Deliberate stimulation of the host's immune response. ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of ANTIGENS or IMMUNOLOGIC ADJUVANTS. PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of IMMUNE SERA or LYMPHOCYTES or their extracts (e.g., transfer factor, immune RNA) or transplantation of immunocompetent cell producing tissue (thymus or bone marrow).
Organized services to administer immunization procedures in the prevention of various diseases. The programs are made available over a wide range of sites: schools, hospitals, public health agencies, voluntary health agencies, etc. They are administered to an equally wide range of population groups or on various administrative levels: community, municipal, state, national, international.
Schedule giving optimum times usually for primary and/or secondary immunization.
Any immunization following a primary immunization and involving exposure to the same or a closely related antigen.
Transfer of immunity from immunized to non-immune host by administration of serum antibodies, or transplantation of lymphocytes (ADOPTIVE TRANSFER).
Administration of vaccines to stimulate the host's immune response. This includes any preparation intended for active immunological prophylaxis.
Suspensions of killed or attenuated microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa), antigenic proteins, synthetic constructs, or other bio-molecular derivatives, administered for the prevention, amelioration, or treatment of infectious and other diseases.
Small synthetic peptides that mimic surface antigens of pathogens and are immunogenic, or vaccines manufactured with the aid of recombinant DNA techniques. The latter vaccines may also be whole viruses whose nucleic acids have been modified.
Recombinant DNA vectors encoding antigens administered for the prevention or treatment of disease. The host cells take up the DNA, express the antigen, and present it to the immune system in a manner similar to that which would occur during natural infection. This induces humoral and cellular immune responses against the encoded antigens. The vector is called naked DNA because there is no need for complex formulations or delivery agents; the plasmid is injected in saline or other buffers.
The production of ANTIBODIES by proliferating and differentiated B-LYMPHOCYTES under stimulation by ANTIGENS.
The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.
Delivery of medications through the nasal mucosa.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to BACTERIAL ANTIGENS.
Substances that augment, stimulate, activate, potentiate, or modulate the immune response at either the cellular or humoral level. The classical agents (Freund's adjuvant, BCG, Corynebacterium parvum, et al.) contain bacterial antigens. Some are endogenous (e.g., histamine, interferon, transfer factor, tuftsin, interleukin-1). Their mode of action is either non-specific, resulting in increased immune responsiveness to a wide variety of antigens, or antigen-specific, i.e., affecting a restricted type of immune response to a narrow group of antigens. The therapeutic efficacy of many biological response modifiers is related to their antigen-specific immunoadjuvanticity.
Suspensions of attenuated or killed viruses administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious viral disease.
Immunoglobulins produced in response to VIRAL ANTIGENS.
A live attenuated virus vaccine of chick embryo origin, used for routine immunization of children and for immunization of adolescents and adults who have not had measles or been immunized with live measles vaccine and have no serum antibodies against measles. Children are usually immunized with measles-mumps-rubella combination vaccine. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Nonsusceptibility to the pathogenic effects of foreign microorganisms or antigenic substances as a result of antibody secretions of the mucous membranes. Mucosal epithelia in the gastrointestinal, respiratory, and reproductive tracts produce a form of IgA (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A, SECRETORY) that serves to protect these ports of entry into the body.
Vaccines used to prevent infection by viruses in the family ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE. It includes both killed and attenuated vaccines. The composition of the vaccines is changed each year in response to antigenic shifts and changes in prevalence of influenza virus strains. The vaccine is usually bivalent or trivalent, containing one or two INFLUENZAVIRUS A strains and one INFLUENZAVIRUS B strain.
A disease caused by tetanospasmin, a powerful protein toxin produced by CLOSTRIDIUM TETANI. Tetanus usually occurs after an acute injury, such as a puncture wound or laceration. Generalized tetanus, the most common form, is characterized by tetanic muscular contractions and hyperreflexia. Localized tetanus presents itself as a mild condition with manifestations restricted to muscles near the wound. It may progress to the generalized form.
Represents 15-20% of the human serum immunoglobulins, mostly as the 4-chain polymer in humans or dimer in other mammals. Secretory IgA (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A, SECRETORY) is the main immunoglobulin in secretions.
A vaccine consisting of DIPHTHERIA TOXOID; TETANUS TOXOID; and whole-cell PERTUSSIS VACCINE. The vaccine protects against diphtheria, tetanus, and whooping cough.
Live vaccines prepared from microorganisms which have undergone physical adaptation (e.g., by radiation or temperature conditioning) or serial passage in laboratory animal hosts or infected tissue/cell cultures, in order to produce avirulent mutant strains capable of inducing protective immunity.
Vaccines in which the infectious microbial nucleic acid components have been destroyed by chemical or physical treatment (e.g., formalin, beta-propiolactone, gamma radiation) without affecting the antigenicity or immunogenicity of the viral coat or bacterial outer membrane proteins.
A highly contagious infectious disease caused by MORBILLIVIRUS, common among children but also seen in the nonimmune of any age, in which the virus enters the respiratory tract via droplet nuclei and multiplies in the epithelial cells, spreading throughout the MONONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTE SYSTEM.
A combined vaccine used to prevent MEASLES; MUMPS; and RUBELLA.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines containing inactivated hepatitis B or some of its component antigens and designed to prevent hepatitis B. Some vaccines may be recombinantly produced.
The formaldehyde-inactivated toxin of Corynebacterium diphtheriae. It is generally used in mixtures with TETANUS TOXOID and PERTUSSIS VACCINE; (DTP); or with tetanus toxoid alone (DT for pediatric use and Td, which contains 5- to 10-fold less diphtheria toxoid, for other use). Diphtheria toxoid is used for the prevention of diphtheria; DIPHTHERIA ANTITOXIN is for treatment.
Manifestations of the immune response which are mediated by antigen-sensitized T-lymphocytes via lymphokines or direct cytotoxicity. This takes place in the absence of circulating antibody or where antibody plays a subordinate role.
Forceful administration into a muscle of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle piercing the muscle and any tissue covering it.
The principle immunoglobulin in exocrine secretions such as milk, respiratory and intestinal mucin, saliva and tears. The complete molecule (around 400 kD) is composed of two four-chain units of IMMUNOGLOBULIN A, one SECRETORY COMPONENT and one J chain (IMMUNOGLOBULIN J-CHAINS).
Resistance to a disease-causing agent induced by the introduction of maternal immunity into the fetus by transplacental transfer or into the neonate through colostrum and milk.
An encapsulated lymphatic organ through which venous blood filters.
Two or more vaccines in a single dosage form.
Substances elaborated by bacteria that have antigenic activity.
Sites on an antigen that interact with specific antibodies.
The property of antibodies which enables them to react with some ANTIGENIC DETERMINANTS and not with others. Specificity is dependent on chemical composition, physical forces, and molecular structure at the binding site.
A suspension of killed Bordetella pertussis organisms, used for immunization against pertussis (WHOOPING COUGH). It is generally used in a mixture with diphtheria and tetanus toxoids (DTP). There is an acellular pertussis vaccine prepared from the purified antigenic components of Bordetella pertussis, which causes fewer adverse reactions than whole-cell vaccine and, like the whole-cell vaccine, is generally used in a mixture with diphtheria and tetanus toxoids. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Vaccines or candidate vaccines containing inactivated HIV or some of its component antigens and designed to prevent or treat AIDS. Some vaccines containing antigens are recombinantly produced.
An ENTEROTOXIN from VIBRIO CHOLERAE. It consists of two major protomers, the heavy (H) or A subunit and the B protomer which consists of 5 light (L) or B subunits. The catalytic A subunit is proteolytically cleaved into fragments A1 and A2. The A1 fragment is a MONO(ADP-RIBOSE) TRANSFERASE. The B protomer binds cholera toxin to intestinal epithelial cells, and facilitates the uptake of the A1 fragment. The A1 catalyzed transfer of ADP-RIBOSE to the alpha subunits of heterotrimeric G PROTEINS activates the production of CYCLIC AMP. Increased levels of cyclic AMP are thought to modulate release of fluid and electrolytes from intestinal crypt cells.
The forcing into the skin of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle, piercing the top skin layer.
Resistance to a disease agent resulting from the production of specific antibodies by the host, either after exposure to the disease or after vaccination.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
Administration of a vaccine to large populations in order to elicit IMMUNITY.
An antigen solution emulsified in mineral oil. The complete form is made up of killed, dried mycobacteria, usually M. tuberculosis, suspended in the oil phase. It is effective in stimulating cell-mediated immunity (IMMUNITY, CELLULAR) and potentiates the production of certain IMMUNOGLOBULINS in some animals. The incomplete form does not contain mycobacteria.
Vaccines used to prevent infection by MUMPS VIRUS. Best known is the live attenuated virus vaccine of chick embryo origin, used for routine immunization of children and for immunization of adolescents and adults who have not had mumps or been immunized with live mumps vaccine. Children are usually immunized with measles-mumps-rubella combination vaccine.
Lymphocytes responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Two types have been identified - cytotoxic (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and helper T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, HELPER-INDUCER). They are formed when lymphocytes circulate through the THYMUS GLAND and differentiate to thymocytes. When exposed to an antigen, they divide rapidly and produce large numbers of new T cells sensitized to that antigen.
Substances that are recognized by the immune system and induce an immune reaction.
Serological reactions in which an antiserum against one antigen reacts with a non-identical but closely related antigen.
A live attenuated virus vaccine of duck embryo or human diploid cell tissue culture origin, used for routine immunization of children and for immunization of nonpregnant adolescent and adult females of childbearing age who are unimmunized and do not have serum antibodies to rubella. Children are usually immunized with measles-mumps-rubella combination vaccine. (Dorland, 28th ed)
Vaccines consisting of one or more antigens that stimulate a strong immune response. They are purified from microorganisms or produced by recombinant DNA techniques, or they can be chemically synthesized peptides.
Semisynthetic vaccines consisting of polysaccharide antigens from microorganisms attached to protein carrier molecules. The carrier protein is recognized by macrophages and T-cells thus enhancing immunity. Conjugate vaccines induce antibody formation in people not responsive to polysaccharide alone, induce higher levels of antibody, and show a booster response on repeated injection.
A localized infection of mucous membranes or skin caused by toxigenic strains of CORYNEBACTERIUM DIPHTHERIAE. It is characterized by the presence of a pseudomembrane at the site of infection. DIPHTHERIA TOXIN, produced by C. diphtheriae, can cause myocarditis, polyneuritis, and other systemic toxic effects.
An acute infectious disease of humans, particularly children, caused by any of three serotypes of human poliovirus (POLIOVIRUS). Usually the infection is limited to the gastrointestinal tract and nasopharynx, and is often asymptomatic. The central nervous system, primarily the spinal cord, may be affected, leading to rapidly progressive paralysis, coarse FASCICULATION and hyporeflexia. Motor neurons are primarily affected. Encephalitis may also occur. The virus replicates in the nervous system, and may cause significant neuronal loss, most notably in the spinal cord. A rare related condition, nonpoliovirus poliomyelitis, may result from infections with nonpoliovirus enteroviruses. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp764-5)
Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the ANTIGEN (or a very similar shape) that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially PLASMA CELLS).
Preparations of pathogenic organisms or their derivatives made nontoxic and intended for active immunologic prophylaxis. They include deactivated toxins. Anatoxin toxoids are distinct from anatoxins that are TROPANES found in CYANOBACTERIA.
Techniques where DNA is delivered directly into organelles at high speed using projectiles coated with nucleic acid, shot from a helium-powered gun (gene gun). One of these techniques involves immunization by DNA VACCINES, which delivers DNA-coated gold beads to the epidermis.
A critical subpopulation of regulatory T-lymphocytes involved in MHC Class I-restricted interactions. They include both cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and CD8+ suppressor T-lymphocytes.
Suspensions of attenuated or killed protozoa administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious protozoan disease.
Antibody-mediated immune response. Humoral immunity is brought about by ANTIBODY FORMATION, resulting from TH2 CELLS activating B-LYMPHOCYTES, followed by COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION.
The giving of drugs, chemicals, or other substances by mouth.
Immunized T-lymphocytes which can directly destroy appropriate target cells. These cytotoxic lymphocytes may be generated in vitro in mixed lymphocyte cultures (MLC), in vivo during a graft-versus-host (GVH) reaction, or after immunization with an allograft, tumor cell or virally transformed or chemically modified target cell. The lytic phenomenon is sometimes referred to as cell-mediated lympholysis (CML). These CD8-positive cells are distinct from NATURAL KILLER CELLS and NATURAL KILLER T-CELLS. There are two effector phenotypes: TC1 and TC2.
Morphologic alteration of small B LYMPHOCYTES or T LYMPHOCYTES in culture into large blast-like cells able to synthesize DNA and RNA and to divide mitotically. It is induced by INTERLEUKINS; MITOGENS such as PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS, and by specific ANTIGENS. It may also occur in vivo as in GRAFT REJECTION.
The measurement of infection-blocking titer of ANTISERA by testing a series of dilutions for a given virus-antiserum interaction end-point, which is generally the dilution at which tissue cultures inoculated with the serum-virus mixtures demonstrate cytopathology (CPE) or the dilution at which 50% of test animals injected with serum-virus mixtures show infectivity (ID50) or die (LD50).
The major interferon produced by mitogenically or antigenically stimulated LYMPHOCYTES. It is structurally different from TYPE I INTERFERON and its major activity is immunoregulation. It has been implicated in the expression of CLASS II HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS in cells that do not normally produce them, leading to AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines containing antigenic polysaccharides from Haemophilus influenzae and designed to prevent infection. The vaccine can contain the polysaccharides alone or more frequently polysaccharides conjugated to carrier molecules. It is also seen as a combined vaccine with diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infections with STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines designed to prevent or treat cancer. Vaccines are produced using the patient's own whole tumor cells as the source of antigens, or using tumor-specific antigens, often recombinantly produced.
Vaccines made from antigens arising from any of the four strains of Plasmodium which cause malaria in humans, or from P. berghei which causes malaria in rodents.
A specific immune response elicited by a specific dose of an immunologically active substance or cell in an organism, tissue, or cell.
An albumin obtained from the white of eggs. It is a member of the serpin superfamily.
Forceful administration under the skin of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle piercing the skin.
Aluminum metal sulfate compounds used medically as astringents and for many industrial purposes. They are used in veterinary medicine for the treatment of ulcerative stomatitis, leukorrhea, conjunctivitis, pharyngitis, metritis, and minor wounds.
An increased reactivity to specific antigens mediated not by antibodies but by cells.
A live vaccine containing attenuated poliovirus, types I, II, and III, grown in monkey kidney cell tissue culture, used for routine immunization of children against polio. This vaccine induces long-lasting intestinal and humoral immunity. Killed vaccine induces only humoral immunity. Oral poliovirus vaccine should not be administered to immunocompromised individuals or their household contacts. (Dorland, 28th ed)
The altered state of immunologic responsiveness resulting from initial contact with antigen, which enables the individual to produce antibodies more rapidly and in greater quantity in response to secondary antigenic stimulus.
A respiratory infection caused by BORDETELLA PERTUSSIS and characterized by paroxysmal coughing ending in a prolonged crowing intake of breath.
Serum that contains antibodies. It is obtained from an animal that has been immunized either by ANTIGEN injection or infection with microorganisms containing the antigen.
A critical subpopulation of T-lymphocytes involved in the induction of most immunological functions. The HIV virus has selective tropism for the T4 cell which expresses the CD4 phenotypic marker, a receptor for HIV. In fact, the key element in the profound immunosuppression seen in HIV infection is the depletion of this subset of T-lymphocytes.
Cells of the lymphoid series that can react with antigen to produce specific cell products called antibodies. Various cell subpopulations, often B-lymphocytes, can be defined, based on the different classes of immunoglobulins that they synthesize.
Any vaccine raised against any virus or viral derivative that causes hepatitis.
The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.
A class of immunoglobulin bearing mu chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN MU-CHAINS). IgM can fix COMPLEMENT. The name comes from its high molecular weight and originally being called a macroglobulin.
Antigenic determinants recognized and bound by the T-cell receptor. Epitopes recognized by the T-cell receptor are often located in the inner, unexposed side of the antigen, and become accessible to the T-cell receptors after proteolytic processing of the antigen.
Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.
Nonsusceptibility to the invasive or pathogenic effects of foreign microorganisms or to the toxic effect of antigenic substances.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
Vaccines used to prevent POLIOMYELITIS. They include inactivated (POLIOVIRUS VACCINE, INACTIVATED) and oral vaccines (POLIOVIRUS VACCINE, ORAL).
The insertion of drugs into the rectum, usually for confused or incompetent patients, like children, infants, and the very old or comatose.
DNA molecules capable of autonomous replication within a host cell and into which other DNA sequences can be inserted and thus amplified. Many are derived from PLASMIDS; BACTERIOPHAGES; or VIRUSES. They are used for transporting foreign genes into recipient cells. Genetic vectors possess a functional replicator site and contain GENETIC MARKERS to facilitate their selective recognition.
Lymphoid cells concerned with humoral immunity. They are short-lived cells resembling bursa-derived lymphocytes of birds in their production of immunoglobulin upon appropriate stimulation.
The type species of ORTHOPOXVIRUS, related to COWPOX VIRUS, but whose true origin is unknown. It has been used as a live vaccine against SMALLPOX. It is also used as a vector for inserting foreign DNA into animals. Rabbitpox virus is a subspecies of VACCINIA VIRUS.
The classes of immunoglobulins found in any species of animal. In man there are nine classes that migrate in five different groups in electrophoresis; they each consist of two light and two heavy protein chains, and each group has distinguishing structural and functional properties.
Antisera from immunized animals that is purified and used as a passive immunizing agent against specific BACTERIAL TOXINS.
An acute viral infection in humans involving the respiratory tract. It is marked by inflammation of the NASAL MUCOSA; the PHARYNX; and conjunctiva, and by headache and severe, often generalized, myalgia.
Contraceptive methods based on immunological processes and techniques, such as the use of CONTRACEPTIVE VACCINES.
Active immunization where vaccine is administered for therapeutic or preventive purposes. This can include administration of immunopotentiating agents such as BCG vaccine and Corynebacterium parvum as well as biological response modifiers such as interferons, interleukins, and colony-stimulating factors in order to directly stimulate the immune system.
Combined vaccines consisting of DIPHTHERIA TOXOID; TETANUS TOXOID; and an acellular form of PERTUSSIS VACCINE. At least five different purified antigens of B. pertussis have been used in various combinations in these vaccines.
Antibodies that reduce or abolish some biological activity of a soluble antigen or infectious agent, usually a virus.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with NEISSERIA MENINGITIDIS.
An active immunizing agent and a viable avirulent attenuated strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, var. bovis, which confers immunity to mycobacterial infections. It is used also in immunotherapy of neoplasms due to its stimulation of antibodies and non-specific immunity.
Subset of helper-inducer T-lymphocytes which synthesize and secrete interleukin-2, gamma-interferon, and interleukin-12. Due to their ability to kill antigen-presenting cells and their lymphokine-mediated effector activity, Th1 cells are associated with vigorous delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions.
Polysaccharides found in bacteria and in capsules thereof.
Any part or derivative of any protozoan that elicits immunity; malaria (Plasmodium) and trypanosome antigens are presently the most frequently encountered.
They are oval or bean shaped bodies (1 - 30 mm in diameter) located along the lymphatic system.
Partial proteins formed by partial hydrolysis of complete proteins or generated through PROTEIN ENGINEERING techniques.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
An infant during the first month after birth.
Forceful administration into the peritoneal cavity of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle piercing the abdominal wall.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Substances elaborated by viruses that have antigenic activity.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to PROTOZOAN ANTIGENS.
An acute infectious disease caused by the RUBELLA VIRUS. The virus enters the respiratory tract via airborne droplet and spreads to the LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.
Non-antibody proteins secreted by inflammatory leukocytes and some non-leukocytic cells, that act as intercellular mediators. They differ from classical hormones in that they are produced by a number of tissue or cell types rather than by specialized glands. They generally act locally in a paracrine or autocrine rather than endocrine manner.
Small antigenic determinants capable of eliciting an immune response only when coupled to a carrier. Haptens bind to antibodies but by themselves cannot elicit an antibody response.
The various ways of administering a drug or other chemical to a site in a patient or animal from where the chemical is absorbed into the blood and delivered to the target tissue.
Specialized cells of the hematopoietic system that have branch-like extensions. They are found throughout the lymphatic system, and in non-lymphoid tissues such as SKIN and the epithelia of the intestinal, respiratory, and reproductive tracts. They trap and process ANTIGENS, and present them to T-CELLS, thereby stimulating CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY. They are different from the non-hematopoietic FOLLICULAR DENDRITIC CELLS, which have a similar morphology and immune system function, but with respect to humoral immunity (ANTIBODY PRODUCTION).
Antigenic determinants recognized and bound by the B-cell receptor. Epitopes recognized by the B-cell receptor are located on the surface of the antigen.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
The specific failure of a normally responsive individual to make an immune response to a known antigen. It results from previous contact with the antigen by an immunologically immature individual (fetus or neonate) or by an adult exposed to extreme high-dose or low-dose antigen, or by exposure to radiation, antimetabolites, antilymphocytic serum, etc.
Delivery of a drug or other substance into the body through the epithelium lining of MUCOUS MEMBRANE involved with absorption and secretion.
The genital canal in the female, extending from the UTERUS to the VULVA. (Stedman, 25th ed)
Antibodies reactive with HIV ANTIGENS.
An EPITHELIUM with MUCUS-secreting cells, such as GOBLET CELLS. It forms the lining of many body cavities, such as the DIGESTIVE TRACT, the RESPIRATORY TRACT, and the reproductive tract. Mucosa, rich in blood and lymph vessels, comprises an inner epithelium, a middle layer (lamina propria) of loose CONNECTIVE TISSUE, and an outer layer (muscularis mucosae) of SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS that separates the mucosa from submucosa.
A species of PLASMODIUM causing malaria in rodents.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with VIBRIO CHOLERAE. The original cholera vaccine consisted of killed bacteria, but other kinds of vaccines now exist.
Proteins, glycoprotein, or lipoprotein moieties on surfaces of tumor cells that are usually identified by monoclonal antibodies. Many of these are of either embryonic or viral origin.
Antibodies which react with the individual structural determinants (idiotopes) on the variable region of other antibodies.
Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
Disorders that are characterized by the production of antibodies that react with host tissues or immune effector cells that are autoreactive to endogenous peptides.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations, or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. All animals within an inbred strain trace back to a common ancestor in the twentieth generation.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent or treat ALZHEIMER DISEASE.
An acute infectious disease caused by RUBULAVIRUS, spread by direct contact, airborne droplet nuclei, fomites contaminated by infectious saliva, and perhaps urine, and usually seen in children under the age of 15, although adults may also be affected. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Antibodies that react with self-antigens (AUTOANTIGENS) of the organism that produced them.
An antitoxin used for the treatment of TETANUS.
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
The application of suitable drug dosage forms to the skin for either local or systemic effects.
The mucous lining of the NASAL CAVITY, including lining of the nostril (vestibule) and the OLFACTORY MUCOSA. Nasal mucosa consists of ciliated cells, GOBLET CELLS, brush cells, small granule cells, basal cells (STEM CELLS) and glands containing both mucous and serous cells.
A live, attenuated varicella virus vaccine used for immunization against chickenpox. It is recommended for children between the ages of 12 months and 13 years.
Infections with bacteria of the species STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent and treat RABIES. The inactivated virus vaccine is used for preexposure immunization to persons at high risk of exposure, and in conjunction with rabies immunoglobulin, for postexposure prophylaxis.
Organized services to provide health care for children.
A measure of the binding strength between antibody and a simple hapten or antigen determinant. It depends on the closeness of stereochemical fit between antibody combining sites and antigen determinants, on the size of the area of contact between them, and on the distribution of charged and hydrophobic groups. It includes the concept of "avidity," which refers to the strength of the antigen-antibody bond after formation of reversible complexes.
A species of the genus MACACA inhabiting India, China, and other parts of Asia. The species is used extensively in biomedical research and adapts very well to living with humans.
Groups set up to advise governmental bodies, societies, or other institutions on policy. (Bioethics Thesaurus)
Programs of surveillance designed to prevent the transmission of disease by any means from person to person or from animal to man.
Form of passive immunization where previously sensitized immunologic agents (cells or serum) are transferred to non-immune recipients. When transfer of cells is used as a therapy for the treatment of neoplasms, it is called adoptive immunotherapy (IMMUNOTHERAPY, ADOPTIVE).
Suspensions of attenuated or killed fungi administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious fungal disease.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with hepatitis A virus (HEPATOVIRUS).
Vaccines used to prevent TYPHOID FEVER and/or PARATYPHOID FEVER which are caused by various species of SALMONELLA. Attenuated, subunit, and inactivated forms of the vaccines exist.
Proteins found in any species of protozoan.
Manipulation of the host's immune system in treatment of disease. It includes both active and passive immunization as well as immunosuppressive therapy to prevent graft rejection.
Serologic tests in which a known quantity of antigen is added to the serum prior to the addition of a red cell suspension. Reaction result is expressed as the smallest amount of antigen which causes complete inhibition of hemagglutination.
The phenomenon of target cell destruction by immunologically active effector cells. It may be brought about directly by sensitized T-lymphocytes or by lymphoid or myeloid "killer" cells, or it may be mediated by cytotoxic antibody, cytotoxic factor released by lymphoid cells, or complement.
Unique genetically-controlled determinants present on ANTIBODIES whose specificity is limited to a single group of proteins (e.g., another antibody molecule or an individual myeloma protein). The idiotype appears to represent the antigenicity of the antigen-binding site of the antibody and to be genetically codetermined with it. The idiotypic determinants have been precisely located to the IMMUNOGLOBULIN VARIABLE REGION of both immunoglobin polypeptide chains.
Endogenous tissue constituents that have the ability to interact with AUTOANTIBODIES and cause an immune response.
Layers of protein which surround the capsid in animal viruses with tubular nucleocapsids. The envelope consists of an inner layer of lipids and virus specified proteins also called membrane or matrix proteins. The outer layer consists of one or more types of morphological subunits called peplomers which project from the viral envelope; this layer always consists of glycoproteins.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent conception.
Systems used to prompt or aid the memory. The systems can be computerized reminders, color coding, telephone calls, or devices such as letters and postcards.
Methods used for studying the interactions of antibodies with specific regions of protein antigens. Important applications of epitope mapping are found within the area of immunochemistry.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent or treat TUBERCULOSIS.
Toxic substances formed in or elaborated by bacteria; they are usually proteins with high molecular weight and antigenicity; some are used as antibiotics and some to skin test for the presence of or susceptibility to certain diseases.
Subset of helper-inducer T-lymphocytes which synthesize and secrete the interleukins IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, and IL-10. These cytokines influence B-cell development and antibody production as well as augmenting humoral responses.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by a member of the ORTHOHEPADNAVIRUS genus, HEPATITIS B VIRUS. It is primarily transmitted by parenteral exposure, such as transfusion of contaminated blood or blood products, but can also be transmitted via sexual or intimate personal contact.
An envelope of loose gel surrounding a bacterial cell which is associated with the virulence of pathogenic bacteria. Some capsules have a well-defined border, whereas others form a slime layer that trails off into the medium. Most capsules consist of relatively simple polysaccharides but there are some bacteria whose capsules are made of polypeptides.
Subunits of the antigenic determinant that are most easily recognized by the immune system and thus most influence the specificity of the induced antibody.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with ROTAVIRUS.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent ANTHRAX.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines designed to prevent SAIDS; (SIMIAN ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME); and containing inactivated SIMIAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS or type D retroviruses or some of their component antigens.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent STREPTOCOCCAL INFECTIONS.
Those hepatitis B antigens found on the surface of the Dane particle and on the 20 nm spherical and tubular particles. Several subspecificities of the surface antigen are known. These were formerly called the Australia antigen.
Subpopulation of CD4+ lymphocytes that cooperate with other lymphocytes (either T or B) to initiate a variety of immune functions. For example, helper-inducer T-cells cooperate with B-cells to produce antibodies to thymus-dependent antigens and with other subpopulations of T-cells to initiate a variety of cell-mediated immune functions.
Multi-subunit proteins which function in IMMUNITY. They are produced by B LYMPHOCYTES from the IMMUNOGLOBULIN GENES. They are comprised of two heavy (IMMUNOGLOBULIN HEAVY CHAINS) and two light chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN LIGHT CHAINS) with additional ancillary polypeptide chains depending on their isoforms. The variety of isoforms include monomeric or polymeric forms, and transmembrane forms (B-CELL ANTIGEN RECEPTORS) or secreted forms (ANTIBODIES). They are divided by the amino acid sequence of their heavy chains into five classes (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A; IMMUNOGLOBULIN D; IMMUNOGLOBULIN E; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G; IMMUNOGLOBULIN M) and various subclasses.
A type of H. influenzae isolated most frequently from biotype I. Prior to vaccine availability, it was a leading cause of childhood meningitis.
A gram-positive organism found in the upper respiratory tract, inflammatory exudates, and various body fluids of normal and/or diseased humans and, rarely, domestic animals.
A compound with many biomedical applications: as a gastric antacid, an antiperspirant, in dentifrices, as an emulsifier, as an adjuvant in bacterins and vaccines, in water purification, etc.
Antibodies to the HEPATITIS B ANTIGENS, including antibodies to the surface (Australia) and core of the Dane particle and those to the "e" antigens.
Recombinant proteins produced by the GENETIC TRANSLATION of fused genes formed by the combination of NUCLEIC ACID REGULATORY SEQUENCES of one or more genes with the protein coding sequences of one or more genes.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
Members of the class of compounds composed of AMINO ACIDS joined together by peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids into linear, branched or cyclical structures. OLIGOPEPTIDES are composed of approximately 2-12 amino acids. Polypeptides are composed of approximately 13 or more amino acids. PROTEINS are linear polypeptides that are normally synthesized on RIBOSOMES.
Extrachromosomal, usually CIRCULAR DNA molecules that are self-replicating and transferable from one organism to another. They are found in a variety of bacterial, archaeal, fungal, algal, and plant species. They are used in GENETIC ENGINEERING as CLONING VECTORS.
Virus diseases caused by the ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE.
A formulation for presenting an antigen to induce specific immunologic responses. It consists of an assembly of antigens in multimeric form. The assembly is attached to a matrix with a built-in adjuvant, saponin. ISCOMs induce strong serum antibody responses, and are used as highly immunogenic forms of subunit vaccines.
A live VACCINIA VIRUS vaccine of calf lymph or chick embryo origin, used for immunization against smallpox. It is now recommended only for laboratory workers exposed to smallpox virus. Certain countries continue to vaccinate those in the military service. Complications that result from smallpox vaccination include vaccinia, secondary bacterial infections, and encephalomyelitis. (Dorland, 28th ed)
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
The product of meiotic division of zygotes in parasitic protozoa comprising haploid cells. These infective cells invade the host and undergo asexual reproduction producing MEROZOITES (or other forms) and ultimately gametocytes.
Serum globulins that migrate to the gamma region (most positively charged) upon ELECTROPHORESIS. At one time, gamma-globulins came to be used as a synonym for immunoglobulins since most immunoglobulins are gamma globulins and conversely most gamma globulins are immunoglobulins. But since some immunoglobulins exhibit an alpha or beta electrophoretic mobility, that usage is in decline.
A soluble factor produced by activated T-LYMPHOCYTES that induces the expression of MHC CLASS II GENES and FC RECEPTORS on B-LYMPHOCYTES and causes their proliferation and differentiation. It also acts on T-lymphocytes, MAST CELLS, and several other hematopoietic lineage cells.
Proteins isolated from the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria.
The clear, viscous fluid secreted by the SALIVARY GLANDS and mucous glands of the mouth. It contains MUCINS, water, organic salts, and ptylin.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent PAPILLOMAVIRUS INFECTIONS. Human vaccines are intended to reduce the incidence of UTERINE CERVICAL NEOPLASMS, so they are sometimes considered a type of CANCER VACCINES. They are often composed of CAPSID PROTEINS, especially L1 protein, from various types of ALPHAPAPILLOMAVIRUS.
A combined vaccine used to prevent infection with diphtheria and tetanus toxoid. This is used in place of DTP vaccine (DIPHTHERIA-TETANUS-PERTUSSIS VACCINE) when PERTUSSIS VACCINE is contraindicated.
Infections with bacteria of the genus HAEMOPHILUS.

Suppression of Moloney sarcoma virus immunity following sensitization with attenuated virus. (1/7909)

Murine sarcoma virus (Moloney strain) (MSV-M)-induced tumors are unusual in that they regularly appear less than 2 weeks after virus inoculation, progress for 1 to 2 weeks, and are rejected by normal adult BALB/c mice. Rejectio leaves the animals immune to tumor induction. In the present study, presensitization of normal adult BALB/c mice with attenuated MSV-M resulted in an altered pattern of tumor immunity. Injection of active MSV-M into the presensitized animals resulted in tumor induction and rejection similar to that observed in normal animals, but rejection failed to produce protection against the secondary inoculation with MSV-M. After the second inoculation with active MSV-M, tumors appeared and progressed but ultimately were rejected. Over 80% of the mice died, 25% after the primary challenge and the remainder after the secondary challenge. At death, all mice had histological evidence of leukemia which was the probable cause of death. The animals that died following the secondary challenge also had evidence of disseminated MSV-M. Solid tumor nodules were found in skeletal muscle distant from the original site of inoculation, and active MSV-M was isolated from spleen and lungs. The possibility that the results were produced by specific suppression of MSV-Moloney leukemia virus immunity is discussed.  (+info)

Transcutaneous immunization with bacterial ADP-ribosylating exotoxins as antigens and adjuvants. (2/7909)

Transcutaneous immunization (TCI) is a new technique that uses the application of vaccine antigens in a solution on the skin to induce potent antibody responses without systemic or local toxicity. We have previously shown that cholera toxin (CT), a potent adjuvant for oral and nasal immunization, can induce both serum and mucosal immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgA and protect against toxin-mediated mucosal disease when administered by the transcutaneous route. Additionally, CT acts as an adjuvant for coadministered antigens such as tetanus and diphtheria toxoids when applied to the skin. CT, a member of the bacterial ADP-ribosylating exotoxin (bARE) family, is most potent as an adjuvant when the A-B subunits are present and functional. We now show that TCI induces secondary antibody responses to coadministered antigens as well as to CT in response to boosting immunizations. IgG antibodies to coadministered antigens were also found in the stools and lung washes of immunized mice, suggesting that TCI may target mucosal pathogens. Mice immunized by the transcutaneous route with tetanus fragment C and CT developed anti-tetanus toxoid antibodies and were protected against systemic tetanus toxin challenge. We also show that bAREs, similarly organized as A-B subunits, as well as the B subunit of CT alone, induced antibody responses to themselves when given via TCI. Thus, TCI appears to induce potent, protective immune responses to both systemic and mucosal challenge and offers significant potential practical advantages for vaccine delivery.  (+info)

Zonula occludens toxin is a powerful mucosal adjuvant for intranasally delivered antigens. (3/7909)

Zonula occludens toxin (Zot) is produced by toxigenic strains of Vibrio cholerae and has the ability to reversibly alter intestinal epithelial tight junctions, allowing the passage of macromolecules through the mucosal barrier. In the present study, we investigated whether Zot could be exploited to deliver soluble antigens through the nasal mucosa for the induction of antigen-specific systemic and mucosal immune responses. Intranasal immunization of mice with ovalbumin (Ova) and recombinant Zot, either fused to the maltose-binding protein (MBP-Zot) or with a hexahistidine tag (His-Zot), induced anti-Ova serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) titers that were approximately 40-fold higher than those induced by immunization with antigen alone. Interestingly, Zot also stimulated high anti-Ova IgA titers in serum, as well as in vaginal and intestinal secretions. A comparison with Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin (LT) revealed that the adjuvant activity of Zot was only sevenfold lower than that of LT. Moreover, Zot and LT induced similar patterns of Ova-specific IgG subclasses. The subtypes IgG1, IgG2a, and IgG2b were all stimulated, with a predominance of IgG1 and IgG2b. In conclusion, our results highlight Zot as a novel potent mucosal adjuvant of microbial origin.  (+info)

Noncompetitive expansion of cytotoxic T lymphocytes specific for different antigens during bacterial infection. (4/7909)

Listeria monocytogenes is an intracellular bacterium that elicits complex cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) responses in infected mice. The responses of CTL populations that differ in antigen specificity range in magnitude from large, dominant responses to small, subdominant responses. To test the hypothesis that dominant T-cell responses inhibit subdominant responses, we eliminated the two dominant epitopes of L. monocytogenes by anchor residue mutagenesis and measured the T-cell responses to the remaining subdominant epitopes. Surprisingly, the loss of dominant T-cell responses did not enhance subdominant responses. While mice immunized with bacteria lacking dominant epitopes developed L. monocytogenes-specific immunity, their ability to respond to dominant epitopes upon rechallenge with wild-type bacteria was markedly diminished. Recall responses in mice immunized with wild-type or epitope-deficient L. monocytogenes showed that antigen presentation during recall infection is sufficient for activating memory cells yet insufficient for optimal priming of naive T lymphocytes. Our findings suggest that T-cell priming to different epitopes during L. monocytogenes infection is not competitive. Rather, T-cell populations specific for different antigens but the same pathogen expand independently.  (+info)

Ovine MHC class II DRB1 alleles associated with resistance or susceptibility to development of bovine leukemia virus-induced ovine lymphoma. (5/7909)

For the further characterization of bovine leukemia virus (BLV)-induced leukemogenesis, we investigated the association between polymorphism of ovine leukocyte antigen (OLA)-DRB1 gene and tumor development after infection of sheep with BLV. We infected 28 sheep with BLV and cloned exon 2 of the OLA-DRB1 gene from asymptomatic animals and from animals with lymphoma Sequence analysis revealed that, among 12 healthy sheep without any evidence of tumor, ten (83.3%) carried DRB1 alleles encoding Arg-Lys (RK) at positions beta70/71 as compared with only 6 (37.5%) of the 16 sheep with lymphoma, which suggested that alleles encoding the RK motif might protect against development of tumors after infection by BLV. By contrast, alleles encoding Ser-Arg (SR) at positions beta70/71 were present at a significantly elevated frequency in sheep with lymphoma as compared with the healthy carriers, which indicated that OLA-DRB1 alleles encoding the SR motif might be positively related to susceptibility to tumor development. The two amino acids in these motifs line a pocket that accommodates the side chain of a bound peptide according to a model of the crystal structure of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DR1. To analyze immunoreactions of sheep with alleles that encoded RK or SR at beta70/71, we selected sheep with either the RK/SR genotypes or the SR/SR genotypes and immunized them with a mixture of multiple synthetic antigenic peptides that corresponded to T-helper, T-cytotoxic, and B-cell epitopes of the BLV envelope glycoprotein gp51. Two weeks after the last immunization, all of the sheep were challenged with BLV. Sheep with the RK/SR genotype produced neutralizing antibodies against BLV; they eliminated BLV completely within 28 weeks of the BLV challenge, and they gave strong lymphocyte-proliferative responses to the peptides used for immunization. Moreover, such animals did not develop lymphoma. By contrast, sheep with the SR/SR genotype continued to produce BLV throughout the experimental period and developed terminal disease. Our results indicate that the differences in immunoresponse were due to differences in major histocompatibility complex class II alleles and reflected the risk of BLV-induced leukemogenesis. In addition, it appears that susceptibility to tumor development may be determined to some extent by polymorphic residues binding to antigenic peptides directly within the binding cleft of the OLA-DR molecule.  (+info)

Immunosurveillance and the evaluation of national immunization programmes: a population-based approach. (6/7909)

Mass vaccination can change the epidemiological dynamics of infectious diseases. It may result in a limited persistence of natural and vaccine-induced immunity and a higher mean age of infection, which may lead to a greater risk of complications. The epidemiological situation should be monitored and immunosurveillance based on the assessment of specific antibodies against vaccine-preventable diseases in human serum is one of the tools. In order to estimate the immunity of the Dutch population reliably, a large-scale, population-based, collection of serum samples was established (8359 sera in a nation-wide sampling and 1589 sera from municipalities with low vaccine coverage). In contrast to collecting residual sera from laboratories, this approach gains extensive information by means of a questionnaire regarding the determinants of the immune status and the risk factors for the transmission of infectious diseases in general. The population-based approach gives a better guarantee that the data are representative than collecting sera from laboratories does.  (+info)

Rubella immunisation and contraception--a case for re-examining the policy of the Department of Health and Social Security. (7/7909)

Now that immunisation against rubella is available, it would at first sight seem reasonable to identify all potential mothers susceptible to this disease and immunise them. Preliminary screening, however, carried out in order to restrict vaccination to seronegative subjects, not only serves no useful purpose, but is counter-productive.  (+info)

Chlamydia infections and heart disease linked through antigenic mimicry. (8/7909)

Chlamydia infections are epidemiologically linked to human heart disease. A peptide from the murine heart muscle-specific alpha myosin heavy chain that has sequence homology to the 60-kilodalton cysteine-rich outer membrane proteins of Chlamydia pneumoniae, C. psittaci, and C. trachomatis was shown to induce autoimmune inflammatory heart disease in mice. Injection of the homologous Chlamydia peptides into mice also induced perivascular inflammation, fibrotic changes, and blood vessel occlusion in the heart, as well as triggering T and B cell reactivity to the homologous endogenous heart muscle-specific peptide. Chlamydia DNA functioned as an adjuvant in the triggering of peptide-induced inflammatory heart disease. Infection with C. trachomatis led to the production of autoantibodies to heart muscle-specific epitopes. Thus, Chlamydia-mediated heart disease is induced by antigenic mimicry of a heart muscle-specific protein.  (+info)

The symptoms of tetanus can develop anywhere from 3 days to 3 weeks after exposure to the bacteria, and they can include:

* Muscle stiffness and spasms, especially in the neck, jaw, and limbs
* Difficulty swallowing or speaking
* Fever and sweating
* Headache and fatigue
* Rigidity and spasticity of muscles
* Abdominal cramps and diarrhea
* In severe cases, tetanus can cause serious complications such as pneumonia, heart problems, and death.

Tetanus is diagnosed through a physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests. Treatment typically involves administering antitoxin medication to neutralize the effects of the bacterial toxins, as well as providing supportive care such as pain management and wound care.

Prevention is key in avoiding tetanus, and this can be achieved through:

* Vaccination: Tetanus vaccines are available and recommended for individuals of all ages, especially for those who have open wounds or injuries.
* Proper wound care: Keeping wounds clean and covered can help prevent the entry of bacteria into the body.
* Avoiding risky behaviors: Avoiding activities that can cause injury, such as playing contact sports or engaging in dangerous hobbies, can reduce the risk of developing tetanus.

Overall, tetanus is a serious medical condition that requires prompt treatment and prevention measures to avoid complications and ensure a full recovery.

Measles is caused by a virus that is transmitted through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes. The virus can also be spread through direct contact with an infected person's saliva or mucus.

The symptoms of measles usually appear about 10-14 days after exposure to the virus, and may include:

* Fever
* Cough
* Runny nose
* Red, watery eyes
* Small white spots inside the mouth (Koplik spots)
* A rash that starts on the head and spreads to the rest of the body

Measles can be diagnosed through a physical examination, laboratory tests, or by observing the characteristic rash. There is no specific treatment for measles, but it can be treated with over-the-counter medications such as acetaminophen or ibuprofen to relieve fever and pain.

Complications of measles can include:

* Ear infections
* Pneumonia
* Encephalitis (inflammation of the brain)
* Seizures
* Death (rare)

Measles is highly contagious and can spread easily through schools, workplaces, and other communities. Vaccination is the best way to prevent measles, and the Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) vaccine is recommended for all children and adults who have not been previously infected with the virus or vaccinated.

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The symptoms of diphtheria typically develop within 2-5 days after exposure and may include:

* Sore throat and difficulty swallowing
* Fever and chills
* Swollen and tender lymph nodes in the neck
* Difficulty breathing or shortness of breath
* Skin lesions or rashes
* Nerve damage, leading to weakness, paralysis, and other neurological symptoms.

If left untreated, diphtheria can lead to serious complications such as respiratory failure, heart failure, and death. Treatment typically involves antibiotics, which can help clear the infection and prevent further damage. In severe cases, hospitalization may be required to provide supportive care, such as mechanical ventilation or cardiac support.

Diphtheria is a vaccine-preventable disease, and immunization programs have been instrumental in reducing the incidence of this disease worldwide. However, outbreaks still occur in some areas, particularly among unvaccinated individuals or those living in areas with low vaccination coverage.

In addition to its clinical features, diphtheria has several key characteristics that are important to note:

* It is highly contagious and can be transmitted through respiratory droplets, close contact with an infected person, or by touching contaminated surfaces and objects.
* The bacteria can survive for weeks outside the body, making it a significant risk for transmission through fomites.
* Immunity to diphtheria is not lifelong, and booster doses of the vaccine are recommended every 10 years to maintain protection.

There are three main forms of poliomyelitis:

1. Non-paralytic polio, which causes symptoms such as fever, headache, and sore throat, but does not lead to paralysis.
2. Paralytic polio, which can cause partial or complete paralysis of the muscles in the limbs, trunk, and respiratory system. This form is more severe and can be fatal.
3. Post-polio syndrome, which occurs in some individuals years after they have recovered from a paralytic polio infection. It is characterized by new muscle weakness, pain, and fatigue.

Poliomyelitis was once a major public health problem worldwide, but widespread immunization campaigns have led to a significant decline in the number of cases. The World Health Organization (WHO) has set a goal of eradicating polio by 2018.

Treatment for poliomyelitis typically focuses on managing symptoms and supporting respiratory function. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to provide intensive care, such as mechanical ventilation. Physical therapy and rehabilitation are also important in helping individuals recover from paralysis.

Prevention is key to controlling the spread of poliomyelitis. This includes vaccination with the oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV), which has been shown to be safe and effective in preventing polio. In addition, good hygiene practices, such as washing hands regularly, can help reduce the risk of transmission.

Examples of delayed hypersensitivity reactions include contact dermatitis (a skin reaction to an allergic substance), tuberculin reactivity (a reaction to the bacteria that cause tuberculosis), and sarcoidosis (a condition characterized by inflammation in various organs, including the lungs and lymph nodes).

Delayed hypersensitivity reactions are important in the diagnosis and management of allergic disorders and other immune-related conditions. They can be detected through a variety of tests, including skin prick testing, patch testing, and blood tests. Treatment for delayed hypersensitivity reactions depends on the underlying cause and may involve medications such as antihistamines, corticosteroids, or immunosuppressants.

Symptoms of whooping cough typically appear within 7-14 days after exposure and may include:

* Mild fever
* Runny nose
* Sneezing
* Dry, irritating cough that progresses to spasmodic, convulsive coughing fits
* Vomiting after coughing
* Apnea (pause in breathing)

In infants, the symptoms may be milder and include:

* Mild fever
* Lack of appetite
* Irritability
* Cyanosis (blue discoloration of the skin)

If left untreated, whooping cough can lead to serious complications such as pneumonia, seizures, and brain damage. Diagnosis is based on a combination of clinical findings, laboratory tests, and medical imaging. Treatment typically involves antibiotics and supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Prevention measures include immunization with the pertussis vaccine, which is routinely given to infants and children in early childhood, as well as booster shots during adolescence and adulthood. Good hygiene practices, such as frequent handwashing and avoiding close contact with people who are sick, can also help prevent the spread of the disease.

1) They share similarities with humans: Many animal species share similar biological and physiological characteristics with humans, making them useful for studying human diseases. For example, mice and rats are often used to study diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer because they have similar metabolic and cardiovascular systems to humans.

2) They can be genetically manipulated: Animal disease models can be genetically engineered to develop specific diseases or to model human genetic disorders. This allows researchers to study the progression of the disease and test potential treatments in a controlled environment.

3) They can be used to test drugs and therapies: Before new drugs or therapies are tested in humans, they are often first tested in animal models of disease. This allows researchers to assess the safety and efficacy of the treatment before moving on to human clinical trials.

4) They can provide insights into disease mechanisms: Studying disease models in animals can provide valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of a particular disease. This information can then be used to develop new treatments or improve existing ones.

5) Reduces the need for human testing: Using animal disease models reduces the need for human testing, which can be time-consuming, expensive, and ethically challenging. However, it is important to note that animal models are not perfect substitutes for human subjects, and results obtained from animal studies may not always translate to humans.

6) They can be used to study infectious diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study infectious diseases such as HIV, TB, and malaria. These models allow researchers to understand how the disease is transmitted, how it progresses, and how it responds to treatment.

7) They can be used to study complex diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study complex diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. These models allow researchers to understand the underlying mechanisms of the disease and test potential treatments.

8) They are cost-effective: Animal disease models are often less expensive than human clinical trials, making them a cost-effective way to conduct research.

9) They can be used to study drug delivery: Animal disease models can be used to study drug delivery and pharmacokinetics, which is important for developing new drugs and drug delivery systems.

10) They can be used to study aging: Animal disease models can be used to study the aging process and age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. This allows researchers to understand how aging contributes to disease and develop potential treatments.

Symptoms of influenza include:

* Fever (usually high)
* Cough
* Sore throat
* Runny or stuffy nose
* Headache
* Muscle or body aches
* Fatigue (tiredness)
* Diarrhea and nausea (more common in children than adults)

Influenza can lead to serious complications, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and sinus and ear infections. These complications are more likely to occur in people who have a weakened immune system, such as the elderly, young children, and people with certain chronic health conditions (like heart disease, diabetes, and lung disease).

Influenza is diagnosed based on a physical examination and medical history. A healthcare provider may also use a rapid influenza test (RIT) or a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test to confirm the diagnosis.

Treatment for influenza typically involves rest, hydration, and over-the-counter medications such as acetaminophen (Tylenol) or ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin) to relieve fever and body aches. Antiviral medications, such as oseltamivir (Tamiflu) or zanamivir (Relenza), may also be prescribed to help shorten the duration and severity of the illness. However, these medications are most effective when started within 48 hours of the onset of symptoms.

Prevention is key in avoiding influenza. Vaccination is the most effective way to prevent influenza, as well as practicing good hygiene such as washing your hands frequently, avoiding close contact with people who are sick, and staying home when you are sick.

Source: 'Rubella' in Duane Gubler (ed.), up-to-date online clinical reference, retrieved on March 14, 2023 from

Examples of autoimmune diseases include:

1. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA): A condition where the immune system attacks the joints, leading to inflammation, pain, and joint damage.
2. Lupus: A condition where the immune system attacks various body parts, including the skin, joints, and organs.
3. Hashimoto's thyroiditis: A condition where the immune system attacks the thyroid gland, leading to hypothyroidism.
4. Multiple sclerosis (MS): A condition where the immune system attacks the protective covering of nerve fibers in the central nervous system, leading to communication problems between the brain and the rest of the body.
5. Type 1 diabetes: A condition where the immune system attacks the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas, leading to high blood sugar levels.
6. Guillain-Barré syndrome: A condition where the immune system attacks the nerves, leading to muscle weakness and paralysis.
7. Psoriasis: A condition where the immune system attacks the skin, leading to red, scaly patches.
8. Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis: Conditions where the immune system attacks the digestive tract, leading to inflammation and damage to the gut.
9. Sjögren's syndrome: A condition where the immune system attacks the glands that produce tears and saliva, leading to dry eyes and mouth.
10. Vasculitis: A condition where the immune system attacks the blood vessels, leading to inflammation and damage to the blood vessels.

The symptoms of autoimmune diseases vary depending on the specific disease and the organs or tissues affected. Common symptoms include fatigue, fever, joint pain, skin rashes, and swollen lymph nodes. Treatment for autoimmune diseases typically involves medication to suppress the immune system and reduce inflammation, as well as lifestyle changes such as dietary changes and stress management techniques.

Mumps is typically diagnosed based on a combination of symptoms and physical examination findings. Laboratory tests such as PCR or IgG antibody testing may also be performed to confirm the diagnosis. There is no specific treatment for mumps, but supportive care such as pain management and hydration may be provided to alleviate symptoms. Vaccines are available to prevent mumps, and they are most effective when given before exposure to the virus.

The medical field has a clear definition of mumps, which is essential for accurate diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of the disease. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines mumps as "a contagious viral infection that affects the salivary glands, particularly the parotid gland." The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) also provides guidelines for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mumps.

In conclusion, mumps is a viral infection that affects the salivary glands and can cause pain, discomfort, and potentially serious complications. The medical field has a clear definition of mumps, which is essential for accurate diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of the disease. Vaccines are available to prevent mumps, and they are most effective when given before exposure to the virus.

Types of Pneumococcal Infections:

1. Pneumonia: This is an infection of the lungs that can cause fever, cough, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
2. Meningitis: This is an infection of the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord, which can cause fever, headache, stiff neck, and confusion.
3. Septicemia (bloodstream infection): This is an infection of the blood that can cause fever, chills, and low blood pressure.
4. Sinusitis: This is an infection of the sinuses, which can cause headache, facial pain, and difficulty breathing through the nose.
5. Otitis media (middle ear infection): This is an infection of the middle ear, which can cause ear pain, fever, and hearing loss.

Causes and Risk Factors:

Pneumococcal infections are caused by the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae. These bacteria can be spread through close contact with an infected person, such as touching or sharing food and drinks. People who are at high risk for developing pneumococcal infections include:

1. Children under the age of 5 and adults over the age of 65.
2. People with weakened immune systems, such as those with cancer, HIV/AIDS, or taking medications that suppress the immune system.
3. Smokers and people with chronic respiratory diseases, such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
4. People who have recently had surgery or have a severe injury.
5. Those who live in long-term care facilities or have limited access to healthcare.

Prevention and Treatment:

Preventing pneumococcal infections is important, especially for high-risk individuals. Here are some ways to prevent and treat pneumococcal infections:

1. Vaccination: The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) is recommended for children under the age of 5 and adults over the age of 65, as well as for people with certain medical conditions.
2. Hand washing: Frequent hand washing can help prevent the spread of pneumococcal bacteria.
3. Good hygiene: Avoiding close contact with people who are sick and regularly cleaning surfaces that may be contaminated with bacteria can also help prevent infection.
4. Antibiotics: Pneumococcal infections can be treated with antibiotics, but overuse of antibiotics can lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Therefore, antibiotics should only be used when necessary and under the guidance of a healthcare professional.
5. Supportive care: Those with severe pneumococcal infections may require hospitalization and supportive care, such as oxygen therapy or mechanical ventilation.

Conclusion:

Pneumococcal infections can be serious and even life-threatening, especially for high-risk individuals. Prevention and prompt treatment are key to reducing the risk of complications and improving outcomes. Vaccination, good hygiene practices, and appropriate antibiotic use are all important in preventing and treating pneumococcal infections. If you suspect that you or a loved one has a pneumococcal infection, it is essential to seek medical attention right away. With proper care and support, many people with pneumococcal infections can recover fully and resume their normal lives.

The symptoms of hepatitis B can range from mild to severe and may include fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dark urine, pale stools, joint pain, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). In some cases, hepatitis B can be asymptomatic, meaning that individuals may not experience any symptoms at all.

Hepatitis B is diagnosed through blood tests that detect the presence of HBV antigens or antibodies in the body. Treatment for acute hepatitis B typically involves rest, hydration, and medication to manage symptoms, while chronic hepatitis B may require ongoing therapy with antiviral drugs to suppress the virus and prevent liver damage.

Preventive measures for hepatitis B include vaccination, which is recommended for individuals at high risk of infection, such as healthcare workers, sexually active individuals, and those traveling to areas where HBV is common. In addition, safe sex practices, avoiding sharing of needles or other bodily fluids, and proper sterilization of medical equipment can help reduce the risk of transmission.

Overall, hepatitis B is a serious infection that can have long-term consequences for liver health, and it is important to take preventive measures and seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

Orthomyxoviridae infections are a group of viral infections caused by the Orthomyxoviridae family of viruses, which includes influenza A and B viruses, as well as other related viruses. These infections can affect both humans and animals and can cause a range of symptoms, from mild to severe.

The most common type of Orthomyxoviridae infection is seasonal influenza, which occurs when the virus is transmitted from person to person through the air or by contact with infected surfaces. Other types of Orthomyxoviridae infections include:

1. Pandemic influenza: This occurs when a new strain of the virus emerges and spreads quickly around the world, causing widespread illness and death. Examples of pandemic influenza include the Spanish flu of 1918 and the Asian flu of 1957.
2. Avian influenza: This occurs when birds are infected with the virus and can be transmitted to humans through close contact with infected birds or their droppings.
3. Swine influenza: This occurs when pigs are infected with the virus and can be transmitted to humans through close contact with infected pigs or their droppings.
4. H5N1 and H7N9: These are two specific types of bird flu viruses that have caused serious outbreaks in humans in recent years.

Symptoms of Orthomyxoviridae infections can include fever, cough, sore throat, runny nose, muscle aches, and fatigue. In severe cases, these infections can lead to pneumonia, bronchitis, and other respiratory complications, as well as hospitalization and even death.

Diagnosis of Orthomyxoviridae infections is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests, such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction) or viral culture. Treatment is generally focused on relieving symptoms and supporting the immune system, with antiviral medications may be used in severe cases.

Prevention of Orthomyxoviridae infections can include avoiding close contact with infected birds or pigs, wearing protective clothing and gear when handling animals, and practicing good hygiene such as washing hands frequently. Vaccines are also available for some species of birds and pigs to protect against these viruses.

Overall, Orthomyxoviridae is a family of viruses that can cause serious illness in humans and other animals, and it's important to take precautions to prevent exposure and spread of these viruses.

Epidemiology of Haemophilus Infections:

* Incidence: Hib disease was once a major cause of childhood meningitis and sepsis, but the introduction of Hib vaccines in the 1980s has significantly reduced the incidence of invasive Hib disease. Non-invasive Hib disease, such as otitis media, is still common.
* Prevalence: Hib is the leading cause of bacterial meningitis in children under the age of 5 worldwide. In developed countries, the prevalence of invasive Hib disease has decreased significantly since the introduction of vaccines, but it remains a significant public health problem in developing countries.
* Risk factors: young age, poverty, lack of access to healthcare, and poor sanitation and hygiene are risk factors for Hib disease. Children under the age of 5, especially those under the age of 2, are at highest risk for invasive Hib disease.

Pathophysiology of Haemophilus Infections:

* Mechanisms of infection: H. influenzae can cause both respiratory and non-respiratory infections by colonizing the nasopharynx and other mucosal surfaces. The bacteria can then disseminate to other parts of the body, causing invasive disease.
* Immune response: the immune response to Hib infection involves both humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Antibodies play a crucial role in protecting against reinfection, while T cells and macrophages help to clear the bacteria from the body.

Clinical Presentation of Haemophilus Infections:

* Respiratory infections: H. influenzae can cause various respiratory tract infections, including bronchitis, pneumonia, and sinusitis. Symptoms may include fever, cough, sore throat, and difficulty breathing.
* Non-respiratory infections: Hib can cause a range of non-respiratory infections, including meningitis, epiglottitis, and septic arthritis. These infections can have more severe symptoms and may require prompt medical attention.

Diagnosis of Haemophilus Infections:

* Diagnostic tests: diagnosis of Hib disease is based on a combination of clinical findings, laboratory tests, and radiologic studies. Blood cultures, lumbar puncture, and chest x-rays may be used to confirm the presence of the bacteria and assess the extent of infection.
* Laboratory testing: identification of Hib is based on its distinctive gram stain appearance and biochemical characteristics. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing are also used to confirm the diagnosis.

Treatment and Prevention of Haemophilus Infections:

* Antibiotics: Hib infections are treated with antibiotics, such as amoxicillin or ceftriaxone. The choice of antibiotic depends on the severity and location of the infection.
* Vaccination: the Hib vaccine is recommended for children under 5 years old to prevent Hib disease. The vaccine is given in a series of 3-4 doses, with the first dose given at 2 months of age.
* Good hygiene practices: good hygiene practices, such as frequent handwashing and proper cleaning and disinfection, can help prevent the spread of Hib bacteria.

Complications of Haemophilus Infections:

* Meningitis: Hib meningitis can have serious complications, including hearing loss, learning disabilities, and seizures.
* Permanent brain damage: Hib infections can cause permanent brain damage, including cognitive and behavioral impairments.
* Respiratory failure: severe Hib pneumonia can lead to respiratory failure, which may require mechanical ventilation.
* Death: Hib infections can be life-threatening, especially in young children and those with underlying medical conditions.

In conclusion, Haemophilus infections are a serious public health concern, particularly for young children and those with underlying medical conditions. Prevention through vaccination and good hygiene practices is essential to reduce the risk of infection. Early diagnosis and treatment are critical to prevent complications and improve outcomes.

There are several different types of malaria, including:

1. Plasmodium falciparum: This is the most severe form of malaria, and it can be fatal if left untreated. It is found in many parts of the world, including Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
2. Plasmodium vivax: This type of malaria is less severe than P. falciparum, but it can still cause serious complications if left untreated. It is found in many parts of the world, including Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
3. Plasmodium ovale: This type of malaria is similar to P. vivax, but it can cause more severe symptoms in some people. It is found primarily in West Africa.
4. Plasmodium malariae: This type of malaria is less common than the other three types, and it tends to cause milder symptoms. It is found primarily in parts of Africa and Asia.

The symptoms of malaria can vary depending on the type of parasite that is causing the infection, but they typically include:

1. Fever
2. Chills
3. Headache
4. Muscle and joint pain
5. Fatigue
6. Nausea and vomiting
7. Diarrhea
8. Anemia (low red blood cell count)

If malaria is not treated promptly, it can lead to more severe complications, such as:

1. Seizures
2. Coma
3. Respiratory failure
4. Kidney failure
5. Liver failure
6. Anemia (low red blood cell count)

Malaria is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests, such as blood smears or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests. Treatment for malaria typically involves the use of antimalarial drugs, such as chloroquine or artemisinin-based combination therapies. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to manage complications and provide supportive care.

Prevention is an important aspect of managing malaria, and this can include:

1. Using insecticide-treated bed nets
2. Wearing protective clothing and applying insect repellent when outdoors
3. Eliminating standing water around homes and communities to reduce the number of mosquito breeding sites
4. Using indoor residual spraying (IRS) or insecticide-treated wall lining to kill mosquitoes
5. Implementing malaria control measures in areas where malaria is common, such as distribution of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS)
6. Improving access to healthcare services, particularly in rural and remote areas
7. Providing education and awareness about malaria prevention and control
8. Encouraging the use of preventive medications, such as intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) for pregnant women and children under the age of five.

Early diagnosis and prompt treatment are critical in preventing the progression of malaria and reducing the risk of complications and death. In areas where malaria is common, it is essential to have access to reliable diagnostic tools and effective antimalarial drugs.

The disease is typically induced in laboratory animals such as mice or rats by immunizing them with myelin proteins, such as myelin basic protein (MBP) or proteolipid protein (PLP), emulsified in adjuvants. The resulting immune response leads to the production of autoantibodies and activated T cells that cross the blood-brain barrier and attack the CNS.

EAE is used as a model for MS because it shares many similarities with the human disease, including:

1. Demyelination: EAE induces demyelination of nerve fibers in the CNS, which is also a hallmark of MS.
2. Autoimmune response: The immune response in EAE is triggered by autoantigens, similar to MS.
3. Chronic course: EAE is a chronic disease with recurrent relapses, similar to MS.
4. Lesion distribution: EAE lesions are distributed throughout the CNS, including the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, brainstem, and spinal cord, which is also true for MS.

EAE has been used extensively in the study of MS to investigate the immunopathogenesis of the disease, to develop new diagnostic markers and treatments, and to test the efficacy of potential therapeutic agents.

The symptoms of rabies can vary depending on the severity of the infection and the individual's overall health. Early symptoms may include fever, headache, weakness, and fatigue. As the disease progresses, symptoms can become more severe and can include:

* Agitation and confusion
* Seizures and paralysis
* Hydrophobia (fear of water)
* Spasms and twitching
* Increased salivation
* Fever and chills
* Weakness and paralysis of the face, arms, and legs

If left untreated, rabies is almost always fatal. However, prompt medical attention, including the administration of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), can prevent the disease from progressing and save the life of an infected person. PEP typically involves a series of injections with rabies immune globulin and a rabies vaccine.

Rabies is a significant public health concern, particularly in developing countries where access to medical care may be limited. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there are an estimated 55,000-60,000 human deaths from rabies each year, mostly in Asia and Africa. In the United States, rabies is relatively rare, with only a few cases reported each year. However, it is still important for individuals to be aware of the risks of rabies and take precautions to prevent exposure, such as avoiding contact with wild animals and ensuring that pets are up-to-date on their vaccinations.

1. Bubonic plague: This is the most common form of the disease and is characterized by the development of swollen and painful lymph nodes (called buboes) in the groin, armpits, or neck.
2. Pneumonic plague: This form of the disease affects the lungs and can be transmitted from person to person through respiratory droplets. It is highly contagious and can be fatal if left untreated.
3. Septicemic plague: This form of the disease occurs when the bacteria enter the bloodstream directly, without going through the lymph nodes or lungs. It can cause fever, chills, abdominal pain, and bleeding into the skin and organs.

Plague has a long history of being a major public health threat, with pandemics occurring in the Middle Ages and other times throughout history. In modern times, plague is still present in some parts of the world, particularly in rural areas of the western United States and in parts of Africa and Asia.

Treatment of plague typically involves antibiotics, which can be effective if started early in the course of the illness. However, resistance to these antibiotics has been a growing concern in recent years, making it increasingly difficult to treat the disease effectively.

Prevention of plague primarily involves controlling the population of infected fleas and other vectors, as well as avoiding contact with infected animals or people. This can be achieved through measures such as using insecticides, wearing protective clothing and gear, and practicing good hygiene. Vaccines are also available for some forms of the disease, but they are not widely used due to their limited effectiveness and the availability of other treatment options.

Overall, plague is a serious and potentially deadly disease that requires prompt medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time. While treatment options exist, prevention is key to avoiding infection and controlling the spread of the disease.

The symptoms of rotavirus infection can range from mild to severe and may include:

* Diarrhea
* Vomiting
* Fever
* Abdominal pain
* Dehydration
* Loss of appetite
* Weight loss

In severe cases, rotavirus infection can lead to complications such as:

* Dehydration
* Malnutrition
* Electrolyte imbalance
* Acute kidney injury
* Septicemia
* Death (rare)

The diagnosis of rotavirus infection is based on a combination of clinical symptoms, laboratory tests, and medical imaging. Laboratory tests may include:

* Stool testing for the presence of rotavirus antigens or genetic material
* Blood testing for signs of dehydration or electrolyte imbalance

There is no specific treatment for rotavirus infection, but rather supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications. This may include:

* Fluid replacement therapy to prevent dehydration
* Anti-diarrheal medications to slow down bowel movements
* Pain management with medication
* Rest and hydration

Prevention is key in managing rotavirus infections. Vaccines are available to protect against rotavirus infection, and good hygiene practices such as frequent handwashing and avoiding close contact with people who are sick can also help prevent the spread of the virus.

Overall, while rotavirus infections can be severe and potentially life-threatening, with proper supportive care and prevention measures, most children recover fully within a few days to a week.

Once infected, a person will usually develop symptoms within 2-3 weeks after exposure. The symptoms can be mild or severe, and may include:

* Fever (usually low grade)
* Headache
* Sore throat
* Muscle aches
* Fatigue
* Loss of appetite
* Itchy skin rash

The rash typically appears as small, fluid-filled blisters that are highly contagious and can spread to others through direct contact with the rash. The rash may appear on any part of the body, including the face, scalp, arms, legs, and torso. As the rash progresses, it may become crusted over and form scabs.

In some cases, complications can arise from chickenpox, such as:

* Bacterial infections (e.g. strep throat)
* Pneumonia
* Encephalitis (inflammation of the brain)
* Meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord)
* Blood infections (sepsis)
* Shingles (a painful rash that occurs in adults who have had chickenpox before)

There is no specific treatment for chickenpox, but antiviral medications can help reduce the severity and duration of symptoms. Over-the-counter medications such as acetaminophen (Tylenol) or ibuprofen (Advil) can be used to relieve fever and pain. Home remedies such as cool baths, calamine lotion, and chickenpox creams may also provide relief from itching and discomfort.

Prevention is key in avoiding chickenpox, and the best way to do this is through vaccination. The varicella vaccine is recommended for children ages 12-15 months, with a second dose given before entering kindergarten (around age 4-6 years). The vaccine is also recommended for individuals who have not had chickenpox and are over the age of 13. Adults who have not had chickenpox or been vaccinated can take steps to avoid exposure, such as avoiding contact with infected individuals and practicing good hygiene (e.g. washing hands frequently).

In conclusion, chickenpox is a highly contagious illness that can cause discomfort and complications. Prevention through vaccination is the best way to avoid getting sick, and antiviral medications and home remedies can help reduce symptoms if infected. If you suspect you or your child has chickenpox, it's important to contact a healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and treatment.

Hepatitis A is typically spread through contaminated food and water or through close contact with someone who has the infection. The virus can also be spread through sexual contact or sharing of needles.

Symptoms of hepatitis A usually appear two to six weeks after exposure and can last for several weeks or months. In some cases, the infection can lead to complications such as liver failure, which can be life-threatening.

There is a vaccine available for hepatitis A, which is recommended for individuals traveling to areas where the virus is common, people who engage in high-risk behaviors, and those with chronic liver disease. Treatment for hepatitis A typically focuses on relieving symptoms and supporting the liver as it recovers. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary.

Preventive measures to reduce the risk of hepatitis A infection include maintaining good hygiene practices, such as washing hands frequently, especially before eating or preparing food; avoiding consumption of raw or undercooked shellfish, particularly oysters; and avoiding close contact with people who have the infection.

Synonyms: JE

Definition:

A viral infection that affects the brain and is transmitted by the bite of an infected Culex species mosquito. The virus is found throughout Asia and the western Pacific region.

Symptoms:

* Fever
* Headache
* Vomiting
* Seizures
* Confusion
* Weakness in the limbs

Diagnosis:

* Blood tests to detect antibodies against the virus
* Imaging studies such as CT or MRI scans to look for signs of brain inflammation

Treatment:

* Supportive care, such as intravenous fluids and oxygen therapy, to manage symptoms and prevent complications
* Antiviral medications may be given in some cases

Prognosis:

* The prognosis for Japanese encephalitis is generally good if treatment is received promptly and the patient is otherwise healthy. However, in severe cases or those with underlying medical conditions, the virus can cause significant brain damage and lead to long-term complications or death.

Prevention:

* Vaccination against Japanese encephalitis is recommended for people who live in or travel to areas where the virus is common, particularly children and adults who plan to spend extended periods of time outdoors. The vaccine is effective in preventing severe illness and death from the virus.
* Mosquito control measures, such as using insect repellents and wearing protective clothing, can also help reduce the risk of infection.

The most common form of this disease is Meningococcal Group B (MenB). Symptoms often develop within hours or days after exposure, but can be nonspecific, such as fever, headache, and muscle aches.

Early signs that are more specific and suggestive of the diagnosis include neck stiffness, confusion, seizures, and rash. Diagnosis is by culture or PCR of a sterile site. Treatment consists of antibiotics that cover Neisseria meningitidis, which should be initiated promptly after recognition of the signs and symptoms.

Prevention with vaccines is recommended for infants at 2 months of age; boosters are given at 4 months, 6 months, and 12 to 15 months of age.

There are several different types of uveitis, including:

1. Anterior uveitis: This type affects the front part of the eye and is the most common form of uveitis. It is often caused by an infection or injury.
2. Posterior uveitis: This type affects the back part of the eye and can be caused by a systemic disease such as sarcoidosis or juvenile idiopathic arthritis.
3. Intermediate uveitis: This type affects the middle layer of the eye and is often caused by an autoimmune disorder.
4. Panuveitis: This type affects the entire uvea and can be caused by a systemic disease such as vasculitis or Behçet's disease.

Symptoms of uveitis may include:

* Eye pain
* Redness and swelling in the eye
* Blurred vision
* Sensitivity to light
* Floaters (specks or cobwebs in your vision)
* Flashes of light

If you experience any of these symptoms, it is important to see an eye doctor as soon as possible. Uveitis can be diagnosed with a comprehensive eye exam, which may include imaging tests such as ultrasound or MRI. Treatment for uveitis depends on the cause and severity of the condition, but may include medication to reduce inflammation, antibiotics for infections, or surgery to remove any diseased tissue.

Early diagnosis and treatment are important to prevent complications such as cataracts, glaucoma, and blindness. If you have uveitis, it is important to follow your doctor's recommendations for treatment and monitoring to protect your vision.

Smallpox symptoms include fever, headache, and fatigue, followed by a characteristic rash that spreads from the face to other parts of the body. The disease is highly infectious and can be fatal, especially among young children and immunocompromised individuals. There is no specific treatment for smallpox, and vaccination is the most effective method of prevention.

The last naturally occurring case of smallpox was reported in 1977, and since then, there have been only a few laboratory-confirmed cases, all related to research on the virus. The WHO declared that smallpox had been eradicated in 1980, making it the first and only human disease to be completely eliminated from the planet.

While the risk of smallpox is currently low, there is concern that the virus could be used as a bioterrorism agent, and efforts are being made to maintain surveillance and preparedness for any potential outbreaks.

Yellow fever is a serious and sometimes fatal disease, with a high mortality rate in unvaccinated individuals. However, it can be prevented through vaccination, which is recommended for all travelers to areas where the virus is present. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) both recommend that travelers to these areas receive a yellow fever vaccine at least 10 days before travel to ensure adequate protection.

Yellow fever is not contagious, meaning it cannot be spread from person to person through casual contact. However, infected mosquitoes can transmit the virus to other animals and humans. The virus is most commonly found in monkeys and other primates, which can become carriers of the disease without showing any symptoms.

There are several strains of the yellow fever virus, with some being more virulent than others. The most common strain is the Asibi strain, which is found in West Africa and is responsible for most outbreaks of the disease. Other strains include the Central African, East African, and South American strains.

Yellow fever was first identified in the 17th century in West Africa, where it was known as "yellow jack" due to the yellowish tint of the skin of infected individuals. The disease spread throughout the Americas during the colonial period, where it caused devastating outbreaks and killed millions of people. In the United States, yellow fever was eradicated in the early 20th century through vaccination and mosquito control measures. However, it still remains a significant public health threat in many parts of the world today.

Prevention of yellow fever is primarily achieved through vaccination, which is recommended for travelers to areas where the disease is common. Vaccines are available in different forms, including injectable and oral versions, and they provide long-lasting protection against the virus. In addition to vaccination, other measures can be taken to prevent the spread of yellow fever, such as using insect repellents and wearing protective clothing to prevent mosquito bites.

There is no specific treatment for yellow fever, and treatment is primarily focused on managing symptoms and supporting the body's immune response. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to provide intravenous fluids and other supportive care. Antiviral medications may also be used in some cases to help reduce the severity of the disease.

Prevention is key to avoiding yellow fever, and vaccination is the most effective way to protect against this deadly disease. By understanding the causes, symptoms, and prevention methods for yellow fever, individuals can take steps to protect themselves and their loved ones from this potentially deadly illness.

These animal models allow researchers to study the underlying causes of arthritis, test new treatments and therapies, and evaluate their effectiveness in a controlled environment before moving to human clinical trials. Experimental arthritis models are used to investigate various aspects of the disease, including its pathophysiology, immunogenicity, and potential therapeutic targets.

Some common experimental arthritis models include:

1. Collagen-induced arthritis (CIA): This model is induced in mice by immunizing them with type II collagen, which leads to an autoimmune response and inflammation in the joints.
2. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) models: These models are developed by transferring cells from RA patients into immunodeficient mice, which then develop arthritis-like symptoms.
3. Osteoarthritis (OA) models: These models are induced in animals by subjecting them to joint injury or overuse, which leads to degenerative changes in the joints and bone.
4. Psoriatic arthritis (PsA) models: These models are developed by inducing psoriasis in mice, which then develop arthritis-like symptoms.

Experimental arthritis models have contributed significantly to our understanding of the disease and have helped to identify potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of arthritis. However, it is important to note that these models are not perfect representations of human arthritis and should be used as tools to complement, rather than replace, human clinical trials.

There are several types of retinitis, including:

1. Retinitis pigmentosa: This is a group of inherited conditions that cause progressive vision loss due to degeneration of the retina.
2. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis: This is a type of retinitis caused by the CMV virus, which is common in people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS.
3. Toxoplasma retinitis: This is a type of retinitis caused by the Toxoplasma gondii parasite, which can cause vision loss if left untreated.
4. Syphilitic retinitis: This is a type of retinitis caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum, which can cause vision loss if left untreated.
5. Uveitis-related retinitis: This is a type of retinitis that occurs as a complication of uveitis, an inflammation of the uvea, the middle layer of the eye.

Symptoms of retinitis can include vision loss, blurred vision, sensitivity to light, and floaters (specks or cobwebs in your vision). If you experience any of these symptoms, it is important to seek medical attention as soon as possible.

Retinitis is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, imaging tests such as optical coherence tomography (OCT), and laboratory tests to identify the underlying cause. Treatment for retinitis depends on the underlying cause and may include antiviral or antibacterial medications, immunosuppressive drugs, or surgery. In some cases, vision loss may be permanent, but early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent further damage and improve outcomes.

There are three main forms of anthrax:

1. Cutaneous (skin) anthrax: This is the most common form of the disease and causes skin lesions that can progress to severe inflammation and scarring.
2. Inhalational (lung) anthrax: This is the most deadly form of the disease and causes serious respiratory problems, including fever, chills, and difficulty breathing.
3. Gastrointestinal (GI) anthrax: This form of the disease causes symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, and vomiting.

Anthrax can be diagnosed through a variety of tests, including blood tests and imaging studies. Treatment typically involves antibiotics, but the effectiveness of treatment depends on the severity of the infection and the timing of treatment.

Prevention of anthrax primarily involves vaccination of animals and control of animal products to prevent the spread of the bacteria. In addition, public health measures such as surveillance and quarantine can help prevent the spread of the disease to humans.

The medical management of anthrax involves a combination of antibiotics, supportive care, and wound management. Early diagnosis and treatment are critical to preventing serious complications and death.

2. Our research focuses on identifying the genetic mutations that contribute to experimental melanoma and developing targeted therapies.
3. The patient's experimental melanoma had spread to her lungs and liver, so we recommended chemotherapy and immunotherapy treatments.

Vaccinia is most commonly associated with smallpox, which is caused by a similar virus and was eradicated in the late 1970s through widespread vaccination. However, there have been occasional outbreaks of vaccinia in the United States and other countries since then, often linked to laboratory accidents or deliberate releases of the virus.

The treatment of vaccinia typically involves supportive care, such as rest, hydration, and antipyretic medications to reduce fever. Antiviral medications may also be used in some cases. Prevention of the disease relies on avoiding contact with infected animals or people, and on following proper infection control practices in laboratory and healthcare settings.

Vaccinia is a serious viral infection that can have severe consequences if left untreated. It is important to seek medical attention immediately if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

The symptoms of cholera include:

1. Diarrhea: Cholera causes profuse, watery diarrhea that can last for several days.
2. Dehydration: The loss of fluids and electrolytes due to diarrhea can lead to severe dehydration, which can be life-threatening if not treated promptly.
3. Nausea and vomiting: Cholera patients may experience nausea and vomiting, especially in the early stages of the disease.
4. Abdominal cramps: The abdomen may become tender and painful due to the inflammation caused by the bacteria.
5. Low-grade fever: Some patients with cholera may experience a mild fever, typically less than 102°F (39°C).

Cholera is spread through the fecal-oral route, which means that it is transmitted when someone ingests food or water contaminated with the bacteria. The disease can also be spread by direct contact with infected fecal matter, such as through poor hygiene practices or inadequate waste disposal.

There are several ways to diagnose cholera, including:

1. Stool test: A stool sample can be tested for the presence of Vibrio cholerae using a microscope or a rapid diagnostic test (RDT).
2. Blood test: A blood test can detect the presence of antibodies against Vibrio cholerae, which can indicate that the patient has been infected with the bacteria.
3. Physical examination: A healthcare provider may perform a physical examination to look for signs of dehydration and other symptoms of cholera.

Treatment of cholera typically involves replacing lost fluids and electrolytes through oral rehydration therapy (ORT) or intravenous fluids. Antibiotics may also be given to shorten the duration of diarrhea and reduce the risk of complications. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to provide more intensive treatment.

Prevention of cholera involves maintaining good hygiene practices, such as washing hands with soap and water, and avoiding consumption of contaminated food and water. Vaccines are also available to protect against cholera, particularly for people living in areas where the disease is common.

In conclusion, cholera is a highly infectious disease that can cause severe dehydration and even death if left untreated. Early diagnosis and treatment are critical to preventing complications and reducing the risk of transmission. Prevention measures such as vaccination and good hygiene practices can also help control the spread of the disease.

Types of experimental neoplasms include:

* Xenografts: tumors that are transplanted into animals from another species, often humans.
* Transgenic tumors: tumors that are created by introducing cancer-causing genes into an animal's genome.
* Chemically-induced tumors: tumors that are caused by exposure to certain chemicals or drugs.

The use of experimental neoplasms in research has led to significant advances in our understanding of cancer biology and the development of new treatments for the disease. However, the use of animals in cancer research is a controversial topic and alternatives to animal models are being developed and implemented.

SAIDS was first identified in the 1980s in monkeys that were being used in research laboratories, and it has since been studied extensively as a model for HIV/AIDS research. Like HIV/AIDS, SAIDS is caused by the transmission of a virus from one animal to another through contact with infected bodily fluids, such as blood or semen.

The symptoms of SAIDS are similar to those of HIV/AIDS and include fever, fatigue, weight loss, and opportunistic infections. As the disease progresses, animals may also experience neurological symptoms, such as seizures and difficulty coordinating movements.

There is currently no cure for SAIDS, and treatment is focused on managing the symptoms and preventing complications. Research into the disease has led to a greater understanding of the immunopathogenesis of HIV/AIDS and has contributed to the development of new therapies for the disease.

SAIDS is important in medical research because it provides a valuable model for studying the immunopathogenesis of HIV/AIDS and for testing new therapies and vaccines. It also serves as a reminder of the importance of strict safety protocols when working with infectious agents, particularly in laboratory settings.

Symptoms of meningococcal meningitis typically develop within 3-7 days after exposure and may include fever, headache, stiff neck, confusion, nausea and vomiting, sensitivity to light, and seizures. In severe cases, the infection can lead to shock, organ failure, and death within hours of the onset of symptoms.

Diagnosis is typically made by a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests (such as blood cultures and PCR), and imaging studies (such as CT or MRI scans). Treatment typically involves antibiotics, intravenous fluids, and supportive care to manage fever, pain, and other symptoms. In severe cases, hospitalization in an intensive care unit may be necessary.

Prevention of meningococcal meningitis includes the use of vaccines, good hygiene practices (such as frequent handwashing), and avoidance of close contact with people who are sick. A vaccine is available for children and teens, and some colleges and universities require students to be vaccinated before moving into dorms.

Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial in preventing long-term complications and reducing the risk of death from meningococcal meningitis. If you suspect that you or someone else may have meningococcal meningitis, it is important to seek medical attention immediately.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative condition that occurs when the cartilage that cushions the joints breaks down over time, causing the bones to rub together. It is the most common form of arthritis and typically affects older adults.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune condition that occurs when the body's immune system attacks the lining of the joints, leading to inflammation and pain. It can affect anyone, regardless of age, and is typically seen in women.

Other types of arthritis include psoriatic arthritis, gouty arthritis, and lupus-related arthritis. Treatment for arthritis depends on the type and severity of the condition, but can include medications such as pain relievers, anti-inflammatory drugs, and disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs). Physical therapy and lifestyle changes, such as exercise and weight loss, can also be helpful. In severe cases, surgery may be necessary to repair or replace damaged joints.

Arthritis is a leading cause of disability worldwide, affecting over 50 million adults in the United States alone. It can have a significant impact on a person's quality of life, making everyday activities such as walking, dressing, and grooming difficult and painful. Early diagnosis and treatment are important to help manage symptoms and slow the progression of the disease.

The symptoms of CRS can vary widely depending on the severity of the infection and the stage of pregnancy at which it occurs. Some common birth defects associated with CRS include:

1. Heart defects: CRS can cause defects such as patent ductus arteriosus, atrial septal defect, and ventricular septal defect.
2. Neurological defects: CRS can lead to a range of neurological problems including microcephaly (small head size), mental retardation, and seizures.
3. Eye defects: CRS can cause eye problems such as cataracts, glaucoma, and blindness.
4. Ear defects: CRS can lead to ear problems such as hearing loss and deafness.
5. Thyroid disorders: CRS can cause thyroid problems including cretinism, a condition characterized by mental retardation and physical deformities.
6. Bone and joint defects: CRS can cause bone and joint problems such as arthrogryposis (a condition characterized by joint contractures) and clubfoot.
7. Skin defects: CRS can lead to skin problems such as macular rash, which is a red, itchy rash that appears on the skin.
8. Other defects: CRS can also cause other birth defects such as deafness, mutism, and cognitive impairment.

CRS is diagnosed based on a combination of clinical findings, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. There is no specific treatment for CRS, but management of the condition involves supportive care to prevent complications and manage symptoms. Prevention of CRS relies on vaccination of pregnant women against rubella, which has led to a significant decline in the incidence of the condition.

The prognosis for children with CRS varies depending on the severity of the infection and the presence of any underlying medical conditions. Some children may have mild symptoms and recover fully, while others may experience more severe complications that can result in long-term disability or death. Early diagnosis and management are essential to improve outcomes for affected children.

Symptoms of orchitis may include:

* Scrotal pain
* Swelling of the scrotum
* Redness and tenderness of the scrotum
* Fever
* Chills
* Abdominal pain
* Nausea and vomiting

Treatment for orchitis typically involves antibiotics to clear up any bacterial infections, as well as supportive care such as rest, ice packs, and over-the-counter pain medication. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and treat the condition.

Prevention of orchitis includes avoiding close contact with people who have the infection, practicing safe sex, and maintaining good hygiene. Vaccination against certain types of bacteria that can cause orchitis, such as the H. influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine, can also help prevent the condition.

It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms of orchitis are present, as early treatment can help prevent complications and improve outcomes.

Isoimmunization is a condition that occurs when an individual has antibodies against their own red blood cell antigens, specifically the Rh antigen. This can happen due to various reasons such as:

1. Incompatibility between the mother's and father's Rh antigens, leading to the development of antibodies in the mother during pregnancy or childbirth.
2. Blood transfusions from an incompatible donor.
3. Certain medical conditions like autoimmune hemolytic anemia or bone marrow transplantation.

Rh isoimmunization can lead to a range of complications, including:

1. Hemolytic disease of the newborn: This is a condition where the baby's red blood cells are destroyed by the mother's antibodies, leading to anemia, jaundice, and other serious complications.
2. Rh hemolytic crisis: This is a severe and potentially life-threatening complication that can occur during pregnancy or childbirth.
3. Chronic hemolytic anemia: This is a condition where the red blood cells are continuously destroyed, leading to anemia and other complications.

Rh isoimmunization can be diagnosed through blood tests such as the direct antiglobulin test (DAT) or the indirect Coombs test (ICT). Treatment typically involves managing any underlying conditions and monitoring for complications. In severe cases, a bone marrow transplant may be necessary. Prevention is key, and women who are Rh-negative should receive an injection of Rh immune globulin during pregnancy to prevent the development of antibodies against the Rh antigen.

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection is a condition in which the body is infected with HIV, a type of retrovirus that attacks the body's immune system. HIV infection can lead to AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), a condition in which the immune system is severely damaged and the body is unable to fight off infections and diseases.

There are several ways that HIV can be transmitted, including:

1. Sexual contact with an infected person
2. Sharing of needles or other drug paraphernalia with an infected person
3. Mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding
4. Blood transfusions ( although this is rare in developed countries due to screening processes)
5. Organ transplantation (again, rare)

The symptoms of HIV infection can be mild at first and may not appear until several years after infection. These symptoms can include:

1. Fever
2. Fatigue
3. Swollen glands in the neck, armpits, and groin
4. Rash
5. Muscle aches and joint pain
6. Night sweats
7. Diarrhea
8. Weight loss

If left untreated, HIV infection can progress to AIDS, which is a life-threatening condition that can cause a wide range of symptoms, including:

1. Opportunistic infections (such as pneumocystis pneumonia)
2. Cancer (such as Kaposi's sarcoma)
3. Wasting syndrome
4. Neurological problems (such as dementia and seizures)

HIV infection is diagnosed through a combination of blood tests and physical examination. Treatment typically involves antiretroviral therapy (ART), which is a combination of medications that work together to suppress the virus and slow the progression of the disease.

Prevention methods for HIV infection include:

1. Safe sex practices, such as using condoms and dental dams
2. Avoiding sharing needles or other drug-injecting equipment
3. Avoiding mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding
4. Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), which is a short-term treatment that can prevent infection after potential exposure to the virus
5. Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), which is a daily medication that can prevent infection in people who are at high risk of being exposed to the virus.

It's important to note that HIV infection is manageable with proper treatment and care, and that people living with HIV can lead long and healthy lives. However, it's important to be aware of the risks and take steps to prevent transmission.

There are several types of disease susceptibility, including:

1. Genetic predisposition: This refers to the inherent tendency of an individual to develop a particular disease due to their genetic makeup. For example, some families may have a higher risk of developing certain diseases such as cancer or heart disease due to inherited genetic mutations.
2. Environmental susceptibility: This refers to the increased risk of developing a disease due to exposure to environmental factors such as pollutants, toxins, or infectious agents. For example, someone who lives in an area with high levels of air pollution may be more susceptible to developing respiratory problems.
3. Lifestyle susceptibility: This refers to the increased risk of developing a disease due to unhealthy lifestyle choices such as smoking, lack of exercise, or poor diet. For example, someone who smokes and is overweight may be more susceptible to developing heart disease or lung cancer.
4. Immune system susceptibility: This refers to the increased risk of developing a disease due to an impaired immune system. For example, people with autoimmune disorders such as HIV/AIDS or rheumatoid arthritis may be more susceptible to opportunistic infections.

Understanding disease susceptibility can help healthcare providers identify individuals who are at risk of developing certain diseases and provide preventive measures or early intervention to reduce the risk of disease progression. Additionally, genetic testing can help identify individuals with a high risk of developing certain diseases, allowing for earlier diagnosis and treatment.

In summary, disease susceptibility refers to the predisposition of an individual to develop a particular disease or condition due to various factors such as genetics, environment, lifestyle choices, and immune system function. Understanding disease susceptibility can help healthcare providers identify individuals at risk and provide appropriate preventive measures or early intervention to reduce the risk of disease progression.

... can be achieved in an active or passive manner: vaccination is an active form of immunization. Active immunization ... National Network for Immunization Information (NNii) Centers for Disease Control National Immunization Program Immunisation, ... Immunization, or immunisation, is the process by which an individual's immune system becomes fortified against an infectious ... Among Hispanics immunization rates are lower than those in non-Hispanic whites. Immunization registry Influenza vaccine Network ...
... is the induction of immunity after exposure to an antigen. Antibodies are created by the recipient and may ... A common example of this form of active immunization is vaccinations, which have led to several controversies in the past and ... Immunization Vaccination Passive immunity Miller, Elizabeth (2015). "Controversies and Challenges of vaccination: An interview ... Artificial active immunization is where the microbe is injected into the person before they are able to take it in naturally. ...
The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) has recommended cocooning with Tdap vaccine since 2005 and has ...
Health Officials California Immunization Coalition Every Child By Two Immunization Action Coalition Indiana Immunization ... Current Effects on Immunization". Healio.com. SLACK Inc. 28 July 2010. Retrieved 11 April 2013. "New Immunization Alliance ... The Immunization Alliance's debut was announced in the July 2008 issue of Pediatrics (published by the AAP), which also ... The Immunization Alliance is an American vaccine advocacy consortium, assembled under the auspices of the American Academy of ...
If the immunization is incomplete, these strategies are usually called hedging. If the immunization is complete, these ... In theory, immunization can be used to ensure that the value of a portfolio of assets (typically bonds or other fixed income ... Immunization theory assumes that the yield curve is flat, and that interest rate changes are parallel shifts up or down in that ... Immunization requires that the average durations of assets and liabilities be kept equal at all times. This makes it necessary ...
An immunization registry or immunization information system (IIS) is an information system that collects vaccination data about ... It consolidates the immunization records from multiple sources for each person living in its jurisdiction. Immunization ...
... is the administration of a vaccine to a pregnant individual. This may be done either to protect ... Effect of active immunization in pregnancy". British Medical Journal. 2 (5255): 785-789. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.5255.785. PMC ... Walker, D; Carter, H; Jones, IG (1986). "Measles, mumps, and rubella: the need for a change in immunisation policy". BMJ (Clin ... "Prevention and Control of Influenza: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)". MMWR. 46: 1- ...
"Advisory Board". Immunization Action Coalition. March 7, 2018. Retrieved December 23, 2019. "Immunization Action Coalition ... in which CDC and IAC immunization experts answer questions from vaccine providers; and creation of new immunization education ... The Immunization Action Coalition (IAC) is an organization that distributes information about vaccines and the diseases they ... "WHO , Immunization Action Coalition (IAC)". WHO. Archived from the original on April 14, 2016. Retrieved August 28, 2020. ...
The initiative has spread from the Americas and Europe to become a global immunization effort known as World Immunization Week ... In the past these have included: disseminating informational materials about immunization, organizing immunization campaigns, ... have access to immunization and basic health services." Health promotion World Immunization Week World Health Organization WHO ... "European Immunization Week 2005". www.euro.who.int. 2016-02-08. Retrieved 2016-02-08. "European Immunization Week". www.euro. ...
... are approaches designed to increase the immunization level of populations and decrease the ... and integration of immunization with other services may improve childhood immunization coverage in low-and middle-income ... health education at facilities in combination with redesigned immunization reminder cards, regular immunization outreach with ... As immunization is a powerful public health strategy for improving child survival, it is important to determine what strategies ...
... is a global public health campaign to raise awareness and increase rates of immunization against ... Previously, Immunization Week activities were observed on different dates in different regions of the world. Immunization Week ... "World Immunization Week 2022". www.who.int. Retrieved 23 April 2022. "World Immunization Week 2021". World Health Organization ... The goal of World Immunization Week is to raise public awareness of how immunization saves lives, and support people everywhere ...
"World Immunization Week 2022". www.who.int. Retrieved 23 April 2022. "World Immunization Week 2022: immunization efforts need a ... "WORLD IMMUNIZATION WEEK 2022". WORLD IMMUNIZATION WEEK 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022. "Social Media". WORLD IMMUNIZATION WEEK ... The World Immunization Week is a global public health campaign for raising awareness for immunization against vaccine ... The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of the USA is a partner for the World Immunization Week where they honor their ...
The Anthrax Vaccine Immunization Program (AVIP), is the name of the policy set forth by the U.S. federal government to immunize ... "Current Policies on DoD Anthrax Vaccine Immunization Program". Archived from the original on 2007-08-10. Retrieved 2007-08-16. ... "DoD's official anthrax vaccine immunization program website". Archived from the original on 2007-07-08. Retrieved 2007-03-26. " ... anthrax vaccine immunization program led as the primary motivator in the fall 2001 anthrax letter attacks allegedly perpetrated ...
"Expanding Immunization Coverage"". Archived from the original on 2015-12-20. Retrieved 2008-04-21. Global Immunization Coverage ... Setting up an immunization program is multifaceted and contains many complex components including a reliable cold chain system ... In each country, immunization programs are monitored using two methods: an administrative method and through community-based ... Missed immunizations can be identified and further qualified. Importantly, systems of vaccine delivery besides clinics used for ...
"Immunization". Government of Ontario. 2018-07-04. Archived from the original on 2021-08-12. Retrieved 2021-11-02. "Immunization ... The Immunization of School Pupils Act (ISPA) is a law in Ontario, Canada, that requires children and adolescents under the age ... "Immunization of School Pupils Act, RSO 1990, c I.1". Canadian Partnership Against Cancer. Archived from the original on 2021-11 ... "Immunization Requirements for School". Windsor-Essex County Health Unit. Archived from the original on 2021-11-03. Retrieved ...
In immunization related policy, Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization (SAGE) have established mechanisms to ... National Immunisation Advisory Committee (NIAC) United Kingdom: Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation (JCVI) United ... Australian Technical Advisory Group on Immunisation (ATAGI) Canada: National Advisory Committee on Immunization (NACI) France: ... National Immunization Technical Advisory Group (NITAG) is an advisory committee consisting of multidisciplinary groups of ...
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (United States) Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation (United Kingdom) ... Canadian Association for Immunization Research and Evaluation Monika Naus - Canadian Immunization Committee Lea Bill - Canadian ... in order to reflect the new mandate for consideration of procedures related to immunization and immunization coverage. NACI is ... In 1975, focus on advice related to the introduction of new vaccines and to assist in the development of immunization programs ...
Every Wednesday is designated as immunization day and is adopted in all parts of the country. Immunization is done monthly in ... The standard routine immunization schedule for infants in the Philippines is adopted to provide maximum immunity against the ... "Tetanus - The Disease". Immunization, Vaccines and Biologicals. World Health Organization. Archived from the original on March ... "Immunisation". Dialogue on Diarrhoea Online (30): 1-6. 1987. Retrieved 2007-05-11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( ...
... generic terms for immunization advisory committee Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation, the National Health Service ... immunization advisory committee in Canada Standing Committee on Vaccination, immunization advisory committee in Germany Smith, ... The ACIP nominally contains fifteen regular members, each an expert in one of the following fields: immunization practices and ... The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) is a committee within the United States Centers for Disease Control and ...
Schoub, Barry D.; Ngcobo, Ntombenhle J.; Madhi, Shabir (19 April 2010). "The National Advisory Group on Immunization (NAGI) of ... The National Advisory Group on Immunization (NAGI), in South Africa, established in 1993 advises the National Department of ...
"UNIVERSAL IMMUNIZATION PROGRAMME IN INDIA: THE DETERMINANTS OF CHILDHOOD IMMUNIZATION" (PDF). Indian Statistical Institute, ... Vaccine-preventable diseases World Immunization Week "Immunization :: National Health Mission". nhm.gov.in. Retrieved 11 ... Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP) is a vaccination programme launched by the Government of India in 1985. It became a part ... "Shri J P Nadda launches Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV) under Universal Immunization Programme (UIP)". pib.nic.in. ...
The director of the division of immunization, Dr. Walter Orenstein, was the first director of the National Immunization Program ... In April 2006, the National Immunization Program became the National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases (NCIRD). ... The National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases (NCIRD), formerly known as the National Immunization Program ... Global Immunization Division (GID) Immunization Services Division (ISD) Influenza Division (ID) NCIRD director Schuchat has ...
The immunisation schedule continues when the child is 4 years old, and then into adolescent years. The program is not ... The National Immunisation Program was first introduced in Australia in 1997. The program was set up by the Commonwealth, state ... The Australian National Immunisation Program Schedule sets out the immunisations Australians are given at different stages in ... The National Immunisation Program Schedule includes vaccines that are funded for children, adolescents and adults. Additional ...
National Immunization Technical Advisory Group (the global concept) Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (United States ... immunisation and related health matters in the Irish context To develop and disseminate the National Immunisation Guidelines ... Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation (United Kingdom) National Advisory Committee on Immunization (Canada) "College ... The National Immunisation Advisory Committee (NIAC) is an Irish advisory body that advises the Chief Medical Officer and ...
For primary 1 and primary 6 students, Department of Health dispatches immunisation teams to schools for the required ... the Department of Health of Hong Kong provides a free comprehensive childhood immunisation programme to Hongkongers over all ...
"About IMAC". Immunisation Advisory Centre. 26 July 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2021. "If You're Eligible, Get Your Free Flu Shot ... The Immunisation Advisory Centre (IMAC) is a New Zealand-wide organisation which provides information and training about ... The IMAC instigated a program to identify the gaps in immunization, and offer the affected people information so they can fill ... It co-ordinates the nation's immunisation programmes, policy advice and research. It was launched in 1997, and is based at The ...
Childhood immunizations are key in preventing diseases with epidemic potential. As with all medications, vaccines are ... "Immunization Schedules". CDC. Retrieved 16 September 2014. "Possible Side effects from Vaccines". CDC. CDC. Retrieved 10 April ... Immunization Action Coalition. Retrieved 1 November 2020. "Transmission of Mumps". CDC. CDC. Retrieved 11 April 2014. "Signs & ... The schedule for childhood immunizations in the United States is published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( ...
... immunisation advisory committee in the (United States) Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation, immunisation advisory ... immunisation advisory committee in (Canada) Standing Committee on Vaccination, immunisation advisory committee in Germany ... As part of the Department of Health, ATAGI provides advice to the Minister of Health on the immunisation program of Australia ... M.Nolan, Terry (19 April 2010). "The Australian model of immunization advice and vaccine funding". Vaccine. Elsevier. 28: A76- ...
ISBN 978-0-11-322528-6. "Immunisation against infectious disease". GOV.UK. Retrieved 3 January 2022. "Immunisation against ... immunisation Surveillance and monitoring for vaccine safety Vaccine Damage Payment Scheme Immunisation schedule Immunisation of ... immunisation schedule and immunisation of healthcare and laboratory staff. How to give a vaccine is described in chapter four, ... distribution and disposal of vaccines Immunisation procedures Immunisation by nurses and other health professionals ...
... a global concept of immunisation advisory committee Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (NITAG in the United States) ... National Advisory Committee on Immunization (NITAG in Canada) National Immunisation Advisory Committee (NITAG in Ireland) ... After the start of the mass MMR immunisation programme, additional evidence that the strain was linked with viral meningitis ... The committee was established in 1963, having been until then an advisory board for polio immunisation. It gained statutory ...
Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by CDC or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website ...
WHO - Prequalification of Medical Products (IVDs, Medicines, Vaccines and Immunization Devices, Vector Control). ...
Immunization : Vaccination is the introduction of killed or attenuated microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, or ... Featured Adult Immunization Articles View All * How the Modern ICU Was Galvanized By a Polio Epidemic ... Featured Pediatric Immunization Articles View All * Summer Diarrhea -- Time to Think Outside the Box ... Latest News in Pediatric Immunization View All * Telehealth Visit Reconnects Adolescents Lost to Follow-Up ...
or call toll-free from U.S.: (800) 762-2264 or (240) 547- ...
... entering 7th grade in the upcoming school year are required to be in compliance with Florida Department of Health immunization ... Immunization Requirements for students entering the 7th grade:. Prior to entering the 7th grade, all students must provide a ... Your child may need additional immunizations and/or you may just need to turn in the updated DH 680 form. You may request the ... Please drop a copy of the updated immunization form to our front office Monday through Friday between 9:00am -3:00pm or email ...
... DSN: CC37.NHIS92.IMMUNIZE ABSTRACT 1992 NATIONAL HEALTH INTERVIEW SURVEY (NHIS) IMMUNIZATION PUBLIC USE ... CHILDHOOD IMMUNIZATION FILE 1992 Information on childhood immunizations was collected from adult respondents (often the mother ... Because the Immunization survey included only one child per NHIS family, the weight on this file is different from the weight ... Estimation of immunization coverage levels (i.e., the percentage of children who are up-to-date for a particular vaccine type ...
The Immunization section (prefix IMQ; questions IMQ.011 and IMQ.020) provides sample person interview data on immunization with ... Immunization (IMQ_D) Data File: IMQ_D.xpt First Published: January 2008. Last Revised: NA ... The immunization questionnaire was done before the physical examination, in the home, using the Computer-Assisted Personal ...
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Guidance. In the United States, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices ( ... Intradermal Preexposure Rabies Immunization. Intradermal (ID) rabies immunization began almost as soon as the intramuscular (IM ... In 2021, ACIP voted to approve a 2-dose preexposure rabies immunization series, with the proviso that either a third dose be ... Pre-exposure rabies immunization with human diploid cell vaccine: decreased antibody responses in persons immunized in ...
... everyone who needs to know the facts about vaccines and immunization. ... The National Network for Immunization Information (NNii) provides up-to-date, science-based information to healthcare ... National Network for Immunization Information (NNii). The information contained in the NNii Web site should not be used as a ...
Child/Adolescent Immunization Work Group. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Recommended Immunization Schedule for ... Immunization. Prevention through immunization remains the best defense in the fight against pertussis. However, because nearly ... Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Recommended Immunization Schedule for Adults Aged 19 Years or Older - United ... For the latest childhood and adolescent immunization recommendations, see the CDC immunization schedules. [35, 43] ...
On our mice, we were able to show the efficacy of the resulting immunization. ... Immunization, Immunology, Immunotherapy, Infectious Diseases, Malignant, Microbiology, Peptides, Public Health, QC, Research, ...
Follow a recommended immunization schedule to protect yourself and others at exactly the right time. ... What are immunization and vaccination?. Immunization is the process of becoming protected against a disease. But it can also ... Vaccinations for Adults with Diabetes (Immunization Action Coalition) - PDF * Vaccine Safety: MedlinePlus Health Topic ( ... Childhood Immunization: MedlinePlus Health Topic (National Library of Medicine) Also in Spanish ...
The Student Health Center (Administration Building, A111) on campus offers immunizations and titer tests. (805) 378-1413. ... Tdap for Pertussis Immunity* (immunization must be after the age of 11) ...
Managing an immunization session --Module 6: Monitoring and surveillance -- Module 7: Partnering with communities ... 2015)‎. Immunization in practice: a practical guide for health staff, 2015 update. World Health Organization. https://apps.who. ...
... adult and childhood immunization schedules based on recommendations from ACIP. ... Immunization Policy Development in the United States: The Role of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. Annals of ... adult and childhood immunization schedules based on recommendations from the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP ... The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) is a group of medical and public health experts that develops ...
... here are the basic facts you need to know about immunizations. ... Immunization schedule Vaccine and immunization facts HPV facts ... Vaccine and immunization facts. Vaccines save lives. Making the vaccine decision (CDC). Vaccination during COVID-19 (CDC). ... Below you can find our recommended immunization schedule and fact sheet.. ... Helping our community understand the value of immunizations.. ... here are the basic facts you need to know about immunizations. ...
Immunization Requirements. Macalester College has established immunization requirements for its students to maintain the health ... Non-Medical: A student can get a non-medical exemption if they object to an immunization. They will need to submit a notarized ... the record must include the month/day/year of each immunization. *the record must be in English or be accompanied by an English ...
... - Sharing our stories on preparing for and responding to public health events ... Tags #PrepYour, Asthma, Asthma Action Plan, Center for Preparedness and Response (CPR), Immunization, Medications, paperwork, ... August is National Immunization Month. Over the years, vaccines have prevented countless cases of disease and saved millions of ... Tags Emergency Action Plan, emergency sheltering, flu, Immunization, tetanus, vaccination, wound care ...
The Immunization and Vaccines Development Programme provides technical support to countries in the African Region in order to ... National and Regional Immunization Technical Advisory Groups (NITAG/RITAG) National Immunization Technical Advisory Groups ( ... The vaccine is now being integrated into routine national immunization programmes.. *If immunization efforts in African are not ... Report of the Regional Immunization Technical Advisory Group meeting, July 2020. *Report of the Regional Immunization Technical ...
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Summary of routine immunization and vaccine-preventable diseases surveillance data, based primarily on data for 2017 submitted ... 2019)‎. Routine immunization profile: Iceland. World Health Organization. Regional Office for Europe. https://extranet.who.int/ ... through the WHO/UNICEF Joint Reporting Form on Immunization.. Citation. World Health Organization. Regional Office for Europe. ...
Immunization Policy The State of North Carolina requires, by statute, a record of immunizations for every student enrolled in ... Students should contact the Universitys Student Health Services to determine the status of their immunizations record. ... FAILURE TO PROVIDE THE UNIVERSITY WITH THE REQUIRED RECORD OF IMMUNIZATIONS WILL RESULT IN BEING ADMINISTRATIVELY WITHDRAWN ...
Provides routine immunizations to students in Grades 1, 6, and 9 in school. ... No immunizations will be given in school without consent from a parent or legal guardian. Immunizations in this program include ... Provides routine immunizations to students in Grades 1, 6, and 9 in school.. Each year, Alberta Health Services, Public Health ... Grade 6: Hepatitis B (HBV) vaccine for students who have not already completed a hepatitis B immunization series and human ...
Provides routine immunizations to students in Grades 1, 6, and 9 in school. ... No immunizations will be given in school without consent from a parent or legal guardian. Immunizations in this program include ... Provides routine immunizations to students in Grades 1, 6, and 9 in school.. Each year, Alberta Health Services, Public Health ... Grade 6: Hepatitis B (HBV) vaccine for students who have not already completed a hepatitis B immunization series and human ...
Immunizations. Additional Sources of Immunization Information. *Allied Vaccine Group This site is comprised of links to 7 ... Childhood Immunization Support Program Created by the American Academy of Pediatrics, this site contains immunization ... Information on Michigans immunization registry including contact lists. *Vaccine Education Center at Childrens Hospital of ... Immunization Action Coalition These websites offer information about each vaccine and disease, case histories, recommendations ...
The Infectious disease and immunisation research and teaching hub in the School of Population Health focuses on protecting us ... Immunisation is one of our strongest weapons against infectious diseases. Monitoring behavioural, economic and social factors ...
Use this tool to get an instant immunization schedule for your child ages birth through 6 years. ...
7.2: Immunisation. 7.2: Immunisation screening and recall. The National Immunisation Schedule is the series of publicly funded ... Immunisation data is collected by the National Immunisation Register. This data is reported to PHOs and disseminated to general ... National immunisation schedule. The National Immunisation Schedule is the series of publicly funded vaccines available in New ... provides guidance to the sector on immunisation, cold chain, and resources. *ensures immunisation providers deliver services ...
  • The Global Vaccine Action Plan (GVAP) is a framework approved by the World Health Assembly in May 2012 to achieve the Decade of Vaccines vision by delivering universal access to immunization. (unicef.org)
  • A vaccine, or immunization, schedule lists which vaccines are recommended for different groups of people. (medlineplus.gov)
  • A 2009 polio immunization campaign failed to stamp out the disease because it did not reach enough children with vaccines. (voanews.com)
  • Despite these achievements, national and subnational immunization coverage rates have stagnated in many countries, and the African Region still lags behind other regions of the world in access to vaccines. (who.int)
  • Strategic investments to strengthen health systems are critical to support robust immunization programmes that can deliver vaccines to everyone in Africa, including the most vulnerable. (who.int)
  • The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) is a group of medical and public health experts that develops recommendations on how to use vaccines to control diseases in the United States. (cdc.gov)
  • World Immunization Week will be celebrated both globally and regionally from 24 to 30 April 2019, using the slogan "Protected Together: Vaccines Work! (who.int)
  • The Eastern Mediterranean Region has seen a remarkable increase in the number of people receiving vaccines in recent years, with more vaccines introduced and more countries eliminating diseases through immunization. (who.int)
  • The goal of the Vaccine Education Center is to provide concise, accurate information on all aspects of vaccines and immunization. (accesskent.com)
  • You have all or partial immunization records for this adolescent for Guard) vaccines given by your practice or other practices. (cdc.gov)
  • CHILDHOOD IMMUNIZATION FILE 1992 Information on childhood immunizations was collected from adult respondents (often the mother) for one sample child under 6 years of age per National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) family with age-eligible children in the household. (cdc.gov)
  • In the United States, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) convened a working group to evaluate similar questions to those considered by WHO. (cdc.gov)
  • The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) sets the U.S. adult and childhood immunization schedules based on recommendations from the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). (cdc.gov)
  • In less than a generation, the African Region has made tremendous gains in increasing access to immunization and driving down child deaths. (who.int)
  • The Immunization Branch of the California Department of Public Health provides leadership and support to public and private sector efforts to protect the population against vaccine-preventable diseases. (ca.gov)
  • In addition to offering protection from preventable diseases, immunization also brings children and families into contact with health systems, providing an avenue for the delivery of other basic health services and laying the foundation for primary health care. (who.int)
  • Summary of routine immunization and vaccine-preventable diseases surveillance data, based primarily on data for 2017 submitted through the WHO/UNICEF Joint Reporting Form on Immunization. (who.int)
  • Immunisation is one of our strongest weapons against infectious diseases. (edu.au)
  • In 2021, ACIP voted to approve a 2-dose preexposure rabies immunization series, with the proviso that either a third dose be given within 3 years, or a serological test be performed to document seroconversion. (cdc.gov)
  • Rabies prevention presents unique issues for the travel medicine clinician, because it is the one infectious disease that can be prevented, either through a combination of pre- and postexposure immunizations or through postexposure treatment with rabies immune globulin (RIG) and vaccine. (cdc.gov)
  • Prevention through immunization remains the best defense in the fight against pertussis. (medscape.com)
  • Dr. Ismaila Nuhu Maksha, immunization specialist at UNICEF, says polio is entirely preventable, but remains a problem in Africa. (voanews.com)
  • August is National Immunization Awareness Month, which brings attention to the value of protecting yourself and your family from vaccine-preventable. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The seeming complexity of the issues surrounding wound care, timing of administration, deviations from standard schedules, the cost of preexposure immunization, and the difficulty of finding vaccine and RIG while traveling can make the travel medicine practitioner's head spin. (cdc.gov)
  • Sierra Leone is kicking off the first of three massive immunization campaigns against polio. (voanews.com)
  • Sierra Leone will launch a massive immunization campaign Saturday - part of a larger effort to control polio in 19 West African countries, including Guinea, Liberia and Nigeria. (voanews.com)
  • Please note that in addition to compliance with all other required immunizations, children entering the 7th grade in Florida schools must have received one dose of the tetanus-diphtheria-pertussis (Tdap) vaccine. (browardschools.com)
  • The immunization questionnaire was done before the physical examination, in the home, using the Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing-CAPI (interviewer administered) system. (cdc.gov)
  • Because human and equine RIG often are unavailable in low- and middle-income countries, preexposure rabies immunization can facilitate the traveler's access to adequate postexposure rabies prophylaxis. (cdc.gov)
  • DSN: CC37.NHIS92.IMMUNIZE ABSTRACT 1992 NATIONAL HEALTH INTERVIEW SURVEY (NHIS) IMMUNIZATION PUBLIC USE DATA FILE Guidelines for Citation of Data With the goal of mutual benefit, the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) requests that recipients of data files cooperate in certain actions related to their use. (cdc.gov)
  • This is not good news - inadequate immunization means more infections and more deaths. (virology.ws)
  • questions IMQ.011 and IMQ.020) provides sample person interview data on immunization with the hepatitis A and hepatitis B vaccine for participants age 2 and above. (cdc.gov)
  • In 2017-partly to address the lack of progress in decreasing rabies in the world-a World Health Organization (WHO) expert committee endorsed a 2-dose rabies preexposure immunization schedule in place of the previous 3-dose schedule. (cdc.gov)
  • Below you can find our recommended immunization schedule and fact sheet. (cookchildrens.org)
  • Information on Michigan's immunization registry including contact lists. (accesskent.com)
  • immunizations to your community or state registry? (cdc.gov)
  • The Student Health Center (Administration Building, A111) on campus offers immunizations and titer tests. (moorparkcollege.edu)
  • Immunization is one of the most impactful and cost-effective public health interventions available, averting over 4 million deaths every year. (who.int)
  • Each year, Alberta Health Services, Public Health reviews immunization records for students in grades 1, 6, and 9 to see what immunizations each student needs. (albertahealthservices.ca)
  • Immunization saves millions of lives every year and is widely recognized as one of the most successful and cost-effective public health interventions. (who.int)
  • The purpose of this database is to provide researchers, policymakers, and state and local public health practitioners with descriptive information concerning immunization-related state laws. (cdc.gov)
  • Public Use File Documentation, National Health Interview Survey of Immunization, 1992 (machine readable data file and documentation), National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, Maryland. (cdc.gov)
  • Macalester College has established immunization requirements for its students to maintain the health and safety of our community. (macalester.edu)
  • In addition to its direct impact on the health of populations, immunization brings added value by reducing the burden of disease on individuals, families and communities, including through savings on medical expenses, as well as productivity and educational gains. (who.int)
  • August is National Immunization Month. (cdc.gov)
  • It includes studies on vaccine cost-effectiveness, vaccine coverage disparities, and immunization policy, management and education. (ajpmonline.org)
  • The State of North Carolina requires, by statute, a record of immunizations for every student enrolled in its post-secondary educational institutions. (uncp.edu)
  • Students should contact the University's Student Health Services to determine the status of their immunizations record. (uncp.edu)
  • The committee was hoping to make preexposure immunization more affordable and convenient for local people, and more desirable and feasible for travelers. (cdc.gov)
  • The kit enables immunization of people affected by an outbreak in refugee camps or an open setting. (who.int)
  • Prior to entering the 7th grade, all students must provide a Florida Certificate of Immunization (DH 680) stating that their immunizations are complete for 7th grade entry. (browardschools.com)
  • Marie-Claude Bourgeois-Daigneault and her team at the CRCHUM are using mice to show how a combination of peptides and oncolytic viruses, used as an adjuvant, can provide effective immunization against cancer. (news-medical.net)
  • Immunization expenditure data provide detailed analyses on country-level expenditure and financial flows for immunization. (who.int)
  • Your child may need additional immunizations and/or you may just need to turn in the updated DH 680 form. (browardschools.com)
  • Immunization is a core component of the human right to health and an individual, community and government responsibility. (unicef.org)
  • Helping our community understand the value of immunizations. (cookchildrens.org)
  • Protection of mice against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection by immunization with aqueous fraction of Triton X-100-soluble cell wall proteins. (bvsalud.org)