected with CMV and passes the virus to her fetus. Congenital CMV infection can lead to hearing loss, vision problems, and developmental delays in the affected child. In addition to its impact on human health, CMV is also an important model organism for studying herpesvirus biology and pathogenesis.

Viremia is a medical term that refers to the presence of viruses in the bloodstream. It is a normal part of the viral replication cycle, during which the virus multiplies inside host cells and then enters the bloodstream. In some cases, viremia can be asymptomatic, meaning that the person infected with the virus does not experience any symptoms. However, in other cases, viremia can cause a range of symptoms, depending on the type of virus and the severity of the infection. Viremia is typically measured by detecting the viral particles or genetic material of the virus in a blood sample using laboratory tests. The level of viremia can be used to monitor the progression of the infection and to determine the effectiveness of antiviral treatments.

Ubiquitins are small, highly conserved proteins that are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including protein degradation, signal transduction, and gene expression. In the medical field, ubiquitins are often studied in the context of diseases such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases. One of the key functions of ubiquitins is to mark proteins for degradation by the proteasome, a large protein complex that breaks down and removes damaged or unnecessary proteins from the cell. This process is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and regulating the levels of specific proteins in the cell. In addition to their role in protein degradation, ubiquitins are also involved in a number of other cellular processes, including cell cycle regulation, DNA repair, and immune response. Dysregulation of ubiquitin-mediated processes has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, where it can contribute to the development and progression of tumors. Overall, ubiquitins are an important class of proteins that play a critical role in many cellular processes, and their dysfunction can have significant consequences for human health.

In the medical field, "binding, competitive" refers to a type of interaction between a ligand (a molecule that binds to a receptor) and a receptor. Competitive binding occurs when two or more ligands can bind to the same receptor, but they do so in a way that limits the maximum amount of ligand that can bind to the receptor at any given time. In other words, when a ligand binds to a receptor, it competes with other ligands that may also be trying to bind to the same receptor. The binding of one ligand can prevent or reduce the binding of other ligands, depending on the relative affinities of the ligands for the receptor. Competitive binding is an important concept in pharmacology, as it helps to explain how drugs can interact with receptors in the body and how their effects can be influenced by other drugs or substances that may also be present. It is also important in the study of biological systems, where it can help to explain how molecules interact with each other in complex biological networks.

Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) is a nucleotide that plays a crucial role in various cellular processes, including energy metabolism, signal transduction, and protein synthesis. It is composed of a guanine base, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups. In the medical field, GTP is often studied in relation to its role in regulating cellular processes. For example, GTP is a key molecule in the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton, which is responsible for maintaining cell shape and facilitating cell movement. GTP is also involved in the regulation of protein synthesis, as it serves as a substrate for the enzyme guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF), which activates the small GTPase protein Rho. In addition, GTP is involved in the regulation of various signaling pathways, including the Ras/MAPK pathway and the PI3K/Akt pathway. These pathways play important roles in regulating cell growth, differentiation, and survival, and are often dysregulated in various diseases, including cancer. Overall, GTP is a critical molecule in cellular metabolism and signaling, and its dysfunction can have significant consequences for cellular function and disease.

Nitrates are a group of compounds that contain the nitrate ion (NO3-). In the medical field, nitrates are commonly used to treat angina (chest pain caused by reduced blood flow to the heart muscle) and high blood pressure (hypertension). They work by relaxing the smooth muscles in blood vessels, which allows blood to flow more easily and reduces the workload on the heart. Nitrates are available in various forms, including tablets, ointments, and sprays. They are usually taken as needed to relieve symptoms, but may also be taken on a regular schedule to prevent angina attacks or lower blood pressure. It is important to note that nitrates can have side effects, such as headache, flushing, and low blood pressure, and should be used under the guidance of a healthcare provider.

Collagen is a protein that is found in the extracellular matrix of connective tissues throughout the body. It is the most abundant protein in the human body and is responsible for providing strength and support to tissues such as skin, bones, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage. In the medical field, collagen is often used in various medical treatments and therapies. For example, it is used in dermal fillers to plump up wrinkles and improve skin texture, and it is also used in wound healing to promote tissue regeneration and reduce scarring. Collagen-based products are also used in orthopedic and dental applications, such as in the production of artificial joints and dental implants. In addition, collagen is an important biomarker for various medical conditions, including osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and liver disease. It is also used in research to study the mechanisms of tissue repair and regeneration, as well as to develop new treatments for various diseases and conditions.

Interferon-γ has been shown to interact with Interferon gamma receptor 1 and Interferon gamma receptor 2. Interferon-γ has been ... "The heparan sulfate binding sequence of interferon-gamma increased the on rate of the interferon-gamma-interferon-gamma ... Interferon gamma (IFN-γ) is a dimerized soluble cytokine that is the only member of the type II class of interferons. The ... March 2010). "Beta interferon plus gamma interferon efficiently reduces acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex virus infection in ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon_gamma

It binds interferon-γ, the sole member of interferon type II. The human interferon-gamma receptor complex consists the ... Interferon-γ Receptor-1 and 2 Mutations Interferon gamma receptor (IFNGR1) family (Articles with short description, Short ... Pestka S, Kotenko SV, Muthukumaran G, Izotova LS, Cook JR, Garotta G (1997). "The interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) receptor: a ... Interferon-gamma-receptor deficiency in an infant with fatal bacille Calmette-Guerin infection. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:1956- ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon-gamma_receptor

Halevy, S.; Cohen, A.; Grossman, N. (2005). "Clinical implications of in vitro drug-induced interferon gamma release from ... Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) release assays rely on the fact that T-lymphocytes will release IFN-γ when exposed to specific antigens. ... Interferon-γ release assays (IGRA) are medical tests used in the diagnosis of some infectious diseases, especially tuberculosis ... 2007). "Utility of interferon-γ ELISPOT assay responses in highly tuberculosis-exposed patients with advanced HIV infection in ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon_gamma_release_assay

... has been shown to interact with Interferon-gamma. Mutations in the IFNGR1 gene can lead to extreme ... IFNGR1 interferon gamma receptor 1". Novick D, Orchansky P, Revel M, Rubinstein M (Jun 1987). "The human interferon-gamma ... "Interferon-gamma induces tyrosine phosphorylation of interferon-gamma receptor and regulated association of protein tyrosine ... "High-affinity receptor for interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), a ubiquitous protein occurring in different molecular forms on human ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon_gamma_receptor_1

This gene (IFNGR2) encodes the non-ligand-binding beta chain of the gamma interferon receptor. Human interferon-gamma receptor ... Interferon gamma receptor 2 also known as IFN-γR2 is a protein which in humans is encoded by the IFNGR2 gene. ... "Molecular and biochemical characterization of a novel gamma-interferon-inducible protein". J. Biol. Chem. 263 (24): 12036-43. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon_gamma_receptor_2

... the interferon gamma receptor (IFNGR1) family is a family of proteins which includes several eukaryotic and viral interferon ... The vaccinia virus interferon (IFN)-gamma receptor (IFN-gammaR), which is a 43 kDa soluble glycoprotein that is secreted from ... Alcami A, Smith GL (March 2002). "The vaccinia virus soluble interferon-gamma receptor is a homodimer". J. Gen. Virol. 83 (Pt 3 ... Members of this family include: The human interferon gamma receptor 1, which is a member of the hematopoietic cytokine receptor ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon_gamma_receptor_(IFNGR1)_family

"Human interferon-gamma mRNA autoregulates its translation through a pseudoknot that activates the interferon-inducible protein ... Page for Interferon gamma 5' UTR regulatory element at Rfam v t e (Cis-regulatory RNA elements, All stub articles, Molecular ... Interferon gamma 5' UTR regulatory elements are a family of regulatory RNAs. This family represents a pseudoknot containing ... Mutations in the pseudoknot structure have been found to reduce PKR activation and increase the translation of interferon-gamma ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon_gamma_5'_UTR_regulatory_element

Leukocyte interferon is produced predominantly by B lymphocytes. Immune interferon (IFN-gamma; MIM 147570) is produced by ... "Entrez Gene: IFNA1 interferon, alpha 1". Lengyel P (1982). "Biochemistry of interferons and their actions". Annual Review of ... Uzé, G; Schreiber, G; Piehler, J; Pellegrini, S (2007). "The Receptor of the Type I Interferon Family". Interferon: The 50th ... Pestka S, Krause CD, Walter MR (Dec 2004). "Interferons, interferon-like cytokines, and their receptors". Immunological Reviews ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon_alpha-1

... interferon gamma); or cause cell death (viz., tumor necrosis factor alpha). AGEP: Key elements promoting tissue injury in AGEP ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_cutaneous_adverse_reactions

In response to IL-12, MAIT cells produce and secrete interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), a cytokine that activate macrophages, assists in ... Boehm U, Klamp T, Groot M, Howard JC (1997-01-01). "Cellular responses to interferon-gamma". Annual Review of Immunology. 15: ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucosal-associated_invariant_T_cell

Gamma-interferon-inducible lysosomal thiol reductase is an enzyme that, in humans, is encoded by the IFI30 gene. The protein ... "Entrez Gene: IFI30 interferon, gamma-inducible protein 30". Csányi E (1977). "[Endre Kótai; 1914-1976]". Magyar traumatológia, ... The enzyme is expressed constitutively in antigen-presenting cells and induced by gamma-interferon in other cell types. This ... Phan UT, Arunachalam B, Cresswell P (2000). "Gamma-interferon-inducible lysosomal thiol reductase (GILT). Maturation, activity ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFI30

The cytokine interferon gamma and the Gram negative bacterial cell wall component lipopolysaccharide induce CD38 expression on ... Interferon gamma strongly induces CD38 expression on monocytes. The cytokine tumor necrosis factor strongly induces CD38 on ... in vivo during human influenza infection and blocking CD38 prevents the ability of pDCs to produce type I interferon in vitro. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD38

"E38N interferon gamma polypeptide variants - US Patent 7232562 Full Text". Patentstorm.us. Archived from the original on 11 ... "Interferon gamma conjugates - US Patent 7230081 Full Text". Patentstorm.us. Archived from the original on 11 October 2012. ... "Polynucleotides encoding interferon gamma polypeptides - US Patent 7504237 Full Text". Patentstorm.us. Archived from the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Karsten_Hansen

Interleukin-18 (IL-18), also known as interferon-gamma inducing factor is a protein which in humans is encoded by the IL18 gene ... IL-18 is up regulated by interferon-gamma. IL-18 has also been found to increase the Alzheimer's disease-associated amyloid- ... June 1998). "Overview of interleukin-18: more than an interferon-gamma inducing factor". Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 63 (6): ... "Entrez Gene: IL18 interleukin 18 (interferon-gamma-inducing factor)". Yasuda K, Nakanishi K, Tsutsui H (February 2019). " ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interleukin_18

Singh, V. K. (1996). "Plasma increase of interleukin-12 and interferon-gamma. Pathological significance in autism". Journal of ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijendra_K._Singh

Gamma-interferon-inducible protein Ifi-16 (Ifi-16) also known as interferon-inducible myeloid differentiation transcriptional ... "Entrez Gene: IFI16 interferon, gamma-inducible protein 16". Ouchi, Mutsuko; Ouchi, Toru (2008-01-01). "Role of IFI16 in DNA ... "A novel gene constitutively expressed in human lymphoid cells is inducible with interferon-gamma in myeloid cells". ... 2004). "The interferon-inducible IFI16 gene inhibits tube morphogenesis and proliferation of primary, but not HPV16 E6/E7- ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFI16

"High Levels of Interferon Gamma in the Plasma of Children With Complete Interferon Gamma Receptor Deficiency". Pediatrics. 107 ... a complete deficiency in the interferon-gamma receptor have significant elevations in plasma concentrations of interferon-gamma ... "IFNGR1 interferon gamma receptor 1 [ Homo sapiens (human) ]". Bryant, Stephen H.; Kans, Jonathan A.; Chappey, Colombe; Geer, ... "Interferon-gamma-receptor deficiency in an infant with fatal bacille Calmette-Guérin infection". The New England Journal of ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelian_susceptibility_to_mycobacterial_disease

Fontana V, Choren V, Vauthay L, Calvo JC, Calvo L, Cameo M (December 2004). "Exogenous interferon-gamma alters murine inner ... Sharma B, Iozzo RV (February 1998). "Transcriptional silencing of perlecan gene expression by interferon-gamma". J. Biol. Chem ... Interferon- γ treatment of blastocyst-stage murine embryos leads to a loss of perlecan expression on the trophectoderm, and ... Interferon-γ signaling mediates transcriptional repression of the perlecan gene. This was first shown in colon cancer cell ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perlecan

Tumor necrosis factor alpha and Interferon gamma). Induction of the high-output iNOS usually occurs in an oxidative environment ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitric_oxide_synthase

Schroder K, Hertzog PJ, Ravasi T, Hume DA (February 2004). "Interferon-gamma: an overview of signals, mechanisms and functions ... IL-2 receptors have γ (gamma) chains, which are associated with JAK3, which then phosphorylates key tyrosines on the tail of ... Studies indicate that STAT2 requires a protein called interferon regulatory factor 9 (IRF9) to enter the nucleus. Not as much ... Au-Yeung, Nancy; Mandhana, Roli; Horvath, Curt M (2014). "Transcriptional regulation by STAT1 and STAT2 in the interferon JAK- ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAK-STAT_signaling_pathway

Haque MF, Meghji S, Nazir R, Harris M (January 2001). "Interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) may reverse oral submucous fibrosis". ... IFN-gamma is an antifibrotic cytokine which alters collagen synthesis and helps in OSF. Colchicine tablets 0.5 mg twice a day ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_submucous_fibrosis

... like interferon gamma, that activate macrophages and cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). Interferon gamma represents an example of ... Once activated by T lymphocytes or Natural Killer cells, interferon gamma upregulates expression of macrophages and both types ... In B lymphocytes (B cells), interferon gamma stimulates antibody class switching. All of these cells have different, ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluripotency_(biological_compounds)

Huang KJ, Su IJ, Theron M, Wu YC, Lai SK, Liu CC, Lei HY (February 2005). "An interferon-gamma-related cytokine storm in SARS ... An animal study found that mice producing an early strong interferon response to SARS-CoV-2 were likely to live, but in other ... The high mortality rate of COVID-19 in older populations has been attributed to the impact of age on interferon responses. ... One such cause is the delayed Type I interferon response that leads to accumulation of pathogenic monocytes. High viremia is ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytokine_storm

The source of interferon-gamma can be CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, natural killer cells, B cells, natural killer T cells, ... Interferon-gamma-which was once called macrophage activating factor-stimulates macrophages to produce nitric oxide. ... 6-10 Schroder K, Hertzog PJ, Ravasi T, Hume DA (February 2004). "Interferon-gamma: an overview of signals, mechanisms and ... But, during an infection, they receive chemical signals-usually interferon gamma-which increases their production of MHC II ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phagocyte

IL-10 or Interferon gamma) in the tumor environment. The products of these two genes, programmed death-ligand 1 and programmed ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_cutaneous_diffuse_large_B-cell_lymphoma,_leg_type

Expression of this catalytic subunit (beta 2, according to systematic nomenclature) is downregulated by gamma interferon due to ... Rivett AJ, Bose S, Brooks P, Broadfoot KI (2001). "Regulation of proteasome complexes by gamma-interferon and phosphorylation ... "Newly identified pair of proteasomal subunits regulated reciprocally by interferon gamma". The Journal of Experimental Medicine ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSMB7

Dorman SE, Holland SM (2000). "Interferon-gamma and interleukin-12 pathway defects and human disease". Cytokine & Growth Factor ... Rosenzweig SD, Holland SM (February 2005). "Defects in the interferon-gamma and interleukin-12 pathways". Immunological Reviews ... due to decreased production of interferons in the central nervous system. Interferon-γ (IFN-γ)/interleukin-12 (IL-12) pathway ... UNC93B1 is very important signaling molecule involved in the production of interferon which plays a key role in the killing of ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innate_immune_defect

The vaccine resulted in specific interferon gamma cell production. Also specific T-cells for middle envelop proteins antigens ... and interferon gamma". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 93 (7): 2879-2883. ... Yi AK, Chace JH, Cowdery JS, Krieg AM (January 1996). "IFN-gamma promotes IL-6 and IgM secretion in response to CpG motifs in ... Both helper and cytotoxic T-cells can control viral infections by secreting interferons. Cytotoxic T cells usually kill virally ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_vaccine

Ashkar AA, Di Santo JP, Croy BA (July 2000). "Interferon gamma contributes to initiation of uterine vascular modification, ... Depletion of the inflammatory cytokine interferon gamma reversed the effect.[citation needed] Tumor-infiltrating NK cells have ... NKT cell activity promotes NK cell activity by secreting interferon gamma. In contrast to NKT cells, NK cells do not express T- ... It has been shown that this kind of NK cell has enhanced interferon-γ production and cytotoxicity against leukemia cell lines ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_killer_cell

Induction by interferon-gamma and contribution to ATP-dependent proteolysis". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 275 (19): ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSMD9

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon_gamma

Interferon Gamma-1b Injection: learn about side effects, dosage, special precautions, and more on MedlinePlus ... Before receiving interferon gamma-1b injection,. *tell your doctor and pharmacist if you are allergic to interferon gamma-1b ... Interferon gamma-1b may be left at room temperature for no longer than 12 hours. Do not freeze interferon gamma-1b. ... You will receive your first dose of interferon gamma-1b in your doctors office. Then you can inject interferon gamma-1b ...

https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/meds/a601152.html

Flu: Interferon-gamma from T follicular helper cells is required to create lung-resident memory B cells Lung-resident memory B ... Flu: Interferon-gamma from T follicular helper cells is required to create lung-resident memory B cells. University of Alabama ... By Day 10, early in the flu infection, nearly 40 percent of the Tfh cells were producing interferon-gamma, or INF-γ; but that ... www.uab.edu/news/research/item/13767-flu-interferon-gamma-from-t-follicular-helper-cells-is-required-to-create-lung-resident- ...

https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1001466

Interferons have been shown to be potential anti-cancer agents and to inhibit tumor cell growth in culture. The in vivo ... In particular, interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) induces an enzyme of tryptophan catabolism, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), ... Relationship between interferon-gamma, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, and tryptophan catabolism FASEB J. 1991 Aug;5(11):2516-22. ... Interferons have been shown to be potential anti-cancer agents and to inhibit tumor cell growth in culture. The in vivo ...

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1907934/?dopt=Abstract

Purified recombinant protein of Homo sapiens interferon, gamma (IFNG), 20 µg ... Purified recombinant protein of Human interferon, gamma (IFNG), with N-terminal HIS tag, expressed in E.Coli, 50ug. * * 50 ug. ... IFNG (Myc-DDK-tagged)-Human interferon, gamma (IFNG). Get a free Anti-DDK antibody sample free with this product. Use code: " ... The active protein is a homodimer that binds to the interferon gamma receptor which triggers a cellular response to viral and ...

https://www.origene.com/catalog/proteins/recombinant-proteins/tp309993/interferon-gamma-ifng-nm_000619-human-recombinant-protein

... including interferon-γ (IFN-γ), followed by multiple organ dysfunction and often death. As IFN-γ possesses pro- as well as anti ...

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0016764

... triggered by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor and Interferon-gamma, converge on CDK/cyclin repression, causing inhibition of viral ... The aryl hydrocarbon receptor and interferon gamma generate antiviral states via transcriptional repression. ... The aryl hydrocarbon receptor and interferon gamma generate antiviral states via transcriptional repression ... The aryl hydrocarbon receptor and interferon gamma generate antiviral states via transcriptional repression ...

https://elifesciences.org/articles/38867/figures

Interferon-gamma release assay for detection of latent tuberculosis infection in casual and close contacts of tuberculosis ... The aim of this study in Egypt was to estimate the usefulness of an interferon-gamma release assay (IFN-γ) assay for the ... Interferon-gamma release assay for detection of latent tuberculosis infection in casual and close contacts of tuberculosis ... Comparison of a new ESAT-6/CFP-10 peptide-based gamma interferon assay and a tuberculin skin test for tuberculosis screening in ...

http://www.emro.who.int/emhj-volume-17/volume-17-issue-10/article-05.html

Novel Role of the Innate Immune DNA Sensor IFI16 (Interferon Gamma Inducible Protein 16) as a Major Epigenetic Modulator During ... We have previously shown that Interferon-γ inducible protein 16 (IFI16), a host nuclear innate immune DNA sensor, plays an ...

https://www.technologynetworks.com/immunology/posters/novel-role-of-the-innate-immune-dna-sensor-ifi16-interferon-gamma-inducible-protein-16-as-a-major-301667

Resistance to acute infection with B. pseudomallei was absolutely dependent upon the production of gamma interferon (IFN-gamma ... The rapid production of IFN-gamma within the first day of infection determines whether the infection proceeds to an acute ... Administration of neutralizing monoclonal antibody against IFN-gamma lowered the 50% lethal dose from ,5 x 10(5) to ca. 2 CFU ... Resistance to acute infection with B. pseudomallei was absolutely dependent upon the production of gamma interferon (IFN-gamma ...

https://www.tropmedres.ac/publications/317095

Therefore, induction of the host tryptophan catabolizing enzyme, indoleamine-2,3-dioxgenase-1 (IDO1), by interferon gamma (IFNγ ... Chlamydia trachomatis-infected cells and uninfected-bystander cells exhibit diametrically opposed responses to interferon gamma ... "Chlamydia trachomatis-infected cells and uninfected-bystander cells exhibit diametrically opposed responses to interferon gamma ... Chlamydia trachomatis-infected cells and uninfected-bystander cells exhibit diametrically opposed responses to interferon gamma ...

https://scholars.duke.edu/publication/1530416

The Interferon Gamma ELISA Assay is for the determination of IFN-gamma concentrations in cell culture supernates, serum, and ... Interferon Gamma ELISA Assay. $480.00. The Interferon Gamma ELISA Assay (enzyme-linked immunoassay kit) is intended for the ... Mouse Interferon Gamma (IFN-gamma) ELISA Assay Kit. High Sensitive IFN gamma ELISA Assay Kit ... Interferon Gamma ELISA Assay. The Interferon Gamma ELISA Assay is For Research Use Only ...

https://eaglebio.com/product/interferon-gamma-elisa-assay/

What is ACTIMMUNE® (Interferon gamma-1b) used for?. ACTIMMUNE® is part of a drug regimen used to treat Chronic Granulomatous ... What is ACTIMMUNE® (Interferon gamma-1b) used for?. ACTIMMUNE® is part of a drug regimen used to treat Chronic Granulomatous ... Dont use ACTIMMUNE if you are allergic to interferon-gamma, E coli-derived products, or any ingredients contained in the ... Dont use ACTIMMUNE if you are allergic to interferon-gamma, E coli-derived products, or any ingredients contained in the ...

https://www.horizonbyyourside.com/actimmune/patient/support/cgd-events

Gamma Elisa Laboratories manufactures the interferon gamma elisa protocol reagents distributed by Genprice. The Interferon ... please contact gamma elisa. Other Interferon products are available in stock. Specificity: Interferon Category: Gamma Group: ... Interferon Gamma Elisa Protocol. Aagab ELISA Kit, Mouse Alpha- and gamma-adaptin-binding protein. ... Gamma Elisa Protocol reagent is RUO (Research Use Only) to test human serum or cell culture lab samples. To purchase these ...

https://www.plant-gem.org/interferon-gamma-elisa-protocol/

Interferon-gamma Causes Cardiac Myocyte Atrophy via Selective Degradation of Myosin Heavy Chain in a Model of Chronic ...

https://experts.colorado.edu/display/pubid_29929

Data on gamma interferon (IFN-γ)-secreting CD4 + T cells over time after recent Mycobacterium bovis BCG vaccination were ... Data on gamma interferon (IFN-γ)-secreting CD4 + T cells over time after recent Mycobacterium bovis BCG vaccination were ... Using Data from Macaques To Predict Gamma Interferon Responses after Mycobacterium bovis BCG Vaccination in Humans: a Proof-of- ... Using Data from Macaques To Predict Gamma Interferon Responses after Mycobacterium bovis BCG Vaccination in Humans: a Proof-of- ...

https://www.ndm.ox.ac.uk/publications/671511

Interferon gamma is produced mainly by T-cells and natural killer cells activated by antigens; mitogens; or alloantigens. It is ... Recombinant Human Interferon Gamma/IFNG Protein (E.Coli). Rating * Select Rating. 1 star (worst). 2 stars. 3 stars (average). 4 ... IFN Gamma is the major interferon produced by mitogenically or antigenically stimulated lymphocytes. It is structurally ... IFN Gamma synthesis is induced by IL-2; FGF-basic; and EGF.. ... Recombinant Human Interferon Gamma/IFNG Protein (E.Coli). MSRP ...

https://www.iwai-chem.net/recombinant-proteins/recombinant-human-interferon-gamma-ifng-protein-e-coli/

Recombinant Murine Monokine Induced by Interferon-gamma/CXCL9 (rMuMIG/CXCL9). 英文别名. Gamma-interferon-induced Monokine, Small- ... Recombinant Murine Monokine Induced by Interferon-gamma/CXCL9是ChemWhat品牌授权产品并通过沃尔森销售，下面是ChemWhat上的该产品链接 Recombinant Murine ... CXCL9 belongs to the CXC chemokine family and also known as Monokine induced by gamma interferon (MIG). It is a T-cell ... Recombinant Murine Monokine Induced by

https://www.watson-int.cn/recombinant-murine-monokine-induced-by-interferon-gamma-cxcl9-rmumig-cxcl9/

... interferon gamma. †Denominators indicate number of case-patients for which category of data was available.. ... Interferon-γ Autoantibodies as Predisposing Factor for Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infection Florent Valour. , Thomas Perpoint ... Interferon-γ Autoantibodies as Predisposing Factor for Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infection. ...

https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/22/6/15-1860-t1

Tan N. Doan, Damon P. Eisen, Morgan T. Rose,Andrew Slack, Grace Stearnes, Emma S. McBryde. Interferon-gamma release assay for ... Home , Publications , Journal Articles , Interferon-gamma release assay for the diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection: A ... Interferon-gamma release assay for the diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection: A latent-class analysis. ... and interferon-gamma release assays (IGRAs) for LTBI diagnosis in various patient populations using Bayesian latent class ...

https://prism.edu.au/publications/interferon-gamma-release-assay-for-the-diagnosis-of-latent-tuberculosis-infection-a-latent-class-analysis/

... and interferon gamma in pleural fluid in tuberculous pleural effusion ... The diagnostic value of ADA, ADA2, and interferon gamma in pleural fluid in tuberculous pleural effusion. Int J Adv Res Med ... The diagnostic value of ADA, ADA2, and interferon gamma in pleural fluid in tuberculous pleural effusion. ... ADA, ADA1, ADA2, and interferon gamma in pleural fluid are examined in TB, cancer, and lymphoma. ...

https://www.medicinepaper.net/archives/2019.v1.i2.B.433

Tuberculin skin testing (TST) or interferon gamma release assay (IGRA). There is a theoretical risk that mRNA or viral vector ... Tuberculin skin testing (TST) and interferon gamma release assay (IGRA). *Blood products, human immunoglobulin and timing of ...

https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/healthy-living/canadian-immunization-guide-part-4-active-vaccines/page-26-covid-19-vaccine.html

Elevated levels of cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha; interferon gamma; granulocyte-monocyte colony-stimulating ...

https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1336764-overview

... we demonstrated that a GF diet during pregnancy reduced the expression of interferon gamma (IFNG) in TH cells and IL22 in gamma ... B) A GF diet modulates the innate and adaptive immune system resulting in reduced interferon gamma (IFNG) secretion from CD4+ T ... B) A GF diet modulates the innate and adaptive immune system resulting in reduced interferon gamma (IFNG) secretion from CD4+ T ... Locke, N.R.; Stankovic, S.; Funda, D.P.; Harrison, L.C. TCR gamma delta intraepithelial lymphocytes are required for self- ...

https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/10/11/1746

Blood test (interferon gamma release assay [IGRA]). Persons who become infected can have either:. LTBI. Active TB disease ...

https://www.cdc.gov/tb/education/skillscourse/day1/d_link_text01.htm

Aliases: Interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) (Immune interferon), IFNG. Background: Produced by lymphocytes activated by specific ... Recombinant Chicken Interferon gamma (IFNG) , CSB-EP011050CH , CusabioAlternative Name(s): IFNG; Interferon gamma; IFN- ... IFN-gamma, in addition to having antiviral activity, has important immunoregulatory functions. It is a potent activator of ... effects on transformed cells and it can potentiate the antiviral and antitumor effects of the type I interferons. ...

https://joplink.net/ifng-antibody-biotin-conjugated-csb-pa06524d0rb/

8.0 IU gamma interferon (IF)/ml LBXTBA (TB antigen value) minus LBXTBN (Nil) value must be =, 0.35 IU gamma interferon (IF)/ml ...

https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2011-2012/TB_G.htm

Dutia, B. M., Clarke, C. J., Allen, D. J. & Nash, A. A. Pathological changes in the spleens of gamma interferon receptor- ... Steed, A., Buch, T., Waisman, A. & Virgin, H. W. Gamma interferon blocks gammaherpesvirus reactivation from latency in a cell ... Goodwin, M. M., Canny, S., Steed, A. & Virgin, H. W. Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 has evolved gamma interferon and stat1- ... Steed, A. L. et al. Gamma interferon blocks gammaherpesvirus reactivation from latency. J. Virol. 80(1), 192-200. https://doi. ...

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-25543-1?error=cookies_not_supported

From these results it was concluded that anti-IFN-gamma treatment caused an increase in the number of arthritic lesions, but ... IFN-gamma) in collagen-induced arthritis. Mice were immunized with human type II collagen in adjuvant on day 1 and boosted with ... a hamster neutralizing MoAb to murine interferon-gamma ( ... a hamster neutralizing MoAb to murine interferon-gamma (IFN- ... Increased limb involvement in murine collagen-induced arthritis following treatment with anti-interferon-gamma. ...

https://www.kennedy.ox.ac.uk/publications/481708

Herein we describe the contacts' closeness to the index TB patient and the positivity of interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA). (who.int)
La TBL se detectó en el 7,6% (46/599) pacientes , de los cuales, en 8,7% (52/599) el Gama Interferon fue positivo (IGRA) y en 3,8% (23/599) la PPD fue ≥5 (positivo). (bvsalud.org)
Two types of immunological methods are used for detecting Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection: tuberculin skin tests (TSTs) and interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA) blood tests. (cdc.gov)
Se diagnostica actualmente por detección in vitro de liberación de interferón gamma (IGRA) Quantiferon TB Gold®In tube en sangre, identificándolas en enfermedades reumatológicas, inmunocomprometidos, régimen de trasplante de órgano sólido, contactos familiares, personal de salud con pacientes bacilíferos. (bvsalud.org)
determinar la utilidad del IGRA para diagnosticar presencia de tuberculosis latente en pacientes con factores de riesgo o exposición. (bvsalud.org)
se revisaron 261 resultados de IGRA en muestras de sangre de pacientes de 3 a 86 años con una mediana de 49 años. (bvsalud.org)
se confirmaron 38 (15%) LTBI en el país con el IGRA, mayoría adultos de 81 a 90 años y mujeres, 24% cuadros pulmonares, 20% contactos y autoinmunes. (bvsalud.org)
It is currently diagnosed by in vitro detection of interferon gamma (IGRA) release Quantiferon TB Gold®In tube in blood, identifying them in rheumatological diseases, immunocompromised, solid organ transplant regimen, family contacts, health personnel with baciliferous patients. (bvsalud.org)

We performed the largest meta-analysis to date aiming to evaluate the performance of tuberculin skin test (TST) and interferon-gamma release assays (IGRAs) for LTBI diagnosis in various patient populations using Bayesian latent class modelling. (edu.au)

Alternatives to the TST are T-cell-based interferon-gamma release assays (IGRAs). (biomedcentral.com)

Interferon gamma (IFN-γ) is a multifunctional protein first observed as an antiviral activity in cultures of Sindbis virus-infected human leukocytes stimulated by PHA. (eaglebio.com)
IFN-gamma, in addition to having antiviral activity, has important immunoregulatory functions. (joplink.net)
It is a potent activator of macrophages, it has antiproliferative effects on transformed cells and it can potentiate the antiviral and antitumor effects of the type I interferons. (joplink.net)

The active protein is a homodimer that binds to the interferon gamma receptor which triggers a cellular response to viral and microbial infections. (origene.com)
We have previously shown that Interferon-γ inducible protein 16 (IFI16), a host nuclear innate immune DNA sensor, plays an important role in the maintenance of KSHV latency [J Virol. (technologynetworks.com)
Significant numbers of IFN-gamma-expressing CD4+ T cells were detected following culture of heparinized blood from M. bovis-infected animals, but not from BCG vaccinates, with purified protein derived from M. bovis (PPD-B) or live mycobacteria. (ox.ac.uk)

Ota M, Kato S. Risk of tuberculosis among air passengers estimated by interferon gamma release assay: survey of contact investigations, Japan, 2012 to 2015. (who.int)
Interferon-γ release assays for the diagnosis of active tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. (who.int)
Tuberculosis screening using a T-cell interferon-γ release assay in Japanese medical students and non-Japanese international students. (who.int)
Tuberculosis contact investigation using interferon-gamma release assay with chest x-ray and computed tomography. (who.int)
Higher levels of interferon-gamma were associated with increased risk of progression to active tuberculosis. (biomedcentral.com)

The Interferon Gamma ELISA Assay (enzyme-linked immunoassay kit) is intended for the quantitative determination of human Interferon Gamma (IFN-γ) concentrations in cell culture supernates, serum, and plasma. (eaglebio.com)
The Eagle Biosciences Human Interferon Gamma (IFN-γ) ELISA Assay Kit is for research use only and not to be used in diagnostic procedures. (eaglebio.com)
The Eagle Biosciences Interferon Gamma (IFN-γ) ELISA Assay Kit employs the quantitative sandwich enzyme immunoassay technique. (eaglebio.com)
Gamma Elisa Laboratories manufactures the interferon gamma elisa protocol reagents distributed by Genprice. (plant-gem.org)
The Interferon Gamma Elisa Protocol reagent is RUO (Research Use Only) to test human serum or cell culture lab samples. (plant-gem.org)
En todos los pacientes incluidos se realizó al mismo tiempo determinación del PPD (por inyección de tuberculina I de 2UI de potencia por inyección intradérmica en antebrazo izquierdo) y se tomó sangre periférica para determinación por el método de ELISA de la producción por los mononucleares de interferón gama en respuesta a antígeno de MTB ( ELISA - QIAGEN - Germany). (bvsalud.org)
In all the patients included, PPD was determined at the same time (by injection of tuberculin I of 2IU of potency by intradermal injection in the left forearm ) and peripheral blood was taken for determination by the ELISA method of the production of interferon mononuclear cells . (bvsalud.org)
gamma in response to MTB antigen ( ELISA - QIAGEN - Germany ). (bvsalud.org)

What is ACTIMMUNE® (Interferon gamma-1b) used for? (horizonbyyourside.com)
Don't use ACTIMMUNE if you are allergic to interferon-gamma, E coli-derived products, or any ingredients contained in the product. (horizonbyyourside.com)

In particular, interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) induces an enzyme of tryptophan catabolism, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), which is responsible for conversion of tryptophan and other indole derivatives to kynurenine. (nih.gov)
Therefore, induction of the host tryptophan catabolizing enzyme, indoleamine-2,3-dioxgenase-1 (IDO1), by interferon gamma (IFNγ) is one of the primary protective responses against chlamydial infection. (duke.edu)

André Ballesteros-Tato, Ph.D., and colleagues at the University of Alabama at Birmingham have now published a mouse-model study in the journal Immunity showing that interferon-gamma produced by T follicular helper cells, or Tfh cells, after intranasal influenza infection is required to initiate the path of B cell differentiation into lung-BRMs. (eurekalert.org)

Resumen La OMS estima que un tercio de la población mundial está infectada con Mycobacterium tuberculsosis, permaneciendo la mayoría de los casos en forma de TB latente (TBL). (bvsalud.org)
Flow cytometric detection of gamma interferon can effectively discriminate Mycobacterium bovis BCG-vaccinated cattle from M. bovis-infected cattle. (ox.ac.uk)

The aim of this study in Egypt was to estimate the usefulness of an interferon-gamma release assay (IFN-γ) assay for the detection of latent TB infection in contacts of active TB cases. (who.int)
Obligatory role of gamma interferon for host survival in a murine model of infection with Burkholderia pseudomallei. (tropmedres.ac)
Resistance to acute infection with B. pseudomallei was absolutely dependent upon the production of gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) in vivo. (tropmedres.ac)
The rapid production of IFN-gamma within the first day of infection determines whether the infection proceeds to an acute lethal outcome or becomes chronic. (tropmedres.ac)

The inhibitory effect of interferon on many intracellular parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia trachomatis is by the same mechanism. (nih.gov)
We tested the hypothesis that the quantification of IFN-gamma-producing lymphocytes by flow cytometric analysis of intracellular IFN-gamma expression would provide a more accurate discrimination of M. bovis-infected animals from BCG vaccinates. (ox.ac.uk)

To compare the effectiveness in patients with HIV / AIDS of two diagnostic tests for latent TB (TBL) the Mantoux Test and the determination of Interferon Gamma in peripheral blood . (bvsalud.org)

Higuchi K, Sekiya Y, Igari H, Watanabe A, Harada N. Comparison of specificities between two interferon-gamma release assays in Japan. (who.int)
Diel R, Loddenkemper R, Nienhaus A. Evidence-based comparison of commercial interferon-gamma release assays for detecting active TB: a metaanalysis. (who.int)

In the dose-response curve, the risk increased sharply between interferon-gamma levels 0 and 5 IU/ml, after which the risk continued to increase moderately but at a slower pace until reaching about 15 IU/ml where the risk levels off. (biomedcentral.com)

In cocultures with osteoblasts and spleen cells from IFN-gamma receptor type II-deficient mice, IL-18 was found to inhibit OCL formation, indicating that IL-18 acted independently of IFN-gamma production: IFN-gamma had no effect in these cocultures. (ox.ac.uk)
Additionally, in cocultures in which spleen cells were derived from receptor-deficient mice and osteoblasts were from wild-type mice and vice versa, we identified that the target cells for IFN-gamma inhibition of OCL formation were the hemopoietic cells. (ox.ac.uk)

Elevated kynurenine levels have been found in humans in a number of diseases and after interferon treatment, and the enzyme is induced in rodents after administration of interferon inducers, or influenza virus. (nih.gov)

IFN Gamma is the major interferon produced by mitogenically or antigenically stimulated lymphocytes. (iwai-chem.net)
Only 1 of 17 BCG-vaccinated animals had a significant number of CD4+ T lymphocytes expressing IFN-gamma, compared with 21/22 M. bovis-infected animals. (ox.ac.uk)

L'objectif de la présente étude conduite en Égypte était d'évaluer l'utilité d'un test de quantification de la libération d'interféron gamma (IFN‑γ) pour le dépistage des infections tuberculeuses latentes chez les contacts de patients atteints de tuberculose active. (who.int)

tell your doctor and pharmacist if you are allergic to interferon gamma-1b injection, products made from the E. coli bacteria, any other medications, or any of the other ingredients in interferon gamma-1b injection. (medlineplus.gov)

Comparar la efectividad en pacientes con VIH / SIDA de dos pruebas diagnósticas de TB latente (TBL) la Prueba de Mantoux y la determinación de Interferón Gamma en sangre periférica. (bvsalud.org)

The researchers asked whether the requirement for IFN-γ signaling in lung-BRM development was intrinsic to B cells, meaning the interferon was producing effects inside the B cells. (eurekalert.org)
Scholars@Duke publication: Chlamydia trachomatis-infected cells and uninfected-bystander cells exhibit diametrically opposed responses to interferon gamma. (duke.edu)
IL-18 has been reported to induce interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) production in T cells, and both agents also inhibit OCL formation in vitro. (ox.ac.uk)

The gene for IDO has been cloned and shown to be differentially regulated by IFN-alpha and IFN-gamma. (nih.gov)
This gene encodes a soluble cytokine that is a member of the type II interferon class. (origene.com)

Interleukin-18 (interferon-gamma-inducing factor) is produced by osteoblasts and acts via granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor and not via interferon-gamma to inhibit osteoclast formation. (ox.ac.uk)

It is structurally different from type I interferon and its major activity is immunoregulation. (iwai-chem.net)

Your doctor or pharmacist will give you the manufacturer's patient information sheet when you begin treatment with interferon gamma-1b and each time you refill your prescription. (medlineplus.gov)
Increased limb involvement in murine collagen-induced arthritis following treatment with anti-interferon-gamma. (ox.ac.uk)
From these results it was concluded that anti-IFN-gamma treatment caused an increase in the number of arthritic lesions, but did not affect the severity of each individual lesion. (ox.ac.uk)

Interferon gamma-1b injection is used to reduce the frequency and severity of serious infections in people with chronic granulomatous disease (an inherited immune system disease). (medlineplus.gov)

The work provides evidence that IL-18 is expressed by osteoblasts and inhibits OCL formation via GM-CSF production and not via IFN-gamma production. (ox.ac.uk)

Other Interferon products are available in stock. (plant-gem.org)

Interferon gamma-1b injection may cause side effects. (medlineplus.gov)

A direct role for IDO in pteridine synthesis has not been shown, and this parallel induction may reflect coordinate regulation of genes induced by IFN-gamma. (nih.gov)

Interferons have been shown to be potential anti-cancer agents and to inhibit tumor cell growth in culture. (nih.gov)

Interferon gamma-1b is in a class of medications called immunomodulators. (medlineplus.gov)

We have tested the effect of administering H22, a hamster neutralizing MoAb to murine interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) in collagen-induced arthritis. (ox.ac.uk)

If you miss a dose of interferon gamma-1b injection, do not increase your dose or give two injections to make up for the missed dose.Call your doctor if you miss a dose and have questions about what to do. (medlineplus.gov)

It is a T-cell chemoattractant induced by IFN-gamma. (watson-int.cn)

Anatomy35

Organisms24

Diseases14

Chemicals and Drugs111

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment24

Phenomena and Processes49

Disciplines and Occupations1

Technology, Industry, Agriculture1

Information Science3

Health Care2

Surfactant protein A suppresses reactive nitrogen intermediates by alveolar macrophages in response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. (1/21806)

Shp-2 tyrosine phosphatase functions as a negative regulator of the interferon-stimulated Jak/STAT pathway. (2/21806)

Systemic administration of rIL-12 synergistically enhances the therapeutic effect of a TNF gene-transduced cancer vaccine. (3/21806)

Interleukin-18 binding protein: a novel modulator of the Th1 cytokine response. (4/21806)

Reciprocal control of T helper cell and dendritic cell differentiation. (5/21806)

Generation of CD8(+) T-cell responses to Mycobacterium bovis and mycobacterial antigen in experimental bovine tuberculosis. (6/21806)

Pathogenicity island 2 mutants of Salmonella typhimurium are efficient carriers for heterologous antigens and enable modulation of immune responses. (7/21806)

Enhanced Th1 and dampened Th2 responses synergize to inhibit acute granulomatous and fibrotic responses in murine schistosomiasis mansoni. (8/21806)

Interferons

Interferon-gamma

Interferon Type I

Receptors, Interferon

Interferon Inducers

Interferon-alpha

Recombinant Proteins

Cytokines

Interferon-beta

Interferon Regulatory Factor-1

Interferon Regulatory Factor-3

Cells, Cultured

Interferon Regulatory Factors

Receptor, Interferon alpha-beta

STAT1 Transcription Factor

Cell Line

Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha

Mice, Inbred C57BL

T-Lymphocytes

RNA, Messenger

Interleukin-4

Molecular Sequence Data

Antiviral Agents

Mice, Inbred BALB C

Interferon Regulatory Factor-7

Interleukin-12

Macrophages

Gene Expression Regulation

Interleukin-2

Poly I-C

Base Sequence

CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes

Spleen

Gamma Rays

Killer Cells, Natural

Interferon Regulatory Factor-2

Newcastle disease virus

Lymphocyte Activation

Th1 Cells

Signal Transduction

Interleukins

Interleukin-10

Mice, Knockout

Leukocytes, Mononuclear

Flow Cytometry

Ribavirin

Gene Expression

Lipopolysaccharides

Interferon-gamma Release Tests

Amino Acid Sequence

Monocytes

Chemokine CXCL10

Interferon-Stimulated Gene Factor 3

Hepatitis C, Chronic

Immunity, Innate

Transcription, Genetic

L Cells (Cell Line)

Vesicular stomatitis Indiana virus

2',5'-Oligoadenylate Synthetase

Antibodies, Monoclonal

Macrophage Activation

CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes

Immunity, Cellular

DNA-Binding Proteins

Time Factors

Receptors, Immunologic

T-Lymphocyte Subsets

Kinetics

Virus Replication

Interleukin-1

Tumor Cells, Cultured

Antigens, CD

Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay

Fibroblasts

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction

Cytotoxicity, Immunologic

Latent Tuberculosis

Dose-Response Relationship, Drug

Interleukin-5

Tuberculosis