The body's defense mechanism against foreign organisms or substances and deviant native cells. It includes the humoral immune response and the cell-mediated response and consists of a complex of interrelated cellular, molecular, and genetic components.
The capacity of a normal organism to remain unaffected by microorganisms and their toxins. It results from the presence of naturally occurring ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS, constitutional factors such as BODY TEMPERATURE and immediate acting immune cells such as NATURAL KILLER CELLS.
The specific failure of a normally responsive individual to make an immune response to a known antigen. It results from previous contact with the antigen by an immunologically immature individual (fetus or neonate) or by an adult exposed to extreme high-dose or low-dose antigen, or by exposure to radiation, antimetabolites, antilymphocytic serum, etc.
Disorders caused by abnormal or absent immunologic mechanisms, whether humoral, cell-mediated, or both.
Lymphocytes responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Two types have been identified - cytotoxic (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and helper T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, HELPER-INDUCER). They are formed when lymphocytes circulate through the THYMUS GLAND and differentiate to thymocytes. When exposed to an antigen, they divide rapidly and produce large numbers of new T cells sensitized to that antigen.
Nonsusceptibility to the invasive or pathogenic effects of foreign microorganisms or to the toxic effect of antigenic substances.
Non-antibody proteins secreted by inflammatory leukocytes and some non-leukocytic cells, that act as intercellular mediators. They differ from classical hormones in that they are produced by a number of tissue or cell types rather than by specialized glands. They generally act locally in a paracrine or autocrine rather than endocrine manner.
Protection from an infectious disease agent that is mediated by B- and T- LYMPHOCYTES following exposure to specific antigen, and characterized by IMMUNOLOGIC MEMORY. It can result from either previous infection with that agent or vaccination (IMMUNITY, ACTIVE), or transfer of antibody or lymphocytes from an immune donor (IMMUNIZATION, PASSIVE).
Manifestations of the immune response which are mediated by antigen-sensitized T-lymphocytes via lymphokines or direct cytotoxicity. This takes place in the absence of circulating antibody or where antibody plays a subordinate role.
Methods used by pathogenic organisms to evade a host's immune system.
Morphologic alteration of small B LYMPHOCYTES or T LYMPHOCYTES in culture into large blast-like cells able to synthesize DNA and RNA and to divide mitotically. It is induced by INTERLEUKINS; MITOGENS such as PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS, and by specific ANTIGENS. It may also occur in vivo as in GRAFT REJECTION.
Specialized cells of the hematopoietic system that have branch-like extensions. They are found throughout the lymphatic system, and in non-lymphoid tissues such as SKIN and the epithelia of the intestinal, respiratory, and reproductive tracts. They trap and process ANTIGENS, and present them to T-CELLS, thereby stimulating CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY. They are different from the non-hematopoietic FOLLICULAR DENDRITIC CELLS, which have a similar morphology and immune system function, but with respect to humoral immunity (ANTIBODY PRODUCTION).
An encapsulated lymphatic organ through which venous blood filters.
The production of ANTIBODIES by proliferating and differentiated B-LYMPHOCYTES under stimulation by ANTIGENS.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of immune system, processes, or phenomena. They include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electrical equipment.
A critical subpopulation of T-lymphocytes involved in the induction of most immunological functions. The HIV virus has selective tropism for the T4 cell which expresses the CD4 phenotypic marker, a receptor for HIV. In fact, the key element in the profound immunosuppression seen in HIV infection is the depletion of this subset of T-lymphocytes.
The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.
The major interferon produced by mitogenically or antigenically stimulated LYMPHOCYTES. It is structurally different from TYPE I INTERFERON and its major activity is immunoregulation. It has been implicated in the expression of CLASS II HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS in cells that do not normally produce them, leading to AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.
The complex formed by the binding of antigen and antibody molecules. The deposition of large antigen-antibody complexes leading to tissue damage causes IMMUNE COMPLEX DISEASES.
Lymphoid cells concerned with humoral immunity. They are short-lived cells resembling bursa-derived lymphocytes of birds in their production of immunoglobulin upon appropriate stimulation.
Serum that contains antibodies. It is obtained from an animal that has been immunized either by ANTIGEN injection or infection with microorganisms containing the antigen.
A family of pattern recognition receptors characterized by an extracellular leucine-rich domain and a cytoplasmic domain that share homology with the INTERLEUKIN 1 RECEPTOR and the DROSOPHILA toll protein. Following pathogen recognition, toll-like receptors recruit and activate a variety of SIGNAL TRANSDUCING ADAPTOR PROTEINS.
The relatively long-lived phagocytic cell of mammalian tissues that are derived from blood MONOCYTES. Main types are PERITONEAL MACROPHAGES; ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES; HISTIOCYTES; KUPFFER CELLS of the liver; and OSTEOCLASTS. They may further differentiate within chronic inflammatory lesions to EPITHELIOID CELLS or may fuse to form FOREIGN BODY GIANT CELLS or LANGHANS GIANT CELLS. (from The Dictionary of Cell Biology, Lackie and Dow, 3rd ed.)
A pathological process characterized by injury or destruction of tissues caused by a variety of cytologic and chemical reactions. It is usually manifested by typical signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function.
Mechanisms of action and interactions of the components of the IMMUNE SYSTEM.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
White blood cells formed in the body's lymphoid tissue. The nucleus is round or ovoid with coarse, irregularly clumped chromatin while the cytoplasm is typically pale blue with azurophilic (if any) granules. Most lymphocytes can be classified as either T or B (with subpopulations of each), or NATURAL KILLER CELLS.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Nonsusceptibility to the pathogenic effects of foreign microorganisms or antigenic substances as a result of antibody secretions of the mucous membranes. Mucosal epithelia in the gastrointestinal, respiratory, and reproductive tracts produce a form of IgA (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A, SECRETORY) that serves to protect these ports of entry into the body.
Bone marrow-derived lymphocytes that possess cytotoxic properties, classically directed against transformed and virus-infected cells. Unlike T CELLS; and B CELLS; NK CELLS are not antigen specific. The cytotoxicity of natural killer cells is determined by the collective signaling of an array of inhibitory and stimulatory CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS. A subset of T-LYMPHOCYTES referred to as NATURAL KILLER T CELLS shares some of the properties of this cell type.
Technique using an instrument system for making, processing, and displaying one or more measurements on individual cells obtained from a cell suspension. Cells are usually stained with one or more fluorescent dyes specific to cell components of interest, e.g., DNA, and fluorescence of each cell is measured as it rapidly transverses the excitation beam (laser or mercury arc lamp). Fluorescence provides a quantitative measure of various biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell, as well as a basis for cell sorting. Other measurable optical parameters include light absorption and light scattering, the latter being applicable to the measurement of cell size, shape, density, granularity, and stain uptake.
Substances that augment, stimulate, activate, potentiate, or modulate the immune response at either the cellular or humoral level. The classical agents (Freund's adjuvant, BCG, Corynebacterium parvum, et al.) contain bacterial antigens. Some are endogenous (e.g., histamine, interferon, transfer factor, tuftsin, interleukin-1). Their mode of action is either non-specific, resulting in increased immune responsiveness to a wide variety of antigens, or antigen-specific, i.e., affecting a restricted type of immune response to a narrow group of antigens. The therapeutic efficacy of many biological response modifiers is related to their antigen-specific immunoadjuvanticity.
Group of diseases mediated by the deposition of large soluble complexes of antigen and antibody with resultant damage to tissue. Besides SERUM SICKNESS and the ARTHUS REACTION, evidence supports a pathogenic role for immune complexes in many other IMMUNE SYSTEM DISEASES including GLOMERULONEPHRITIS, systemic lupus erythematosus (LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, SYSTEMIC) and POLYARTERITIS NODOSA.
Antibody-mediated immune response. Humoral immunity is brought about by ANTIBODY FORMATION, resulting from TH2 CELLS activating B-LYMPHOCYTES, followed by COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION.
Manipulation of the host's immune system in treatment of disease. It includes both active and passive immunization as well as immunosuppressive therapy to prevent graft rejection.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
Disorders that are characterized by the production of antibodies that react with host tissues or immune effector cells that are autoreactive to endogenous peptides.
The interactions between a host and a pathogen, usually resulting in disease.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Deliberate stimulation of the host's immune response. ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of ANTIGENS or IMMUNOLOGIC ADJUVANTS. PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of IMMUNE SERA or LYMPHOCYTES or their extracts (e.g., transfer factor, immune RNA) or transplantation of immunocompetent cell producing tissue (thymus or bone marrow).
Process whereby the immune system reacts against the body's own tissues. Autoimmunity may produce or be caused by AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
A large family of cell surface receptors that bind conserved molecular structures (PAMPS) present in pathogens. They play important roles in host defense by mediating cellular responses to pathogens.
CD4-positive T cells that inhibit immunopathology or autoimmune disease in vivo. They inhibit the immune response by influencing the activity of other cell types. Regulatory T-cells include naturally occurring CD4+CD25+ cells, IL-10 secreting Tr1 cells, and Th3 cells.
Lipid-containing polysaccharides which are endotoxins and important group-specific antigens. They are often derived from the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria and induce immunoglobulin secretion. The lipopolysaccharide molecule consists of three parts: LIPID A, core polysaccharide, and O-specific chains (O ANTIGENS). When derived from Escherichia coli, lipopolysaccharides serve as polyclonal B-cell mitogens commonly used in laboratory immunology. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Substances that are recognized by the immune system and induce an immune reaction.
Multi-subunit proteins which function in IMMUNITY. They are produced by B LYMPHOCYTES from the IMMUNOGLOBULIN GENES. They are comprised of two heavy (IMMUNOGLOBULIN HEAVY CHAINS) and two light chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN LIGHT CHAINS) with additional ancillary polypeptide chains depending on their isoforms. The variety of isoforms include monomeric or polymeric forms, and transmembrane forms (B-CELL ANTIGEN RECEPTORS) or secreted forms (ANTIBODIES). They are divided by the amino acid sequence of their heavy chains into five classes (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A; IMMUNOGLOBULIN D; IMMUNOGLOBULIN E; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G; IMMUNOGLOBULIN M) and various subclasses.
A classification of T-lymphocytes, especially into helper/inducer, suppressor/effector, and cytotoxic subsets, based on structurally or functionally different populations of cells.
Biologically active substances whose activities affect or play a role in the functioning of the immune system.
Represents 15-20% of the human serum immunoglobulins, mostly as the 4-chain polymer in humans or dimer in other mammals. Secretory IgA (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A, SECRETORY) is the main immunoglobulin in secretions.
Subset of helper-inducer T-lymphocytes which synthesize and secrete interleukin-2, gamma-interferon, and interleukin-12. Due to their ability to kill antigen-presenting cells and their lymphokine-mediated effector activity, Th1 cells are associated with vigorous delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
Alteration of the immune system or of an immune response by agents that activate or suppress its function. This can include IMMUNIZATION or administration of immunomodulatory drugs. Immunomodulation can also encompass non-therapeutic alteration of the immune system effected by endogenous or exogenous substances.
A single, unpaired primary lymphoid organ situated in the MEDIASTINUM, extending superiorly into the neck to the lower edge of the THYROID GLAND and inferiorly to the fourth costal cartilage. It is necessary for normal development of immunologic function early in life. By puberty, it begins to involute and much of the tissue is replaced by fat.
The theory that T-cells monitor cell surfaces and detect structural changes in the plasma membrane and/or surface antigens of virally or neoplastically transformed cells.
Differentiation antigens residing on mammalian leukocytes. CD stands for cluster of differentiation, which refers to groups of monoclonal antibodies that show similar reactivity with certain subpopulations of antigens of a particular lineage or differentiation stage. The subpopulations of antigens are also known by the same CD designation.
Subset of helper-inducer T-lymphocytes which synthesize and secrete the interleukins IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, and IL-10. These cytokines influence B-cell development and antibody production as well as augmenting humoral responses.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
The biochemical and electrophysiological interactions between the NERVOUS SYSTEM and IMMUNE SYSTEM.
Mature LYMPHOCYTES and MONOCYTES transported by the blood to the body's extravascular space. They are morphologically distinguishable from mature granulocytic leukocytes by their large, non-lobed nuclei and lack of coarse, heavily stained cytoplasmic granules.
They are oval or bean shaped bodies (1 - 30 mm in diameter) located along the lymphatic system.
Immunoglobulins produced in response to VIRAL ANTIGENS.
Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
Specialized tissues that are components of the lymphatic system. They provide fixed locations within the body where a variety of LYMPHOCYTES can form, mature and multiply. The lymphoid tissues are connected by a network of LYMPHATIC VESSELS.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A cytokine produced by a variety of cell types, including T-LYMPHOCYTES; MONOCYTES; DENDRITIC CELLS; and EPITHELIAL CELLS that exerts a variety of effects on immunoregulation and INFLAMMATION. Interleukin-10 combines with itself to form a homodimeric molecule that is the biologically active form of the protein.
Invasion of the host organism by microorganisms that can cause pathological conditions or diseases.
A classification of lymphocytes based on structurally or functionally different populations of cells.
Glycoproteins found on the membrane or surface of cells.
A class of immunoglobulin bearing mu chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN MU-CHAINS). IgM can fix COMPLEMENT. The name comes from its high molecular weight and originally being called a macroglobulin.
The altered state of immunologic responsiveness resulting from initial contact with antigen, which enables the individual to produce antibodies more rapidly and in greater quantity in response to secondary antigenic stimulus.
Serum glycoprotein produced by activated MACROPHAGES and other mammalian MONONUCLEAR LEUKOCYTES. It has necrotizing activity against tumor cell lines and increases ability to reject tumor transplants. Also known as TNF-alpha, it is only 30% homologous to TNF-beta (LYMPHOTOXIN), but they share TNF RECEPTORS.
Large, phagocytic mononuclear leukocytes produced in the vertebrate BONE MARROW and released into the BLOOD; contain a large, oval or somewhat indented nucleus surrounded by voluminous cytoplasm and numerous organelles.
A pattern recognition receptor that interacts with LYMPHOCYTE ANTIGEN 96 and LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES. It mediates cellular responses to GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA.
Administration of vaccines to stimulate the host's immune response. This includes any preparation intended for active immunological prophylaxis.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines designed to prevent or treat cancer. Vaccines are produced using the patient's own whole tumor cells as the source of antigens, or using tumor-specific antigens, often recombinantly produced.
The ability of tumors to evade destruction by the IMMUNE SYSTEM. Theories concerning possible mechanisms by which this takes place involve both cellular immunity (IMMUNITY, CELLULAR) and humoral immunity (ANTIBODY FORMATION), and also costimulatory pathways related to CD28 antigens (ANTIGENS, CD28) and CD80 antigens (ANTIGENS, CD80).
The process by which antigen is presented to lymphocytes in a form they can recognize. This is performed by antigen presenting cells (APCs). Some antigens require processing before they can be recognized. Antigen processing consists of ingestion and partial digestion of the antigen by the APC, followed by presentation of fragments on the cell surface. (From Rosen et al., Dictionary of Immunology, 1989)
The engulfing and degradation of microorganisms; other cells that are dead, dying, or pathogenic; and foreign particles by phagocytic cells (PHAGOCYTES).
Immunized T-lymphocytes which can directly destroy appropriate target cells. These cytotoxic lymphocytes may be generated in vitro in mixed lymphocyte cultures (MLC), in vivo during a graft-versus-host (GVH) reaction, or after immunization with an allograft, tumor cell or virally transformed or chemically modified target cell. The lytic phenomenon is sometimes referred to as cell-mediated lympholysis (CML). These CD8-positive cells are distinct from NATURAL KILLER CELLS and NATURAL KILLER T-CELLS. There are two effector phenotypes: TC1 and TC2.
Suspensions of killed or attenuated microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa), antigenic proteins, synthetic constructs, or other bio-molecular derivatives, administered for the prevention, amelioration, or treatment of infectious and other diseases.
Deliberate prevention or diminution of the host's immune response. It may be nonspecific as in the administration of immunosuppressive agents (drugs or radiation) or by lymphocyte depletion or may be specific as in desensitization or the simultaneous administration of antigen and immunosuppressive drugs.
The number of LYMPHOCYTES per unit volume of BLOOD.
The characteristic properties and processes involved in IMMUNITY and an organism's immune response.
White blood cells. These include granular leukocytes (BASOPHILS; EOSINOPHILS; and NEUTROPHILS) as well as non-granular leukocytes (LYMPHOCYTES and MONOCYTES).
A heterogeneous group of immunocompetent cells that mediate the cellular immune response by processing and presenting antigens to the T-cells. Traditional antigen-presenting cells include MACROPHAGES; DENDRITIC CELLS; LANGERHANS CELLS; and B-LYMPHOCYTES. FOLLICULAR DENDRITIC CELLS are not traditional antigen-presenting cells, but because they hold antigen on their cell surface in the form of IMMUNE COMPLEXES for B-cell recognition they are considered so by some authors.
A pattern recognition receptor that forms heterodimers with other TOLL-LIKE RECEPTORS. It interacts with multiple ligands including PEPTIDOGLYCAN, bacterial LIPOPROTEINS, lipoarabinomannan, and a variety of PORINS.
New abnormal growth of tissue. Malignant neoplasms show a greater degree of anaplasia and have the properties of invasion and metastasis, compared to benign neoplasms.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Resistance to a disease agent resulting from the production of specific antibodies by the host, either after exposure to the disease or after vaccination.
An increased reactivity to specific antigens mediated not by antibodies but by cells.
Lining of the INTESTINES, consisting of an inner EPITHELIUM, a middle LAMINA PROPRIA, and an outer MUSCULARIS MUCOSAE. In the SMALL INTESTINE, the mucosa is characterized by a series of folds and abundance of absorptive cells (ENTEROCYTES) with MICROVILLI.
Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.
The phenomenon of target cell destruction by immunologically active effector cells. It may be brought about directly by sensitized T-lymphocytes or by lymphoid or myeloid "killer" cells, or it may be mediated by cytotoxic antibody, cytotoxic factor released by lymphoid cells, or complement.
Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function that leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.
Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the ANTIGEN (or a very similar shape) that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially PLASMA CELLS).
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to BACTERIAL ANTIGENS.
Sites on an antigen that interact with specific antibodies.
A general term for diseases produced by viruses.
A soluble substance elaborated by antigen- or mitogen-stimulated T-LYMPHOCYTES which induces DNA synthesis in naive lymphocytes.
The determination of the pattern of genes expressed at the level of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION, under specific circumstances or in a specific cell.
The principle immunoglobulin in exocrine secretions such as milk, respiratory and intestinal mucin, saliva and tears. The complete molecule (around 400 kD) is composed of two four-chain units of IMMUNOGLOBULIN A, one SECRETORY COMPONENT and one J chain (IMMUNOGLOBULIN J-CHAINS).
The relationship between an invertebrate and another organism (the host), one of which lives at the expense of the other. Traditionally excluded from definition of parasites are pathogenic BACTERIA; FUNGI; VIRUSES; and PLANTS; though they may live parasitically.
One of the mechanisms by which CELL DEATH occurs (compare with NECROSIS and AUTOPHAGOCYTOSIS). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA; (DNA FRAGMENTATION); at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth.
Serum glycoproteins participating in the host defense mechanism of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION that creates the COMPLEMENT MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX. Included are glycoproteins in the various pathways of complement activation (CLASSICAL COMPLEMENT PATHWAY; ALTERNATIVE COMPLEMENT PATHWAY; and LECTIN COMPLEMENT PATHWAY).
Process of classifying cells of the immune system based on structural and functional differences. The process is commonly used to analyze and sort T-lymphocytes into subsets based on CD antigens by the technique of flow cytometry.
The endogenous compounds that mediate inflammation (AUTACOIDS) and related exogenous compounds including the synthetic prostaglandins (PROSTAGLANDINS, SYNTHETIC).
A heterodimeric cytokine that plays a role in innate and adaptive immune responses. Interleukin-12 is a 70 kDa protein that is composed of covalently linked 40 kDa and 35 kDa subunits. It is produced by DENDRITIC CELLS; MACROPHAGES and a variety of other immune cells and plays a role in the stimulation of INTERFERON-GAMMA production by T-LYMPHOCYTES and NATURAL KILLER CELLS.
Substances elaborated by bacteria that have antigenic activity.
Antibodies that react with self-antigens (AUTOANTIGENS) of the organism that produced them.
Granular leukocytes having a nucleus with three to five lobes connected by slender threads of chromatin, and cytoplasm containing fine inconspicuous granules and stainable by neutral dyes.
A medical specialty concerned with the hypersensitivity of the individual to foreign substances and protection from the resultant infection or disorder.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations, or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. All animals within an inbred strain trace back to a common ancestor in the twentieth generation.
Any blood or formed element especially in invertebrates.
A cytokine that stimulates the growth and differentiation of B-LYMPHOCYTES and is also a growth factor for HYBRIDOMAS and plasmacytomas. It is produced by many different cells including T-LYMPHOCYTES; MONOCYTES; and FIBROBLASTS.
Altered reactivity to an antigen, which can result in pathologic reactions upon subsequent exposure to that particular antigen.
A constitution or condition of the body which makes the tissues react in special ways to certain extrinsic stimuli and thus tends to make the individual more than usually susceptible to certain diseases.
Class of pro-inflammatory cytokines that have the ability to attract and activate leukocytes. They can be divided into at least three structural branches: C; (CHEMOKINES, C); CC; (CHEMOKINES, CC); and CXC; (CHEMOKINES, CXC); according to variations in a shared cysteine motif.
A soluble factor produced by activated T-LYMPHOCYTES that induces the expression of MHC CLASS II GENES and FC RECEPTORS on B-LYMPHOCYTES and causes their proliferation and differentiation. It also acts on T-lymphocytes, MAST CELLS, and several other hematopoietic lineage cells.
Either of the pair of organs occupying the cavity of the thorax that effect the aeration of the blood.
Recombinant DNA vectors encoding antigens administered for the prevention or treatment of disease. The host cells take up the DNA, express the antigen, and present it to the immune system in a manner similar to that which would occur during natural infection. This induces humoral and cellular immune responses against the encoded antigens. The vector is called naked DNA because there is no need for complex formulations or delivery agents; the plasmid is injected in saline or other buffers.
All of the processes involved in increasing CELL NUMBER including CELL DIVISION.
The property of antibodies which enables them to react with some ANTIGENIC DETERMINANTS and not with others. Specificity is dependent on chemical composition, physical forces, and molecular structure at the binding site.
Syndromes in which there is a deficiency or defect in the mechanisms of immunity, either cellular or humoral.
Minute infectious agents whose genomes are composed of DNA or RNA, but not both. They are characterized by a lack of independent metabolism and the inability to replicate outside living host cells.
Proteins, glycoprotein, or lipoprotein moieties on surfaces of tumor cells that are usually identified by monoclonal antibodies. Many of these are of either embryonic or viral origin.
An albumin obtained from the white of eggs. It is a member of the serpin superfamily.
Cell surface molecules on cells of the immune system that specifically bind surface molecules or messenger molecules and trigger changes in the behavior of cells. Although these receptors were first identified in the immune system, many have important functions elsewhere.
The ability of lymphoid cells to mount a humoral or cellular immune response when challenged by antigen.
Includes the spectrum of human immunodeficiency virus infections that range from asymptomatic seropositivity, thru AIDS-related complex (ARC), to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
The field concerned with the interrelationship between the brain, behavior and the immune system. Neuropsychologic, neuroanatomic and psychosocial studies have demonstrated their role in accentuating or diminishing immune/allergic responses.
Generally refers to the digestive structures stretching from the MOUTH to ANUS, but does not include the accessory glandular organs (LIVER; BILIARY TRACT; PANCREAS).
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
The section of the alimentary canal from the STOMACH to the ANAL CANAL. It includes the LARGE INTESTINE and SMALL INTESTINE.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
An intracellular signaling adaptor protein that plays a role in TOLL-LIKE RECEPTOR and INTERLEUKIN 1 RECEPTORS signal transduction. It forms a signaling complex with the activated cell surface receptors and members of the IRAK KINASES.
The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.
Membrane glycoproteins consisting of an alpha subunit and a BETA 2-MICROGLOBULIN beta subunit. In humans, highly polymorphic genes on CHROMOSOME 6 encode the alpha subunits of class I antigens and play an important role in determining the serological specificity of the surface antigen. Class I antigens are found on most nucleated cells and are generally detected by their reactivity with alloantisera. These antigens are recognized during GRAFT REJECTION and restrict cell-mediated lysis of virus-infected cells.
Form of passive immunization where previously sensitized immunologic agents (cells or serum) are transferred to non-immune recipients. When transfer of cells is used as a therapy for the treatment of neoplasms, it is called adoptive immunotherapy (IMMUNOTHERAPY, ADOPTIVE).
A pattern recognition receptor that binds unmethylated CPG CLUSTERS. It mediates cellular responses to bacterial pathogens by distinguishing between self and bacterial DNA.
Subpopulation of CD4+ lymphocytes that cooperate with other lymphocytes (either T or B) to initiate a variety of immune functions. For example, helper-inducer T-cells cooperate with B-cells to produce antibodies to thymus-dependent antigens and with other subpopulations of T-cells to initiate a variety of cell-mediated immune functions.
Transfer of immunity from immunized to non-immune host by administration of serum antibodies, or transplantation of lymphocytes (ADOPTIVE TRANSFER).
The type species of LENTIVIRUS and the etiologic agent of AIDS. It is characterized by its cytopathic effect and affinity for the T4-lymphocyte.
The gradual irreversible changes in structure and function of an organism that occur as a result of the passage of time.
Small cationic peptides that are an important component, in most species, of early innate and induced defenses against invading microbes. In animals they are found on mucosal surfaces, within phagocytic granules, and on the surface of the body. They are also found in insects and plants. Among others, this group includes the DEFENSINS, protegrins, tachyplesins, and thionins. They displace DIVALENT CATIONS from phosphate groups of MEMBRANE LIPIDS leading to disruption of the membrane.
Endogenous tissue constituents that have the ability to interact with AUTOANTIBODIES and cause an immune response.
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
Molecules on the surface of T-lymphocytes that recognize and combine with antigens. The receptors are non-covalently associated with a complex of several polypeptides collectively called CD3 antigens (ANTIGENS, CD3). Recognition of foreign antigen and the major histocompatibility complex is accomplished by a single heterodimeric antigen-receptor structure, composed of either alpha-beta (RECEPTORS, ANTIGEN, T-CELL, ALPHA-BETA) or gamma-delta (RECEPTORS, ANTIGEN, T-CELL, GAMMA-DELTA) chains.
A positive regulatory effect on physiological processes at the molecular, cellular, or systemic level. At the molecular level, the major regulatory sites include membrane receptors, genes (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION), mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), and proteins.
Large, transmembrane, non-covalently linked glycoproteins (alpha and beta). Both chains can be polymorphic although there is more structural variation in the beta chains. The class II antigens in humans are called HLA-D ANTIGENS and are coded by a gene on chromosome 6. In mice, two genes named IA and IE on chromosome 17 code for the H-2 antigens. The antigens are found on B-lymphocytes, macrophages, epidermal cells, and sperm and are thought to mediate the competence of and cellular cooperation in the immune response. The term IA antigens used to refer only to the proteins encoded by the IA genes in the mouse, but is now used as a generic term for any class II histocompatibility antigen.
Mice homozygous for the mutant autosomal recessive gene "scid" which is located on the centromeric end of chromosome 16. These mice lack mature, functional lymphocytes and are thus highly susceptible to lethal opportunistic infections if not chronically treated with antibiotics. The lack of B- and T-cell immunity resembles severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) syndrome in human infants. SCID mice are useful as animal models since they are receptive to implantation of a human immune system producing SCID-human (SCID-hu) hematochimeric mice.
Testing of immune status in the diagnosis and therapy of cancer, immunoproliferative and immunodeficiency disorders, and autoimmune abnormalities. Changes in immune parameters are of special significance before, during and following organ transplantation. Strategies include measurement of tumor antigen and other markers (often by RADIOIMMUNOASSAY), studies of cellular or humoral immunity in cancer etiology, IMMUNOTHERAPY trials, etc.
A molecule that binds to another molecule, used especially to refer to a small molecule that binds specifically to a larger molecule, e.g., an antigen binding to an antibody, a hormone or neurotransmitter binding to a receptor, or a substrate or allosteric effector binding to an enzyme. Ligands are also molecules that donate or accept a pair of electrons to form a coordinate covalent bond with the central metal atom of a coordination complex. (From Dorland, 27th ed)
Agents that suppress immune function by one of several mechanisms of action. Classical cytotoxic immunosuppressants act by inhibiting DNA synthesis. Others may act through activation of T-CELLS or by inhibiting the activation of HELPER CELLS. While immunosuppression has been brought about in the past primarily to prevent rejection of transplanted organs, new applications involving mediation of the effects of INTERLEUKINS and other CYTOKINES are emerging.
Antigenic determinants recognized and bound by the T-cell receptor. Epitopes recognized by the T-cell receptor are often located in the inner, unexposed side of the antigen, and become accessible to the T-cell receptors after proteolytic processing of the antigen.
Ubiquitous, inducible, nuclear transcriptional activator that binds to enhancer elements in many different cell types and is activated by pathogenic stimuli. The NF-kappa B complex is a heterodimer composed of two DNA-binding subunits: NF-kappa B1 and relA.
The genetic region which contains the loci of genes which determine the structure of the serologically defined (SD) and lymphocyte-defined (LD) TRANSPLANTATION ANTIGENS, genes which control the structure of the IMMUNE RESPONSE-ASSOCIATED ANTIGENS, HUMAN; the IMMUNE RESPONSE GENES which control the ability of an animal to respond immunologically to antigenic stimuli, and genes which determine the structure and/or level of the first four components of complement.
The number of WHITE BLOOD CELLS per unit volume in venous BLOOD. A differential leukocyte count measures the relative numbers of the different types of white cells.
A specific immune response elicited by a specific dose of an immunologically active substance or cell in an organism, tissue, or cell.
Cell surface proteins that bind signalling molecules external to the cell with high affinity and convert this extracellular event into one or more intracellular signals that alter the behavior of the target cell (From Alberts, Molecular Biology of the Cell, 2nd ed, pp693-5). Cell surface receptors, unlike enzymes, do not chemically alter their ligands.
The process of altering the morphology and functional activity of macrophages so that they become avidly phagocytic. It is initiated by lymphokines, such as the macrophage activation factor (MAF) and the macrophage migration-inhibitory factor (MMIF), immune complexes, C3b, and various peptides, polysaccharides, and immunologic adjuvants.
A subclass of winged helix DNA-binding proteins that share homology with their founding member fork head protein, Drosophila.
An EPITHELIUM with MUCUS-secreting cells, such as GOBLET CELLS. It forms the lining of many body cavities, such as the DIGESTIVE TRACT, the RESPIRATORY TRACT, and the reproductive tract. Mucosa, rich in blood and lymph vessels, comprises an inner epithelium, a middle layer (lamina propria) of loose CONNECTIVE TISSUE, and an outer layer (muscularis mucosae) of SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS that separates the mucosa from submucosa.
The outer covering of the body that protects it from the environment. It is composed of the DERMIS and the EPIDERMIS.
Specific molecular sites on the surface of various cells, including B-lymphocytes and macrophages, that combine with IMMUNOGLOBULIN Gs. Three subclasses exist: Fc gamma RI (the CD64 antigen, a low affinity receptor), Fc gamma RII (the CD32 antigen, a high affinity receptor), and Fc gamma RIII (the CD16 antigen, a low affinity receptor).
A class of animal lectins that bind to carbohydrate in a calcium-dependent manner. They share a common carbohydrate-binding domain that is structurally distinct from other classes of lectins.
The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (EMBRYOS or FETUSES) in utero before birth, beginning from FERTILIZATION to BIRTH.
DNA molecules capable of autonomous replication within a host cell and into which other DNA sequences can be inserted and thus amplified. Many are derived from PLASMIDS; BACTERIOPHAGES; or VIRUSES. They are used for transporting foreign genes into recipient cells. Genetic vectors possess a functional replicator site and contain GENETIC MARKERS to facilitate their selective recognition.
The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.
A critical subpopulation of regulatory T-lymphocytes involved in MHC Class I-restricted interactions. They include both cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and CD8+ suppressor T-lymphocytes.
Complex of at least five membrane-bound polypeptides in mature T-lymphocytes that are non-covalently associated with one another and with the T-cell receptor (RECEPTORS, ANTIGEN, T-CELL). The CD3 complex includes the gamma, delta, epsilon, zeta, and eta chains (subunits). When antigen binds to the T-cell receptor, the CD3 complex transduces the activating signals to the cytoplasm of the T-cell. The CD3 gamma and delta chains (subunits) are separate from and not related to the gamma/delta chains of the T-cell receptor (RECEPTORS, ANTIGEN, T-CELL, GAMMA-DELTA).
Suspensions of attenuated or killed viruses administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious viral disease.
Substances elaborated by viruses that have antigenic activity.
Small synthetic peptides that mimic surface antigens of pathogens and are immunogenic, or vaccines manufactured with the aid of recombinant DNA techniques. The latter vaccines may also be whole viruses whose nucleic acids have been modified.
Any of several ways in which living cells of an organism communicate with one another, whether by direct contact between cells or by means of chemical signals carried by neurotransmitter substances, hormones, and cyclic AMP.
Infections by bacteria, general or unspecified.
A negative regulatory effect on physiological processes at the molecular, cellular, or systemic level. At the molecular level, the major regulatory sites include membrane receptors, genes (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION), mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), and proteins.
The movement of cells from one location to another. Distinguish from CYTOKINESIS which is the process of dividing the CYTOPLASM of a cell.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.
Exuberant inflammatory response towards previously undiagnosed or incubating opportunistic pathogens. It is frequently seen in AIDS patients following HAART.
Antigens on surfaces of cells, including infectious or foreign cells or viruses. They are usually protein-containing groups on cell membranes or walls and may be isolated.
A glycoprotein that is central in both the classical and the alternative pathway of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION. C3 can be cleaved into COMPLEMENT C3A and COMPLEMENT C3B, spontaneously at low level or by C3 CONVERTASE at high level. The smaller fragment C3a is an ANAPHYLATOXIN and mediator of local inflammatory process. The larger fragment C3b binds with C3 convertase to form C5 convertase.
The classes of BONE MARROW-derived blood cells in the monocytic series (MONOCYTES and their precursors) and granulocytic series (GRANULOCYTES and their precursors).
Soluble factors which stimulate growth-related activities of leukocytes as well as other cell types. They enhance cell proliferation and differentiation, DNA synthesis, secretion of other biologically active molecules and responses to immune and inflammatory stimuli.
Cells of the lymphoid series that can react with antigen to produce specific cell products called antibodies. Various cell subpopulations, often B-lymphocytes, can be defined, based on the different classes of immunoglobulins that they synthesize.
A collective genome representative of the many organisms, primarily microorganisms, existing in a community.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
The processes whereby the internal environment of an organism tends to remain balanced and stable.
Lymphoid tissue on the mucosa of the small intestine.
A cell line derived from cultured tumor cells.
Organs involved in the production of BLOOD, including the cellular and the molecular components essential in providing defense against foreign organisms or substances.
The classes of immunoglobulins found in any species of animal. In man there are nine classes that migrate in five different groups in electrophoresis; they each consist of two light and two heavy protein chains, and each group has distinguishing structural and functional properties.
A subdiscipline of genetics which deals with the genetic basis of the immune response (IMMUNITY).
Cells contained in the bone marrow including fat cells (see ADIPOCYTES); STROMAL CELLS; MEGAKARYOCYTES; and the immediate precursors of most blood cells.
A chronic, relapsing, inflammatory, and often febrile multisystemic disorder of connective tissue, characterized principally by involvement of the skin, joints, kidneys, and serosal membranes. It is of unknown etiology, but is thought to represent a failure of the regulatory mechanisms of the autoimmune system. The disease is marked by a wide range of system dysfunctions, an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and the formation of LE cells in the blood or bone marrow.

Characterization of a novel mouse cDNA, ES18, involved in apoptotic cell death of T-cells. (1/2732)

Using the modified screening approach in combination with expressed sequence tags, we have identified several novel cDNAs from mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells, whose expression is tissue-restricted and/or developmentally regulated. One of the cDNAs, ES18, is preferentially expressed in lymph node and thymus, and contains noteworthy features of transcriptional regulator. The expression of ES18 transcript was selectively regulated during the apoptosis of T-cell thymoma S49.1 induced by several stimuli. Interestingly, the ES18 transcript was differently regulated in the mutually antagonistic process, between dexamethasone- and A23187-induced cell death of T-cells. Moreover, the message level of ES18 was selectively enhanced by staurosporine, a broad protein kinase inhibitor, but not by other protein kinase inhibitors such as GF109203X and H89. In addition, ES18 transcript was induced by C2-ceramide, which is a mediator of both dexamethasone- and staurosporine-induced apoptotic signaling. We further showed that transient overexpression of ES18 in mouse T-cell lymphoma increased the apoptotic cell death. These data suggest that ES18 may be selectively involved in specific apoptotic processes in mouse T-cells.  (+info)

Targeted disruption of Smad3 reveals an essential role in transforming growth factor beta-mediated signal transduction. (2/2732)

The Smads are a family of nine related proteins which function as signaling intermediates for the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) superfamily of ligands. To discern the in vivo functions of one of these Smads, Smad3, we generated mice harboring a targeted disruption of this gene. Smad3 null mice, although smaller than wild-type littermates, are viable, survive to adulthood, and exhibit an early phenotype of forelimb malformation. To study the cellular functions of Smad3, we generated Smad3 null mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) and dermal fibroblasts. We demonstrate that null MEFs have lost the ability to form Smad-containing DNA binding complexes and are unable to induce transcription from the TGF-beta-responsive promoter construct, p3TP-lux. Using the primary dermal fibroblasts, we also demonstrate that Smad3 is integral for induction of endogenous plasminogen activator inhibitor 1. We subsequently demonstrate that Smad3 null MEFs are partially resistant to TGF-beta's antiproliferative effect, thus firmly establishing a role for Smad3 in TGF-beta-mediated growth inhibition. We next examined cells in which Smad3 is most highly expressed, specifically cells of immune origin. Although no specific developmental defect was detected in the immune system of the Smad3 null mice, a functional defect was observed in the ability of TGF-beta to inhibit the proliferation of splenocytes activated by specific stimuli. In addition, primary splenocytes display defects in TGF-beta-mediated repression of cytokine production. These data, taken together, establish a role for Smad3 in mediating the antiproliferative effects of TGF-beta and implicate Smad3 as a potential effector for TGF-beta in modulating immune system function.  (+info)

Immunodeficiency syndrome in a 3-year-old llama. (3/2732)

An adult, castrated male llama was presented for evaluation of a chronic respiratory problem. Complete blood analyses indicated a leukopenia and hypoproteinemia. Radial immunodiffusion, bone marrow core, and lymph node biopsies supported a tentative diagnosis of juvenile llama immunodeficiency syndrome. This diagnosis was confirmed by postmortem findings.  (+info)

Developmental neurobiology: Alternative ends for a familiar story? (4/2732)

Somatic DNA recombination is essential for production of functional antigen receptor genes of T and B lymphocytes, but it is thought to be unique to the immune system. Recent studies have now shown that recombination-related genes are also necessary for normal neuronal development.  (+info)

Is gliadin mispresented to the immune system in coeliac disease? A hypothesis. (5/2732)

The primary pathogenic trigger in coeliac disease (CD) is still unknown. We present the hypothesis that in CD the enterocytes could metabolize gliadin through an immunogenic pathway instead of a tolerogenic one. The result of this abnormal presentation of gliadin to the immune system would be the activation of lamina propria T cells, followed by the onset of enteropathy.  (+info)

Development of T-B cell collaboration in neonatal mice. (6/2732)

The neonatal immune response is impaired during the first weeks after birth. To obtain a better understanding of this immaturity, we investigated the development of T cell interactions with B cells in mice. For this purpose, we analyzed the immune response to three T-dependent antigens in vivo: (i) the polyclonal antibody response induced by vaccinia virus; (ii) the production of polyclonal and specific antibodies following immunization with hapten-carrier conjugates; (iii) the mouse mammary tumor virus superantigen (sAg) response involving an increase in sAg-reactive T cells and induction of polyclonal antibody production. After vaccinia virus injection into neonates, the polyclonal antibody response was similar to that observed in adult mice. The antibody response to hapten-carrier conjugates, however, was delayed and reduced. Injection with sAg-expressing B cells from neonatal or adult mice allowed us to determine whether B cells, T cells or both were implicated in the reduced immune response. In these sAg responses, neonatal T cells were stimulated by both neonatal and adult sAg-presenting B cells but only B cells from adult mice differentiated into IgM- and IgG-secreting plasma cells in the neonatal environment in vivo. Injecting neonatal B cells into adult mice did not induce antibody production. These results demonstrate that the environment of the neonatal lymph node is able to support a T and B cell response, and that immaturity of B cells plays a key role in the reduced immune response observed in the neonate.  (+info)

Reduced immune function and malnutrition in the elderly. (7/2732)

An important observation in elderly subjects is their susceptibility to infection associated with a decline in host immune function. Nutrition is also an important factor that influences host defense against infection. We, therefore, evaluated the relationship between nutritional status in 155 healthy subjects ranging in age from 20 to 99 years and various immunological parameters, including the phagocytic and bactericidal activities of neutrophils and monocytes, superoxide production and chemotaxis of neutrophils, lymphocyte subsets, blastoid transformation and serum immunoglobulins. Aging was associated with increased phagocytic activity of neutrophils but not bactericidal activity, superoxide production or chemotaxis of neutrophils. Aging was also associated with a significant decrease in the number of lymphocytes as well as a decline in mature T cells and helper/inducer T cells but with increased numbers of activated T cells, suppressor T cells and natural killer cells. In addition, blastoid transformation in response to phytohemagglutinin (PHA) and concanavalin A (Con A) was significantly reduced in aged subjects. A poor nutritional status was noted in individuals 60 years of age or older. The nutritional status did not influence neutrophil function but correlated significantly with the number of lymphocytes and degree of blastoid formation with PHA and Con A stimulation. Our results suggest that the cell-mediated immunity in elderly subjects is reduced as a result of malnutrition, and that improvement of the nutritional status may enhance the immune function, likely contributing to their successful aging.  (+info)

Differential presentation of an altered peptide within fetal central and peripheral organs supports an avidity model for thymic T cell development and implies a peripheral readjustment for activation. (8/2732)

Altered self peptides may drive T cell development by providing avidity of interactions low enough to potentiate positive selection but not powerful enough to trigger programmed cell death. Since the peptide repertoire in both central and peripheral organs is nearly the same, interactions of these peptides with T cells in the thymus would have to be different from those taking place in the periphery; otherwise, T cell development and maturation would result in either autoimmunity or T cell deficiency. Herein, a self and an altered self peptide were delivered to fetuses, and their presentation as well as the consequence of such presentation on T cell development were assessed. The results indicate that the self peptide was presented in both central and peripheral fetal organs and that such presentation abolished T cell responses to both peptides during adult life. However, the altered peptide, although presented in vivo as well as in vitro by splenic cells, was unable to stimulate a specific T cell clone when the presenting cells were of thymic origin and allowed offspring to be responsive to both peptides. These findings indicate that central and peripheral organs accommodate selection and peripheral survival of T cells by promoting differential altered peptide presentation.  (+info)

1. Autoimmune diseases: These occur when the immune system mistakenly attacks healthy cells and tissues in the body. Examples include rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, and type 1 diabetes.
2. Allergies: An allergic reaction occurs when the immune system overreacts to a harmless substance, such as pollen, dust mites, or certain foods. Symptoms can range from mild hives to life-threatening anaphylaxis.
3. Immunodeficiency disorders: These are conditions that impair the immune system's ability to fight infections. Examples include HIV/AIDS and primary immunodeficiency diseases.
4. Infectious diseases: Certain infections, such as tuberculosis or bacterial meningitis, can cause immune system dysfunction.
5. Cancer: Some types of cancer, such as lymphoma, affect the immune system's ability to fight disease.
6. Immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP): This is a rare autoimmune disorder that causes the immune system to attack and destroy platelets, leading to bleeding and bruising.
7. Guillain-Barré syndrome: This is a rare autoimmune disorder that occurs when the immune system attacks the nerves, leading to muscle weakness and paralysis.
8. Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS): This is a condition characterized by persistent fatigue, muscle pain, and joint pain, which is thought to be related to an immune system imbalance.
9. Fibromyalgia: This is a chronic condition characterized by widespread muscle pain, fatigue, and sleep disturbances, which may be linked to immune system dysfunction.
10. Autoimmune hepatitis: This is a condition in which the immune system attacks the liver, leading to inflammation and damage to the liver cells.

It's important to note that a weakened immune system can increase the risk of infections and other health problems, so it's important to work with your healthcare provider to identify any underlying causes and develop an appropriate treatment plan.

There are several key features of inflammation:

1. Increased blood flow: Blood vessels in the affected area dilate, allowing more blood to flow into the tissue and bringing with it immune cells, nutrients, and other signaling molecules.
2. Leukocyte migration: White blood cells, such as neutrophils and monocytes, migrate towards the site of inflammation in response to chemical signals.
3. Release of mediators: Inflammatory mediators, such as cytokines and chemokines, are released by immune cells and other cells in the affected tissue. These molecules help to coordinate the immune response and attract more immune cells to the site of inflammation.
4. Activation of immune cells: Immune cells, such as macrophages and T cells, become activated and start to phagocytose (engulf) pathogens or damaged tissue.
5. Increased heat production: Inflammation can cause an increase in metabolic activity in the affected tissue, leading to increased heat production.
6. Redness and swelling: Increased blood flow and leakiness of blood vessels can cause redness and swelling in the affected area.
7. Pain: Inflammation can cause pain through the activation of nociceptors (pain-sensing neurons) and the release of pro-inflammatory mediators.

Inflammation can be acute or chronic. Acute inflammation is a short-term response to injury or infection, which helps to resolve the issue quickly. Chronic inflammation is a long-term response that can cause ongoing damage and diseases such as arthritis, asthma, and cancer.

There are several types of inflammation, including:

1. Acute inflammation: A short-term response to injury or infection.
2. Chronic inflammation: A long-term response that can cause ongoing damage and diseases.
3. Autoimmune inflammation: An inappropriate immune response against the body's own tissues.
4. Allergic inflammation: An immune response to a harmless substance, such as pollen or dust mites.
5. Parasitic inflammation: An immune response to parasites, such as worms or fungi.
6. Bacterial inflammation: An immune response to bacteria.
7. Viral inflammation: An immune response to viruses.
8. Fungal inflammation: An immune response to fungi.

There are several ways to reduce inflammation, including:

1. Medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, and disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs).
2. Lifestyle changes, such as a healthy diet, regular exercise, stress management, and getting enough sleep.
3. Alternative therapies, such as acupuncture, herbal supplements, and mind-body practices.
4. Addressing underlying conditions, such as hormonal imbalances, gut health issues, and chronic infections.
5. Using anti-inflammatory compounds found in certain foods, such as omega-3 fatty acids, turmeric, and ginger.

It's important to note that chronic inflammation can lead to a range of health problems, including:

1. Arthritis
2. Diabetes
3. Heart disease
4. Cancer
5. Alzheimer's disease
6. Parkinson's disease
7. Autoimmune disorders, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis.

Therefore, it's important to manage inflammation effectively to prevent these complications and improve overall health and well-being.

The term "immune complex disease" was first used in the 1960s to describe a group of conditions that were thought to be caused by the formation of immune complexes. These diseases include:

1. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE): an autoimmune disorder that can affect multiple organ systems and is characterized by the presence of anti-nuclear antibodies.
2. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA): an autoimmune disease that causes inflammation in the joints and can lead to joint damage.
3. Type III hypersensitivity reaction: a condition in which immune complexes are deposited in tissues, leading to inflammation and tissue damage.
4. Pemphigus: a group of autoimmune diseases that affect the skin and mucous membranes, characterized by the presence of autoantibodies against desmosomal antigens.
5. Bullous pemphigoid: an autoimmune disease that affects the skin and is characterized by the formation of large blisters.
6. Myasthenia gravis: an autoimmune disorder that affects the nervous system, causing muscle weakness and fatigue.
7. Goodpasture's syndrome: a rare autoimmune disease that affects the kidneys and lungs, characterized by the presence of immune complexes in the glomeruli of the kidneys.
8. Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS): a condition in which red blood cells are destroyed and waste products accumulate in the kidneys, leading to kidney failure.

Immune complex diseases can be caused by various factors, including genetic predisposition, environmental triggers, and exposure to certain drugs or toxins. Treatment options for these diseases include medications that suppress the immune system, such as corticosteroids and immunosuppressive drugs, and plasmapheresis, which is a process that removes harmful antibodies from the blood. In some cases, organ transplantation may be necessary.

In conclusion, immune complex diseases are a group of disorders that occur when the body's immune system mistakenly attacks its own tissues and organs, leading to inflammation and damage. These diseases can affect various parts of the body, including the skin, kidneys, lungs, and nervous system. Treatment options vary depending on the specific disease and its severity, but may include medications that suppress the immune system and plasmapheresis.

1) They share similarities with humans: Many animal species share similar biological and physiological characteristics with humans, making them useful for studying human diseases. For example, mice and rats are often used to study diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer because they have similar metabolic and cardiovascular systems to humans.

2) They can be genetically manipulated: Animal disease models can be genetically engineered to develop specific diseases or to model human genetic disorders. This allows researchers to study the progression of the disease and test potential treatments in a controlled environment.

3) They can be used to test drugs and therapies: Before new drugs or therapies are tested in humans, they are often first tested in animal models of disease. This allows researchers to assess the safety and efficacy of the treatment before moving on to human clinical trials.

4) They can provide insights into disease mechanisms: Studying disease models in animals can provide valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of a particular disease. This information can then be used to develop new treatments or improve existing ones.

5) Reduces the need for human testing: Using animal disease models reduces the need for human testing, which can be time-consuming, expensive, and ethically challenging. However, it is important to note that animal models are not perfect substitutes for human subjects, and results obtained from animal studies may not always translate to humans.

6) They can be used to study infectious diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study infectious diseases such as HIV, TB, and malaria. These models allow researchers to understand how the disease is transmitted, how it progresses, and how it responds to treatment.

7) They can be used to study complex diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study complex diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. These models allow researchers to understand the underlying mechanisms of the disease and test potential treatments.

8) They are cost-effective: Animal disease models are often less expensive than human clinical trials, making them a cost-effective way to conduct research.

9) They can be used to study drug delivery: Animal disease models can be used to study drug delivery and pharmacokinetics, which is important for developing new drugs and drug delivery systems.

10) They can be used to study aging: Animal disease models can be used to study the aging process and age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. This allows researchers to understand how aging contributes to disease and develop potential treatments.

Examples of autoimmune diseases include:

1. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA): A condition where the immune system attacks the joints, leading to inflammation, pain, and joint damage.
2. Lupus: A condition where the immune system attacks various body parts, including the skin, joints, and organs.
3. Hashimoto's thyroiditis: A condition where the immune system attacks the thyroid gland, leading to hypothyroidism.
4. Multiple sclerosis (MS): A condition where the immune system attacks the protective covering of nerve fibers in the central nervous system, leading to communication problems between the brain and the rest of the body.
5. Type 1 diabetes: A condition where the immune system attacks the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas, leading to high blood sugar levels.
6. Guillain-Barré syndrome: A condition where the immune system attacks the nerves, leading to muscle weakness and paralysis.
7. Psoriasis: A condition where the immune system attacks the skin, leading to red, scaly patches.
8. Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis: Conditions where the immune system attacks the digestive tract, leading to inflammation and damage to the gut.
9. Sjögren's syndrome: A condition where the immune system attacks the glands that produce tears and saliva, leading to dry eyes and mouth.
10. Vasculitis: A condition where the immune system attacks the blood vessels, leading to inflammation and damage to the blood vessels.

The symptoms of autoimmune diseases vary depending on the specific disease and the organs or tissues affected. Common symptoms include fatigue, fever, joint pain, skin rashes, and swollen lymph nodes. Treatment for autoimmune diseases typically involves medication to suppress the immune system and reduce inflammation, as well as lifestyle changes such as dietary changes and stress management techniques.

Types of Infection:

1. Bacterial Infections: These are caused by the presence of harmful bacteria in the body. Examples include pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and skin infections.
2. Viral Infections: These are caused by the presence of harmful viruses in the body. Examples include the common cold, flu, and HIV/AIDS.
3. Fungal Infections: These are caused by the presence of fungi in the body. Examples include athlete's foot, ringworm, and candidiasis.
4. Parasitic Infections: These are caused by the presence of parasites in the body. Examples include malaria, giardiasis, and toxoplasmosis.

Symptoms of Infection:

1. Fever
2. Fatigue
3. Headache
4. Muscle aches
5. Skin rashes or lesions
6. Swollen lymph nodes
7. Sore throat
8. Coughing
9. Diarrhea
10. Vomiting

Treatment of Infection:

1. Antibiotics: These are used to treat bacterial infections and work by killing or stopping the growth of bacteria.
2. Antiviral medications: These are used to treat viral infections and work by interfering with the replication of viruses.
3. Fungicides: These are used to treat fungal infections and work by killing or stopping the growth of fungi.
4. Anti-parasitic medications: These are used to treat parasitic infections and work by killing or stopping the growth of parasites.
5. Supportive care: This includes fluids, nutritional supplements, and pain management to help the body recover from the infection.

Prevention of Infection:

1. Hand washing: Regular hand washing is one of the most effective ways to prevent the spread of infection.
2. Vaccination: Getting vaccinated against specific infections can help prevent them.
3. Safe sex practices: Using condoms and other safe sex practices can help prevent the spread of sexually transmitted infections.
4. Food safety: Properly storing and preparing food can help prevent the spread of foodborne illnesses.
5. Infection control measures: Healthcare providers use infection control measures such as wearing gloves, masks, and gowns to prevent the spread of infections in healthcare settings.

Neoplasm refers to an abnormal growth of cells that can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Neoplasms can occur in any part of the body and can affect various organs and tissues. The term "neoplasm" is often used interchangeably with "tumor," but while all tumors are neoplasms, not all neoplasms are tumors.

Types of Neoplasms

There are many different types of neoplasms, including:

1. Carcinomas: These are malignant tumors that arise in the epithelial cells lining organs and glands. Examples include breast cancer, lung cancer, and colon cancer.
2. Sarcomas: These are malignant tumors that arise in connective tissue, such as bone, cartilage, and fat. Examples include osteosarcoma (bone cancer) and soft tissue sarcoma.
3. Lymphomas: These are cancers of the immune system, specifically affecting the lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues. Examples include Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
4. Leukemias: These are cancers of the blood and bone marrow that affect the white blood cells. Examples include acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL).
5. Melanomas: These are malignant tumors that arise in the pigment-producing cells called melanocytes. Examples include skin melanoma and eye melanoma.

Causes and Risk Factors of Neoplasms

The exact causes of neoplasms are not fully understood, but there are several known risk factors that can increase the likelihood of developing a neoplasm. These include:

1. Genetic predisposition: Some people may be born with genetic mutations that increase their risk of developing certain types of neoplasms.
2. Environmental factors: Exposure to certain environmental toxins, such as radiation and certain chemicals, can increase the risk of developing a neoplasm.
3. Infection: Some neoplasms are caused by viruses or bacteria. For example, human papillomavirus (HPV) is a common cause of cervical cancer.
4. Lifestyle factors: Factors such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, and a poor diet can increase the risk of developing certain types of neoplasms.
5. Family history: A person's risk of developing a neoplasm may be higher if they have a family history of the condition.

Signs and Symptoms of Neoplasms

The signs and symptoms of neoplasms can vary depending on the type of cancer and where it is located in the body. Some common signs and symptoms include:

1. Unusual lumps or swelling
2. Pain
3. Fatigue
4. Weight loss
5. Change in bowel or bladder habits
6. Unexplained bleeding
7. Coughing up blood
8. Hoarseness or a persistent cough
9. Changes in appetite or digestion
10. Skin changes, such as a new mole or a change in the size or color of an existing mole.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Neoplasms

The diagnosis of a neoplasm usually involves a combination of physical examination, imaging tests (such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRI scans), and biopsy. A biopsy involves removing a small sample of tissue from the suspected tumor and examining it under a microscope for cancer cells.

The treatment of neoplasms depends on the type, size, location, and stage of the cancer, as well as the patient's overall health. Some common treatments include:

1. Surgery: Removing the tumor and surrounding tissue can be an effective way to treat many types of cancer.
2. Chemotherapy: Using drugs to kill cancer cells can be effective for some types of cancer, especially if the cancer has spread to other parts of the body.
3. Radiation therapy: Using high-energy radiation to kill cancer cells can be effective for some types of cancer, especially if the cancer is located in a specific area of the body.
4. Immunotherapy: Boosting the body's immune system to fight cancer can be an effective treatment for some types of cancer.
5. Targeted therapy: Using drugs or other substances to target specific molecules on cancer cells can be an effective treatment for some types of cancer.

Prevention of Neoplasms

While it is not always possible to prevent neoplasms, there are several steps that can reduce the risk of developing cancer. These include:

1. Avoiding exposure to known carcinogens (such as tobacco smoke and radiation)
2. Maintaining a healthy diet and lifestyle
3. Getting regular exercise
4. Not smoking or using tobacco products
5. Limiting alcohol consumption
6. Getting vaccinated against certain viruses that are associated with cancer (such as human papillomavirus, or HPV)
7. Participating in screening programs for early detection of cancer (such as mammograms for breast cancer and colonoscopies for colon cancer)
8. Avoiding excessive exposure to sunlight and using protective measures such as sunscreen and hats to prevent skin cancer.

It's important to note that not all cancers can be prevented, and some may be caused by factors that are not yet understood or cannot be controlled. However, by taking these steps, individuals can reduce their risk of developing cancer and improve their overall health and well-being.

Examples of delayed hypersensitivity reactions include contact dermatitis (a skin reaction to an allergic substance), tuberculin reactivity (a reaction to the bacteria that cause tuberculosis), and sarcoidosis (a condition characterized by inflammation in various organs, including the lungs and lymph nodes).

Delayed hypersensitivity reactions are important in the diagnosis and management of allergic disorders and other immune-related conditions. They can be detected through a variety of tests, including skin prick testing, patch testing, and blood tests. Treatment for delayed hypersensitivity reactions depends on the underlying cause and may involve medications such as antihistamines, corticosteroids, or immunosuppressants.

1. Common cold: A viral infection that affects the upper respiratory tract and causes symptoms such as sneezing, running nose, coughing, and mild fever.
2. Influenza (flu): A viral infection that can cause severe respiratory illness, including pneumonia, bronchitis, and sinus and ear infections.
3. Measles: A highly contagious viral infection that causes fever, rashes, coughing, and redness of the eyes.
4. Rubella (German measles): A mild viral infection that can cause fever, rashes, headache, and swollen lymph nodes.
5. Chickenpox: A highly contagious viral infection that causes fever, itching, and a characteristic rash of small blisters on the skin.
6. Herpes simplex virus (HSV): A viral infection that can cause genital herpes, cold sores, or other skin lesions.
7. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): A viral infection that attacks the immune system and can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
8. Hepatitis B: A viral infection that affects the liver, causing inflammation and damage to liver cells.
9. Hepatitis C: Another viral infection that affects the liver, often leading to chronic liver disease and liver cancer.
10. Ebola: A deadly viral infection that causes fever, vomiting, diarrhea, and internal bleeding.
11. SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome): A viral infection that can cause severe respiratory illness, including pneumonia and respiratory failure.
12. West Nile virus: A viral infection that can cause fever, headache, and muscle pain, as well as more severe symptoms such as meningitis or encephalitis.

Viral infections can be spread through contact with an infected person or contaminated surfaces, objects, or insects such as mosquitoes. Prevention strategies include:

1. Practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands frequently and thoroughly.
2. Avoiding close contact with people who are sick.
3. Covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing.
4. Avoiding sharing personal items such as towels or utensils.
5. Using condoms or other barrier methods during sexual activity.
6. Getting vaccinated against certain viral infections, such as HPV and hepatitis B.
7. Using insect repellents to prevent mosquito bites.
8. Screening blood products and organs for certain viruses before transfusion or transplantation.

Treatment for viral infections depends on the specific virus and the severity of the illness. Antiviral medications may be used to reduce the replication of the virus and alleviate symptoms. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to provide supportive care such as intravenous fluids, oxygen therapy, or mechanical ventilation.

Prevention is key in avoiding viral infections, so taking the necessary precautions and practicing good hygiene can go a long way in protecting oneself and others from these common and potentially debilitating illnesses.

There are several types of hypersensitivity reactions, including:

1. Type I hypersensitivity: This is also known as immediate hypersensitivity and occurs within minutes to hours after exposure to the allergen. It is characterized by the release of histamine and other chemical mediators from immune cells, leading to symptoms such as hives, itching, swelling, and difficulty breathing. Examples of Type I hypersensitivity reactions include allergies to pollen, dust mites, or certain foods.
2. Type II hypersensitivity: This is also known as cytotoxic hypersensitivity and occurs within days to weeks after exposure to the allergen. It is characterized by the immune system producing antibodies against specific proteins on the surface of cells, leading to their destruction. Examples of Type II hypersensitivity reactions include blood transfusion reactions and serum sickness.
3. Type III hypersensitivity: This is also known as immune complex hypersensitivity and occurs when antigens bind to immune complexes, leading to the formation of deposits in tissues. Examples of Type III hypersensitivity reactions include rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus.
4. Type IV hypersensitivity: This is also known as delayed-type hypersensitivity and occurs within weeks to months after exposure to the allergen. It is characterized by the activation of T cells, leading to inflammation and tissue damage. Examples of Type IV hypersensitivity reactions include contact dermatitis and toxic epidermal necrolysis.

The diagnosis of hypersensitivity often involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and elimination diets or challenges. Treatment depends on the specific type of hypersensitivity reaction and may include avoidance of the allergen, medications such as antihistamines or corticosteroids, and immunomodulatory therapy.

There are several types of disease susceptibility, including:

1. Genetic predisposition: This refers to the inherent tendency of an individual to develop a particular disease due to their genetic makeup. For example, some families may have a higher risk of developing certain diseases such as cancer or heart disease due to inherited genetic mutations.
2. Environmental susceptibility: This refers to the increased risk of developing a disease due to exposure to environmental factors such as pollutants, toxins, or infectious agents. For example, someone who lives in an area with high levels of air pollution may be more susceptible to developing respiratory problems.
3. Lifestyle susceptibility: This refers to the increased risk of developing a disease due to unhealthy lifestyle choices such as smoking, lack of exercise, or poor diet. For example, someone who smokes and is overweight may be more susceptible to developing heart disease or lung cancer.
4. Immune system susceptibility: This refers to the increased risk of developing a disease due to an impaired immune system. For example, people with autoimmune disorders such as HIV/AIDS or rheumatoid arthritis may be more susceptible to opportunistic infections.

Understanding disease susceptibility can help healthcare providers identify individuals who are at risk of developing certain diseases and provide preventive measures or early intervention to reduce the risk of disease progression. Additionally, genetic testing can help identify individuals with a high risk of developing certain diseases, allowing for earlier diagnosis and treatment.

In summary, disease susceptibility refers to the predisposition of an individual to develop a particular disease or condition due to various factors such as genetics, environment, lifestyle choices, and immune system function. Understanding disease susceptibility can help healthcare providers identify individuals at risk and provide appropriate preventive measures or early intervention to reduce the risk of disease progression.

Examples of Immunologic Deficiency Syndromes include:

1. Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases (PIDDs): These are a group of genetic disorders that affect the immune system's ability to function properly. Examples include X-linked agammaglobulinemia, common variable immunodeficiency, and severe combined immunodeficiency.
2. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS): This is a condition that results from the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, which destroys CD4 cells, a type of immune cell that fights off infections.
3. Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura (ITP): This is an autoimmune disorder that causes the immune system to attack and destroy platelets, which are blood cells that help the blood to clot.
4. Autoimmune Disorders: These are conditions in which the immune system mistakenly attacks and damages healthy cells and tissues in the body. Examples include rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and multiple sclerosis.
5. Immunosuppressive Therapy-induced Immunodeficiency: This is a condition that occurs as a side effect of medications used to prevent rejection in organ transplant patients. These medications can suppress the immune system, increasing the risk of infections.

Symptoms of Immunologic Deficiency Syndromes can vary depending on the specific disorder and the severity of the immune system dysfunction. Common symptoms include recurrent infections, fatigue, fever, and swollen lymph nodes. Treatment options for these syndromes range from medications to suppress the immune system to surgery or bone marrow transplantation.

In summary, Immunologic Deficiency Syndromes are a group of disorders that result from dysfunction of the immune system, leading to recurrent infections and other symptoms. There are many different types of these syndromes, each with its own set of symptoms and treatment options.

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection is a condition in which the body is infected with HIV, a type of retrovirus that attacks the body's immune system. HIV infection can lead to AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), a condition in which the immune system is severely damaged and the body is unable to fight off infections and diseases.

There are several ways that HIV can be transmitted, including:

1. Sexual contact with an infected person
2. Sharing of needles or other drug paraphernalia with an infected person
3. Mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding
4. Blood transfusions ( although this is rare in developed countries due to screening processes)
5. Organ transplantation (again, rare)

The symptoms of HIV infection can be mild at first and may not appear until several years after infection. These symptoms can include:

1. Fever
2. Fatigue
3. Swollen glands in the neck, armpits, and groin
4. Rash
5. Muscle aches and joint pain
6. Night sweats
7. Diarrhea
8. Weight loss

If left untreated, HIV infection can progress to AIDS, which is a life-threatening condition that can cause a wide range of symptoms, including:

1. Opportunistic infections (such as pneumocystis pneumonia)
2. Cancer (such as Kaposi's sarcoma)
3. Wasting syndrome
4. Neurological problems (such as dementia and seizures)

HIV infection is diagnosed through a combination of blood tests and physical examination. Treatment typically involves antiretroviral therapy (ART), which is a combination of medications that work together to suppress the virus and slow the progression of the disease.

Prevention methods for HIV infection include:

1. Safe sex practices, such as using condoms and dental dams
2. Avoiding sharing needles or other drug-injecting equipment
3. Avoiding mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding
4. Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), which is a short-term treatment that can prevent infection after potential exposure to the virus
5. Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), which is a daily medication that can prevent infection in people who are at high risk of being exposed to the virus.

It's important to note that HIV infection is manageable with proper treatment and care, and that people living with HIV can lead long and healthy lives. However, it's important to be aware of the risks and take steps to prevent transmission.

Some common examples of bacterial infections include:

1. Urinary tract infections (UTIs)
2. Respiratory infections such as pneumonia and bronchitis
3. Skin infections such as cellulitis and abscesses
4. Bone and joint infections such as osteomyelitis
5. Infected wounds or burns
6. Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as chlamydia and gonorrhea
7. Food poisoning caused by bacteria such as salmonella and E. coli.

In severe cases, bacterial infections can lead to life-threatening complications such as sepsis or blood poisoning. It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time. Proper diagnosis and treatment can help prevent these complications and ensure a full recovery.

The condition is characterized by an exaggerated immune response, which can cause inflammation in various parts of the body, including the skin, eyes, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. IRIS can manifest as a range of symptoms, such as fever, fatigue, pain, and swelling in the affected areas.

The exact cause of IRIS is not fully understood, but it is thought to be related to the restoration of immune function after being suppressed by HIV. When ART is initiated, the immune system begins to recover, and the body mounts an immune response against previously latent viral reservoirs. This can lead to inflammation and tissue damage in some individuals.

The diagnosis of IRIS is based on a combination of clinical findings, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment typically involves supportive care, such as antibiotics for bacterial infections, anti-inflammatory medications, and corticosteroids to reduce inflammation. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary.

Prevention strategies for IRIS include careful monitoring of patients on ART, early detection and treatment of opportunistic infections, and the use of corticosteroids to prevent or treat inflammation. It is important for healthcare providers to be aware of the risk of IRIS and to monitor patients closely, particularly during the early stages of ART. With appropriate management, most cases of IRIS resolve without long-term complications.

The term "systemic" refers to the fact that the disease affects multiple organ systems, including the skin, joints, kidneys, lungs, and nervous system. LES is a complex condition, and its symptoms can vary widely depending on which organs are affected. Common symptoms include fatigue, fever, joint pain, rashes, and swelling in the extremities.

There are several subtypes of LES, including:

1. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE): This is the most common form of the disease, and it can affect anyone, regardless of age or gender.
2. Discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE): This subtype typically affects the skin, causing a red, scaly rash that does not go away.
3. Drug-induced lupus erythematosus: This form of the disease is caused by certain medications, and it usually resolves once the medication is stopped.
4. Neonatal lupus erythematosus: This rare condition affects newborn babies of mothers with SLE, and it can cause liver and heart problems.

There is no cure for LES, but treatment options are available to manage the symptoms and prevent flares. Treatment may include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, immunosuppressive medications, and antimalarial drugs. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and treat the disease.

It is important for people with LES to work closely with their healthcare providers to manage their condition and prevent complications. With proper treatment and self-care, many people with LES can lead active and fulfilling lives.

The burden of chronic diseases is significant, with over 70% of deaths worldwide attributed to them, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). In addition to the physical and emotional toll they take on individuals and their families, chronic diseases also pose a significant economic burden, accounting for a large proportion of healthcare expenditure.

In this article, we will explore the definition and impact of chronic diseases, as well as strategies for managing and living with them. We will also discuss the importance of early detection and prevention, as well as the role of healthcare providers in addressing the needs of individuals with chronic diseases.

What is a Chronic Disease?

A chronic disease is a condition that lasts for an extended period of time, often affecting daily life and activities. Unlike acute diseases, which have a specific beginning and end, chronic diseases are long-term and persistent. Examples of chronic diseases include:

1. Diabetes
2. Heart disease
3. Arthritis
4. Asthma
5. Cancer
6. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
7. Chronic kidney disease (CKD)
8. Hypertension
9. Osteoporosis
10. Stroke

Impact of Chronic Diseases

The burden of chronic diseases is significant, with over 70% of deaths worldwide attributed to them, according to the WHO. In addition to the physical and emotional toll they take on individuals and their families, chronic diseases also pose a significant economic burden, accounting for a large proportion of healthcare expenditure.

Chronic diseases can also have a significant impact on an individual's quality of life, limiting their ability to participate in activities they enjoy and affecting their relationships with family and friends. Moreover, the financial burden of chronic diseases can lead to poverty and reduce economic productivity, thus having a broader societal impact.

Addressing Chronic Diseases

Given the significant burden of chronic diseases, it is essential that we address them effectively. This requires a multi-faceted approach that includes:

1. Lifestyle modifications: Encouraging healthy behaviors such as regular physical activity, a balanced diet, and smoking cessation can help prevent and manage chronic diseases.
2. Early detection and diagnosis: Identifying risk factors and detecting diseases early can help prevent or delay their progression.
3. Medication management: Effective medication management is crucial for controlling symptoms and slowing disease progression.
4. Multi-disciplinary care: Collaboration between healthcare providers, patients, and families is essential for managing chronic diseases.
5. Health promotion and disease prevention: Educating individuals about the risks of chronic diseases and promoting healthy behaviors can help prevent their onset.
6. Addressing social determinants of health: Social determinants such as poverty, education, and employment can have a significant impact on health outcomes. Addressing these factors is essential for reducing health disparities and improving overall health.
7. Investing in healthcare infrastructure: Investing in healthcare infrastructure, technology, and research is necessary to improve disease detection, diagnosis, and treatment.
8. Encouraging policy change: Policy changes can help create supportive environments for healthy behaviors and reduce the burden of chronic diseases.
9. Increasing public awareness: Raising public awareness about the risks and consequences of chronic diseases can help individuals make informed decisions about their health.
10. Providing support for caregivers: Chronic diseases can have a significant impact on family members and caregivers, so providing them with support is essential for improving overall health outcomes.

Conclusion

Chronic diseases are a major public health burden that affect millions of people worldwide. Addressing these diseases requires a multi-faceted approach that includes lifestyle changes, addressing social determinants of health, investing in healthcare infrastructure, encouraging policy change, increasing public awareness, and providing support for caregivers. By taking a comprehensive approach to chronic disease prevention and management, we can improve the health and well-being of individuals and communities worldwide.

There are several possible causes of lymphopenia, including:

1. Viral infections: Many viral infections can cause lymphopenia, such as HIV/AIDS, hepatitis B and C, and influenza.
2. Bacterial infections: Some bacterial infections, such as tuberculosis and leprosy, can also cause lymphopenia.
3. Cancer: Certain types of cancer, such as Hodgkin's disease and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, can cause lymphopenia by destroying lymphocytes.
4. Autoimmune disorders: Autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus, can cause lymphopenia by attacking the body's own tissues, including lymphocytes.
5. Radiation therapy: Radiation therapy can destroy lymphocytes and cause lymphopenia.
6. Medications: Certain medications, such as chemotherapy drugs and antibiotics, can cause lymphopenia as a side effect.
7. Genetic disorders: Some genetic disorders, such as X-linked lymphoproliferative disease, can cause lymphopenia by affecting the development or function of lymphocytes.

Symptoms of lymphopenia can include recurring infections, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes. Treatment of lymphopenia depends on the underlying cause and may involve antibiotics, antiviral medications, or immunoglobulin replacement therapy. In some cases, a bone marrow transplant may be necessary.

Overall, lymphopenia is a condition that can have a significant impact on quality of life, and it is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time. With proper diagnosis and treatment, many people with lymphopenia can experience improved health outcomes and a better quality of life.

Crohn's disease can affect any part of the GI tract, from the mouth to the anus, and causes symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, fatigue, and weight loss. Ulcerative colitis primarily affects the colon and rectum and causes symptoms such as bloody stools, abdominal pain, and weight loss.

Both Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis are chronic conditions, meaning they cannot be cured but can be managed with medication and lifestyle changes. Treatment options for IBD include anti-inflammatory medications, immunosuppressants, and biologics. In severe cases, surgery may be necessary to remove damaged portions of the GI tract.

There is no known cause of IBD, although genetics, environmental factors, and an abnormal immune response are thought to play a role. The condition can have a significant impact on quality of life, particularly if left untreated or poorly managed. Complications of IBD include malnutrition, osteoporosis, and increased risk of colon cancer.

Preventing and managing IBD requires a comprehensive approach that includes medication, dietary changes, stress management, and regular follow-up with a healthcare provider. With proper treatment and lifestyle modifications, many people with IBD are able to manage their symptoms and lead active, fulfilling lives.

The main symptoms of PTI include:

* Purple spots or bruises (purpura) on the skin, which may be caused by minor trauma or injury.
* Thrombocytopenia (low platelet count), typically less than 50,000 platelets/mm3.
* Mild anemia and reticulocytosis (increased immature red blood cells).
* Elevated levels of autoantibodies against platelet membrane glycoproteins (GP) and other platelet proteins.
* No evidence of other causes of thrombocytopenia, such as bone marrow disorders or infections.

The exact cause of PTI is unknown, but it is believed to involve an immune-mediated response triggered by a genetic predisposition. Treatment options for PTI include corticosteroids, intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), and splenectomy in severe cases. The prognosis for PTI is generally good, with most patients experiencing resolution of symptoms and normalization of platelet counts within a few months to a year after treatment. However, some individuals may experience recurrent episodes of thrombocytopenia and purpura throughout their lives.

The symptoms of AIDS can vary depending on the individual and the stage of the disease. Common symptoms include:

1. Fever
2. Fatigue
3. Swollen glands
4. Rash
5. Muscle aches and joint pain
6. Night sweats
7. Diarrhea
8. Weight loss
9. Memory loss and other neurological problems
10. Cancer and other opportunistic infections.

AIDS is diagnosed through blood tests that detect the presence of HIV antibodies or the virus itself. There is no cure for AIDS, but antiretroviral therapy (ART) can help manage the symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. Prevention methods include using condoms, pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), and avoiding sharing needles or other injection equipment.

In summary, Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a severe and life-threatening condition caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). It is characterized by a severely weakened immune system, which makes it difficult to fight off infections and diseases. While there is no cure for AIDS, antiretroviral therapy can help manage the symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. Prevention methods include using condoms, pre-exposure prophylaxis, and avoiding sharing needles or other injection equipment.

Examples of communicable diseases include:

1. Influenza (the flu)
2. Measles
3. Tuberculosis (TB)
4. HIV/AIDS
5. Malaria
6. Hepatitis B and C
7. Chickenpox
8. Whooping cough (pertussis)
9. Meningitis
10. Pneumonia

Communicable diseases can be spread through various means, including:

1. Direct contact with an infected person: This includes touching, hugging, shaking hands, or sharing food and drinks with someone who is infected.
2. Indirect contact with contaminated surfaces or objects: Pathogens can survive on surfaces for a period of time and can be transmitted to people who come into contact with those surfaces.
3. Airborne transmission: Some diseases, such as the flu and TB, can be spread through the air when an infected person talks, coughs, or sneezes.
4. Infected insect or animal bites: Diseases such as malaria and Lyme disease can be spread through the bites of infected mosquitoes or ticks.

Prevention and control of communicable diseases are essential to protect public health. This includes:

1. Vaccination: Vaccines can prevent many communicable diseases, such as measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR), and influenza.
2. Personal hygiene: Frequent handwashing, covering the mouth when coughing or sneezing, and avoiding close contact with people who are sick can help prevent the spread of diseases.
3. Improved sanitation and clean water: Proper disposal of human waste and adequate water treatment can reduce the risk of disease transmission.
4. Screening and testing: Identifying and isolating infected individuals can help prevent the spread of disease.
5. Antibiotics and antiviral medications: These drugs can treat and prevent some communicable diseases, such as bacterial infections and viral infections like HIV.
6. Public education: Educating the public about the risks and prevention of communicable diseases can help reduce the spread of disease.
7. Contact tracing: Identifying and monitoring individuals who have been in close contact with someone who has a communicable disease can help prevent further transmission.
8. Quarantine and isolation: Quarantine and isolation measures can be used to control outbreaks by separating infected individuals from those who are not infected.
9. Improved healthcare infrastructure: Adequate healthcare facilities, such as hospitals and clinics, can help diagnose and treat communicable diseases early on, reducing the risk of transmission.
10. International collaboration: Collaboration between countries and global organizations is crucial for preventing and controlling the spread of communicable diseases that are a threat to public health worldwide, such as pandemic flu and SARS.

Here are some key points to define sepsis:

1. Inflammatory response: Sepsis is characterized by an excessive and uncontrolled inflammatory response to an infection. This can lead to tissue damage and organ dysfunction.
2. Systemic symptoms: Patients with sepsis often have systemic symptoms such as fever, chills, rapid heart rate, and confusion. They may also experience nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.
3. Organ dysfunction: Sepsis can cause dysfunction in multiple organs, including the lungs, kidneys, liver, and heart. This can lead to organ failure and death if not treated promptly.
4. Infection source: Sepsis is usually caused by a bacterial infection, but it can also be caused by fungal or viral infections. The infection can be localized or widespread, and it can affect different parts of the body.
5. Severe sepsis: Severe sepsis is a more severe form of sepsis that is characterized by severe organ dysfunction and a higher risk of death. Patients with severe sepsis may require intensive care unit (ICU) admission and mechanical ventilation.
6. Septic shock: Septic shock is a life-threatening condition that occurs when there is severe circulatory dysfunction due to sepsis. It is characterized by hypotension, vasopressor use, and organ failure.

Early recognition and treatment of sepsis are critical to preventing serious complications and improving outcomes. The Sepsis-3 definition is widely used in clinical practice to diagnose sepsis and severe sepsis.

The disease is typically induced in laboratory animals such as mice or rats by immunizing them with myelin proteins, such as myelin basic protein (MBP) or proteolipid protein (PLP), emulsified in adjuvants. The resulting immune response leads to the production of autoantibodies and activated T cells that cross the blood-brain barrier and attack the CNS.

EAE is used as a model for MS because it shares many similarities with the human disease, including:

1. Demyelination: EAE induces demyelination of nerve fibers in the CNS, which is also a hallmark of MS.
2. Autoimmune response: The immune response in EAE is triggered by autoantigens, similar to MS.
3. Chronic course: EAE is a chronic disease with recurrent relapses, similar to MS.
4. Lesion distribution: EAE lesions are distributed throughout the CNS, including the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, brainstem, and spinal cord, which is also true for MS.

EAE has been used extensively in the study of MS to investigate the immunopathogenesis of the disease, to develop new diagnostic markers and treatments, and to test the efficacy of potential therapeutic agents.

Dermatitis, contact can be acute or chronic, depending on the severity and duration of the exposure. In acute cases, the symptoms may resolve within a few days after removing the offending substance. Chronic dermatitis, on the other hand, can persist for weeks or even months, and may require ongoing treatment to manage the symptoms.

The symptoms of contact dermatitis can vary depending on the individual and the severity of the exposure. Common symptoms include:

* Redness and inflammation of the skin
* Itching and burning sensations
* Swelling and blistering
* Cracks or fissures in the skin
* Difficulty healing or recurring infections

In severe cases, contact dermatitis can lead to complications such as:

* Infection with bacteria or fungi
* Scarring and disfigurement
* Emotional distress and anxiety

Diagnosis of contact dermatitis is typically made based on the patient's medical history and physical examination. Allergic patch testing may also be performed to identify specific allergens that are causing the condition.

Treatment for contact dermatitis usually involves avoiding the offending substance and using topical or oral medications to manage symptoms. In severe cases, systemic corticosteroids or immunosuppressants may be prescribed. Phototherapy and alternative therapies such as herbal remedies or acupuncture may also be considered.

Prevention of contact dermatitis involves identifying and avoiding substances that cause an allergic reaction or skin irritation. Individuals with a history of contact dermatitis should take precautions when handling new substances, and should be aware of the potential for cross-reactivity between different allergens.

Disease progression can be classified into several types based on the pattern of worsening:

1. Chronic progressive disease: In this type, the disease worsens steadily over time, with a gradual increase in symptoms and decline in function. Examples include rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and Parkinson's disease.
2. Acute progressive disease: This type of disease worsens rapidly over a short period, often followed by periods of stability. Examples include sepsis, acute myocardial infarction (heart attack), and stroke.
3. Cyclical disease: In this type, the disease follows a cycle of worsening and improvement, with periodic exacerbations and remissions. Examples include multiple sclerosis, lupus, and rheumatoid arthritis.
4. Recurrent disease: This type is characterized by episodes of worsening followed by periods of recovery. Examples include migraine headaches, asthma, and appendicitis.
5. Catastrophic disease: In this type, the disease progresses rapidly and unpredictably, with a poor prognosis. Examples include cancer, AIDS, and organ failure.

Disease progression can be influenced by various factors, including:

1. Genetics: Some diseases are inherited and may have a predetermined course of progression.
2. Lifestyle: Factors such as smoking, lack of exercise, and poor diet can contribute to disease progression.
3. Environmental factors: Exposure to toxins, allergens, and other environmental stressors can influence disease progression.
4. Medical treatment: The effectiveness of medical treatment can impact disease progression, either by slowing or halting the disease process or by causing unintended side effects.
5. Co-morbidities: The presence of multiple diseases or conditions can interact and affect each other's progression.

Understanding the type and factors influencing disease progression is essential for developing effective treatment plans and improving patient outcomes.

Types of experimental neoplasms include:

* Xenografts: tumors that are transplanted into animals from another species, often humans.
* Transgenic tumors: tumors that are created by introducing cancer-causing genes into an animal's genome.
* Chemically-induced tumors: tumors that are caused by exposure to certain chemicals or drugs.

The use of experimental neoplasms in research has led to significant advances in our understanding of cancer biology and the development of new treatments for the disease. However, the use of animals in cancer research is a controversial topic and alternatives to animal models are being developed and implemented.

Orthomyxoviridae infections are a group of viral infections caused by the Orthomyxoviridae family of viruses, which includes influenza A and B viruses, as well as other related viruses. These infections can affect both humans and animals and can cause a range of symptoms, from mild to severe.

The most common type of Orthomyxoviridae infection is seasonal influenza, which occurs when the virus is transmitted from person to person through the air or by contact with infected surfaces. Other types of Orthomyxoviridae infections include:

1. Pandemic influenza: This occurs when a new strain of the virus emerges and spreads quickly around the world, causing widespread illness and death. Examples of pandemic influenza include the Spanish flu of 1918 and the Asian flu of 1957.
2. Avian influenza: This occurs when birds are infected with the virus and can be transmitted to humans through close contact with infected birds or their droppings.
3. Swine influenza: This occurs when pigs are infected with the virus and can be transmitted to humans through close contact with infected pigs or their droppings.
4. H5N1 and H7N9: These are two specific types of bird flu viruses that have caused serious outbreaks in humans in recent years.

Symptoms of Orthomyxoviridae infections can include fever, cough, sore throat, runny nose, muscle aches, and fatigue. In severe cases, these infections can lead to pneumonia, bronchitis, and other respiratory complications, as well as hospitalization and even death.

Diagnosis of Orthomyxoviridae infections is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests, such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction) or viral culture. Treatment is generally focused on relieving symptoms and supporting the immune system, with antiviral medications may be used in severe cases.

Prevention of Orthomyxoviridae infections can include avoiding close contact with infected birds or pigs, wearing protective clothing and gear when handling animals, and practicing good hygiene such as washing hands frequently. Vaccines are also available for some species of birds and pigs to protect against these viruses.

Overall, Orthomyxoviridae is a family of viruses that can cause serious illness in humans and other animals, and it's important to take precautions to prevent exposure and spread of these viruses.

There are several types of melanoma, including:

1. Superficial spreading melanoma: This is the most common type of melanoma, accounting for about 70% of cases. It usually appears as a flat or slightly raised discolored patch on the skin.
2. Nodular melanoma: This type of melanoma is more aggressive and accounts for about 15% of cases. It typically appears as a raised bump on the skin, often with a darker color.
3. Acral lentiginous melanoma: This type of melanoma affects the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, or nail beds and accounts for about 5% of cases.
4. Lentigo maligna melanoma: This type of melanoma usually affects the face and is more common in older adults.

The risk factors for developing melanoma include:

1. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation exposure from the sun or tanning beds
2. Fair skin, light hair, and light eyes
3. A history of sunburns
4. Weakened immune system
5. Family history of melanoma

The symptoms of melanoma can vary depending on the type and location of the cancer. Common symptoms include:

1. Changes in the size, shape, or color of a mole
2. A new mole or growth on the skin
3. A spot or sore that bleeds or crusts over
4. Itching or pain on the skin
5. Redness or swelling around a mole

If melanoma is suspected, a biopsy will be performed to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment options for melanoma depend on the stage and location of the cancer and may include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of these. Early detection and treatment are key to successful outcomes in melanoma cases.

In conclusion, melanoma is a type of skin cancer that can be deadly if not detected early. It is important to practice sun safety, perform regular self-exams, and seek medical attention if any suspicious changes are noticed on the skin. By being aware of the risk factors, symptoms, and treatment options for melanoma, individuals can take steps to protect themselves from this potentially deadly disease.

2. Our research focuses on identifying the genetic mutations that contribute to experimental melanoma and developing targeted therapies.
3. The patient's experimental melanoma had spread to her lungs and liver, so we recommended chemotherapy and immunotherapy treatments.

The symptoms of listeriosis can vary depending on the severity of the infection and the individual's overall health. Mild cases may present with flu-like symptoms, such as fever, headache, and muscle aches, while severe cases can lead to meningitis, encephalitis, and even death.

Diagnosis is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests, such as blood cultures or PCR (polymerase chain reaction) tests. Treatment typically involves antibiotics, and prompt treatment can significantly reduce the risk of serious complications and death.

Prevention measures include avoiding high-risk foods, such as soft cheeses and hot dogs, and maintaining good hygiene practices, such as washing hands and surfaces regularly. Vaccination against Listeria is not available, but efforts to improve food safety and sanitation can help reduce the risk of listeriosis outbreaks.

Overall, while listeriosis is a serious infection, prompt diagnosis and treatment can significantly improve outcomes for those affected.

1. Innate immunity: This is the body's first line of defense against infection, and it involves the recognition and elimination of pathogens by cells and proteins that are present from birth.
2. Acquired immunity: This type of immunity develops over time as a result of exposure to pathogens, and it involves the production of antibodies and other immune cells that can recognize and eliminate specific pathogens.
3. Cell-mediated immunity: This is a type of immunity that involves the activation of immune cells, such as T cells and macrophages, to fight off infection.
4. Genetic resistance: Some individuals may have a genetic predisposition to disease resistance, which can be influenced by their ancestry or genetic makeup.
5. Environmental factors: Exposure to certain environmental factors, such as sunlight, clean water, and good nutrition, can also contribute to disease resistance.

Disease resistance is an important concept in the medical field, as it helps to protect against infectious diseases and can reduce the risk of illness and death. Understanding how disease resistance works can help healthcare professionals develop effective strategies for preventing and treating infections, and it can also inform public health policies and interventions aimed at reducing the burden of infectious diseases on individuals and communities.

The symptoms of MS can vary widely depending on the location and severity of the damage to the CNS. Common symptoms include:

* Weakness, numbness, or tingling in the limbs
* Fatigue
* Vision problems, such as blurred vision, double vision, or loss of vision
* Difficulty with balance and coordination
* Tremors or spasticity
* Memory and concentration problems
* Mood changes, such as depression or mood swings
* Bladder and bowel problems

There is no cure for MS, but various treatments can help manage the symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. These treatments include:

* Disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) - These medications are designed to reduce the frequency and severity of relapses, and they can also slow the progression of disability. Examples of DMTs include interferons, glatiramer acetate, natalizumab, fingolimod, dimethyl fumarate, teriflunomide, and alemtuzumab.
* Steroids - Corticosteroids can help reduce inflammation during relapses, but they are not a long-term solution.
* Pain management medications - Pain relievers, such as acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), can help manage pain caused by MS.
* Muscle relaxants - These medications can help reduce spasticity and tremors.
* Physical therapy - Physical therapy can help improve mobility, balance, and strength.
* Occupational therapy - Occupational therapy can help with daily activities and assistive devices.
* Speech therapy - Speech therapy can help improve communication and swallowing difficulties.
* Psychological counseling - Counseling can help manage the emotional and psychological aspects of MS.

It's important to note that each person with MS is unique, and the best treatment plan will depend on the individual's specific symptoms, needs, and preferences. It's essential to work closely with a healthcare provider to find the most effective treatment plan.

The symptoms of glomerulonephritis can vary depending on the underlying cause of the disease, but may include:

* Blood in the urine (hematuria)
* Proteinuria (excess protein in the urine)
* Reduced kidney function
* Swelling in the legs and ankles (edema)
* High blood pressure

Glomerulonephritis can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

* Infections such as staphylococcal or streptococcal infections
* Autoimmune disorders such as lupus or rheumatoid arthritis
* Allergic reactions to certain medications
* Genetic defects
* Certain diseases such as diabetes, high blood pressure, and sickle cell anemia

The diagnosis of glomerulonephritis typically involves a physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as urinalysis, blood tests, and kidney biopsy.

Treatment for glomerulonephritis depends on the underlying cause of the disease and may include:

* Antibiotics to treat infections
* Medications to reduce inflammation and swelling
* Diuretics to reduce fluid buildup in the body
* Immunosuppressive medications to suppress the immune system in cases of autoimmune disorders
* Dialysis in severe cases

The prognosis for glomerulonephritis depends on the underlying cause of the disease and the severity of the inflammation. In some cases, the disease may progress to end-stage renal disease, which requires dialysis or a kidney transplant. With proper treatment, however, many people with glomerulonephritis can experience a good outcome and maintain their kidney function over time.

Explanation: Genetic predisposition to disease is influenced by multiple factors, including the presence of inherited genetic mutations or variations, environmental factors, and lifestyle choices. The likelihood of developing a particular disease can be increased by inherited genetic mutations that affect the functioning of specific genes or biological pathways. For example, inherited mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes increase the risk of developing breast and ovarian cancer.

The expression of genetic predisposition to disease can vary widely, and not all individuals with a genetic predisposition will develop the disease. Additionally, many factors can influence the likelihood of developing a particular disease, such as environmental exposures, lifestyle choices, and other health conditions.

Inheritance patterns: Genetic predisposition to disease can be inherited in an autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, or multifactorial pattern, depending on the specific disease and the genetic mutations involved. Autosomal dominant inheritance means that a single copy of the mutated gene is enough to cause the disease, while autosomal recessive inheritance requires two copies of the mutated gene. Multifactorial inheritance involves multiple genes and environmental factors contributing to the development of the disease.

Examples of diseases with a known genetic predisposition:

1. Huntington's disease: An autosomal dominant disorder caused by an expansion of a CAG repeat in the Huntingtin gene, leading to progressive neurodegeneration and cognitive decline.
2. Cystic fibrosis: An autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, leading to respiratory and digestive problems.
3. BRCA1/2-related breast and ovarian cancer: An inherited increased risk of developing breast and ovarian cancer due to mutations in the BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes.
4. Sickle cell anemia: An autosomal recessive disorder caused by a point mutation in the HBB gene, leading to defective hemoglobin production and red blood cell sickling.
5. Type 1 diabetes: An autoimmune disease caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors, including multiple genes in the HLA complex.

Understanding the genetic basis of disease can help with early detection, prevention, and treatment. For example, genetic testing can identify individuals who are at risk for certain diseases, allowing for earlier intervention and preventive measures. Additionally, understanding the genetic basis of a disease can inform the development of targeted therapies and personalized medicine."


1. Malaria: A disease caused by a parasite that is transmitted through the bite of an infected mosquito. It can cause fever, chills, and flu-like symptoms.
2. Giardiasis: A disease caused by a parasite that is found in contaminated food and water. It can cause diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and weight loss.
3. Toxoplasmosis: A disease caused by a parasite that is transmitted through the consumption of contaminated meat or cat feces. It can cause fever, headache, and swollen lymph nodes.
4. Leishmaniasis: A group of diseases caused by a parasite that is transmitted through the bite of an infected sandfly. It can cause skin sores, fatigue, and weight loss.
5. Chagas disease: A disease caused by a parasite that is transmitted through the bite of an infected triatomine bug. It can cause heart problems, digestive issues, and brain damage.
6. Trichomoniasis: A disease caused by a parasite that is transmitted through sexual contact with an infected person. It can cause vaginal itching, burning during urination, and abnormal vaginal discharge.
7. Cryptosporidiosis: A disease caused by a parasite that is found in contaminated water and food. It can cause diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach cramps.
8. Amoebiasis: A disease caused by a parasite that is found in contaminated water and food. It can cause diarrhea, abdominal pain, and rectal bleeding.
9. Babesiosis: A disease caused by a parasite that is transmitted through the bite of an infected blacklegged tick. It can cause fever, chills, and fatigue.
10. Angiostrongyliasis: A disease caused by a parasite that is transmitted through the ingestion of raw or undercooked snails or slugs. It can cause eosinophilic meningitis, which is an inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord.

It's important to note that these are just a few examples of parasitic diseases, and there are many more out there. Additionally, while some of these diseases can be treated with antiparasitic medications, others may require long-term management and supportive care. It's important to seek medical attention if you suspect that you have been infected with a parasite or if you experience any symptoms that could be related to a parasitic infection.

People with SCID are extremely susceptible to infections, particularly those caused by viruses, and often develop symptoms shortly after birth. These may include diarrhea, vomiting, fever, and failure to gain weight or grow at the expected rate. Without treatment, SCID can lead to life-threatening infections and can be fatal within the first year of life.

Treatment for SCID typically involves bone marrow transplantation or enzyme replacement therapy. Bone marrow transplantation involves replacing the patient's faulty immune system with healthy cells from a donor, while enzyme replacement therapy involves replacing the missing or dysfunctional enzymes that cause the immune deficiency. Both of these treatments can help restore the patient's immune system and improve their quality of life.

In summary, severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) is a rare genetic disorder that impairs the body's ability to fight infections and can be fatal without treatment. Treatment options include bone marrow transplantation and enzyme replacement therapy.

The most common type of colitis is ulcerative colitis, which affects the rectum and lower part of the colon. The symptoms of ulcerative colitis can include:

* Diarrhea (which may be bloody)
* Abdominal pain and cramping
* Rectal bleeding
* Weight loss
* Fever
* Loss of appetite
* Nausea and vomiting

Microscopic colitis is another type of colitis that is characterized by inflammation in the colon, but without visible ulcers or bleeding. The symptoms of microscopic colitis are similar to those of ulcerative colitis, but may be less severe.

Other types of colitis include:

* Infantile colitis: This is a rare condition that affects babies and young children, and is characterized by diarrhea, fever, and vomiting.
* Isomorphic colitis: This is a rare condition that affects the colon and rectum, and is characterized by inflammation and symptoms similar to ulcerative colitis.
* Radiation colitis: This is a condition that occurs after radiation therapy to the pelvic area, and is characterized by inflammation and symptoms similar to ulcerative colitis.
* Ischemic colitis: This is a condition where there is a reduction in blood flow to the colon, which can lead to inflammation and symptoms such as abdominal pain and diarrhea.

The diagnosis of colitis typically involves a combination of physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as:

* Colonoscopy: This is a test that uses a flexible tube with a camera on the end to visualize the inside of the colon and rectum.
* Endoscopy: This is a test that uses a flexible tube with a camera on the end to visualize the inside of the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum.
* Stool tests: These are tests that analyze stool samples for signs of inflammation or infection.
* Blood tests: These are tests that analyze blood samples for signs of inflammation or infection.
* Biopsy: This is a test that involves taking a small sample of tissue from the colon and examining it under a microscope for signs of inflammation or infection.

Treatment for colitis depends on the underlying cause, but may include medications such as:

* Aminosalicylates: These are medications that help to reduce inflammation in the colon and relieve symptoms such as diarrhea and abdominal pain. Examples include sulfasalazine (Azulfidine) and mesalamine (Asacol).
* Corticosteroids: These are medications that help to reduce inflammation in the body. They may be used short-term to control acute flares of colitis, or long-term to maintain remission. Examples include prednisone and hydrocortisone.
* Immunomodulators: These are medications that help to suppress the immune system and reduce inflammation. Examples include azathioprine (Imuran) and mercaptopurine (Purinethol).
* Biologics: These are medications that target specific proteins involved in the inflammatory response. Examples include infliximab (Remicade) and adalimumab (Humira).

In addition to medication, lifestyle changes such as dietary modifications and stress management techniques may also be helpful in managing colitis symptoms. Surgery may be necessary in some cases where the colitis is severe or persistent, and involves removing damaged portions of the colon and rectum.

It's important to note that colitis can increase the risk of developing colon cancer, so regular screening for colon cancer is recommended for people with chronic colitis. Additionally, people with colitis may be more susceptible to other health problems such as osteoporosis, osteopenia, and liver disease, so it's important to work closely with a healthcare provider to monitor for these conditions and take steps to prevent them.

There are several symptoms of RA, including:

1. Joint pain and stiffness, especially in the hands and feet
2. Swollen and warm joints
3. Redness and tenderness in the affected areas
4. Fatigue, fever, and loss of appetite
5. Loss of range of motion in the affected joints
6. Firm bumps of tissue under the skin (rheumatoid nodules)

RA can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, blood tests, and imaging studies such as X-rays or ultrasound. Treatment typically involves a combination of medications, including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs), and biologic agents. Lifestyle modifications such as exercise and physical therapy can also be helpful in managing symptoms and improving quality of life.

There is no cure for RA, but early diagnosis and aggressive treatment can help to slow the progression of the disease and reduce symptoms. With proper management, many people with RA are able to lead active and fulfilling lives.

Symptoms of type 1 diabetes can include increased thirst and urination, blurred vision, fatigue, weight loss, and skin infections. If left untreated, type 1 diabetes can lead to serious complications such as kidney damage, nerve damage, and blindness.

Type 1 diabetes is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as blood glucose measurements and autoantibody tests. Treatment typically involves insulin therapy, which can be administered via injections or an insulin pump, as well as regular monitoring of blood glucose levels and appropriate lifestyle modifications such as a healthy diet and regular exercise.

SAIDS was first identified in the 1980s in monkeys that were being used in research laboratories, and it has since been studied extensively as a model for HIV/AIDS research. Like HIV/AIDS, SAIDS is caused by the transmission of a virus from one animal to another through contact with infected bodily fluids, such as blood or semen.

The symptoms of SAIDS are similar to those of HIV/AIDS and include fever, fatigue, weight loss, and opportunistic infections. As the disease progresses, animals may also experience neurological symptoms, such as seizures and difficulty coordinating movements.

There is currently no cure for SAIDS, and treatment is focused on managing the symptoms and preventing complications. Research into the disease has led to a greater understanding of the immunopathogenesis of HIV/AIDS and has contributed to the development of new therapies for the disease.

SAIDS is important in medical research because it provides a valuable model for studying the immunopathogenesis of HIV/AIDS and for testing new therapies and vaccines. It also serves as a reminder of the importance of strict safety protocols when working with infectious agents, particularly in laboratory settings.

There are two main forms of TB:

1. Active TB: This is the form of the disease where the bacteria are actively growing and causing symptoms such as coughing, fever, chest pain, and fatigue. Active TB can be contagious and can spread to others if not treated properly.
2. Latent TB: This is the form of the disease where the bacteria are present in the body but are not actively growing or causing symptoms. People with latent TB do not feel sick and are not contagious, but they can still become sick with active TB if their immune system is weakened.

TB is a major public health concern, especially in developing countries where access to healthcare may be limited. The disease is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical imaging, and laboratory tests such as skin tests or blood tests. Treatment for TB typically involves a course of antibiotics, which can be effective in curing the disease if taken properly. However, drug-resistant forms of TB have emerged in some parts of the world, making treatment more challenging.

Preventive measures against TB include:

1. Vaccination with BCG (Bacille Calmette-Guérin) vaccine, which can provide some protection against severe forms of the disease but not against latent TB.
2. Avoiding close contact with people who have active TB, especially if they are coughing or sneezing.
3. Practicing good hygiene, such as covering one's mouth when coughing or sneezing and regularly washing hands.
4. Getting regular screenings for TB if you are in a high-risk group, such as healthcare workers or people with weakened immune systems.
5. Avoiding sharing personal items such as towels, utensils, or drinking glasses with people who have active TB.

Overall, while TB is a serious disease that can be challenging to treat and prevent, with the right measures in place, it is possible to reduce its impact on public health and improve outcomes for those affected by the disease.

Herpesviridae infections are caused by the Herpesviridae family of viruses and can be transmitted through skin-to-skin contact, sexual contact, or from mother to child during pregnancy or childbirth. Symptoms of herpesviridae infections can vary depending on the type of virus and the individual infected, but may include fever, fatigue, muscle aches, and skin sores or rashes.

There is no cure for herpesviridae infections, but antiviral medications can help manage symptoms and reduce the risk of transmission to others. Good hygiene practices, such as washing hands regularly and avoiding close contact with those who are infected, can also help prevent the spread of these viruses.

Some common types of herpesviridae infections include:

* Herpes simplex virus (HSV) - Causes cold sores and genital herpes.
* Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) - Causes chickenpox and shingles.
* Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) - Associated with certain types of cancer, such as Kaposi's sarcoma.

CMV infections are more common in people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, or taking immunosuppressive drugs after an organ transplant. In these individuals, CMV can cause severe and life-threatening complications, such as pneumonia, retinitis (inflammation of the retina), and gastrointestinal disease.

In healthy individuals, CMV infections are usually mild and may not cause any symptoms at all. However, in some cases, CMV can cause a mononucleosis-like illness with fever, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes.

CMV infections are diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, blood tests, and imaging studies such as CT scans or MRI. Treatment is generally not necessary for mild cases, but may include antiviral medications for more severe infections. Prevention strategies include avoiding close contact with individuals who have CMV, practicing good hygiene, and considering immunoprophylaxis (prevention of infection through the use of immune globulin) for high-risk individuals.

Overall, while CMV infections can be serious and life-threatening, they are relatively rare in healthy individuals and can often be treated effectively with supportive care and antiviral medications.

Examples of acute diseases include:

1. Common cold and flu
2. Pneumonia and bronchitis
3. Appendicitis and other abdominal emergencies
4. Heart attacks and strokes
5. Asthma attacks and allergic reactions
6. Skin infections and cellulitis
7. Urinary tract infections
8. Sinusitis and meningitis
9. Gastroenteritis and food poisoning
10. Sprains, strains, and fractures.

Acute diseases can be treated effectively with antibiotics, medications, or other therapies. However, if left untreated, they can lead to chronic conditions or complications that may require long-term care. Therefore, it is important to seek medical attention promptly if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

There are several types of dermatitis, including:

1. Atopic dermatitis: a chronic condition characterized by dry, itchy skin and a tendency to develop allergies.
2. Contact dermatitis: a localized reaction to an allergen or irritant that comes into contact with the skin.
3. Seborrheic dermatitis: a condition characterized by redness, itching, and flaking skin on the scalp, face, or body.
4. Psoriasis: a chronic condition characterized by thick, scaly patches on the skin.
5. Cutaneous lupus erythematosus: a chronic autoimmune disorder that can cause skin rashes and lesions.
6. Dermatitis herpetiformis: a rare condition characterized by itchy blisters or rashes on the skin.

Dermatitis can be diagnosed through a physical examination, medical history, and sometimes laboratory tests such as patch testing or biopsy. Treatment options for dermatitis depend on the cause and severity of the condition, but may include topical creams or ointments, oral medications, phototherapy, or lifestyle changes such as avoiding allergens or irritants.

Viremia is a condition where the virus is present in the bloodstream, outside of infected cells or tissues. This can occur during the acute phase of an infection, when the virus is actively replicating and spreading throughout the body. Viremia can also be seen in chronic infections, where the virus may persist in the blood for longer periods of time.

In some cases, viremia can lead to the development of antibodies against the virus, which can help to neutralize it and prevent its spread. However, if the viremia is not controlled, it can cause serious complications, such as sepsis or organ damage.

Diagnosis of viremia typically involves laboratory tests, such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction) or ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay), which can detect the presence of virus in the blood. Treatment of viremia depends on the underlying cause and may include antiviral medications, supportive care, and management of any related complications.

Psoriasis can affect any part of the body, including the scalp, elbows, knees, and lower back. The symptoms of psoriasis can vary in severity, and the condition can have a significant impact on quality of life. In addition to physical discomfort, psoriasis can also cause emotional distress and stigma.

There is no cure for psoriasis, but there are several treatment options available, including topical creams and ointments, light therapy, and systemic medications such as biologic drugs. With proper treatment, many people with psoriasis are able to manage their symptoms and improve their quality of life.

Psoriasis is relatively common, affecting approximately 2-3% of the global population, with a higher prevalence in Caucasians than in other races. It can occur at any age, but typically starts in the late teenage years or early adulthood. Psoriasis is often associated with other health conditions, such as diabetes, heart disease, and depression.

Overall, psoriasis is a complex and multifactorial condition that requires a comprehensive approach to management, including both physical and emotional support. With appropriate treatment and self-care, people with psoriasis can lead full and active lives.

Vaccinia is most commonly associated with smallpox, which is caused by a similar virus and was eradicated in the late 1970s through widespread vaccination. However, there have been occasional outbreaks of vaccinia in the United States and other countries since then, often linked to laboratory accidents or deliberate releases of the virus.

The treatment of vaccinia typically involves supportive care, such as rest, hydration, and antipyretic medications to reduce fever. Antiviral medications may also be used in some cases. Prevention of the disease relies on avoiding contact with infected animals or people, and on following proper infection control practices in laboratory and healthcare settings.

Vaccinia is a serious viral infection that can have severe consequences if left untreated. It is important to seek medical attention immediately if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

1. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus): This is a virus that attacks the body's immune system, making it difficult to fight off infections and diseases. HIV is a type of retrovirus that can lead to AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome).
2. HTLV-1 (Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1): This is a virus that affects the immune system and can lead to diseases such as adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma and myelopathy.
3. HBV (Hepatitis B Virus): This is a virus that attacks the liver and can cause inflammation, scarring, and cirrhosis.
4. HCV (Hepatitis C Virus): This is a virus that attacks the liver and can cause inflammation, scarring, and cirrhosis.
5. FeLV (Feline Leukemia Virus): This is a virus that affects cats and can cause a variety of diseases, including leukemia and lymphoma.
6. FIV (Feline Immunodeficiency Virus): This is a virus that affects cats and can weaken their immune system, making them more susceptible to other infections and diseases.
7. Bovine Immunodeficiency Virus (BIV): This is a virus that affects cattle and can cause a variety of diseases, including leukemia and lymphoma.
8. Equine Infectious Anemia Virus (EIAV): This is a virus that affects horses and can cause a variety of diseases, including anemia and swelling of the lymph nodes.

Retroviridae infections are typically diagnosed through blood tests that detect the presence of antibodies or genetic material from the virus. Treatment options vary depending on the specific virus and the severity of the infection, but may include antiretroviral medications, immune-suppressive drugs, and supportive care such as blood transfusions or antibiotics for secondary infections.

It is important to note that retroviruses can be transmitted through contact with infected bodily fluids, such as blood, semen, and breast milk. Therefore, it is important to take precautions such as using condoms, gloves, and other protective measures when dealing with infected individuals or animals. Additionally, it is important to maintain good hygiene practices, such as washing hands regularly, to reduce the risk of transmission.

Granulomas are formed in response to the presence of a foreign substance or an infection, and they serve as a protective barrier to prevent the spread of the infection and to isolate the offending agent. The granuloma is characterized by a central area of necrosis, surrounded by a ring of immune cells, including macrophages and T-lymphocytes.

Granulomas are commonly seen in a variety of inflammatory conditions, such as tuberculosis, leprosy, and sarcoidosis. They can also occur as a result of infections, such as bacterial or fungal infections, and in the context of autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis.

In summary, granuloma is a term used to describe a type of inflammatory lesion that is formed in response to the presence of a foreign substance or an infection, and serves as a protective barrier to prevent the spread of the infection and to isolate the offending agent.

There are several different types of malaria, including:

1. Plasmodium falciparum: This is the most severe form of malaria, and it can be fatal if left untreated. It is found in many parts of the world, including Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
2. Plasmodium vivax: This type of malaria is less severe than P. falciparum, but it can still cause serious complications if left untreated. It is found in many parts of the world, including Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
3. Plasmodium ovale: This type of malaria is similar to P. vivax, but it can cause more severe symptoms in some people. It is found primarily in West Africa.
4. Plasmodium malariae: This type of malaria is less common than the other three types, and it tends to cause milder symptoms. It is found primarily in parts of Africa and Asia.

The symptoms of malaria can vary depending on the type of parasite that is causing the infection, but they typically include:

1. Fever
2. Chills
3. Headache
4. Muscle and joint pain
5. Fatigue
6. Nausea and vomiting
7. Diarrhea
8. Anemia (low red blood cell count)

If malaria is not treated promptly, it can lead to more severe complications, such as:

1. Seizures
2. Coma
3. Respiratory failure
4. Kidney failure
5. Liver failure
6. Anemia (low red blood cell count)

Malaria is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests, such as blood smears or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests. Treatment for malaria typically involves the use of antimalarial drugs, such as chloroquine or artemisinin-based combination therapies. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to manage complications and provide supportive care.

Prevention is an important aspect of managing malaria, and this can include:

1. Using insecticide-treated bed nets
2. Wearing protective clothing and applying insect repellent when outdoors
3. Eliminating standing water around homes and communities to reduce the number of mosquito breeding sites
4. Using indoor residual spraying (IRS) or insecticide-treated wall lining to kill mosquitoes
5. Implementing malaria control measures in areas where malaria is common, such as distribution of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS)
6. Improving access to healthcare services, particularly in rural and remote areas
7. Providing education and awareness about malaria prevention and control
8. Encouraging the use of preventive medications, such as intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) for pregnant women and children under the age of five.

Early diagnosis and prompt treatment are critical in preventing the progression of malaria and reducing the risk of complications and death. In areas where malaria is common, it is essential to have access to reliable diagnostic tools and effective antimalarial drugs.

Some of the key features of immediate hypersensitivity include:

1. Rapid onset of symptoms: Symptoms typically occur within minutes to hours of exposure to the allergen.
2. IgE antibodies: Immediate hypersensitivity is caused by the binding of IgE antibodies to surface receptors on mast cells and basophils.
3. Mast cell and basophil activation: The activation of mast cells and basophils leads to the release of histamine and other chemical mediators that cause symptoms.
4. Anaphylaxis: Immediate hypersensitivity can progress to anaphylaxis, a life-threatening allergic reaction that requires immediate medical attention.
5. Specificity: Immediate hypersensitivity is specific to a particular allergen and does not occur with other allergens.
6. Cross-reactivity: There may be cross-reactivity between different allergens, leading to similar symptoms.
7. Prevention: Avoidance of the allergen is the primary prevention strategy for immediate hypersensitivity. Medications such as antihistamines and epinephrine can also be used to treat symptoms.

These animal models allow researchers to study the underlying causes of arthritis, test new treatments and therapies, and evaluate their effectiveness in a controlled environment before moving to human clinical trials. Experimental arthritis models are used to investigate various aspects of the disease, including its pathophysiology, immunogenicity, and potential therapeutic targets.

Some common experimental arthritis models include:

1. Collagen-induced arthritis (CIA): This model is induced in mice by immunizing them with type II collagen, which leads to an autoimmune response and inflammation in the joints.
2. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) models: These models are developed by transferring cells from RA patients into immunodeficient mice, which then develop arthritis-like symptoms.
3. Osteoarthritis (OA) models: These models are induced in animals by subjecting them to joint injury or overuse, which leads to degenerative changes in the joints and bone.
4. Psoriatic arthritis (PsA) models: These models are developed by inducing psoriasis in mice, which then develop arthritis-like symptoms.

Experimental arthritis models have contributed significantly to our understanding of the disease and have helped to identify potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of arthritis. However, it is important to note that these models are not perfect representations of human arthritis and should be used as tools to complement, rather than replace, human clinical trials.

The term "acute-phase" describes the rapid onset and short duration of this reaction, which typically lasts for hours to days before resolving as the body's inflammatory response subsides. APR is characterized by a series of molecular events that result in altered expression of genes involved in inflammation, immune response, and tissue repair.

Some key components of an acute-phase reaction include:

1. Cytokine production: Cytokines are signaling molecules released by immune cells, such as white blood cells, that coordinate the immune response. During an APR, cytokine levels increase, triggering a cascade of downstream effects.
2. Leukocyte trafficking: White blood cells migrate towards sites of inflammation or infection, where they phagocytose (engulf and digest) pathogens and cellular debris. This process helps to limit the spread of infection and initiate tissue repair.
3. Coagulation cascade: The APR triggers a complex series of events involving blood coagulation factors, leading to the formation of blood clots and preventing excessive bleeding.
4. Anti-inflammatory response: As the APR progresses, anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-10 (IL-10), are produced to dampen the inflammatory response and promote tissue repair.
5. Cellular proliferation: To replace damaged cells and tissues, the APR stimulates cellular proliferation and tissue regeneration.
6. Nutrient mobilization: The APR enhances nutrient uptake and utilization by immune cells, allowing them to mount an effective response to the stress.
7. Hormonal changes: The APR is accompanied by changes in hormone levels, such as the increase in corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and cortisol, which help to mobilize energy resources and regulate metabolism.
8. Immune tolerance: The APR helps to establish immune tolerance, preventing excessive or inappropriate immune responses that can lead to autoimmune diseases or allergies.
9. Tissue remodeling: The APR stimulates the remodeling of damaged tissues, allowing for the restoration of normal tissue function.
10. Memory formation: The APR sets the stage for the formation of immunological memory, which enables the immune system to mount a more effective response to future infections or stressors.

The symptoms of LCM can vary depending on the severity of the infection, but they typically include fever, headache, neck stiffness, and sensitivity to light. In severe cases, LCM can cause meningitis, encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), and even death.

The diagnosis of LCM is based on a combination of clinical symptoms, laboratory tests, and imaging studies such as MRI or CT scans. Laboratory tests may include blood tests to detect the presence of antibodies against the virus, as well as tests to assess liver function and other organ systems.

Treatment of LCM typically involves supportive care, such as intravenous fluids, oxygen therapy, and pain management. Antiviral medications may also be used in some cases. In severe cases, hospitalization may be required to monitor and treat the patient.

Prevention of LCM primarily involves avoiding contact with infected rodents, particularly during pregnancy and childhood when the risk of infection is higher. Good hygiene practices, such as frequent handwashing, can also help reduce the risk of transmission. Vaccines are not available for LCM, but research is ongoing to develop one.

The prognosis for LCM varies depending on the severity of the infection and the promptness and effectiveness of treatment. In general, the outcome is good for patients with mild symptoms, but those with severe infections may experience long-term neurological problems or death.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative condition that occurs when the cartilage that cushions the joints breaks down over time, causing the bones to rub together. It is the most common form of arthritis and typically affects older adults.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune condition that occurs when the body's immune system attacks the lining of the joints, leading to inflammation and pain. It can affect anyone, regardless of age, and is typically seen in women.

Other types of arthritis include psoriatic arthritis, gouty arthritis, and lupus-related arthritis. Treatment for arthritis depends on the type and severity of the condition, but can include medications such as pain relievers, anti-inflammatory drugs, and disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs). Physical therapy and lifestyle changes, such as exercise and weight loss, can also be helpful. In severe cases, surgery may be necessary to repair or replace damaged joints.

Arthritis is a leading cause of disability worldwide, affecting over 50 million adults in the United States alone. It can have a significant impact on a person's quality of life, making everyday activities such as walking, dressing, and grooming difficult and painful. Early diagnosis and treatment are important to help manage symptoms and slow the progression of the disease.

There are several types of skin neoplasms, including:

1. Basal cell carcinoma (BCC): This is the most common type of skin cancer, and it usually appears as a small, fleshy bump or a flat, scaly patch. BCC is highly treatable, but if left untreated, it can grow and invade surrounding tissue.
2. Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC): This type of skin cancer is less common than BCC but more aggressive. It typically appears as a firm, flat, or raised bump on sun-exposed areas. SCC can spread to other parts of the body if left untreated.
3. Melanoma: This is the most serious type of skin cancer, accounting for only 1% of all skin neoplasms but responsible for the majority of skin cancer deaths. Melanoma can appear as a new or changing mole, and it's essential to recognize the ABCDE signs (Asymmetry, Border irregularity, Color variation, Diameter >6mm, Evolving size, shape, or color) to detect it early.
4. Sebaceous gland carcinoma: This rare type of skin cancer originates in the oil-producing glands of the skin and can appear as a firm, painless nodule on the forehead, nose, or other oily areas.
5. Merkel cell carcinoma: This is a rare and aggressive skin cancer that typically appears as a firm, shiny bump on the skin. It's more common in older adults and those with a history of sun exposure.
6. Cutaneous lymphoma: This type of cancer affects the immune system and can appear as a rash, nodules, or tumors on the skin.
7. Kaposi sarcoma: This is a rare type of skin cancer that affects people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS. It typically appears as a flat, red or purple lesion on the skin.

While skin cancers are generally curable when detected early, it's important to be aware of your skin and notice any changes or unusual spots, especially if you have a history of sun exposure or other risk factors. If you suspect anything suspicious, see a dermatologist for an evaluation and potential biopsy. Remember, prevention is key to avoiding the harmful effects of UV radiation and reducing your risk of developing skin cancer.

There are several types of lymphoma, including:

1. Hodgkin lymphoma: This is a type of lymphoma that originates in the white blood cells called Reed-Sternberg cells. It is characterized by the presence of giant cells with multiple nucleoli.
2. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL): This is a type of lymphoma that does not meet the criteria for Hodgkin lymphoma. There are many subtypes of NHL, each with its own unique characteristics and behaviors.
3. Cutaneous lymphoma: This type of lymphoma affects the skin and can take several forms, including cutaneous B-cell lymphoma and cutaneous T-cell lymphoma.
4. Primary central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma: This is a rare type of lymphoma that develops in the brain or spinal cord.
5. Post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD): This is a type of lymphoma that develops in people who have undergone an organ transplant, often as a result of immunosuppressive therapy.

The symptoms of lymphoma can vary depending on the type and location of the cancer. Some common symptoms include:

* Swollen lymph nodes
* Fever
* Fatigue
* Weight loss
* Night sweats
* Itching

Lymphoma is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, imaging tests (such as CT scans or PET scans), and biopsies. Treatment options for lymphoma depend on the type and stage of the cancer, and may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, or stem cell transplantation.

Overall, lymphoma is a complex and diverse group of cancers that can affect people of all ages and backgrounds. While it can be challenging to diagnose and treat, advances in medical technology and research have improved the outlook for many patients with lymphoma.

There are several different types of tumor viruses, including:

1. Human papillomavirus (HPV): This virus is responsible for causing cervical cancer and other types of cancer, such as anal, vulvar, vaginal, and penile cancer.
2. Hepatitis B virus (HBV): This virus can cause liver cancer, known as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).
3. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): This virus can increase the risk of developing certain types of cancer, such as Kaposi's sarcoma and lymphoma.
4. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV): This virus has been linked to the development of Burkitt lymphoma and Hodgkin's lymphoma.
5. Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV): This virus is responsible for causing Merkel cell carcinoma, a rare type of skin cancer.
6. Human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV-1): This virus has been linked to the development of adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL).

Tumor virus infections can be diagnosed through a variety of methods, including blood tests, imaging studies, and biopsies. Treatment for these infections often involves antiviral medications, chemotherapy, and surgery. In some cases, tumors may also be removed through radiation therapy.

It's important to note that not all tumors or cancers are caused by viruses, and that many other factors, such as genetics and environmental exposures, can also play a role in the development of cancer. However, for those tumor virus infections that are caused by a specific virus, early diagnosis and treatment can improve outcomes and reduce the risk of complications.

Overall, tumor virus infections are a complex and diverse group of conditions, and further research is needed to better understand their causes and develop effective treatments.

Crohn disease can occur in any part of the GI tract, from the mouth to the anus, but it most commonly affects the ileum (the last portion of the small intestine) and the colon. The inflammation caused by Crohn disease can lead to the formation of scar tissue, which can cause narrowing or blockages in the intestines. This can lead to complications such as bowel obstruction or abscesses.

The exact cause of Crohn disease is not known, but it is believed to be an autoimmune disorder, meaning that the immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue in the GI tract. Genetic factors and environmental triggers such as smoking and diet also play a role in the development of the disease.

There is no cure for Crohn disease, but various treatments can help manage symptoms and prevent complications. These may include medications such as anti-inflammatory drugs, immunosuppressants, and biologics, as well as lifestyle changes such as dietary modifications and stress management techniques. In severe cases, surgery may be necessary to remove damaged portions of the GI tract.

Crohn disease can have a significant impact on quality of life, and it is important for individuals with the condition to work closely with their healthcare provider to manage their symptoms and prevent complications. With proper treatment and self-care, many people with Crohn disease are able to lead active and fulfilling lives.

The term "Salmonella Infections, Animal" is used to distinguish these infections from Salmonella infections that are caused by contaminated food or water, which are referred to as "Salmonella Infections, Human."

Symptoms of pneumonia may include cough, fever, chills, difficulty breathing, and chest pain. In severe cases, pneumonia can lead to respiratory failure, sepsis, and even death.

There are several types of pneumonia, including:

1. Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP): This type of pneumonia is caused by bacteria or viruses and typically affects healthy people outside of hospitals.
2. Hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP): This type of pneumonia is caused by bacteria or fungi and typically affects people who are hospitalized for other illnesses or injuries.
3. Aspiration pneumonia: This type of pneumonia is caused by food, liquids, or other foreign matter being inhaled into the lungs.
4. Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP): This type of pneumonia is caused by a fungus and typically affects people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS.
5. Viral pneumonia: This type of pneumonia is caused by viruses and can be more common in children and young adults.

Pneumonia is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as chest X-rays or blood tests. Treatment may involve antibiotics, oxygen therapy, and supportive care to manage symptoms and help the patient recover. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to provide more intensive care and monitoring.

Prevention of pneumonia includes vaccination against certain types of bacteria and viruses, good hygiene practices such as frequent handwashing, and avoiding close contact with people who are sick. Early detection and treatment can help reduce the risk of complications and improve outcomes for those affected by pneumonia.

Encephalitis can cause a range of symptoms, including fever, headache, confusion, seizures, and loss of consciousness. In severe cases, encephalitis can lead to brain damage, coma, and even death.

The diagnosis of encephalitis is based on a combination of clinical signs, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Laboratory tests may include blood tests to detect the presence of antibodies or antigens specific to the causative agent, as well as cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis to look for inflammatory markers and/or bacteria or viruses in the CSF. Imaging studies, such as CT or MRI scans, may be used to visualize the brain and identify any areas of damage or inflammation.

Treatment of encephalitis typically involves supportive care, such as intravenous fluids, oxygen therapy, and medication to manage fever and pain. Antiviral or antibacterial drugs may be used to target the specific causative agent, if identified. In severe cases, hospitalization in an intensive care unit (ICU) may be necessary to monitor and manage the patient's condition.

Prevention of encephalitis includes vaccination against certain viruses that can cause the condition, such as herpes simplex virus and Japanese encephalitis virus. Additionally, avoiding exposure to mosquitoes and other insects that can transmit viruses or bacteria that cause encephalitis, as well as practicing good hygiene and sanitation, can help reduce the risk of infection.

Overall, encephalitis is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition that requires prompt medical attention for proper diagnosis and treatment. With appropriate care, many patients with encephalitis can recover fully or partially, but some may experience long-term neurological complications or disability.

Nephritis is often diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as urinalysis and blood tests. Treatment for nephritis depends on the underlying cause, but may include antibiotics, corticosteroids, and immunosuppressive medications. In severe cases, dialysis may be necessary to remove waste products from the blood.

Some common types of nephritis include:

1. Acute pyelonephritis: This is a type of bacterial infection that affects the kidneys and can cause sudden and severe symptoms.
2. Chronic pyelonephritis: This is a type of inflammation that occurs over a longer period of time, often as a result of recurrent infections or other underlying conditions.
3. Lupus nephritis: This is a type of inflammation that occurs in people with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), an autoimmune disorder that can affect multiple organs.
4. IgA nephropathy: This is a type of inflammation that occurs when an antibody called immunoglobulin A (IgA) deposits in the kidneys and causes damage.
5. Mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis: This is a type of inflammation that affects the mesangium, a layer of tissue in the kidney that helps to filter waste products from the blood.
6. Minimal change disease: This is a type of nephrotic syndrome (a group of symptoms that include proteinuria, or excess protein in the urine) that is caused by inflammation and changes in the glomeruli, the tiny blood vessels in the kidneys that filter waste products from the blood.
7. Membranous nephropathy: This is a type of inflammation that occurs when there is an abnormal buildup of antibodies called immunoglobulin G (IgG) in the glomeruli, leading to damage to the kidneys.
8. Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis: This is a type of inflammation that affects one or more segments of the glomeruli, leading to scarring and loss of function.
9. Post-infectious glomerulonephritis: This is a type of inflammation that occurs after an infection, such as streptococcal infections, and can cause damage to the kidneys.
10. Acute tubular necrosis (ATN): This is a type of inflammation that occurs when there is a sudden loss of blood flow to the kidneys, causing damage to the tubules, which are tiny tubes in the kidneys that help to filter waste products from the blood.

Some common autoimmune diseases of the nervous system include:

1. Multiple sclerosis (MS): A chronic condition that affects the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves, causing a range of symptoms including numbness, weakness, and vision problems.
2. Neuromyelitis optica (NMO): A rare condition that causes inflammation in the optic nerves and spinal cord, leading to vision loss and muscle weakness.
3. Guillain-Barré syndrome: A rare autoimmune disorder that causes muscle weakness and paralysis, often after a viral infection.
4. Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP): A chronic condition that affects the peripheral nerves, causing numbness, weakness, and pain in the hands and feet.
5. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM): A rare condition that causes inflammation in the brain and spinal cord, leading to a range of symptoms including fever, headache, and muscle weakness.

The exact cause of autoimmune diseases of the nervous system is not fully understood, but they are believed to be triggered by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Treatment options vary depending on the specific condition, but may include medications to reduce inflammation and modulate the immune system, as well as physical therapy and lifestyle modifications.

Asthma can cause recurring episodes of wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath. These symptoms occur when the muscles surrounding the airways contract, causing the airways to narrow and swell. This can be triggered by exposure to environmental allergens or irritants such as pollen, dust mites, pet dander, or respiratory infections.

There is no cure for asthma, but it can be managed with medication and lifestyle changes. Treatment typically includes inhaled corticosteroids to reduce inflammation, bronchodilators to open up the airways, and rescue medications to relieve symptoms during an asthma attack.

Asthma is a common condition that affects people of all ages, but it is most commonly diagnosed in children. According to the American Lung Association, more than 25 million Americans have asthma, and it is the third leading cause of hospitalization for children under the age of 18.

While there is no cure for asthma, early diagnosis and proper treatment can help manage symptoms and improve quality of life for those affected by the condition.

The common types of RTIs include:

1. Common cold: A viral infection that affects the upper respiratory tract, causing symptoms such as runny nose, sneezing, coughing, and mild fever.
2. Influenza (flu): A viral infection that can affect both the upper and lower respiratory tract, causing symptoms such as fever, cough, sore throat, and body aches.
3. Bronchitis: An inflammation of the bronchial tubes, which can be caused by viruses or bacteria, resulting in symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath.
4. Pneumonia: An infection of the lungs that can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi, leading to symptoms such as fever, chills, coughing, and difficulty breathing.
5. Tonsillitis: An inflammation of the tonsils, which can be caused by bacteria or viruses, resulting in symptoms such as sore throat, difficulty swallowing, and bad breath.
6. Sinusitis: An inflammation of the sinuses, which can be caused by viruses, bacteria, or fungi, leading to symptoms such as headache, facial pain, and nasal congestion.
7. Laryngitis: An inflammation of the larynx (voice box), which can be caused by viruses or bacteria, resulting in symptoms such as hoarseness, loss of voice, and difficulty speaking.

RTIs can be diagnosed through physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as chest X-rays, blood tests, and nasal swab cultures. Treatment for RTIs depends on the underlying cause and may include antibiotics, antiviral medications, and supportive care to manage symptoms.

It's important to note that RTIs can be contagious and can spread through contact with an infected person or by touching contaminated surfaces. Therefore, it's essential to practice good hygiene, such as washing hands frequently, covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, and avoiding close contact with people who are sick.

Also known as eczema or atopic eczema.

Dermatitis, Atopic is a common condition that affects people of all ages but is most prevalent in children. It is often associated with other atopic conditions such as asthma and allergies. The exact cause of dermatitis, atopic is not known, but it is thought to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors.

Symptoms of Dermatitis, Atopic:

* Redness and dryness of the skin
* Scaling and flaking of the skin
* Itching and burning sensations
* Thickening and pigmentation of the skin
* Small blisters or weeping sores

Atopic dermatitis can occur anywhere on the body but is most commonly found on the face, neck, hands, and feet.

Treatment for Dermatitis, Atopic:

* Moisturizers to keep the skin hydrated and reduce dryness
* Topical corticosteroids to reduce inflammation
* Antihistamines to relieve itching
* Phototherapy with ultraviolet light
* Oral immunomodulators for severe cases

It is important to note that dermatitis, atopic is a chronic condition, and treatment should be ongoing. Flare-ups may occur, and adjustments to the treatment plan may be necessary.

Prevention of Dermatitis, Atopic:

* Avoiding triggers such as soaps, detergents, and stress
* Keeping the skin well-moisturized
* Avoiding extreme temperatures and humidity
* Wearing soft, breathable clothing
* Using mild cleansers and avoiding harsh chemicals

Early diagnosis and treatment of dermatitis, atopic can help improve the quality of life for those affected. It is important to work with a healthcare professional to develop an appropriate treatment plan and manage symptoms effectively.

Body weight is an important health indicator, as it can affect an individual's risk for certain medical conditions, such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Maintaining a healthy body weight is essential for overall health and well-being, and there are many ways to do so, including a balanced diet, regular exercise, and other lifestyle changes.

There are several ways to measure body weight, including:

1. Scale: This is the most common method of measuring body weight, and it involves standing on a scale that displays the individual's weight in kg or lb.
2. Body fat calipers: These are used to measure body fat percentage by pinching the skin at specific points on the body.
3. Skinfold measurements: This method involves measuring the thickness of the skin folds at specific points on the body to estimate body fat percentage.
4. Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA): This is a non-invasive method that uses electrical impulses to measure body fat percentage.
5. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA): This is a more accurate method of measuring body composition, including bone density and body fat percentage.

It's important to note that body weight can fluctuate throughout the day due to factors such as water retention, so it's best to measure body weight at the same time each day for the most accurate results. Additionally, it's important to use a reliable scale or measuring tool to ensure accurate measurements.

Strongylidae is a family of parasitic nematodes that includes several genera, such as Strongyloides, Ollulanus, and Habronema. These nematodes have a worldwide distribution and can infect a wide range of animals, including humans, cattle, sheep, goats, and horses.

Infection with strongyles can occur through the ingestion of contaminated food or water, or through direct contact with infected animals or their feces. The parasites migrate to the intestines, where they feed on the host's blood and tissues, causing a range of symptoms.

The most common species of strongyles to infect humans are S. stercoralis and S. fuellebornii. Infection with these parasites can lead to a condition known as strongyloidiasis, which can cause a range of symptoms, including:

* Diarrhea
* Weight loss
* Anemia
* Poor appetite
* Abdominal pain
* Fatigue

Strongyloidiasis is typically diagnosed through the detection of parasite eggs in stool samples or through the use of serological tests. Treatment typically involves the use of anthelmintic drugs, which can kill the parasites and alleviate symptoms.

Preventive measures against strongyles include:

* Avoiding contact with infected animals or their feces
* Properly cooking meat before consumption
* Avoiding consumption of raw or undercooked meat
* Maintaining good personal hygiene
* Using clean water and sanitation facilities.

There are several types of hepatitis C, including genotype 1, which is the most common and accounts for approximately 70% of cases in the United States. Other genotypes include 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The symptoms of hepatitis C can range from mild to severe and may include fatigue, fever, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, joint pain, jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), dark urine, pale stools, and itching all over the body. Some people with hepatitis C may not experience any symptoms at all.

Hepatitis C is diagnosed through a combination of blood tests that detect the presence of antibodies against HCV or the virus itself. Treatment typically involves a combination of medications, including interferon and ribavirin, which can cure the infection but may have side effects such as fatigue, nausea, and depression. In recent years, new drugs known as direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) have become available, which can cure the infection with fewer side effects and in a shorter period of time.

Prevention measures for hepatitis C include avoiding sharing needles or other drug paraphernalia, using condoms to prevent sexual transmission, and ensuring that any tattoos or piercings are performed with sterilized equipment. Vaccines are also available for people who are at high risk of contracting the virus, such as healthcare workers and individuals who engage in high-risk behaviors.

Overall, hepatitis C is a serious and common liver disease that can lead to significant health complications if left untreated. Fortunately, with advances in medical technology and treatment options, it is possible to manage and cure the virus with proper care and attention.

Shock refers to a severe and sudden drop in blood pressure, which can lead to inadequate perfusion of vital organs such as the brain, heart, and lungs. There are several types of shock, including hypovolemic shock (caused by bleeding or dehydration), septic shock (caused by an overwhelming bacterial infection), and cardiogenic shock (caused by a heart attack or other cardiac condition).

Septic refers to the presence of bacteria or other microorganisms in the bloodstream, which can cause a range of symptoms including fever, chills, and confusion. Sepsis is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition that can lead to organ failure and death if left untreated.

Septic shock is a specific type of shock that occurs as a result of sepsis, which is the body's systemic inflammatory response to an infection. Septic shock is characterized by severe vasopressor (a medication used to increase blood pressure) and hypotension (low blood pressure), and it can lead to multiple organ failure and death if not treated promptly and effectively.

In summary, shock refers to a drop in blood pressure, while septic refers to the presence of bacteria or other microorganisms in the bloodstream. Septic shock is a specific type of shock that occurs as a result of sepsis, and it can be a life-threatening condition if not treated promptly and effectively.

People with agammaglobulinemia are more susceptible to infections, particularly those caused by encapsulated bacteria, such as Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae type b. They may also experience recurrent sinopulmonary infections, ear infections, and gastrointestinal infections. The disorder can be managed with intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) therapy, which provides antibodies to help prevent infections. In severe cases, a bone marrow transplant may be necessary.

Agammaglobulinemia is an autosomal recessive disorder, meaning that a person must inherit two mutated copies of the BTK gene (one from each parent) to develop the condition. It is relatively rare, affecting approximately one in 1 million people worldwide. The disorder can be diagnosed through genetic testing and a complete blood count (CBC) that shows low levels of immunoglobulins.

Treatment for ag

Symptoms of influenza include:

* Fever (usually high)
* Cough
* Sore throat
* Runny or stuffy nose
* Headache
* Muscle or body aches
* Fatigue (tiredness)
* Diarrhea and nausea (more common in children than adults)

Influenza can lead to serious complications, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and sinus and ear infections. These complications are more likely to occur in people who have a weakened immune system, such as the elderly, young children, and people with certain chronic health conditions (like heart disease, diabetes, and lung disease).

Influenza is diagnosed based on a physical examination and medical history. A healthcare provider may also use a rapid influenza test (RIT) or a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test to confirm the diagnosis.

Treatment for influenza typically involves rest, hydration, and over-the-counter medications such as acetaminophen (Tylenol) or ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin) to relieve fever and body aches. Antiviral medications, such as oseltamivir (Tamiflu) or zanamivir (Relenza), may also be prescribed to help shorten the duration and severity of the illness. However, these medications are most effective when started within 48 hours of the onset of symptoms.

Prevention is key in avoiding influenza. Vaccination is the most effective way to prevent influenza, as well as practicing good hygiene such as washing your hands frequently, avoiding close contact with people who are sick, and staying home when you are sick.

The symptoms of Arenaviridae infections can vary depending on the specific virus causing the infection, but they may include:

* Fever
* Headache
* Muscle pain
* Joint pain
* Sore throat
* Swollen lymph nodes
* Rash
* Seizures
* Meningitis
* Encephalitis (inflammation of the brain)

Some Arenaviridae infections can be transmitted to humans through contact with infected rodents or other animals, while others are spread by blood transfusions or organ transplantation. There is no specific treatment for Arenaviridae infections, and treatment is primarily focused on relieving symptoms and managing complications.

Examples of Arenaviridae infections include:

* Lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCMV)
* Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE)
* Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE)
* Western equine encephalitis (WEE)
* Sabia virus infection

It's important to note that Arenaviridae infections can be severe and potentially life-threatening, so if you suspect you or someone else may have been infected, it's important to seek medical attention immediately.

A parasitic disease caused by a protozoan of the genus Leishmania, which is transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected sandfly. The most common form of the disease is characterized by skin lesions, which may be painful and disfiguring.

Other forms of leishmaniasis include:

1. Visceral leishmaniasis (kala-azar): A severe and potentially fatal form of the disease that affects several internal organs, including the spleen, liver, and bone marrow.
2. Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis: A form of the disease characterized by skin lesions and mucosal involvement, such as nose ulcers and mouth sores.
3. Diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis: A form of the disease characterized by widespread skin involvement, often with a diffuse, papular rash.
4. Recidivans leishmaniasis: A form of the disease characterized by repeated episodes of skin lesions, often triggered by exposure to sandflies.

Symptoms of cutaneous leishmaniasis may include:

* Skin lesions, which may be painful and disfiguring
* Swelling of the affected limb
* Fever
* Fatigue
* Weight loss

Diagnosis is made by identifying the parasite in a skin scraping or biopsy specimen. Treatment typically involves antiparasitic medications, such as pentavalent antimonials or amphotericin B.

Preventive measures include avoiding sandfly bites, wearing protective clothing and insect repellents, and using screens on windows and doors to prevent sandflies from entering homes.

Respiratory hypersensitivity can be diagnosed through medical history, physical examination, and allergy testing. Treatment options include avoidance of allergens, medication, such as antihistamines or corticosteroids, and immunotherapy, which involves exposing the person to small amounts of the allergen over time to build up their tolerance.

Some people with respiratory hypersensitivity may experience more severe symptoms, such as asthma, which can be life-threatening if left untreated. It is important for individuals with respiratory hypersensitivity to work closely with their healthcare provider to manage their condition and prevent complications.

The term splenomegaly is used to describe any condition that results in an increase in the size of the spleen, regardless of the underlying cause. This can be caused by a variety of factors, such as infection, inflammation, cancer, or genetic disorders.

Splenomegaly can be diagnosed through a physical examination, where the doctor may feel the enlarged spleen during an abdominal palpation. Imaging tests, such as ultrasound, computed tomography (CT) scans, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), may also be used to confirm the diagnosis and evaluate the extent of the splenomegaly.

Treatment for splenomegaly depends on the underlying cause. For example, infections such as malaria or mononucleosis are treated with antibiotics, while cancerous conditions may require surgical intervention or chemotherapy. In some cases, the spleen may need to be removed, a procedure known as splenectomy.

In conclusion, splenomegaly is an abnormal enlargement of the spleen that can be caused by various factors and requires prompt medical attention for proper diagnosis and treatment.

The Arthus reaction is named after French physician Louis-Jean-Baptiste Arthus, who first described the phenomenon in 1890. It is commonly seen in conditions such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and other autoimmune disorders.

The reaction occurs when antibodies bind to antigens, such as proteins or cells, on the surface of tissues. The binding of antibodies to antigens can activate complement proteins, which are a group of proteins that work together to destroy pathogens. In the case of the Arthus reaction, the activation of complement proteins leads to the formation of a membrane attack complex (MAC), which is composed of various proteins and can cause damage to tissues.

The Arthus reaction can cause a range of symptoms, including joint pain, swelling, and warmth, as well as fever and fatigue. In severe cases, it can lead to permanent joint damage and disability. Treatment options for the Arthus reaction include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, and immunosuppressive medications.

In summary, the Arthus reaction is an allergic response that occurs when antibodies bind to antigens and form immune complexes, leading to inflammation and tissue damage. It is commonly seen in autoimmune disorders such as systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis, and can cause a range of symptoms including joint pain and swelling, fever, and fatigue. Treatment options include NSAIDs, corticosteroids, and immunosuppressive medications.

Pulmonary tuberculosis typically affects the lungs but can also spread to other parts of the body, such as the brain, kidneys, or spine. The symptoms of pulmonary TB include coughing for more than three weeks, chest pain, fatigue, fever, night sweats, and weight loss.

Pulmonary tuberculosis is diagnosed by a combination of physical examination, medical history, laboratory tests, and radiologic imaging, such as chest X-rays or computed tomography (CT) scans. Treatment for pulmonary TB usually involves a combination of antibiotics and medications to manage symptoms.

Preventive measures for pulmonary tuberculosis include screening for latent TB infection in high-risk populations, such as healthcare workers and individuals with HIV/AIDS, and vaccination with the bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine in countries where it is available.

Overall, pulmonary tuberculosis is a serious and potentially life-threatening disease that requires prompt diagnosis and treatment to prevent complications and death.

The most common types of helminthiasis include:

1. Ascariasis: caused by the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides, this is one of the most common intestinal parasitic infections worldwide. Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, and weight loss.
2. Trichuriasis: caused by the whipworm Trichuris trichiura, this infection can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, and rectal bleeding.
3. Hookworm infection: caused by the hookworm Ancylostoma duodenale or Necator americanus, this infection can cause symptoms such as anemia, abdominal pain, and diarrhea.
4. Strongyloidiasis: caused by the threadworm Strongyloides stercoralis, this infection can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, and skin rashes.
5. Filariasis: caused by the filarial worms Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, and Loa loa, this infection can cause symptoms such as swelling of the limbs, scrotum, and breasts, as well as skin rashes and fever.

Diagnosis of helminthiasis typically involves a physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as stool samples or blood tests to detect the presence of parasites or their eggs. Treatment usually involves antiparasitic drugs, and in some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove worms that have migrated to other parts of the body. Prevention measures include improving sanitation and hygiene, wearing protective clothing when working or traveling in areas with high prevalence of helminthiasis, and using insecticides to prevent mosquito bites.

In conclusion, helminthiasis is a group of diseases caused by parasitic worms that can affect humans and other animals. The most common types of helminthiasis include ascariasis, trichuriasis, hookworm infection, strongyloidiasis, and filariasis. Diagnosis and treatment involve laboratory tests and antiparasitic drugs, respectively. Prevention measures include improving sanitation and hygiene, wearing protective clothing, and using insecticides. Understanding the causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of helminthiasis is essential for effective control and management of these diseases.

1. Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS): This is a severe respiratory disease caused by the hantavirus, which is found in the urine and saliva of infected rodents. Symptoms of HPS can include fever, headache, muscle pain, and difficulty breathing.
2. Leptospirosis: This is a bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Leptospira, which is found in the urine of infected rodents. Symptoms can include fever, headache, muscle pain, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes).
3. Rat-bite fever: This is a bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Streptobacillus moniliformis, which is found in the saliva of infected rodents. Symptoms can include fever, headache, muscle pain, and swollen lymph nodes.
4. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM): This is a viral infection caused by the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), which is found in the urine and saliva of infected rodents. Symptoms can include fever, headache, muscle pain, and meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord).
5. Tularemia: This is a bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Francisella tularensis, which is found in the urine and saliva of infected rodents. Symptoms can include fever, headache, muscle pain, and swollen lymph nodes.

These are just a few examples of the many diseases that can be transmitted to humans through contact with rodents. It is important to take precautions when handling or removing rodents, as they can pose a serious health risk. If you suspect that you have been exposed to a rodent-borne disease, it is important to seek medical attention as soon as possible.

The infection occurs when the parasitic worm enters the body through the skin, usually during contact with infected water. The schistosomes migrate to the liver and intestines, where they cause inflammation and damage to the host tissues.

Symptoms of schistosomiasis mansoni can include abdominal pain, diarrhea, fatigue, and weight loss. If left untreated, it can lead to serious complications such as anemia, liver and kidney damage, and even death.

Diagnosis is based on the presence of schistosome eggs in the urine or stool, and treatment typically involves a combination of antiparasitic drugs and supportive care to manage symptoms. Prevention measures include avoiding contact with contaminated water and using snail-killing agents to reduce the number of intermediate hosts.

Examples of 'Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental' in a sentence:

1. The researchers studied the effects of hormone therapy on mammary neoplasms in experimental animals to better understand its potential role in human breast cancer.
2. The lab used mice with genetic mutations that predispose them to developing mammary neoplasms to test the efficacy of new cancer drugs.
3. In order to investigate the link between obesity and breast cancer, the researchers conducted experiments on mammary neoplasms in rats with diet-induced obesity.

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) typically causes cold sores or fever blisters that appear on the lips, mouth, or nose. While herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) is responsible for genital herpes which affects the genital area, buttocks, and anal area.

The infection can be spread through direct contact with an infected person's saliva, mucus, or skin, even if there are no visible sores present. Symptoms of herpes simplex may include itching, burning, tingling, redness, and small blisters that burst and ooze fluid.

There is no cure for herpes simplex, but medications can help manage symptoms and shorten the duration of an outbreak. Antiviral drugs such as acyclovir, famciclovir, and valacyclovir are commonly used to treat herpes simplex.

The symptoms of cryptococcosis vary depending on the location and severity of the infection. In lung infections, patients may experience fever, cough, chest pain, and difficulty breathing. In CNS infections, patients may experience headaches, confusion, seizures, and loss of coordination. Skin infections can cause skin lesions, and eye infections can cause vision problems.

Cryptococcosis is diagnosed by culturing the fungus from body fluids or tissue samples. Treatment typically involves antifungal medications, such as amphotericin B or fluconazole, which may be given intravenously or orally, depending on the severity and location of the infection. In severe cases, surgery may be required to remove infected tissue or repair damaged organs.

Preventive measures for cryptococcosis include avoiding exposure to fungal spores, practicing good hygiene, and maintaining a healthy immune system. For individuals with HIV/AIDS, antiretroviral therapy can help reduce the risk of developing cryptococcosis.

Overall, while rare, cryptococcosis is a serious opportunistic infection that can affect individuals with compromised immune systems. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment are essential to prevent complications and improve outcomes.

The symptoms of toxoplasmosis can vary depending on the severity of the infection and the individual's overall health. In some cases, it may cause mild flu-like symptoms or no symptoms at all. However, in severe cases, it can lead to complications such as brain inflammation, eye infections, and pneumonia.

Toxoplasmosis is a significant public health concern due to its potential to affect anyone and its ability to cause serious complications, especially in certain populations such as pregnant women, people with weakened immune systems, and the elderly. It is important for individuals who may be at risk of contracting the disease to take preventive measures such as avoiding undercooked meat, washing hands frequently, and avoiding contact with cat feces.

Diagnosis of toxoplasmosis typically involves a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Laboratory tests may include blood tests or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect the parasite's DNA in the body. Imaging studies such as ultrasound or computerized tomography (CT) scans may be used to evaluate any complications of the disease.

Treatment for toxoplasmosis typically involves antibiotics to control the infection and manage symptoms. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and treat any complications. Prevention is key to avoiding this disease, as there is no vaccine available to protect against it.

Nematode infections are parasitic infections caused by nematodes, a type of worm. Nematodes are helminths, which are parasites that infect the body and feed on its tissues and fluids. There are several types of nematode infections, including:

1. Ascariasis: This is an infection caused by the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides. It is one of the most common intestinal parasitic infections in the world and can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, and weight loss.
2. Trichinellosis: This is an infection caused by the parasite Trichinella. It can be transmitted through the consumption of undercooked meat, particularly pork or wild game. Symptoms include fever, muscle pain, and diarrhea.
3. Strongyloidiasis: This is an infection caused by the roundworm Strongyloides. It can affect people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. Symptoms include diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fatigue.
4. Hookworm infection: This is an infection caused by the hookworm Ancylostoma duodenale. It can be transmitted through contact with contaminated feces or soil. Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, and anemia.
5. Trichuriasis: This is an infection caused by the whipworm Trichuris trichiura. It can affect people of all ages and can cause symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, and weight loss.

Nematode infections can be diagnosed through a variety of tests, including stool samples, blood tests, and imaging studies. Treatment depends on the type of infection and may involve medication to kill the parasites, as well as supportive care to manage symptoms. Prevention includes avoiding exposure to contaminated food and water, practicing good hygiene, and using insecticides to control the spread of hookworms.

Overall, nematode infections can have a significant impact on human health, especially in areas with poor sanitation and hygiene. It is important to be aware of these infections and seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

The term "serum sickness" was first used in the late 19th century to describe this condition, which was often seen in people who had received serum (a type of blood product) containing antibodies against diseases such as diphtheria or tetanus. Today, the term is still used to describe similar reactions to other substances, including medications and vaccines.

Serum sickness can be mild or severe, and in rare cases, it can lead to serious complications such as kidney failure or inflammation of the heart. Treatment typically involves stopping the use of the offending substance and providing supportive care to manage symptoms. In severe cases, corticosteroids or other medications may be used to reduce inflammation.

While serum sickness is a relatively rare condition, it is important for healthcare providers to be aware of it as a potential complication of medication and vaccine use. This knowledge can help them recognize and manage the condition effectively, reducing the risk of serious complications and improving outcomes for patients.

Some common types of fish diseases include:

1. Bacterial infections: These are caused by bacteria such as Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, and Mycobacterium. Symptoms can include fin and tail rot, body slime, and ulcers.
2. Viral infections: These are caused by viruses such as viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS) and infectious hematopoietic necrosis (IHN). Symptoms can include lethargy, loss of appetite, and rapid death.
3. Protozoan infections: These are caused by protozoa such as Cryptocaryon and Ichthyophonus. Symptoms can include flashing, rapid breathing, and white spots on the body.
4. Fungal infections: These are caused by fungi such as Saprolegnia and Achlya. Symptoms can include fuzzy growths on the body and fins, and sluggish behavior.
5. Parasitic infections: These are caused by parasites such as Ichthyophonus and Cryptocaryon. Symptoms can include flashing, rapid breathing, and white spots on the body.

Diagnosis of fish diseases is typically made through a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and observation of the fish's behavior and environment. Treatment options vary depending on the type of disease and the severity of symptoms, and can include antibiotics, antifungals, and medicated baths. Prevention is key in managing fish diseases, and this includes maintaining good water quality, providing a balanced diet, and keeping the fish in a healthy environment.

Note: The information provided is a general overview of common fish diseases and their symptoms, and should not be considered as professional medical advice. If you suspect your fish has a disease, it is recommended that you consult with a veterinarian or a qualified aquarium expert for proper diagnosis and treatment.

The exact cause of vitiligo is still unknown, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors. In people with vitiligo, the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys melanocytes, leading to a loss of skin pigmentation. The disease can also be triggered by physical or emotional stress, sun exposure, and certain medications.

The symptoms of vitiligo can vary in severity and progression. They may include:

1. White patches on the skin, which can appear suddenly or gradually over time.
2. Loss of skin pigmentation in specific areas, such as the face, hands, or limbs.
3. Thinning or loss of hair on affected areas.
4. Premature whitening or graying of the hair.
5. Itching, pain, or sensitivity in the affected areas.
6. Emotional distress and reduced quality of life due to the visible appearance of the disease.

There is no cure for vitiligo, but various treatments can help manage the symptoms and slow down its progression. These may include:

1. Topical corticosteroids to reduce inflammation and suppress the immune system.
2. Topical immunomodulators to suppress the immune system and promote skin repigmentation.
3. Narrowband ultraviolet B (UVB) phototherapy to slow down the progression of the disease and improve skin appearance.
4. Psoralen photochemotherapy to promote skin repigmentation and reduce inflammation.
5. Surgical skin grafting or blister grafting to cover small areas of depigmentation.
6. Camouflage makeup to cover the affected areas and improve self-esteem.

In addition to these treatments, it is essential for patients with vitiligo to protect their skin from the sun by using broad-spectrum sunscreens, wearing protective clothing, and seeking shade when the sun is strongest.

Early diagnosis and appropriate treatment can help improve the quality of life for patients with vitiligo. However, the emotional and psychological impact of the disease should not be underestimated, and patients may require long-term support and counseling to cope with the challenges of living with this condition.

There are different types of immunoglobulins, also called antibodies, that the body produces to fight off infections. One type is called Immunoglobulin A (IgA), which is found in mucosal surfaces like the respiratory, gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts. IgA plays a crucial role in protecting these areas from infection. It helps neutralize and remove pathogens from the body before they can cause harm.

IgA deficiency is when the body does not produce enough IgA, either due to a genetic defect or other underlying conditions. This deficiency may increase the risk of developing certain types of infections. People with IgA deficiency are more likely to get respiratory infections like bronchitis, pneumonia and sinusitis. They may also experience frequent ear infections, tonsillitis and other throat infections.

Some people are born with IgA deficiency due to genetic mutations that affect the production of this antibody. Others can develop it over time due to certain medical conditions or medications. For example, people with HIV/AIDS often have low levels of IgA. Certain drugs such as corticosteroids and chemotherapy can also reduce IgA production.

The symptoms of myocarditis can vary depending on the severity of the inflammation and the location of the affected areas of the heart muscle. Common symptoms include chest pain, shortness of breath, fatigue, and swelling in the legs and feet.

Myocarditis can be difficult to diagnose, as its symptoms are similar to those of other conditions such as coronary artery disease or heart failure. Diagnosis is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and results of diagnostic tests such as electrocardiogram (ECG), echocardiogram, and blood tests.

Treatment of myocarditis depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. Mild cases may require only rest and over-the-counter pain medication, while more severe cases may require hospitalization and intravenous medications to manage inflammation and cardiac function. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to repair or replace damaged heart tissue.

Prevention of myocarditis is important, as it can lead to serious complications such as heart failure and arrhythmias if left untreated. Prevention strategies include avoiding exposure to viruses and other infections, managing underlying medical conditions such as diabetes and high blood pressure, and getting regular check-ups with a healthcare provider to monitor cardiac function.

In summary, myocarditis is an inflammatory condition that affects the heart muscle, causing symptoms such as chest pain, shortness of breath, and fatigue. Diagnosis can be challenging, but treatment options range from rest and medication to hospitalization and surgery. Prevention is key to avoiding serious complications and maintaining good cardiac health.

1. Bubonic plague: This is the most common form of the disease and is characterized by the development of swollen and painful lymph nodes (called buboes) in the groin, armpits, or neck.
2. Pneumonic plague: This form of the disease affects the lungs and can be transmitted from person to person through respiratory droplets. It is highly contagious and can be fatal if left untreated.
3. Septicemic plague: This form of the disease occurs when the bacteria enter the bloodstream directly, without going through the lymph nodes or lungs. It can cause fever, chills, abdominal pain, and bleeding into the skin and organs.

Plague has a long history of being a major public health threat, with pandemics occurring in the Middle Ages and other times throughout history. In modern times, plague is still present in some parts of the world, particularly in rural areas of the western United States and in parts of Africa and Asia.

Treatment of plague typically involves antibiotics, which can be effective if started early in the course of the illness. However, resistance to these antibiotics has been a growing concern in recent years, making it increasingly difficult to treat the disease effectively.

Prevention of plague primarily involves controlling the population of infected fleas and other vectors, as well as avoiding contact with infected animals or people. This can be achieved through measures such as using insecticides, wearing protective clothing and gear, and practicing good hygiene. Vaccines are also available for some forms of the disease, but they are not widely used due to their limited effectiveness and the availability of other treatment options.

Overall, plague is a serious and potentially deadly disease that requires prompt medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time. While treatment options exist, prevention is key to avoiding infection and controlling the spread of the disease.

The most common types of CNS infections include:

1. Meningitis: Inflammation of the protective membranes (meninges) that cover the brain and spinal cord, often caused by bacteria or viruses.
2. Encephalitis: Inflammation of the brain tissue itself, usually caused by a virus.
3. Abscesses: Pockets of pus that form in the brain or spinal cord, typically caused by bacterial infections.
4. Cryptococcal infections: Caused by a fungus called Cryptococcus neoformans, often affecting people with weakened immune systems.
5. Toxoplasmosis: A parasitic infection caused by the Toxoplasma gondii parasite, which can affect the CNS in people with compromised immune systems.

Symptoms of CNS infections can vary depending on the specific type and severity of the infection, but may include fever, headache, confusion, seizures, weakness, and stiff neck. Diagnosis is typically made through a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies such as CT or MRI scans.

Treatment of CNS infections depends on the underlying cause, but may involve antibiotics, antiviral medications, or antifungal drugs. In severe cases, hospitalization and supportive care such as intravenous fluids, oxygen therapy, and respiratory support may be necessary.

Prevention of CNS infections includes good hygiene practices such as frequent handwashing, avoiding close contact with people who are sick, and getting vaccinated against certain viruses that can cause CNS infections. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment are critical to preventing long-term complications of CNS infections and improving outcomes for patients.



Example sentence: The patient was diagnosed with experimental sarcoma and underwent a novel chemotherapy regimen that included a targeted therapy drug.

Here are some common types of E. coli infections:

1. Urinary tract infections (UTIs): E. coli is a leading cause of UTIs, which occur when bacteria enter the urinary tract and cause inflammation. Symptoms include frequent urination, burning during urination, and cloudy or strong-smelling urine.
2. Diarrheal infections: E. coli can cause diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and fever if consumed through contaminated food or water. In severe cases, this type of infection can lead to dehydration and even death, particularly in young children and the elderly.
3. Septicemia (bloodstream infections): If E. coli bacteria enter the bloodstream, they can cause septicemia, a life-threatening condition that requires immediate medical attention. Symptoms include fever, chills, rapid heart rate, and low blood pressure.
4. Meningitis: In rare cases, E. coli infections can spread to the meninges, the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, causing meningitis. This is a serious condition that requires prompt treatment with antibiotics and supportive care.
5. Hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS): E. coli infections can sometimes cause HUS, a condition where the bacteria destroy red blood cells, leading to anemia, kidney failure, and other complications. HUS is most common in young children and can be fatal if not treated promptly.

Preventing E. coli infections primarily involves practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands regularly, especially after using the bathroom or before handling food. It's also essential to cook meat thoroughly, especially ground beef, to avoid cross-contamination with other foods. Avoiding unpasteurized dairy products and drinking contaminated water can also help prevent E. coli infections.

If you suspect an E. coli infection, seek medical attention immediately. Your healthcare provider may perform a urine test or a stool culture to confirm the diagnosis and determine the appropriate treatment. In mild cases, symptoms may resolve on their own within a few days, but antibiotics may be necessary for more severe infections. It's essential to stay hydrated and follow your healthcare provider's recommendations to ensure a full recovery.

The main causes of periodontitis are poor oral hygiene, smoking, and certain medical conditions such as diabetes and heart disease. The symptoms of periodontitis include:

* Redness and swelling of the gums
* Bad breath
* Bleeding while brushing or flossing
* Pocket formation between the teeth and gums
* Loose teeth or changes in the bite
* Changes in the color or shape of the gums

If left untreated, periodontitis can lead to serious complications such as:

* Tooth loss
* Bone loss around the teeth
* Infection of the dental implant or prosthetic tooth
* Spread of bacteria to other parts of the body, leading to systemic diseases such as heart disease and diabetes.

Periodontitis can be treated by a dentist or periodontist with a combination of non-surgical and surgical procedures, including:

* Scaling and root planing (deep cleaning of the teeth and roots)
* Antibiotics to treat infection
* Bone grafting to restore lost bone tissue
* Gum grafting to cover exposed roots
* Dental implants or prosthetic teeth to replace missing teeth.

It is important to practice good oral hygiene, including brushing and flossing regularly, to prevent periodontitis. Early detection and treatment can help prevent the progression of the disease and save teeth from being lost.

UC can be challenging to diagnose and treat, and there is no known cure. However, with proper management, it is possible for people with UC to experience long periods of remission and improve their quality of life. Treatment options include medications such as aminosalicylates, corticosteroids, and immunomodulators, as well as surgery in severe cases.

It's important for individuals with UC to work closely with their healthcare provider to develop a personalized treatment plan that takes into account their specific symptoms and needs. With the right treatment and support, many people with UC are able to manage their symptoms and lead active, fulfilling lives.

Necrosis is a type of cell death that occurs when cells are exposed to excessive stress, injury, or inflammation, leading to damage to the cell membrane and the release of cellular contents into the surrounding tissue. This can lead to the formation of gangrene, which is the death of body tissue due to lack of blood supply.

There are several types of necrosis, including:

1. Coagulative necrosis: This type of necrosis occurs when there is a lack of blood supply to the tissues, leading to the formation of a firm, white plaque on the surface of the affected area.
2. Liquefactive necrosis: This type of necrosis occurs when there is an infection or inflammation that causes the death of cells and the formation of pus.
3. Caseous necrosis: This type of necrosis occurs when there is a chronic infection, such as tuberculosis, and the affected tissue becomes soft and cheese-like.
4. Fat necrosis: This type of necrosis occurs when there is trauma to fatty tissue, leading to the formation of firm, yellowish nodules.
5. Necrotizing fasciitis: This is a severe and life-threatening form of necrosis that affects the skin and underlying tissues, often as a result of bacterial infection.

The diagnosis of necrosis is typically made through a combination of physical examination, imaging studies such as X-rays or CT scans, and laboratory tests such as biopsy. Treatment depends on the underlying cause of the necrosis and may include antibiotics, surgical debridement, or amputation in severe cases.

The symptoms of CVID can vary from person to person and may include:

1. Frequent or recurring infections, such as sinus infections, ear infections, and pneumonia.
2. Poor response to vaccines.
3. Delayed growth and development in children.
4. Autoimmune disorders, such as thyroiditis or arthritis.
5. Increased risk of developing certain types of cancer, such as lymphoma.

CVID is caused by mutations in several genes that are involved in the immune system. These genes play a role in the development and function of immune cells, such as T cells and B cells. The exact cause of CVID is often not known, but it can be inherited or acquired through genetic mutations.

There is no cure for CVID, but treatment can help manage the symptoms and prevent complications. Treatment typically involves antibiotics to fight off infections, immunoglobulin replacement therapy to boost the immune system, and medication to manage autoimmune disorders. In some cases, a bone marrow transplant may be recommended.

The prognosis for CVID varies depending on the severity of the disorder and the presence of any complications. With proper treatment, many people with CVID can lead normal lives and have a good quality of life. However, some individuals may experience ongoing health problems and a higher risk of developing certain types of cancer.

The symptoms of Chagas disease can vary depending on the severity of the infection and the location of the parasites in the body. In the acute phase, which typically lasts for weeks to months after infection, symptoms may include fever, fatigue, headache, joint pain, and swelling of the eyelids and neck. In some cases, the infection can spread to the heart and digestive system, leading to life-threatening complications such as heart failure, arrhythmias, and intestinal obstruction.

If left untreated, Chagas disease can enter a chronic phase, which can last for years or even decades. During this phase, symptoms may be less severe but can still include fatigue, joint pain, and cardiac problems. In some cases, the infection can reactivate during pregnancy or after exposure to stress, leading to relapses of acute symptoms.

Chagas disease is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as blood tests and imaging studies. Treatment typically involves antiparasitic drugs, which can be effective in reducing the severity of symptoms and preventing complications. However, the disease can be difficult to diagnose and treat, particularly in remote areas where medical resources are limited.

Prevention is an important aspect of managing Chagas disease. This includes controlling the population of triatomine bugs through measures such as insecticide spraying and sealing homes, as well as educating people about the risks of the disease and how to avoid infection. In addition, blood banks in areas where Chagas disease is common screen donated blood for the parasite to prevent transmission through blood transfusions.

Overall, Chagas disease is a significant public health problem in Latin America and can have severe consequences if left untreated. Early diagnosis and treatment are important to prevent complications and improve outcomes for those infected with this disease.

The symptoms of filariasis can vary depending on the type of infection and the severity of the disease. In lymphatic filariasis, the most common symptoms are swelling of the limbs, known as elephantiasis, and skin thickening, which can lead to severe social stigma and disability. Other symptoms may include fever, joint pain, and fatigue.

Filariasis is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as blood smears or polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Treatment for filariasis typically involves antiparasitic drugs, which can help to reduce the symptoms and prevent complications. However, these drugs do not cure the infection, and repeated treatments may be necessary to control the disease.

Prevention of filariasis primarily involves reducing the population of infected mosquitoes through vector control measures such as insecticide spraying, use of bed nets, and elimination of standing water around homes and communities. Personal protective measures such as wearing protective clothing and applying insect repellents can also help to reduce the risk of infection.

In addition to these measures, there is ongoing research into new diagnostic tools and treatments for filariasis, as well as efforts to eliminate the disease through mass drug administration and other public health interventions.

Keywords: filariasis, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, loiasis, elephantiasis, swelling, joint pain, fatigue, antiparasitic drugs, vector control, personal protective measures, diagnostic tools, treatments, public health interventions.

Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects can affect various aspects of the child's development, including:

1. Physical growth and development: PDEDs can lead to changes in the child's physical growth patterns, such as reduced birth weight, short stature, or delayed puberty.
2. Brain development: Prenatal exposure to certain substances can affect brain development, leading to learning disabilities, memory problems, and cognitive delays.
3. Behavioral and emotional development: Children exposed to PDEDs may exhibit behavioral and emotional difficulties, such as anxiety, depression, or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
4. Immune system functioning: Prenatal exposure to certain substances can affect the immune system's development, making children more susceptible to infections and autoimmune diseases.
5. Reproductive health: Exposure to certain chemicals during fetal development may disrupt the reproductive system, leading to fertility problems or an increased risk of infertility later in life.

The diagnosis of Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects often requires a comprehensive medical history and physical examination, as well as specialized tests such as imaging studies or laboratory assessments. Treatment for PDEDs typically involves addressing the underlying cause of exposure and providing appropriate interventions to manage any associated symptoms or developmental delays.

In summary, Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects can have a profound impact on a child's growth, development, and overall health later in life. It is essential for healthcare providers to be aware of the potential risks and to monitor children exposed to substances during fetal development for any signs of PDEDs. With early diagnosis and appropriate interventions, it may be possible to mitigate or prevent some of these effects and improve outcomes for affected children.

There are several different types of uveitis, including:

1. Anterior uveitis: This type affects the front part of the eye and is the most common form of uveitis. It is often caused by an infection or injury.
2. Posterior uveitis: This type affects the back part of the eye and can be caused by a systemic disease such as sarcoidosis or juvenile idiopathic arthritis.
3. Intermediate uveitis: This type affects the middle layer of the eye and is often caused by an autoimmune disorder.
4. Panuveitis: This type affects the entire uvea and can be caused by a systemic disease such as vasculitis or Behçet's disease.

Symptoms of uveitis may include:

* Eye pain
* Redness and swelling in the eye
* Blurred vision
* Sensitivity to light
* Floaters (specks or cobwebs in your vision)
* Flashes of light

If you experience any of these symptoms, it is important to see an eye doctor as soon as possible. Uveitis can be diagnosed with a comprehensive eye exam, which may include imaging tests such as ultrasound or MRI. Treatment for uveitis depends on the cause and severity of the condition, but may include medication to reduce inflammation, antibiotics for infections, or surgery to remove any diseased tissue.

Early diagnosis and treatment are important to prevent complications such as cataracts, glaucoma, and blindness. If you have uveitis, it is important to follow your doctor's recommendations for treatment and monitoring to protect your vision.

Types of Mycobacterium Infections:

1. Tuberculosis (TB): This is the most common Mycobacterium infection and is caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It primarily affects the lungs, but can also affect other parts of the body such as the brain, kidneys, and spine.
2. Leprosy: This is a chronic infection caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium leprae, which primarily affects the skin, nerves, and mucous membranes. It is also known as Hansen's disease.
3. Buruli ulcer: This is a skin infection caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium ulcerans, which is found in wet environments such as rivers, lakes, and swamps.
4. Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC): This is a group of bacteria that can cause a variety of diseases, including lung disease, disseminated disease, and cardiovascular disease.
5. Mycobacterium abscessus: This is a type of bacteria that can cause skin and soft tissue infections, as well as respiratory and disseminated diseases.

Symptoms of Mycobacterium Infections:

The symptoms of Mycobacterium infections can vary depending on the type of infection and the severity of the disease. Some common symptoms include:

* Coughing or difficulty breathing (in TB infections)
* Skin lesions or ulcers (in leprosy and Buruli ulcer)
* Fever, chills, and fatigue (in all types of Mycobacterium infections)
* Swollen lymph nodes (in all types of Mycobacterium infections)
* Joint pain or swelling (in some cases)
* Weight loss and loss of appetite (in severe cases)

Diagnosis of Mycobacterium Infections:

Diagnosing a Mycobacterium infection can be challenging, as the bacteria are slow-growing and require specialized culture techniques. Some common methods for diagnosing Mycobacterium infections include:

* Skin scrapings or biopsies (for leprosy and Buruli ulcer)
* Sputum or lung biopsy (for TB)
* Blood tests (for disseminated disease)
* Imaging studies such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRI scans (to evaluate the extent of the infection)

Treatment of Mycobacterium Infections:

The treatment of Mycobacterium infections depends on the type of infection and the severity of the disease. Some common treatments include:

* Antibiotics: For TB, the standard treatment is a combination of rifampin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol for at least 6 months. For leprosy, the standard treatment is a combination of rifampin, dapsone, and clofazimine for at least 12 months.
* Surgery: For Buruli ulcer, surgical debridement of the affected skin and tissue is often necessary.
* Supportive care: Patients with severe forms of the disease may require hospitalization and supportive care, such as oxygen therapy, fluid replacement, and wound care.

Prevention of Mycobacterium Infections:

Preventing the spread of Mycobacterium infections is crucial for controlling these diseases. Some common prevention measures include:

* Vaccination: For TB, vaccination with the BCG vaccine is recommended for infants and young children in high-risk areas.
* Screening: Screening for TB and leprosy is important for early detection and treatment of cases.
* Contact tracing: Identifying and testing individuals who have been in close contact with someone who has been diagnosed with TB or leprosy can help prevent the spread of the disease.
* Infection control measures: Healthcare workers should follow strict infection control measures when caring for patients with Mycobacterium infections to prevent transmission to others.
* Avoiding close contact with people who are sick: Avoiding close contact with people who are sick with TB or leprosy can help prevent the spread of the disease.
* Covering mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing: Covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing can help prevent the spread of TB bacteria.
* Properly disposing of contaminated materials: Properly disposing of contaminated materials, such as used tissues and surfaces soiled with respiratory secretions, can help prevent the spread of TB bacteria.

It is important to note that while these measures can help control the spread of Mycobacterium infections, they are not foolproof and should be combined with other prevention measures, such as early detection and treatment of cases, to effectively control these diseases.

During convalescence, patients may be advised to follow specific dietary restrictions, engage in gentle exercise, and avoid strenuous activities that can exacerbate their condition or slow down the healing process. They may also receive medical treatment, such as physical therapy, medication, or other forms of supportive care, to aid in their recovery.

The duration of convalescence varies depending on the individual and the nature of their illness or injury. In general, convalescence can last anywhere from a few days to several weeks or even months, depending on the severity and complexity of the condition being treated.

Overall, the goal of convalescence is to allow the body to heal and recover fully, while also minimizing the risk of complications and promoting optimal functional outcomes.

Types of Adenoviridae Infections:

1. Respiratory adenovirus infection (bronchiolitis, pneumonia)
2. Gastroenteric adenovirus infection (gastroenteritis)
3. Eye adenovirus infection (conjunctivitis)
4. Skin adenovirus infection (keratoconjunctivitis)
5. Intestinal adenovirus infection (diarrhea, vomiting)
6. Adenovirus-associated hemorrhagic cystitis
7. Adenovirus-associated hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
8. Adenovirus-associated myocarditis

Symptoms of Adenoviridae Infections:

1. Respiratory symptoms (cough, fever, difficulty breathing)
2. Gastrointestinal symptoms (diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain)
3. Eye symptoms (redness, discharge, sensitivity to light)
4. Skin symptoms (rash, blisters, skin erosion)
5. Intestinal symptoms (abdominal cramps, fever, chills)
6. Cardiovascular symptoms (hypertension, tachycardia, myocarditis)

Diagnosis of Adenoviridae Infections:

1. Physical examination and medical history
2. Laboratory tests (rapid antigen detection, PCR, electron microscopy)
3. Imaging studies (chest X-ray, CT scan, MRI)
4. Biopsy (tissue or organ biopsy)

Treatment of Adenoviridae Infections:

1. Supportive care (fluids, oxygen therapy, pain management)
2. Antiviral medications (ribavirin, cidofovir)
3. Immune modulators (immunoglobulins, corticosteroids)
4. Surgical intervention (in severe cases of adenovirus-associated disease)

Prevention of Adenoviridae Infections:

1. Good hygiene practices (handwashing, surface cleaning)
2. Avoiding close contact with individuals who are infected
3. Properly storing and preparing food
4. Avoiding sharing of personal items (utensils, drinking glasses, towels)
5. Immunization (vaccination against adenovirus)

Incubation Period:
The incubation period for adenoviruses is typically between 3-7 days, but it can range from 1-2 weeks in some cases.

Contagious Period:
Adenoviruses are highly contagious and can be transmitted before symptoms appear and during the entire course of illness. The virus can be shed for several weeks after infection.

Risk Factors:
Individuals with weakened immune systems (children, elderly, those with chronic illnesses) are at a higher risk of developing severe adenovirus infections. Additionally, those who live in crowded or unsanitary conditions and those who engage in behaviors that compromise their immune system (smoking, excessive alcohol consumption) are also at a higher risk.

Complications:
Adenovirus infections can lead to a variety of complications, including pneumonia, meningitis, encephalitis, and other respiratory, gastrointestinal, and eye infections. In severe cases, adenovirus infections can be fatal.

Recovery Time:
The recovery time for adenovirus infections varies depending on the severity of the infection and the individual's overall health. Mild cases of adenovirus may resolve within a few days to a week, while more severe cases may take several weeks to recover from. In some cases, hospitalization may be necessary for individuals with severe infections or those who experience complications.

Contraception:
There is no specific contraceptive measure that can prevent adenovirus infections. However, practicing good hygiene, such as frequent handwashing and avoiding close contact with people who are sick, can help reduce the risk of transmission.

Pregnancy:
Adenovirus infections during pregnancy are rare but can be severe. Pregnant women who develop adenovirus infections may experience complications such as preterm labor and low birth weight. It is essential for pregnant women to seek medical attention immediately if they suspect they have an adenovirus infection.

Diagnosis:
Adenovirus infections can be diagnosed through a variety of tests, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR), electron microscopy, and culture. A healthcare provider will typically perform a physical examination and take a medical history to determine the likelihood of an adenovirus infection.

Treatment:
There is no specific treatment for adenovirus infections, but symptoms can be managed with supportive care such as hydration, rest, and over-the-counter pain relievers. Antiviral medications may be prescribed in severe cases or for individuals with compromised immune systems.

Prevention:
Preventing the spread of adenovirus is essential, especially in high-risk populations such as young children and those with weakened immune systems. Practicing good hygiene, such as frequent handwashing and avoiding close contact with people who are sick, can help reduce the risk of transmission. Vaccines are also available for some types of adenovirus.

Prognosis:
The prognosis for adenovirus infections is generally good, especially for mild cases. However, severe cases can lead to complications such as pneumonia, meningitis, and encephalitis, which can be life-threatening. In some cases, long-term health problems may persist after recovery from an adenovirus infection.

Complications:
Adenovirus infections can lead to various complications, including:

1. Pneumonia: Adenovirus can cause pneumonia, which is an inflammation of the lungs that can lead to fever, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
2. Meningitis: Adenovirus can cause meningitis, which is an inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Symptoms include headache, stiff neck, and sensitivity to light.
3. Encephalitis: Adenovirus can cause encephalitis, which is an inflammation of the brain that can lead to confusion, seizures, and coma.
4. Gastrointestinal symptoms: Adenovirus can cause gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain.
5. Long-term health problems: In some cases, adenovirus infections can lead to long-term health problems such as asthma, allergies, and autoimmune disorders.

1. Lymphedema: This is a condition in which the lymph vessels are unable to properly drain fluid from the body, leading to swelling in the affected limb.
2. Lymphangitis: This is an inflammation of the lymph vessels that can cause pain, redness, and swelling.
3. Lymphadenitis: This is an infection of the lymph nodes that can cause swelling, pain, and difficulty breathing.
4. Primary lymphedema: This is a rare genetic condition in which the lymph vessels are missing or do not develop properly.
5. Secondary lymphedema: This is a condition that develops as a result of another condition or injury, such as surgery, radiation therapy, or infection.
6. Lymphatic malformations: These are abnormalities in the development of the lymph vessels and nodes that can cause swelling, pain, and difficulty breathing.
7. Lymphocystis: This is a rare condition in which small cysts form in the lymph vessels and nodes.
8. Lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM): This is a rare condition that causes cysts to form in the lungs and can also affect the lymph vessels and nodes.
9. Lipedema: This is a condition in which there is an abnormal accumulation of fat in the legs, thighs, and buttocks, which can cause swelling and pain.
10. Pemphigus: This is a group of rare autoimmune disorders that affect the skin and mucous membranes, leading to blistering and scarring.

Treatment for lymphatic diseases depends on the specific condition and may include compression garments, exercises, and manual lymph drainage therapy. In some cases, medications such as antibiotics or anti-inflammatory drugs may be prescribed to help manage symptoms. Surgery may also be necessary in some cases to remove blockages or repair damaged vessels.

It is important to seek medical attention if you experience any persistent swelling or pain, as these can be signs of a lymphatic disease. Early diagnosis and treatment can help to manage symptoms and improve quality of life.

Symptoms of EBV infection can vary widely, ranging from asymptomatic to severe, and may include:

* Fatigue
* Fever
* Sore throat
* Swollen lymph nodes in the neck and armpits
* Swollen liver or spleen
* Rash
* Headaches
* Muscle weakness

In some cases, EBV can lead to more serious complications such as infectious mononucleosis (IM), also known as glandular fever, which can cause:

* Enlarged liver and spleen
* Splenomegaly (enlargement of the spleen)
* Hepatomegaly (enlargement of the liver)
* Thrombocytopenia (low platelet count)
* Anemia (low red blood cell count)
* Leukopenia (low white blood cell count)

EBV is also associated with an increased risk of developing certain types of cancer, including Burkitt lymphoma, Hodgkin lymphoma, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

There is no specific treatment for EBV infections, and most cases resolve on their own within a few weeks. Antiviral medications may be prescribed in severe cases or to prevent complications. Rest, hydration, and over-the-counter pain relief medication can help alleviate symptoms.

Falciparum malaria can cause a range of symptoms, including fever, chills, headache, muscle and joint pain, fatigue, nausea, and vomiting. In severe cases, the disease can lead to anemia, organ failure, and death.

Diagnosis of falciparum malaria typically involves a physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests to detect the presence of parasites in the blood or other bodily fluids. Treatment usually involves the use of antimalarial drugs, such as artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) or quinine, which can effectively cure the disease if administered promptly.

Prevention of falciparum malaria is critical to reducing the risk of infection, and this includes the use of insecticide-treated bed nets, indoor residual spraying (IRS), and preventive medications for travelers to high-risk areas. Eliminating standing water around homes and communities can also help reduce the number of mosquitoes and the spread of the disease.

In summary, falciparum malaria is a severe and life-threatening form of malaria caused by the Plasmodium falciparum parasite, which is responsible for the majority of malaria-related deaths worldwide. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are essential to prevent complications and death from this disease. Prevention measures include the use of bed nets, indoor spraying, and preventive medications, as well as reducing standing water around homes and communities.

Cestode infections are acquired through ingestion of contaminated food or water, or through direct contact with an infected animal or person. Once ingested, the cestodes migrate to the intestine, where they attach themselves to the wall of the intestine and feed on the host's nutrients.

The symptoms of cestode infections can vary depending on the location of the infection and the severity of the infestation. Some common symptoms include:

* Abdominal pain
* Diarrhea
* Weight loss
* Fatigue
* Malnutrition
* Anemia
* Inflammation of the affected organ (e.g., liver or lung)

Cestode infections can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as stool samples or blood tests. Treatment typically involves the use of anti-parasitic drugs to kill the cestodes, and supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Prevention measures include:

* Proper cooking and handling of food
* Avoiding consumption of undercooked meat, especially pork and beef
* Avoiding contact with animals that may be infected with cestodes
* Practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands regularly
* Keeping pets free of cestode infections to prevent human infection.

It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time, or if there are signs of complications such as inflammation or obstruction of the affected organ.

Some common types of Bacteroidaceae infections include:

1. Bacteroiditis: This is an infection caused by Bacteroides fragilis, which is a common resident of the human gut microbiome. Bacteroiditis can occur when the bacteria enter the bloodstream or other parts of the body, causing symptoms such as fever, chills, and swelling.
2. Parabacteroides infection: This type of infection is caused by the bacterium Parabacteroides distasonis, which is found in the gut microbiome. Parabacteroides infections can cause a range of symptoms, including diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fever.
3. Chryseobacterium infection: This type of infection is caused by the bacterium Chryseobacterium spp., which is found in the environment and can enter the body through wounds or other openings. Chryseobacterium infections can cause symptoms such as fever, chills, and swelling.

Bacteroidaceae infections can be diagnosed through a variety of tests, including blood cultures, urine cultures, and tissue biopsies. Treatment typically involves the use of antibiotics, and in some cases, surgical intervention may be necessary to remove infected tissue or repair damaged structures.

Preventive measures for Bacteroidaceae infections include good hygiene practices such as handwashing, proper wound care, and avoiding close contact with people who are sick. In some cases, antibiotic prophylaxis may be recommended to prevent infection in individuals who are at high risk of developing Bacteroidaceae infections, such as those with weakened immune systems or chronic medical conditions.

In conclusion, Bacteroidaceae is a family of bacteria that can cause a variety of infections in the body, ranging from mild to severe. Understanding the causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment options for these infections can help healthcare providers provide effective care for individuals who are affected by Bacteroidaceae infections. Preventive measures such as good hygiene practices and antibiotic prophylaxis can also help reduce the risk of developing these infections.

The diagnosis of GVHD is based on a combination of clinical findings, laboratory tests, and biopsies. Treatment options include immunosuppressive drugs, corticosteroids, and in severe cases, stem cell transplantation reversal or donor lymphocyte infusion.

Prevention of GVHD includes selecting the right donor, using conditioning regimens that minimize damage to the recipient's bone marrow, and providing appropriate immunosuppression after transplantation. Early detection and management of GVHD are critical to prevent long-term complications and improve survival rates.

RSV infections can cause a range of symptoms, including:

* Runny nose
* Decreased appetite
* Coughing
* Sneezing
* Wheezing
* Apnea (pauses in breathing)
* Blue-tinged skin and lips (cyanosis)
* Fever
* Inflammation of the lower respiratory tract (bronchiolitis)
* Pneumonia

In severe cases, RSV infections can lead to hospitalization and may require oxygen therapy or mechanical ventilation. In rare cases, RSV infections can be life-threatening, particularly in premature babies and infants with underlying medical conditions.

There is no specific treatment for RSV infections, but antiviral medications may be prescribed in severe cases. Treatment focuses on relieving symptoms and managing the infection, such as providing hydration and nutrition, administering oxygen therapy, and monitoring vital signs.

Prevention measures for RSV infections include:

* Frequent handwashing, especially after contact with an infected person or their secretions
* Avoiding close contact with anyone who has RSV infection
* Keeping children home from school or daycare if they are showing symptoms of RSV infection
* Practicing good hygiene, such as avoiding sharing utensils or personal items with anyone who is infected

There is currently no vaccine available to protect against RSV infections, but researchers are working on developing one.

Types of candidiasis:

1. Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC): a common infection that affects the vagina and vulva; symptoms include itching, burning, and abnormal discharge.
2. Oral thrush (OT): an infection that affects the mouth, often seen in infants and people with weakened immune systems; symptoms include white patches on the tongue and inside the cheeks.
3. Invasive candidiasis (IC): a severe infection that can spread throughout the body, often seen in people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or undergoing chemotherapy; symptoms include fever, chills, and difficulty breathing.
4. Candidal balanitis: an infection of the foreskin and glans of the penis; symptoms include redness, swelling, and pain.
5. Diaper rash: a common skin infection that affects infants who wear diapers; symptoms include redness, swelling, and irritability.

Causes and risk factors:

1. Overgrowth of Candida fungus due to an imbalance of the normal flora.
2. Use of antibiotics or steroids that can disrupt the balance of the body's natural flora.
3. Weakened immune system, such as in people with HIV/AIDS or undergoing chemotherapy.
4. Poor hygiene and sanitation.
5. Diabetes mellitus.
6. Pregnancy.
7. Obesity.

Diagnosis:

1. Physical examination and medical history.
2. Microscopic examination of a scraping or biopsy specimen.
3. Cultures of skin, blood, or other body fluids.
4. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or other molecular diagnostic techniques to detect the presence of the fungus.

Treatment:

1. Topical antifungal medications, such as clotrimazole, miconazole, or terbinafine, applied directly to the affected area.
2. Oral antifungal medications, such as fluconazole or itraconazole, for more severe infections or those that do not respond to topical treatment.
3. Antibiotics if there is a secondary bacterial infection.
4. Supportive care, such as pain management and wound care.
5. Proper hygiene and sanitation practices.
6. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary for intravenous antifungal medications and close monitoring.

Prevention:

1. Practice good hygiene and sanitation.
2. Avoid sharing personal items, such as towels or clothing.
3. Wash hands before touching the affected area.
4. Keep the affected area clean and dry.
5. Use of antifungal powders or sprays on the affected area.
6. Avoid using harsh soaps or cleansers that can irritate the skin.
7. Wear shoes in public areas to prevent exposure to fungal spores.
8. Avoid sharing bathing or showering facilities with others.
9. Dry thoroughly after bathing or swimming.
10. Use of antifungal medications as a prophylactic measure in high-risk individuals, such as those with weakened immune systems.

It's important to note that the best treatment and prevention strategies will depend on the specific type of fungus causing the infection, as well as the severity and location of the infection. It is essential to consult a healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and treatment.

In animals, toxoplasmosis can cause a variety of clinical signs depending on the severity of the infection and the immune status of the host. Some common symptoms include diarrhea, lethargy, loss of appetite, weight loss, fever, and enlargement of the liver and spleen. In severe cases, toxoplasmosis can lead to respiratory failure, neurological disorders, and death.

Toxoplasmosis is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or serology, and imaging studies such as radiography or ultrasonography. Treatment for toxoplasmosis in animals is largely supportive, aimed at managing symptoms and preventing complications.

Prevention of toxoplasmosis in animals involves good hygiene practices, such as avoiding contact with cat feces and contaminated food or water, and vaccination of cats against toxoplasmosis to reduce the risk of oocyst shedding. In some cases, antibiotics may be used to treat secondary bacterial infections that arise from the immunosuppression caused by the parasite.

In conclusion, toxoplasmosis is a common and widespread infectious disease that affects many animal species, including humans. It can cause a range of clinical signs and symptoms, and diagnosis requires a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Prevention involves good hygiene practices and vaccination of cats against toxoplasmosis.

The most common demyelinating diseases include:

1. Multiple sclerosis (MS): An autoimmune disease that affects the CNS, including the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves. MS causes inflammation and damage to the myelin sheath, leading to a range of symptoms such as muscle weakness, vision problems, and cognitive difficulties.
2. Acute demyelination: A sudden, severe loss of myelin that can be caused by infections, autoimmune disorders, or other factors. This condition can result in temporary or permanent nerve damage.
3. Chronic inflammatory demyelination (CIDP): A rare autoimmune disorder that causes progressive damage to the myelin sheath over time. CIDP can affect the CNS and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
4. Moore's disease: A rare genetic disorder that results in progressive demyelination of the CNS, leading to a range of neurological symptoms including muscle weakness, seizures, and cognitive difficulties.
5. Leukodystrophies: A group of genetic disorders that affect the development or function of myelin-producing cells in the CNS. These conditions can cause progressive loss of myelin and result in a range of neurological symptoms.

Demyelinating diseases can be challenging to diagnose, as the symptoms can be similar to other conditions and the disease progression can be unpredictable. Treatment options vary depending on the specific condition and its severity, and may include medications to reduce inflammation and modulate the immune system, as well as rehabilitation therapies to help manage symptoms and improve quality of life.

Some common types of lung diseases include:

1. Asthma: A chronic condition characterized by inflammation and narrowing of the airways, leading to wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath.
2. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): A progressive condition that causes chronic inflammation and damage to the airways and lungs, making it difficult to breathe.
3. Pneumonia: An infection of the lungs that can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi, leading to fever, chills, coughing, and difficulty breathing.
4. Bronchiectasis: A condition where the airways are damaged and widened, leading to chronic infections and inflammation.
5. Pulmonary Fibrosis: A condition where the lungs become scarred and stiff, making it difficult to breathe.
6. Lung Cancer: A malignant tumor that develops in the lungs, often caused by smoking or exposure to carcinogens.
7. Cystic Fibrosis: A genetic disorder that affects the respiratory and digestive systems, leading to chronic infections and inflammation in the lungs.
8. Tuberculosis (TB): An infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium Tuberculosis, which primarily affects the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body.
9. Pulmonary Embolism: A blockage in one of the arteries in the lungs, often caused by a blood clot that has traveled from another part of the body.
10. Sarcoidosis: An inflammatory disease that affects various organs in the body, including the lungs, leading to the formation of granulomas and scarring.

These are just a few examples of conditions that can affect the lungs and respiratory system. It's important to note that many of these conditions can be treated with medication, therapy, or surgery, but early detection is key to successful treatment outcomes.

There are several types of food hypersensitivity, including:

1. Food Allergy: An immune system reaction to a specific food that can cause symptoms ranging from mild hives to life-threatening anaphylaxis. Common food allergies include reactions to peanuts, tree nuts, fish, shellfish, milk, eggs, wheat, and soy.
2. Non-Allergic Food Hypersensitivity: Also known as non-IgE-mediated food hypersensitivity, this type of reaction does not involve the immune system. Symptoms can include bloating, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and headaches. Common culprits include gluten, dairy, and high-FODMAP foods.
3. Food Intolerance: A condition where the body cannot properly digest or process a specific food. Symptoms can include bloating, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and gas. Common food intolerances include lactose intolerance, fructose malabsorption, and celiac disease.
4. Food Aversion: An emotional response to a specific food that can cause avoidance or dislike of the food. This is not an allergic or physiological reaction but rather a psychological one.

The diagnosis of food hypersensitivity typically involves a thorough medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests such as skin prick testing or blood tests. Treatment options for food hypersensitivity depend on the type and severity of the reaction and may include avoidance of the offending food, medication, or immunotherapy.

Prevention of Salmonella Infections includes proper food handling and storage practices, such as cooking foods to the correct temperature, storing foods at the right refrigerator temperature, and washing hands frequently. Vaccines are also available for people who are at high risk of developing severe Salmonella infections.

Complications of a Salmonella Infection can include dehydration, bacteremia (the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream), and meningitis (inflammation of the lining around the brain and spinal cord). In rare cases, a Salmonella infection can lead to long-term health problems such as irritable bowel syndrome or reactive arthritis.

Overall, prompt treatment and proper prevention measures are important for reducing the risk of complications from a Salmonella infection.

There are several types of lupus nephritis, each with its own unique characteristics and symptoms. The most common forms include:

* Class I (mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis): This type is characterized by the growth of abnormal cells in the glomeruli (blood-filtering units of the kidneys).
* Class II (active lupus nephritis): This type is characterized by widespread inflammation and damage to the kidneys, with or without the presence of antibodies.
* Class III (focal lupus nephritis): This type is characterized by localized inflammation in certain areas of the kidneys.
* Class IV (lupus nephritis with crescentic glomerulonephritis): This type is characterized by widespread inflammation and damage to the kidneys, with crescent-shaped tissue growth in the glomeruli.
* Class V (lupus nephritis with sclerotic changes): This type is characterized by hardening and shrinkage of the glomeruli due to scarring.

Lupus Nephritis can cause a range of symptoms, including:

* Proteinuria (excess protein in the urine)
* Hematuria (blood in the urine)
* Reduced kidney function
* Swelling (edema)
* Fatigue
* Fever
* Joint pain

Lupus Nephritis can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, laboratory tests, and kidney biopsy. Treatment options for lupus nephritis include medications to suppress the immune system, control inflammation, and prevent further damage to the kidneys. In severe cases, dialysis or a kidney transplant may be necessary.

There are several types of lung neoplasms, including:

1. Adenocarcinoma: This is the most common type of lung cancer, accounting for approximately 40% of all lung cancers. It is a malignant tumor that originates in the glands of the respiratory tract and can be found in any part of the lung.
2. Squamous cell carcinoma: This type of lung cancer accounts for approximately 25% of all lung cancers and is more common in men than women. It is a malignant tumor that originates in the squamous cells lining the airways of the lungs.
3. Small cell lung cancer (SCLC): This is a highly aggressive form of lung cancer that accounts for approximately 15% of all lung cancers. It is often found in the central parts of the lungs and can spread quickly to other parts of the body.
4. Large cell carcinoma: This is a rare type of lung cancer that accounts for only about 5% of all lung cancers. It is a malignant tumor that originates in the large cells of the respiratory tract and can be found in any part of the lung.
5. Bronchioalveolar carcinoma (BAC): This is a rare type of lung cancer that originates in the cells lining the airways and alveoli of the lungs. It is more common in women than men and tends to affect older individuals.
6. Lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM): This is a rare, progressive, and often fatal lung disease that primarily affects women of childbearing age. It is characterized by the growth of smooth muscle-like cells in the lungs and can lead to cysts, lung collapse, and respiratory failure.
7. Hamartoma: This is a benign tumor that originates in the tissue of the lungs and is usually found in children. It is characterized by an overgrowth of normal lung tissue and can be treated with surgery.
8. Secondary lung cancer: This type of cancer occurs when cancer cells from another part of the body spread to the lungs through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. It is more common in people who have a history of smoking or exposure to other carcinogens.
9. Metastatic cancer: This type of cancer occurs when cancer cells from another part of the body spread to the lungs through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. It is more common in people who have a history of smoking or exposure to other carcinogens.
10. Mesothelioma: This is a rare and aggressive form of cancer that originates in the lining of the lungs or abdomen. It is caused by asbestos exposure and can be treated with surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.

Lung diseases can also be classified based on their cause, such as:

1. Infectious diseases: These are caused by bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms and can include pneumonia, tuberculosis, and bronchitis.
2. Autoimmune diseases: These are caused by an overactive immune system and can include conditions such as sarcoidosis and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.
3. Genetic diseases: These are caused by inherited mutations in genes that affect the lungs and can include cystic fibrosis and primary ciliary dyskinesia.
4. Environmental diseases: These are caused by exposure to harmful substances such as tobacco smoke, air pollution, and asbestos.
5. Radiological diseases: These are caused by exposure to ionizing radiation and can include conditions such as radiographic breast cancer and lung cancer.
6. Vascular diseases: These are caused by problems with the blood vessels in the lungs and can include conditions such as pulmonary embolism and pulmonary hypertension.
7. Tumors: These can be benign or malignant and can include conditions such as lung metastases and lung cancer.
8. Trauma: This can include injuries to the chest or lungs caused by accidents or other forms of trauma.
9. Congenital diseases: These are present at birth and can include conditions such as bronchopulmonary foregut malformations and congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation.

Each type of lung disease has its own set of symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment options. It is important to seek medical attention if you experience any persistent or severe respiratory symptoms, as early diagnosis and treatment can improve outcomes and quality of life.

The SIRS criteria were first established by the American Academy of Pediatrics in 1992 and have since been widely adopted by healthcare professionals around the world. These criteria include:

1. Body temperature >38°C (>100.4°F) or <36°C (<96.8°F)
2. Heart rate >90 beats per minute in infants <3 months old, or >100 beats per minute in infants >3 months old and children <12 years old, or >120 beats per minute in adolescents and adults
3. Respiratory rate >24 breaths per minute, or arterial CO2 tension (PaCO2) <32 mmHg
4. White blood cell count >12,000 cells/mm3, or band forms >10% of total white blood cells, or presence of bacteria in the blood or other bodily fluids
5. Clinical signs of infection, such as tachycardia, tachypnea, or signs of sepsis (e.g., altered mental status, confusion, or hypotension)

If a patient meets two or more of these criteria, they are considered to have SIRS. The diagnosis is based on the presence of an inflammatory response, rather than the specific cause of the response.

The management of SIRS involves identifying and treating the underlying cause of the inflammation, as well as providing supportive care to address any complications that may have arisen. This can include antibiotics for bacterial infections, fluid resuscitation to maintain blood pressure and hydration, and oxygen therapy to improve oxygenation of the body's tissues. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to provide more intensive care and monitoring.

It is important to note that SIRS can progress to sepsis if left untreated or if the underlying infection is not effectively managed. Sepsis is a life-threatening condition that can lead to organ failure and death. Therefore, it is crucial to identify and treat SIRS promptly and effectively to prevent progression to sepsis.

Pseudomonas infections are challenging to treat due to the bacteria's ability to develop resistance against antibiotics. The treatment typically involves a combination of antibiotics and other supportive therapies, such as oxygen therapy or mechanical ventilation, to manage symptoms and prevent complications. In some cases, surgical intervention may be necessary to remove infected tissue or repair damaged organs.

There are several types of lymphoproliferative disorders, including:

1. Lymphoma: This is a type of cancer that affects the immune system and can arise from either B cells or T cells. There are several subtypes of lymphoma, including Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
2. Leukemia: This is a type of cancer that affects the blood and bone marrow. It occurs when there is an abnormal proliferation of white blood cells, which can lead to an overproduction of immature or malignant cells.
3. Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS): This is a group of disorders that affect the bone marrow and can lead to an abnormal production of blood cells. MDS can progress to acute myeloid leukemia (AML).
4. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL): This is a type of cancer that affects the blood and bone marrow, characterized by the accumulation of mature-looking but dysfunctional B cells in the blood.
5. Marginal zone lymphoma: This is a type of cancer that arises from the marginal zone of the spleen, which is the area where the white pulp and red pulp of the spleen meet.
6. Mantle cell lymphoma: This is a type of cancer that affects the lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues, characterized by the accumulation of malignant B cells in the mantle zone of the lymph node.
7. Primary central nervous system lymphoma (PCNSL): This is a rare type of cancer that affects the brain and spinal cord, characterized by the accumulation of malignant B cells in the central nervous system.
8. Hairy cell leukemia: This is a rare type of cancer that affects the blood and bone marrow, characterized by the accumulation of abnormal B cells with a "hairy" appearance in the blood and bone marrow.
9. Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma: This is a type of cancer that affects the lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues, characterized by the accumulation of malignant B cells in the lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues.
10. AIDS-related lymphoma: This is a type of cancer that affects people with HIV/AIDS, characterized by the accumulation of malignant B cells in the lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues.

It's important to note that these are just some examples of B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas, and there are many other subtypes and variants of this disease. Each type of lymphoma has its own unique characteristics and may require different treatment approaches.

Examples of OIs include:

1. Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP): A type of pneumonia caused by the fungus Pneumocystis jirovecii, which is commonly found in the lungs of individuals with HIV/AIDS.
2. Cryptococcosis: A fungal infection caused by Cryptococcus neoformans, which can affect various parts of the body, including the lungs, central nervous system, and skin.
3. Aspergillosis: A fungal infection caused by Aspergillus fungi, which can affect various parts of the body, including the lungs, sinuses, and brain.
4. Histoplasmosis: A fungal infection caused by Histoplasma capsulatum, which is commonly found in the soil and can cause respiratory and digestive problems.
5. Candidiasis: A fungal infection caused by Candida albicans, which can affect various parts of the body, including the skin, mouth, throat, and vagina.
6. Toxoplasmosis: A parasitic infection caused by Toxoplasma gondii, which can affect various parts of the body, including the brain, eyes, and lymph nodes.
7. Tuberculosis (TB): A bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which primarily affects the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body.
8. Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV): A viral infection that can cause various types of cancer, including Kaposi's sarcoma, which is more common in individuals with compromised immunity.

The diagnosis and treatment of OIs depend on the specific type of infection and its severity. Treatment may involve antibiotics, antifungals, or other medications, as well as supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications. It is important for individuals with HIV/AIDS to receive prompt and appropriate treatment for OIs to help prevent the progression of their disease and improve their quality of life.

Example sentences:

1) The patient was diagnosed with enterocolitis after presenting with severe abdominal pain and diarrhea.

2) The doctor suspected enterocolitis based on the patient's symptoms, but further testing was needed to confirm the diagnosis.

3) Enterocolitis can be a serious condition that requires prompt medical attention to prevent complications such as dehydration and electrolyte imbalances.

The exact cause of fibrosarcoma is not known, but it is believed to be linked to genetic mutations that occur during a person's lifetime. Some risk factors for developing fibrosarcoma include previous radiation exposure, chronic inflammation, and certain inherited conditions such as neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1).

The symptoms of fibrosarcoma can vary depending on the location and size of the tumor. In some cases, there may be no symptoms until the tumor has grown to a significant size. Common symptoms include pain, swelling, and limited mobility in the affected limb. If the tumor is near a nerve, it can also cause numbness or tingling sensations in the affected area.

Diagnosis of fibrosarcoma typically involves a combination of imaging tests such as X-rays, CT scans, and MRI scans, as well as a biopsy to confirm the presence of cancer cells. Treatment options for fibrosarcoma may include surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy, depending on the size and location of the tumor, as well as the patient's overall health.

Prognosis for fibrosarcoma is generally good if the tumor is caught early and treated aggressively. However, if the cancer has spread to other parts of the body (metastasized), the prognosis is generally poorer. In some cases, the cancer can recur after treatment, so it is important for patients to follow their doctor's recommendations for regular check-ups and follow-up testing.

Overall, fibrosarcoma is a rare and aggressive form of cancer that can be challenging to diagnose and treat. However, with early detection and appropriate treatment, many people with this condition can achieve long-term survival and a good quality of life.

There are several different forms of leishmaniasis, including:

* Cutaneous leishmaniasis: This form of the disease causes skin sores, which can be painful and disfiguring.
* Visceral leishmaniasis: Also known as kala-azar, this form of the disease affects the internal organs and can be fatal if left untreated.
* Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis: This form of the disease causes sores on the skin and mucous membranes.
*Diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis: This form of the disease causes widespread skin lesions.

Leishmaniasis can be diagnosed through a variety of methods, including:

* Physical examination and medical history: A doctor may look for signs of the disease, such as skin sores or swelling, and ask about the patient's travel history and exposure to sandflies.
* Laboratory tests: Blood and skin samples can be tested for the presence of the parasite using techniques such as microscopy, PCR, and serology.
* Imaging studies: X-rays, CT scans, and MRI scans can be used to visualize the spread of the disease in the body.

Treatment for leishmaniasis typically involves antiparasitic drugs, such as pentavalent antimonials, miltefosine, and amphotericin B. The specific treatment regimen will depend on the severity and location of the disease, as well as the patient's age, health status, and other factors. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove affected tissue.

Prevention measures for leishmaniasis include:

* Avoiding sandfly bites: Using insecticides, wearing protective clothing, and staying in well-screened areas can help prevent sandfly bites.
* Eliminating sandfly breeding sites: Removing debris and vegetation, and using insecticides to kill sandflies and their eggs can help reduce the risk of infection.
* Vaccination: There is currently no effective vaccine against leishmaniasis, but research is ongoing to develop one.
* Public education: Raising awareness about the disease and how it is transmitted can help prevent infections and reduce the burden on healthcare systems.

Overall, early diagnosis and treatment are key to preventing complications and improving outcomes for patients with leishmaniasis. In addition, public health measures such as insecticide use and vaccination may help reduce the incidence of the disease.

Eimeria species are obligate intracellular parasites that infect the epithelial cells lining the intestinal tract of animals, causing damage to the gut mucosa and leading to diarrhea, vomiting, weight loss, and even death. The disease can be acute or chronic, depending on the severity of the infection and the host's immune response.

There are several species of Eimeria that can infect ruminants, with different species affecting different parts of the intestinal tract. For example, Eimeria bovis and Eimeria zuernii infect the caecum and abomasum, respectively, while Eimeria ellipsoidalis and Eimeria falciformis infect the small intestine.

Coccidiosis is typically diagnosed through fecal examination, where the presence of oocysts (eggs) in the feces is indicative of an infection. Treatment options include anticoccidial drugs, which can be administered orally or parenterally, and supportive care to manage symptoms such as diarrhea and dehydration.

Prevention is key to managing coccidiosis, and this includes the use of vaccines, cleanliness and hygiene practices, and controlling the parasite's environmental survival. In some cases, a combination of these methods may be necessary to effectively prevent and control coccidiosis in ruminant populations.

1. Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS): A chronic condition characterized by abdominal pain, bloating, and changes in bowel habits.
2. Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): A group of chronic conditions that cause inflammation in the digestive tract, including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis.
3. Diverticulosis: A condition in which small pouches form in the wall of the intestine, often causing abdominal pain and changes in bowel habits.
4. Intestinal obstruction: A blockage that prevents food, fluids, and gas from passing through the intestine, often causing abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting.
5. Intestinal ischemia: A reduction in blood flow to the intestine, which can cause damage to the tissues and lead to life-threatening complications.
6. Intestinal cancer: Cancer that develops in the small intestine or large intestine, often causing symptoms such as abdominal pain, weight loss, and rectal bleeding.
7. Gastrointestinal infections: Infections caused by viruses, bacteria, or parasites that affect the gastrointestinal tract, often causing symptoms such as diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain.
8. Intestinal motility disorders: Disorders that affect the movement of food through the intestine, often causing symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, and constipation.
9. Malabsorption: A condition in which the body is unable to properly absorb nutrients from food, often caused by conditions such as celiac disease or pancreatic insufficiency.
10. Intestinal pseudo-obstruction: A condition in which the intestine becomes narrowed or blocked, often causing symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, and constipation.

These are just a few examples of the many potential complications that can occur when the gastrointestinal system is not functioning properly. It is important to seek medical attention if you experience any persistent or severe symptoms in order to receive proper diagnosis and treatment.

Neoplastic metastasis can occur in any type of cancer but are more common in solid tumors such as carcinomas (breast, lung, colon). It is important for cancer diagnosis and prognosis because metastasis indicates that the cancer has spread beyond its original site and may be more difficult to treat.

Metastases can appear at any distant location but commonly found sites include the liver, lungs, bones, brain, and lymph nodes. The presence of metastases indicates a higher stage of cancer which is associated with lower survival rates compared to localized cancer.

Symptoms of hemophilia A can include spontaneous bleeding, easy bruising, and prolonged bleeding after injury or surgery. Treatment typically involves replacing the missing factor VIII with infusions of clotting factor concentrate, which helps to restore the blood's ability to clot and stop bleeding. Regular infusions are often needed to prevent bleeding episodes, and patients with severe hemophilia A may require lifelong treatment.

Complications of hemophilia A can include joint damage, muscle weakness, and chronic pain. In severe cases, the condition can also increase the risk of bleeding in the brain or other internal organs, which can be life-threatening. However, with proper treatment and management, most patients with hemophilia A can lead active and relatively normal lives.

It is important to note that there is no cure for hemophilia A, but advances in medical technology and treatment have significantly improved the quality of life for many patients with the condition.

Examples of experimental leukemias include:

1. X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA): A rare inherited disorder that leads to a lack of antibody production and an increased risk of infections.
2. Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA): A rare inherited disorder characterized by a failure of red blood cells to mature in the bone marrow.
3. Fanconi anemia: A rare inherited disorder that leads to a defect in DNA repair and an increased risk of cancer, particularly leukemia.
4. Ataxia-telangiectasia (AT): A rare inherited disorder characterized by progressive loss of coordination, balance, and speech, as well as an increased risk of cancer, particularly lymphoma.
5. Down syndrome: A genetic disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21, which increases the risk of developing leukemia, particularly acute myeloid leukemia (AML).

These experimental leukemias are often used in research studies to better understand the biology of leukemia and to develop new treatments.

First-degree burns are the mildest form of burn and affect only the outer layer of the skin. They are characterized by redness, swelling, and pain but do not blister or scar. Examples of first-degree burns include sunburns and minor scalds from hot liquids.

Second-degree burns are more severe and affect both the outer and inner layers of the skin. They can cause blisters, redness, swelling, and pain, and may lead to infection. Second-degree burns can be further classified into two subtypes: partial thickness burns (where the skin is damaged but not completely destroyed) and full thickness burns (where the skin is completely destroyed).

Third-degree burns are the most severe and affect all layers of the skin and underlying tissues. They can cause charring of the skin, loss of function, and may lead to infection or even death.

There are several ways to treat burns, including:

1. Cooling the burn with cool water or a cold compress to reduce heat and prevent further damage.
2. Keeping the burn clean and dry to prevent infection.
3. Applying topical creams or ointments to help soothe and heal the burn.
4. Taking pain medication to manage discomfort.
5. In severe cases, undergoing surgery to remove damaged tissue and promote healing.

Prevention is key when it comes to burns. Some ways to prevent burns include:

1. Being cautious when handling hot objects or substances.
2. Keeping a safe distance from open flames or sparks.
3. Wearing protective clothing, such as gloves and long sleeves, when working with hot materials.
4. Keeping children away from hot surfaces and substances.
5. Installing smoke detectors and fire extinguishers in the home to reduce the risk of fires.

Overall, burns can be a serious condition that requires prompt medical attention. By understanding the causes, symptoms, and treatments for burns, individuals can take steps to prevent them and seek help if they do occur.

The symptoms of hepatitis B can range from mild to severe and may include fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dark urine, pale stools, joint pain, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). In some cases, hepatitis B can be asymptomatic, meaning that individuals may not experience any symptoms at all.

Hepatitis B is diagnosed through blood tests that detect the presence of HBV antigens or antibodies in the body. Treatment for acute hepatitis B typically involves rest, hydration, and medication to manage symptoms, while chronic hepatitis B may require ongoing therapy with antiviral drugs to suppress the virus and prevent liver damage.

Preventive measures for hepatitis B include vaccination, which is recommended for individuals at high risk of infection, such as healthcare workers, sexually active individuals, and those traveling to areas where HBV is common. In addition, safe sex practices, avoiding sharing of needles or other bodily fluids, and proper sterilization of medical equipment can help reduce the risk of transmission.

Overall, hepatitis B is a serious infection that can have long-term consequences for liver health, and it is important to take preventive measures and seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

The immune system interacts intimately with other systems, such as the endocrine and the nervous systems. The immune system ... Fc receptor Immune system receptors Immunostimulator Neuroimmune system Original antigenic sin - when the immune system uses ... This system does not confer long-lasting immunity against a pathogen. The innate immune system is the dominant system of host ... Nearly all organisms have some kind of immune system. Bacteria have a rudimentary immune system in the form of enzymes that ...
The coagulation system overlaps with the immune system. Some products of the coagulation system can contribute to non-specific ... The innate immune system is an older evolutionary defense strategy, relatively speaking, and is the dominant immune system ... The parts of the innate immune system display specificity for different pathogens. Innate immune system cells prevent free ... immune system is one of the two main immunity strategies (the other being the adaptive immune system) in vertebrates. ...
The avian immune system is divided into two types of immunity, the innate and adaptive ones. The innate immune system includes ... The avian immune system is the system of biological structures and cellular processes that protects birds from disease. The ... They can also have tumours, immune deficiency and autoimmune diseases. The physiology and immune system of birds resembles that ... Instead, J cells mature in the bursa during the first six weeks and then go on to seed other organs of the immune system. As a ...
The adaptive immune system, also known as the acquired immune system, is a subsystem of the immune system that is composed of ... the other being the innate immune system). Like the innate system, the adaptive immune system includes both humoral immunity ... Unlike the innate immune system, which is pre-programmed to react to common broad categories of pathogen, the adaptive immune ... The innate immune system, which has an important role in AIS activation, is the most important defense system of invertebrates ...
Paul Hawken suggests in Blessed Unrest that when Earth is considered a living system then Earth's immune system is made up of ... The Earth immune system is a controversial proposal, claimed to be a consequence of the Gaia hypothesis. The Gaia hypothesis ... Are humans Gaia's immune system?". Reason.com. Retrieved 31 May 2015. Lehman, Andy (12 April 2003). "Subtle Psychopathy and ... An opposite view is that humankind is Gaia's immune system itself, perhaps evolved to avert future catastrophes such as the ...
Ocular Immune Privilege - J. Wayne Streilein, Karger Gazette. (Eye, Immune system). ... the complement system, and interferons. Acquired immune responses are much more pathogen-specific than their innate immune ... The ocular immune system protects the eye from infection and regulates healing processes following injuries. The interior of ... Other components of the ocular innate immune system include tears, epithelial cells, keratocytes, corneal nerves, ...
... the biological immune system activates the behavioral immune system". Psychological Science. 22 (12): 1467-71. doi:10.1177/ ... Like many evolved threat management systems, the behavioral immune system is sensitive to the costs and benefits of pathogen ... Some research suggests that the behavioral immune system has implications for the functioning of the physiological immune ... The pathogen disgust system and the behavioral immune system have been studied separately, but there is recognition that they ...
The term corporate immune system, or corporate immune response, refers to a process within corporations that demands ... The immune system in the body is built into the cells in the bloodstream. It has the task of eliminating or neutralizing any ... However, as in the case of the rejection of an organ transplant, it is possible that the immune system may reject an alien body ... The name refers to parallels with biological immune systems, which attempt to drive out "foreign" invaders and sometimes react ...
Computer Immune Systems Group at the University of New Mexico led by Stephanie Forrest. AIS: Artificial Immune Systems Group at ... 2007). "The Immune System in Pieces: Computational Lessons from Degeneracy in the Immune System". Foundations of Computational ... The field of artificial immune systems (AIS) is concerned with abstracting the structure and function of the immune system to ... Artificial immune systems (AIS) are adaptive systems, inspired by theoretical immunology and observed immune functions, ...
A hemocyte is a cell that plays a role in the immune system of invertebrates. It is found within the hemolymph. Hemocytes are ... Hillyer JF, Strand MR (September 2014). "Mosquito hemocyte-mediated immune responses". Current Opinion in Insect Science. ... which is the major enzyme of the melanization immune pathway. Prohemocytes are small cells of unknown function, which may ...
... current knowledge reveals more and more studies about immune system influence that cannot be omitted. As the immune system ... Immune system contribution to regeneration of tissues generally involves specific cellular components, transcription of a wide ... Both phenotypes of macrophages (M1 and M2) are one of the most important regenerative components of the immune system as their ... Articles with short description, Short description with empty Wikidata description, Immune system). ...
According to Kamal, the human immune system needs Th1 cells to effectively fight TB. Since the immune system often responds to ... This immune "relaxation" is incorporated throughout the immune system, decreasing immune responses against harmless allergens, ... Hartgers reasons that a Th2-skewed immune system resulting from helminth infection would lower the immune system's ability to ... the human immune system developed a way to treat them that didn't cause tissue damage. The immune system extends this response ...
London: Mosby, ISBN 0-7234-2918-9. Frank K, Atkinson JP (2001). "Complement system." In Austen KF, Frank K, Atkinson JP, Cantor ... Then erythrocytes leave the liver and spleen bearing off immune complexes and work on the next round of transfer of immune ... Immune adherence was described by Nelson (1953) for an in vitro immunological reaction between normal erythrocytes and a wide ... Immune complexes bound to erythrocytes are effectively removed from the circulation, which is presumed alternatively to prevent ...
There are two categories to which parts of the immune system are assigned: the non-specific, or innate immune system and the ... immune system. The cells of the innate immune system do not have specific responses and respond to each foreign invader using ... Non-specific immune cells function in the first line of defense against infection or injury. The innate immune system is always ... The non-specific immune system involves cells to which antigens are not specific in regards to fighting infection. The non- ...
The lack of naïve T lymphocytes is the cause of low plasticity of the immune system in the elderly. In aging of the immune ... Immune dysregulation is any proposed or confirmed breakdown or maladaptive change in molecular control of immune system ... Immune system dysfunction, as seen in IPEX syndrome leads to immune dysfunction, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked ( ... The immune system often responds to these substances with reactions that lead to the removal of an irritant substance from the ...
The immune network theory is a theory of how the adaptive immune system works, that has been developed since 1974 mainly by ... The vaccine typically involves three immune systems, A, B and C that can be combined to make an exceptionally strong immune ... The immune system is therefore seen as a network, with the components connected to each other by V-V interactions. It has been ... The immune system of C is stimulated by a combination of A anti-B (antigen-specific) and B anti-anti-B (antiidiotypic) ...
... s are regulators of the immune system. These pathways are crucial for self-tolerance, which prevents the ... Recently, the role of the A2B receptor in the immune system has been demonstrated. Studies propose that in tissues where they ... CD40: This molecule, found on a variety of immune system cells including antigen presenting cells has CD40L, otherwise known as ... Boyman O, Sprent J (February 2012). "The role of interleukin-2 during homeostasis and activation of the immune system". Nature ...
... is important for normal physiology. Central tolerance is the main way the immune system learns to discriminate ... Immune tolerance, or immunological tolerance, or immunotolerance, is a state of unresponsiveness of the immune system to ... Immune Tolerance Network International Conference on Immune Tolerance Immune+tolerance at the US National Library of Medicine ... or the immune system adapts to the pathogen, promoting immune tolerance instead. Resistance typically protects the host at the ...
These cells interact with the immune system to induce unusual suppression of the systemic immune system response to an antigen ... Entering the systemic immune system, these antigens are recognized as foreign and an immune response is mounted against them. ... The mother's immune system is able to provide protection from microbial infections without mounting an immune response against ... In the case of damage or chance presentation to the immune system, the antigen presentation and immune response will occur at ...
... of the immune system affected By whether the immune system is overactive or underactive By whether the condition is congenital ... An immune disorder is a dysfunction of the immune system. These disorders can be characterized in several different ways: By ... Due to redundancies in the immune system, though, many of these are never detected. An autoimmune disease is a condition ... Secondary or acquired immune deficiencies are caused by something outside the body such as a virus or immune suppressing drugs ...
In this paradigm, immune system (both innate and adaptive) and non-immune system cellular and molecular components are ... OCLC 1023865227.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)[page needed] "Immune system - Evolution of the immune system". ... After encountering an antigen, the immune system produces memory T and B cells which allow for a speedier, more robust immune ... The adaptive immune response is the body's second line of defense. The cells of the adaptive immune system are extremely ...
This is because they are immediately destroyed by the body's immune system. The immune system is a complex network of cells and ... When the immune system is weaker then cancer evolves as a disease and starts growing. Each type of cancer needs a specific ... The cells, antibodies, and organs of the immune system work to protect and defend the body against not only tumor cells but ... These cells act against the cancer cells effectively and recharge the immune system. Upon encountering a tumor cell, the ...
Segerstrom SC, Miller GE (July 2004). "Psychological stress and the human immune system: a meta-analytic study of 30 years of ... is that depression is a disorder that stems from immune responses across the body. Due in large part to the systems that bring ... when the immune system subjugates the brain". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 9 (1): 46-56. doi:10.1038/nrn2297. PMC 2919277. ... sanitary environments fail to provide sufficient microorganism exposure to train the immune system to tolerate safe or ...
... of the immune system as they are responsible for inducing immune T-cell responses - to develop this Immune-Stimulating Antibody ... Bolt is developing systemic immune system treatments to provide immunity-based therapies for cancer. The company will use the ... An Immune stimulating antibody conjugate is a mAb that conjugates an antibody to an immune-stimulatory agent. They have been ... Immune stimulator antibody conjugate (ISAC), consisting of a monoclonal antibody which targets HER2 conjugated to an immune- ...
Patients with innate immune defects have generally intact adaptive immune systems with normal antibodies and T-cells. The main ... MYD88 gene provides instructions for making a protein that plays an important role in stimulating the immune system to respond ... Myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 deficiency (MyD88) is a disorder of the innate immune system. It belongs to ... An innate immune defect is a defect in the innate immune response that blunts the response to infection. These defects may ...
It is believed to work by blocking a person's immune system from recognizing this antigen. Rho(D) immune globulin came into ... In an RhD negative mother, RhIG can prevent temporary sensitization of the maternal immune system to RhD antigens, which can ... Rho(D)+Immune+Globulin at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) "Rho(D) Immune Globulin". Drug ... Primary immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) is an acquired immune-mediated disorder characterized by isolated thrombocytopenia, ...
The human immune system relies on a plethora of cell-cell signaling pathways to transmit information about a cell's health and ... The mammalian immune system has evolved complex methods for addressing and adapting to foreign antigens. At the same time, ... The Interferon System is composed of a family of cytokines. Type-I Interferons, IFN-α/β, and Type-III Interferons, IFN-λ play ... The precise role of double-stranded (ds)RNA is still widely investigated as a central player in the Interferon System. Groups ...
The immune repertoire is affected by several factors: Age: as the immune system develops over life, lymphocytes generate their ... The immune repertoire encompasses the different sub-types an organism's immune system makes of immunoglobulins or T-cell ... Treatments affecting the immune system e.g. hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, where the immune repertoire has to be ... Thus it may be possible, to take a large sample of cells from someones immune system, and look quickly at the range of sub- ...
... inflammatory diseases of immune dysregulation (Cause (medicine), Inflammations, Immune system disorders). ... Immune mediated polygenic arthritis Shurin, Michael R. and Yuri S. Smolkin (editors). Immune Mediated Diseases: From Theory to ... IMID is characterized by immune disregulation, and one underlying manifestation of this immune disregulation is the ... An immune-mediated inflammatory disease (IMID) is any of a group of conditions or diseases that lack a definitive etiology, but ...
Kuper, C. Frieke; Ruehl-Fehlert, Christine; Elmore, Susan A.; Parker, George A. (2013). "Immune System". Haschek and ... The functions of the greater omentum are: Fat deposition, having varying amounts of adipose tissue Immune contribution, having ...
Since her childhood she suffered from respiratory and immune system deficiencies and spent a great deal of time in hospitals ...
"Cas3 is a single-stranded DNA nuclease and ATP-dependent helicase in the CRISPR/Cas immune system". The EMBO Journal. 30 (7): ... Class 1 systems use a complex of multiple Cas proteins to degrade foreign nucleic acids. Class 2 systems use a single large Cas ... The 6 system types are divided into 19 subtypes. Many organisms contain multiple CRISPR-Cas systems suggesting that they are ... Co-founder, Rodolphe Barrangou, said "Cas3 is a meaner system...but if you want to cut a tree and get rid of it, you bring a ...
... which means that it can weaken the immune response by decreasing the ability of the immune system to produce antibodies. This ... Since M. incognitus is a mycoplasma, it does not have a cell wall, which means that it is naturally immune to many different ...
A versatile screening system for selective isolation of genes by specific gene-product/ligand interaction". Eur. J. Biochem. ... Phage display of antibody libraries has become a powerful method for both studying the immune response as well as a method to ... Like the two-hybrid system, phage display is used for the high-throughput screening of protein interactions. In the case of M13 ... cDNA has also been analyzed using pIII via a two complementary leucine zippers system, Direct Interaction Rescue or by adding ...
... and the Commonwealth's own industrial relations systems. Previous systems were based on the 'conciliation and arbitration' ... Implied intergovernmental immunities holds that Commonwealth and States are immune to each other's laws and cannot mutually ... Kable v Director of Public Prosecutions (NSW) [1996] HCA 24, (1996) 189 CLR 51 By this decision, the system of industrial ... However, a purely intrastate aviation industry is no longer economically feasible and separate systems of state regulation pose ...
These traits, along with enlarged groups of genes relating to detoxification, the immune system, and growth and reproduction, ...
Other risk factors include smoking, a weak immune system, birth control pills, starting sex at a young age, and having many ... However, the current system allows use of any imaging or pathological methods for staging. Stage 1A cervical cancer Stage 1B ... 1988: Bethesda System for reporting Pap results was developed. 2006: First HPV vaccine was approved by the FDA. 2015: HPV ... Prior to the 2018 revisions to FIGO staging, the system allowed only these diagnostic tests to be used in determining the stage ...
4 January 1970) [6 October 1946]. "British English Ordnance" (PDF). Command Naval Ordnance Systems. Archived from the original ... may not be used to render certain points or areas immune from military operations." Wikimedia Commons has media related to ... smoke or signaling systems; Munitions designed to combine penetration, blast or fragmentation effects with an additional ...
... and Steel's suit's data-protection immune systems protected him from the pollen's effects (Although Steel still pretended that ...
... and persons with weakened immune systems. Symptoms may become life-threatening in these groups if dehydration or electrolyte ... such as those with common variable immunodeficiency or with a suppressed immune system after organ transplantation. These ... The protein MDA-5 may be the primary immune sensor that detects the presence of noroviruses in the body. Some people have ... Nonflammable alcohol vapor in CO2 systems is used in health care environments where medical electronics would be adversely ...
Henry Clay advocated his three-point "American System", a philosophy that was responsible for the Tariff of 1816, the Second ... whose constituencies produced largely for the domestic market and were thus mostly immune to the effects of a protective tariff ...
The N protein is involved in viral pathogenesis via its effects on components of the immune system. In SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and ... "Overview of Immune Response During SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Lessons From the Past". Frontiers in Immunology. 11: 1949. doi:10.3389 ...
... it can linger on in parts of the body not protected by the immune system, including fluid in the eye, the central nervous ... the virus had remained in her cerebrospinal fluid and feared that it might be in her central nervous system. Personnel in ... system and, in men, the testes and semen. Cafferkey went to a 24-hour GP clinic in New Victoria Hospital in Glasgow on the ...
... has been described as a "cloud layer" on top of a number of Windows Server systems, which use Windows Server ... Toor, Amar (June 30, 2011). "Microsoft: European cloud data may not be immune to the Patriot Act". Engadget.com. Retrieved June ... "FedRAMP Compliant Cloud Systems". cloud.cio.gov. Retrieved October 15, 2014. "Summary of Windows Azure Service Disruption on ... On November 20, 2018, Microsoft launched the Open Enclave SDK for cross-platform systems such as ARM TrustZone and Intel SGX. ...
... by stimulating an infected individual's immune system to resist the progression of infection. The study is being completed at ... The MMM regimen produced the highest antibody-induced immune response. The DDMM regimen consists of priming with two doses of ... The DNA vaccine is used to prime immune responses that are subsequently boosted by vaccination with a recombinant modified ... but will also collect and report data on the vaccine's ability to elicit protective immune responses and control re-emergent ...
Cases may be severe, especially in children, pregnant women or people with suppressed immune systems. The disease is caused by ... Antiviral drugs, cidofovir and tecovirimat, vaccinia immune globulin and the smallpox vaccine may be used during outbreaks. The ...
Evolutionary psychology is based on the hypothesis that, just like the cardiac, pulmonary, urinary, and immune systems, ... individuals are more likely to endorse broad external systems (e.g., religion or sociopolitical systems) that impose order and ... In Hegel's system, Religion is one of the major repositories of wisdom to be used in these struggles, representing a huge body ... Like all biological systems, the mind is optimised to promote survival and reproduction in the evolutionary environment. On ...
... the North Sea with its stimulating climate enhances one's health and trains the immune system without any additional treatment ...
He noticed a change in his system where he was immune to many weapons such as knives and bullets so he extracted the rest of ...
"Corixa Corporation - powering the immune system". Archived from the original on 2006-03-01. "Glaxo to acquire Corixa for $300 ...
Living systems are not in equilibrium, but instead are dissipative systems that maintain their state of high complexity by ... Proteins are also important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, active transport across membranes, and the cell ... This system of enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic (phase I) and then conjugate water-soluble groups ... The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find nutritious and which poisonous. For ...
Jaret, Peter (June 1986). "Our Immune System: The Wars Within". National Geographic. Vol. 169, no. 6. Noske, Henning (2002-10- ...
This can have benefits of expediting some cases and reducing waste of resources in the court system, but has also led to cases ... Ford, Matt (September 12, 2018). "Should Cops Be Immune From Lawsuits?". The New Republic. Archived from the original on ... If none exists, the official is immune. Whether the official's actions are unconstitutional, intentional or malicious is ...
These species have become a considerable threat to human health, as they are often capable of evading human immune systems and ...
Ben-Neriah, Y (January 2002). "Regulatory functions of ubiquitination in the immune system". Nature Immunology. 3 (1): 20-6. ... Goff SP (Aug 2003). "Death by deamination: a novel host restriction system for HIV-1". Cell. 114 (3): 281-3. doi:10.1016/S0092- ... Kleiger G, Mayor T (Jun 2014). "Perilous journey: a tour of the ubiquitin-proteasome system". Trends in Cell Biology. 24 (6): ... Drews O, Taegtmeyer H (Dec 2014). "Targeting the ubiquitin-proteasome system in heart disease: the basis for new therapeutic ...
... life expectancies and decreased noticeable symptoms from infectious diseases that were the result of a weakened immune system ... Because the company used a single distributor system to sell their drugs, the retail price was marked up 37% by the pharmacy ... Because of its limited supply, Merck decided to adopt a single distributor system in which they would send indinavir to only ... and they did not have enough supplies to sell it through a normal distributor system. Activists protested against this price ...
The role of other risk factors in gastric cancer such as salt-preserved food, smoking, auto-immune gastritis are not well ... Digestive system neoplasia). ...
Fire trolls - Immune to fire and acid. Forest trolls - Includes variant "muskwarts". Gray trolls - Having been nearly energy ... D&D Adventures: Black Rain (Wizards of the Coast, 2002). System Reference Document listing for trolls [1] Previous edition ...
From glucocorticoid to immune mediators of stress susceptibility". review. Experimental Neurology. 284 (Pt B): 133-140. doi: ... studies have investigated the role of epigenetics and transgenerational inheritance molecularly as it relates to the HPA system ...
They are not immune to Hood's magic at the time when they were derived from Dormammu. Known Super-Skrulls include: Biff Bison A ... The Super-Skrull is from the Skrull world of Tarnax IV (in the Tarnax system of the Andromeda Galaxy), which has been destroyed ... They are immune to detection by Wolverine's senses, Doctor Strange's magic, Spider-Man's spider-sense, Professor X's telepathy ... Super-Skrull revealed that he had to use it on the Kral system where the Skrull colonies that imitated Earth's culture were ...
The overall function of the immune system is to prevent or limit infection. ... Open the Immune System Research Menu. Immune System Research. Overview of the Immune System ... Overview of the Immune System. Function. The overall function of the immune system is to prevent or limit infection. An example ... When the immune system first recognizes these signals, it responds to address the problem. If an immune response cannot be ...
Medications that Weaken Your Immune System and Fungal Infections ... They are most common among people with weak immune systems. ... If you live in or visit these areas and are taking medications that weaken the immune system, youre more likely to get these ... Amount of medication (dose). Higher doses of medications that weaken your immune system are more likely to increase your risk ... People with certain health conditions may need to take medications with side effects that can weaken your immune system and put ...
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Dictionary Definition: immune system. immune system. Your bodys system for protecting itself from infection by finding and ...
The "biologics we use for allergy and asthma work on the allergic arm of the immune system," said Jeffrey Factor, MD, from the ... "That means they are not in conflict with the part of the immune system fighting off infection." ... Cite this: Not All Biologics Compromise the Immune System - Medscape - Apr 06, 2020. ... which target specific molecules in the immune system involved with inflammation. ...
... ... It may also play a role in certain immune system diseases. Researchers want to see how COX-2 affects the cells in the immune ... The immune system contains several different types of cells in the blood and other parts of the body. The body can fight ... The COX-2 gene may help decide the balance of cell types that the body makes as part of the immune system. ...
Your immune system is a complex system that work together. When it doesnt the serious results can be disorders such as ... Immune System (For Parents) (Nemours Foundation) Also in Spanish * Overview of the Immune System (National Institute of Allergy ... What is the immune system?. Your immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs. Together they help the body ... How does the immune system work?. Your immune system defends your body against substances it sees as harmful or foreign. These ...
Vaccines stimulate the immune system to produce immune responses that protect against infection. ... NIH-supported basic research on the immune system in the 1990s led to the development of Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors-a class ... NIH researchers discovered the importance of the JAK family of proteins as regulators of the human immune system, leading to ... the development of a class of drugs that block JAK activity to suppress the immune system and protect against damaging ...
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Exposure to low levels of TCE has been associated with decreased thymus weights and a decreased immune response in animal but ... Some health studies have found an association with worker TCE exposure and the auto-immune disease, scleroderma. ...
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.. ...
Whilst the human immune system produces nitric oxide to kill invading bacteria, this study reports that nitric oxide can also ... Research reveals human immune system reduces potency of antibiotics Peer-Reviewed Publication University of Kent ... Research from the University of Kents School of Biosciences has revealed that a molecule produced by the human immune system ... Research reveals human immune system reduces potency of antibiotics. University of Kent ...
... the COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns may have had on our immune systems. ... "OF exposures are vital," say the researchers, "because they interact with the regulatory systems that keep the immune system in ... the regulatory mechanisms of the immune system can fail. As a result, the system attacks not only harmful organisms [that] ... How have COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns affected our immune systems?. By Marie Ellis on May 2, 2021 - Fact checked by. Alexandra ...
Fighting Infection by Clonal Selection was created to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Burnets Clonal Selection theory.
Complement, a major component of the immune system, could influence COVID-19 disease severity. Researchers also found that ... COVID-19 Severity Linked to Coagulation Dysfunction and Ancient Branch of Immune System ... The connection with complement suggests that existing drugs that inhibit the complement system could help treat patients with ... COVID-19 patients that were indicative of how the virus might engage and induce the bodys complement and coagulation systems. ...
People whose immune systems are very weak, such as people with low T-cell counts due to HIV infection or people receiving ... If there is a risk of yellow fever at your destination, CDC recommends delaying your trip until your immune system is healthy ... Many chronic illnesses, underlying health conditions, and medicines can weaken a persons immune system, this is called being ...
World Health Organization; WHO Task Group on Principles and Methods for Assessing Direct Immunotoxicity Associated with Exposure to Chemicals Meeting (‎1994 : Geneva, Switzerland)‎ (‎World Health OrganizationWorld Health Organization, 1996)‎ ...
... weakened immune system - Sharing our stories on preparing for and responding to public health events ...
Rejuvenating the Aged Immune System (R01) RFA-AI-08-012. NIAID ... Title: Rejuvenating the Aged Immune System (R01) Announcement ... One of the hallmarks of the aging immune system is involution of the thymus and a subsequent decrease in the output of naïve T ... Therefore, optimal immune protection in the elderly may require boosting the output of naïve immune cells for a short duration ... 3) Project Director/Principal Investigator (PD/PI) Registration in the NIH eRA Commons: Refer to the NIH eRA Commons System ( ...
The importance of the immune system in human skin cancer has been long recognized based primarily upon the increased incidence ... there has been increasing interest in understanding the roles of the immune system in the development and progression of cancer ... Roles of the immune system in skin cancer Br J Dermatol. 2011 Nov;165(5):953-65. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2011.10507.x. ... In this review, we integrate multiple lines of evidence highlighting the roles of the immune system in skin cancer. First, we ...
Immunological (Immune System). The immune system consists of white blood cells, the thymus, the spleen, lymph nodes, and lymph ... Then, search on any target organ system to find the health effects information on that system.. ... the immune system helps the body distinguish its own cells and tissues from foreign cells and substances. In this way, it plays ...
NIDCRs Jacqueline Mays is studying why some bone marrow transplant patients develop a condition where the new immune cells ... Jacqueline Mays, the first dentist-scientist NIH Lasker Scholar, is studying what triggers the immune system to attack the ... The transplants aim to reboot patients immune systems by replacing faulty blood-forming stem cells with healthy ones from ... By understanding which immune cells are at play, the researchers may gain insights into why these patients with "COVID toes" ...
Scientists say MAEGI platform could have multiple applications for boosting immune system destruction of primary and metastatic ... NewsAnatomyCRISPRGene editingGenetic engineeringGenetic Engineering and BiotechnologyHemic and immune systemsImmune system ... "And once those cells are identified, the immune system immediately recognizes them if they show up in the future." ... Immunotherapies that direct the bodys immune system against tumors have revolutionized cancer therapy. Major types of ...
... by harnessing the bodys own immune system. Read more at straitstimes.com. ... Boosting immune system to fight malaria The team found how natural killer cells detect the infected red blood cells, and that ... by harnessing the bodys own immune system.. The team from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Singapore-MIT Alliance ... with the headline Boosting immune system to fight malaria. Subscribe ...
Ten children with the rare condition Artemis-deficient severe combined immunodeficiency had their immune systems either ... five now have fully functioning immune systems. With time, the other participants should also develop fully functional immune ... Gene therapy restored immune system in children with rare disorder. Ten children with the rare condition Artemis-deficient ... A trial found that the therapy either partially or fully restored the immune systems of 10 infants with the condition. ...
... the adaptive immune system. When pathogens are able to bypass innate immune defenses, the adaptive immune system is activated. ... The immune system is not like other systems (say, the digestive system) structurally, as many of the reactions occurring are at ... Adaptive immune system. Antigen-specific immune system. Antibody. Specialized Y-shaped protein that tags antigens for ... The main parts of the immune system are: white blood cells, antibodies, the complement system, the lymphatic system, the spleen ...
TRACO: Immune System and Immunotoxins
NIA-funded researchers were able to identify distinct features of the immune systems of extremely long-lived people. ... This suggests that their immune systems remain healthier for longer compared with other people. ... part of the innate immune system, including monocytes and dendritic cells) with age. This was an expected change with aging. ... A previous study in Japan did an analysis of immune cell gene expression patterns - when genes are turned on and off - and ...
The immune system is very adversely and rapidly affected by even modest degrees of zinc deficiency, and can alter immune system ... Session III, Immune System, Antioxidant and Defense Functions of Zinc illustrated the role of the immune system in zinc ... Session III, Immune System, Antioxidant and Defense Functions of Zinc. Zinc and Health: Workshop Summary. Session III. ... If proper parameters are chosen, the immune system could be used as a good bellwether of how effective zinc supplementation is ...
  • Scientists at Yale University have developed an anticancer platform that harnesses CRISPR technology to activate multiple cancer-related genes, which signals the body's immune system to recognize, attack, and kill the cancer cells. (genengnews.com)
  • Immunotherapies that direct the body's immune system against tumors have revolutionized cancer therapy. (genengnews.com)
  • Now University of Aberdeen researchers are looking for healthy volunteers to help them examine the effects of vitamin D supplements and also artificial UVB light - mimicking sunlight - on the body's immune system. (abdn.ac.uk)
  • This is the third installment of a recent article series that I have been writing regarding the coronavirus crisis today and our body's immune system. (ymaa.com)
  • By understanding all the details behind this network, researchers may optimize immune responses to confront specific issues, ranging from infections to cancer. (nih.gov)
  • The common lymphoid progenitor stem cell leads to adaptive immune cells-B cells and T cells-that are responsible for mounting responses to specific microbes based on previous encounters (immunological memory). (nih.gov)
  • Vaccines stimulate the immune system to produce immune responses that protect against infection. (nih.gov)
  • The study establishes for the first time this difference in immune responses and shows that it is mostly genetic -- inherited from our ancestors and influenced by a relatively recent natural selection. (eurekalert.org)
  • The research team then infected the macrophages with two kinds of bacteria ( Listeria and Salmonella ) to observe various immune responses: after 24 hours of infection, the macrophages from African Americans killed the bacteria three times faster. (eurekalert.org)
  • The research team also uncovered the molecular mechanisms acting on the genes responsible for these differences in immune responses. (eurekalert.org)
  • Although we found these differences in immune responses between African and European Americans, we are still unable to demonstrate what evolutionary pressures led to the observed differences. (eurekalert.org)
  • The analysis of Barreiro's team shows that about 3% of the genes involved in the differences in immune responses between African and European Americans come from Neanderthals! (eurekalert.org)
  • In addition, genetics explains only about 30% of the observed differences in immune responses. (eurekalert.org)
  • Luis Barreiro specializes in the evolution of immune responses and was named one of the "40 under 40" (most promising researchers) published in 2014 by the prestigious journal Cell . (eurekalert.org)
  • In 2011, Mays joined NIDCR as a clinical research fellow, applying her expertise in clinical dentistry and immunology to understand immune responses in the mouth, which can have broad implications. (nih.gov)
  • Zinc is required for the development of Th2 immune responses that help protect against infection resulting from gastrointestinal helminth parasites. (nih.gov)
  • However, " … these mutant products might not be expressed at levels sufficient to elicit an effective T cell-mediated response, and cancer cells often downregulate antigen presentation to escape immune recognition … the spontaneous immune recognition of tumor antigens is often insufficient to elicit effective immune responses, because the abnormal products may not be adequately presented. (genengnews.com)
  • Thus, AAV-mediated delivery of genome-scale MAEGI elicits host immune responses against established tumors across multiple aggressive cancer types," they wrote. (genengnews.com)
  • Specific immune responses are triggered by antigens . (khanacademy.org)
  • Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection or irritation. (bionity.com)
  • Two years ago the Aberdeen team showed a link between sunlight, vitamin D and cells in the body, known as regulatory T cells which play a vital role in the immune system, keeping it in check and preventing damaging responses. (abdn.ac.uk)
  • It will be interesting to know whether these immune changes allow the neonate to make better responses to subsequent infections after birth. (kcl.ac.uk)
  • The study measured the immune responses of 74 Latvian men to a hepatitis vaccine. (gaia.com)
  • It was concluded that men with better immune responses had higher testosterone levels, low levels of cortisol (stress hormone), and their pictures were rated higher by women on the attractiveness scale. (gaia.com)
  • The overall function of the immune system is to prevent or limit infection. (nih.gov)
  • An example of this principle is found in immune-compromised people, including those with genetic immune disorders, immune-debilitating infections like HIV, and even pregnant women, who are susceptible to a range of microbes that typically do not cause infection in healthy individuals. (nih.gov)
  • If an immune response cannot be activated when there is sufficient need, problems arise, like infection. (nih.gov)
  • The common myeloid progenitor stem cell in the bone marrow is the precursor to innate immune cells-neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, mast cells, monocytes, dendritic cells, and macrophages-that are important first-line responders to infection. (nih.gov)
  • Higher doses of medications that weaken your immune system are more likely to increase your risk of getting a fungal infection. (cdc.gov)
  • Your body's system for protecting itself from infection by finding and destroying bacteria, viruses, and other substances that may be harmful. (nih.gov)
  • That means they are not in conflict with the part of the immune system fighting off infection. (medscape.com)
  • Twelve people with persistent neurological symptoms after SARS-CoV-2 infection were intensely studied at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and were found to have differences in their immune cell profiles and autonomic dysfunction. (nih.gov)
  • A study from the National Institutes of Health describes the immune response triggered by COVID-19 infection that damages the brain’s blood vessels and may lead to short- and long-term neurological symptoms. (nih.gov)
  • People whose immune systems are very weak, such as people with low T-cell counts due to HIV infection or people receiving cancer chemotherapy, should not receive yellow fever vaccine. (cdc.gov)
  • MONTREAL, Oct. 20, 2016 - A Canada-US study led by Luis Barreiro, a professor at the University of Montreal's Department of Pediatrics and researcher at the Sainte-Justine University Hospital Center, has demonstrated that Americans of African descent have a stronger immune response to infection compared to Americans of European descent. (eurekalert.org)
  • The immune system reacts to infection by causing inflammation (redness, heat, swelling, etc.) to neutralize and eliminate the infection. (eurekalert.org)
  • The 175 participants in Professor Barreiro's study provided blood samples, from which were extracted macrophages ¬-- cells of the immune system whose role is to kill pathogens responsible for infection. (eurekalert.org)
  • Neanderthals also played a role in the immune response to infection. (eurekalert.org)
  • With HAART, the rejuvenated immune system effectively controls this serious infection and doesn't need the help of specific anti-CMV retinitis medications. (nih.gov)
  • We now have clinical evidence that in addition to the rises in CD4+ T cell counts seen in patients taking HAART, there is sustained functional immune recovery to the point that their immune systems can effectively control a major opportunistic infection. (nih.gov)
  • The innate immune system comprises the cells and mechanisms that defend the host from infection by other organisms, in a non-specific manner. (bionity.com)
  • [1] Innate immune systems provide immediate defense against infection, and are found in all classes of plant and animal life. (bionity.com)
  • Recruiting immune cells to sites of infection and inflammation , through the production of chemical factors, including specialized chemical mediators, called cytokines. (bionity.com)
  • and the phagocytic cells including macrophages, neutrophils and dendritic cells, and function within the immune system by identifying and eliminating pathogens that might cause infection. (bionity.com)
  • A new mouse model with a working immune system could be used in laboratory research to improve understanding of Zika virus infection and aid development of new treatments, according to a study published in PLOS Pathogens . (mcgill.ca)
  • In the new study, a team led by Dr. Martin Richer and Dr. Selena Sagan at McGill University successfully caused Zika infection in adult mice with healthy immune systems and studied the immune response to infection. (mcgill.ca)
  • The researchers used a technique known as the "surrogate marker" approach to indirectly track how immune system cells called T cells responded to infection. (mcgill.ca)
  • findings suggest that SARS-CoV-2 infection damages the CD8+ T cell response, an effect akin to that observed in earlier studies showing long-term damage to the immune system after infection with viruses such as hepatitis C or HIV. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • When it comes to viruses that lead to chronic infection, immune cells receive the wrong set of marching orders, which makes them less responsive," says Martin Richer, an assistant professor at McGill's Department of Microbiology & Immunology and senior author of the study, published recently in the journal Immunity . (medicalxpress.com)
  • That maneuver buys time for the pathogen to outpace the immune response and establish a chronic infection. (medicalxpress.com)
  • New research from King's suggests COVID-19 infection in the mother alters the immune system of the baby in utero. (kcl.ac.uk)
  • This suggests that infection in the mother has altered the immune system of the baby. (kcl.ac.uk)
  • This data highlights that the neonatal immune system can be affected by maternal state even in the absence of direct infection of the baby. (kcl.ac.uk)
  • They are also now looking at how maternal infection may be changing the immune system of the infant and how long these changes might remain. (kcl.ac.uk)
  • Well, that's because the lymphatic system is one of the most important defense components of your immune system, which also reveals the first signs of an infection. (gaia.com)
  • The biologics used to treat conditions such as asthma, chronic hives, eczema, and sinusitis are unlike the ones used to treat autoimmune disorders, which target specific molecules in the immune system involved with inflammation. (medscape.com)
  • One of our hypotheses is that in the prehistoric period, after human populations had migrated out of Africa, they were exposed to fewer pathogens (bacteria, viruses, parasites), which reduced the immune response and thus tissue inflammation. (eurekalert.org)
  • This reduction in the immune response (and inflammation) was most likely an advantage because of the adverse consequences of acute or chronic inflammation, which are major contributors to the development of autoimmune inflammatory diseases. (eurekalert.org)
  • Although we are seeing better control of the CMV retinitis in patients on HAART, we're also seeing more inflammation, or 'immune recovery uveitis,' in these eyes. (nih.gov)
  • Inflammation and pus are both side-effects of the immune system doing its job. (howstuffworks.com)
  • They looked at eight different psychosocial interventions-such as CBT, behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, and psychoeducation-as well as seven markers of immune system function, including inflammation, antibody levels, viral load, and natural killer cell activity. (verywellmind.com)
  • In terms of immune function, inflammation is part of the body's natural defense mechanism, and it plays a role in healing. (verywellmind.com)
  • If proper parameters are chosen, the immune system could be used as a good bellwether of how effective zinc supplementation is in a number of clinical areas, such as GI mucosal immunology and pulmonary immunology. (nih.gov)
  • Commentary published in Frontiers in Immunology highlights that while many factors play a role in the development of depression, there have been links to increased inflammatory activation of the immune system, which affects the central nervous system. (verywellmind.com)
  • A new study by researchers in the School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences at King's, published today in Nature Immunology , looked at the immune system of babies born to mothers exposed to SARS-CoV-2 at different stages of pregnancy. (kcl.ac.uk)
  • The immune system can distinguish between normal, healthy cells and unhealthy cells by recognizing a variety of "danger" cues called danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). (nih.gov)
  • All immune cells come from precursors in the bone marrow and develop into mature cells through a series of changes that can occur in different parts of the body. (nih.gov)
  • Skin cells produce and secrete important antimicrobial proteins, and immune cells can be found in specific layers of skin. (nih.gov)
  • Natural killer (NK) cells also are derived from the common lymphoid progenitor and share features of both innate and adaptive immune cells, as they provide immediate defenses like innate cells but also may be retained as memory cells like adaptive cells. (nih.gov)
  • Immune cells constantly circulate throughout the bloodstream, patrolling for problems. (nih.gov)
  • When blood tests are used to monitor white blood cells, another term for immune cells, a snapshot of the immune system is taken. (nih.gov)
  • Immune cells are carried through the lymphatic system and converge in lymph nodes, which are found throughout the body. (nih.gov)
  • Lymph nodes are a communication hub where immune cells sample information brought in from the body. (nih.gov)
  • For instance, if adaptive immune cells in the lymph node recognize pieces of a microbe brought in from a distant area, they will activate, replicate, and leave the lymph node to circulate and address the pathogen. (nih.gov)
  • The immune system contains several different types of cells in the blood and other parts of the body. (nih.gov)
  • Researchers want to see how COX-2 affects the cells in the immune system. (nih.gov)
  • Your immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs. (medlineplus.gov)
  • If you have an autoimmune disease, your immune system attacks healthy cells in your body by mistake. (medlineplus.gov)
  • For example, HIV is a virus that harms your immune system by destroying your white blood cells. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Also, the immune system helps the body distinguish its own cells and tissues from foreign cells and substances. (cdc.gov)
  • The transplants aim to reboot patients' immune systems by replacing faulty blood-forming stem cells with healthy ones from donors. (nih.gov)
  • However, more than half of transplant recipients develop a condition known as chronic graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), where the new immune cells recognize the patients' tissues as foreign and attack them. (nih.gov)
  • The mix of various immune cells in the body changes with age. (nih.gov)
  • To do so, they performed single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) of more than 16,000 immune cells. (nih.gov)
  • The researchers observed a decreased ratio of lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell that includes T cells and B cells) to myeloid cells (part of the innate immune system, including monocytes and dendritic cells) with age. (nih.gov)
  • Among the lymphocytes, centenarians had more B cells (which produce antibodies) and fewer T helper cells (which help coordinate other immune cells) compared with younger people. (nih.gov)
  • The team found 35 genes whose expression changed in immune cells with age, including genes involved in repairing DNA damage. (nih.gov)
  • Multi-modal profiling of peripheral blood cells across the human lifespan reveals distinct immune cell signatures of aging and longevity. (nih.gov)
  • This flags the cells as "nonself," or foreign, and triggers an immune attack. (genengnews.com)
  • But instead of finding and editing target DNA sites and inserting new genes, the MAEGI approach can search for and highlight cancer-related genes expressed by particular types of cancer cells, and then act like a homing beacon to pinpoint their location and amplify the signals, marking them for immune attack and destruction. (genengnews.com)
  • The approach effectively turns a cold tumor (lacking immune cells) into a hot tumor (with immune cells), recruiting effector T cells to the tumor and remodeling the tumor microenvironment. (genengnews.com)
  • We reasoned that augmenting the expression and thus the presentation of endogenous antigens in tumors could amplify the 'nonself' identity of cancer cells, thereby flagging them for immune destruction," the team commented. (genengnews.com)
  • This strategy is the molecular equivalent of dressing tumor cells in highly visible orange jumpsuits, which allows the immune system to quickly find and eradicate them, Chen suggested. (genengnews.com)
  • And once those cells are identified, the immune system immediately recognizes them if they show up in the future. (genengnews.com)
  • The researchers also generated an AAV-mediated precision version of the MAEGI system, AAV-p-MAEGI, which incorporated an sgRNA library targeting more than a thousand gene mutations specifically in E0771 breast cancer cells. (genengnews.com)
  • and various compounds that could boost human immune cells' ability to identify and attack red blood cells infected by malaria. (straitstimes.com)
  • Dr Ye Weijian, the lead author of the study, said understanding the pathway that primes the NK cells to attack is important for developing novel strategies in boosting people's own immune system to fight malaria. (straitstimes.com)
  • Without Artemis, the body cannot produce important immune cells called T cells and B cells. (newscientist.com)
  • Cells that belong in the body carry specific markers that identify them as 'self' and tell the immune system not to attack them. (khanacademy.org)
  • The immune system responds to antigens by producing cells that directly attack the pathogen, or by producing special proteins called antibodies . (khanacademy.org)
  • The main cells of the immune system are lymphocytes known as B cells and T cells . (khanacademy.org)
  • In these instances, the immune system uses cell-mediated immunity to destroy infected body cells. (khanacademy.org)
  • This means that the cells of the innate system recognize, and respond to, pathogens in a generic way, but unlike the adaptive immune system , it does not confer long-lasting or protective immunity to the host. (bionity.com)
  • The complement system is a biochemical cascade of the immune system that helps, or "complements", the ability of antibodies to clear pathogens or mark them for destruction by other cells. (bionity.com)
  • Unlike many other cells in the body, most innate immune leukocytes cannot divide or reproduce on their own, but are the products of pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells present in the bone marrow. (bionity.com)
  • Mast cells are a type of innate immune cell that resides in the connective tissue and in the mucous membranes, and are intimately associated with defense against pathogens, wound healing, but are also often associated with allergy and anaphylaxis . (bionity.com)
  • Some people have diabetes, which is caused by the immune system inappropriately attacking cells in the pancreas and destroying them. (howstuffworks.com)
  • The immune system is an interactive network of lymphoid organs, cells, humoral factors, and cytokines. (nih.gov)
  • Immune cells travel around your body, sampling all sorts of matter they come into contact with, from your own cells to the cells of organisms that definitely shouldn't be there. (zdnet.com)
  • If immune cells encounter something they know shouldn't part of your body -- bacteria or a virus, say -- the body scales up the cells that know how to deal with that interloper. (zdnet.com)
  • And once the invader is routed, the immune system reduces the number of those cells again, keeping just enough in reserve that -- should the bacteria try a repeat assault -- there are enough immune foot soldiers to rout them once again. (zdnet.com)
  • Once a T cell has got a hit, depending on what type of T cell it is, it may kill the invader, or signal the millions of other immune cells to come and take on the wrongdoer too. (zdnet.com)
  • Anyone taking a snapshot of the immune system when the T cells are activated, by noting which T cell receptors are activated and which antigens they bind to, could work out which disease has taken over the body. (zdnet.com)
  • Adaptive Biotechnologies started in 2009, set up to read and scan the immune system and the receptors on immune cells . (zdnet.com)
  • This increases the risk for several immune and autoimmune disorders (conditions caused when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's healthy cells and tissues). (eatingwell.com)
  • Our immune systems make hundreds of billions of fresh cells every single day to try to protect us from all kinds of things that can go haywire. (twistedsifter.com)
  • These findings mirror those reported by Jacob Files, PhD, et al who stated, "Overall, expression of these activation and exhaustion markers indicated more severe immune dysregulation of CD8+ T cells in the hospitalized group. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • Recognizing the importance of nutrition in the overall health of the immune system 7 and knowing that certain types of immune system cells, called "T cells" , decrease with age,(8,9) researchers fed 11-month-old and 23-month-old male rats either a control diet or a diet fortified with 35.7 mg per kg of folic acid for three weeks. (vitanetonline.com)
  • 4Life Transfer Factor Science encompasses the research, technology, and innovation of products that educate your immune cells, supporting your immune system's ability to recognize, respond to, and remember potential threats. (4life.com)
  • Fighting off infections depends largely on our bodies' capacity to quickly recognize infected cells and destroy them, a job carried out by a class of immune cells known as CD8+ T cells. (medicalxpress.com)
  • Notably, the ability of immune cells to make mediators was enhanced even in babies born to mothers who had COVID-19 earlier in pregnancy. (kcl.ac.uk)
  • When the immune system first recognizes these signals, it responds to address the problem. (nih.gov)
  • When your immune system recognizes an antigen, it attacks it. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Once the immune system recognizes a pathogen as 'non-self,' it uses cellular and chemical defenses to attack it. (khanacademy.org)
  • The outcome of this is usually a strong immune system, linked to a healthy population of gut bacteria, called the microbiome. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Though having a strong immune system alone isn't enough to avoid the coronavirus (social distancing, masking up, regular hand-washing and getting the vaccine are all still the best ways to protect yourself), supporting your immune system is still important-especially as cold and flu season approaches. (eatingwell.com)
  • Maybe what you should consider is building a strong immune system. (gaia.com)
  • But what about younger children, whose immune systems are still in the learning phase? (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Only those whose immune systems were strong enough had a better chance of surviving the pathological challenges of nature. (ymaa.com)
  • While the study reaffirmed the immune system's weakening with increasing age, the researchers concluded that "supplementing…with additional folate improves [immune system function] and that dietary folate requirement may be higher in the older population than in the younger population to support immune functions. (vitanetonline.com)
  • Like other viruses, Zika virus caused an innate and adaptive immune response in the mice. (mcgill.ca)
  • When pathogens are able to bypass innate immune defenses, the adaptive immune system is activated. (khanacademy.org)
  • After an encounter with a new pathogen, the adaptive immune system often 'remembers' the pathogen, allowing for a faster response if the pathogen ever attacks again. (khanacademy.org)
  • Activation of the adaptive immune system through a process known as antigen presentation. (bionity.com)
  • People with certain health conditions may need to take medications with side effects that can weaken your immune system and put you at risk for fungal infections. (cdc.gov)
  • If you live in or visit these areas and are taking medications that weaken the immune system, you're more likely to get these infections than the general population. (cdc.gov)
  • Many chronic illnesses, underlying health conditions, and medicines can weaken a person's immune system, this is called being immunocompromised. (cdc.gov)
  • But it turns out there are certain things that can also weaken our immune systems. (eatingwell.com)
  • The immune system is very adversely and rapidly affected by even modest degrees of zinc deficiency, and can alter immune system function and host defense mechanisms. (nih.gov)
  • The innate system is thought to constitute an evolutionarily older defense strategy, and is the dominant immune system found in plants, fungi , insects, and in primitive multicellular organisms (see Other forms of innate immunity ). (bionity.com)
  • While the immune system of African Americans responds more strongly, Professor Barreiro is careful to qualify it as better: "The immune system of African Americans responds differently, but we cannot conclude that it is better, since a stronger immune response also has negative effects, including greater susceptibility to autoimmune inflammatory diseases such as Crohn's disease. (eurekalert.org)
  • Your immune system responds and eliminates the invaders while the skin heals itself and seals the puncture. (howstuffworks.com)
  • As a result, the system attacks not only harmful organisms [that] cause infections but also innocuous targets such as pollen, house dust, and food allergens resulting in allergic diseases. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • New evidence finds that smoking is a cause of rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disease in which the immune system attacks the joints and causes swelling and pain. (eatingwell.com)
  • It may also play a role in certain immune system diseases. (nih.gov)
  • There are other diseases that can affect your immune system. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Scientists have discovered a potential treatment that could be effective in fighting severe malaria and other infectious diseases, by harnessing the body's own immune system. (straitstimes.com)
  • CMV retinitis is not progressing in patients who are receiving HAART, suggesting that somehow HAART is playing a role in strengthening the immune system," said Dr. Carl Kupfer, director of the National Eye Institute (NEI), which conducted the study in collaboration with the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). (nih.gov)
  • In many different diseases, the cause is actually an immune system error. (howstuffworks.com)
  • It is known that vitamin D is needed for healthy bones, but some studies have also suggested links between vitamin D deficiency and immune mediated diseases such as multiple sclerosis. (abdn.ac.uk)
  • Vitamin D is important for bones and vitamin D deficiency has also been linked with cancer, cardiovascular disease and autoimmune diseases such as MS. We will be looking to see whether artificial sunlight or vitamin tablets will keep our immune systems in check. (abdn.ac.uk)
  • By working out the binding relationships, the company started making steps towards being able to diagnose particular diseases from the immune receptors. (zdnet.com)
  • [3] Neutrophils then trigger other parts of the immune system by releasing factors that summon other leukocytes and lymphocytes. (bionity.com)
  • Another hypothesis is that the weaker immune response detected in Europeans is the result of a less vigorous natural selection in an environment in which there were fewer, or at least different, pathogens compared to Africa. (eurekalert.org)
  • Increased body temperature may slow or stop pathogens from growing and helps speed up the immune response. (khanacademy.org)
  • In this review we have covered the normal function of the immune system in recognising, repelling, and eradicating pathogens and other foreign molecules. (nih.gov)
  • These spikes in infections caused by multiple pathogens are associated with the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and mounting evidence finding post-COVID-19 immune dysfunction. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • The lymphatic system is a network of vessels and tissues composed of lymph, an extracellular fluid, and lymphoid organs, such as lymph nodes. (nih.gov)
  • The lymphatic system is a conduit for travel and communication between tissues and the bloodstream. (nih.gov)
  • Infectious microbes such as viruses and bacteria release another set of signals recognized by the immune system called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). (nih.gov)
  • According to MIT Medical , by the time a person reaches adulthood, their immune system has already had exposure to plenty of bacteria and viruses and is able to mount an attack against these invaders. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The idea is to find immune mechanisms to help understand why some individuals react differently from others in the presence of certain viruses and bacteria," said Barreiro. (eurekalert.org)
  • Each T cell can recognise the antigens -- the triggers that will set off the immune system -- that are the signatures of bacteria, viruses, fungi or other invaders that have entered the body. (zdnet.com)
  • Our immune systems are crucial for keeping us healthy, since they help protect us from outside "invaders" such as bacteria, viruses, toxins and more. (eatingwell.com)
  • For example, we have not yet studied the immune response to viruses and parasites. (eurekalert.org)
  • How do viruses that cause chronic infections, such as HIV or hepatitis c virus, manage to outsmart their hosts' immune systems? (medicalxpress.com)
  • Researchers are working to develop Zika virus models in mice with functioning immune systems. (mcgill.ca)
  • Researchers found "a significant" increase in immune system strength in the folic acid group, specifically that of increased T cell levels, other immune system proteins called IL-2, IL-4, and anti-cancer proteins called "tumor necrosis factor" . (vitanetonline.com)
  • Over time, the company began not only tracking immune receptors, but working out the link between the receptors and the antigens they bind to. (zdnet.com)
  • Passive immunity happens when you receive antibodies to a disease instead of making them through your own immune system. (medlineplus.gov)
  • We know that gut health plays a role in immunity, so eating enough fiber every day (that's 25 grams for women and 31 grams for men) can help support your immune system. (eatingwell.com)
  • The classic effects of zinc deficiency on the immune system are thymic atrophy and lymphopenia. (nih.gov)
  • The connection with complement suggests that existing drugs that inhibit the complement system could help treat patients with severe COVID-19. (nih.gov)
  • Children born without a working immune system due to a rare genetic disorder called Artemis-deficient severe combined immunodeficiency (Artemis-deficient SCID) may be able to lead normal lives thanks to a new gene-replacement therapy . (newscientist.com)
  • This is especially true in the case of yeast infections like Candida, triggered due to a weakened immune system, which can cause severe hair loss. (gaia.com)
  • While it is not directly connected to the lymphatic system, it is important for processing information from the bloodstream. (nih.gov)
  • A blocked lymphatic system can lead to problems like buildup of cellulite, edema, and stretch marks. (gaia.com)
  • Prof. Bloomfield and colleagues write that while "evidence supports the concept of immune regulation driven by microbe-host interactions, the term 'hygiene hypothesis' is a misleading misnomer. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • A version of this article appeared in the print edition of The Straits Times on October 11, 2018, with the headline Boosting immune system to fight malaria. (straitstimes.com)
  • For example, we often see people with compromised immune function and chronic health problems facing mental health challenges. (verywellmind.com)
  • We might be able to take advantage of the pathways induced by these signals to fight chronic viral infections by making the immune system more responsive," Richer says. (medicalxpress.com)
  • If there is a risk of yellow fever at your destination, CDC recommends delaying your trip until your immune system is healthy enough for you to receive the vaccine. (cdc.gov)
  • Exposure to low levels of TCE has been associated with decreased thymus weights and a decreased immune response in animal but not human studies. (cdc.gov)
  • Introduced in 2003, it suggests that the important exposures to microbes in early life are not actually colds, measles, or other childhood ailments, but rather those microbes that were already around during the hunter-gatherer period, when the immune system was evolving. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • This suggests that their immune systems remain healthier for longer compared with other people. (nih.gov)
  • The study also suggests that with HAART, the immune system of people with AIDS is being partially restored and may be able to fight other serious infections. (nih.gov)
  • A new study suggests a connection between psychotherapy methods and improved immune system function. (verywellmind.com)
  • Psychosocial interventions like cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) have been a boon for emotional and mental health, and a new meta-analysis published in JAMA Psychiatry suggests you may also get an immune system boost as well. (verywellmind.com)
  • Jacqueline Mays, the first dentist-scientist NIH Lasker Scholar, is studying what triggers the immune system to attack the mouth in some patients with bone marrow transplants. (nih.gov)
  • If we can figure out what triggers the immune activation within the oral cavity, it might give us some clues as to how to prevent this type of immune response," says Mays. (nih.gov)
  • Inside your body there is an amazing protectio-n mechanism called the immune system . (howstuffworks.com)
  • In this article, I will explain in detail how to boost your immune system, both for the short term-to hopefully alleviate urgent situations like the one we have now-and the long-term. (ymaa.com)
  • Can Beauty Boost Our Immune System and Health? (gaia.com)
  • On the other hand, when an immune response is activated without a real threat or is not turned off once the danger passes, different problems arise, such as allergic reactions and autoimmune disease. (nih.gov)
  • The "biologics we use for allergy and asthma work on the allergic arm of the immune system," said Jeffrey Factor, MD, from the Connecticut Asthma & Allergy Center in West Hartford. (medscape.com)
  • With time, the other participants should also develop fully functional immune systems, says Jennifer Puck , also at the University of California, San Francisco. (newscientist.com)
  • Functional imaging in the immune system. (nih.gov)
  • Cite this: Not All Biologics Compromise the Immune System - Medscape - Apr 06, 2020. (medscape.com)
  • Stronger immune systems respond better to HIV and other infections, potentially allowing patients to live longer. (nih.gov)
  • My goal is to help you understand how to develop and maintain a stronger immune system to keep your body safer, healthier, and more protected-starting with now but also for the future. (ymaa.com)
  • The COX-2 gene may help decide the balance of cell types that the body makes as part of the immune system. (nih.gov)
  • Your immune system defends your body against substances it sees as harmful or foreign. (medlineplus.gov)
  • SARS-CoV-2 was initially identified as a respiratory virus, but it can affect the entire body, including the nervous system. (nih.gov)
  • This significant result adds to the body of evidence that some patients who have both CMV retinitis and immune recovery from using highly active antiretroviral therapy may be able to stop their standard anti-CMV medications. (nih.gov)
  • The human body has a series of nonspecific defenses that make up the innate immune system . (khanacademy.org)
  • When a pathogen has invaded, the immune system may also release chemicals that increase body temperature, producing a fever . (khanacademy.org)
  • Think of your immune response as a giant machine-learning problem, with your body as the computer. (zdnet.com)
  • In addition to helping decrease neural tube defects,1 folic acid can also help treat inflammatory bowel disease 2 improve memory 3 and help decrease an amino acid in the body, homocysteine,4 that increases heart disease risk.5 Now a new study 6 has found another way that folic acid can help us age more gracefully: by helping strengthen our immune system. (vitanetonline.com)
  • My hope is that it will offer you some insight into how you can build up your immune system, using just your own body. (ymaa.com)
  • Many of your body's functions, including the immune system, heavily rely on the amount of Qì available in your body. (ymaa.com)
  • How have COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns affected our immune systems? (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • In this article, we look at what effect living physically distanced from other people might have on the immune systems of adults, children, and infants born during the pandemic. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Finally, we discuss recent research examining the functions of particular immune cell subsets in skin cancer and how they might contribute to both antitumour and protumour effects. (nih.gov)
  • A previous study in Japan did an analysis of immune cell gene expression patterns - when genes are turned on and off - and found that immune cell composition in centenarians differed from that in younger people. (nih.gov)
  • The gene expression changes of individual immune cell types with age also weren't closely studied. (nih.gov)
  • However, this basic strategy isn't infallible, and cancers can escape immune cell scrutiny. (genengnews.com)
  • Thus, doctors may check patients for swollen lymph nodes, which may indicate an active immune response. (nih.gov)
  • They are most common among people with weak immune systems. (cdc.gov)
  • People with AIDS have badly damaged immune systems. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Some people have voiced concerns over whether their immune systems are being challenged, given that the general public is no longer physically mixing. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • People of African and European descent have intermingled over the past centuries, and we are even able to determine which part of an individual's immune system is associated with African ancestry and which part with European ancestry. (eurekalert.org)
  • A combination of anti-HIV drugs appears to help rejuvenate the immune systems of people with AIDS and prevent progression of cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis, a potentially blinding AIDS-related eye complication. (nih.gov)
  • Allergies are really just the immune system overreacting to certain stimuli that other people don't react to at all. (howstuffworks.com)
  • Some people have rheumatoid arthritis, which is caused by the immune system acting inappropriately in the joints. (howstuffworks.com)
  • We can help support our immune systems by eating a nutritious diet , getting enough sleep and staying away from people who are sick. (eatingwell.com)
  • One of the most concerning long-term effects of COVID-19 is immune dysfunction or hypofunction. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • ICT previously reported that the probable cause of the surges in infections we are seeing is an immune dysfunction caused by COVID-19 . (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • Some health studies have found an association with worker TCE exposure and the auto-immune disease, scleroderma. (cdc.gov)
  • Then, search on any target organ system to find the health effects information on that system. (cdc.gov)
  • Poor skin health can also be a sign of a weakened immune system. (gaia.com)
  • All these factors collectively determine the health of your immune system. (gaia.com)
  • it's aiming to identify anything that could throw your immune system out of whack, from infections to cancer -- and it's relying on Microsoft's machine-learning capabilities to help it get there. (zdnet.com)