Benzopyrroles with the nitrogen at the number one carbon adjacent to the benzyl portion, in contrast to ISOINDOLES which have the nitrogen away from the six-membered ring.
Group of alkaloids containing a benzylpyrrole group (derived from TRYPTOPHAN)
Compounds formed by condensation of secologanin with tryptamine resulting in a tetrahydro-beta-carboline which is processed further to a number of bioactive compounds. These are especially found in plants of the APOCYNACEAE; LOGANIACEAE; and RUBIACEAE families.
An essential amino acid that is necessary for normal growth in infants and for NITROGEN balance in adults. It is a precursor of INDOLE ALKALOIDS in plants. It is a precursor of SEROTONIN (hence its use as an antidepressant and sleep aid). It can be a precursor to NIACIN, albeit inefficiently, in mammals.
A group of pyrido-indole compounds. Included are any points of fusion of pyridine with the five-membered ring of indole and any derivatives of these compounds. These are similar to CARBAZOLES which are benzo-indoles.
A plant genus of the family Apocynaceae. It is the source of VINCA ALKALOIDS, used in leukemia chemotherapy.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of L-tryptophan and water to indole, pyruvate, and ammonia. It is a pyridoxal-phosphate protein, requiring K+. It also catalyzes 2,3-elimination and beta-replacement reactions of some indole-substituted tryptophan analogs of L-cysteine, L-serine, and other 3-substituted amino acids. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 4.1.99.1.
Skatole, also known as 3-methylindole, is a foul-smelling, crystalline compound that is a natural product of bacterial breakdown in the intestines and can be found in some plants, contributing to the characteristic odor of feces and certain flowers like jasmine.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of L-serine and 1-(indol-3-yl)glycerol 3-phosphate to L-tryptophan and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. It is a pyridoxal phosphate protein that also catalyzes the conversion of serine and indole into tryptophan and water and of indoleglycerol phosphate into indole and glyceraldehyde phosphate. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 4.2.1.20.
Changing an open-chain hydrocarbon to a closed ring. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 5th ed)
Indolesulfonic acid used as a dye in renal function testing for the detection of nitrates and chlorates, and in the testing of milk.
Substituted thioglucosides. They are found in rapeseed (Brassica campestris) products and related cruciferae. They are metabolized to a variety of toxic products which are most likely the cause of hepatocytic necrosis in animals and humans.
Alkaloid isolated from seeds of Peganum harmala L., Zygophyllaceae. It is identical to banisterine, or telepathine, from Banisteria caapi and is one of the active ingredients of hallucinogenic drinks made in the western Amazon region from related plants. It has no therapeutic use, but (as banisterine) was hailed as a cure for postencephalitic Parkinson disease in the 1920's.
A plant genus of the APOCYNACEAE or dogbane family. Alkaloids from plants in this genus have been used as tranquilizers and antihypertensive agents. RESERPINE is derived from R. serpentina.
A plant genus of the family APOCYNACEAE. It contains ellipticine.
The location of the atoms, groups or ions relative to one another in a molecule, as well as the number, type and location of covalent bonds.
Decarboxylated monoamine derivatives of TRYPTOPHAN.
The Madder plant family of the order Rubiales, subclass Asteridae, class Magnoliopsida includes important medicinal plants that provide QUININE; IPECAC; and COFFEE. They have opposite leaves and interpetiolar stipules.
A chemical element having an atomic weight of 106.4, atomic number of 46, and the symbol Pd. It is a white, ductile metal resembling platinum, and following it in abundance and importance of applications. It is used in dentistry in the form of gold, silver, and copper alloys.
A group of indole-indoline dimers which are ALKALOIDS obtained from the VINCA genus of plants. They inhibit polymerization of TUBULIN into MICROTUBULES thus blocking spindle formation and arresting cells in METAPHASE. They are some of the most useful ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS.
The phenomenon whereby compounds whose molecules have the same number and kind of atoms and the same atomic arrangement, but differ in their spatial relationships. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 5th ed)
Acetic acid derivatives of the heterocyclic compound indole. (Merck Index, 11th ed)
Attachment of isoprenoids (TERPENES) to other compounds, especially PROTEINS and FLAVONOIDS.
Organic nitrogenous bases. Many alkaloids of medical importance occur in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and some have been synthesized. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
The facilitation of a chemical reaction by material (catalyst) that is not consumed by the reaction.
A plant family of the order Theales.
Spectroscopic method of measuring the magnetic moment of elementary particles such as atomic nuclei, protons or electrons. It is employed in clinical applications such as NMR Tomography (MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING).
Benzoic acids, salts, or esters that contain an amino group attached to carbon number 2 or 6 of the benzene ring structure.
An enzyme that, in the pathway of cholesterol biosynthesis, catalyzes the condensation of isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallylpyrophosphate to yield pyrophosphate and geranylpyrophosphate. The enzyme then catalyzes the condensation of the latter compound with another molecule of isopentenyl pyrophosphate to yield pyrophosphate and farnesylpyrophosphate. EC 2.5.1.1.
An enzyme that catalyzes the chlorination of a range of organic molecules, forming stable carbon-chloride bonds. EC 1.11.1.10.
An indole-dione that is obtained by oxidation of indigo blue. It is a MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITOR and high levels have been found in urine of PARKINSONISM patients.
A plant genus of the family APOCYNACEAE. Members contain echitovenidine, echitamine, venenatine (an indole alkaloid), and anti-inflammatory triterpenoids
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
Compounds with a core of 10 carbons generally formed via the mevalonate pathway from the combination of 3,3-dimethylallyl pyrophosphate and isopentenyl pyrophosphate. They are cyclized and oxidized in a variety of ways. Due to the low molecular weight many of them exist in the form of essential oils (OILS, VOLATILE).
Inorganic or organic compounds derived from phosphine (PH3) by the replacement of H atoms. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Ring compounds having atoms other than carbon in their nuclei. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Any chemical species which accepts an electron-pair from a LEWIS BASE in a chemical bonding reaction.
A biogenic amine that is found in animals and plants. In mammals, melatonin is produced by the PINEAL GLAND. Its secretion increases in darkness and decreases during exposure to light. Melatonin is implicated in the regulation of SLEEP, mood, and REPRODUCTION. Melatonin is also an effective antioxidant.
The relationship between the chemical structure of a compound and its biological or pharmacological activity. Compounds are often classed together because they have structural characteristics in common including shape, size, stereochemical arrangement, and distribution of functional groups.
A N-hydroxylated derivative of 2-ACETYLAMINOFLUORENE that has demonstrated carcinogenic action.
Toxins isolated from any species of the seaweed Lyngbya or similar chemicals from other sources, including mollusks and micro-organisms. These have been found to be potent tumor promoters. They are biosynthesized from TRYPTOPHAN; VALINE; and METHIONINE nonribosomally (PEPTIDE BIOSYNTHESIS, NUCLEIC ACID-INDEPENDENT).
Covalent attachment of HALOGENS to other compounds.
The immediate precursor in the biosynthesis of SEROTONIN from tryptophan. It is used as an antiepileptic and antidepressant.
Models used experimentally or theoretically to study molecular shape, electronic properties, or interactions; includes analogous molecules, computer-generated graphics, and mechanical structures.
Hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5HIAA) is a major metabolite of serotonin, a neurotransmitter, formed by the action of monoamine oxidase and aldehyde dehydrogenase, and its measurement in urine is often used as a biomarker for serotonin synthesis in clinical and research settings.
Rhodium. A hard and rare metal of the platinum group, atomic number 45, atomic weight 102.905, symbol Rh. (Dorland, 28th ed)
A substance occurring in the urine of mammals and also in blood plasma as the normal metabolite of tryptophan. An increased urinary excretion of indican is seen in Hartnup disease from the bacterial degradation of unabsorbed tryptophan.
A plant genus of the family APOCYNACEAE that contains bisindole alkaloids and IBOGAINE.
Substances used for the detection, identification, analysis, etc. of chemical, biological, or pathologic processes or conditions. Indicators are substances that change in physical appearance, e.g., color, at or approaching the endpoint of a chemical titration, e.g., on the passage between acidity and alkalinity. Reagents are substances used for the detection or determination of another substance by chemical or microscopical means, especially analysis. Types of reagents are precipitants, solvents, oxidizers, reducers, fluxes, and colorimetric reagents. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed, p301, p499)
Compounds used extensively as acetylation, oxidation and dehydrating agents and in the modification of proteins and enzymes.
Chemical agents that increase the rate of genetic mutation by interfering with the function of nucleic acids. A clastogen is a specific mutagen that causes breaks in chromosomes.
A subclass of iridoid compounds that include a glucoside moiety, usually found at the C-1 position.
Techniques used in studying bacteria.
Determination of the spectra of ultraviolet absorption by specific molecules in gases or liquids, for example Cl2, SO2, NO2, CS2, ozone, mercury vapor, and various unsaturated compounds. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
A plant genus of the family RUBIACEAE. Members contain uncarine and other cytotoxic and hypotensive oxindole alkaloids.
'Benzene derivatives' are organic compounds that contain a benzene ring as the core structure, with various functional groups attached to it, and can have diverse chemical properties and uses, including as solvents, intermediates in chemical synthesis, and pharmaceuticals.
One of several indole alkaloids extracted from Tabernanthe iboga, Baill. It has a complex pharmacological profile, and interacts with multiple systems of neurotransmission. Ibogaine has psychoactive properties and appears to modulate tolerance to opiates.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Benzaldehydes are aromatic organic compounds consisting of a benzene ring connected to a formyl group (-CHO), which is the simplest and most representative compound being benzaldehyde (C6H5CHO).
Liquid chromatographic techniques which feature high inlet pressures, high sensitivity, and high speed.
Measurement of the intensity and quality of fluorescence.
A family of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that do not form endospores. Its organisms are distributed worldwide with some being saprophytes and others being plant and animal parasites. Many species are of considerable economic importance due to their pathogenic effects on agriculture and livestock.
The reaction of two molecular entities via oxidation usually catalyzed by a transition metal compound and involving dioxygen as the oxidant.
The dogbane family of the order Gentianales. Members of the family have milky, often poisonous juice, smooth-margined leaves, and flowers in clusters. Asclepiadacea (formerly the milkweed family) has been included since 1999 and before 1810.
Compounds in which a methyl group is attached to the cyano moiety.
The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.
A class of compounds composed of repeating 5-carbon units of HEMITERPENES.
Alkaloids extracted from various species of Cinchona.
Any liquid or solid preparation made specifically for the growth, storage, or transport of microorganisms or other types of cells. The variety of media that exist allow for the culturing of specific microorganisms and cell types, such as differential media, selective media, test media, and defined media. Solid media consist of liquid media that have been solidified with an agent such as AGAR or GELATIN.
Any salt or ester of glycerophosphoric acid.
A family of isomeric, colorless aromatic hydrocarbon liquids, that contain the general formula C6H4(CH3)2. They are produced by the destructive distillation of coal or by the catalytic reforming of petroleum naphthenic fractions. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 5th ed)
Polymers where the main polymer chain comprises recurring amide groups. These compounds are generally formed from combinations of diamines, diacids, and amino acids and yield fibers, sheeting, or extruded forms used in textiles, gels, filters, sutures, contact lenses, and other biomaterials.
A genus of GRAM-POSITIVE ENDOSPORE-FORMING RODS in the family Paenibacillaceae.
Acrylates are a group of synthetic compounds based on acrylic acid, commonly used in various industrial and medical applications such as adhesives, coatings, and dental materials, known to cause allergic reactions and contact dermatitis in sensitive individuals.
A plant genus of the family Cruciferae. It contains many species and cultivars used as food including cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussel sprouts, kale, collard greens, MUSTARD PLANT; (B. alba, B. junica, and B. nigra), turnips (BRASSICA NAPUS) and rapeseed (BRASSICA RAPA).
A plant genus of the family RUBIACEAE. Members contain psychotridine and brachycerine (indole alkaloids).
Hydrocarbons with at least one triple bond in the linear portion, of the general formula Cn-H2n-2.
Widely distributed enzymes that carry out oxidation-reduction reactions in which one atom of the oxygen molecule is incorporated into the organic substrate; the other oxygen atom is reduced and combined with hydrogen ions to form water. They are also known as monooxygenases or hydroxylases. These reactions require two substrates as reductants for each of the two oxygen atoms. There are different classes of monooxygenases depending on the type of hydrogen-providing cosubstrate (COENZYMES) required in the mixed-function oxidation.
The five-carbon building blocks of TERPENES that derive from MEVALONIC ACID or deoxyxylulose phosphate.
A type of MONOTERPENES, derived from geraniol. They have the general form of cyclopentanopyran, but in some cases, one of the rings is broken as in the case of secoiridoid. They are different from the similarly named iridals (TRITERPENES).
A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts.
The normality of a solution with respect to HYDROGEN ions; H+. It is related to acidity measurements in most cases by pH = log 1/2[1/(H+)], where (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per liter of solution. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
Concentrated pharmaceutical preparations of plants obtained by removing active constituents with a suitable solvent, which is evaporated away, and adjusting the residue to a prescribed standard.
Cyclic esters of acylated BUTYRIC ACID containing four carbons in the ring.
A plant genus of the family BRASSICACEAE that is an ingredient of the preparation PC-SPES that is used to treat PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA.
Placing of a hydroxyl group on a compound in a position where one did not exist before. (Stedman, 26th ed)
Organic compounds containing carbon and hydrogen in the form of an unsaturated, usually hexagonal ring structure. The compounds can be single ring, or double, triple, or multiple fused rings.
A genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria whose organisms occur in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. The species are either nonpathogenic or opportunistic pathogens.
Cinnamates are organic compounds that contain a cinnamic acid moiety, widely used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries as esters, with various applications ranging from UV absorbers to local anesthetics and antimicrobial agents.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
A group of alicyclic hydrocarbons with the general formula R-C5H9.
A technology, in which sets of reactions for solution or solid-phase synthesis, is used to create molecular libraries for analysis of compounds on a large scale.
The study of the structure, preparation, properties, and reactions of carbon compounds. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
A genus of root and butt rot fungi in the family Tricholomataceae that produce rhizomorphs and are facultatively parasitic. Many species are pathogenic to trees causing Armillaria root disease.
The concentration of a compound needed to reduce population growth of organisms, including eukaryotic cells, by 50% in vitro. Though often expressed to denote in vitro antibacterial activity, it is also used as a benchmark for cytotoxicity to eukaryotic cells in culture.
Esculin is a glucoside of esculetin, a coumarin derivative found in the horse chestnut tree (Aesculus hippocastanum) and some other plants, used in medical research for its anticoagulant properties and as a substrate in susceptibility testing of certain bacteria.
Any of the hormones produced naturally in plants and active in controlling growth and other functions. There are three primary classes: auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins.
A chemical reaction in which an electron is transferred from one molecule to another. The electron-donating molecule is the reducing agent or reductant; the electron-accepting molecule is the oxidizing agent or oxidant. Reducing and oxidizing agents function as conjugate reductant-oxidant pairs or redox pairs (Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, 1982, p471).
The characteristic 3-dimensional shape of a protein, including the secondary, supersecondary (motifs), tertiary (domains) and quaternary structure of the peptide chain. PROTEIN STRUCTURE, QUATERNARY describes the conformation assumed by multimeric proteins (aggregates of more than one polypeptide chain).
A biochemical messenger and regulator, synthesized from the essential amino acid L-TRYPTOPHAN. In humans it is found primarily in the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, and blood platelets. Serotonin mediates several important physiological functions including neurotransmission, gastrointestinal motility, hemostasis, and cardiovascular integrity. Multiple receptor families (RECEPTORS, SEROTONIN) explain the broad physiological actions and distribution of this biochemical mediator.
The characteristic three-dimensional shape of a molecule.
A group of compounds derived from ammonia by substituting organic radicals for the hydrogens. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Enzymes that hydrolyze O-glucosyl-compounds. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 3.2.1.-.
A phenomenon where microorganisms communicate and coordinate their behavior by the accumulation of signaling molecules. A reaction occurs when a substance accumulates to a sufficient concentration. This is most commonly seen in bacteria.
A superfamily of hundreds of closely related HEMEPROTEINS found throughout the phylogenetic spectrum, from animals, plants, fungi, to bacteria. They include numerous complex monooxygenases (MIXED FUNCTION OXYGENASES). In animals, these P-450 enzymes serve two major functions: (1) biosynthesis of steroids, fatty acids, and bile acids; (2) metabolism of endogenous and a wide variety of exogenous substrates, such as toxins and drugs (BIOTRANSFORMATION). They are classified, according to their sequence similarities rather than functions, into CYP gene families (>40% homology) and subfamilies (>59% homology). For example, enzymes from the CYP1, CYP2, and CYP3 gene families are responsible for most drug metabolism.
A genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria whose organisms arrange singly, in pairs, or short chains. This genus is commonly found in the intestinal tract and is an opportunistic pathogen that can give rise to bacteremia, pneumonia, urinary tract and several other types of human infection.
The study of crystal structure using X-RAY DIFFRACTION techniques. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
Anaerobic degradation of GLUCOSE or other organic nutrients to gain energy in the form of ATP. End products vary depending on organisms, substrates, and enzymatic pathways. Common fermentation products include ETHANOL and LACTIC ACID.
Tests of chemical substances and physical agents for mutagenic potential. They include microbial, insect, mammalian cell, and whole animal tests.
Methods used for the chemical synthesis of compounds. Included under this heading are laboratory methods used to synthesize a variety of chemicals and drugs.
The covalent bonding of an alkyl group to an organic compound. It can occur by a simple addition reaction or by substitution of another functional group.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that occurs in soil, fecal matter, and sewage. It is an opportunistic pathogen and causes cystitis and pyelonephritis.
Gram-negative gas-producing rods found in feces of humans and other animals, sewage, soil, water, and dairy products.
Imines are organic compounds containing a functional group with a carbon-nitrogen double bond (=NH or =NR), classified as azomethines, which can be produced from aldehydes or ketones through condensation with ammonia or amines.
The chemical alteration of an exogenous substance by or in a biological system. The alteration may inactivate the compound or it may result in the production of an active metabolite of an inactive parent compound. The alterations may be divided into METABOLIC DETOXICATION, PHASE I and METABOLIC DETOXICATION, PHASE II.
A computer simulation technique that is used to model the interaction between two molecules. Typically the docking simulation measures the interactions of a small molecule or ligand with a part of a larger molecule such as a protein.
A dioxygenase with specificity for the oxidation of the indoleamine ring of TRYPTOPHAN. It is an extrahepatic enzyme that plays a role in metabolism as the first and rate limiting enzyme in the kynurenine pathway of TRYPTOPHAN catabolism.
The usually underground portions of a plant that serve as support, store food, and through which water and mineral nutrients enter the plant. (From American Heritage Dictionary, 1982; Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990)
A plant genus of the family ARACEAE. Members contain beta-glucosidases and trypsin inhibitors.
Eighteen-carbon cyclopentyl polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from ALPHA-LINOLENIC ACID via an oxidative pathway analogous to the EICOSANOIDS in animals. Biosynthesis is inhibited by SALICYLATES. A key member, jasmonic acid of PLANTS, plays a similar role to ARACHIDONIC ACID in animals.
A plant genus of the family LOGANIACEAE (classified by some botanists as Gelsemiaceae). The sometimes used common name of trumpet flower is also used for DATURA.
A serotype of Salmonella enterica that is a frequent agent of Salmonella gastroenteritis in humans. It also causes PARATYPHOID FEVER.

Induction of AT-specific DNA-interstrand crosslinks by bizelesin in genomic and simian virus 40 DNA. (1/9500)

Bizelesin is a bifunctional AT-specific DNA alkylating drug. Our study characterized the ability of bizelesin to induce interstrand crosslinks, a potential lethal lesion. In genomic DNA of BSC-1 cells, bizelesin formed from approx. 0.3 to 6.03+/-0.85 interstrand crosslinks per 106 base pairs, at 5-100 nM drug concentration, respectively, comparable to the number of total adducts previously determined in the same system (J.M. Woynarowski, M.M. McHugh, L.S. Gawron, T.A. Beerman, Biochemistry 34 (1995) 13042-13050). Bizelesin did not induce DNA-protein crosslinks or strand breaks. A model defined target, intracellular simian virus 40 (SV40) DNA, was employed to map at the nucleotide level sites of bizelesin adducts, including potential interstrand crosslinks. Preferential adduct formation was observed at AT tracts which are abundant in the SV40 matrix associated region and the origin of replication. Many sites, including each occurrence of 5'-T(A/T)4A-3', co-mapped on both DNA strands suggesting interstrand crosslinks, although monoadducts were also formed. Bizelesin adducts in naked SV40 DNA were found at similar sites. The localization of bizelesin-induced crosslinks in AT-rich tracts of replication-related regions is consistent with the potent anti-replicative properties of bizelesin. Given the apparent lack of other types of lesions in genomic DNA, interstrand crosslinks localized in AT-rich tracts, and to some extent perhaps also monoadducts, are likely to be lethal effects of bizelesin.  (+info)

Prior exposure to neurotrophins blocks inhibition of axonal regeneration by MAG and myelin via a cAMP-dependent mechanism. (2/9500)

MAG is a potent inhibitor of axonal regeneration. Here, inhibition by MAG, and myelin in general, is blocked if neurons are exposed to neurotrophins before encountering the inhibitor; priming cerebellar neurons with BDNF or GDNF, but not NGF, or priming DRG neurons with any of these neurotrophins blocks inhibition by MAG/myelin. Dibutyryl cAMP also overcomes inhibition by MAG/myelin, and cAMP is elevated by neurotrophins. A PKA inhibitor present during priming abrogates the block of inhibition. Finally, if neurons are exposed to MAG/myelin and neurotrophins simultaneously, but with the Gi protein inhibitor, inhibition is blocked. We suggest that priming neurons with particular neurotrophins elevates cAMP and activates PKA, which blocks subsequent inhibition of regeneration and that priming is required because MAG/myelin activates a Gi protein, which blocks increases in cAMP. This is important for encouraging axons to regrow in vivo.  (+info)

Single synaptic events evoke NMDA receptor-mediated release of calcium from internal stores in hippocampal dendritic spines. (3/9500)

We have used confocal microscopy to monitor synaptically evoked Ca2+ transients in the dendritic spines of hippocampal pyramidal cells. Individual spines respond to single afferent stimuli (<0.1 Hz) with Ca2+ transients or failures, reflecting the probability of transmitter release at the activated synapse. Both AMPA and NMDA glutamate receptor antagonists block the synaptically evoked Ca2+ transients; the block by AMPA antagonists is relieved by low Mg2+. The Ca2+ transients are mainly due to the release of calcium from internal stores, since they are abolished by antagonists of calcium-induced calcium release (CICR); CICR antagonists, however, do not depress spine Ca2+ transients generated by backpropagating action potentials. These results have implications for synaptic plasticity, since they show that synaptic stimulation can activate NMDA receptors, evoking substantial Ca2+ release from the internal stores in spines without inducing long-term potentiation (LTP) or depression (LTD).  (+info)

Role of dexamethasone dosage in combination with 5-HT3 antagonists for prophylaxis of acute chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. (4/9500)

Dexamethasone (20 mg) or its equivalent in combination with 5-HT3 antagonists appears to be the gold-standard dose for antiemetic prophylaxis. Additional to concerns about the use of corticosteroids with respect to enhanced tumour growth or impaired killing of the tumour cells, there is evidence that high-dosage dexamethasone impairs the control of delayed nausea and emesis, whereas lower doses appear more beneficial. To come closer to the most adequate dose, we started a prospective, single-blind, randomized trial investigating additional dosage of 8 or 20 mg dexamethasone to tropisetron (Navoban), a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist, in cis-platinum-containing chemotherapy. After an interim analysis of 121 courses of chemotherapy in 69 patients, we have been unable to detect major differences between both treatment alternatives. High-dose dexamethasone (20 mg) had no advantage over medium-dose dexamethasone with respect to objective and subjective parameters of acute and delayed nausea and vomiting. In relation to concerns about the use of corticosteroids in non-haematological cancer chemotherapy, we suggest that 8 mg or its equivalent should be used in combination with 5-HT3 antagonists until further research proves otherwise.  (+info)

Pharmacology of LY315920/S-5920, [[3-(aminooxoacetyl)-2-ethyl-1- (phenylmethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl]oxy] acetate, a potent and selective secretory phospholipase A2 inhibitor: A new class of anti-inflammatory drugs, SPI. (5/9500)

LY315920 is a potent, selective inhibitor of recombinant human, group IIA, nonpancreatic secretory PLA2 (sPLA2). In a chromogenic isolated enzyme assay, LY315920 inhibited sPLA2 activity with an IC50 of 9 +/- 1 nM or 7.3 x 10(-6) mole fraction, which approached the stiochiometric limit of this assay. The true potency of LY315920 was defined using a deoxycholate/phosphatidylcholine assay with a mole fraction of 1.5 x 10(-6). LY315920 was 40-fold less active against human, group IB, pancreatic sPLA2 and was inactive against cytosolic PLA2 and the constitutive and inducible forms of cyclooxygenase. Human sPLA2-induced release of thromboxane A2 (TXA2) from isolated guinea pig lung bronchoalveolar lavage cells was inhibited by LY315920 with an IC50 of 0.79 microM. The release of TXA2 from these cells by N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine or arachidonic acid was not inhibited. The i.v. administration of LY315920, 5 min before harvesting the bronchoalveolar lavage cells, resulted in the inhibition of sPLA2-induced production of TXA2 with an ED50 of 16.1 mg/kg. Challenge of guinea pig lung pleural strips with sPLA2 produced contractile responses that were suppressed in a concentration-dependent manner by LY315920 with an apparent KB of 83 +/- 14 nM. Contractile responses induced by arachidonic acid were not altered. Intravenous or oral administration of LY315920 to transgenic mice expressing the human sPLA2 protein inhibited serum sPLA2 activity in a dose-related manner over a 4-h time course. LY315920 is a potent and selective sPLA2 inhibitor and represents a new class of anti-inflammatory agent designated SPI. This agent is currently undergoing clinical evaluation and should help to define the role of sPLA2 in various inflammatory disease states.  (+info)

Glomerular size-selective dysfunction in NIDDM is not ameliorated by ACE inhibition or by calcium channel blockade. (6/9500)

BACKGROUND: In patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) and overt nephropathy glomerular barrier size-selectivity progressively deteriorates with time and is effectively improved by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibition. Whether similar glomerular functional changes develop in proteinuric patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), and whether antihypertensive agents can favorably affect glomerular filtration of macromolecules in these patients, has not been documented yet. METHODS: We investigated renal hemodynamics and fractional clearance of neutral dextrans of graded sizes, in nine proteinuric patients with NIDDM and renal biopsy findings of typical diabetic glomerulopathy. Six healthy volunteers served as controls. We also investigated the effects of an ACE inhibitor and of a calcium channel blocker, both given in doses targeted to achieve a comparable level of systemic blood pressure control, on glomerular hemodynamics and sieving function. Theoretical analysis of glomerular macromolecule transport was adopted to evaluate intrinsic glomerular membrane permeability properties. RESULTS: Fractional clearance of large macromolecules (42 to 66 A in radius) was significantly higher in diabetic patients than in controls, and the distribution of membrane pore radii was calculated to be shifted towards larger pore sizes in diabetics (mean radius increased from 55 to 60 A). Despite effective blood pressure control, neither antihypertensive affected glomerular hemodynamics to any significant extent. Fractional clearance of dextrans, as well as of albumin and IgG, and total urinary proteins were not modified by either treatments. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that patients with NIDDM and overt nephropathy develop abnormalities in size-selective function of the glomerular barrier and, at variance to IDDM, such changes were not ameliorated either by ACE inhibition or calcium channel blockade.  (+info)

Involvement of p21 in the PKC-induced regulation of the G2/M cell cycle transition. (7/9500)

Activation of protein kinase C (PKC) inhibits cell cycle progression at the G1/S and G2/M transitions. We found that phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) induced upregulation of p21, not only in MCF-7 cells arrested in the G1 phase as previously shown, but also in cells delayed in the G2 phase. This increase in p21 in cells accumulated in the G1 and G2/M phases of the cell cycle after PMA treatment was inhibited by the PKC inhibitor GF109203X. This indicates that PKC activity is required for PMA-induced p21 upregulation and cell cycle arrest in the G1 and G2/M phases of the cell cycle. To further assess the role of p21 in the PKC-induced G2/M cell cycle arrest independently of its G1 arrest, we used aphidicolin-synchronised MCF-7 cells. Our results show that, in parallel with the inhibition of cdc2 activity, PMA addition enhanced the associations between p21 and either cyclin B or cdc2. Furthermore, we found that after PMA treatment p21 was able to associate with the active Tyr-15 dephosphorylated form of cdc2, but this complex was devoid of kinase activity indicating that p21 may play a role in inhibition of cdc2 induced by PMA. Taken together, these observations provide evidence that p21 is involved in integrating the PKC signaling pathway to the cell cycle machinery at the G2/M cell cycle checkpoint.  (+info)

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and protein kinase C are required for the inhibition of caspase activity by epidermal growth factor. (8/9500)

The mechanism by which growth factors exert an anti-apoptotic function on many cell types is not well understood. This issue is addressed in relation to epidermal growth factor (EGF) which inhibits apoptosis induced by staurosporine or wortmannin in an epithelial tumour cell line (CNE-2). The presence of EGF substantially reduced the in vitro Ac-DEVD-AMC hydrolytic activity and almost completely suppressed the intracellular cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase in staurosporine- or wortmannin-treated cells. Staurosporine but not wortmannin caused the intracellular proteolytic processing of pro-caspase-3 and this event was transiently inhibited by EGF. Staurosporine-induced apoptosis was not inhibited by EGF in the presence of wortmannin or LY294002. Similarly, EGF failed to inhibit wortmannin-induced apoptosis in the presence of staurosporine, chelerythrine chloride or Go6850. These results suggest that phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and protein kinase C play a role in the survival function of EGF but the reduction of cellular caspase activity cannot be satisfactorily explained by a lack of pro-caspase-3 activation.  (+info)

Indole is not strictly a medical term, but it is a chemical compound that can be found in the human body and has relevance to medical and biological research. Indoles are organic compounds that contain a bicyclic structure consisting of a six-membered benzene ring fused to a five-membered pyrrole ring.

In the context of medicine, indoles are particularly relevant due to their presence in certain hormones and other biologically active molecules. For example, the neurotransmitter serotonin contains an indole ring, as does the hormone melatonin. Indoles can also be found in various plant-based foods, such as cruciferous vegetables (e.g., broccoli, kale), and have been studied for their potential health benefits.

Some indoles, like indole-3-carbinol and diindolylmethane, are found in these vegetables and can have anti-cancer properties by modulating estrogen metabolism, reducing inflammation, and promoting cell death (apoptosis) in cancer cells. However, it is essential to note that further research is needed to fully understand the potential health benefits and risks associated with indoles.

Indole alkaloids are a type of naturally occurring organic compound that contain an indole structural unit, which is a heterocyclic aromatic ring system consisting of a benzene ring fused to a pyrrole ring. These compounds are produced by various plants and animals as secondary metabolites, and they have diverse biological activities. Some indole alkaloids have important pharmacological properties and are used in medicine as drugs or lead compounds for drug discovery. Examples of medically relevant indole alkaloids include reserpine, which is used to treat hypertension, and vinblastine and vincristine, which are used to treat various types of cancer.

Secologanin tryptamine alkaloids are a type of alkaloid compound that is derived from the combination of secologanin (a metabolite found in certain plants) and tryptamine (an organic compound that is a building block for several neurotransmitters). These alkaloids have been identified in various plant species, including those in the genera *Psychotria* and *Uncaria*, and are known to exhibit a range of pharmacological activities. Some examples of secologanin tryptamine alkaloids include ajmalicine, reserpine, and yohimbine, which have been used in traditional medicine for their sedative, antihypertensive, and aphrodisiac properties, respectively. However, it is important to note that these compounds can also have toxic effects and should only be used under the guidance of a medical professional.

Tryptophan is an essential amino acid, meaning it cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through dietary sources. Its chemical formula is C11H12N2O2. Tryptophan plays a crucial role in various biological processes as it serves as a precursor to several important molecules, including serotonin, melatonin, and niacin (vitamin B3). Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation, appetite control, and sleep-wake cycles, while melatonin is a hormone that regulates sleep-wake patterns. Niacin is essential for energy production and DNA repair.

Foods rich in tryptophan include turkey, chicken, fish, eggs, cheese, milk, nuts, seeds, and whole grains. In some cases, tryptophan supplementation may be recommended to help manage conditions related to serotonin imbalances, such as depression or insomnia, but this should only be done under the guidance of a healthcare professional due to potential side effects and interactions with other medications.

Carbolines are a type of chemical compound that contain a carbazole or dibenzopyrrole structure. These compounds have a variety of uses, including as pharmaceuticals and dyes. Some carbolines have been studied for their potential medicinal properties, such as their ability to act as antioxidants or to inhibit the growth of certain types of cells. However, it is important to note that many carbolines are also known to be toxic and can cause harm if ingested or otherwise introduced into the body. As with any chemical compound, it is essential to use caution when handling carbolines and to follow all safety guidelines to minimize the risk of exposure.

'Catharanthus' is a genus of plants in the Apocynaceae family, commonly known as the dogbane family. The most well-known species is Catharanthus roseus, also known as Madagascar periwinkle or rosy periwinkle. This plant contains alkaloids that have been used in the production of drugs for cancer treatment. Vincristine and vinblastine are two such alkaloids derived from C. roseus, which have shown significant anti-cancer properties and are used to treat various types of cancers, including leukemia and lymphoma.

It is important to note that the use of Catharanthus or its derivatives should be under medical supervision due to their potent biological activities and potential side effects.

Tryptophanase is not a medical term per se, but rather a biochemical term used to describe an enzyme. However, I can provide a biochemical definition for you:

Tryptophanase (TPase or TnaA) is a pyridoxal-phosphate (PLP) dependent enzyme found in certain bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, that catalyzes the breakdown of the essential amino acid tryptophan into several compounds. The primary reaction catalyzed by tryptophanase is the conversion of L-tryptophan to indole, pyruvate, and ammonia. This reaction also produces ATP and ADP as co-products.

The production of indole from tryptophan by tryptophanase has diagnostic value in microbiology, as the presence of indole in a culture medium can indicate the growth of certain bacterial species that produce this enzyme.

Skatole is a medical term that refers to a chemical compound with the formula C9H9NO2. It is a crystalline substance with an extremely foul odor, resembling that of feces. Skatole is produced in the body as a byproduct of bacterial breakdown of tryptophan, an essential amino acid, in the intestines. Normally, skatole is excreted in the feces and does not cause any problems.

However, when there is an overgrowth of bacteria in the intestines or a problem with the normal flow of bile, which helps to eliminate skatole from the body, skatole can accumulate in the bloodstream and tissues. This can lead to a condition called "skatole poisoning," which can cause symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and neurological problems.

Skatole is also used in perfumes and other fragrances to create a fecal or animalistic odor, although it is typically used in very small amounts due to its strong smell.

Tryptophan synthase is a bacterial enzyme that catalyzes the final step in the biosynthesis of the essential amino acid tryptophan. It is a complex enzyme composed of two types of subunits, α and β, which form an αββα tetrameric structure.

Tryptophan synthase catalyzes the conversion of indole-3-glycerol phosphate (IGP) and L-serine into tryptophan through two separate reactions that occur in a coordinated manner within the active site of the enzyme. In the first reaction, the α subunit catalyzes the breakdown of IGP into indole and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). The indole molecule then moves through a tunnel to the active site of the β subunit, where it is combined with L-serine to form tryptophan in the second reaction.

The overall reaction catalyzed by tryptophan synthase is:

Indole-3-glycerol phosphate + L-serine → L-tryptophan + glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

Tryptophan synthase plays a critical role in the biosynthesis of tryptophan, which is an essential amino acid that cannot be synthesized by humans and must be obtained through diet. Defects in tryptophan synthase can lead to various genetic disorders, such as hyperbeta-alaninemia and tryptophanuria.

Cyclization is a chemical process that involves forming a cyclic structure or ring-shaped molecule from a linear or open-chain compound. In the context of medicinal chemistry and drug design, cyclization reactions are often used to synthesize complex molecules, including drugs, by creating rings or fused ring systems within the molecule's structure.

Cyclization can occur through various mechanisms, such as intramolecular nucleophilic substitution, electrophilic addition, or radical reactions. The resulting cyclized compounds may exhibit different chemical and biological properties compared to their linear precursors, making them valuable targets for drug discovery and development.

In some cases, the cyclization process can lead to the formation of stereocenters within the molecule, which can impact its three-dimensional shape and how it interacts with biological targets. Therefore, controlling the stereochemistry during cyclization reactions is crucial in medicinal chemistry to optimize the desired biological activity.

Overall, cyclization plays a significant role in the design and synthesis of many pharmaceutical compounds, enabling the creation of complex structures that can interact specifically with biological targets for therapeutic purposes.

Indigo Carmine is not a medical term, but it is a chemical compound that is sometimes used in medical settings. Indigo Carmine is a type of dye that is often used as a marker in various medical tests and procedures. It can be used during surgeries to help identify structures or tissues within the body, such as the urinary tract or the gastrointestinal tract.

Indigo Carmine is also sometimes used as a diagnostic aid in urological procedures, such as cystoscopy, to help visualize the flow of urine and detect any abnormalities in the urinary tract. The dye is usually introduced into the body through a catheter or other medical device, and it is excreted in the urine, turning it blue or green.

It's important to note that Indigo Carmine should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional, as improper use can lead to adverse effects.

Glucosinolates are naturally occurring compounds found in various plants, particularly in cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, and mustard greens. They are sulfur-containing glucosides that can be hydrolyzed by the enzyme myrosinase when the plant tissue is damaged, leading to the formation of biologically active compounds like isothiocyanates, thiocyanates, and nitriles. These breakdown products have been shown to exhibit various health benefits, such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities. However, excessive intake or exposure may also cause adverse effects in some individuals.

Harmine is defined medically as an alpha-carboline derivative that is present in various plants including the seeds of Peganum harmala and the bark of Banisteriopsis caapi. It functions as an monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) and has been used in traditional medicine for its psychoactive properties. It has also been studied for potential anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects.

"Rauwolfia" is the name of a genus of plants in the dogbane family (Apocynaceae). It includes several species that have been used in traditional medicine for various purposes. The most well-known species is probably Rauwolfia serpentina, also known as Indian snakeroot or sarpagandha.

Extracts from the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina contain a number of alkaloids with pharmacological activity, including reserpine, which has been used in modern medicine to treat high blood pressure and some psychiatric disorders. However, due to its side effects, it is not commonly used today.

It's important to note that the use of Rauwolfia and its extracts should be done under medical supervision, as they can have significant effects on various body systems, including the heart, blood pressure, and nervous system.

"Aspidosperma" is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae, which are native to the Americas. These trees and shrubs are known for their milky sap and contain various alkaloids with potential medicinal properties. However, it's important to note that many of these compounds can also be toxic if not used properly. Therefore, "Aspidosperma" itself is not a medical term or treatment, but rather a botanical name for a group of plants. Any medicinal use of these plants should be done under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional.

Molecular structure, in the context of biochemistry and molecular biology, refers to the arrangement and organization of atoms and chemical bonds within a molecule. It describes the three-dimensional layout of the constituent elements, including their spatial relationships, bond lengths, and angles. Understanding molecular structure is crucial for elucidating the functions and reactivities of biological macromolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. Various experimental techniques, like X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), are employed to determine molecular structures at atomic resolution, providing valuable insights into their biological roles and potential therapeutic targets.

Tryptamines are a class of organic compounds that contain a tryptamine skeleton, which is a combination of an indole ring and a ethylamine side chain. They are commonly found in nature and can be synthesized in the lab. Some tryptamines have psychedelic properties and are used as recreational drugs, such as dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and psilocybin. Others have important roles in the human body, such as serotonin, which is a neurotransmitter that regulates mood, appetite, and sleep. Tryptamines can also be found in some plants and animals, including certain species of mushrooms, toads, and catnip.

Rubiaceae is not a medical term, but a taxonomic category in botany. It refers to the family of flowering plants that includes more than 13,500 species, distributed across approximately 600 genera. Some well-known members of this family include coffee (Coffea arabica), gardenias (Gardenia jasminoides), and madder (Rubia tinctorum).

In a medical context, certain plants from the Rubiaceae family have been used in traditional medicine for various purposes. For example:

* Coffee (Coffea arabica) beans are used to prepare caffeinated beverages that can help with alertness and concentration.
* Gardenia fruits and flowers have been used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat anxiety, insomnia, and inflammation.
* Madder root (Rubia tinctorum) has been used as a dye and in traditional medicine to treat skin conditions and digestive disorders.

However, it's important to note that the medicinal use of plants from this family should be based on scientific evidence and under the guidance of healthcare professionals, as some of these plants can have side effects or interact with medications.

I'm sorry for the confusion, but "Palladium" is not a medical term. It is a chemical element with symbol Pd and atomic number 46. It is a rare and lustrous silvery-white metal discovered in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston. It's used in various applications, including jewelry, dental work, electronics, and chemical reactions. If you have any medical terms you would like me to define, please let me know!

Vinca alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemicals derived from the Madagascar periwinkle plant, Catharanthus roseus. They are known for their antineoplastic (cancer-fighting) properties and are used in chemotherapy to treat various types of cancer. Some examples of vinca alkaloids include vinblastine, vincristine, and vinorelbine. These agents work by disrupting the normal function of microtubules, which are important components of the cell's structure and play a critical role in cell division. By binding to tubulin, a protein that makes up microtubules, vinca alkaloids prevent the formation of mitotic spindles, which are necessary for cell division. This leads to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis (programmed cell death) in cancer cells. However, vinca alkaloids can also affect normal cells, leading to side effects such as neurotoxicity, myelosuppression, and gastrointestinal disturbances.

Stereoisomerism is a type of isomerism (structural arrangement of atoms) in which molecules have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms, but differ in the three-dimensional orientation of their atoms in space. This occurs when the molecule contains asymmetric carbon atoms or other rigid structures that prevent free rotation, leading to distinct spatial arrangements of groups of atoms around a central point. Stereoisomers can have different chemical and physical properties, such as optical activity, boiling points, and reactivities, due to differences in their shape and the way they interact with other molecules.

There are two main types of stereoisomerism: enantiomers (mirror-image isomers) and diastereomers (non-mirror-image isomers). Enantiomers are pairs of stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other, but cannot be superimposed on one another. Diastereomers, on the other hand, are non-mirror-image stereoisomers that have different physical and chemical properties.

Stereoisomerism is an important concept in chemistry and biology, as it can affect the biological activity of molecules, such as drugs and natural products. For example, some enantiomers of a drug may be active, while others are inactive or even toxic. Therefore, understanding stereoisomerism is crucial for designing and synthesizing effective and safe drugs.

Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is not exactly a medical term, but rather a scientific term used in the field of biochemistry and physiology. It is a type of auxin, which is a plant hormone that regulates various growth and development processes in plants. IAA is the most abundant and best-studied natural auxin.

Medically, indole-3-acetic acid may be mentioned in the context of certain medical conditions or treatments related to plants or plant-derived substances. For example, some research has investigated the potential use of IAA in promoting wound healing in plants or in agricultural applications. However, it is not a substance that is typically used in medical treatment for humans or animals.

Prenylation is a post-translational modification process in which a prenyl group, such as a farnesyl or geranylgeranyl group, is added to a protein covalently. This modification typically occurs at a cysteine residue within a CAAX motif (C is cysteine, A is an aliphatic amino acid, and X is any amino acid) found at the carboxyl-terminus of the protein. Prenylation plays a crucial role in membrane association, protein-protein interactions, and intracellular trafficking of proteins, particularly those involved in signal transduction pathways.

Alkaloids are a type of naturally occurring organic compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. They are often found in plants, and are known for their complex ring structures and diverse pharmacological activities. Many alkaloids have been used in medicine for their analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and therapeutic properties. Examples of alkaloids include morphine, quinine, nicotine, and caffeine.

Catalysis is the process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction by adding a substance known as a catalyst, which remains unchanged at the end of the reaction. A catalyst lowers the activation energy required for the reaction to occur, thereby allowing the reaction to proceed more quickly and efficiently. This can be particularly important in biological systems, where enzymes act as catalysts to speed up metabolic reactions that are essential for life.

Dipterocarpaceae is not a medical term, but a taxonomic category in the field of botany. It refers to a family of flowering plants, also known as the dipterocarp family. These trees are primarily found in tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia and Madagascar. They are well-known for their tall stature and valuable timber, which is often used in construction, furniture, and other wood products.

While Dipterocarpaceae may not have a direct medical definition, some species within this family do have medicinal uses. For instance, the resin from certain dipterocarp trees has been traditionally used in Southeast Asia to treat various ailments such as diarrhea, skin diseases, and respiratory infections. However, it is essential to consult with healthcare professionals before using any plant-based remedies, as they can interact with other medications or have potential side effects.

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) is a non-invasive diagnostic technique that provides information about the biochemical composition of tissues, including their metabolic state. It is often used in conjunction with Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to analyze various metabolites within body tissues, such as the brain, heart, liver, and muscles.

During MRS, a strong magnetic field, radio waves, and a computer are used to produce detailed images and data about the concentration of specific metabolites in the targeted tissue or organ. This technique can help detect abnormalities related to energy metabolism, neurotransmitter levels, pH balance, and other biochemical processes, which can be useful for diagnosing and monitoring various medical conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders, and metabolic diseases.

There are different types of MRS, such as Proton (^1^H) MRS, Phosphorus-31 (^31^P) MRS, and Carbon-13 (^13^C) MRS, each focusing on specific elements or metabolites within the body. The choice of MRS technique depends on the clinical question being addressed and the type of information needed for diagnosis or monitoring purposes.

Ortho-Aminobenzoates are chemical compounds that contain a benzene ring substituted with an amino group in the ortho position and an ester group in the form of a benzoate. They are often used as pharmaceutical intermediates, plastic additives, and UV stabilizers. In medical contexts, one specific ortho-aminobenzoate, para-aminosalicylic acid (PABA), is an antibiotic used in the treatment of tuberculosis. However, it's important to note that "ortho-aminobenzoates" in general do not have a specific medical definition and can refer to any compound with this particular substitution pattern on a benzene ring.

Dimethylallyltranstransferase (DMAT) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the biosynthesis of various natural compounds, including terpenoids and alkaloids. These compounds have diverse functions in nature, ranging from serving as pigments and fragrances to acting as defense mechanisms against predators or pathogens.

The primary function of DMAT is to catalyze the head-to-tail condensation of dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) with various diphosphate-bound prenyl substrates, forming prenylated products. This reaction represents the first committed step in the biosynthesis of many terpenoids and alkaloids.

The enzyme's catalytic mechanism involves the formation of a covalent bond between the pyrophosphate group of DMAPP and a conserved cysteine residue within the DMAT active site, followed by the transfer of the dimethylallyl moiety to the diphosphate-bound prenyl substrate.

DMAT is found in various organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. In humans, DMAT is involved in the biosynthesis of steroids, which are essential components of cell membranes and precursors to important hormones such as cortisol, aldosterone, and sex hormones.

In summary, dimethylallyltranstransferase (DMAT) is an enzyme that catalyzes the condensation of dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) with various prenyl substrates, playing a critical role in the biosynthesis of diverse natural compounds, including terpenoids and alkaloids.

Chloride peroxidase is an enzyme that contains heme as a cofactor and is responsible for catalyzing the oxidation of chloride ions (Cl-) to hypochlorous acid (HOCl) using hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a substrate. This reaction plays a crucial role in the microbial defense system of certain organisms, such as the halophilic archaea. The enzyme is also known as chloroperoxidase or CPO.

The chemical reaction catalyzed by chloride peroxidase can be represented as follows:

Cl- + H2O2 → HOCl + H2O

Hypochlorous acid is a powerful oxidizing agent that can kill or inhibit the growth of various microorganisms, making it an important component of the immune system in some organisms. Chloride peroxidase has attracted significant interest from researchers due to its potential applications in biotechnology and environmental protection, such as in the development of new disinfection methods and the removal of pollutants from water.

Isatin is not a medical term, but rather an organic compound that has been used in various biochemical and medicinal research contexts. Here's the chemical definition:

Isatin, also known as indole-2,3-dione, is an organic compound with the formula C8H5NO2. It is a derivative of indole and consists of a benzene ring fused to a pyrrole ring, with two ketone functional groups (=O) at positions 2 and 3. Isatin is a white crystalline solid that is slightly soluble in water and more soluble in organic solvents. It occurs naturally in some plants and animals and can be synthesized in the laboratory.

In medical and biochemical research, isatin has been studied for its potential role as an inhibitor of various enzymes and biological targets, including monoamine oxidases, tyrosinase, and carbonic anhydrase. Some isatin derivatives have shown promising results in preclinical studies for the treatment of various diseases, such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and infectious diseases. However, more research is needed to determine their safety and efficacy in humans before they can be approved for medical use.

Alstonia is a genus of flowering plants in the dogwood family, Cornaceae. It includes several species of trees and shrubs that are native to tropical regions of the world, particularly Southeast Asia, Australia, and Africa. Some species of Alstonia are known for their medicinal properties and have been used in traditional medicine to treat a variety of ailments, including fever, malaria, and gastrointestinal disorders. The bark and leaves of these plants contain various alkaloids and other compounds that have been found to have pharmacological activity. However, it is important to note that the use of Alstonia species as medicine should be done under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional, as these plants can also have toxic effects if not used properly.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

Monoterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of two isoprene units and have the molecular formula C10H16. They are major components of many essential oils found in plants, giving them their characteristic fragrances and flavors. Monoterpenes can be further classified into various subgroups based on their structural features, such as acyclic (e.g., myrcene), monocyclic (e.g., limonene), and bicyclic (e.g., pinene) compounds. In the medical field, monoterpenes have been studied for their potential therapeutic properties, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities. However, more research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and clinical applications.

Phosphines are a class of organic compounds characterized by a phosphorus atom bonded to three organic groups and a hydrogen atom, with the general formula of PRR'R''H. They are important in various chemical reactions as reducing agents and catalysts. In medicine, phosphines have no direct medical application. However, certain phosphine compounds have been studied for their potential use as pharmaceuticals, such as phosphinic acids which have shown promise as protease inhibitors used in the treatment of diseases like HIV and HCV. It is important to note that some phosphines are highly toxic and should be handled with care.

Heterocyclic compounds are organic compounds that contain at least one atom within the ring structure, other than carbon, such as nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur or phosphorus. These compounds make up a large class of naturally occurring and synthetic materials, including many drugs, pigments, vitamins, and antibiotics. The presence of the heteroatom in the ring can have significant effects on the physical and chemical properties of the compound, such as its reactivity, stability, and bonding characteristics. Examples of heterocyclic compounds include pyridine, pyrimidine, and furan.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Lewis acids" is actually a term from the field of chemistry rather than medicine. It was named after Gilbert N. Lewis, who proposed the concept in 1923. A Lewis acid is defined as an electron-pair acceptor in a chemical reaction. In simpler terms, it's a molecule or ion that can accept a pair of electrons from another molecule or ion to form a covalent bond. Common examples of Lewis acids include aluminum chloride (AlCl3), boron trifluoride (BF3), and iron(III) chloride (FeCl3).

Melatonin is a hormone that is produced by the pineal gland in the brain. It helps regulate sleep-wake cycles and is often referred to as the "hormone of darkness" because its production is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light. Melatonin plays a key role in synchronizing the circadian rhythm, the body's internal clock that regulates various biological processes over a 24-hour period.

Melatonin is primarily released at night, and its levels in the blood can rise and fall in response to changes in light and darkness in an individual's environment. Supplementing with melatonin has been found to be helpful in treating sleep disorders such as insomnia, jet lag, and delayed sleep phase syndrome. It may also have other benefits, including antioxidant properties and potential uses in the treatment of certain neurological conditions.

It is important to note that while melatonin supplements are available over-the-counter in many countries, they should still be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as their use can have potential side effects and interactions with other medications.

A Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR) in the context of medicinal chemistry and pharmacology refers to the relationship between the chemical structure of a drug or molecule and its biological activity or effect on a target protein, cell, or organism. SAR studies aim to identify patterns and correlations between structural features of a compound and its ability to interact with a specific biological target, leading to a desired therapeutic response or undesired side effects.

By analyzing the SAR, researchers can optimize the chemical structure of lead compounds to enhance their potency, selectivity, safety, and pharmacokinetic properties, ultimately guiding the design and development of novel drugs with improved efficacy and reduced toxicity.

Hydroxyacetylaminofluorene (HAFF) is not a recognized medical term or a medication. It is a chemical compound that belongs to the class of aromatic amines and has been used in research as a model carcinogen to study chemical carcinogenesis. HAFF requires metabolic activation by enzymes such as cytochrome P450 to become biologically active and exert its carcinogenic effects. It is not typically used in clinical medicine or patient care.

Lyngbya toxins refer to a group of potentially harmful compounds produced by certain species of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) belonging to the genus Lyngbya. These toxins can have various chemical structures and biological activities, with some being potent irritants, others causing skin rashes or allergic reactions, and yet others affecting the liver, nervous system, or respiratory system in more severe cases.

The most well-known Lyngbya toxin is probably lyngbyatoxin A, a potent irritant that can cause skin rashes, blisters, and allergic reactions upon contact. Another notable toxin produced by some Lyngbya species is aplysiatoxin, which has similar effects on the skin but is also known to be a tumor promoter.

It's important to note that not all species of Lyngbya produce these toxins, and even those that do may only produce them under certain conditions, such as in response to environmental stressors. Additionally, exposure to these toxins can occur through various routes, including skin contact, ingestion, or inhalation, and can have a range of health effects depending on the dose, duration, and individual susceptibility.

Halogenation is a general term used in chemistry and biochemistry, including medical contexts, to refer to the process of introducing a halogen atom into a molecule. Halogens are a group of non-metallic elements that include fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At).

In medical terms, halogenation is often discussed in the context of pharmaceuticals or biological molecules. For example, the halogenation of aromatic compounds can increase their lipophilicity, which can affect their ability to cross cell membranes and interact with biological targets. This can be useful in drug design and development, as modifying a lead compound's halogenation pattern may enhance its therapeutic potential or alter its pharmacokinetic properties.

However, it is essential to note that halogenation can also impact the safety and toxicity profiles of compounds. Therefore, understanding the effects of halogenation on a molecule's structure and function is crucial in drug design and development processes.

5-Hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) is a chemical compound that is produced by the body as a precursor to serotonin, a neurotransmitter that helps regulate mood, appetite, sleep, and pain sensation. 5-HTP is not present in food but can be derived from the amino acid tryptophan, which is found in high-protein foods such as turkey, chicken, milk, and cheese.

5-HTP supplements are sometimes used to treat conditions related to low serotonin levels, including depression, anxiety, insomnia, migraines, and fibromyalgia. However, the effectiveness of 5-HTP for these conditions is not well established, and it can have side effects and interact with certain medications. Therefore, it's important to consult a healthcare provider before taking 5-HTP supplements.

Molecular models are three-dimensional representations of molecular structures that are used in the field of molecular biology and chemistry to visualize and understand the spatial arrangement of atoms and bonds within a molecule. These models can be physical or computer-generated and allow researchers to study the shape, size, and behavior of molecules, which is crucial for understanding their function and interactions with other molecules.

Physical molecular models are often made up of balls (representing atoms) connected by rods or sticks (representing bonds). These models can be constructed manually using materials such as plastic or wooden balls and rods, or they can be created using 3D printing technology.

Computer-generated molecular models, on the other hand, are created using specialized software that allows researchers to visualize and manipulate molecular structures in three dimensions. These models can be used to simulate molecular interactions, predict molecular behavior, and design new drugs or chemicals with specific properties. Overall, molecular models play a critical role in advancing our understanding of molecular structures and their functions.

Hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5HIAA) is a major metabolite of the neurotransmitter serotonin, formed in the body through the enzymatic degradation of serotonin by monoamine oxidase and aldehyde dehydrogenase. 5HIAA is primarily excreted in the urine and its measurement can be used as a biomarker for serotonin synthesis and metabolism in the body.

Increased levels of 5HIAA in the cerebrospinal fluid or urine may indicate conditions associated with excessive serotonin production, such as carcinoid syndrome, while decreased levels may be seen in certain neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease. Therefore, measuring 5HIAA levels can have diagnostic and therapeutic implications for these conditions.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Rhodium" is not a medical term. It is a chemical element with the symbol Rh and atomic number 45. It is a rare, silvery-white, hard, corrosion-resistant, and chemically inert transition metal. It is found in small quantities in platinum or nickel ores along with some other rare metals.

It's primarily used in industrial applications, such as being a key component in catalytic converters in automobiles, which helps to reduce harmful emissions. It's also used in jewelry, electronics, and scientific instruments due to its properties of resistance to corrosion and heat.

If you have any medical terms or concepts that you would like me to explain, please let me know!

Indican is not a medical term itself, but it is related to a medical concept. Indican is a chemical compound that is produced when the body breaks down certain types of proteins, particularly those found in grains and vegetables. The presence of indican in the urine can indicate poor digestion or malabsorption of these proteins, which is why it may be relevant in a medical context.

Elevated levels of indican in the urine can suggest a condition called "protein-losing enteropathy," which is characterized by excessive loss of protein from the gastrointestinal tract into the stool. This can occur due to various underlying conditions, such as inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease, or intestinal infections.

However, it's worth noting that indican testing is not a routine diagnostic tool in modern medicine and has largely been replaced by more specific and sensitive tests for gastrointestinal disorders.

"Tabernaemontana" is a genus of evergreen trees and shrubs in the dogbane family, Apocynaceae. It includes around 100 species that are native to tropical regions of the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Some species of Tabernaemontana contain alkaloids, which have been used in traditional medicine for various purposes, such as treating pain, inflammation, and gastrointestinal disorders. However, it is important to note that these compounds can also be toxic if not used properly, so they should only be administered under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional.

Indicators and reagents are terms commonly used in the field of clinical chemistry and laboratory medicine. Here are their definitions:

1. Indicator: An indicator is a substance that changes its color or other physical properties in response to a chemical change, such as a change in pH, oxidation-reduction potential, or the presence of a particular ion or molecule. Indicators are often used in laboratory tests to monitor or signal the progress of a reaction or to indicate the end point of a titration. A familiar example is the use of phenolphthalein as a pH indicator in acid-base titrations, which turns pink in basic solutions and colorless in acidic solutions.

2. Reagent: A reagent is a substance that is added to a system (such as a sample or a reaction mixture) to bring about a chemical reaction, test for the presence or absence of a particular component, or measure the concentration of a specific analyte. Reagents are typically chemicals with well-defined and consistent properties, allowing them to be used reliably in analytical procedures. Examples of reagents include enzymes, antibodies, dyes, metal ions, and organic compounds. In laboratory settings, reagents are often prepared and standardized according to strict protocols to ensure their quality and performance in diagnostic tests and research applications.

Acetic anhydride is a chemical compound with the formula (CH3CO)2O. It is a colorless liquid that is used as a reagent in organic synthesis, particularly in the production of cellulose acetate and other acetate esters. Acetic anhydride is also an important intermediate in the synthesis of certain pharmaceuticals and dyes.

In medical terminology, acetic anhydride is not typically used as a diagnostic or therapeutic agent. However, it can be used in laboratory settings to synthesize compounds that may have medical applications. For example, acetic anhydride has been used to produce certain antiviral drugs and antibiotics.

It is important to note that acetic anhydride can be harmful or fatal if swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin. It can cause burns and eye damage, and may be harmful to the respiratory system if inhaled. Therefore, it should be handled with care and used only in well-ventilated areas with appropriate personal protective equipment.

Mutagens are physical or chemical agents that can cause permanent changes in the structure of genetic material, including DNA and chromosomes, leading to mutations. These mutations can be passed down to future generations and may increase the risk of cancer and other diseases. Examples of mutagens include ultraviolet (UV) radiation, tobacco smoke, and certain chemicals found in industrial settings. It is important to note that not all mutations are harmful, but some can have negative effects on health and development.

Iridoid glucosides are a type of plant-based compounds that are characterized by their iridoid structure, which is a cyclic organic compound containing a cyclopentane ring fused to a six-membered unsaturated carbocycle. These compounds are often found in plants as glycosides, meaning they are combined with a sugar molecule such as glucose.

Iridoid glucosides have been identified in a variety of plant families, including the Lamiaceae (mint family), Scrophulariaceae (figwort family), and Rubiaceae (coffee family). Some examples of iridoid glucosides include geniposide, which is found in the fruit of the gardenia plant, and aucubin, which is found in the leaves of the eucommia tree.

Iridoid glucosides have been studied for their potential medicinal properties, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial effects. However, more research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and potential therapeutic uses.

Bacteriological techniques refer to the various methods and procedures used in the laboratory for the cultivation, identification, and study of bacteria. These techniques are essential in fields such as medicine, biotechnology, and research. Here are some common bacteriological techniques:

1. **Sterilization**: This is a process that eliminates or kills all forms of life, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and spores. Common sterilization methods include autoclaving (using steam under pressure), dry heat (in an oven), chemical sterilants, and radiation.

2. **Aseptic Technique**: This refers to practices used to prevent contamination of sterile materials or environments with microorganisms. It includes the use of sterile equipment, gloves, and lab coats, as well as techniques such as flaming, alcohol swabbing, and using aseptic transfer devices.

3. **Media Preparation**: This involves the preparation of nutrient-rich substances that support bacterial growth. There are various types of media, including solid (agar), liquid (broth), and semi-solid (e.g., stab agar). The choice of medium depends on the type of bacteria being cultured and the purpose of the investigation.

4. **Inoculation**: This is the process of introducing a bacterial culture into a medium. It can be done using a loop, swab, or needle. The inoculum should be taken from a pure culture to avoid contamination.

5. **Incubation**: After inoculation, the bacteria are allowed to grow under controlled conditions of temperature, humidity, and atmospheric composition. This process is called incubation.

6. **Staining and Microscopy**: Bacteria are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Therefore, they need to be stained and observed under a microscope. Gram staining is a common method used to differentiate between two major groups of bacteria based on their cell wall composition.

7. **Biochemical Tests**: These are tests used to identify specific bacterial species based on their biochemical characteristics, such as their ability to ferment certain sugars, produce particular enzymes, or resist certain antibiotics.

8. **Molecular Techniques**: Advanced techniques like PCR and DNA sequencing can provide more precise identification of bacteria. They can also be used for genetic analysis and epidemiological studies.

Remember, handling microorganisms requires careful attention to biosafety procedures to prevent accidental infection or environmental contamination.

Spectrophotometry, Ultraviolet (UV-Vis) is a type of spectrophotometry that measures how much ultraviolet (UV) and visible light is absorbed or transmitted by a sample. It uses a device called a spectrophotometer to measure the intensity of light at different wavelengths as it passes through a sample. The resulting data can be used to determine the concentration of specific components within the sample, identify unknown substances, or evaluate the physical and chemical properties of materials.

UV-Vis spectroscopy is widely used in various fields such as chemistry, biology, pharmaceuticals, and environmental science. It can detect a wide range of substances including organic compounds, metal ions, proteins, nucleic acids, and dyes. The technique is non-destructive, meaning that the sample remains unchanged after the measurement.

In UV-Vis spectroscopy, the sample is placed in a cuvette or other container, and light from a source is directed through it. The light then passes through a monochromator, which separates it into its component wavelengths. The monochromatic light is then directed through the sample, and the intensity of the transmitted or absorbed light is measured by a detector.

The resulting absorption spectrum can provide information about the concentration and identity of the components in the sample. For example, if a compound has a known absorption maximum at a specific wavelength, its concentration can be determined by measuring the absorbance at that wavelength and comparing it to a standard curve.

Overall, UV-Vis spectrophotometry is a versatile and powerful analytical technique for quantitative and qualitative analysis of various samples in different fields.

"Uncaria" is a genus of woody vines in the family Rubiaceae, commonly known as "cat's claw." The term does not have a specific medical definition, but certain species of Uncaria are used in traditional medicine and have been investigated for their potential medicinal properties. For example, Uncaria tomentosa and Uncaria guianensis are used in traditional medicine for various purposes, including as an anti-inflammatory, immune system stimulant, and for treating gastrointestinal disorders. However, it is important to note that the scientific evidence supporting these uses is limited, and more research is needed before any firm conclusions can be drawn about their safety and efficacy.

Benzene derivatives are chemical compounds that are derived from benzene, which is a simple aromatic hydrocarbon with the molecular formula C6H6. Benzene has a planar, hexagonal ring structure, and its derivatives are formed by replacing one or more of the hydrogen atoms in the benzene molecule with other functional groups.

Benzene derivatives have a wide range of applications in various industries, including pharmaceuticals, dyes, plastics, and explosives. Some common examples of benzene derivatives include toluene, xylene, phenol, aniline, and nitrobenzene. These compounds can have different physical and chemical properties depending on the nature and position of the substituents attached to the benzene ring.

It is important to note that some benzene derivatives are known to be toxic or carcinogenic, and their production, use, and disposal must be carefully regulated to ensure safety and protect public health.

Ibogaine is a naturally occurring psychoactive alkaloid found in the root bark of the African shrub, Tabernanthe iboga. It has been used traditionally in West African spiritual practices and healing rituals for centuries. In the medical field, ibogaine has been explored as an experimental treatment for substance abuse disorders, particularly for opioid addiction, due to its ability to reduce withdrawal symptoms and cravings. However, its use is not widely accepted or approved by regulatory agencies due to safety concerns, including potential cardiac toxicity and psychological adverse effects. Therefore, it's essential to conduct thorough research and consult with medical professionals before considering ibogaine treatment.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Benzaldehyde is an organic compound with the formula C6H5CHO. It is the simplest aromatic aldehyde, and it consists of a benzene ring attached to a formyl group. Benzaldehyde is a colorless liquid with a characteristic almond-like odor.

Benzaldehyde occurs naturally in various plants, including bitter almonds, cherries, peaches, and apricots. It is used in many industrial applications, such as in the production of perfumes, flavorings, and dyes. In addition, benzaldehyde has been used in medical research for its potential therapeutic effects, such as its anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties.

However, it is important to note that benzaldehyde can be toxic in high concentrations and may cause irritation to the skin, eyes, and respiratory system. Therefore, it should be handled with care and used in accordance with appropriate safety guidelines.

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a type of chromatography that separates and analyzes compounds based on their interactions with a stationary phase and a mobile phase under high pressure. The mobile phase, which can be a gas or liquid, carries the sample mixture through a column containing the stationary phase.

In HPLC, the mobile phase is a liquid, and it is pumped through the column at high pressures (up to several hundred atmospheres) to achieve faster separation times and better resolution than other types of liquid chromatography. The stationary phase can be a solid or a liquid supported on a solid, and it interacts differently with each component in the sample mixture, causing them to separate as they travel through the column.

HPLC is widely used in analytical chemistry, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and other fields to separate, identify, and quantify compounds present in complex mixtures. It can be used to analyze a wide range of substances, including drugs, hormones, vitamins, pigments, flavors, and pollutants. HPLC is also used in the preparation of pure samples for further study or use.

Fluorescence spectrometry is a type of analytical technique used to investigate the fluorescent properties of a sample. It involves the measurement of the intensity of light emitted by a substance when it absorbs light at a specific wavelength and then re-emits it at a longer wavelength. This process, known as fluorescence, occurs because the absorbed energy excites electrons in the molecules of the substance to higher energy states, and when these electrons return to their ground state, they release the excess energy as light.

Fluorescence spectrometry typically measures the emission spectrum of a sample, which is a plot of the intensity of emitted light versus the wavelength of emission. This technique can be used to identify and quantify the presence of specific fluorescent molecules in a sample, as well as to study their photophysical properties.

Fluorescence spectrometry has many applications in fields such as biochemistry, environmental science, and materials science. For example, it can be used to detect and measure the concentration of pollutants in water samples, to analyze the composition of complex biological mixtures, or to study the properties of fluorescent nanomaterials.

Enterobacteriaceae is a family of gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the intestines of humans and animals. Many species within this family are capable of causing various types of infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. Some common examples of Enterobacteriaceae include Escherichia coli (E. coli), Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, and Salmonella enterica.

These bacteria are typically characterized by their ability to ferment various sugars and produce acid and gas as byproducts. They can also be distinguished by their biochemical reactions, such as their ability to produce certain enzymes or resist specific antibiotics. Infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae can range from mild to severe, depending on the species involved and the overall health of the infected individual.

Some infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae include urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bloodstream infections, and foodborne illnesses. Proper hygiene, such as handwashing and safe food handling practices, can help prevent the spread of these bacteria and reduce the risk of infection.

"Oxidative coupling" is not a widely recognized medical term, but it does have applications in the field of biochemistry and pharmacology. It generally refers to a chemical reaction between two molecules where one or both of them undergo oxidation, leading to the formation of a new covalent bond between them.

In a biological context, "oxidative coupling" can refer to enzymatic reactions that generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) as part of their function. For example, in the electron transport chain during cellular respiration, oxidative phosphorylation results in the production of ATP, but also generates superoxide radicals as byproducts. These ROS can then undergo further oxidative coupling reactions to form other types of reactive oxygen species, such as hydrogen peroxide or hydroxyl radicals.

In some cases, these oxidative coupling reactions may contribute to the development of diseases such as cancer, atherosclerosis, and neurodegenerative disorders. However, in other contexts, oxidative coupling reactions may play important roles in cellular signaling pathways or in the detoxification of harmful substances.

Overall, while "oxidative coupling" is not a medical term per se, it does have relevance to various physiological and pathophysiological processes that are of interest to medical researchers and healthcare professionals.

Apocynaceae is a family of flowering plants that includes shrubs, trees, and vines. It's also known as the dogbane or milkweed family. The plants in this family have milky sap and contain toxic compounds, which can be harmful or even fatal to animals and humans if ingested. Some well-known members of Apocynaceae include the various species of milkweeds (Asclepias spp.), oleander (Nerium oleander), and periwinkle (Vinca spp.).

The family is characterized by having opposite leaves, flowers with five petals and five sepals, and a superior ovary. The fruits are usually paired follicles that contain numerous seeds with tufts of hair to aid in wind dispersal. Many species in this family have medicinal or toxic properties, and some have economic importance as ornamental plants, sources of fiber, or for their use in traditional medicine.

Acetonitrile is an organic compound with the formula CH3CN. It is a colorless liquid that is used as a solvent and in the production of various chemicals. Acetonitrile is weakly basic and polar, and it has a unique smell that is often described as unpleasant or sweet.

Acetonitrile is not considered to be a medication or a drug, so it does not have a medical definition. However, it is sometimes used in the medical field as a solvent for various applications, such as in the preparation of pharmaceutical products or in laboratory research. It is important to handle acetonitrile with care, as it can be harmful if swallowed, inhaled, or contacted with the skin.

In the context of medical and biological sciences, a "binding site" refers to a specific location on a protein, molecule, or cell where another molecule can attach or bind. This binding interaction can lead to various functional changes in the original protein or molecule. The other molecule that binds to the binding site is often referred to as a ligand, which can be a small molecule, ion, or even another protein.

The binding between a ligand and its target binding site can be specific and selective, meaning that only certain ligands can bind to particular binding sites with high affinity. This specificity plays a crucial role in various biological processes, such as signal transduction, enzyme catalysis, or drug action.

In the case of drug development, understanding the location and properties of binding sites on target proteins is essential for designing drugs that can selectively bind to these sites and modulate protein function. This knowledge can help create more effective and safer therapeutic options for various diseases.

Terpenes are a large and diverse class of organic compounds produced by a variety of plants, including cannabis. They are responsible for the distinctive aromas and flavors found in different strains of cannabis. Terpenes have been found to have various therapeutic benefits, such as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antimicrobial properties. Some terpenes may also enhance the psychoactive effects of THC, the main psychoactive compound in cannabis. It's important to note that more research is needed to fully understand the potential medical benefits and risks associated with terpenes.

Cinchona alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that are found in the bark of Cinchona trees, which are native to South America. These alkaloids have been used for centuries in traditional medicine to treat various ailments, most notably malaria. The main cinchona alkaloids include quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, and cinchonidine.

Quinine is the most well-known of these alkaloids and has been used for centuries as an effective antimalarial agent. It works by interfering with the reproduction of the malaria parasite in the red blood cells. Quinine is also used to treat other medical conditions, such as leg cramps and restless legs syndrome.

Quinidine is another important cinchona alkaloid that is used primarily as an antiarrhythmic agent to treat irregular heart rhythms. It works by slowing down the electrical conduction in the heart and stabilizing its rhythm.

Cinchonine and cinchonidine have more limited medical uses, mainly as bitter-tasting ingredients in tonics and other beverages. However, they also have some medicinal properties, such as being used as antimalarial agents and antiarrhythmic drugs in some countries.

It is important to note that cinchona alkaloids can have serious side effects if not used properly, so they should only be taken under the supervision of a healthcare professional.

Culture media is a substance that is used to support the growth of microorganisms or cells in an artificial environment, such as a petri dish or test tube. It typically contains nutrients and other factors that are necessary for the growth and survival of the organisms being cultured. There are many different types of culture media, each with its own specific formulation and intended use. Some common examples include blood agar, which is used to culture bacteria; Sabouraud dextrose agar, which is used to culture fungi; and Eagle's minimum essential medium, which is used to culture animal cells.

Glycerophosphates are esters of glycerol and phosphoric acid. In the context of biochemistry and medicine, glycerophosphates often refer to glycerol 3-phosphate (also known as glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or glycerone phosphate) and its derivatives.

Glycerol 3-phosphate plays a crucial role in cellular metabolism, particularly in the process of energy production and storage. It is an important intermediate in both glycolysis (the breakdown of glucose to produce energy) and gluconeogenesis (the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors).

In addition, glycerophosphates are also involved in the formation of phospholipids, a major component of cell membranes. The esterification of glycerol 3-phosphate with fatty acids leads to the synthesis of phosphatidic acid, which is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of other phospholipids.

Abnormalities in glycerophosphate metabolism have been implicated in various diseases, including metabolic disorders and neurological conditions.

Xylenes are aromatic hydrocarbons that are often used as solvents in the industrial field. They are composed of two benzene rings with methyl side groups (-CH3) and can be found as a mixture of isomers: ortho-xylene, meta-xylene, and para-xylene.

In a medical context, xylenes may be relevant due to their potential for exposure in occupational settings or through environmental contamination. Short-term exposure to high levels of xylenes can cause irritation of the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs, as well as symptoms such as headache, dizziness, and nausea. Long-term exposure has been linked to neurological effects, including memory impairment, hearing loss, and changes in behavior and mood.

It is worth noting that xylenes are not typically considered a direct medical diagnosis, but rather a potential exposure hazard or environmental contaminant that may have health impacts.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Nylons" is a common term for a type of synthetic fiber often used in clothing, hosiery, and other textile applications. It is not a medical term or concept. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or concepts, I would be happy to try and help clarify!

"Paenibacillus" is a genus of gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in various environments such as soil, water, and the gastrointestinal tracts of animals. These bacteria are known to be facultatively anaerobic, which means they can grow in the presence or absence of oxygen. They are also known to produce endospores, which allow them to survive in harsh conditions for extended periods.

The name "Paenibacillus" comes from the Latin word "paene," meaning "almost" or "nearly," and the Greek word "bacillus," meaning "a small rod." This name reflects the fact that these bacteria were initially classified as members of the genus Bacillus, but were later reclassified due to their distinct characteristics.

Paenibacillus species have been found to be involved in a variety of industrial and agricultural processes, such as the production of enzymes, biofuels, and plant growth-promoting compounds. Some species are also known to cause infections in humans, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. However, such infections are relatively rare compared to those caused by other bacterial genera.

Acrylates are a group of chemical compounds that are derived from acrylic acid. They are commonly used in various industrial and commercial applications, including the production of plastics, resins, paints, and adhesives. In the medical field, acrylates are sometimes used in the formation of dental restorations, such as fillings and dentures, due to their strong bonding properties and durability.

However, it is important to note that some people may have allergic reactions or sensitivities to acrylates, which can cause skin irritation, allergic contact dermatitis, or other adverse effects. Therefore, medical professionals must use caution when working with these materials and ensure that patients are informed of any potential risks associated with their use.

'Brassica' is a term used in botanical nomenclature, specifically within the family Brassicaceae. It refers to a genus of plants that includes various vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, kale, and mustard greens. These plants are known for their nutritional value and health benefits. They contain glucosinolates, which have been studied for their potential anti-cancer properties. However, it is not a medical term per se, but rather a taxonomic category used in the biological sciences.

"Psychotria" is a genus of flowering plants in the coffee family, Rubiaceae. It includes over 1,000 species, many of which are found in tropical and subtropical regions around the world. Some species of Psychotria contain psychoactive compounds, such as Psychotria viridis and Psychotria carthagenensis, which are used in traditional Amazonian shamanic practices like ayahuasca. However, it is important to note that these plants can be dangerous if misused or taken without proper knowledge and guidance.

Therefore, the medical definition of "Psychotria" would refer to a genus of plants with various species, some of which have psychoactive properties and potential medicinal uses, but also carry risks and should only be used under expert supervision.

Alkynes are a type of hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond in their molecular structure. The general chemical formula for alkynes is CnH2n-2, where n represents the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.

The simplest and shortest alkyne is ethyne, also known as acetylene, which has two carbon atoms and four hydrogen atoms (C2H2). Ethyne is a gas at room temperature and pressure, and it is commonly used as a fuel in welding torches.

Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons, meaning that they have the potential to undergo chemical reactions that add atoms or groups of atoms to the molecule. In particular, alkynes can be converted into alkenes (hydrocarbons with a carbon-carbon double bond) through a process called partial reduction, or they can be fully reduced to alkanes (hydrocarbons with only single bonds between carbon atoms) through a process called complete reduction.

Alkynes are important intermediates in the chemical industry and are used to produce a wide range of products, including plastics, resins, fibers, and pharmaceuticals. They can be synthesized from other hydrocarbons through various chemical reactions, such as dehydrogenation, oxidative coupling, or metathesis.

Mixed Function Oxygenases (MFOs) are a type of enzyme that catalyze the addition of one atom each from molecular oxygen (O2) to a substrate, while reducing the other oxygen atom to water. These enzymes play a crucial role in the metabolism of various endogenous and exogenous compounds, including drugs, carcinogens, and environmental pollutants.

MFOs are primarily located in the endoplasmic reticulum of cells and consist of two subunits: a flavoprotein component that contains FAD or FMN as a cofactor, and an iron-containing heme protein. The most well-known example of MFO is cytochrome P450, which is involved in the oxidation of xenobiotics and endogenous compounds such as steroids, fatty acids, and vitamins.

MFOs can catalyze a variety of reactions, including hydroxylation, epoxidation, dealkylation, and deamination, among others. These reactions often lead to the activation or detoxification of xenobiotics, making MFOs an important component of the body's defense system against foreign substances. However, in some cases, these reactions can also produce reactive intermediates that may cause toxicity or contribute to the development of diseases such as cancer.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Hemiterpenes" is not a recognized term in medical or biochemistry terminology. The term "terpene" does refer to a large class of naturally occurring organic hydrocarbons, which are synthesized in various plants and animals. They are built from repeating units of isoprene (a five-carbon molecule), and can be further classified into monoterpenes (two isoprene units), sesquiterpenes (three isoprene units), diterpenes (four isoprene units), and so on.

However, the prefix "hemi-" means "half," which doesn't have a clear application in this context. It's possible there may be a misunderstanding or a typo in your question. If you meant to ask about a specific type of compound or a concept related to terpenes, please provide more context so I can give a more accurate answer.

Iridoids are a type of naturally occurring compounds that are widely distributed in the plant kingdom. They are characterized by the presence of a cyclopentanoid structure fused to a monoterpene unit. Iridoids have a wide range of biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antioxidant effects. Some iridoids also have potential therapeutic benefits in the treatment of various diseases, such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders.

In a medical context, iridoids may be mentioned in relation to their presence in certain medicinal plants or herbs used in traditional medicine, or in research investigating their potential pharmacological properties. However, it is important to note that the use of iridoid-containing plants or supplements should only be done under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional, as with any medical treatment.

Substrate specificity in the context of medical biochemistry and enzymology refers to the ability of an enzyme to selectively bind and catalyze a chemical reaction with a particular substrate (or a group of similar substrates) while discriminating against other molecules that are not substrates. This specificity arises from the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme, which has evolved to match the shape, charge distribution, and functional groups of its physiological substrate(s).

Substrate specificity is a fundamental property of enzymes that enables them to carry out highly selective chemical transformations in the complex cellular environment. The active site of an enzyme, where the catalysis takes place, has a unique conformation that complements the shape and charge distribution of its substrate(s). This ensures efficient recognition, binding, and conversion of the substrate into the desired product while minimizing unwanted side reactions with other molecules.

Substrate specificity can be categorized as:

1. Absolute specificity: An enzyme that can only act on a single substrate or a very narrow group of structurally related substrates, showing no activity towards any other molecule.
2. Group specificity: An enzyme that prefers to act on a particular functional group or class of compounds but can still accommodate minor structural variations within the substrate.
3. Broad or promiscuous specificity: An enzyme that can act on a wide range of structurally diverse substrates, albeit with varying catalytic efficiencies.

Understanding substrate specificity is crucial for elucidating enzymatic mechanisms, designing drugs that target specific enzymes or pathways, and developing biotechnological applications that rely on the controlled manipulation of enzyme activities.

Hydrogen-ion concentration, also known as pH, is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is defined as the negative logarithm (to the base 10) of the hydrogen ion activity in a solution. The standard unit of measurement is the pH unit. A pH of 7 is neutral, less than 7 is acidic, and greater than 7 is basic.

In medical terms, hydrogen-ion concentration is important for maintaining homeostasis within the body. For example, in the stomach, a high hydrogen-ion concentration (low pH) is necessary for the digestion of food. However, in other parts of the body such as blood, a high hydrogen-ion concentration can be harmful and lead to acidosis. Conversely, a low hydrogen-ion concentration (high pH) in the blood can lead to alkalosis. Both acidosis and alkalosis can have serious consequences on various organ systems if not corrected.

A plant extract is a preparation containing chemical constituents that have been extracted from a plant using a solvent. The resulting extract may contain a single compound or a mixture of several compounds, depending on the extraction process and the specific plant material used. These extracts are often used in various industries including pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and food and beverage, due to their potential therapeutic or beneficial properties. The composition of plant extracts can vary widely, and it is important to ensure their quality, safety, and efficacy before use in any application.

Acyl-butyrolactones are a type of chemical compound that consists of a butyrolactone ring (a five-membered ring containing an oxygen atom and a carbonyl group) that has an acyl group (a functional group consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and single-bonded to another functional group) attached to it.

Butyrolactones are lactones, which are cyclic esters derived from carboxylic acids. The addition of an acyl group to the butyrolactone ring results in the formation of acyl-butyrolactones. These compounds have a variety of uses in organic synthesis and may also be found in some natural sources.

It's worth noting that "acyl-butyrolactones" is a general term that can refer to any compound with this basic structure, and there may be many specific compounds that fall under this category. Therefore, it's important to consult a detailed chemical reference or speak with a chemist for more information on a specific acyl-butyrolactone compound.

I am not aware of a medical definition for the term "Isatis." It is a genus of flowering plants in the family Brassicaceae, also known as woad. Woad has been used traditionally for medicinal purposes, including as an anti-inflammatory and to treat skin conditions. However, it is not commonly used in modern medicine and does not have a specific medical definition associated with it. If you are referring to a different "Isatis," please provide more context so I can give a more accurate response.

Hydroxylation is a biochemical process that involves the addition of a hydroxyl group (-OH) to a molecule, typically a steroid or xenobiotic compound. This process is primarily catalyzed by enzymes called hydroxylases, which are found in various tissues throughout the body.

In the context of medicine and biochemistry, hydroxylation can have several important functions:

1. Drug metabolism: Hydroxylation is a common way that the liver metabolizes drugs and other xenobiotic compounds. By adding a hydroxyl group to a drug molecule, it becomes more polar and water-soluble, which facilitates its excretion from the body.
2. Steroid hormone biosynthesis: Hydroxylation is an essential step in the biosynthesis of many steroid hormones, including cortisol, aldosterone, and the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone. These hormones are synthesized from cholesterol through a series of enzymatic reactions that involve hydroxylation at various steps.
3. Vitamin D activation: Hydroxylation is also necessary for the activation of vitamin D in the body. In order to become biologically active, vitamin D must undergo two successive hydroxylations, first in the liver and then in the kidneys.
4. Toxin degradation: Some toxic compounds can be rendered less harmful through hydroxylation. For example, phenol, a toxic compound found in cigarette smoke and some industrial chemicals, can be converted to a less toxic form through hydroxylation by enzymes in the liver.

Overall, hydroxylation is an important biochemical process that plays a critical role in various physiological functions, including drug metabolism, hormone biosynthesis, and toxin degradation.

Aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as aromatic compounds or arenes, are a class of organic compounds characterized by a planar ring structure with delocalized electrons that give them unique chemical properties. The term "aromatic" was originally used to describe their distinctive odors, but it now refers to their characteristic molecular structure and stability.

Aromatic hydrocarbons contain one or more benzene rings, which are cyclic structures consisting of six carbon atoms arranged in a planar hexagonal shape. Each carbon atom in the benzene ring is bonded to two other carbon atoms and one hydrogen atom, forming alternating double and single bonds between the carbon atoms. However, the delocalized electrons in the benzene ring are evenly distributed around the ring, leading to a unique electronic structure that imparts stability and distinctive chemical properties to aromatic hydrocarbons.

Examples of aromatic hydrocarbons include benzene, toluene, xylene, and naphthalene. These compounds have important uses in industry, but they can also pose health risks if not handled properly. Exposure to high levels of aromatic hydrocarbons has been linked to various health effects, including cancer, neurological damage, and respiratory problems.

"Escherichia" is a genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the intestines of warm-blooded organisms. The most well-known species in this genus is "Escherichia coli," or "E. coli," which is a normal inhabitant of the human gut and is often used as an indicator of fecal contamination in water and food. Some strains of E. coli can cause illness, however, including diarrhea, urinary tract infections, and meningitis. Other species in the genus "Escherichia" are less well-known and are not typically associated with disease.

Cinnamates are organic compounds that are derived from cinnamic acid. They contain a carbon ring with a double bond and a carboxylic acid group, making them aromatic acids. Cinnamates are widely used in the perfume industry due to their pleasant odor, and they also have various applications in the pharmaceutical and chemical industries.

In a medical context, cinnamates may be used as topical medications for the treatment of skin conditions such as fungal infections or inflammation. For example, cinnamate esters such as cinoxacin and ciclopirox are commonly used as antifungal agents in creams, lotions, and shampoos. These compounds work by disrupting the cell membranes of fungi, leading to their death.

Cinnamates may also have potential therapeutic benefits for other medical conditions. For instance, some studies suggest that cinnamate derivatives may have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective properties, making them promising candidates for the development of new drugs to treat diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. However, more research is needed to confirm these effects and determine their safety and efficacy in humans.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Cyclopentanes are a class of hydrocarbons that contain a cycloalkane ring of five carbon atoms. The chemical formula for cyclopentane is C5H10. It is a volatile, flammable liquid that is used as a solvent and in the production of polymers. Cyclopentanes are also found naturally in petroleum and coal tar.

Cyclopentanes have a unique structure in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a pentagonal shape, with each carbon atom bonded to two other carbon atoms and one or two hydrogen atoms. This structure gives cyclopentane its characteristic "bowl-shaped" geometry, which allows it to undergo various chemical reactions, such as ring-opening reactions, that can lead to the formation of other chemicals.

Cyclopentanes have a variety of industrial and commercial applications. For example, they are used in the production of plastics, resins, and synthetic rubbers. They also have potential uses in the development of new drugs and medical technologies, as their unique structure and reactivity make them useful building blocks for the synthesis of complex molecules.

Combinatorial chemistry techniques are a group of methods used in the field of chemistry to synthesize and optimize large libraries of chemical compounds in a rapid and efficient manner. These techniques involve the systematic combination of different building blocks, or reagents, in various arrangements to generate a diverse array of molecules. This approach allows chemists to quickly explore a wide chemical space and identify potential lead compounds for drug discovery, materials science, and other applications.

There are several common combinatorial chemistry techniques, including:

1. **Split-Pool Synthesis:** In this method, a large collection of starting materials is divided into smaller groups, and each group undergoes a series of chemical reactions with different reagents. The resulting products from each group are then pooled together and redistributed for additional rounds of reactions. This process creates a vast number of unique compounds through the iterative combination of building blocks.
2. **Parallel Synthesis:** In parallel synthesis, multiple reactions are carried out simultaneously in separate reaction vessels. Each vessel contains a distinct set of starting materials and reagents, allowing for the efficient generation of a series of related compounds. This method is particularly useful when exploring structure-activity relationships (SAR) or optimizing lead compounds.
3. **Encoded Libraries:** To facilitate the rapid identification of active compounds within large libraries, encoded library techniques incorporate unique tags or barcodes into each molecule. These tags allow for the simultaneous synthesis and screening of compounds, as the identity of an active compound can be determined by decoding its corresponding tag.
4. **DNA-Encoded Libraries (DELs):** DELs are a specific type of encoded library that uses DNA molecules to encode and track chemical compounds. In this approach, each unique compound is linked to a distinct DNA sequence, enabling the rapid identification of active compounds through DNA sequencing techniques.
5. **Solid-Phase Synthesis:** This technique involves the attachment of starting materials to a solid support, such as beads or resins, allowing for the stepwise addition of reagents and building blocks. The solid support facilitates easy separation, purification, and screening of compounds, making it an ideal method for combinatorial chemistry applications.

Combinatorial chemistry techniques have revolutionized drug discovery and development by enabling the rapid synthesis, screening, and optimization of large libraries of chemical compounds. These methods continue to play a crucial role in modern medicinal chemistry and materials science research.

Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the study of carbon-containing compounds, their synthesis, reactions, properties, and structures. These compounds can include both naturally occurring substances (such as sugars, proteins, and nucleic acids) and synthetic materials (such as plastics, dyes, and pharmaceuticals). A key characteristic of organic molecules is the presence of covalent bonds between carbon atoms or between carbon and other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and halogens. The field of organic chemistry has played a crucial role in advancing our understanding of chemical processes and has led to numerous technological and medical innovations.

Armillaria is a genus of fungi that includes several species commonly known as honey mushrooms or ringless honey mushrooms. These fungi are known for their characteristic yellow-brown to honey-colored caps and white, stringy rhizomorphs, which resemble shoestrings, that grow underground and help the fungus spread.

Armillaria species can be parasitic or saprophytic, meaning they can live off of other organisms (such as trees) either by killing them or by breaking down dead organic matter. Some species of Armillaria are known to cause a disease called armillaria root rot, which affects a wide range of plants and trees, including forest trees, ornamental shrubs, and agricultural crops.

In addition to their ecological significance, some species of Armillaria are also edible and considered a delicacy in certain cuisines. However, care must be taken to properly identify the fungi before consuming them, as some species can cause gastrointestinal symptoms if eaten.

Inhibitory Concentration 50 (IC50) is a measure used in pharmacology, toxicology, and virology to describe the potency of a drug or chemical compound. It refers to the concentration needed to reduce the biological or biochemical activity of a given substance by half. Specifically, it is most commonly used in reference to the inhibition of an enzyme or receptor.

In the context of infectious diseases, IC50 values are often used to compare the effectiveness of antiviral drugs against a particular virus. A lower IC50 value indicates that less of the drug is needed to achieve the desired effect, suggesting greater potency and potentially fewer side effects. Conversely, a higher IC50 value suggests that more of the drug is required to achieve the same effect, indicating lower potency.

It's important to note that IC50 values can vary depending on the specific assay or experimental conditions used, so they should be interpreted with caution and in conjunction with other measures of drug efficacy.

Esculin is a glucoside derived from the bark of willow trees and other plants. It has been used in scientific research as a substrate to test the activity of certain types of bacteria, particularly those that have the ability to produce an enzyme called beta-glucosidase. When esculin comes into contact with this enzyme, it is broken down and forms a chemical compound called esculetin, which can be detected and measured. This reaction is often used as a way to identify and study bacteria that produce beta-glucosidase.

Esculin is not typically used in medical treatments or therapies, but it may have some potential uses in the development of new drugs or diagnostic tools. As with any chemical compound, esculin should be handled with care and used only under the guidance of a trained professional.

Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are natural or synthetic chemical substances that, when present in low concentrations, can influence various physiological and biochemical processes in plants. These processes include cell division, elongation, and differentiation; flowering and fruiting; leaf senescence; and stress responses. PGRs can be classified into several categories based on their mode of action and chemical structure, including auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, ethylene, and others. They are widely used in agriculture to improve crop yield and quality, regulate plant growth and development, and enhance stress tolerance.

Oxidation-Reduction (redox) reactions are a type of chemical reaction involving a transfer of electrons between two species. The substance that loses electrons in the reaction is oxidized, and the substance that gains electrons is reduced. Oxidation and reduction always occur together in a redox reaction, hence the term "oxidation-reduction."

In biological systems, redox reactions play a crucial role in many cellular processes, including energy production, metabolism, and signaling. The transfer of electrons in these reactions is often facilitated by specialized molecules called electron carriers, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+/NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD/FADH2).

The oxidation state of an element in a compound is a measure of the number of electrons that have been gained or lost relative to its neutral state. In redox reactions, the oxidation state of one or more elements changes as they gain or lose electrons. The substance that is oxidized has a higher oxidation state, while the substance that is reduced has a lower oxidation state.

Overall, oxidation-reduction reactions are fundamental to the functioning of living organisms and are involved in many important biological processes.

Protein conformation refers to the specific three-dimensional shape that a protein molecule assumes due to the spatial arrangement of its constituent amino acid residues and their associated chemical groups. This complex structure is determined by several factors, including covalent bonds (disulfide bridges), hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, and ionic bonds, which help stabilize the protein's unique conformation.

Protein conformations can be broadly classified into two categories: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures. The primary structure represents the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. The secondary structure arises from local interactions between adjacent amino acid residues, leading to the formation of recurring motifs such as α-helices and β-sheets. Tertiary structure refers to the overall three-dimensional folding pattern of a single polypeptide chain, while quaternary structure describes the spatial arrangement of multiple folded polypeptide chains (subunits) that interact to form a functional protein complex.

Understanding protein conformation is crucial for elucidating protein function, as the specific three-dimensional shape of a protein directly influences its ability to interact with other molecules, such as ligands, nucleic acids, or other proteins. Any alterations in protein conformation due to genetic mutations, environmental factors, or chemical modifications can lead to loss of function, misfolding, aggregation, and disease states like neurodegenerative disorders and cancer.

Serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is a monoamine neurotransmitter that is found primarily in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, blood platelets, and the central nervous system (CNS) of humans and other animals. It is produced by the conversion of the amino acid tryptophan to 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), and then to serotonin.

In the CNS, serotonin plays a role in regulating mood, appetite, sleep, memory, learning, and behavior, among other functions. It also acts as a vasoconstrictor, helping to regulate blood flow and blood pressure. In the GI tract, it is involved in peristalsis, the contraction and relaxation of muscles that moves food through the digestive system.

Serotonin is synthesized and stored in serotonergic neurons, which are nerve cells that use serotonin as their primary neurotransmitter. These neurons are found throughout the brain and spinal cord, and they communicate with other neurons by releasing serotonin into the synapse, the small gap between two neurons.

Abnormal levels of serotonin have been linked to a variety of disorders, including depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and migraines. Medications that affect serotonin levels, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), are commonly used to treat these conditions.

Molecular conformation, also known as spatial arrangement or configuration, refers to the specific three-dimensional shape and orientation of atoms that make up a molecule. It describes the precise manner in which bonds between atoms are arranged around a molecular framework, taking into account factors such as bond lengths, bond angles, and torsional angles.

Conformational isomers, or conformers, are different spatial arrangements of the same molecule that can interconvert without breaking chemical bonds. These isomers may have varying energies, stability, and reactivity, which can significantly impact a molecule's biological activity and function. Understanding molecular conformation is crucial in fields such as drug design, where small changes in conformation can lead to substantial differences in how a drug interacts with its target.

Amines are organic compounds that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons. They are derived from ammonia (NH3) by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups. The nomenclature of amines follows the substitutive type, where the parent compound is named as an aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbon, and the functional group "amine" is designated as a suffix or prefix.

Amines are classified into three types based on the number of carbon atoms attached to the nitrogen atom:

1. Primary (1°) amines: One alkyl or aryl group is attached to the nitrogen atom.
2. Secondary (2°) amines: Two alkyl or aryl groups are attached to the nitrogen atom.
3. Tertiary (3°) amines: Three alkyl or aryl groups are attached to the nitrogen atom.

Quaternary ammonium salts have four organic groups attached to the nitrogen atom and a positive charge, with anions balancing the charge.

Amines have a wide range of applications in the chemical industry, including pharmaceuticals, dyes, polymers, and solvents. They also play a significant role in biological systems as neurotransmitters, hormones, and cell membrane components.

Glucosidases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds, specifically at the non-reducing end of an oligo- or poly saccharide, releasing a single sugar molecule, such as glucose. They play important roles in various biological processes, including digestion of carbohydrates and the breakdown of complex glycans in glycoproteins and glycolipids.

In the context of digestion, glucosidases are produced by the pancreas and intestinal brush border cells to help break down dietary polysaccharides (e.g., starch) into monosaccharides (glucose), which can then be absorbed by the body for energy production or storage.

There are several types of glucosidases, including:

1. α-Glucosidase: This enzyme is responsible for cleaving α-(1→4) and α-(1→6) glycosidic bonds in oligosaccharides and disaccharides, such as maltose, maltotriose, and isomaltose.
2. β-Glucosidase: This enzyme hydrolyzes β-(1→4) glycosidic bonds in cellobiose and other oligosaccharides derived from plant cell walls.
3. Lactase (β-Galactosidase): Although not a glucosidase itself, lactase is often included in this group because it hydrolyzes the β-(1→4) glycosidic bond between glucose and galactose in lactose, yielding free glucose and galactose.

Deficiencies or inhibition of these enzymes can lead to various medical conditions, such as congenital sucrase-isomaltase deficiency (an α-glucosidase deficiency), lactose intolerance (a lactase deficiency), and Gaucher's disease (a β-glucocerebrosidase deficiency).

Quorum sensing is a type of cell-cell communication that allows bacteria to detect and respond to changes in population density by producing, releasing, and responding to signaling molecules called autoinducers. This process enables the coordinated expression of certain genes related to various group behaviors such as biofilm formation, virulence factor production, and bioluminescence. The term "quorum sensing" was coined in 1994 by Bonnie L. Bassler and Susan Goldberg to describe this population-dependent gene regulation mechanism in bacteria.

The Cytochrome P-450 (CYP450) enzyme system is a group of enzymes found primarily in the liver, but also in other organs such as the intestines, lungs, and skin. These enzymes play a crucial role in the metabolism and biotransformation of various substances, including drugs, environmental toxins, and endogenous compounds like hormones and fatty acids.

The name "Cytochrome P-450" refers to the unique property of these enzymes to bind to carbon monoxide (CO) and form a complex that absorbs light at a wavelength of 450 nm, which can be detected spectrophotometrically.

The CYP450 enzyme system is involved in Phase I metabolism of xenobiotics, where it catalyzes oxidation reactions such as hydroxylation, dealkylation, and epoxidation. These reactions introduce functional groups into the substrate molecule, which can then undergo further modifications by other enzymes during Phase II metabolism.

There are several families and subfamilies of CYP450 enzymes, each with distinct substrate specificities and functions. Some of the most important CYP450 enzymes include:

1. CYP3A4: This is the most abundant CYP450 enzyme in the human liver and is involved in the metabolism of approximately 50% of all drugs. It also metabolizes various endogenous compounds like steroids, bile acids, and vitamin D.
2. CYP2D6: This enzyme is responsible for the metabolism of many psychotropic drugs, including antidepressants, antipsychotics, and beta-blockers. It also metabolizes some endogenous compounds like dopamine and serotonin.
3. CYP2C9: This enzyme plays a significant role in the metabolism of warfarin, phenytoin, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
4. CYP2C19: This enzyme is involved in the metabolism of proton pump inhibitors, antidepressants, and clopidogrel.
5. CYP2E1: This enzyme metabolizes various xenobiotics like alcohol, acetaminophen, and carbon tetrachloride, as well as some endogenous compounds like fatty acids and prostaglandins.

Genetic polymorphisms in CYP450 enzymes can significantly affect drug metabolism and response, leading to interindividual variability in drug efficacy and toxicity. Understanding the role of CYP450 enzymes in drug metabolism is crucial for optimizing pharmacotherapy and minimizing adverse effects.

Klebsiella is a genus of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, encapsulated, non-motile, rod-shaped bacteria that are part of the family Enterobacteriaceae. They are commonly found in the normal microbiota of the mouth, skin, and intestines, but can also cause various types of infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems.

Klebsiella pneumoniae is the most common species and can cause pneumonia, urinary tract infections, bloodstream infections, and wound infections. Other Klebsiella species, such as K. oxytoca, can also cause similar types of infections. These bacteria are resistant to many antibiotics, making them difficult to treat and a significant public health concern.

X-ray crystallography is a technique used in structural biology to determine the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a crystal lattice. In this method, a beam of X-rays is directed at a crystal and diffracts, or spreads out, into a pattern of spots called reflections. The intensity and angle of each reflection are measured and used to create an electron density map, which reveals the position and type of atoms in the crystal. This information can be used to determine the molecular structure of a compound, including its shape, size, and chemical bonds. X-ray crystallography is a powerful tool for understanding the structure and function of biological macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.

Fermentation is a metabolic process in which an organism converts carbohydrates into alcohol or organic acids using enzymes. In the absence of oxygen, certain bacteria, yeasts, and fungi convert sugars into carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and various end products, such as alcohol, lactic acid, or acetic acid. This process is commonly used in food production, such as in making bread, wine, and beer, as well as in industrial applications for the production of biofuels and chemicals.

Mutagenicity tests are a type of laboratory assays used to identify agents that can cause genetic mutations. These tests detect changes in the DNA of organisms, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, after exposure to potential mutagens. The most commonly used mutagenicity test is the Ames test, which uses a strain of Salmonella bacteria that is sensitive to mutagens. If a chemical causes an increase in the number of revertants (reversion to the wild type) in the bacterial population, it is considered to be a mutagen. Other tests include the mouse lymphoma assay and the chromosomal aberration test. These tests are used to evaluate the potential genotoxicity of chemicals and are an important part of the safety evaluation process for new drugs, chemicals, and other substances.

Synthetic chemistry techniques refer to the methods and processes used in the laboratory to synthesize or create new chemical compounds or molecules. This can involve a wide range of procedures, including various types of reactions, separations, purifications, and characterizations. The goal of synthetic chemistry is often to produce a specific compound with desired properties, such as a drug molecule with therapeutic activity or a materials compound with unique physical or chemical characteristics. Synthetic chemists use their knowledge of organic, inorganic, physical, and analytical chemistry to design and execute efficient and effective syntheses, and they may employ automation, computational modeling, and other advanced tools to aid in their work.

Alkylation, in the context of medical chemistry and toxicology, refers to the process of introducing an alkyl group (a chemical moiety made up of a carbon atom bonded to one or more hydrogen atoms) into a molecule, typically a biomolecule such as a protein or DNA. This process can occur through various mechanisms, including chemical reactions with alkylating agents.

In the context of cancer therapy, alkylation is used to describe a class of chemotherapeutic drugs known as alkylating agents, which work by introducing alkyl groups onto DNA molecules in rapidly dividing cells. This can lead to cross-linking of DNA strands and other forms of DNA damage, ultimately inhibiting cell division and leading to the death of cancer cells. However, these agents can also affect normal cells, leading to side effects such as nausea, hair loss, and increased risk of infection.

It's worth noting that alkylation can also occur through non-chemical means, such as in certain types of radiation therapy where high-energy particles can transfer energy to electrons in biological molecules, leading to the formation of reactive radicals that can react with and alkylate DNA.

Proteus vulgaris is a species of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in soil, water, and the human digestive tract. They are named after the Greek god Proteus, who could change his shape at will, as these bacteria are known for their ability to undergo various morphological changes.

Proteus vulgaris is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and can cause opportunistic infections in humans, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems or underlying medical conditions. They can cause a variety of infections, including urinary tract infections, wound infections, pneumonia, and bacteremia (bloodstream infections).

Proteus vulgaris is also known for its ability to produce urease, an enzyme that breaks down urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide. This can lead to the formation of urinary stones and contribute to the development of chronic urinary tract infections. Additionally, Proteus vulgaris can form biofilms, which can make it difficult to eradicate the bacteria from infected sites.

In a medical context, identifying Proteus vulgaris is important for determining appropriate antibiotic therapy and managing infections caused by this organism.

Enterobacter is a genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the environment, including in soil, water, and the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals. These bacteria are members of the family Enterobacteriaceae and are known to cause a variety of infections in humans, particularly in healthcare settings.

Enterobacter species are capable of causing a range of infections, including urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bacteremia, and wound infections. They are often resistant to multiple antibiotics, which can make treatment challenging. Infections with Enterobacter are typically treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics that are effective against gram-negative bacteria.

It's worth noting that while Enterobacter species can cause infections, they are also a normal part of the microbiota found in the human gut and usually do not cause harm in healthy individuals. However, if the bacterium enters the bloodstream or other sterile sites in the body, it can cause infection and illness.

In the field of organic chemistry, imines are a class of compounds that contain a functional group with the general structure =CR-NR', where C=R and R' can be either alkyl or aryl groups. Imines are also commonly referred to as Schiff bases. They are formed by the condensation of an aldehyde or ketone with a primary amine, resulting in the loss of a molecule of water.

It is important to note that imines do not have a direct medical application, but they can be used as intermediates in the synthesis of various pharmaceuticals and bioactive compounds. Additionally, some imines have been found to exhibit biological activity, such as antimicrobial or anticancer properties. However, these are areas of ongoing research and development.

Biotransformation is the metabolic modification of a chemical compound, typically a xenobiotic (a foreign chemical substance found within an living organism), by a biological system. This process often involves enzymatic conversion of the parent compound to one or more metabolites, which may be more or less active, toxic, or mutagenic than the original substance.

In the context of pharmacology and toxicology, biotransformation is an important aspect of drug metabolism and elimination from the body. The liver is the primary site of biotransformation, but other organs such as the kidneys, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract can also play a role.

Biotransformation can occur in two phases: phase I reactions involve functionalization of the parent compound through oxidation, reduction, or hydrolysis, while phase II reactions involve conjugation of the metabolite with endogenous molecules such as glucuronic acid, sulfate, or acetate to increase its water solubility and facilitate excretion.

Molecular docking simulation is a computational method used in structural molecular biology and drug design to predict the binding orientation and affinity of two molecules, such as a protein (receptor) and a ligand (drug). It involves modeling the three-dimensional structures of the molecules and simulating their interaction using physical forces and energies. The goal is to identify the most stable and favorable binding conformation(s) between the two molecules, which can provide insights into how they interact at the molecular level and help in the design and optimization of new drugs or therapeutic agents.

Molecular docking simulations typically involve several steps, including:

1. Preparation of the receptor and ligand structures, such as adding hydrogen atoms, assigning charges, and optimizing the geometry.
2. Defining a search space or grid around the binding site of the receptor where the ligand is likely to bind.
3. Generating multiple conformations of the ligand using various algorithms, such as systematic, stochastic, or genetic algorithms.
4. Docking each ligand conformation into the receptor's binding site and scoring its binding affinity based on various energy functions, such as van der Waals forces, electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and desolvation effects.
5. Analyzing the docking results to identify the most promising binding modes and refining them using molecular dynamics simulations or other methods.

Molecular docking simulations have become an essential tool in drug discovery and development, as they can help predict the activity and selectivity of potential drugs, reduce the time and cost of experimental screening, and guide the optimization of lead compounds for further development.

Indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) is an enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of L-tryptophan to N-formylkynurenine, which is the first and rate-limiting step in the kynurenine pathway. This enzymatic reaction plays a crucial role in regulating tryptophan metabolism and immune responses. IDO is expressed in various tissues, including the brain, liver, and placenta, as well as in some immune cells such as dendritic cells and macrophages. It can be upregulated by inflammatory stimuli, and its expression has been associated with immune tolerance and suppression of T-cell responses. IDO is also being investigated as a potential therapeutic target for various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and neuropsychiatric conditions.

A plant root is not a medical term per se, but it is a term from botany, which is the study of plants. However, I can certainly provide a definition for you.

Plant roots are the underground organs of a plant that typically grow downward into the soil. They serve several important functions, including:

1. Anchorage: Roots help to stabilize the plant and keep it upright in the ground.
2. Absorption: Roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil, which are essential for the plant's growth and development.
3. Conduction: Roots conduct water and nutrients up to the above-ground parts of the plant, such as the stem and leaves.
4. Vegetative reproduction: Some plants can reproduce vegetatively through their roots, producing new plants from root fragments or specialized structures called rhizomes or tubers.

Roots are composed of several different tissues, including the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, and vascular tissue. The epidermis is the outermost layer of the root, which secretes a waxy substance called suberin that helps to prevent water loss. The cortex is the middle layer of the root, which contains cells that store carbohydrates and other nutrients. The endodermis is a thin layer of cells that surrounds the vascular tissue and regulates the movement of water and solutes into and out of the root. The vascular tissue consists of xylem and phloem, which transport water and nutrients throughout the plant.

Alocasia is a genus of flowering plants in the arum family, Araceae. It includes several species that are commonly grown as ornamental houseplants for their attractive, often large and colorful leaves. Some popular species include Alocasia amazonica (Elephant's Ear), Alocasia x calidora (Kris Plant), and Alocasia polyphylla (Silver Dragon). These plants are native to tropical regions of Asia and Eastern Australia.

It is important to note that some species of Alocasia contain calcium oxalate crystals, which can cause irritation and discomfort if ingested or come into contact with the skin or eyes. Therefore, it is recommended to handle these plants with care and keep them out of reach of children and pets.

Oxylipins are a class of bioactive lipid molecules derived from the oxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). They play crucial roles in various physiological and pathophysiological processes, including inflammation, immunity, and cellular signaling. Oxylipins can be further categorized based on their precursor PUFAs, such as arachidonic acid (AA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and linoleic acid (LA). These oxylipins are involved in the regulation of vascular tone, platelet aggregation, neurotransmission, and pain perception. They exert their effects through various receptors and downstream signaling pathways, making them important targets for therapeutic interventions in several diseases, such as cardiovascular disorders, cancer, and neurological conditions.

Gelsemium is not a medical term itself, but it refers to the plant species Gelsemium sempervirens, also known as yellow jessamine or woodbine. In medicine, particularly in homeopathy, preparations made from this plant are used and referred to as Gelsemium.

Homeopathic Gelsemium is used primarily to treat various types of neuralgia (nerve pain), headaches, and certain symptoms associated with the flu or common cold, such as weakness, dizziness, and drowsiness. It's important to note that homeopathic remedies are not supported by scientific evidence and their effectiveness is a topic of ongoing debate in the medical community. Always consult with a healthcare professional before starting any new treatment.

"Salmonella enterica" serovar "Typhimurium" is a subspecies of the bacterial species Salmonella enterica, which is a gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium. It is a common cause of foodborne illness in humans and animals worldwide. The bacteria can be found in a variety of sources, including contaminated food and water, raw meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products.

The infection caused by Salmonella Typhimurium is typically self-limiting and results in gastroenteritis, which is characterized by symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever, and vomiting. However, in some cases, the infection can spread to other parts of the body and cause more severe illness, particularly in young children, older adults, and people with weakened immune systems.

Salmonella Typhimurium is a major public health concern due to its ability to cause outbreaks of foodborne illness, as well as its potential to develop antibiotic resistance. Proper food handling, preparation, and storage practices can help prevent the spread of Salmonella Typhimurium and other foodborne pathogens.

Bartoli indole synthesis Bischler-Möhlau indole synthesis Cadogan-Sundberg indole synthesis Fukuyama indole synthesis Gassman ... Indoles are susceptible to hydrogenation of the imine subunit. Indole-3-butyric acid Indole test Isoindole Isoindoline Martinet ... The Leimgruber-Batcho indole synthesis is an efficient method of synthesizing indole and substituted indoles. Originally ... For intracellular indole detection and measurement genetically encoded indole-responsive biosensor is applicable. Indoles and ...
Some 200 dimeric indole alkaloids are known with two indole groups. The number of known non-isoprenoid indole alkaloids is ... Indole alkaloids are a class of alkaloids containing a structural moiety of indole; many indole alkaloids also include isoprene ... Simple derivatives of indole Simple derivatives of β-carboline Pyrroloindole alkaloids Indole-3-carbinol Indole-3-acetic acid ... Indole alkaloids are distinguished depending on their biosynthesis. The two types of indole alkaloids are isoprenoids and non- ...
This is due to the presence of skatole, also known as methyl indole or methylated indole, another possible product of ... The Indole test is one of the four tests of the IMViC series, which tests for evidence of an enteric bacterium. The other three ... The indole test is a biochemical test performed on bacterial species to determine the ability of the organism to convert ... Example of typical indole reactions Angen, O.; Mutters, R.; Caugant, D. A.; Olsen, J. E.; Bisgaard, M. (1999). "Taxonomic ...
Bartoli indole synthesis Japp-Klingemann indole synthesis Leimgruber-Batcho indole synthesis Larock indole synthesis Madelung ... The Fischer indole synthesis is a chemical reaction that produces the aromatic heterocycle indole from a (substituted) ... Wagaw, S.; Yang, B. H.; Buchwald, S. L. (1998). "A Palladium-Catalyzed Strategy for the Preparation of Indoles: A Novel Entry ... Via a palladium-catalyzed reaction, the Fischer indole synthesis can be effected by cross-coupling aryl bromides and hydrazones ...
The Hemetsberger indole synthesis (also called the Hemetsberger-Knittel synthesis) is a chemical reaction that thermally ... Gribble, G. W. (2000). "Recent developments in indole ring synthesis-methodology and applications". J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans ... decomposes a 3-aryl-2-azido-propenoic ester into an indole-2-carboxylic ester. Yields are typically above 70%. However, this is ...
The Hegedus indole synthesis is a name reaction in organic chemistry that allows for the generation of indoles through ... 2-Allylaniline can be converted to 2-Methylindole using the Hegedus indole synthesis. Hegedus, Louis S.; Allen, Gary F.; ... ISBN 978-3-540-30030-4. v t e (Ring forming reactions, Indole forming reactions, Carbon-heteroatom bond forming reactions, Name ... A new synthesis of indoles". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 98 (9): 2674-2676. doi:10.1021/ja00425a051. Hegedus, ...
... indole-3-carbinol) found in human diet was claimed by Dashwood et al. in 1989. Indole-3-carbinol induces a G1 growth arrest of ... a fact that can be used to design clinical trial to treat human patients with indole-3-carbinol in future. Indole-3-carbinol ... to determine if supplemental indole-3-carbinol has health benefits. Investigation of mechanisms by which consumption of indole- ... Overuse of indole-3-carbinol supplements in the hope of preventing cancer may be unwise, as the hormone balance should be ...
The Gassman indole synthesis is a series of chemical reactions used to synthesize substituted indoles by addition of an aniline ... Gassman, P. G.; van Bergen, T. J.; Gilbert, D. P.; Cue, Jr., B. W. (1974). "General method for the synthesis of indoles". J. Am ... Synthesis of indoles, oxindoles, and alkylated aromatic amines bearing cation stabilizing substituents". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 96 ( ... The 3-position thiomethyl group is often removed using Raney nickel to give the 3-H-indole. The reaction mechanism of the ...
3-disubstituted indoles. A practical one-pot reaction that can be useful for the creation of disubstituted indoles. Most ... the application of the Fukuyama Indole synthesis to create a disubstituted indole. In addition, the fukuyama reaction plays a ... The Fukuyama Indole synthesis can generate a range of different substituents at the 2,3 position that were previously ... The Fukuyama indole synthesis is a versatile tin mediated chemical reaction that results in the formation of 2, ...
The Leimgruber-Batcho indole synthesis gives similar flexibility and regiospecificity to indole derivatives. One advantage of ... which is difficult to do with the Leimgruber-Batcho indole synthesis. The reaction mechanism of the Bartoli indole synthesis is ... to give a dimagnesium indole salt (12). Reaction workup eliminates water and gives the final desired indole (13). Therefore, ... The Bartoli indole synthesis (also called the Bartoli reaction) is the chemical reaction of ortho-substituted nitroarenes and ...
... belongs to the class of organic compounds known as indoles. These are compounds containing an indole ... Indole-3-acetaldehyde is a substrate for retina-specific copper amine oxidase, aldehyde dehydrogenase X (mitochondrial), amine ... Nutaratat P, Srisuk N, Arunrattiyakorn P, Limtong S (2016). "Indole-3-acetic acid biosynthetic pathways in the basidiomycetous ...
The Reissert indole synthesis is a series of chemical reactions designed to synthesize indole or substituted-indoles (4 and 5) ... Leimgruber-Batcho indole synthesis Reissert, A. (1897). "Einwirkung von Oxalester und Natriumäthylat auf Nitrotoluole. Synthese ... V. The Structure of Certain Indole Derivatives Related to Gliotoxin1,2". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 67 (3): 423. doi:10.1021/ja01219a023 ... Butin, Alexander; Stroganova, Tatyana; Lodina, Irina; Krapivin, Gennady (2001). "Furan ring opening-indole ring closure: a new ...
The Larock indole synthesis is a heteroannulation reaction that uses palladium as a catalyst to synthesize indoles from an ... Indoles are one of the most prevalent heterocyclic structures found in biological processes, so the production of indole ... also derived 2- and 2,3-substituted indoles without using LiCl. The optimized Indole reaction uses 10% Pd/C (3.0 mol%) with 1.1 ... The reaction is extremely versatile and can be used to produce varying types of indoles. Larock indole synthesis was first ...
Other solid-phase indole syntheses were also reported, some of which use different scaffolds and metal catalysts to drive the ... There are also a variety of other reactions that result in the same indole skeleton. In a review article, Taber et al. ... The Nenitzescu indole synthesis is a chemical reaction that forms 5-hydroxyindole derivatives from benzoquinone and β- ... Huang, Yun-Sheng; Zhang, W.; Zhang, X.; Wang, J. (2010). "Manufacturing synthesis of 5-hydroxy-2-methyl-1H-indole". Research on ...
... (EC 1.14.13.137, BX2 (gene), CYP71C4 (gene)) is an enzyme with systematic name indole,NAD(P)H:oxygen ... Indole-2-monooxygenase at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Portal: Biology (Articles with ... H2O Indole-2-monooxygenase is involved in the biosynthesis of protective and allelopathic benzoxazinoids in some plants. Frey M ... oxidoreductase (2-hydroxylating). This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction indole + NAD(P)H + H+ + O2 ⇌ {\ ...
... (I3A), also known as indole-3-aldehyde and 3-formylindole, is a metabolite of dietary L-tryptophan which ... Indole-3-carbaldehyde has reactivity typical of aromatic aldehydes. It can is easily oxidized to indole-3-carboxylic acid. It ... Molecular mechanisms of action of indole and its metabolites on host physiology and disease Indole-3-carboxaldehyde. 11 ... Indole-3-propionic acid (IPA)] has previously been identified in the plasma and cerebrospinal fluid of humans, but its ...
Buu-Hoï Modified Indole Synthesis Blackhall and Thomson Modified Indole Synthesis Japp and Murray Modified Indole Synthesis The ... Fischer indole synthesis Bischler-Napieralski reaction "Bischler Indole Synthesis", Indole Ring Synthesis: From Natural ... The Bischler-Möhlau indole synthesis, also often referred to as the Bischler indole synthesis, is a chemical reaction that ... the general indole synthesis process was given the name Bischler-Möhlau indole synthesis. This original procedure for the ...
Bartoli indole synthesis Fischer indole synthesis Reissert indole synthesis ^ Batcho, A. D.; Leimgruber, W. U.S. Patent ... The Leimgruber-Batcho indole synthesis is a series of organic reactions that produce indoles from o-nitrotoluenes 1.[1][2][3] ... Many indoles are pharmacologically active, so a good indole synthesis is important for the pharmaceutical industry. The process ... Indole forming reactions, Carbon-heteroatom bond forming reactions, Name reactions). ...
... (6-API, 6-IT) is an indole derivative which was first identified being sold on the designer drug market ... "The effects of an indole derivative 692'-amino-propyl indole) on the general and coronary haemodynamics of the intact dog". ... This is the 5-isomer, 5-(2-aminopropyl)indole or 5-IT"[1]. Studies in dogs have also shown the drug to increase hemoglobin ... as indole rings are not included as rings under the 2-phenethylamine derived section of the NPsG. "New Psychoactive Substances ...
... is an indolequinone, a chemical compound found in the oxidative browning reaction of fruits like bananas ...
... indol-3-yl)pyruvate + NADPH + H+ + O2 ⇌ {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons } (indol-3-yl)acetate + NADP+ + H2O + CO2 Indole-3- ... Indole-3-pyruvate monooxygenase (EC 1.14.13.168, YUC2 (gene), spi1 (gene)) is an enzyme with systematic name indole-3-pyruvate, ... Indole-3-pyruvate+monooxygenase at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Portal: Biology v t e ... Zhao Y (March 2012). "Auxin biosynthesis: a simple two-step pathway converts tryptophan to indole-3-acetic acid in plants". ...
Sulphide Indole Motility (SIM) medium is a bacterial growth medium which tests for the ability to reduce sulfates, the ability ... to produce indoles, and motility. This combination of challenges in one mixture is convenient and commercially available in ...
In enzymology, an indole-3-acetaldehyde oxidase (EC 1.2.3.7) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction (indol-3-yl) ... indol-3-yl)acetaldehyde, H2O, and O2, whereas its two products are (indol-3-yl)acetate and H2O2. This enzyme belongs to the ... Koshiba T, Matsuyama H (1993). "An in Vitro System of Indole-3-Acetic Acid Formation from Tryptophan in Maize (Zea mays) ... The systematic name of this enzyme class is (indol-3-yl)acetaldehyde:oxygen oxidoreductase. Other names in common use include ...
The Baeyer-Emmerling indole synthesis is a method for synthesizing indole from a (substituted) ortho-nitrocinnamic acid and ... Decarboxylation gives indole. Baeyer-Drewson indigo synthesis Bayer, A.; Emmerling, A. (1869). "Synthese des indoles" [ ... Webarchive template wayback links, Ring forming reactions, Indole forming reactions, Organic reactions, Name reactions). ... Synthesis of indoles]. Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft. 2 (1): 679-682. doi:10.1002/cber.186900201268. Baeyer 5 ...
... (EC 4.1.1.92) is an enzyme with systematic name indole-3-carboxylate carboxy-lyase. This ... Indole-3-carboxylate+decarboxylase at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Portal: Biology (EC ... Yoshida T, Fujita K, Nagasawa T (November 2002). "Novel reversible indole-3-carboxylate decarboxylase catalyzing nonoxidative ... enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction indole-3-carboxylate ⇌ {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons } indole + CO2 This ...
Indole dioxygenase is not specific to indole but rather operates on a broad range of indole derivatives, including the amino ... Other names in common use include indole oxidase, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (ambiguous), indole:O2 oxidoreductase, indole- ... In enzymology, an indole 2,3-dioxygenase (EC 1.13.11.17) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction indole + O2 ⇌ {\ ... Nair PM; Vaidyanathan CS (1964). "An indole oxidase isolated from the leaves of Tecoma stans". Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 81 (3): ...
... indole ⇌ {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons } L-tryptophan + H2O This enzyme salvages the lost indole to L-tryptophan. Hettwer S ... Tryptophan synthase (indole-salvaging) (EC 4.2.1.122, tryptophan synthase beta2) is an enzyme with systematic name L-serine ... Tryptophan+synthase+(indole-salvaging) at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Portal: Biology ... hydro-lyase (adding indole, L-tryptophan-forming). This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction L-serine + ...
"1H-Indole-3-acetic acid" Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS). Page last updated:November 8, 2017. "Indole- ... Plants mainly produce IAA from tryptophan through indole-3-pyruvic acid. IAA is also produced from tryptophan through indole-3- ... Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA, 3-IAA) is the most common naturally occurring plant hormone of the auxin class. It is the best known ... Jeong YM, Oh MH, Kim SY, Li H, Yun HY, Baek KJ, Kwon NS, Kim WY, Kim DS (2010). "Indole-3-acetic acid/horseradish peroxidase ...
... (1H-indole-3-butanoic acid, IBA) is a white to light-yellow crystalline solid, with the molecular formula ... Ludwig-Müller, J. (2000). "Indole-3-butyric acid in plant growth and development". Plant Growth Regulation. Vol. 32, no. 2-3. ... 1.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Ludwig-Müller, J. (2000). "Indole-3-butyric acid in plant ... "Identification and characterization of Arabidopsis indole-3-butyric acid response mutants defective in novel peroxisomal ...
The Cadogan-Sundberg indole synthesis, or simply Cadogan indole synthesis, is a name reaction in organic chemistry that allows ... Gribble, Gordon W. (17 June 2016). "Cadogan-Sundberg Indole Synthesis". Indole Ring Synthesis: From Natural Products to Drug ... Li, Jie Jack (4 January 2014). "Cadogan-Sundberg indole synthesis". Indole Ring Synthesis: From Natural Products to Drug ... which reacts again with triethyl phosphite to form the indole. The Cadogan-Sundberg indole synthesis has been used as an ...
Bartoli indole synthesis Bischler-Möhlau indole synthesis Cadogan-Sundberg indole synthesis Fukuyama indole synthesis Gassman ... Indoles are susceptible to hydrogenation of the imine subunit. Indole-3-butyric acid Indole test Isoindole Isoindoline Martinet ... The Leimgruber-Batcho indole synthesis is an efficient method of synthesizing indole and substituted indoles. Originally ... For intracellular indole detection and measurement genetically encoded indole-responsive biosensor is applicable. Indoles and ...
2-posisjon litiasjon av indol. Oksidasjon av indol[rediger , rediger kilde]. Fordi indol er så rikt på elektroner, blir det ... I dette tilfellet er 2-aminofuran dienen mens indol er dienofilen. Eksempel på en sykloaddisjon av indol. Indol gjennomgår også ... Oksidasjon av indol av N-bromosuccinimid. Sykloaddisjoner av indol[rediger , rediger kilde]. Bare C-2- og C-3-pi-bindingene i ... Kjemiske reaksjoner med indol[rediger , rediger kilde]. Nitrogenbasiskhet[rediger , rediger kilde]. Selv om indol N-1 ...
Concepts related to Indole-3-carbinol. fast food cancer cancer prevention herbs chemotherapy prostate cancer red meat anti- ... Indole-3-Carbinol Nutrient in Broccoli Protects the Heart, Balances Cholesterol. 4/22/2008 - Researchers have identified a ...
... produce large quantities of indole, which is widespread in animal intestinal tracts and in the rhizosphere. Indole, as an ... Roles of indole as an interspecies and interkingdom signaling molecule Trends Microbiol. 2015 Nov;23(11):707-718. doi: 10.1016/ ... Indole, as an interspecies and interkingdom signaling molecule, plays important roles in bacterial pathogenesis and eukaryotic ... Indole modulates oxidative stress, intestinal inflammation, and hormone secretion in animals, and it controls plant defense ...
... Notice:The structure could not be displayed here becuse ...
... Molecular Formula: C17H15NO2 ...
1-[2-(2,3-Dihydro-indol-1-yl)-2-oxo-ethyl]-2-methyl-1H-indole-3-carbaldehyde. Catalog Number: 008517 ... Indoles. Ligands for Suzuki Coupling. Pyridinecarboxylic Acids. Pyridines. Pyrimidines. Sulfonyl Chlorides. Thiophenes, ... 2-(3-Formyl-indol-1-yl)-N-(tetrahydro-furan-2-ylmethyl)-acetamide. Catalog Number: 008310 ... 2-(3-Formyl-indol-1-yl)-N-(2-methoxy-ethyl)-acetamide. Catalog Number: 008309 ...
Schultes RE Indole alkaloids in plant hallucinogens Planta Med 1976 29(4):330-42 ... And it is to the presence of indole alkaloids that many of the most striking hallucinogenic plants owe their biodynamic ... Many psychoactive plants owe their activity to structures containing an indole nucleus. This nucleus is evident in the ... "Indole alkaloids in plant hallucinogens" Planta Med. 1976 Jun 01;29(4):330-42. ...
6-Ethyl-1H-indole-3-ethanamine *Molecular FormulaC12H16N2 ... 1H-Indole-3-ethanam. ine, 6-ethyl- [ACD/Index Name] 2-(6-Ethyl- ... 2-(6-Éthyl-1H-indol. -3-yl)éthanamine [French] [ACD/IUPAC Name] ... 2-(6-Ethyl-1H-indol. -3-yl)ethanamine [ACD/IUPAC Name] ... 1H-indol. -3-yl)ethanamin [German] [ACD/IUPAC Name] ...
... -. *Formula: C13H12N2O ... Other names: 6-Methoxy-1-methyl-9H-pyrido(3,4-b)indole; β- ...
... Ludwig T. Kaspar and Lutz Ackermann. *Institut fuer Organische und ... A three-component synthesis of substituted indoles starts from ortho-dihaloarenes through the use of a multicatalytic system ...
Indole test results with sulfur-indole-motility (SIM) agar. SIM medium is a bacterial growth medium that is designed to test ... Figure 2: Results of the indole test using sulfur-indole-motility medium. The positive indole result given by Escherichia coli ... Figure 1: Indole test results with sulfur-indole-motility (SIM) agar. SIM medium is a bacterial growth medium that is designed ... Figure 3: Result of the indole test using sulfur-indole-motility medium and Proteus vulgaris after a 24-hour incubation at 37C ...
Indole-3-Carbinol. Posted By elissa on Mar 12, 2009 , 0 comments ... Indole-3-carbinol (I3C) is the precursor to diindolylmethane ( ... Indole-3-carbinol (I3C) is the precursor to ...
methyl (2-(1H-indol-3-yl)ethyl. )carbamate *Molecular FormulaC12H14N2O2 ... 2-(1H-Indol-3-yl)é. thyl]carbamate de m. éthyle [French] [ACD/IUPAC Name] ... Methyl-[2-(1H-indol. -3-yl)ethyl]carbamat [German] [ACD/IUPAC Name] ... Methyl [2-(1H-indol. -3-yl)ethyl]carbama. te [ACD/IUPAC Name] ... 1H-indol-3-yl)eth. yl]-, methyl ester [ACD/Index Name] methyl ( ...
1H-INDOLE-3-CARBOXYLIC ACID; Formula=C9H7NO2; InChI=1S/C9H7NO2/c11-9(12)7-5-10-8-4-2-1-3-6(7)8/h1-5,10H,(H,11,12); InChIKey= ... COL2A1 protein co-treated with Freunds Adjuvant] results in increased abundance of indole-3-carboxylic acid. CTD. PMID: ... An indole-3-carboxylic acid carrying a carboxy group at position 3. ... 5-(6-O-malonyl-beta-D-glucosyloxy)-indole-3-carboxylic acid. 0. ... indole-3-carboxylic acid. go back to main search page Accession ...
High indole levels in frozen shrimp can be considered an indicator of poor product quality prior to freezing and thus of ... The effect of various process parameters on the presence of indole in shrimps is reviewed in relation to the FDA action levels ... A number of bacteria has been identified as in-dole positive but only a few (Escherichia coli, Proteus (P.) vulgaris and P. ... However, a low content of indole does not necessarily imply a good quality. Taking into account the results from the limited ...
Effects of Brassica or Indole-3-carbinol in Prostectomy Patients with PSA Recurrence. ... comparing the effects of Brassica consumption and indole-3-carbinol supplements on PSA among prostate cancer patients with PSA ...
... Molecular Formula: C20H20BrN3O4 ... 5-bromo-N-[(1-butyl-5-methoxy-2-oxo-indol-3-ylidene)amino]-2-hydroxy-benzamide ...
... , G. Arora, S. Sharma1*, T. Sahni and P. ... It may be concluded that the indoles and benzimidazoles possessed antioxidant activity. Indoles showed better antioxidant ... Indoles and benzimidazoles are very popular nitrogen containing heterocycles. Indoles have bicyclic structure having benzene ... Most effective indole was Va with para nitro substitution on phenyl ring followed by IIIa and Ia. The only meta substituted ...
Indole derivatives, microbiome and graft versus host disease.. Qayed M, Michonneau D, Socié G, Waller EK. Indole derivatives, ...
The resulting indoles can easily be transformed into other scaffolds, including 2,3- and 1,2-fused indoles, and indoles ... A Br nsted acid-catalyzed one-pot synthesis of indoles from o-aminobenzyl alcohols and furans via in situ formation of ... Br nsted Acid-Catalyzed One-Pot Synthesis of Indoles from o-Aminobenzyl Alcohols and Furans. Alexey Kuznetsov, Anton Makarov, ... aminobenzylfuran followed by its recyclization into the indole core proved to be efficient for a wide range of substrates. ...
Synthesis of only benzene ring functionalized indoles and poly-substituted carbazoles is reported via a one-pot triple cascade ... A one-pot "back-to-front" approach for the synthesis of benzene ring substituted indoles using allylboronic acids† ... A one-pot "back-to-front" approach for the synthesis of benzene ring substituted indoles using allylboronic acids G. Karan, S. ... Synthesis of only benzene ring functionalized indoles and poly-substituted carbazoles is reported via a one-pot triple cascade ...
Shop for Solaray Indole-3-Carbinol Capsules 100 mg (30 ct) at Frys Food Stores. Find quality health products to add to your ... Indole 3 Carbinol , Broccoli , Brussel Sprouts , Cabbage , Cauliflower , Kale . Other Ingredients : Gelatin Capsule and ...
... Molecular Formula: C18H17BrN2OS ... 2-bromo-N-[2-[(2-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)sulfanyl]ethyl]benzamide ...
2-Butyl-1H-indol-5-YL)-4-isopropylbenzenesulfonamide , C21H26N2O2S , CID 71425023 - structure, chemical names, physical and ...
Ten indole alkaloids were obtained from the marine sponge-associated fungus Neosartorya siamensis KUFA 0017. We studied the ... Ten indole alkaloids were obtained from the marine sponge-associated fungus Neosartorya siamensis KUFA 0017. We studied the ... Neofiscalin A and fiscalin C are potential novel indole alkaloid alternatives for the treatment of multidrug-resistant Gram- ...
Hydrogen peroxide-dependent oxidation of indole producing indigo has been catalyzed by engineered myoglobins (Mbs). We have ... from indole J. Xu, O. Shoji, T. Fujishiro, T. Ohki, T. Ueno and Y. Watanabe, Catal. Sci. Technol., 2012, 2, 739 DOI: 10.1039/ ... indole. binding. The kcat of the H64D/V68I/I107A mutant achieved 72 min−1, indicating that even Mb can be transformed into a ... indole. producing indigo. has been catalyzed by engineered myoglobins. (Mbs). We have investigated a series of H64D mutants of ...
Dihydrobenzofuran, Indole, Nitrostyrene, Reductive cyclization Abstract. The development of a long-term manufacturing route to ... A General Approach to Indoles: Practical Applications for the Synthesis of Highly Functionalized Pharmacophores Authors. * ... and selective KDR kinase inhibitor has led to the discovery of several novel methodologies for the general synthesis of indoles ... indole-4-carboxylic amides, N-hydroxyindoles, and 2,3-dihydrobenzofurans. ...
  • Substituted indoles are structural elements of (and for some compounds, the synthetic precursors for) the tryptophan-derived tryptamine alkaloids, which includes the neurotransmitter serotonin and the hormone melatonin, as well as the naturally occurring psychedelic drugs dimethyltryptamine and psilocybin. (wikipedia.org)
  • In the 1930s, interest in indole intensified when it became known that the indole substituent is present in many important alkaloids, known as indole alkaloids (e.g., tryptophan and auxins), and it remains an active area of research today. (wikipedia.org)
  • "Indole alkaloids in plant hallucinogens" Planta Med . (erowid.org)
  • Ten indole alkaloids were obtained from the marine sponge-associated fungus Neosartorya siamensis KUFA 0017. (nih.gov)
  • Certain indole derivatives were important dyestuffs until the end of the 19th century. (wikipedia.org)
  • A number of indole derivatives have important cellular functions, including neurotransmitters such as serotonin. (wikipedia.org)
  • Indole and its derivatives can also be synthesized by a variety of methods. (wikipedia.org)
  • Furthermore, indole and its derivatives are viewed as potential antivirulence compounds against antibiotic-resistant pathogens because of their ability to inhibit quorum sensing and virulence factor production. (nih.gov)
  • This review presents current knowledge regarding indole and its derivatives, their biotechnological applications and their role in prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems. (nih.gov)
  • Indole derivatives are obtained as single regioisomers in high yields. (organic-chemistry.org)
  • Various 2-phenyl-1H-indoles and benzimidazole derivatives have been tested for total antioxidant capacity by phosphomolybednum reduction method and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazide free radical scavenging activity. (ijpsonline.com)
  • The present study was focused on evaluating substituted indole and benzimidazole derivatives ( Table 1 ) for total antioxidant capacity (TAC), free radical scavenging and antimicrobial activity. (ijpsonline.com)
  • Indole derivatives, microbiome and graft versus host disease. (stembook.org)
  • Indole derivatives have been mostly reported to demonstrate significant activities such as analgesics, anti-inflammatory agents, antifungals, antiarrhythmic agents, and inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase. (civilica.com)
  • The metabolites of note included small fatty acids such as decanoic and octanoic acid, amino acids such as serine and 1H-indole-3-acetic acid, and sugar derivatives such as glycerol. (medscape.com)
  • A Br nsted acid-catalyzed one-pot synthesis of indoles from o -aminobenzyl alcohols and furans via in situ formation of aminobenzylfuran followed by its recyclization into the indole core proved to be efficient for a wide range of substrates. (organic-chemistry.org)
  • The development of a long-term manufacturing route to a potent and selective KDR kinase inhibitor has led to the discovery of several novel methodologies for the general synthesis of indoles. (chimia.ch)
  • Then, in 1866, Adolf von Baeyer reduced oxindole to indole using zinc dust. (wikipedia.org)
  • Så, i 1866 reduserte Adolf von Baeyer oxindol til indol ved hjelp av sinkstøv . (wikipedia.org)
  • Indole is widely distributed in the natural environment and can be produced by a variety of bacteria. (wikipedia.org)
  • A number of bacteria, and some plants, produce large quantities of indole, which is widespread in animal intestinal tracts and in the rhizosphere. (nih.gov)
  • Indoles also present in naturally occurring compounds like dimethyltryptamine (hallucinogen), tryptophan (amino acid) and melatonin [ 16 ] (antioxidant as free radical scavenger). (ijpsonline.com)
  • Hydrogen peroxide-dependent oxidation of indole producing indigo has been catalyzed by engineered myoglobins (Mbs). (rsc.org)
  • The hydrogen bond increases the cyclopropane's electrophilicity permitting indole nucleophiles to open the ring. (uwo.ca)
  • Hydrogen bond activation of donor-acceptor cyclopropanes was successful in generating a multitude of functional indole products in high yields. (uwo.ca)
  • This method incorporates a two-tube system, whereupon, one tube tests for hydrogen sulfide production, phenylalanine deaminase, lysine decarboxylase, lactose utilization, and gas production from glucose, and the other tube tests for indole production, ornithine decarboxylase, and motility. (cdc.gov)
  • One of the oldest and most reliable methods for synthesizing substituted indoles is the Fischer indole synthesis, developed in 1883 by Emil Fischer. (wikipedia.org)
  • The amino acid tryptophan is an indole derivative and the precursor of the neurotransmitter serotonin. (wikipedia.org)
  • The catalytic activity of mutants depends on the amino acids at 68 and 107 positions and the H64D/V68I/I107A mutant gave the highest catalytic activity, suggesting that the side chains of Ile-68 and Ala-107 provide a hydrophobic environment suitable for indole binding. (rsc.org)
  • Cruciferous vegetables contain an active compound known as indole-3-carbinol. (frysfood.com)
  • Indole-3-carbinol (I3C) is the precursor to diindolylmethane (DIM) - to which it is rapidly metabolized in vivo . (ultimatefatburner.com)
  • Method one involves radicals to cyclize an additional ring to an indole precursor. (uwo.ca)
  • These included decanoic acid, octanoic acid, glycerol serine, and 1H-Indole-3-acetic acid. (medscape.com)
  • Synthesis of only benzene ring functionalized indoles and poly-substituted carbazoles is reported via a one-pot triple cascade benzannulation protocol. (rsc.org)
  • Application of this methodology has led to the synthesis of highly functionalized pharmacophores including other KDR kinase inhibitors, biindoles and tjipanazole natural products, indolo[2,3-a]pyrrolo [3,4-c]carbazoles, indole-4-carboxylic amides, N-hydroxyindoles, and 2,3-dihydrobenzofurans. (chimia.ch)
  • En av de eldste og mest pålitelige metoder for å syntetisere substituerte indoler er Fischer indolsyntese som ble utviklet i 1883 av Emil Fischer . (wikipedia.org)
  • Indole is an aromatic, heterocyclic, organic compound with the formula C8H7N. (wikipedia.org)
  • A three-component synthesis of substituted indoles starts from ortho -dihaloarenes through the use of a multicatalytic system consisting of an N -heterocyclic carbene palladium complex and CuI. (organic-chemistry.org)
  • Deltakelsen av et enslig elektronpar av nitrogen i den aromatiske ringen medfører at indol ikke er en base , og det oppfører seg ikke som et usammensatt amin . (wikipedia.org)
  • Indoles and benzimidazoles are very popular nitrogen containing heterocycles. (ijpsonline.com)
  • Common classical methods applied for the detection of extracellular and environmental indoles, are Salkowski, Kovács, Ehrlich's reagent assays and HPLC. (wikipedia.org)
  • High pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection seems to be the most effective analytical method for the determination of indole. (nofima.no)
  • 1H-Indole-3-carboxaldehyde can be analyzed by this reverse phase (RP) HPLC method with simple conditions. (sielc.com)
  • The name indole is a portmanteau of the words indigo and oleum, since indole was first isolated by treatment of the indigo dye with oleum. (wikipedia.org)
  • Navnet indol er avledet fra en kombinasjon av ordene ind igo og ol eum fordi indol til å begynne med ble isolert gjennom behandling av indigofargestoff med oleum. (wikipedia.org)
  • In 1869, he proposed a formula for indole. (wikipedia.org)
  • [1] I 1869 foreslo han formelen til indol (til venstre) som i dag er akseptert. (wikipedia.org)
  • Figure 1: Indole test results with sulfur-indole-motility (SIM) agar. (asm.org)
  • Figure 2: Results of the indole test using sulfur-indole-motility medium. (asm.org)
  • Figure 6: Reactions on sulfide-indole-motility (SIM) medium. (asm.org)
  • Isatin is an indole derivative first obtained by Erdman and Laurent in 1841 as an oxidation product of Indigo dye with nitric acid and chromic acids. (drugbank.com)
  • Chapter 3 outlines the application of single electron transfer agent, Mn(OAc) 3 , to isolate 1,2-annulated indoles in a one-pot procedure. (uwo.ca)
  • The basis of the preference of indole-3-tetrazole for TIR1 was revealed to be a single residue substitution using molecular docking, and assays using tir1 and afb5 mutant lines confirmed selectivity in vivo. (whiterose.ac.uk)
  • Indole, as an interspecies and interkingdom signaling molecule, plays important roles in bacterial pathogenesis and eukaryotic immunity. (nih.gov)
  • Cp*Co III =a Co III complex with one Cp* ligand and other coordinating ligand(s), such as C 6 H 6 , a base (OAc), or a substrate (imine or a pyrimidine unit in indoles). (wiley.com)
  • Indole chemistry began to develop with the study of the dye indigo. (wikipedia.org)
  • Important as a component of many pharmaceuticals, indole is a biological molecule found throughout the natural world. (uwo.ca)
  • Indole is biosynthesized in the shikimate pathway via anthranilate. (wikipedia.org)
  • The focus was on two particular enzymes, nitrilase and nitrile hydratase which participate in the indole-3-acetonitrile pathway. (uwaterloo.ca)
  • Toxicologic analysis of product samples and clinical specimens (available from seven cases) identified a fluorinated SC previously unreported in synthetic marijuana products: (1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl)(2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropyl) methanone, also known as XLR-11, in four of five product samples and four of six patients' clinical specimens. (cdc.gov)
  • For intracellular indole detection and measurement genetically encoded indole-responsive biosensor is applicable. (wikipedia.org)
  • Various analytical procedures for the measurement of indole are evaluated. (nofima.no)
  • The effect of various process parameters on the presence of indole in shrimps is reviewed in relation to the FDA action levels for indole in shrimps of 25 mu g/100 g and 50 mu g/100 g, respectively. (nofima.no)
  • Originally disclosed in a patent in 1976, this method is high-yielding and can generate substituted indoles. (wikipedia.org)
  • Metoden som opprinnelig ble avslørt i en patent i 1976 gir høy avkastning og kan generere substituerte indoler. (wikipedia.org)
  • Indoles of commercial importance include drugs such as indomethacin (antiinflammatory, an antipyretic and an analgesic) and indoxole (an antiinflammatory and antipyretic drug). (ijpsonline.com)
  • The research in this thesis outlines two new methods for the synthesis of further functionalized indole products. (uwo.ca)
  • The SAR shows that 3-piperidin-4-yl-1H-indole is intolerant to most N-piperidinyl modifications. (unl.pt)
  • Many psychoactive plants owe their activity to structures containing an indole nucleus. (erowid.org)
  • Tube 2: Indole production. (asm.org)
  • One of the most prominent and important of these mechanisms is the production of the plant hormone indole-3-acetic acid. (uwaterloo.ca)
  • Indole can still be synthesized, however, using the Fischer indole synthesis by reacting phenylhydrazine with pyruvic acid followed by decarboxylation of the formed indole-2-carboxylic acid. (wikipedia.org)
  • An indole-3-carboxylic acid carrying a carboxy group at position 3. (mcw.edu)
  • IAA (Indole-3-Acetic Acid) is the abundant and well known plant hormone of the auxin class. (goldbio.com)
  • In this study, four different levels of Indole-3- Butyric Acid (IBA) concentration (0, 1000, 1500 and 2000 mg L-1) and three rooting media ( sphagnum moss , vermicompost and garden soil ) were applied after removal of bark ( phloem ) on the shoot to determine the effect on rooting and survivability of the wax apple air layer under field conditions. (bvsalud.org)
  • In this paper, harmonic vibrational frequencies, molecular structure, NBO and HOMO, LUMO analysis and detonation properties of (E)-2-Bromo-1-[2-(2-nitrostyryl)-1-phenylsulfonyl-1H-indol-3-yl] ethanone is calculated. (civilica.com)
  • Then the same calculations are done for the indole structure and are compared with the (E)-2-Bromo-1-[2-(2-nitrostyryl)-1-phenylsulfonyl-1H-indol-3-yl]ethanone calculations. (civilica.com)
  • The Leimgruber-Batcho indole synthesis is an efficient method of synthesizing indole and substituted indoles. (wikipedia.org)
  • This method is especially popular in the pharmaceutical industry, where many pharmaceutical drugs are made up of specifically substituted indoles. (wikipedia.org)
  • Method two functionalizes indoles by reacting them with strained three-membered ring molecules called cyclopropanes. (uwo.ca)
  • The result is 3-postion functionalized indoles. (uwo.ca)
  • High indole levels in frozen shrimp can be considered an indicator of poor product quality prior to freezing and thus of hygienic practices far away from Good Hygienic Practice (GHP). (nofima.no)
  • Indoles exhibited better antibacterial activity compared to benzimidazoles. (ijpsonline.com)
  • Temperature abuse is an important critical process parameter for the formation of indole. (nofima.no)
  • Indole modulates oxidative stress, intestinal inflammation, and hormone secretion in animals, and it controls plant defense systems and growth. (nih.gov)
  • By applying bio-isosteric replacement we discovered that indole-3-tetrazole was active by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectrometry, showing that the tetrazole could initiate assembly of the TIR1 auxin co-receptor complex. (whiterose.ac.uk)
  • A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blinded pilot trial was conducted, comparing the effects of Brassica consumption and indole-3-carbinol supplements on PSA among prostate cancer patients with PSA recurrence following prostectomy. (aicr.org)
  • Oxyphenisatin acetate is the pro-drug of oxyphenisatin (3,3-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1H-indol-2-one). (drugbank.com)
  • However, a low content of indole does not necessarily imply a good quality. (nofima.no)
  • In this paper the processing of shrimp is described and microbial formation of indole is discussed. (nofima.no)
  • Other precursors to indole include formyltoluidine, 2-ethylaniline, and 2-(2-nitrophenyl)ethanol, all of which undergo cyclizations. (wikipedia.org)