A technique that localizes specific nucleic acid sequences within intact chromosomes, eukaryotic cells, or bacterial cells through the use of specific nucleic acid-labeled probes.
A type of IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION in which target sequences are stained with fluorescent dye so their location and size can be determined using fluorescence microscopy. This staining is sufficiently distinct that the hybridization signal can be seen both in metaphase spreads and in interphase nuclei.
Widely used technique which exploits the ability of complementary sequences in single-stranded DNAs or RNAs to pair with each other to form a double helix. Hybridization can take place between two complimentary DNA sequences, between a single-stranded DNA and a complementary RNA, or between two RNA sequences. The technique is used to detect and isolate specific sequences, measure homology, or define other characteristics of one or both strands. (Kendrew, Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, 1994, p503)
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Species- or subspecies-specific DNA (including COMPLEMENTARY DNA; conserved genes, whole chromosomes, or whole genomes) used in hybridization studies in order to identify microorganisms, to measure DNA-DNA homologies, to group subspecies, etc. The DNA probe hybridizes with a specific mRNA, if present. Conventional techniques used for testing for the hybridization product include dot blot assays, Southern blot assays, and DNA:RNA hybrid-specific antibody tests. Conventional labels for the DNA probe include the radioisotope labels 32P and 125I and the chemical label biotin. The use of DNA probes provides a specific, sensitive, rapid, and inexpensive replacement for cell culture techniques for diagnosing infections.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
RNA, usually prepared by transcription from cloned DNA, which complements a specific mRNA or DNA and is generally used for studies of virus genes, distribution of specific RNA in tissues and cells, integration of viral DNA into genomes, transcription, etc. Whereas DNA PROBES are preferred for use at a more macroscopic level for detection of the presence of DNA/RNA from specific species or subspecies, RNA probes are preferred for genetic studies. Conventional labels for the RNA probe include radioisotope labels 32P and 125I and the chemical label biotin. RNA probes may be further divided by category into plus-sense RNA probes, minus-sense RNA probes, and antisense RNA probes.
The genetic process of crossbreeding between genetically dissimilar parents to produce a hybrid.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
3 beta,12 beta,14-Trihydroxy-5 beta-card-20(22)-enolide. A cardenolide which is the aglycon of digoxin. Can be obtained by hydrolysis of digoxin or from Digitalis orientalis L. and Digitalis lanata Ehrh.
The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.
The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.
Synthetic or natural oligonucleotides used in hybridization studies in order to identify and study specific nucleic acid fragments, e.g., DNA segments near or within a specific gene locus or gene. The probe hybridizes with a specific mRNA, if present. Conventional techniques used for testing for the hybridization product include dot blot assays, Southern blot assays, and DNA:RNA hybrid-specific antibody tests. Conventional labels for the probe include the radioisotope labels 32P and 125I and the chemical label biotin.
Abnormal number or structure of chromosomes. Chromosome aberrations may result in CHROMOSOME DISORDERS.
Detection of RNA that has been electrophoretically separated and immobilized by blotting on nitrocellulose or other type of paper or nylon membrane followed by hybridization with labeled NUCLEIC ACID PROBES.
Any method used for determining the location of and relative distances between genes on a chromosome.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A method for comparing two sets of chromosomal DNA by analyzing differences in the copy number and location of specific sequences. It is used to look for large sequence changes such as deletions, duplications, amplifications, or translocations.
A selective increase in the number of copies of a gene coding for a specific protein without a proportional increase in other genes. It occurs naturally via the excision of a copy of the repeating sequence from the chromosome and its extrachromosomal replication in a plasmid, or via the production of an RNA transcript of the entire repeating sequence of ribosomal RNA followed by the reverse transcription of the molecule to produce an additional copy of the original DNA sequence. Laboratory techniques have been introduced for inducing disproportional replication by unequal crossing over, uptake of DNA from lysed cells, or generation of extrachromosomal sequences from rolling circle replication.
Mapping of the KARYOTYPE of a cell.
Single-stranded complementary DNA synthesized from an RNA template by the action of RNA-dependent DNA polymerase. cDNA (i.e., complementary DNA, not circular DNA, not C-DNA) is used in a variety of molecular cloning experiments as well as serving as a specific hybridization probe.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action during the developmental stages of an organism.
Staining of bands, or chromosome segments, allowing the precise identification of individual chromosomes or parts of chromosomes. Applications include the determination of chromosome rearrangements in malformation syndromes and cancer, the chemistry of chromosome segments, chromosome changes during evolution, and, in conjunction with cell hybridization studies, chromosome mapping.
A type of chromosome aberration characterized by CHROMOSOME BREAKAGE and transfer of the broken-off portion to another location, often to a different chromosome.
A lesion with cytological characteristics associated with invasive carcinoma but the tumor cells are confined to the epithelium of origin, without invasion of the basement membrane.
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
A method (first developed by E.M. Southern) for detection of DNA that has been electrophoretically separated and immobilized by blotting on nitrocellulose or other type of paper or nylon membrane followed by hybridization with labeled NUCLEIC ACID PROBES.
Constituent of 30S subunit prokaryotic ribosomes containing 1600 nucleotides and 21 proteins. 16S rRNA is involved in initiation of polypeptide synthesis.
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
The chromosomal constitution of cells which deviate from the normal by the addition or subtraction of CHROMOSOMES, chromosome pairs, or chromosome fragments. In a normally diploid cell (DIPLOIDY) the loss of a chromosome pair is termed nullisomy (symbol: 2N-2), the loss of a single chromosome is MONOSOMY (symbol: 2N-1), the addition of a chromosome pair is tetrasomy (symbol: 2N+2), the addition of a single chromosome is TRISOMY (symbol: 2N+1).
A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.
DNA sequences encoding RIBOSOMAL RNA and the segments of DNA separating the individual ribosomal RNA genes, referred to as RIBOSOMAL SPACER DNA.
Accumulation of a drug or chemical substance in various organs (including those not relevant to its pharmacologic or therapeutic action). This distribution depends on the blood flow or perfusion rate of the organ, the ability of the drug to penetrate organ membranes, tissue specificity, protein binding. The distribution is usually expressed as tissue to plasma ratios.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of bacteria.
The number of copies of a given gene present in the cell of an organism. An increase in gene dosage (by GENE DUPLICATION for example) can result in higher levels of gene product formation. GENE DOSAGE COMPENSATION mechanisms result in adjustments to the level GENE EXPRESSION when there are changes or differences in gene dosage.
Hybridization of a nucleic acid sample to a very large set of OLIGONUCLEOTIDE PROBES, which have been attached individually in columns and rows to a solid support, to determine a BASE SEQUENCE, or to detect variations in a gene sequence, GENE EXPRESSION, or for GENE MAPPING.
A technique that labels specific sequences in whole chromosomes by in situ DNA chain elongation or PCR (polymerase chain reaction).
The degree of similarity between sequences of amino acids. This information is useful for the analyzing genetic relatedness of proteins and species.
The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.
Short sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) of DNA that are complementary to sequences of messenger RNA and allow reverse transcriptases to start copying the adjacent sequences of mRNA. Primers are used extensively in genetic and molecular biology techniques.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
A specific pair of human chromosomes in group A (CHROMOSOMES, HUMAN, 1-3) of the human chromosome classification.
A specific pair of GROUP E CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
A large collection of DNA fragments cloned (CLONING, MOLECULAR) from a given organism, tissue, organ, or cell type. It may contain complete genomic sequences (GENOMIC LIBRARY) or complementary DNA sequences, the latter being formed from messenger RNA and lacking intron sequences.
The infiltrating of tissue specimens with paraffin, as a supporting substance, to prepare for sectioning with a microtome.
A specific pair of GROUP C CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
Nucleic acid which complements a specific mRNA or DNA molecule, or fragment thereof; used for hybridization studies in order to identify microorganisms and for genetic studies.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
The determination of the pattern of genes expressed at the level of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION, under specific circumstances or in a specific cell.
Characteristic restricted to a particular organ of the body, such as a cell type, metabolic response or expression of a particular protein or antigen.
A polynucleotide consisting essentially of chains with a repeating backbone of phosphate and ribose units to which nitrogenous bases are attached. RNA is unique among biological macromolecules in that it can encode genetic information, serve as an abundant structural component of cells, and also possesses catalytic activity. (Rieger et al., Glossary of Genetics: Classical and Molecular, 5th ed)
Examination of CHROMOSOMES to diagnose, classify, screen for, or manage genetic diseases and abnormalities. Following preparation of the sample, KARYOTYPING is performed and/or the specific chromosomes are analyzed.
Actual loss of portion of a chromosome.
A specific pair of GROUP C CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
DNA analogs containing neutral amide backbone linkages composed of aminoethyl glycine units instead of the usual phosphodiester linkage of deoxyribose groups. Peptide nucleic acids have high biological stability and higher affinity for complementary DNA or RNA sequences than analogous DNA oligomers.
The sequential correspondence of nucleotides in one nucleic acid molecule with those of another nucleic acid molecule. Sequence homology is an indication of the genetic relatedness of different organisms and gene function.
The erbB-2 gene is a proto-oncogene that codes for the erbB-2 receptor (RECEPTOR, ERBB-2), a protein with structural features similar to the epidermal growth factor receptor. Its name originates from the viral oncogene homolog (v-erbB) which is a truncated form of the chicken erbB gene found in the avian erythroblastosis virus. Overexpression and amplification of the gene is associated with a significant number of adenocarcinomas. The human c-erbB-2 gene is located at 17q21.2.
A specific pair of GROUP C CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
A category of nucleic acid sequences that function as units of heredity and which code for the basic instructions for the development, reproduction, and maintenance of organisms.
A specific pair of GROUP C CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
The male sex chromosome, being the differential sex chromosome carried by half the male gametes and none of the female gametes in humans and in some other male-heterogametic species in which the homologue of the X chromosome has been retained.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
The interval between two successive CELL DIVISIONS during which the CHROMOSOMES are not individually distinguishable. It is composed of the G phases (G1 PHASE; G0 PHASE; G2 PHASE) and S PHASE (when DNA replication occurs).
Very long DNA molecules and associated proteins, HISTONES, and non-histone chromosomal proteins (CHROMOSOMAL PROTEINS, NON-HISTONE). Normally 46 chromosomes, including two sex chromosomes are found in the nucleus of human cells. They carry the hereditary information of the individual.
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
The making of a radiograph of an object or tissue by recording on a photographic plate the radiation emitted by radioactive material within the object. (Dorland, 27th ed)
A subdiscipline of genetics which deals with the cytological and molecular analysis of the CHROMOSOMES, and location of the GENES on chromosomes, and the movements of chromosomes during the CELL CYCLE.
Morphological and physiological development of EMBRYOS or FETUSES.
A technique for visualizing CHROMOSOME ABERRATIONS using fluorescently labeled DNA probes which are hybridized to chromosomal DNA. Multiple fluorochromes may be attached to the probes. Upon hybridization, this produces a multicolored, or painted, effect with a unique color at each site of hybridization. This technique may also be used to identify cross-species homology by labeling probes from one species for hybridization with chromosomes from another species.
The ordered rearrangement of gene regions by DNA recombination such as that which occurs normally during development.
The use of devices which use detector molecules to detect, investigate, or analyze other molecules, macromolecules, molecular aggregates, or organisms.
A specific pair of GROUP D CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
A specific pair of GROUP E CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.
Clinical conditions caused by an abnormal chromosome constitution in which there is extra or missing chromosome material (either a whole chromosome or a chromosome segment). (from Thompson et al., Genetics in Medicine, 5th ed, p429)
The arrangement of two or more amino acid or base sequences from an organism or organisms in such a way as to align areas of the sequences sharing common properties. The degree of relatedness or homology between the sequences is predicted computationally or statistically based on weights assigned to the elements aligned between the sequences. This in turn can serve as a potential indicator of the genetic relatedness between the organisms.
DNA constructs that are composed of, at least, a REPLICATION ORIGIN, for successful replication, propagation to and maintenance as an extra chromosome in bacteria. In addition, they can carry large amounts (about 200 kilobases) of other sequence for a variety of bioengineering purposes.
Ribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
Immunologic techniques based on the use of: (1) enzyme-antibody conjugates; (2) enzyme-antigen conjugates; (3) antienzyme antibody followed by its homologous enzyme; or (4) enzyme-antienzyme complexes. These are used histologically for visualizing or labeling tissue specimens.
In a prokaryotic cell or in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell, a structure consisting of or containing DNA which carries the genetic information essential to the cell. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process.
Use of restriction endonucleases to analyze and generate a physical map of genomes, genes, or other segments of DNA.
A specific pair of human chromosomes in group A (CHROMOSOMES, HUMAN, 1-3) of the human chromosome classification.
The technique of using FIXATIVES in the preparation of cytologic, histologic, or pathologic specimens for the purpose of maintaining the existing form and structure of all the constituent elements.
A specific pair of GROUP D CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
Ribonucleic acid in bacteria having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.
The phase of cell nucleus division following PROMETAPHASE, in which the CHROMOSOMES line up across the equatorial plane of the SPINDLE APPARATUS prior to separation.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
An exotic species of the family CYPRINIDAE, originally from Asia, that has been introduced in North America. They are used in embryological studies and to study the effects of certain chemicals on development.
DNA present in neoplastic tissue.
The possession of a third chromosome of any one type in an otherwise diploid cell.
A cell surface protein-tyrosine kinase receptor that is overexpressed in a variety of ADENOCARCINOMAS. It has extensive homology to and heterodimerizes with the EGF RECEPTOR, the ERBB-3 RECEPTOR, and the ERBB-4 RECEPTOR. Activation of the erbB-2 receptor occurs through heterodimer formation with a ligand-bound erbB receptor family member.
Nucleic acids which hybridize to complementary sequences in other target nucleic acids causing the function of the latter to be affected.
The developmental entity of a fertilized egg (ZYGOTE) in animal species other than MAMMALS. For chickens, use CHICK EMBRYO.
The entity of a developing mammal (MAMMALS), generally from the cleavage of a ZYGOTE to the end of embryonic differentiation of basic structures. For the human embryo, this represents the first two months of intrauterine development preceding the stages of the FETUS.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
A specific pair of GROUP C CHROMSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
A phenotypically recognizable genetic trait which can be used to identify a genetic locus, a linkage group, or a recombination event.
The clear constricted portion of the chromosome at which the chromatids are joined and by which the chromosome is attached to the spindle during cell division.
The male gonad containing two functional parts: the SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES for the production and transport of male germ cells (SPERMATOGENESIS) and the interstitial compartment containing LEYDIG CELLS that produce ANDROGENS.
The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (EMBRYOS or FETUSES) in utero before birth, beginning from FERTILIZATION to BIRTH.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
One or more layers of EPITHELIAL CELLS, supported by the basal lamina, which covers the inner or outer surfaces of the body.
A specific pair of GROUP G CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
Colorless, endogenous or exogenous pigment precursors that may be transformed by biological mechanisms into colored compounds; used in biochemical assays and in diagnosis as indicators, especially in the form of enzyme substrates. Synonym: chromogens (not to be confused with pigment-synthesizing bacteria also called chromogens).
The female sex chromosome, being the differential sex chromosome carried by half the male gametes and all female gametes in human and other male-heterogametic species.
Any cell, other than a ZYGOTE, that contains elements (such as NUCLEI and CYTOPLASM) from two or more different cells, usually produced by artificial CELL FUSION.
Proteins which bind to DNA. The family includes proteins which bind to both double- and single-stranded DNA and also includes specific DNA binding proteins in serum which can be used as markers for malignant diseases.
Within a eukaryotic cell, a membrane-limited body which contains chromosomes and one or more nucleoli (CELL NUCLEOLUS). The nuclear membrane consists of a double unit-type membrane which is perforated by a number of pores; the outermost membrane is continuous with the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM. A cell may contain more than one nucleus. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
Tumors or cancer of the human BREAST.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
The developmental entity of a fertilized chicken egg (ZYGOTE). The developmental process begins about 24 h before the egg is laid at the BLASTODISC, a small whitish spot on the surface of the EGG YOLK. After 21 days of incubation, the embryo is fully developed before hatching.
Plasmids containing at least one cos (cohesive-end site) of PHAGE LAMBDA. They are used as cloning vehicles.
The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the NERVOUS SYSTEM.
A set of genes descended by duplication and variation from some ancestral gene. Such genes may be clustered together on the same chromosome or dispersed on different chromosomes. Examples of multigene families include those that encode the hemoglobins, immunoglobulins, histocompatibility antigens, actins, tubulins, keratins, collagens, heat shock proteins, salivary glue proteins, chorion proteins, cuticle proteins, yolk proteins, and phaseolins, as well as histones, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA genes. The latter three are examples of reiterated genes, where hundreds of identical genes are present in a tandem array. (King & Stanfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
One of the three domains of life (the others being Eukarya and ARCHAEA), also called Eubacteria. They are unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms which generally possess rigid cell walls, multiply by cell division, and exhibit three principal forms: round or coccal, rodlike or bacillary, and spiral or spirochetal. Bacteria can be classified by their response to OXYGEN: aerobic, anaerobic, or facultatively anaerobic; by the mode by which they obtain their energy: chemotrophy (via chemical reaction) or PHOTOTROPHY (via light reaction); for chemotrophs by their source of chemical energy: CHEMOLITHOTROPHY (from inorganic compounds) or chemoorganotrophy (from organic compounds); and by their source for CARBON; NITROGEN; etc.; HETEROTROPHY (from organic sources) or AUTOTROPHY (from CARBON DIOXIDE). They can also be classified by whether or not they stain (based on the structure of their CELL WALLS) with CRYSTAL VIOLET dye: gram-negative or gram-positive.
The degree of replication of the chromosome set in the karyotype.
A type of chromosomal aberration involving DNA BREAKS. Chromosome breakage can result in CHROMOSOMAL TRANSLOCATION; CHROMOSOME INVERSION; or SEQUENCE DELETION.
Complex nucleoprotein structures which contain the genomic DNA and are part of the CELL NUCLEUS of PLANTS.
Sequences of DNA or RNA that occur in multiple copies. There are several types: INTERSPERSED REPETITIVE SEQUENCES are copies of transposable elements (DNA TRANSPOSABLE ELEMENTS or RETROELEMENTS) dispersed throughout the genome. TERMINAL REPEAT SEQUENCES flank both ends of another sequence, for example, the long terminal repeats (LTRs) on RETROVIRUSES. Variations may be direct repeats, those occurring in the same direction, or inverted repeats, those opposite to each other in direction. TANDEM REPEAT SEQUENCES are copies which lie adjacent to each other, direct or inverted (INVERTED REPEAT SEQUENCES).
The most abundant form of RNA. Together with proteins, it forms the ribosomes, playing a structural role and also a role in ribosomal binding of mRNA and tRNAs. Individual chains are conventionally designated by their sedimentation coefficients. In eukaryotes, four large chains exist, synthesized in the nucleolus and constituting about 50% of the ribosome. (Dorland, 28th ed)
Molecular products metabolized and secreted by neoplastic tissue and characterized biochemically in cells or body fluids. They are indicators of tumor stage and grade as well as useful for monitoring responses to treatment and predicting recurrence. Many chemical groups are represented including hormones, antigens, amino and nucleic acids, enzymes, polyamines, and specific cell membrane proteins and lipids.
The type species of LYMPHOCRYPTOVIRUS, subfamily GAMMAHERPESVIRINAE, infecting B-cells in humans. It is thought to be the causative agent of INFECTIOUS MONONUCLEOSIS and is strongly associated with oral hairy leukoplakia (LEUKOPLAKIA, HAIRY;), BURKITT LYMPHOMA; and other malignancies.
Infections produced by oncogenic viruses. The infections caused by DNA viruses are less numerous but more diverse than those caused by the RNA oncogenic viruses.
A family of small, non-enveloped DNA viruses infecting birds and most mammals, especially humans. They are grouped into multiple genera, but the viruses are highly host-species specific and tissue-restricted. They are commonly divided into hundreds of papillomavirus "types", each with specific gene function and gene control regions, despite sequence homology. Human papillomaviruses are found in the genera ALPHAPAPILLOMAVIRUS; BETAPAPILLOMAVIRUS; GAMMAPAPILLOMAVIRUS; and MUPAPILLOMAVIRUS.
A specific pair of GROUP F CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
A specific pair of GROUP D CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
A specific pair GROUP C CHROMSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
Enzymes that are part of the restriction-modification systems. They catalyze the endonucleolytic cleavage of DNA sequences which lack the species-specific methylation pattern in the host cell's DNA. Cleavage yields random or specific double-stranded fragments with terminal 5'-phosphates. The function of restriction enzymes is to destroy any foreign DNA that invades the host cell. Most have been studied in bacterial systems, but a few have been found in eukaryotic organisms. They are also used as tools for the systematic dissection and mapping of chromosomes, in the determination of base sequences of DNAs, and have made it possible to splice and recombine genes from one organism into the genome of another. EC 3.21.1.
Genes, found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, which are transcribed to produce the RNA which is incorporated into RIBOSOMES. Prokaryotic rRNA genes are usually found in OPERONS dispersed throughout the GENOME, whereas eukaryotic rRNA genes are clustered, multicistronic transcriptional units.
Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function that leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.
The chromosomal constitution of a cell containing multiples of the normal number of CHROMOSOMES; includes triploidy (symbol: 3N), tetraploidy (symbol: 4N), etc.
Body organ that filters blood for the secretion of URINE and that regulates ion concentrations.
Constituent of the 40S subunit of eukaryotic ribosomes. 18S rRNA is involved in the initiation of polypeptide synthesis in eukaryotes.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in neoplastic tissue.
A highly reactive aldehyde gas formed by oxidation or incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. In solution, it has a wide range of uses: in the manufacture of resins and textiles, as a disinfectant, and as a laboratory fixative or preservative. Formaldehyde solution (formalin) is considered a hazardous compound, and its vapor toxic. (From Reynolds, Martindale The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p717)
Extrachromosomal, usually CIRCULAR DNA molecules that are self-replicating and transferable from one organism to another. They are found in a variety of bacterial, archaeal, fungal, algal, and plant species. They are used in GENETIC ENGINEERING as CLONING VECTORS.
The condition in which one chromosome of a pair is missing. In a normally diploid cell it is represented symbolically as 2N-1.
Chromosomes in which fragments of exogenous DNA ranging in length up to several hundred kilobase pairs have been cloned into yeast through ligation to vector sequences. These artificial chromosomes are used extensively in molecular biology for the construction of comprehensive genomic libraries of higher organisms.
The simultaneous analysis of multiple samples of TISSUES or CELLS from BIOPSY or in vitro culture that have been arranged in an array format on slides or microchips.
RNA present in neoplastic tissue.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of plants.
Highly repetitive DNA sequences found in HETEROCHROMATIN, mainly near centromeres. They are composed of simple sequences (very short) (see MINISATELLITE REPEATS) repeated in tandem many times to form large blocks of sequence. Additionally, following the accumulation of mutations, these blocks of repeats have been repeated in tandem themselves. The degree of repetition is on the order of 1000 to 10 million at each locus. Loci are few, usually one or two per chromosome. They were called satellites since in density gradients, they often sediment as distinct, satellite bands separate from the bulk of genomic DNA owing to a distinct BASE COMPOSITION.
Proteins encoded by homeobox genes (GENES, HOMEOBOX) that exhibit structural similarity to certain prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA-binding proteins. Homeodomain proteins are involved in the control of gene expression during morphogenesis and development (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION, DEVELOPMENTAL).
A specific pair of GROUP G CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
A genetic rearrangement through loss of segments of DNA or RNA, bringing sequences which are normally separated into close proximity. This deletion may be detected using cytogenetic techniques and can also be inferred from the phenotype, indicating a deletion at one specific locus.
The entire nerve apparatus, composed of a central part, the brain and spinal cord, and a peripheral part, the cranial and spinal nerves, autonomic ganglia, and plexuses. (Stedman, 26th ed)
The functional hereditary units of BACTERIA.
Proteins which are found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. They consist of two types, peripheral and integral proteins. They include most membrane-associated enzymes, antigenic proteins, transport proteins, and drug, hormone, and lectin receptors.
Refuse liquid or waste matter carried off by sewers.
One of the two pairs of human chromosomes in the group B class (CHROMOSOMES, HUMAN, 4-5).
A specific pair of GROUP E CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body.
A positive regulatory effect on physiological processes at the molecular, cellular, or systemic level. At the molecular level, the major regulatory sites include membrane receptors, genes (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION), mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), and proteins.
Cells grown in vitro from neoplastic tissue. If they can be established as a TUMOR CELL LINE, they can be propagated in cell culture indefinitely.
Linear POLYPEPTIDES that are synthesized on RIBOSOMES and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of AMINO ACIDS determines the shape the polypeptide will take, during PROTEIN FOLDING, and the function of the protein.
The statistical reproducibility of measurements (often in a clinical context), including the testing of instrumentation or techniques to obtain reproducible results. The concept includes reproducibility of physiological measurements, which may be used to develop rules to assess probability or prognosis, or response to a stimulus; reproducibility of occurrence of a condition; and reproducibility of experimental results.
Mapping of the linear order of genes on a chromosome with units indicating their distances by using methods other than genetic recombination. These methods include nucleotide sequencing, overlapping deletions in polytene chromosomes, and electron micrography of heteroduplex DNA. (From King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 5th ed)
A specific pair of GROUP B CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
The human female sex chromosome, being the differential sex chromosome carried by half the male gametes and all female gametes in humans.
DNA probes specific for the identification of human papilloma virus.
A terminal section of a chromosome which has a specialized structure and which is involved in chromosomal replication and stability. Its length is believed to be a few hundred base pairs.
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
The relative amounts of the PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in a nucleic acid.
Proteins whose abnormal expression (gain or loss) are associated with the development, growth, or progression of NEOPLASMS. Some neoplasm proteins are tumor antigens (ANTIGENS, NEOPLASM), i.e. they induce an immune reaction to their tumor. Many neoplasm proteins have been characterized and are used as tumor markers (BIOMARKERS, TUMOR) when they are detectable in cells and body fluids as monitors for the presence or growth of tumors. Abnormal expression of ONCOGENE PROTEINS is involved in neoplastic transformation, whereas the loss of expression of TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEINS is involved with the loss of growth control and progression of the neoplasm.
Test for tissue antigen using either a direct method, by conjugation of antibody with fluorescent dye (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, DIRECT) or an indirect method, by formation of antigen-antibody complex which is then labeled with fluorescein-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin antibody (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, INDIRECT). The tissue is then examined by fluorescence microscopy.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
Proteins obtained from the ZEBRAFISH. Many of the proteins in this species have been the subject of studies involving basic embryological development (EMBRYOLOGY).
Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blot transferring from the electrophoresis gel to strips of nitrocellulose paper, followed by labeling with antibody probes.
A specific pair of GROUP F CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
The use of silver, usually silver nitrate, as a reagent for producing contrast or coloration in tissue specimens.
The unborn young of a viviparous mammal, in the postembryonic period, after the major structures have been outlined. In humans, the unborn young from the end of the eighth week after CONCEPTION until BIRTH, as distinguished from the earlier EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
A specific pair of human chromosomes in group A (CHROMOSOMES, HUMAN, 1-3) of the human chromosome classification.
The middle germ layer of an embryo derived from three paired mesenchymal aggregates along the neural tube.
The simultaneous identification of all chromosomes from a cell by fluorescence in situ hybridization (IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION, FLUORESCENCE) with chromosome-specific florescent probes that are discerned by their different emission spectra.
Variation occurring within a species in the presence or length of DNA fragment generated by a specific endonuclease at a specific site in the genome. Such variations are generated by mutations that create or abolish recognition sites for these enzymes or change the length of the fragment.
Study of intracellular distribution of chemicals, reaction sites, enzymes, etc., by means of staining reactions, radioactive isotope uptake, selective metal distribution in electron microscopy, or other methods.
A form of GENE LIBRARY containing the complete DNA sequences present in the genome of a given organism. It contrasts with a cDNA library which contains only sequences utilized in protein coding (lacking introns).
Refers to animals in the period of time just after birth.
Polymers made up of a few (2-20) nucleotides. In molecular genetics, they refer to a short sequence synthesized to match a region where a mutation is known to occur, and then used as a probe (OLIGONUCLEOTIDE PROBES). (Dorland, 28th ed)
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in enzyme synthesis.
The development of anatomical structures to create the form of a single- or multi-cell organism. Morphogenesis provides form changes of a part, parts, or the whole organism.
Genes that encode highly conserved TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS that control positional identity of cells (BODY PATTERNING) and MORPHOGENESIS throughout development. Their sequences contain a 180 nucleotide sequence designated the homeobox, so called because mutations of these genes often results in homeotic transformations, in which one body structure replaces another. The proteins encoded by homeobox genes are called HOMEODOMAIN PROTEINS.
The occurrence in an individual of two or more cell populations of different chromosomal constitutions, derived from a single ZYGOTE, as opposed to CHIMERISM in which the different cell populations are derived from more than one zygote.
The reproductive organ (GONADS) in female animals. In vertebrates, the ovary contains two functional parts: the OVARIAN FOLLICLE for the production of female germ cells (OOGENESIS); and the endocrine cells (GRANULOSA CELLS; THECA CELLS; and LUTEAL CELLS) for the production of ESTROGENS and PROGESTERONE.
The marking of biological material with a dye or other reagent for the purpose of identifying and quantitating components of tissues, cells or their extracts.
The GENETIC TRANSLATION products of the fusion between an ONCOGENE and another gene. The latter may be of viral or cellular origin.
A prediction of the probable outcome of a disease based on a individual's condition and the usual course of the disease as seen in similar situations.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations, or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. All animals within an inbred strain trace back to a common ancestor in the twentieth generation.
Mature male germ cells derived from SPERMATIDS. As spermatids move toward the lumen of the SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES, they undergo extensive structural changes including the loss of cytoplasm, condensation of CHROMATIN into the SPERM HEAD, formation of the ACROSOME cap, the SPERM MIDPIECE and the SPERM TAIL that provides motility.
Microscopy of specimens stained with fluorescent dye (usually fluorescein isothiocyanate) or of naturally fluorescent materials, which emit light when exposed to ultraviolet or blue light. Immunofluorescence microscopy utilizes antibodies that are labeled with fluorescent dye.
Procedures for identifying types and strains of bacteria. The most frequently employed typing systems are BACTERIOPHAGE TYPING and SEROTYPING as well as bacteriocin typing and biotyping.
The parts of a transcript of a split GENE remaining after the INTRONS are removed. They are spliced together to become a MESSENGER RNA or other functional RNA.
A class in the phylum PROTEOBACTERIA comprised of chemoheterotrophs and chemoautotrophs which derive nutrients from decomposition of organic material.

The surface ectoderm is essential for nephric duct formation in intermediate mesoderm. (1/18351)

The nephric duct is the first epithelial tubule to differentiate from intermediate mesoderm that is essential for all further urogenital development. In this study we identify the domain of intermediate mesoderm that gives rise to the nephric duct and demonstrate that the surface ectoderm is required for its differentiation. Removal of the surface ectoderm resulted in decreased levels of Sim-1 and Pax-2 mRNA expression in mesenchymal nephric duct progenitors, and caused inhibition of nephric duct formation and subsequent kidney development. The surface ectoderm expresses BMP-4 and we show that it is required for the maintenance of high-level BMP-4 expression in lateral plate mesoderm. Addition of a BMP-4-coated bead to embryos lacking the surface ectoderm restored normal levels of Sim-1 and Pax-2 mRNA expression in nephric duct progenitors, nephric duct formation and the initiation of nephrogenesis. Thus, BMP-4 signaling can substitute for the surface ectoderm in supporting nephric duct morphogenesis. Collectively, these data suggest that inductive interactions between the surface ectoderm, lateral mesoderm and intermediate mesoderm are essential for nephric duct formation and the initiation of urogenital development.  (+info)

Ultrabithorax function in butterfly wings and the evolution of insect wing patterns. (2/18351)

BACKGROUND: . The morphological and functional evolution of appendages has played a critical role in animal evolution, but the developmental genetic mechanisms underlying appendage diversity are not understood. Given that homologous appendage development is controlled by the same Hox gene in different organisms, and that Hox genes are transcription factors, diversity may evolve from changes in the regulation of Hox target genes. Two impediments to understanding the role of Hox genes in morphological evolution have been the limited number of organisms in which Hox gene function can be studied and the paucity of known Hox-regulated target genes. We have therefore analyzed a butterfly homeotic mutant 'Hindsight', in which portions of the ventral hindwing pattern are transformed to ventral forewing identity, and we have compared the regulation of target genes by the Ultrabithorax (Ubx) gene product in Lepidopteran and Dipteran hindwings. RESULTS: . We show that Ubx gene expression is lost from patches of cells in developing Hindsight hindwings, correlating with changes in wing pigmentation, color pattern elements, and scale morphology. We use this mutant to study how regulation of target genes by Ubx protein differs between species. We find that several Ubx-regulated genes in the Drosophila haltere are not repressed by Ubx in butterfly hindwings, but that Distal-less (Dll) expression is regulated by Ubx in a unique manner in butterflies. CONCLUSIONS: . The morphological diversification of insect hindwings has involved the acquisition of different sets of target genes by Ubx in different lineages. Changes in Hox-regulated target gene sets are, in general, likely to underlie the morphological divergence of homologous structures between animals.  (+info)

Association of snRNA genes with coiled bodies is mediated by nascent snRNA transcripts. (3/18351)

BACKGROUND: Coiled bodies are nuclear organelles that are highly enriched in small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs) and certain basal transcription factors. Surprisingly, coiled bodies not only contain mature U snRNPs but also associate with specific chromosomal loci, including gene clusters that encode U snRNAs and histone messenger RNAs. The mechanism(s) by which coiled bodies associate with these genes is completely unknown. RESULTS: Using stable cell lines, we show that artificial tandem arrays of human U1 and U2 snRNA genes colocalize with coiled bodies and that the frequency of the colocalization depends directly on the transcriptional activity of the array. Association of the genes with coiled bodies was abolished when the artificial U2 arrays contained promoter mutations that prevent transcription or when RNA polymerase II transcription was globally inhibited by alpha-amanitin. Remarkably, the association was also abolished when the U2 snRNA coding regions were replaced by heterologous sequences. CONCLUSIONS: The requirement for the U2 snRNA coding region indicates that association of snRNA genes with coiled bodies is mediated by the nascent U2 RNA itself, not by DNA or DNA-bound proteins. Our data provide the first evidence that association of genes with a nuclear organelle can be directed by an RNA and suggest an autogenous feedback regulation model.  (+info)

Deletion analysis of the Drosophila Inscuteable protein reveals domains for cortical localization and asymmetric localization. (4/18351)

The Drosophila Inscuteable protein acts as a key regulator of asymmetric cell division during the development of the nervous system [1] [2]. In neuroblasts, Inscuteable localizes into an apical cortical crescent during late interphase and most of mitosis. During mitosis, Inscuteable is required for the correct apical-basal orientation of the mitotic spindle and for the asymmetric segregation of the proteins Numb [3] [4] [5], Prospero [5] [6] [7] and Miranda [8] [9] into the basal daughter cell. When Inscuteable is ectopically expressed in epidermal cells, which normally orient their mitotic spindle parallel to the embryo surface, these cells reorient their mitotic spindle and divide perpendicularly to the surface [1]. Like the Inscuteable protein, the inscuteable RNA is asymmetrically localized [10]. We show here that inscuteable RNA localization is not required for Inscuteable protein localization. We found that a central 364 amino acid domain - the Inscuteable asymmetry domain - was necessary and sufficient for Inscuteable localization and function. Within this domain, a separate 100 amino acid region was required for asymmetric localization along the cortex, whereas a 158 amino acid region directed localization to the cell cortex. The same 158 amino acid fragment could localize asymmetrically when coexpressed with the full-length protein, however, and could bind to Inscuteable in vitro, suggesting that this domain may be involved in the self-association of Inscuteable in vivo.  (+info)

The role of RBF in the introduction of G1 regulation during Drosophila embryogenesis. (5/18351)

The first appearance of G1 during Drosophila embryogenesis, at cell cycle 17, is accompanied by the down-regulation of E2F-dependent transcription. Mutant alleles of rbf were generated and analyzed to determine the role of RBF in this process. Embryos lacking both maternal and zygotic RBF products show constitutive expression of PCNA and RNR2, two E2F-regulated genes, indicating that RBF is required for their transcriptional repression. Despite the ubiquitous expression of E2F target genes, most epidermal cells enter G1 normally. Rather than pausing in G1 until the appropriate time for cell cycle progression, many of these cells enter an ectopic S-phase. These results indicate that the repression of E2F target genes by RBF is necessary for the maintenance but not the initiation of a G1 phase. The phenotype of RBF-deficient embryos suggests that rbf has a function that is complementary to the roles of dacapo and fizzy-related in the introduction of G1 during Drosophila embryogenesis.  (+info)

JunB is essential for mammalian placentation. (6/18351)

Lack of JunB, an immediate early gene product and member of the AP-1 transcription factor family causes embryonic lethality between E8.5 and E10.0. Although mutant embryos are severely retarded in growth and development, cellular proliferation is apparently not impaired. Retardation and embryonic death are caused by the inability of JunB-deficient embryos to establish proper vascular interactions with the maternal circulation due to multiple defects in extra-embryonic tissues. The onset of the phenotypic defects correlates well with high expression of junB in wild-type extra-embryonic tissues. In trophoblasts, the lack of JunB causes a deregulation of proliferin, matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) gene expression, resulting in a defective neovascularization of the decidua. As a result of downregulation of the VEGF-receptor 1 (flt-1), blood vessels in the yolk sac mesoderm appeared dilated. Mutant embryos which escape these initial defects finally die from a non-vascularized placental labyrinth. Injection of junB-/- embryonic stem (ES) cells into tetraploid wild-type blastocysts resulted in a partial rescue, in which the ES cell-derived fetuses were no longer growth retarded and displayed a normal placental labyrinth. Therefore, JunB appears to be involved in multiple signaling pathways regulating genes involved in the establishment of a proper feto-maternal circulatory system.  (+info)

Loss-of-function mutations in the rice homeobox gene OSH15 affect the architecture of internodes resulting in dwarf plants. (7/18351)

The rice homeobox gene OSH15 (Oryza sativa homeobox) is a member of the knotted1-type homeobox gene family. We report here on the identification and characterization of a loss-of-function mutation in OSH15 from a library of retrotransposon-tagged lines of rice. Based on the phenotype and map position, we have identified three independent deletion alleles of the locus among conventional morphological mutants. All of these recessive mutations, which are considered to be null alleles, exhibit defects in internode elongation. Introduction of a 14 kbp genomic DNA fragment that includes all exons, introns and 5'- and 3'- flanking sequences of OSH15 complemented the defects in internode elongation, confirming that they were caused by the loss-of-function of OSH15. Internodes of the mutants had abnormal-shaped epidermal and hypodermal cells and showed an unusual arrangement of small vascular bundles. These mutations demonstrate a role for OSH15 in the development of rice internodes. This is the first evidence that the knotted1-type homeobox genes have roles other than shoot apical meristem formation and/or maintenance in plant development.  (+info)

The mouse Aire gene: comparative genomic sequencing, gene organization, and expression. (8/18351)

Mutations in the human AIRE gene (hAIRE) result in the development of an autoimmune disease named APECED (autoimmune polyendocrinopathy candidiasis ectodermal dystrophy; OMIM 240300). Previously, we have cloned hAIRE and shown that it codes for a putative transcription-associated factor. Here we report the cloning and characterization of Aire, the murine ortholog of hAIRE. Comparative genomic sequencing revealed that the structure of the AIRE gene is highly conserved between human and mouse. The conceptual proteins share 73% homology and feature the same typical functional domains in both species. RT-PCR analysis detected three splice variant isoforms in various mouse tissues, and interestingly one isoform was conserved in human, suggesting potential biological relevance of this product. In situ hybridization on mouse and human histological sections showed that AIRE expression pattern was mainly restricted to a few cells in the thymus, calling for a tissue-specific function of the gene product.  (+info)

There are several types of chromosome aberrations, including:

1. Chromosomal deletions: Loss of a portion of a chromosome.
2. Chromosomal duplications: Extra copies of a chromosome or a portion of a chromosome.
3. Chromosomal translocations: A change in the position of a chromosome or a portion of a chromosome.
4. Chromosomal inversions: A reversal of a segment of a chromosome.
5. Chromosomal amplifications: An increase in the number of copies of a particular chromosome or gene.

Chromosome aberrations can be detected through various techniques, such as karyotyping, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), or array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH). These tests can help identify changes in the chromosomal makeup of cells and provide information about the underlying genetic causes of disease.

Chromosome aberrations are associated with a wide range of diseases, including:

1. Cancer: Chromosome abnormalities are common in cancer cells and can contribute to the development and progression of cancer.
2. Birth defects: Many birth defects are caused by chromosome abnormalities, such as Down syndrome (trisomy 21), which is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.
3. Neurological disorders: Chromosome aberrations have been linked to various neurological disorders, including autism and intellectual disability.
4. Immunodeficiency diseases: Some immunodeficiency diseases, such as X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), are caused by chromosome abnormalities.
5. Infectious diseases: Chromosome aberrations can increase the risk of infection with certain viruses, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
6. Ageing: Chromosome aberrations have been linked to the ageing process and may contribute to the development of age-related diseases.
7. Radiation exposure: Exposure to radiation can cause chromosome abnormalities, which can increase the risk of cancer and other diseases.
8. Genetic disorders: Many genetic disorders are caused by chromosome aberrations, such as Turner syndrome (45,X), which is caused by a missing X chromosome.
9. Rare diseases: Chromosome aberrations can cause rare diseases, such as Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY), which is caused by an extra copy of the X chromosome.
10. Infertility: Chromosome abnormalities can contribute to infertility in both men and women.

Understanding the causes and consequences of chromosome aberrations is important for developing effective treatments and improving human health.

https://www.medicinenet.com › Medical Dictionary › G

A genetic translocation is a change in the number or arrangement of the chromosomes in a cell. It occurs when a portion of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome. This can result in a gain or loss of genetic material, which can have significant effects on the individual.

Genetic Translocation | Definition & Facts | Britannica
https://www.britannica.com › science › Genetic-tr...

Genetic translocation, also called chromosomal translocation, a type of chromosomal aberration in which a portion of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome. This can result in a gain or loss of genetic material. Genetic translocations are often found in cancer cells and may play a role in the development and progression of cancer.

Translocation, Genetic | health Encyclopedia - UPMC
https://www.upmc.com › health-library › gene...

A genetic translocation is a change in the number or arrangement of the chromosomes in a cell. It occurs when a portion of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome. This can result in a gain or loss of genetic material, which can have significant effects on the individual.

Genetic Translocation | Genetics Home Reference - NIH
https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov › condition › ge...

A genetic translocation is a change in the number or arrangement of the chromosomes in a cell. It occurs when a portion of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome. This can result in a gain or loss of genetic material, which can have significant effects on the individual.

In conclusion, Genetic Translocation is an abnormality in the number or arrangement of chromosomes in a cell. It occurs when a portion of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome, resulting in a gain or loss of genetic material that can have significant effects on the individual.

Also known as CIS.

There are several types of aneuploidy, including:

1. Trisomy: This is the presence of an extra copy of a chromosome. For example, Down syndrome is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21).
2. Monosomy: This is the absence of a chromosome.
3. Mosaicism: This is the presence of both normal and abnormal cells in the body.
4. Uniparental disomy: This is the presence of two copies of a chromosome from one parent, rather than one copy each from both parents.

Aneuploidy can occur due to various factors such as errors during cell division, exposure to certain chemicals or radiation, or inheritance of an abnormal number of chromosomes from one's parents. The risk of aneuploidy increases with age, especially for women over the age of 35, as their eggs are more prone to errors during meiosis (the process by which egg cells are produced).

Aneuploidy can be diagnosed through various methods such as karyotyping (examining chromosomes under a microscope), fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) or quantitative PCR. Treatment for aneuploidy depends on the underlying cause and the specific health problems it has caused. In some cases, treatment may involve managing symptoms, while in others, it may involve correcting the genetic abnormality itself.

In summary, aneuploidy is a condition where there is an abnormal number of chromosomes present in a cell, which can lead to various developmental and health problems. It can occur due to various factors and can be diagnosed through different methods. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and the specific health problems it has caused.

Some common effects of chromosomal deletions include:

1. Genetic disorders: Chromosomal deletions can lead to a variety of genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome, which is caused by a deletion of a portion of chromosome 21. Other examples include Prader-Willi syndrome (deletion of chromosome 15), and Williams syndrome (deletion of chromosome 7).
2. Birth defects: Chromosomal deletions can increase the risk of birth defects, such as heart defects, cleft palate, and limb abnormalities.
3. Developmental delays: Children with chromosomal deletions may experience developmental delays, learning disabilities, and intellectual disability.
4. Increased cancer risk: Some chromosomal deletions can increase the risk of developing certain types of cancer, such as chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) and breast cancer.
5. Reproductive problems: Chromosomal deletions can lead to reproductive problems, such as infertility or recurrent miscarriage.

Chromosomal deletions can be diagnosed through a variety of techniques, including karyotyping (examination of the chromosomes), fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and microarray analysis. Treatment options for chromosomal deletions depend on the specific effects of the deletion and may include medication, surgery, or other forms of therapy.

There are many different types of chromosome disorders, including:

1. Trisomy: This is a condition in which there is an extra copy of a chromosome. For example, Down syndrome is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.
2. Monosomy: This is a condition in which there is a missing copy of a chromosome.
3. Turner syndrome: This is a condition in which there is only one X chromosome instead of two.
4. Klinefelter syndrome: This is a condition in which there are three X chromosomes instead of the typical two.
5. Chromosomal translocations: These are abnormalities in which a piece of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome.
6. Inversions: These are abnormalities in which a segment of a chromosome is reversed end-to-end.
7. Deletions: These are abnormalities in which a portion of a chromosome is missing.
8. Duplications: These are abnormalities in which there is an extra copy of a segment of a chromosome.

Chromosome disorders can have a wide range of effects on the body, depending on the type and severity of the condition. Some common features of chromosome disorders include developmental delays, intellectual disability, growth problems, and physical abnormalities such as heart defects or facial anomalies.

There is no cure for chromosome disorders, but treatment and support are available to help manage the symptoms and improve the quality of life for individuals with these conditions. Treatment may include medications, therapies, and surgery, as well as support and resources for families and caregivers.

Preventive measures for chromosome disorders are not currently available, but research is ongoing to understand the causes of these conditions and to develop new treatments and interventions. Early detection and diagnosis can help identify chromosome disorders and provide appropriate support and resources for individuals and families.

In conclusion, chromosome disorders are a group of genetic conditions that affect the structure or number of chromosomes in an individual's cells. These conditions can have a wide range of effects on the body, and there is no cure, but treatment and support are available to help manage symptoms and improve quality of life. Early detection and diagnosis are important for identifying chromosome disorders and providing appropriate support and resources for individuals and families.

Trisomy is caused by an extra copy of a chromosome, which can be due to one of three mechanisms:

1. Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome): This is the most common type of trisomy and occurs when there is an extra copy of chromosome 21. It is estimated to occur in about 1 in every 700 births.
2. Trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome): This type of trisomy occurs when there is an extra copy of chromosome 13. It is estimated to occur in about 1 in every 10,000 births.
3. Trisomy 18 (Edwards syndrome): This type of trisomy occurs when there is an extra copy of chromosome 18. It is estimated to occur in about 1 in every 2,500 births.

The symptoms of trisomy can vary depending on the type of trisomy and the severity of the condition. Some common symptoms include:

* Delayed physical growth and development
* Intellectual disability
* Distinctive facial features, such as a flat nose, small ears, and a wide, short face
* Heart defects
* Vision and hearing problems
* GI issues
* Increased risk of infection

Trisomy can be diagnosed before birth through prenatal testing, such as chorionic villus sampling (CVS) or amniocentesis. After birth, it can be diagnosed through a blood test or by analyzing the child's DNA.

There is no cure for trisomy, but treatment and support are available to help manage the symptoms and improve the quality of life for individuals with the condition. This may include physical therapy, speech therapy, occupational therapy, and medication to manage heart defects or other medical issues. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to correct physical abnormalities.

The prognosis for trisomy varies depending on the type of trisomy and the severity of the condition. Some forms of trisomy are more severe and can be life-threatening, while others may have a more mild impact on the individual's quality of life. With appropriate medical care and support, many individuals with trisomy can lead fulfilling lives.

In summary, trisomy is a genetic condition that occurs when there is an extra copy of a chromosome. It can cause a range of symptoms and can be diagnosed before or after birth. While there is no cure for trisomy, treatment and support are available to help manage the symptoms and improve the quality of life for individuals with the condition.

There are different types of Breast Neoplasms such as:

1. Fibroadenomas: These are benign tumors that are made up of glandular and fibrous tissues. They are usually small and round, with a smooth surface, and can be moved easily under the skin.

2. Cysts: These are fluid-filled sacs that can develop in both breast tissue and milk ducts. They are usually benign and can disappear on their own or be drained surgically.

3. Ductal Carcinoma In Situ (DCIS): This is a precancerous condition where abnormal cells grow inside the milk ducts. If left untreated, it can progress to invasive breast cancer.

4. Invasive Ductal Carcinoma (IDC): This is the most common type of breast cancer and starts in the milk ducts but grows out of them and invades surrounding tissue.

5. Invasive Lobular Carcinoma (ILC): It originates in the milk-producing glands (lobules) and grows out of them, invading nearby tissue.

Breast Neoplasms can cause various symptoms such as a lump or thickening in the breast or underarm area, skin changes like redness or dimpling, change in size or shape of one or both breasts, discharge from the nipple, and changes in the texture or color of the skin.

Treatment options for Breast Neoplasms may include surgery such as lumpectomy, mastectomy, or breast-conserving surgery, radiation therapy which uses high-energy beams to kill cancer cells, chemotherapy using drugs to kill cancer cells, targeted therapy which uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack cancer cells while minimizing harm to normal cells, hormone therapy, immunotherapy, and clinical trials.

It is important to note that not all Breast Neoplasms are cancerous; some are benign (non-cancerous) tumors that do not spread or grow.

When a chromosome breaks, it can lead to genetic instability and potentially contribute to the development of diseases such as cancer. Chromosome breakage can also result in the loss or gain of genetic material, which can further disrupt normal cellular function and increase the risk of disease.

There are several types of chromosome breakage, including:

1. Chromosomal aberrations: These occur when there is a change in the number or structure of the chromosomes, such as an extra copy of a chromosome (aneuploidy) or a break in a chromosome.
2. Genomic instability: This refers to the presence of errors in the genetic material that can lead to changes in the function of cells and tissues.
3. Chromosomal fragile sites: These are specific regions of the chromosomes that are more prone to breakage than other regions.
4. Telomere shortening: Telomeres are the protective caps at the ends of the chromosomes, and their shortening can lead to chromosome breakage and genetic instability.

Chromosome breakage can be detected through cytogenetic analysis, which involves staining the cells with dyes to visualize the chromosomes and look for any abnormalities. The detection of chromosome breakage can help diagnose certain diseases, such as cancer, and can also provide information about the risk of disease progression.

In summary, chromosome breakage is a type of genetic alteration that can occur as a result of various factors, including exposure to radiation or chemicals, errors during cell division, or aging. It can lead to genetic instability and increase the risk of diseases such as cancer. Detection of chromosome breakage through cytogenetic analysis can help diagnose certain diseases and provide information about the risk of disease progression.

There are several different types of tumor viruses, including:

1. Human papillomavirus (HPV): This virus is responsible for causing cervical cancer and other types of cancer, such as anal, vulvar, vaginal, and penile cancer.
2. Hepatitis B virus (HBV): This virus can cause liver cancer, known as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).
3. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): This virus can increase the risk of developing certain types of cancer, such as Kaposi's sarcoma and lymphoma.
4. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV): This virus has been linked to the development of Burkitt lymphoma and Hodgkin's lymphoma.
5. Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV): This virus is responsible for causing Merkel cell carcinoma, a rare type of skin cancer.
6. Human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV-1): This virus has been linked to the development of adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL).

Tumor virus infections can be diagnosed through a variety of methods, including blood tests, imaging studies, and biopsies. Treatment for these infections often involves antiviral medications, chemotherapy, and surgery. In some cases, tumors may also be removed through radiation therapy.

It's important to note that not all tumors or cancers are caused by viruses, and that many other factors, such as genetics and environmental exposures, can also play a role in the development of cancer. However, for those tumor virus infections that are caused by a specific virus, early diagnosis and treatment can improve outcomes and reduce the risk of complications.

Overall, tumor virus infections are a complex and diverse group of conditions, and further research is needed to better understand their causes and develop effective treatments.

Polyploidy is a condition where an organism has more than two sets of chromosomes, which are the thread-like structures that carry genetic information. It can occur in both plants and animals, although it is relatively rare in most species. In humans, polyploidy is extremely rare and usually occurs as a result of errors during cell division or abnormal fertilization.

In medicine, polyploidy is often used to describe certain types of cancer, such as breast cancer or colon cancer, that have extra sets of chromosomes. This can lead to the development of more aggressive and difficult-to-treat tumors.

However, not all cases of polyploidy are cancerous. Some individuals with Down syndrome, for example, have an extra copy of chromosome 21, which is a non-cancerous form of polyploidy. Additionally, some people may be born with extra copies of certain genes or chromosomal regions due to errors during embryonic development, which can lead to various health problems but are not cancerous.

Overall, the term "polyploidy" in medicine is used to describe any condition where an organism has more than two sets of chromosomes, regardless of whether it is cancerous or non-cancerous.

Monosomy refers to a condition where an individual has only one copy of a particular chromosome, instead of the usual two copies present in every cell of the body. This can occur due to various genetic or environmental factors and can lead to developmental delays, intellectual disability, and physical abnormalities.

Other Defination:
Monosomy can also refer to the absence of a specific chromosome or part of a chromosome. For example, monosomy 21 is the condition where an individual has only one copy of chromosome 21, which is the chromosome responsible for Down syndrome. Similarly, monosomy 8p is the condition where there is a loss of a portion of chromosome 8p.

Synonyms:
Monosomy is also known as single chromosome deletion or single chromosome monosomy.

Antonyms:
Polysomy, which refers to the presence of extra copies of a particular chromosome, is the antonym of monosomy.

In Medical Terminology:
Monosomy is a genetic term that is used to describe a condition where there is only one copy of a particular chromosome present in an individual's cells, instead of the usual two copies. This can occur due to various factors such as errors during cell division or exposure to certain chemicals or viruses. Monosomy can lead to a range of developmental delays and physical abnormalities, depending on the location and extent of the missing chromosome material.

In Plain English:
Monosomy is a condition where a person has only one copy of a particular chromosome instead of two copies. This can cause developmental delays and physical abnormalities, and can be caused by genetic or environmental factors. It's important to note that monosomy can occur on any chromosome, but some specific types of monosomy are more common and well-known than others. For example, Down syndrome is a type of monosomy that occurs when there is an extra copy of chromosome 21.

Some examples of multiple abnormalities include:

1. Multiple chronic conditions: An individual may have multiple chronic conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, and heart disease, which can affect their quality of life and increase their risk of complications.
2. Congenital anomalies: Some individuals may be born with multiple physical abnormalities or birth defects, such as heart defects, limb abnormalities, or facial deformities.
3. Mental health disorders: Individuals may experience multiple mental health disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and bipolar disorder, which can impact their cognitive functioning and daily life.
4. Neurological conditions: Some individuals may have multiple neurological conditions, such as epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, and stroke, which can affect their cognitive and physical functioning.
5. Genetic disorders: Individuals with genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome or Turner syndrome, may experience a range of physical and developmental abnormalities.

The term "multiple abnormalities" is often used in medical research and clinical practice to describe individuals who have complex health needs and require comprehensive care. It is important for healthcare providers to recognize and address the multiple needs of these individuals to improve their overall health outcomes.

Adenocarcinoma is a term used to describe a variety of different types of cancer that arise in glandular tissue, including:

1. Colorectal adenocarcinoma (cancer of the colon or rectum)
2. Breast adenocarcinoma (cancer of the breast)
3. Prostate adenocarcinoma (cancer of the prostate gland)
4. Pancreatic adenocarcinoma (cancer of the pancreas)
5. Lung adenocarcinoma (cancer of the lung)
6. Thyroid adenocarcinoma (cancer of the thyroid gland)
7. Skin adenocarcinoma (cancer of the skin)

The symptoms of adenocarcinoma depend on the location of the cancer and can include:

1. Blood in the stool or urine
2. Abdominal pain or discomfort
3. Changes in bowel habits
4. Unusual vaginal bleeding (in the case of endometrial adenocarcinoma)
5. A lump or thickening in the breast or elsewhere
6. Weight loss
7. Fatigue
8. Coughing up blood (in the case of lung adenocarcinoma)

The diagnosis of adenocarcinoma is typically made through a combination of imaging tests, such as CT scans, MRI scans, and PET scans, and a biopsy, which involves removing a sample of tissue from the affected area and examining it under a microscope for cancer cells.

Treatment options for adenocarcinoma depend on the location of the cancer and can include:

1. Surgery to remove the tumor
2. Chemotherapy, which involves using drugs to kill cancer cells
3. Radiation therapy, which involves using high-energy X-rays or other particles to kill cancer cells
4. Targeted therapy, which involves using drugs that target specific molecules on cancer cells to kill them
5. Immunotherapy, which involves using drugs that stimulate the immune system to fight cancer cells.

The prognosis for adenocarcinoma is generally good if the cancer is detected and treated early, but it can be more challenging to treat if the cancer has spread to other parts of the body.

Types of Sex Chromosome Aberrations:

1. Turner Syndrome: A condition where a female has only one X chromosome instead of two (45,X).
2. Klinefelter Syndrome: A condition where a male has an extra X chromosome (47,XXY) or an extra Y chromosome (47,XYYY).
3. XXX Syndrome: A rare condition where a female has three X chromosomes instead of two.
4. XYY Syndrome: A rare condition where a male has an extra Y chromosome (48,XYY).
5. Mosaicism: A condition where a person has a mixture of cells with different numbers of sex chromosomes.

Effects of Sex Chromosome Aberrations:

Sex chromosome aberrations can cause a range of physical and developmental abnormalities, such as short stature, infertility, and reproductive problems. They may also increase the risk of certain health conditions, including:

1. Congenital heart defects
2. Cognitive impairments
3. Learning disabilities
4. Developmental delays
5. Increased risk of infections and autoimmune disorders

Diagnosis of Sex Chromosome Aberrations:

Sex chromosome aberrations can be diagnosed through various methods, including:

1. Karyotyping: A test that involves analyzing the number and structure of an individual's chromosomes.
2. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH): A test that uses fluorescent probes to detect specific DNA sequences on chromosomes.
3. Chromosomal microarray analysis: A test that looks for changes in the number or structure of chromosomes by analyzing DNA from blood or other tissues.
4. Next-generation sequencing (NGS): A test that analyzes an individual's entire genome to identify specific genetic variations, including sex chromosome aberrations.

Treatment and Management of Sex Chromosome Aberrations:

There is no cure for sex chromosome aberrations, but there are various treatments and management options available to help alleviate symptoms and improve quality of life. These may include:

1. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT): To address hormonal imbalances and related symptoms.
2. Assisted reproductive technologies (ART): Such as in vitro fertilization (IVF) or preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), to help individuals with infertility or pregnancy complications.
3. Prenatal testing: To identify sex chromosome aberrations in fetuses, allowing parents to make informed decisions about their pregnancies.
4. Counseling and support: To help individuals and families cope with the emotional and psychological impact of a sex chromosome abnormality diagnosis.
5. Surgeries or other medical interventions: To address related health issues, such as infertility, reproductive tract abnormalities, or genital ambiguity.

It's important to note that each individual with a sex chromosome aberration may require a unique treatment plan tailored to their specific needs and circumstances. A healthcare provider can work with the individual and their family to develop a personalized plan that takes into account their medical, emotional, and social considerations.

In conclusion, sex chromosome aberrations are rare genetic disorders that can have significant implications for an individual's physical, emotional, and social well-being. While there is no cure for these conditions, advances in diagnostic testing and treatment options offer hope for improving the lives of those affected. With proper medical care, support, and understanding, individuals with sex chromosome aberrations can lead fulfilling lives.

Definition: Isochromosomes are chromosomes that have the same banding pattern and the same number of genes, but differ in size due to variations in the amount of repetitive DNA sequences.

Example: In some cases of cancer, isochromosomes may be present as a result of a chromosomal abnormality. These abnormalities can lead to changes in the expression of genes and potentially contribute to the development and progression of cancer.

Synonyms: Isochromosomes are also known as isochromosomi or isochromosomal aberrations.

Antonyms: There are no direct antonyms for isochromosomes, but related terms that refer to abnormalities in chromosome structure or number include aneuploidy, translocations, and deletions.

Inversions are classified based on their location along the chromosome:

* Interstitial inversion: A segment of DNA is reversed within a larger gene or group of genes.
* Pericentric inversion: A segment of DNA is reversed near the centromere, the region of the chromosome where the sister chromatids are most closely attached.

Chromosome inversions can be detected through cytogenetic analysis, which allows visualization of the chromosomes and their structure. They can also be identified using molecular genetic techniques such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction) or array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH).

Chromosome inversions are relatively rare in the general population, but they have been associated with various developmental disorders and an increased risk of certain diseases. For example, individuals with an inversion on chromosome 8p have an increased risk of developing cancer, while those with an inversion on chromosome 9q have a higher risk of developing neurological disorders.

Inversions can be inherited from one or both parents, and they can also occur spontaneously as a result of errors during DNA replication or repair. In some cases, inversions may be associated with other genetic abnormalities, such as translocations or deletions.

Overall, chromosome inversions are an important aspect of human genetics and can provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying developmental disorders and disease susceptibility.

The exact cause of ductal carcinoma is unknown, but certain risk factors such as family history, genetics, hormone replacement therapy, obesity, and delayed childbearing have been linked to its development. Early detection through mammography and breast self-examination can improve survival rates, which are generally high for women diagnosed with this type of cancer if caught early. Treatment typically involves surgery to remove the tumor (lumpectomy or mastectomy), followed by radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy.

SCC typically appears as a firm, flat, or raised bump on the skin, and may be pink, red, or scaly. The cancer cells are usually well-differentiated, meaning they resemble normal squamous cells, but they can grow rapidly and invade surrounding tissues if left untreated.

SCC is more common in fair-skinned individuals and those who spend a lot of time in the sun, as UV radiation can damage the skin cells and increase the risk of cancer. The cancer can also spread to other parts of the body, such as lymph nodes or organs, and can be life-threatening if not treated promptly and effectively.

Treatment for SCC usually involves surgery to remove the cancerous tissue, and may also include radiation therapy or chemotherapy to kill any remaining cancer cells. Early detection and treatment are important to improve outcomes for patients with SCC.

There are several subtypes of carcinoma, including:

1. Adenocarcinoma: This type of carcinoma originates in glandular cells, which produce fluids or mucus. Examples include breast cancer, prostate cancer, and colon cancer.
2. Squamous cell carcinoma: This type of carcinoma originates in squamous cells, which are found on the surface layers of skin and mucous membranes. Examples include head and neck cancers, cervical cancer, and anal cancer.
3. Basal cell carcinoma: This type of carcinoma originates in the deepest layer of skin, called the basal layer. It is the most common type of skin cancer and tends to grow slowly.
4. Neuroendocrine carcinoma: This type of carcinoma originates in cells that produce hormones and neurotransmitters. Examples include lung cancer, pancreatic cancer, and thyroid cancer.
5. Small cell carcinoma: This type of carcinoma is a highly aggressive form of lung cancer that spreads quickly to other parts of the body.

The signs and symptoms of carcinoma depend on the location and stage of the cancer. Some common symptoms include:

* A lump or mass
* Pain
* Skin changes, such as a new mole or a change in the color or texture of the skin
* Changes in bowel or bladder habits
* Abnormal bleeding

The diagnosis of carcinoma typically involves a combination of imaging tests, such as X-rays, CT scans, MRI scans, and PET scans, and a biopsy, which involves removing a small sample of tissue for examination under a microscope. Treatment options for carcinoma depend on the location and stage of the cancer and may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these.

In conclusion, carcinoma is a type of cancer that originates in epithelial cells and can occur in various parts of the body. Early detection and treatment are important for improving outcomes.

References:

1. American Cancer Society. (2022). Carcinoma. Retrieved from
2. Mayo Clinic. (2022). Carcinoma. Retrieved from
3. MedlinePlus. (2022). Carcinoma. Retrieved from

Ring chromosomes are relatively rare, occurring in about 1 in every 10,000 to 20,000 births. They can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetic mutations, errors during cell division, or exposure to certain chemicals or radiation.

Ring chromosomes can affect anyone, regardless of age or gender. However, they are more common in certain populations, such as people with a family history of the condition or those who have certain medical conditions like Down syndrome or Turner syndrome.

The symptoms of ring chromosomes can vary widely and may include:

* Delayed growth and development
* Intellectual disability or learning difficulties
* Speech and language problems
* Vision and hearing impairments
* Heart defects
* Bone and joint problems
* Increased risk of infections and other health problems

Ring chromosomes can be diagnosed through a variety of tests, including karyotyping, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and microarray analysis. Treatment for the condition typically focuses on managing any associated health problems and may include medication, surgery, or other interventions.

In some cases, ring chromosomes can be inherited from one's parents. However, many cases are not inherited and occur spontaneously due to a genetic mutation. In these cases, the risk of recurrence in future pregnancies is generally low.

Overall, ring chromosomes are a complex and relatively rare chromosomal abnormality that can have a significant impact on an individual's health and development. With proper diagnosis and treatment, many people with ring chromosomes can lead fulfilling lives, but it is important to work closely with medical professionals to manage any associated health problems.

Symptoms of EBV infection can vary widely, ranging from asymptomatic to severe, and may include:

* Fatigue
* Fever
* Sore throat
* Swollen lymph nodes in the neck and armpits
* Swollen liver or spleen
* Rash
* Headaches
* Muscle weakness

In some cases, EBV can lead to more serious complications such as infectious mononucleosis (IM), also known as glandular fever, which can cause:

* Enlarged liver and spleen
* Splenomegaly (enlargement of the spleen)
* Hepatomegaly (enlargement of the liver)
* Thrombocytopenia (low platelet count)
* Anemia (low red blood cell count)
* Leukopenia (low white blood cell count)

EBV is also associated with an increased risk of developing certain types of cancer, including Burkitt lymphoma, Hodgkin lymphoma, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

There is no specific treatment for EBV infections, and most cases resolve on their own within a few weeks. Antiviral medications may be prescribed in severe cases or to prevent complications. Rest, hydration, and over-the-counter pain relief medication can help alleviate symptoms.

A disease that affects pigs, including viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections, as well as genetic disorders and nutritional deficiencies. Some common swine diseases include:

1. Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS): A highly contagious viral disease that can cause reproductive failure, respiratory problems, and death.
2. Swine Influenza: A viral infection similar to human influenza, which can cause fever, coughing, and pneumonia in pigs.
3. Erysipelas: A bacterial infection that causes high fever, loss of appetite, and skin lesions in pigs.
4. Actinobacillosis: A bacterial infection that can cause pneumonia, arthritis, and abscesses in pigs.
5. Parasitic infections: Such as gastrointestinal parasites like roundworms and tapeworms, which can cause diarrhea, anemia, and weight loss in pigs.
6. Scrapie: A degenerative neurological disorder that affects pigs and other animals, causing confusion, aggression, and eventually death.
7. Nutritional deficiencies: Such as a lack of vitamin E or selenium, which can cause a range of health problems in pigs, including muscular dystrophy and anemia.
8. Genetic disorders: Such as achondroplasia, a condition that causes dwarfism and deformities in pigs.
9. Environmental diseases: Such as heat stress, which can cause a range of health problems in pigs, including respiratory distress and death.

It's important to note that many swine diseases have similar symptoms, making accurate diagnosis by a veterinarian essential for effective treatment and control.

There are various causes of intellectual disability, including:

1. Genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and Turner syndrome.
2. Congenital conditions, such as microcephaly and hydrocephalus.
3. Brain injuries, such as traumatic brain injury or hypoxic-ischemic injury.
4. Infections, such as meningitis or encephalitis.
5. Nutritional deficiencies, such as iron deficiency or iodine deficiency.

Intellectual disability can result in a range of cognitive and functional impairments, including:

1. Delayed language development and difficulty with communication.
2. Difficulty with social interactions and adapting to new situations.
3. Limited problem-solving skills and difficulty with abstract thinking.
4. Slow learning and memory difficulties.
5. Difficulty with fine motor skills and coordination.

There is no cure for intellectual disability, but early identification and intervention can significantly improve outcomes. Treatment options may include:

1. Special education programs tailored to the individual's needs.
2. Behavioral therapies, such as applied behavior analysis (ABA) and positive behavior support (PBS).
3. Speech and language therapy.
4. Occupational therapy to improve daily living skills.
5. Medications to manage associated behaviors or symptoms.

It is essential to recognize that intellectual disability is a lifelong condition, but with appropriate support and resources, individuals with ID can lead fulfilling lives and reach their full potential.

Precancerous changes in the uterine cervix are called dysplasias, and they can be detected by a Pap smear, which is a routine screening test for women. If dysplasia is found, it can be treated with cryotherapy (freezing), laser therapy, or cone biopsy, which removes the affected cells.

Cervical cancer is rare in developed countries where Pap screening is widely available, but it remains a common cancer in developing countries where access to healthcare and screening is limited. The human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine has been shown to be effective in preventing cervical precancerous changes and cancer.

Cervical cancer can be treated with surgery, radiation therapy, or chemotherapy, depending on the stage and location of the cancer. The prognosis for early-stage cervical cancer is good, but advanced-stage cancer can be difficult to treat and may have a poor prognosis.

The following are some types of uterine cervical neoplasms:

1. Adenocarcinoma in situ (AIS): This is a precancerous condition that occurs when glandular cells on the surface of the cervix become abnormal and grow out of control.
2. Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN): This is a precancerous condition that occurs when abnormal cells are found on the surface of the cervix. There are several types of CIN, ranging from mild to severe.
3. Squamous cell carcinoma: This is the most common type of cervical cancer and arises from the squamous cells that line the cervix.
4. Adnexal carcinoma: This is a rare type of cervical cancer that arises from the glands or ducts near the cervix.
5. Small cell carcinoma: This is a rare and aggressive type of cervical cancer that grows rapidly and can spread quickly to other parts of the body.
6. Micropapillary uterine carcinoma: This is a rare type of cervical cancer that grows in a finger-like shape and can be difficult to diagnose.
7. Clear cell carcinoma: This is a rare type of cervical cancer that arises from clear cells and can be more aggressive than other types of cervical cancer.
8. Adenocarcinoma: This is a type of cervical cancer that arises from glandular cells and can be less aggressive than squamous cell carcinoma.
9. Sarcoma: This is a rare type of cervical cancer that arises from the connective tissue of the cervix.

The treatment options for uterine cervical neoplasms depend on the stage and location of the cancer, as well as the patient's overall health and preferences. The following are some common treatments for uterine cervical neoplasms:

1. Hysterectomy: This is a surgical procedure to remove the uterus and may be recommended for early-stage cancers or precancerous changes.
2. Cryotherapy: This is a minimally invasive procedure that uses liquid nitrogen to freeze and destroy abnormal cells in the cervix.
3. Laser therapy: This is a minimally invasive procedure that uses a laser to remove or destroy abnormal cells in the cervix.
4. Cone biopsy: This is a surgical procedure to remove a small cone-shaped sample of tissue from the cervix to diagnose and treat early-stage cancers or precancerous changes.
5. Radiation therapy: This is a non-surgical treatment that uses high-energy rays to kill cancer cells and may be recommended for more advanced cancers or when the cancer has spread to other parts of the body.
6. Chemotherapy: This is a non-surgical treatment that uses drugs to kill cancer cells and may be recommended for more advanced cancers or when the cancer has spread to other parts of the body.
7. Immunotherapy: This is a non-surgical treatment that uses drugs to stimulate the immune system to fight cancer cells and may be recommended for more advanced cancers or when other treatments have failed.
8. Targeted therapy: This is a non-surgical treatment that uses drugs to target specific genes or proteins that contribute to cancer growth and development and may be recommended for more advanced cancers or when other treatments have failed.

It is important to note that the choice of treatment will depend on the stage and location of the cancer, as well as the patient's overall health and preferences. Patients should discuss their treatment options with their doctor and develop a personalized plan that is right for them.

Examples of precancerous conditions include:

1. Dysplasia: This is a condition where abnormal cells are present in the tissue, but have not yet invaded surrounding tissues. Dysplasia can be found in organs such as the cervix, colon, and breast.
2. Carcinoma in situ (CIS): This is a condition where cancer cells are present in the tissue, but have not yet invaded surrounding tissues. CIS is often found in organs such as the breast, prostate, and cervix.
3. Atypical hyperplasia: This is a condition where abnormal cells are present in the tissue, but they are not yet cancerous. Atypical hyperplasia can be found in organs such as the breast and uterus.
4. Lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS): This is a condition where cancer cells are present in the milk-producing glands of the breasts, but have not yet invaded surrounding tissues. LCIS is often found in both breasts and can increase the risk of developing breast cancer.
5. Adenomas: These are small growths on the surface of the colon that can become malignant over time if left untreated.
6. Leukoplakia: This is a condition where thick, white patches develop on the tongue or inside the mouth. Leukoplakia can be a precancerous condition and may increase the risk of developing oral cancer.
7. Oral subsquamous carcinoma: This is a type of precancerous lesion that develops in the mouth and can progress to squamous cell carcinoma if left untreated.
8. Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN): This is a condition where abnormal cells are present on the surface of the cervix, but have not yet invaded surrounding tissues. CIN can progress to cancer over time if left untreated.
9. Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN): This is a condition where abnormal cells are present on the vulva, but have not yet invaded surrounding tissues. VIN can progress to cancer over time if left untreated.
10. Penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN): This is a condition where abnormal cells are present on the penis, but have not yet invaded surrounding tissues. PIN can progress to cancer over time if left untreated.

It is important to note that not all precancerous conditions will develop into cancer, and some may resolve on their own without treatment. However, it is important to follow up with a healthcare provider to monitor any changes and determine the best course of treatment.

Intraductal carcinoma may or may not cause symptoms, and is usually detected by a mammogram. Treatment often involves surgery to remove the cancerous cells from the milk ducts. If left untreated, intraductal carcinoma may progress to more advanced breast cancer in some cases.

Intraductal carcinoma accounts for 20% of all breast cancers diagnosed each year in the United States, according to estimates from the American Cancer Society. The condition affects women of all ages, but is most common in postmenopausal women.

Circoviridae infections refer to a group of viral infections caused by the Circoviridae family of viruses. This family includes two genera: Circovirus and Papillomavirus. These viruses can infect a wide range of animals, including pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, and birds.

What are the symptoms of Circoviridae infections?

The symptoms of Circoviridae infections can vary depending on the type of virus and the species affected. However, common symptoms include:

* Diarrhea
* Vomiting
* Fever
* Loss of appetite
* Weight loss
* Poor growth or development in young animals
* Respiratory problems
* Eye inflammation
* Neurological problems

How are Circoviridae infections diagnosed?

Circoviridae infections are typically diagnosed through a combination of clinical signs, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Laboratory tests may include:

* Viral culture
* Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
* Serology

What is the treatment for Circoviridae infections?

There is no specific treatment for Circoviridae infections, other than supportive care to manage symptoms. Supportive care may include:

* Fluid therapy to prevent dehydration
* Antibiotics to prevent or treat secondary bacterial infections
* Pain management medication
* Anti-inflammatory medication
* Rest and isolation to prevent the spread of the virus

How can Circoviridae infections be prevented?

Prevention is key to avoiding Circoviridae infections. Some ways to prevent these infections include:

* Good hygiene practices, such as frequent handwashing and cleaning of surfaces
* Proper disposal of animal waste
* Avoiding contact with infected animals or their tissues
* Implementing biosecurity measures on farms and in animal facilities
* Vaccination of animals against certain Circoviridae infections
* Monitoring for signs of illness in animals and humans and seeking medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

Papillomavirus infections can be classified into two main categories: low-risk and high-risk. Low-risk papillomavirus infections typically cause benign growths such as common warts, which are usually harmless and resolve on their own over time. High-risk papillomavirus infections, on the other hand, can lead to serious health problems such as cancer, particularly cervical cancer in women and anal cancer in both men and women.

The most common form of papillomavirus infection is genital warts, which are caused by human papillomavirus (HPV). HPV is the most common sexually transmitted virus and affects both men and women. It is estimated that up to 80% of people will be infected with HPV at some point in their lifetime, but most will not develop any symptoms or complications.

Other forms of papillomavirus infections include plantar warts, which are common on the soles of the feet and palms of the hands, and flat warts, which are small, rough growths that can appear anywhere on the body.

Papillomavirus infections can be diagnosed through a variety of methods, including visual inspection, biopsy, and molecular tests such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction). Treatment options vary depending on the type and location of the infection, but may include cryotherapy (freezing), surgical removal, or topical medications. Vaccines are also available to protect against certain types of papillomaviruses, particularly HPV.

Overall, papillomavirus infections are a common and diverse group of conditions that can have significant health implications if left untreated or if they progress to more severe forms. Proper diagnosis and treatment are important for managing these infections and preventing long-term complications.



1) They share similarities with humans: Many animal species share similar biological and physiological characteristics with humans, making them useful for studying human diseases. For example, mice and rats are often used to study diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer because they have similar metabolic and cardiovascular systems to humans.

2) They can be genetically manipulated: Animal disease models can be genetically engineered to develop specific diseases or to model human genetic disorders. This allows researchers to study the progression of the disease and test potential treatments in a controlled environment.

3) They can be used to test drugs and therapies: Before new drugs or therapies are tested in humans, they are often first tested in animal models of disease. This allows researchers to assess the safety and efficacy of the treatment before moving on to human clinical trials.

4) They can provide insights into disease mechanisms: Studying disease models in animals can provide valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of a particular disease. This information can then be used to develop new treatments or improve existing ones.

5) Reduces the need for human testing: Using animal disease models reduces the need for human testing, which can be time-consuming, expensive, and ethically challenging. However, it is important to note that animal models are not perfect substitutes for human subjects, and results obtained from animal studies may not always translate to humans.

6) They can be used to study infectious diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study infectious diseases such as HIV, TB, and malaria. These models allow researchers to understand how the disease is transmitted, how it progresses, and how it responds to treatment.

7) They can be used to study complex diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study complex diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. These models allow researchers to understand the underlying mechanisms of the disease and test potential treatments.

8) They are cost-effective: Animal disease models are often less expensive than human clinical trials, making them a cost-effective way to conduct research.

9) They can be used to study drug delivery: Animal disease models can be used to study drug delivery and pharmacokinetics, which is important for developing new drugs and drug delivery systems.

10) They can be used to study aging: Animal disease models can be used to study the aging process and age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. This allows researchers to understand how aging contributes to disease and develop potential treatments.

There are several types of lung neoplasms, including:

1. Adenocarcinoma: This is the most common type of lung cancer, accounting for approximately 40% of all lung cancers. It is a malignant tumor that originates in the glands of the respiratory tract and can be found in any part of the lung.
2. Squamous cell carcinoma: This type of lung cancer accounts for approximately 25% of all lung cancers and is more common in men than women. It is a malignant tumor that originates in the squamous cells lining the airways of the lungs.
3. Small cell lung cancer (SCLC): This is a highly aggressive form of lung cancer that accounts for approximately 15% of all lung cancers. It is often found in the central parts of the lungs and can spread quickly to other parts of the body.
4. Large cell carcinoma: This is a rare type of lung cancer that accounts for only about 5% of all lung cancers. It is a malignant tumor that originates in the large cells of the respiratory tract and can be found in any part of the lung.
5. Bronchioalveolar carcinoma (BAC): This is a rare type of lung cancer that originates in the cells lining the airways and alveoli of the lungs. It is more common in women than men and tends to affect older individuals.
6. Lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM): This is a rare, progressive, and often fatal lung disease that primarily affects women of childbearing age. It is characterized by the growth of smooth muscle-like cells in the lungs and can lead to cysts, lung collapse, and respiratory failure.
7. Hamartoma: This is a benign tumor that originates in the tissue of the lungs and is usually found in children. It is characterized by an overgrowth of normal lung tissue and can be treated with surgery.
8. Secondary lung cancer: This type of cancer occurs when cancer cells from another part of the body spread to the lungs through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. It is more common in people who have a history of smoking or exposure to other carcinogens.
9. Metastatic cancer: This type of cancer occurs when cancer cells from another part of the body spread to the lungs through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. It is more common in people who have a history of smoking or exposure to other carcinogens.
10. Mesothelioma: This is a rare and aggressive form of cancer that originates in the lining of the lungs or abdomen. It is caused by asbestos exposure and can be treated with surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.

Lung diseases can also be classified based on their cause, such as:

1. Infectious diseases: These are caused by bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms and can include pneumonia, tuberculosis, and bronchitis.
2. Autoimmune diseases: These are caused by an overactive immune system and can include conditions such as sarcoidosis and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.
3. Genetic diseases: These are caused by inherited mutations in genes that affect the lungs and can include cystic fibrosis and primary ciliary dyskinesia.
4. Environmental diseases: These are caused by exposure to harmful substances such as tobacco smoke, air pollution, and asbestos.
5. Radiological diseases: These are caused by exposure to ionizing radiation and can include conditions such as radiographic breast cancer and lung cancer.
6. Vascular diseases: These are caused by problems with the blood vessels in the lungs and can include conditions such as pulmonary embolism and pulmonary hypertension.
7. Tumors: These can be benign or malignant and can include conditions such as lung metastases and lung cancer.
8. Trauma: This can include injuries to the chest or lungs caused by accidents or other forms of trauma.
9. Congenital diseases: These are present at birth and can include conditions such as bronchopulmonary foregut malformations and congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation.

Each type of lung disease has its own set of symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment options. It is important to seek medical attention if you experience any persistent or severe respiratory symptoms, as early diagnosis and treatment can improve outcomes and quality of life.

Examples of syndromes include:

1. Down syndrome: A genetic disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 that affects intellectual and physical development.
2. Turner syndrome: A genetic disorder caused by a missing or partially deleted X chromosome that affects physical growth and development in females.
3. Marfan syndrome: A genetic disorder affecting the body's connective tissue, causing tall stature, long limbs, and cardiovascular problems.
4. Alzheimer's disease: A neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss, confusion, and changes in personality and behavior.
5. Parkinson's disease: A neurological disorder characterized by tremors, rigidity, and difficulty with movement.
6. Klinefelter syndrome: A genetic disorder caused by an extra X chromosome in males, leading to infertility and other physical characteristics.
7. Williams syndrome: A rare genetic disorder caused by a deletion of genetic material on chromosome 7, characterized by cardiovascular problems, developmental delays, and a distinctive facial appearance.
8. Fragile X syndrome: The most common form of inherited intellectual disability, caused by an expansion of a specific gene on the X chromosome.
9. Prader-Willi syndrome: A genetic disorder caused by a defect in the hypothalamus, leading to problems with appetite regulation and obesity.
10. Sjogren's syndrome: An autoimmune disorder that affects the glands that produce tears and saliva, causing dry eyes and mouth.

Syndromes can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment for a syndrome depends on the underlying cause and the specific symptoms and signs presented by the patient.

1. Tumor size and location: Larger tumors that have spread to nearby tissues or organs are generally considered more invasive than smaller tumors that are confined to the original site.
2. Cellular growth patterns: The way in which cancer cells grow and divide can also contribute to the overall invasiveness of a neoplasm. For example, cells that grow in a disorganized or chaotic manner may be more likely to invade surrounding tissues.
3. Mitotic index: The mitotic index is a measure of how quickly the cancer cells are dividing. A higher mitotic index is generally associated with more aggressive and invasive cancers.
4. Necrosis: Necrosis, or the death of cells, can be an indication of the level of invasiveness of a neoplasm. The presence of significant necrosis in a tumor is often a sign that the cancer has invaded surrounding tissues and organs.
5. Lymphovascular invasion: Cancer cells that have invaded lymphatic vessels or blood vessels are considered more invasive than those that have not.
6. Perineural invasion: Cancer cells that have invaded nerve fibers are also considered more invasive.
7. Histological grade: The histological grade of a neoplasm is a measure of how abnormal the cancer cells look under a microscope. Higher-grade cancers are generally considered more aggressive and invasive than lower-grade cancers.
8. Immunohistochemical markers: Certain immunohistochemical markers, such as Ki-67, can be used to evaluate the proliferative activity of cancer cells. Higher levels of these markers are generally associated with more aggressive and invasive cancers.

Overall, the degree of neoplasm invasiveness is an important factor in determining the likelihood of the cancer spreading to other parts of the body (metastasizing) and in determining the appropriate treatment strategy for the patient.

The symptoms of oligodendroglioma can vary depending on the location and size of the tumor, but may include headaches, seizures, weakness or numbness in the arms or legs, and changes in personality or behavior.

Oligodendrogliomas are diagnosed through a combination of imaging tests such as MRI or CT scans, and tissue biopsy. Treatment options for oligodendroglioma can include surgery to remove the tumor, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy with drugs such as temozolomide.

Prognosis for oligodendroglioma depends on the location, size, and aggressiveness of the tumor, as well as the age and overall health of the patient. In general, benign oligodendrogliomas have a good prognosis, while malignant ones are more difficult to treat and can be associated with a poorer outcome.

There is ongoing research into new treatments for oligodendroglioma, including clinical trials of innovative drugs and therapies.

These tumors can be benign or malignant, and their growth and behavior vary depending on the type of cancer. Malignant tumors can invade the surrounding tissues and spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system, causing serious complications and potentially life-threatening consequences.

The risk factors for developing urinary bladder neoplasms include smoking, exposure to certain chemicals, recurrent bladder infections, and a family history of bladder cancer. The symptoms of these tumors can include blood in the urine, pain during urination, frequent urination, and abdominal pain.

Diagnosis of urinary bladder neoplasms is typically made through a combination of imaging tests such as ultrasound, computed tomography (CT) scan or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and cystoscopy, which involves inserting a flexible tube with a camera into the bladder to visualize the tumor.

Treatment options for urinary bladder neoplasms depend on the type of cancer, stage, and location of the tumor. Treatment may include surgery to remove the tumor, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of these modalities. Early detection and treatment can improve the prognosis for patients with urinary bladder neoplasms.

There are several types of skin neoplasms, including:

1. Basal cell carcinoma (BCC): This is the most common type of skin cancer, and it usually appears as a small, fleshy bump or a flat, scaly patch. BCC is highly treatable, but if left untreated, it can grow and invade surrounding tissue.
2. Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC): This type of skin cancer is less common than BCC but more aggressive. It typically appears as a firm, flat, or raised bump on sun-exposed areas. SCC can spread to other parts of the body if left untreated.
3. Melanoma: This is the most serious type of skin cancer, accounting for only 1% of all skin neoplasms but responsible for the majority of skin cancer deaths. Melanoma can appear as a new or changing mole, and it's essential to recognize the ABCDE signs (Asymmetry, Border irregularity, Color variation, Diameter >6mm, Evolving size, shape, or color) to detect it early.
4. Sebaceous gland carcinoma: This rare type of skin cancer originates in the oil-producing glands of the skin and can appear as a firm, painless nodule on the forehead, nose, or other oily areas.
5. Merkel cell carcinoma: This is a rare and aggressive skin cancer that typically appears as a firm, shiny bump on the skin. It's more common in older adults and those with a history of sun exposure.
6. Cutaneous lymphoma: This type of cancer affects the immune system and can appear as a rash, nodules, or tumors on the skin.
7. Kaposi sarcoma: This is a rare type of skin cancer that affects people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS. It typically appears as a flat, red or purple lesion on the skin.

While skin cancers are generally curable when detected early, it's important to be aware of your skin and notice any changes or unusual spots, especially if you have a history of sun exposure or other risk factors. If you suspect anything suspicious, see a dermatologist for an evaluation and potential biopsy. Remember, prevention is key to avoiding the harmful effects of UV radiation and reducing your risk of developing skin cancer.

Causes of Chromosomal Instability:

1. Genetic mutations: Mutations in genes that regulate the cell cycle or chromosome segregation can lead to CIN.
2. Environmental factors: Exposure to certain environmental agents such as radiation and certain chemicals can increase the risk of developing CIN.
3. Errors during DNA replication: Mistakes during DNA replication can also lead to CIN.

Types of Chromosomal Instability:

1. Aneuploidy: Cells with an abnormal number of chromosomes, either more or fewer than the normal diploid number (46 in humans).
2. Structural changes: Deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations, and other structural changes can occur in the chromosomes.
3. Unstable chromosome structures: Chromosomes with abnormal shapes or structures, such as telomere shortening, centromere instability, or chromosome breaks, can also lead to CIN.

Effects of Chromosomal Instability:

1. Cancer: CIN can increase the risk of developing cancer by disrupting normal cellular processes and leading to genetic mutations.
2. Aging: CIN can contribute to aging by shortening telomeres, which are the protective caps at the ends of chromosomes that help maintain their stability.
3. Neurodegenerative diseases: CIN has been implicated in the development of certain neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.
4. Infertility: CIN can lead to infertility by disrupting normal meiotic recombination and chromosome segregation during gametogenesis.

Detection and Diagnosis of Chromosomal Instability:

1. Karyotyping: This is a technique used to visualize the entire set of chromosomes in a cell. It can help identify structural abnormalities such as deletions, duplications, or translocations.
2. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH): This technique uses fluorescent probes to detect specific DNA sequences or proteins on chromosomes. It can help identify changes in chromosome structure or number.
3. Array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH): This technique compares the genetic material of a sample to a reference genome to identify copy number changes.
4. Next-generation sequencing (NGS): This technique can identify point mutations and other genetic changes in DNA.

Treatment and Management of Chromosomal Instability:

1. Cancer treatment: Depending on the type and stage of cancer, treatments such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or surgery may be used to eliminate cancer cells with CIN.
2. Prenatal testing: Pregnant women with a family history of CIN can undergo prenatal testing to detect chromosomal abnormalities in their fetuses.
3. Genetic counseling: Individuals with a family history of CIN can consult with a genetic counselor to discuss risk factors and potential testing options.
4. Lifestyle modifications: Making healthy lifestyle choices such as maintaining a balanced diet, exercising regularly, and not smoking can help reduce the risk of developing cancer and other diseases associated with CIN.

In conclusion, chromosomal instability is a common feature of many human diseases, including cancer, and can be caused by a variety of factors. The diagnosis and management of CIN require a multidisciplinary approach that includes cytogenetic analysis, molecular diagnostics, and clinical evaluation. Understanding the causes and consequences of CIN is crucial for developing effective therapies and improving patient outcomes.

Disease progression can be classified into several types based on the pattern of worsening:

1. Chronic progressive disease: In this type, the disease worsens steadily over time, with a gradual increase in symptoms and decline in function. Examples include rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and Parkinson's disease.
2. Acute progressive disease: This type of disease worsens rapidly over a short period, often followed by periods of stability. Examples include sepsis, acute myocardial infarction (heart attack), and stroke.
3. Cyclical disease: In this type, the disease follows a cycle of worsening and improvement, with periodic exacerbations and remissions. Examples include multiple sclerosis, lupus, and rheumatoid arthritis.
4. Recurrent disease: This type is characterized by episodes of worsening followed by periods of recovery. Examples include migraine headaches, asthma, and appendicitis.
5. Catastrophic disease: In this type, the disease progresses rapidly and unpredictably, with a poor prognosis. Examples include cancer, AIDS, and organ failure.

Disease progression can be influenced by various factors, including:

1. Genetics: Some diseases are inherited and may have a predetermined course of progression.
2. Lifestyle: Factors such as smoking, lack of exercise, and poor diet can contribute to disease progression.
3. Environmental factors: Exposure to toxins, allergens, and other environmental stressors can influence disease progression.
4. Medical treatment: The effectiveness of medical treatment can impact disease progression, either by slowing or halting the disease process or by causing unintended side effects.
5. Co-morbidities: The presence of multiple diseases or conditions can interact and affect each other's progression.

Understanding the type and factors influencing disease progression is essential for developing effective treatment plans and improving patient outcomes.

There are several types of stomach neoplasms, including:

1. Adenocarcinoma: This is the most common type of stomach cancer, accounting for approximately 90% of all cases. It begins in the glandular cells that line the stomach and can spread to other parts of the body.
2. Squamous cell carcinoma: This type of cancer begins in the squamous cells that cover the outer layer of the stomach. It is less common than adenocarcinoma but more likely to be found in the upper part of the stomach.
3. Gastric mixed adenocarcinomasquamous cell carcinoma: This type of cancer is a combination of adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma.
4. Lymphoma: This is a cancer of the immune system that can occur in the stomach. It is less common than other types of stomach cancer but can be more aggressive.
5. Carcinomas of the stomach: These are malignant tumors that arise from the epithelial cells lining the stomach. They can be subdivided into adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and others.
6. Gastric brunner's gland adenoma: This is a rare type of benign tumor that arises from the Brunner's glands in the stomach.
7. Gastric polyps: These are growths that occur on the lining of the stomach and can be either benign or malignant.

The symptoms of stomach neoplasms vary depending on the location, size, and type of tumor. Common symptoms include abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, weight loss, and difficulty swallowing. Diagnosis is usually made through a combination of endoscopy, imaging studies (such as CT or PET scans), and biopsy. Treatment depends on the type and stage of the tumor and may include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of these. The prognosis for stomach neoplasms varies depending on the type and stage of the tumor, but early detection and treatment can improve outcomes.

Also known as Burkitt's Lymphoma.

Malignant prostatic neoplasms are cancerous tumors that can be aggressive and spread to other parts of the body (metastasize). The most common type of malignant prostatic neoplasm is adenocarcinoma of the prostate, which accounts for approximately 95% of all prostate cancers. Other types of malignant prostatic neoplasms include sarcomas and small cell carcinomas.

Prostatic neoplasms can be diagnosed through a variety of tests such as digital rectal examination (DRE), prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test, imaging studies (ultrasound, CT scan or MRI), and biopsy. Treatment options for prostatic neoplasms depend on the type, stage, and grade of the tumor, as well as the patient's age and overall health. Treatment options can include active surveillance, surgery (robotic-assisted laparoscopic prostatectomy or open prostatectomy), radiation therapy (external beam radiation therapy or brachytherapy), and hormone therapy.

In summary, Prostatic Neoplasms are tumors that occur in the prostate gland, which can be benign or malignant. The most common types of malignant prostatic neoplasms are adenocarcinoma of the prostate, and other types include sarcomas and small cell carcinomas. Diagnosis is done through a variety of tests, and treatment options depend on the type, stage, and grade of the tumor, as well as the patient's age and overall health.

Brain neoplasms can arise from various types of cells in the brain, including glial cells (such as astrocytes and oligodendrocytes), neurons, and vascular tissues. The symptoms of brain neoplasms vary depending on their size, location, and type, but may include headaches, seizures, weakness or numbness in the limbs, and changes in personality or cognitive function.

There are several different types of brain neoplasms, including:

1. Meningiomas: These are benign tumors that arise from the meninges, the thin layers of tissue that cover the brain and spinal cord.
2. Gliomas: These are malignant tumors that arise from glial cells in the brain. The most common type of glioma is a glioblastoma, which is aggressive and hard to treat.
3. Pineal parenchymal tumors: These are rare tumors that arise in the pineal gland, a small endocrine gland in the brain.
4. Craniopharyngiomas: These are benign tumors that arise from the epithelial cells of the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus.
5. Medulloblastomas: These are malignant tumors that arise in the cerebellum, specifically in the medulla oblongata. They are most common in children.
6. Acoustic neurinomas: These are benign tumors that arise on the nerve that connects the inner ear to the brain.
7. Oligodendrogliomas: These are malignant tumors that arise from oligodendrocytes, the cells that produce the fatty substance called myelin that insulates nerve fibers.
8. Lymphomas: These are cancers of the immune system that can arise in the brain and spinal cord. The most common type of lymphoma in the CNS is primary central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma, which is usually a type of B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
9. Metastatic tumors: These are tumors that have spread to the brain from another part of the body. The most common types of metastatic tumors in the CNS are breast cancer, lung cancer, and melanoma.

These are just a few examples of the many types of brain and spinal cord tumors that can occur. Each type of tumor has its own unique characteristics, such as its location, size, growth rate, and biological behavior. These factors can help doctors determine the best course of treatment for each patient.

There are several subtypes of lymphoma, B-cell, including:

1. Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL): This is the most common type of B-cell lymphoma and typically affects older adults.
2. Follicular lymphoma: This type of lymphoma grows slowly and often does not require treatment for several years.
3. Marginal zone lymphoma: This type of lymphoma develops in the marginal zone of the spleen or other lymphoid tissues.
4. Hodgkin lymphoma: This is a type of B-cell lymphoma that is characterized by the presence of Reed-Sternberg cells, which are abnormal cells that can be identified under a microscope.

The symptoms of lymphoma, B-cell can vary depending on the subtype and the location of the tumor. Common symptoms include swollen lymph nodes, fatigue, fever, night sweats, and weight loss.

Treatment for lymphoma, B-cell usually involves chemotherapy, which is a type of cancer treatment that uses drugs to kill cancer cells. Radiation therapy may also be used in some cases. In some cases, bone marrow or stem cell transplantation may be recommended.

Prognosis for lymphoma, B-cell depends on the subtype and the stage of the disease at the time of diagnosis. In general, the prognosis is good for patients with early-stage disease, but the cancer can be more difficult to treat if it has spread to other parts of the body.

Prevention of lymphoma, B-cell is not possible, as the exact cause of the disease is not known. However, avoiding exposure to certain risk factors, such as viral infections and pesticides, may help reduce the risk of developing the disease. Early detection and treatment can also improve outcomes for patients with lymphoma, B-cell.

Lymphoma, B-cell is a type of cancer that affects the immune system and can be treated with chemotherapy and other therapies. The prognosis varies depending on the subtype and stage of the disease at diagnosis. Prevention is not possible, but early detection and treatment can improve outcomes for patients with this condition.

Explanation: Neoplastic cell transformation is a complex process that involves multiple steps and can occur as a result of genetic mutations, environmental factors, or a combination of both. The process typically begins with a series of subtle changes in the DNA of individual cells, which can lead to the loss of normal cellular functions and the acquisition of abnormal growth and reproduction patterns.

Over time, these transformed cells can accumulate further mutations that allow them to survive and proliferate despite adverse conditions. As the transformed cells continue to divide and grow, they can eventually form a tumor, which is a mass of abnormal cells that can invade and damage surrounding tissues.

In some cases, cancer cells can also break away from the primary tumor and travel through the bloodstream or lymphatic system to other parts of the body, where they can establish new tumors. This process, known as metastasis, is a major cause of death in many types of cancer.

It's worth noting that not all transformed cells will become cancerous. Some forms of cellular transformation, such as those that occur during embryonic development or tissue regeneration, are normal and necessary for the proper functioning of the body. However, when these transformations occur in adult tissues, they can be a sign of cancer.

See also: Cancer, Tumor

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Herpesviridae infections are caused by the Herpesviridae family of viruses and can be transmitted through skin-to-skin contact, sexual contact, or from mother to child during pregnancy or childbirth. Symptoms of herpesviridae infections can vary depending on the type of virus and the individual infected, but may include fever, fatigue, muscle aches, and skin sores or rashes.

There is no cure for herpesviridae infections, but antiviral medications can help manage symptoms and reduce the risk of transmission to others. Good hygiene practices, such as washing hands regularly and avoiding close contact with those who are infected, can also help prevent the spread of these viruses.

Some common types of herpesviridae infections include:

* Herpes simplex virus (HSV) - Causes cold sores and genital herpes.
* Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) - Causes chickenpox and shingles.
* Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) - Associated with certain types of cancer, such as Kaposi's sarcoma.

DLBCL is characterized by the rapid growth of malignant B cells in the lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, and other organs. These cells can also spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. The disease is often aggressive and can progress quickly without treatment.

The symptoms of DLBCL vary depending on the location and extent of the disease, but they may include:

* Swollen lymph nodes in the neck, underarm, or groin
* Fever
* Fatigue
* Night sweats
* Weight loss
* Abdominal pain or discomfort
* Itching

The diagnosis of DLBCL is based on a combination of physical examination findings, imaging studies (such as CT scans or PET scans), and biopsy results. Treatment typically involves a combination of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and in some cases, immunotherapy or targeted therapy. The prognosis for DLBCL has improved significantly over the past few decades, with overall survival rates ranging from 60% to 80%, depending on the stage and other factors.

Hodgkin Disease can spread to other parts of the body through the lymphatic system, and it can affect people of all ages, although it is most common in young adults and teenagers. The symptoms of Hodgkin Disease can vary depending on the stage of the disease, but they may include swollen lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, fatigue, weight loss, and itching.

There are several types of Hodgkin Disease, including:

* Classical Hodgkin Disease: This is the most common type of Hodgkin Disease and is characterized by the presence of Reed-Sternberg cells.
* Nodular Lymphocytic predominant Hodgkin Disease: This type of Hodgkin Disease is characterized by the presence of nodules in the lymph nodes.
* Mixed Cellularity Hodgkin Disease: This type of Hodgkin Disease is characterized by a mixture of Reed-Sternberg cells and other immune cells.

Hodgkin Disease is usually diagnosed with a biopsy, which involves removing a sample of tissue from the affected lymph node or other area and examining it under a microscope for cancer cells. Treatment for Hodgkin Disease typically involves chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of both. In some cases, bone marrow or stem cell transplantation may be necessary.

The prognosis for Hodgkin Disease is generally good, especially if the disease is detected and treated early. According to the American Cancer Society, the 5-year survival rate for people with Hodgkin Disease is about 85%. However, the disease can sometimes recur after treatment, and the long-term effects of radiation therapy and chemotherapy can include infertility, heart problems, and an increased risk of secondary cancers.

Hodgkin Disease is a rare form of cancer that affects the immune system. It is most commonly diagnosed in young adults and is usually treatable with chemotherapy or radiation therapy. However, the disease can sometimes recur after treatment, and the long-term effects of treatment can include infertility, heart problems, and an increased risk of secondary cancers.

There are different types of hyperplasia, depending on the location and cause of the condition. Some examples include:

1. Benign hyperplasia: This type of hyperplasia is non-cancerous and does not spread to other parts of the body. It can occur in various tissues and organs, such as the uterus (fibroids), breast tissue (fibrocystic changes), or prostate gland (benign prostatic hyperplasia).
2. Malignant hyperplasia: This type of hyperplasia is cancerous and can invade nearby tissues and organs, leading to serious health problems. Examples include skin cancer, breast cancer, and colon cancer.
3. Hyperplastic polyps: These are abnormal growths that occur in the gastrointestinal tract and can be precancerous.
4. Adenomatous hyperplasia: This type of hyperplasia is characterized by an increase in the number of glandular cells in a specific organ, such as the colon or breast. It can be a precursor to cancer.

The symptoms of hyperplasia depend on the location and severity of the condition. In general, they may include:

* Enlargement or swelling of the affected tissue or organ
* Pain or discomfort in the affected area
* Abnormal bleeding or discharge
* Changes in bowel or bladder habits
* Unexplained weight loss or gain

Hyperplasia is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, imaging tests such as ultrasound or MRI, and biopsy. Treatment options depend on the underlying cause and severity of the condition, and may include medication, surgery, or other interventions.

The primary symptoms of DiGeorge syndrome include:

1. Cleft palate or other congenital facial abnormalities
2. Heart defects, such as Tetralogy of Fallot
3. Developmental delays and learning disabilities
4. Speech difficulties
5. Hearing loss
6. Vision problems
7. Immune system dysfunction
8. Thyroid gland abnormalities
9. Kidney and urinary tract defects
10. Increased risk of infections

DiGeorge syndrome is caused by a genetic mutation that occurs sporadically, meaning it is not inherited from either parent. The condition is usually diagnosed during infancy or early childhood, based on the presence of distinctive physical features and developmental delays. Treatment for DiGeorge syndrome typically involves managing the associated symptoms and developmental delays through a combination of medical interventions, therapies, and special education. With appropriate support and care, individuals with DiGeorge syndrome can lead fulfilling lives, although they may require ongoing medical attention throughout their lives.

In LLCB, the B cells undergo a mutation that causes them to become cancerous and multiply rapidly. This can lead to an overproduction of these cells in the bone marrow, causing the bone marrow to become crowded and unable to produce healthy red blood cells, platelets, and white blood cells.

LLCB is typically a slow-growing cancer, and it can take years for symptoms to develop. However, as the cancer progresses, it can lead to a range of symptoms including fatigue, weakness, weight loss, fever, night sweats, and swollen lymph nodes.

LLCB is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, blood tests, bone marrow biopsy, and imaging studies such as X-rays or CT scans. Treatment options for LLCB include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and in some cases, stem cell transplantation.

Overall, while LLCB is a serious condition, it is typically slow-growing and can be managed with appropriate treatment. With current treatments, many people with LLCB can achieve long-term remission and a good quality of life.

Multiple myeloma is the second most common type of hematologic cancer after non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, accounting for approximately 1% of all cancer deaths worldwide. It is more common in older adults, with most patients being diagnosed over the age of 65.

The exact cause of multiple myeloma is not known, but it is believed to be linked to genetic mutations that occur in the plasma cells. There are several risk factors that have been associated with an increased risk of developing multiple myeloma, including:

1. Family history: Having a family history of multiple myeloma or other plasma cell disorders increases the risk of developing the disease.
2. Age: The risk of developing multiple myeloma increases with age, with most patients being diagnosed over the age of 65.
3. Race: African Americans are at higher risk of developing multiple myeloma than other races.
4. Obesity: Being overweight or obese may increase the risk of developing multiple myeloma.
5. Exposure to certain chemicals: Exposure to certain chemicals such as pesticides, solvents, and heavy metals has been linked to an increased risk of developing multiple myeloma.

The symptoms of multiple myeloma can vary depending on the severity of the disease and the organs affected. Common symptoms include:

1. Bone pain: Pain in the bones, particularly in the spine, ribs, or long bones, is a common symptom of multiple myeloma.
2. Fatigue: Feeling tired or weak is another common symptom of the disease.
3. Infections: Patients with multiple myeloma may be more susceptible to infections due to the impaired functioning of their immune system.
4. Bone fractures: Weakened bones can lead to an increased risk of fractures, particularly in the spine, hips, or ribs.
5. Kidney problems: Multiple myeloma can cause damage to the kidneys, leading to problems such as kidney failure or proteinuria (excess protein in the urine).
6. Anemia: A low red blood cell count can cause anemia, which can lead to fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath.
7. Increased calcium levels: High levels of calcium in the blood can cause symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, constipation, and confusion.
8. Neurological problems: Multiple myeloma can cause neurological problems such as headaches, numbness or tingling in the arms and legs, and difficulty with coordination and balance.

The diagnosis of multiple myeloma typically involves a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests. These may include:

1. Complete blood count (CBC): A CBC can help identify abnormalities in the numbers and characteristics of different types of blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
2. Serum protein electrophoresis (SPEP): This test measures the levels of different proteins in the blood, including immunoglobulins (antibodies) and abnormal proteins produced by myeloma cells.
3. Urine protein electrophoresis (UPEP): This test measures the levels of different proteins in the urine.
4. Immunofixation: This test is used to identify the type of antibody produced by myeloma cells and to rule out other conditions that may cause similar symptoms.
5. Bone marrow biopsy: A bone marrow biopsy involves removing a sample of tissue from the bone marrow for examination under a microscope. This can help confirm the diagnosis of multiple myeloma and determine the extent of the disease.
6. Imaging tests: Imaging tests such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRI scans may be used to assess the extent of bone damage or other complications of multiple myeloma.
7. Genetic testing: Genetic testing may be used to identify specific genetic abnormalities that are associated with multiple myeloma and to monitor the response of the disease to treatment.

It's important to note that not all patients with MGUS or smoldering myeloma will develop multiple myeloma, and some patients with multiple myeloma may not have any symptoms at all. However, if you are experiencing any of the symptoms listed above or have a family history of multiple myeloma, it's important to talk to your doctor about your risk and any tests that may be appropriate for you.

Adenomas are caused by genetic mutations that occur in the DNA of the affected cells. These mutations can be inherited or acquired through exposure to environmental factors such as tobacco smoke, radiation, or certain chemicals.

The symptoms of an adenoma can vary depending on its location and size. In general, they may include abdominal pain, bleeding, or changes in bowel movements. If the adenoma becomes large enough, it can obstruct the normal functioning of the affected organ or cause a blockage that can lead to severe health complications.

Adenomas are usually diagnosed through endoscopy, which involves inserting a flexible tube with a camera into the affected organ to visualize the inside. Biopsies may also be taken to confirm the presence of cancerous cells.

Treatment for adenomas depends on their size, location, and severity. Small, non-pedunculated adenomas can often be removed during endoscopy through a procedure called endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR). Larger adenomas may require surgical resection, and in some cases, chemotherapy or radiation therapy may also be necessary.

In summary, adenoma is a type of benign tumor that can occur in glandular tissue throughout the body. While they are not cancerous, they have the potential to become malignant over time if left untreated. Therefore, it is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time. Early detection and treatment can help prevent complications and improve outcomes for patients with adenomas.

The most common parvoviridae infection in animals is feline panleukopenia (FPV) or canine parvovirus (CPV), which affects dogs and cats. These infections are highly contagious and can cause a range of symptoms, including fever, vomiting, diarrhea, lethargy, and loss of appetite. In severe cases, they can lead to life-threatening complications such as anemia, bone marrow failure, and death.

There is no specific treatment for parvoviridae infections, but supportive care such as fluid therapy, antibiotics, and anti-inflammatory medication can help manage symptoms and prevent complications. Vaccination is the most effective way to prevent parvoviridae infections, and vaccines are available for dogs, cats, and other animals.

In humans, parvoviridae infections are rare but can occur through contact with infected animals or contaminated feces. The most common human parvoviridae infection is erythema infectiosum (Fifth disease), which causes a rash, fever, and mild symptoms. Pregnant women who contract parvoviridae infections may experience complications such as miscarriage or preterm labor. There is no specific treatment for human parvoviridae infections, but supportive care can help manage symptoms.

The BCR-ABL gene is a fusion gene that is present in the majority of cases of CML. It is created by the translocation of two genes, called BCR and ABL, which leads to the production of a constitutively active tyrosine kinase protein that promotes the growth and proliferation of abnormal white blood cells.

There are three main phases of CML, each with distinct clinical and laboratory features:

1. Chronic phase: This is the earliest phase of CML, where patients may be asymptomatic or have mild symptoms such as fatigue, night sweats, and splenomegaly (enlargement of the spleen). The peripheral blood count typically shows a high number of blasts in the blood, but the bone marrow is still functional.
2. Accelerated phase: In this phase, the disease progresses to a higher number of blasts in the blood and bone marrow, with evidence of more aggressive disease. Patients may experience symptoms such as fever, weight loss, and pain in the joints or abdomen.
3. Blast phase: This is the most advanced phase of CML, where there is a high number of blasts in the blood and bone marrow, with significant loss of function of the bone marrow. Patients are often symptomatic and may have evidence of spread of the disease to other organs, such as the liver or spleen.

Treatment for CML typically involves targeted therapy with drugs that inhibit the activity of the BCR-ABL protein, such as imatinib (Gleevec), dasatinib (Sprycel), or nilotinib (Tasigna). These drugs can slow or stop the progression of the disease, and may also produce a complete cytogenetic response, which is defined as the absence of all Ph+ metaphases in the bone marrow. However, these drugs are not curative and may have significant side effects. Allogenic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is also a potential treatment option for CML, but it carries significant risks and is usually reserved for patients who are in the blast phase of the disease or have failed other treatments.

In summary, the clinical course of CML can be divided into three phases based on the number of blasts in the blood and bone marrow, and treatment options vary depending on the phase of the disease. It is important for patients with CML to receive regular monitoring and follow-up care to assess their response to treatment and detect any signs of disease progression.

Chromogenic in situ hybridization (CISH) Fluorescence in situ hybridization O'Connor, Clare. "Fluorescence In Situ ... In Situ Hybridization of RNA and miRNA Probes to cells, CTCs, and tissues Whole-Mount In Situ Hybridization of RNA Probes to ... In situ hybridization was invented by American biologists Mary-Lou Pardue and Joseph G. Gall. In situ hybridization is a ... whole mount in situ hybridization, double detection of RNAs and RNA plus protein, and fluorescent in situ hybridization to ...
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fluorescence in situ hybridization. Fluorescent+in+Situ+Hybridization at the US National ... In fluorescent "in situ" hybridization refers to the cellular placement of the probe Probe size is important because shorter ... Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a molecular cytogenetic technique that uses fluorescent probes that bind to only ... It is critical for the hybridization process to have all optimal conditions to have a successful in situ result, including ...
"Chromogenic in situ hybridization: A practical alternative for fluorescence in situ hybridization to detect HER-2/neu oncogene ... "Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH), Basic Principles and Methodology". Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH). ... "Comparing fluorescence in situ hybridization and chromogenic in situ hybridization methods to determine the HER2/neu status in ... "HER-2 gene amplification by chromogenic in situ hybridisation (CISH) compared with fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) in ...
... in situ hybridization; functional analysis; SNP detection and use as antigens and many others nucleotide base applications.[ ... enhances base stacking and pre-organizes the backbone of the oligonucleotide significantly increasing their hybridization ...
... in situ hybridization https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1iRynlXIJw0 A detailed description of Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization ... Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH)is the most widely used riboprobe technique. A target sequence and a probe are ... RNA probes were proved to be able to perform the same function and also used with in situ hybridization. Fluorescent dyed ... There are two kinds of probes used during in situ hybridization: Riboprobes and DNA oligonucleotides probes. Riboprobes are ...
They are microdissection techniques, Fluorescent in situ hybridization methods, in situ sequencing, in situ capture protocols ... in situ hybridization was developed in the late 60's and saw major developments in the 80's (smFISH) and 10's (RNAscope, ... Thus, this in situ hybridization (ISH) technique spots spatial localization of RNA expression via direct imaging of individual ... Another in situ hybridization technique termed RNAscope employs probes of the specific Z-shaped design to simultaneously ...
FISH chromosome in-situ hybridization allows the study cytogenetics in pre- and postnatal samples and is also widely used in ... Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization maps out single copy or repetitive DNA sequences through localization labeling of specific ... It includes a series of techniques referred to as fluorescence in situ hybridization, or FISH, in which DNA probes are labeled ... O'Connor C (2008). "Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)". Nature Education. 1 (1): 171. Martin EA, McFerran TA, eds. ( ...
Nilaver, Gajanan (1986). "In Situ Hybridization Histochemistry as a Supplement to Immunohistochemistry". In Situ Hybridization ... in situ hybridization or fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). A neuronal lineage marker can be a neuronal antigen that is ... This technique is called in situ Hybridization and it is used in a large variety of studies but mainly used in developmental ... This technique is known as in situ hybridization. Its application have been carried out in all different tissues, but ...
... q24 by in situ hybridization". Cytogenet Cell Genet. 88 (3-4): 197-9. doi:10.1159/000015545. PMID 10828584. S2CID 45527362. " ...
1 by fluorescence in situ hybridization". Genomics. 40 (1): 213-5. doi:10.1006/geno.1996.4540. PMID 9070952. Ladner RD, ...
... to band 15q22 by fluorescence in situ hybridization". Cytogenet Cell Genet. 69 (1-2): 15-17. doi:10.1159/000133928. PMID ... to band 9p13 by fluorescence in situ hybridization". Cytogenet Cell Genet. 71 (1): 94-95. doi:10.1159/000134070. PMID 7606936. ... to band 19p13.1 by fluorescence in situ hybridization". Cytogenet Cell Genet. 72 (4): 294-296. doi:10.1159/000134206. PMID ... q23 by fluorescence in situ hybridization". Cytogenet Cell Genet. 68 (1-2): 122-124. doi:10.1159/000133905. PMID 7956350. ...
Jin L, Lloyd RV (1997). "In situ hybridization: methods and applications". J Clin Lab Anal. 11 (1): 2-9. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098 ... is called in situ hybridization histochemistry. Radioactive precursors of DNA and RNA, [3H]-thymidine and [3H]-uridine ...
Evidence from genomic in situ hybridization". Annals of Botany. 104 (4): 681-688. doi:10.1093/aob/mcp161. PMC 2729636. PMID ... For example, homoploid hybridization is hybridization where the offspring have the same ploidy level as the two parental ... This contrasts with a common situation in plants where chromosome doubling accompanies or occurs soon after hybridization. ... Allopolyploids are formed from the hybridization of two separate species. In plants, this probably most often occurs from the ...
In Situ Hybridization, including tissue sectioning, slide mounting, and hybridization histochemistry; Mouse Genome Manipulation ... "RPA/In Situ Hybridization Research Core". Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation. Archived from the original on May 23, 2005. ...
"A new method of in situ hybridization". Chromosoma. 53 (2): 107-117. doi:10.1007/bf00333039. PMID 172297. S2CID 29595419. ...
"Hybridization". Retrieved 26 May 2017. Levsky, JM; Singer, RH (15 July 2003). "Fluorescence in situ hybridization: past, ... Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a laboratory method used to detect and locate a DNA sequence, often on a ... In molecular biology, hybridization (or hybridisation) is a phenomenon in which single-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ... many refinements have increased the versatility and sensitivity of the procedure to the extent that in situ hybridization is ...
... this was done using fluorescence in situ hybridization. BLVRB encodes a protein that is a 206-residue monomeric enzyme. The ... q13.2 by fluorescence in situ hybridization". Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics. 71 (2): 179-81. doi:10.1159/000134102. PMID ...
... in situ hybridization analysis for human papillomavirus". Primary Care Update for OB/GYNS. Elsevier Science Inc. 5 (4): 152. ...
... immobilized on a membrane or in situ. To detect hybridization of the probe to its target sequence, the probe is tagged (or " ... such as high hybridization temperature and low salt in hybridization buffers, permits only hybridization between nucleic acid ... and eukaryotes via fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). rRNA probes have enabled scientists to visualize microorganisms, ... Hybridization probes used in DNA microarrays refer to DNA covalently attached to an inert surface, such as coated glass slides ...
EBER in situ hybridization for Epstein-Barr virus. Methods Mol Biol. 2013;999:223-30. doi: 10.1007/978-1-62703-357-2_16. PMID ... Richard Ambinder pioneered the application of EBER in situ hybridisation to the detection of Epstein-Barr Virus in clinical ... "Rapid in situ hybridization for the diagnosis of latent Epstein-Barr virus infection". Molecular and Cellular Probes. 7 (2): ... and ease of non-isotopic methodology in formalin-fixed paraffin wax embedded tissue sections made EBER in situ hybridisation ...
Cassidy, Andrew; Jones, Julia (2014). "Developments in in situ hybridisation". Methods. 70 (1): 39-45. doi:10.1016/j.ymeth. ... Huber, D.; Voith von Voithenberg, L.; Kaigala, G.V. (2018). "Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH): History, limitations ... Multilabeled oligonucleotides for fluorescence in situ hybridization improve visualization of bacterial cells". Applied and ... Grunstein, M.; Hogness, D. S. (1975). "Colony hybridization: A method for the isolation of cloned DNAs that contain a specific ...
In situ hybridization experiments done by Mclean et al. by fusion of mouse constructs fused to basal promoter with LacZ ...
Quantitative Fluorescent in situ hybridization (Q-FISH) is a cytogenetic technique based on the traditional FISH methodology. ... and Lansdorp, PM (2001) "Quantitative Fluorescence in-situ Hybridization." Current Protocols in Cell Biology (University of ... Following hybridization, thousands of cells can be analyzed on a flow cytometer in a relatively short time. However, Flow-FISH ... A small volume of the hybridization mixture is placed onto a coverslip and then placed gently onto the microscope slide which ...
In situ sequencing and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) do not require that cells be isolated and are increasingly ... Lubeck E, Coskun AF, Zhiyentayev T, Ahmad M, Cai L (April 2014). "Single-cell in situ RNA profiling by sequential hybridization ... October 2014). "In situ metabolic analysis of single plant cells by capillary microsampling and electrospray ionization mass ... uses sequencing techniques similar to single cell genomics or direct detection using fluorescence in situ hybridization. The ...
"Subregional mapping of 8 single copy loci to chromosome 6 by fluorescence in situ hybridization". Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 66 (4 ... in vivo studies using in situ hybridization and immunocytochemistry". Int. J. Cancer. 50 (2): 215-22. doi:10.1002/ijc. ...
Detection is done by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Larger chromosomal deletion syndromes are detectable using ...
This can be demonstrated by Fluorescence in situ hybridization. Gene duplication is the process by which a region of DNA coding ...
Handbook of Immunohistochemistry and in Situ Hybridization of Human Carcinomas. Vol. 4. Elsevier. pp. 23-32. doi:10.1016/s1874- ... Handbook of Immunohistochemistry and in Situ Hybridization of Human Carcinomas. Vol. 4. Elsevier. pp. 23-32. doi:10.1016/s1874- ...
Shaffer LG (15 May 2001). "Diagnosis of Microdeletion Syndromes by Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH)". Current ... Like other chromosomal microdeletions, 17q12 microdeletion syndrome is diagnosed via fluorescence in situ hybridization. ...
With her sea urchin work she was able to develop a method of in situ hybridization through the use of RNA probes. Another ... Yaguchi, Shunsuke; Burke, Robert D. (June 2013). "Lynne M. Angerer: An originator of RNA in situ hybridization". Molecular ...
"Localization of the gene for uridine monophosphate synthase to human chromosome region 3q13 by in situ hybridization". Genomics ...
At day 7.5 in mouse embryonic development (E7.5), in situ hybridisation shows Ten-m3 mRNA expression at the neural plate, ...
... to human chromosome band 15q21.2 by fluorescence in situ hybridization". Cytogenet Cell Genet. 81 (3-4): 292-3. doi:10.1159/ ...
In particular, in situ hybridisation showed an enhanced expression of miR-137 within the dentate gyrus and the molecular layer ...
... to chromosome 12p13 by fluorescence in situ hybridization and polymerase chain reaction with somatic cell hybrids". Genomics. ...
... of human cell cycle regulatory genes CDC25C to 5q31 and WEE1 to 11p15.3-11p15.1 by fluorescence in situ hybridization". ...
"Precise localization of the human thyroxine-binding globulin gene to chromosome Xq22.2 by fluorescence in situ hybridization". ...
... to chromosome 7q34-q35 by two-color fluorescence in situ hybridization". Genomics. 16 (3): 771-773. doi:10.1006/geno.1993.1264 ...
... to human chromosome 11p15.5 by fluorescence in situ hybridization". Genomics. 40 (1): 193-6. doi:10.1006/geno.1996.4563. PMID ...
... to 1p36 and of CLCN3 to 4q32-q33 by in situ hybridization". Genomics. 36 (2): 372-4. doi:10.1006/geno.1996.0479. PMID 8812470. ... to 1p36 and of CLCN3 to 4q32-q33 by in situ hybridization". Genomics. 36 (2): 372-4. doi:10.1006/geno.1996.0479. PMID 8812470. ...
... techniques such as subtelomeric fluorescent in-situ hybridization analysis and array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) ...
More recent studies using in situ hybridization studies have located large diameter neurons in the trigeminal ganglia (TG) that ...
... genes to chromosomes 19q13.3 and 6p21.2 using fluorescence in situ hybridization and radiation hybrid analysis". Genomics. 55 ( ...
... methanosaeta concilii and methanosarcina barkeri in anaerobic mesophilic granular sludge by fluorescent In situ hybridization ...
... q24.3 by in situ hybridization". Cytogenet Cell Genet. 84 (1-2): 73-74. doi:10.1159/000015218. PMID 10343107. S2CID 19715942. " ...
In situ enzyme activity in the dissolved and particulate fraction of the fluid from four pitcher plant species of the genus ... Study of natural hybridisation in some tropical plants using amplified fragment length polymorphism analysis. MSc thesis, ...
... to human chromosome 4q12 by in situ hybridization". Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 95 (3-4): 238-9. doi:10.1159/000059353. PMID ...
Gilligan DM, Lieman J, Bennett V (1996). "Assignment of the human beta-adducin gene (ADD2) to 2p13-p14 by in situ hybridization ...
The presence and location of the SRY gene can by determined using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Genital ...
... or fluorescence in situ hybridization. Birchler and his lab have also leveraged this tool and maize B-A chromosomal ...
... to human chromosome 12q24.3 and rat chromosome 12 by somatic cell hybrid panels and fluorescence in situ hybridization". ...
The development of molecular cytogenetics involving techniques such as fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) followed, ... Cheung SW, Bi W (June 2018). "Novel applications of array comparative genomic hybridization in molecular diagnostics". Expert ...
Mountfort, Douglas; Lesley Rhodes; Judy Broom; Melissa Gladstone; John Tyrrell (2007). "Fluorescent in situ hybridization assay ...
It requires in vitro fertilization, embryo biopsy, and either fluorescent in situ hybridization or polymerase chain reaction on ...
... which can be visualized by a combination of a DAPI stain and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) technique. TERF2 is also ...
... and melanocortin-3 receptors to chromosomes 18p11.2 and 20q13.2-q13.3 by fluorescence in situ hybridization" (PDF). Genomics. ...
... by in situ hybridization". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 80 (22): 6932-6. ...
"Localization of the human kinesin-related gene to band 10q24 by fluorescence in situ hybridization". Genomics. 13 (4): 1371-2. ...
أشارت الدراسات إلى احتمال وجود ارتباط بين مسببات سرطان الثدي وبين العدوى بفيروس الورم الحليمي البشري. وقد استخدم الباحثون في هذه الدراسة التهجن في الموضع لكشف التكرار والنمط الجيني لفيروس الورم الحليمي البشري في عينات ...
1f). In situ hybridization19 confirmed the presence of LGR5 mRNA in the PSD region, in all cochlear turns at W9 (Fig. 1g). In ... In situ hybridization (ISH). ISH for LGR5 was performed on 5 μm sections of paraffin embedded fetal cochleas or intestine, ... g In situ hybridization (brown dots) with a LGR5-specific RNAscope probe at W9.2 of development (E1276) Basal, middle, and ...
The size of the North America In Situ Hybridization Market is forecasted to worth USD 232.82 million by 2027. Countries of ... North America In Situ Hybridization Market Size (2022 to 2027). The size of the North America In-Situ Hybridization Market is ... North America In Situ Hybridization Market Research Report - Segmented By Technique, Application, End User & Country (The ... The U.S. dominated the North American In situ Hybridization market, and it is likely to continue its domination during the ...
Pricing for services in the RNA In Situ Hybridization Core.... ... RNA In Situ Hybridization Core * Services and Equipment * ...
In Situ Hybridization. We have written pipelines using the freeware CellProfiler that can be used for the quantification of ... Erben L, He M-X, Laeremans A, Park E, Buonanno A (2017). A Novel Ultrasensitive In Situ Hybridization Approach to Detect Short ... fluorescent in situ hybridization signals in both multiplex (RNAscope) and single-plex (BaseScope) modes. The published ...
4. Hybridization and signal detection. 4.1. Proteinase K treatment. 4.2. Pre-Hybridization. 4.3. Hybridization. 4.4. Washing. ... In situ hybridization on whole mount embryos of C. elegans*. Tomoko Motohashi, Keiko Hirono, and Yuji Kohara§. Genome Biology ... 1. Preparation of DIG-labeled DNA probes for in situ hybridization. 1.1. DIG-labeling by linear PCR. 1.2. Chopping the probes ... This chapter should be cited as: Motohashi T., Hirono K., and Kohara Y. In situ hybridization on whole mount embryos of C. ...
Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization (FISH) detects chromosomal abnormalities and other ...
The in situ hybridization with Dspp anti-sense RNA probe in the 1st molar root of P16 WT mouse. (F) The in situ hybridization ... In situ Hybridization (ISH). The dissected mandibles were fixed in diethylpyrocarbonate (DEPC)-treated 4% PFA overnight and ... The in situ hybridization with the Dspp anti-sense RNA probe further confirmed the reduced Dspp expression in the dcKO root ...
... offers in vitro transcription vectors for a variety of research applications including producing RNA probes for in situ ...
These techniques include in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry.. In situ hybridization. In situ hybridization uses ...
The Na+/K+-ATPase (NKA) α1-isoforms were examined by in situ hybridization chain reaction (ISHCR) using short hairpin DNAs, and ... Subcellular localization of Na+/K+-ATPase isoforms resolved by in situ hybridization chain reaction in the gill of chum salmon ... In situ hybridization chain reaction (ISHCR); Ionocyte; Morphometrics; Nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS); ... which could not be differentiated by conventional in situ hybridization. The ISHCR uses a split probe strategy to allow ...
Real-Time Monitoring of Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization Kinetics for Analytical Chemistry by Nadya Ostromohov et al. ... We present a novel method for real-time monitoring and kinetic analysis of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). We ... be used to investigate the effect of each of these variables and provide insight into processes affecting in situ hybridization ...
... together with improved hybridization efficiency, compared with classic 3D-FISH protocols. ... DNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) has been a central technique in advancing our understanding of how chromatin is ... DNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) has been a central technique in advancing our understanding of how chromatin is ... RASER-FISH: non-denaturing fluorescence in situ hybridization for preservation of three-dimensional interphase chromatin ...
In situ hybridization.. Hybridization was performed according to procedures described previously (Schlimgen et al., 1995). ... In situ hybridization for NP1, NP2, and NPR mRNAs in the retinal ganglion cell and inner nuclear layers of the retina. ... 1F) or retinal whole mounts (data not shown). In situ hybridization of mouse retina showed results similar to those observed in ... In situ hybridization for NP message on rat and mouse retinas indicated that NP1 (Fig. 1A), NP2 (Fig. 1B), and NPR (Fig. 1C) ...
Assignment of the human a 1,3-fucosyltransferase IX gene (FUT9) to chromosome band 6q16 by in situ hybridization. / Kaneko, ... Assignment of the human a 1,3-fucosyltransferase IX gene (FUT9) to chromosome band 6q16 by in situ hybridization. Cytogenetics ... Assignment of the human a 1,3-fucosyltransferase IX gene (FUT9) to chromosome band 6q16 by in situ hybridization. In: ... title = "Assignment of the human a 1,3-fucosyltransferase IX gene (FUT9) to chromosome band 6q16 by in situ hybridization", ...
ACDs industry-leading in situ hybridization (ISH) technology combined with protein detection on Roches automated platform ... Learn more about Bio-Techne , ACDs industry-leading in situ hybridization (ISH) technology combined with protein detection on ...
Expression of mRNAs encoding alpha I (I) and alphaI (III) procollagens was localized using in situ hybridization (ISH). ... Molecular effects of sodium hyaluronate on the healing of avian supracoracoid tendon tear: according to in situ hybridization ... Molecular effects of sodium hyaluronate on the healing of avian supracoracoid tendon tear: according to in situ hybridization ... Expression of mRNAs encoding alpha I (I) and alphaI (III) procollagens was localized using in situ hybridization (ISH). ...
A detailed karyotype analysis using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), with 24 chromosome-specific paint probes has ... Correlation of loss of heterozygosity with cytogenetic analysis using G-banding and fluorescence in situ hybridization in ... Correlation of loss of heterozygosity with cytogenetic analysis using G-banding and fluorescence in situ hybridization in ... A detailed karyotype analysis using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), with 24 chromosome-specific paint probes has ...
In Situ Hybridization. We used a ThermoFisher 2-plex ViewRNA ISH Tissue Assay Kit for in situ hybridization (ISH) to detect RNA ... In situ hybridization in liver section from a heart-lung transplant patient in France. Chromogenic in situ hybridization ... In situ hybridization in liver section from a heart-lung transplant patient in France. Chromogenic in situ hybridization ... We thank the histology embryology cytogenetic department of Necker Hospital for providing access to the in situ hybridization ...
In Situ Hybridization. In situ hybridization was performed as described (11). Briefly, liver sections from an affected and an ... Immunohistochemistry and In Situ Hybridization. Figure 5. Figure 5. Liver of affected rabbit with positive cytoplasmic ... Liver of affected rabbit showing in situ hybridization of a Michigan rabbit calicivirus-specific oligonucleotide probe within ... Liver of affected rabbit showing in situ hybridization of a Michigan rabbit calicivirus-specific oligonucleotide probe within ...
Eighty effusions and eighty-three solid lesions were evaluated for expression of EMMPRIN mRNA using in situ hybridization (ISH ...
Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) study of a patient with cri-du-chat syndrome. FISH photograph shows deletion of a ...
Xmatrx FISH (fluorescent in situ hybridization) Automated Staining System; Model Number/Catalog Number: AS4010B;. The product ... It is suitable for fluorescent hybridization (FISH) applications.. Code Information. Serial Numbers: AS40211, AS40226, AS40230 ...
Thaker, V. (1999) In situ RT-PCR and hybridization techniques. Methods. Mol. Biol. 115, 379-402. ... 1989) High-resolution in situ hybridization histochemistry. Meth. Enzymol. 168, 761-77. ... The use of hybridization probes can be simplified even further so that only one labeled probe is required. In this approach, ... 1995) PCR in situ: New technologies with single-cell resolution for the detection and investigation of viral latency and ...
Whole mount in situ hybridization. Whole-mount in situ hybridization (WISH) was performed as described [53,54] with the ... Table 2 In silico validation of the Xenopus NRSE screen with in situ hybridization and REST CHIP-seq. Putative REST target ... BSY analyzed the data and compared it to that of mouse and human, and performed in situ hybridizations. CE revised the ... Appendix G: In Situ Hybridization: An Improved Whole-Mount Method for Xenopus Embryos. Methods Cell Biol. 1991;36:685-95. ...
Acid-Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization, Syndromic Panel-Based Testing, Microarrays}, Flow Cytometry, Microfluidics, Immunoassay ... In-Situ Hybridization, Immunohistochemistry); By Indication (Cancer, Neurological Disorders, Cardiovascular Diseases, ... Peptide Nucleic Acid-Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization, Syndromic Panel-Based Testing, Microarrays}, Flow Cytometry, ... Hybridization, Immunohistochemistry); By Indication (Cancer, Neurological Disorders, Cardiovascular Diseases, Infectious ...
Detection of Tissue-resident Bacteria in Bladder Biopsies by 16S rRNA Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization ... Detection of Tissue-resident Bacteria in Bladder Biopsies by 16S rRNA Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization. Michael L. Neugent*1 ...
  • Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization (FISH) detects chromosomal abnormalities and other genetic mutations in a baby's cells. (ynhh.org)
  • We present a novel method for real-time monitoring and kinetic analysis of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). (ibm.com)
  • RASER-FISH: non-denaturing fluorescence in situ hybridization for preservation of three-dimensional interphase chromatin structure. (ox.ac.uk)
  • DNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) has been a central technique in advancing our understanding of how chromatin is organized within the nucleus. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Trisomy 12 assessment by conventional fluorescence in-situ hybridization (FISH), FISH in suspension (FISH-is) and laser scanning cytometry (LSC) in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. (edu.au)
  • A novel high throughput methodology called fluorescence in situ hybridization in suspension (FISH-IS) incorporates a flow cytometry-based imaging approach with automated analysis of thousands of cells. (edu.au)
  • Correlation of loss of heterozygosity with cytogenetic analysis using G-banding and fluorescence in situ hybridization in aneuploid cultures from two human testicular germ-cell tumors. (ox.ac.uk)
  • A detailed karyotype analysis using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), with 24 chromosome-specific paint probes has been carried out on newly established cell lines from two testicular tumors, an i(12p)-positive teratoma, and an i(12p)-negative combined seminoma/teratoma. (ox.ac.uk)
  • We used multiprobe fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) for chromosomes X, Y, and 18 to determine XX, YY, XY, and total sex-chromosome disomy in sperm nuclei. (cdc.gov)
  • The traditional way to test in both gastric cancer and breast cancer is with immunohistochemistry and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). (medscape.com)
  • In addition, we utilized fluorescence in situ hybridization to detect the chromatin pan-centromeric signals within the MN. (cdc.gov)
  • We have written pipelines using the freeware CellProfiler that can be used for the quantification of fluorescent in situ hybridization signals in both multiplex (RNAscope) and single-plex (BaseScope) modes. (nih.gov)
  • Cytogenetics and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) are used for genetic analysis. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Eighty effusions and eighty-three solid lesions were evaluated for expression of EMMPRIN mRNA using in situ hybridization (ISH). (nih.gov)
  • Low passage porcine aortic endothelial cells were incubated with chrysotile (10 µ1g/cm2) or crocidolite asbestos (5 µ1g/cm2) or with refractory ceramic fiber 1 (RCF-I) (10 µ1g/cm2) for up to 24 hours and then assayed for steady state uPA mRNA levels by solution hybridization or uPA enzymatic activity by in situ or gel-based zymography. (cdc.gov)
  • Cytogenetic tests like ISH, which aid in integrating IHC and DNA FISH, are among the in-situ toolsets that enable researchers to discover, develop, and use new-generation diagnostic methods. (marketdataforecast.com)
  • Moreover, we provide a validation and characterization of our method, demonstrating excellent preservation of chromatin structure and nuclear integrity, together with improved hybridization efficiency, compared with classic 3D-FISH protocols. (ox.ac.uk)
  • It is suitable for fluorescent hybridization (FISH) applications. (fda.gov)
  • A Novel Ultrasensitive In Situ Hybridization Approach to Detect Short Sequences and Splice Variants with Cellular Resolution. (nih.gov)
  • The NKA α1- isoforms have closely resembled nucleotide sequences , which could not be differentiated by conventional in situ hybridization . (bvsalud.org)
  • She specialized in clinical applications of a new laboratory technique called in situ hybridization (ISH), which finds characteristic gene sequences to diagnose diseases. (cdc.gov)
  • Geographically, North America dominated the global In Situ Hybridization market with the largest market share in 2020. (marketdataforecast.com)
  • The size of the North America In-Situ Hybridization Market is estimated at USD 175.63 million in 2022. (marketdataforecast.com)
  • ACD's industry-leading in situ hybridization (ISH) technology combined with protein detection on Roche's automated platform that enables scientists to accelerate their research by minimizing hands-on time. (acdbio.com)
  • In situ hybridization analysis of human papilomavírus DNA in oral mucosal lesions. (bvsalud.org)
  • The ISHCR uses a split probe strategy to allow specific hybridization using regular oligo DNA , resulting in high specificity at low cost . (bvsalud.org)
  • RÉSUMÉ La présente étude a examiné les cellules souches hématopoïétiques de 19 cas de syndrome myélodysplasique de haut risque à la recherche de signaux apoptotiques et anti-apoptotiques et de proliférations cellulaires et a établi un lien entre ces derniers et les sous-types cytogénétiques et cliniques, en particulier la trisomie 8. (who.int)
  • Direct imaging of gene expression in situ at the RNA level offers a unique view of how cancer cells interact with the tumor microenvironment as the disease progresses. (marketdataforecast.com)
  • Expression of mRNAs encoding alpha I (I) and alphaI (III) procollagens was localized using in situ hybridization (ISH). (ox.ac.uk)
  • Detection of aneuploidy in human spermatozoa of normal semen donors by fluorescence in situ hybridization. (nih.gov)
  • We have written pipelines using the freeware CellProfiler that can be used for the quantification of fluorescent in situ hybridization signals in both multiplex (RNAscope) and single-plex (BaseScope) modes. (nih.gov)
  • Microscopy, PCR, and fluorescent in situ hybridization provided evidence of norovirus infection. (cdc.gov)
  • Cytogenetics and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) are used for genetic analysis. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) is used to look at and count genes or chromosomes. (nih.gov)
  • Minimum information specification for in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry experiments (MISFISHIE). (nih.gov)
  • Here we present reporting guidelines for gene expression localization experiments: the minimum information specification for in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry experiments (MISFISHIE). (nih.gov)
  • We here describe the procedure of radiochemical in situ hybridization on the developing rat pineal gland ranging from preparation of fetal tissue for in situ hybridization to principles of quantification. (nih.gov)
  • We will review some of the key findings in major organ systems accompanied by immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization studies that examined some of the cytokines/chemokines that have been implicated in the pathogenesis of this viral infection. (nih.gov)
  • EBER in situ hybridization has been recommended as the best test for detecting and localizing latent EBV in tissue samples. (medscape.com)
  • Before calling a case EBER-negative, it is essential to show that tumor cell RNA is preserved and available for hybridization. (medscape.com)
  • Localization and diurnal expression of mRNA encoding the beta1-adrenoceptor in the rat pineal gland: an in situ hybridization study. (nih.gov)
  • Developmental expression of tryptophan hydroxylase mRNAs in the rat pineal gland: an in situ hybridization study. (nih.gov)
  • An in situ hybridization study. (nih.gov)