A closely related group of antigens found in the plasma only during the infective phase of hepatitis B or in virulent chronic hepatitis B, probably indicating active virus replication; there are three subtypes which may exist in a complex with immunoglobulins G.
The type species of the genus ORTHOHEPADNAVIRUS which causes human HEPATITIS B and is also apparently a causal agent in human HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA. The Dane particle is an intact hepatitis virion, named after its discoverer. Non-infectious spherical and tubular particles are also seen in the serum.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by a member of the ORTHOHEPADNAVIRUS genus, HEPATITIS B VIRUS. It is primarily transmitted by parenteral exposure, such as transfusion of contaminated blood or blood products, but can also be transmitted via sexual or intimate personal contact.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by HEPATITIS B VIRUS lasting six months or more. It is primarily transmitted by parenteral exposure, such as transfusion of contaminated blood or blood products, but can also be transmitted via sexual or intimate personal contact.
Those hepatitis B antigens found on the surface of the Dane particle and on the 20 nm spherical and tubular particles. Several subspecificities of the surface antigen are known. These were formerly called the Australia antigen.
Antigens of the virion of the HEPATITIS B VIRUS or the Dane particle, its surface (HEPATITIS B SURFACE ANTIGENS), core (HEPATITIS B CORE ANTIGENS), and other associated antigens, including the HEPATITIS B E ANTIGENS.
The hepatitis B antigen within the core of the Dane particle, the infectious hepatitis virion.
Antibodies to the HEPATITIS B ANTIGENS, including antibodies to the surface (Australia) and core of the Dane particle and those to the "e" antigens.
A reverse transcriptase inhibitor and ZALCITABINE analog in which a sulfur atom replaces the 3' carbon of the pentose ring. It is used to treat HIV disease.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines containing inactivated hepatitis B or some of its component antigens and designed to prevent hepatitis B. Some vaccines may be recombinantly produced.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
Agents used in the prophylaxis or therapy of VIRUS DISEASES. Some of the ways they may act include preventing viral replication by inhibiting viral DNA polymerase; binding to specific cell-surface receptors and inhibiting viral penetration or uncoating; inhibiting viral protein synthesis; or blocking late stages of virus assembly.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of L-alanine and 2-oxoglutarate to pyruvate and L-glutamate. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.6.1.2.
The condition of harboring an infective organism without manifesting symptoms of infection. The organism must be readily transmissible to another susceptible host.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER with ongoing hepatocellular injury for 6 months or more, characterized by NECROSIS of HEPATOCYTES and inflammatory cell (LEUKOCYTES) infiltration. Chronic hepatitis can be caused by viruses, medications, autoimmune diseases, and other unknown factors.
Carbon-containing phosphonic acid compounds. Included under this heading are compounds that have carbon bound to either OXYGEN atom or the PHOSPHOROUS atom of the (P=O)O2 structure.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by HEPATITIS C VIRUS, a single-stranded RNA virus. Its incubation period is 30-90 days. Hepatitis C is transmitted primarily by contaminated blood parenterally, and is often associated with transfusion and intravenous drug abuse. However, in a significant number of cases, the source of hepatitis C infection is unknown.
A purine base and a fundamental unit of ADENINE NUCLEOTIDES.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by a member of the HEPATOVIRUS genus, HUMAN HEPATITIS A VIRUS. It can be transmitted through fecal contamination of food or water.
One of the type I interferons produced by peripheral blood leukocytes or lymphoblastoid cells. In addition to antiviral activity, it activates NATURAL KILLER CELLS and B-LYMPHOCYTES, and down-regulates VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL GROWTH FACTOR expression through PI-3 KINASE and MAPK KINASES signaling pathways.
The quantity of measurable virus in a body fluid. Change in viral load, measured in plasma, is sometimes used as a SURROGATE MARKER in disease progression.
Liver disease in which the normal microcirculation, the gross vascular anatomy, and the hepatic architecture have been variably destroyed and altered with fibrous septa surrounding regenerated or regenerating parenchymal nodules.
A primary malignant neoplasm of epithelial liver cells. It ranges from a well-differentiated tumor with EPITHELIAL CELLS indistinguishable from normal HEPATOCYTES to a poorly differentiated neoplasm. The cells may be uniform or markedly pleomorphic, or form GIANT CELLS. Several classification schemes have been suggested.
The transmission of infectious disease or pathogens from one generation to another. It includes transmission in utero or intrapartum by exposure to blood and secretions, and postpartum exposure via breastfeeding.
Substances that are recognized by the immune system and induce an immune reaction.
The genetic constitution of the individual, comprising the ALLELES present at each GENETIC LOCUS.
Inhibitors of reverse transcriptase (RNA-DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE), an enzyme that synthesizes DNA on an RNA template.
The ability of viruses to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents or antiviral agents. This resistance is acquired through gene mutation.
Tumors or cancer of the LIVER.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER.
The co-occurrence of pregnancy and an INFECTION. The infection may precede or follow FERTILIZATION.
Purine or pyrimidine bases attached to a ribose or deoxyribose. (From King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans due to infection by VIRUSES. There are several significant types of human viral hepatitis with infection caused by enteric-transmission (HEPATITIS A; HEPATITIS E) or blood transfusion (HEPATITIS B; HEPATITIS C; and HEPATITIS D).
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans that is caused by HEPATITIS C VIRUS lasting six months or more. Chronic hepatitis C can lead to LIVER CIRRHOSIS.
The process of intracellular viral multiplication, consisting of the synthesis of PROTEINS; NUCLEIC ACIDS; and sometimes LIPIDS, and their assembly into a new infectious particle.
Guanine is a purine nucleobase, one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA and RNA, involved in forming hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs in double-stranded DNA molecules.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Polymers of ETHYLENE OXIDE and water, and their ethers. They vary in consistency from liquid to solid depending on the molecular weight indicated by a number following the name. They are used as SURFACTANTS, dispersing agents, solvents, ointment and suppository bases, vehicles, and tablet excipients. Some specific groups are NONOXYNOLS, OCTOXYNOLS, and POLOXAMERS.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
A species in the genus HEPATOVIRUS containing one serotype and two strains: HUMAN HEPATITIS A VIRUS and Simian hepatitis A virus causing hepatitis in humans (HEPATITIS A) and primates, respectively.
A DNA virus that closely resembles human hepatitis B virus. It has been recovered from naturally infected ducks.
Any of the viruses that cause inflammation of the liver. They include both DNA and RNA viruses as well viruses from humans and animals.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
Immunoglobulins raised by any form of viral hepatitis; some of these antibodies are used to diagnose the specific kind of hepatitis.
Substances elaborated by bacteria that have antigenic activity.
A genus of FLAVIVIRIDAE causing parenterally-transmitted HEPATITIS C which is associated with transfusions and drug abuse. Hepatitis C virus is the type species.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with hepatitis A virus (HEPATOVIRUS).
Diseases which have one or more of the following characteristics: they are permanent, leave residual disability, are caused by nonreversible pathological alteration, require special training of the patient for rehabilitation, or may be expected to require a long period of supervision, observation, or care. (Dictionary of Health Services Management, 2d ed)
A country spanning from central Asia to the Pacific Ocean.
Antibodies to the HEPATITIS C ANTIGENS including antibodies to envelope, core, and non-structural proteins.
Proteins, glycoprotein, or lipoprotein moieties on surfaces of tumor cells that are usually identified by monoclonal antibodies. Many of these are of either embryonic or viral origin.
Therapy with two or more separate preparations given for a combined effect.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in animals due to viral infection.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by HEPATITIS DELTA VIRUS, a defective RNA virus that can only infect HEPATITIS B patients. For its viral coating, hepatitis delta virus requires the HEPATITIS B SURFACE ANTIGENS produced by these patients. Hepatitis D can occur either concomitantly with (coinfection) or subsequent to (superinfection) hepatitis B infection. Similar to hepatitis B, it is primarily transmitted by parenteral exposure, such as transfusion of contaminated blood or blood products, but can also be transmitted via sexual or intimate personal contact.
Antigens on surfaces of cells, including infectious or foreign cells or viruses. They are usually protein-containing groups on cell membranes or walls and may be isolated.
Any vaccine raised against any virus or viral derivative that causes hepatitis.
Substances elaborated by viruses that have antigenic activity.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Studies in which individuals or populations are followed to assess the outcome of exposures, procedures, or effects of a characteristic, e.g., occurrence of disease.
A defective virus, containing particles of RNA nucleoprotein in virion-like form, present in patients with acute hepatitis B and chronic hepatitis. It requires the presence of a hepadnavirus for full replication. This is the lone species in the genus Deltavirus.
Acute INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans; caused by HEPATITIS E VIRUS, a non-enveloped single-stranded RNA virus. Similar to HEPATITIS A, its incubation period is 15-60 days and is enterically transmitted, usually by fecal-oral transmission.
Antibodies to the HEPATITIS A ANTIGENS including antibodies to envelope, core, and non-structural proteins.
A positive-stranded RNA virus species in the genus HEPEVIRUS, causing enterically-transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis (HEPATITIS E).
A chronic self-perpetuating hepatocellular INFLAMMATION of unknown cause, usually with HYPERGAMMAGLOBULINEMIA and serum AUTOANTIBODIES.
EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES based on the detection through serological testing of characteristic change in the serum level of specific ANTIBODIES. Latent subclinical infections and carrier states can thus be detected in addition to clinically overt cases.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
A strain of HEPATITIS A VIRUS which causes hepatitis in humans. The virus replicates in hepatocytes and is presumed to reach the intestine via the bile duct. Transmission occurs by the fecal-oral route.
Measurable and quantifiable biological parameters (e.g., specific enzyme concentration, specific hormone concentration, specific gene phenotype distribution in a population, presence of biological substances) which serve as indices for health- and physiology-related assessments, such as disease risk, psychiatric disorders, environmental exposure and its effects, disease diagnosis, metabolic processes, substance abuse, pregnancy, cell line development, epidemiologic studies, etc.
The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (EMBRYOS or FETUSES) in utero before birth, beginning from FERTILIZATION to BIRTH.
Ribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in non-human animals.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
Proteins found mainly in icosahedral DNA and RNA viruses. They consist of proteins directly associated with the nucleic acid inside the NUCLEOCAPSID.
An ORTHOHEPADNAVIRUS causing chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma in woodchucks. It closely resembles the human hepatitis B virus.
Antigens produced by various strains of HEPATITIS D VIRUS.
Immunoglobulins produced in response to VIRAL ANTIGENS.
Antigens of the virions of HEPACIVIRUS, their surface, core, or other associated antigens.

Core promoter mutations and genotypes in relation to viral replication and liver damage in East Asian hepatitis B virus carriers. (1/743)

Virus load and liver damage, as measured by quantitative polymerase chain reaction and histology activity index, were related to genotype and core promoter mutations in 43 chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) carriers of East Asian origin. T-1762 mutants were more frequent in genotype C strains and were associated with more inflammation (P=.0036) and fibrosis (P=.0088) of the liver but not with hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) status or virus load. Conversely, precore mutations were associated with less liver inflammation (P=. 08), which was linked to HBeAg negativity and lower viral replication. Carriers with genotype C were more often HBeAg positive (P=.03) with precore wild type strains and more-severe liver inflammation (P=.009) than were those with genotype B. These findings suggest that pathogenic differences between genotypes may exist and that the T-1762 mutation may be useful as a marker for progressive liver damage but seem to contradict that down-regulation of HBeAg production is the major effect of this mutation.  (+info)

Hepatitis B vaccination in high-risk infants: 10-year follow-up. (2/743)

The long-term efficacy of hepatitis B vaccination among high-risk infants was determined in 805 vaccine responders, immunized at birth in Taiwan during 1981-1984 and followed to age 10 years, via life table survival and Cox multivariate analyses. At 10 years, cumulative persistence of antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen (anti-HBs) was 85%, and cumulative incidence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection was 15%. Three children became carriers. Twelve-month anti-HBs titer was the strongest predictor of efficacy. The higher the initial titer, the lower the risk of anti-HBs loss (relative risk [RR], 0.26 for titer of 100-999 mIU/mL; RR, 0.08 for titer >1000 mIU/mL; P<.001) and HBV infection (RR, 0.55 and 0.27; P<.05). Maternal hepatitis B e antigen positivity but not hepatitis B immunoglobulin dose or gender predicted greater antibody persistence to age 10 years. Because the level of antibody persistence remained high and few became carriers, booster revaccination within 10 years seems unnecessary.  (+info)

Quantitative analysis of hepatitis B virus precore mutant in hepatitis type B. (3/743)

Active liver disease has been detected in chronic hepatitis B after seroconversion from positive HBe antigen to positive anti-HBe antibody. Active replication of HB virus (HBV) containing a precore stop-codon mutation has been implicated in this condition. The usual methods, such as direct sequencing, to characterize the responsible mutant of HBV are not suitable for routine clinical use. Here we employed the competitive mutation site specific assay (CMSSA) to detect precore mutant HBV-DNA in patients with positive HB surface antigen. In patients with HBe antigen, precore mutant HBV-DNA was significantly higher than in patients with HBe antibody. The level of precore mutant HBV-DNA in patients with elevated serum ALT was significantly higher than in patients with normal serum ALT. Sex, age and the level of serum HBV-associated DNA polymerase levels were not correlated with levels of precore mutant HBV-DNA. Ten of 11 negative patients for the precore mutant by polymerase chain reaction followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism assay (PCRRFLP) were positive for the precore mutant by CMSSA. These results suggest that the precore mutant has already emerged in the HBeAg-positive phase as determined by CMSSA, which is more sensitive than PCR-RFLP and is useful for evaluating the clinical course of patients with chronic hepatitis B.  (+info)

Hepatitis B surface antigen disappearance and hepatitis B surface antigen subtype: a prospective, long-term, follow-up study of Japanese residents of Okinawa, Japan with chronic hepatitis B virus infection. (4/743)

To determine the natural course of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) disappearance in chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection and the factors related to its disappearance, 946 HBsAg carriers in Okinawa, Japan were prospectively followed for up to 19 years (mean = 9.2 years). The disappearance of HBsAg, as determined by radioimmunoassay (RIA), was observed in 62 (6.6%) and the overall annual disappearance rate was 0.79%/year. Its disappearance was more frequent in 60 (7.4%) of 815 serum samples negative for hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) by RIA at entry compared with only two (1.5%) of 131 serum samples that were HBeAg positive by RIA at entry (P < 0.05). Stepwise logistic regression analysis showed that age and HBsAg subtype were significantly associated with HBsAg disappearance (both P < 0.05), and that carriers with subtype adr (odds ratio = 2.87) had an increased probability of clearing HBsAg compared with carriers with subtype adw. Conversely, HBeAg disappearance was earlier in those with the adw subtype than in those with adr. Hepatitis B virus DNA was not detected by the polymerase chain reaction after HBsAg disappearance in any of the 62 from whom it had disappeared. The HBsAg titer, as measured by reverse passive hemagglutination, was related to the time to its disappearance; the higher the titer, the longer the time to disappearance. These findings suggest that HBeAg negativity, a more advanced age, and low titers of HBsAg are favorable factors for HBsAg disappearance in the natural course of chronic HBV infection. Moreover, HBsAg subtype adr was a predictive factor for HBsAg disappearance, whereas subtype adw was predictive of early HBeAg disappearance.  (+info)

Specific vaccine therapy in chronic hepatitis B: induction of T cell proliferative responses specific for envelope antigens. (5/743)

In a pilot study, it was established that specific therapy by standard anti-hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccination may be effective in reducing HBV replication and canceling the immune tolerance to hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) particles in about 50% of persons with chronic active HBV replication. In the present study, the vaccine-induced immune responses were analyzed during an ongoing controlled multicenter vaccine trial. Vaccination elicited peripheral blood mononuclear cell proliferative responses specific for envelope antigen in 7 of 27 subjects given HBsAg. The responses induced by the vaccines were mediated by CD4+ T lymphocytes, and at least three different epitopes were recognized. HBV-specific CD4+ T lymphocytes produced high levels of interferon-gamma [corrected] and belonged to a T helper 1 subset. Reduction of serum HBV DNA in some of these persons suggests that induction of CD4+ T cell responses could be important in controlling viremia during vaccine therapy of chronic HBV carriers.  (+info)

Combinatorial screening and intracellular antiviral activity of hairpin ribozymes directed against hepatitis B virus. (6/743)

A combinatorial screening method has been used to identify hairpin ribozymes that inhibit hepatitis B virus (HBV) replication in transfected human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells. A hairpin ribozyme library (5 x 10(5) variants) containing a randomized substrate-binding domain was used to identify accessible target sites within 3.3 kb of full-length in vitro-transcribed HBV pregenomic RNA. Forty potential target sites were found within the HBV pregenomic RNA, and 17 sites conserved in all four subtypes of HBV were chosen for intracellular inhibition experiments. Polymerase II and III promoter expression constructs for corresponding hairpin ribozymes were generated and cotransfected into HCC cells together with a replication-competent dimer of HBV DNA. Four ribozymes inhibited HBV replication by 80, 69, 66, and 49%, respectively, while catalytically inactive mutant forms of these ribozymes affected HBV replication by 36, 28, 0, and 0%. These findings indicate that the inhibitory effects on HBV replication were largely mediated by the catalytic activity of the ribozymes. In conclusion, we have identified catalytically active RNAs by combinatorial screening that mediate intracellular antiviral effects on HBV.  (+info)

Markedly high seroprevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in comparison to hepatitis C virus and human T lymphotropic virus type-1 infections in selected Solomon Islands populations. (7/743)

To determine the prevalences of hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and human T lymphotropic virus type-1 (HTLV-1) infections in residents of the Solomon Islands, we surveyed 1,610 serum samples from 1,113 outpatients and 497 healthy volunteer blood donors at the Central Hospital in Honiara, the Solomon Islands. The prevalence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) by radioimmunoassay (RIA) (n = 315, 19.6%) was significantly different from that of antibody to HCV (anti-HCV) by a second-generation enzyme immunoassay (EIA) (n = 4, 0.2%) and antibody to HTLV-1 (anti-HTLV-1) by an ELISA with Western blot analysis to verify the positivity (n = 49, 3.0%) (P < 0.0001, respectively). There were no significant differences in the prevalences of these markers between outpatients and blood donors. Hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) was detected by RIA in 130 (41.3%) of 315 HBsAg-positive samples. The distribution of HBsAg subtypes by EIA was 190 adr (60.3%), 111 ayw (35.2%), and 14 (0.4%) other subtypes. The HBeAg prevalence decreased with age in all groups for each subtype. There were no significant differences in the prevalence of HBeAg among HBsAg subtypes. We conclude that HBV infection is highly endemic in selected Solomon Islands populations, and that the high prevalence of HBeAg may be associated with the spread of HBV infection there.  (+info)

Dual efficacy of lamivudine treatment in human immunodeficiency virus/hepatitis B virus-coinfected persons in a randomized, controlled study (CAESAR). The CAESAR Coordinating Committee. (8/743)

The efficacy and safety of lamivudine in persons coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 and hepatitis B virus (HBV) were examined in the CAESAR study, a randomized placebo-controlled trial assessing the addition of lamivudine (150 mg 2x/day) or lamivudine (150 mg 2x/day) plus loviride (100 mg 3x/day) to zidovudine-containing background antiretroviral treatment. Baseline hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) results were available for 1790 study subjects, of whom 122 (6.8%) tested positive. Retrospective analyses for serial HBV DNA, HBsAg, and hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) were performed on stored sera from 118 HBsAg-positive subjects. HBV DNA and HBeAg were present in 83% and 63%, respectively. At weeks 12 and 52, median log10 HBV DNA change was -2.0 and -2.7, respectively, in the lamivudine arms, compared with no reduction among placebo recipients (P<.001). A trend to lower alanine transferase level, and delayed progression of HIV-1 disease (relative hazard, 0.26; 95% confidence interval, 0.08-0.80) were also seen in the lamivudine arms, compared with the placebo group.  (+info)

Hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) is a protein produced by the hepatitis B virus (HBV) during its replication process. It can be found in the blood of individuals infected with HBV. The presence of HBeAg generally indicates that the virus is actively replicating in the liver and that the individual has high levels of viral load.

HBeAg is a serological marker used to assess the severity and activity of HBV infection, as well as the response to antiviral treatment. In particular, the disappearance of HBeAg from the blood (known as seroconversion) is often associated with a decrease in viral replication and an improvement in liver disease. However, the presence of HBeAg does not necessarily mean that the individual will develop symptoms or liver damage, as some people can remain asymptomatic carriers of the virus for many years.

It's important to note that not all HBV strains produce HBeAg, and some mutant strains may not produce detectable levels of this antigen even when the virus is actively replicating. Therefore, additional tests may be needed to confirm the presence or absence of HBV infection in these cases.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a DNA virus that belongs to the Hepadnaviridae family and causes the infectious disease known as hepatitis B. This virus primarily targets the liver, where it can lead to inflammation and damage of the liver tissue. The infection can range from acute to chronic, with chronic hepatitis B increasing the risk of developing serious liver complications such as cirrhosis and liver cancer.

The Hepatitis B virus has a complex life cycle, involving both nuclear and cytoplasmic phases. It enters hepatocytes (liver cells) via binding to specific receptors and is taken up by endocytosis. The viral DNA is released into the nucleus, where it is converted into a covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) form, which serves as the template for viral transcription.

HBV transcribes several RNAs, including pregenomic RNA (pgRNA), which is used as a template for reverse transcription during virion assembly. The pgRNA is encapsidated into core particles along with the viral polymerase and undergoes reverse transcription to generate new viral DNA. This process occurs within the cytoplasm of the hepatocyte, resulting in the formation of immature virions containing partially double-stranded DNA.

These immature virions are then enveloped by host cell membranes containing HBV envelope proteins (known as surface antigens) to form mature virions that can be secreted from the hepatocyte and infect other cells. The virus can also integrate into the host genome, which may contribute to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic cases.

Hepatitis B is primarily transmitted through exposure to infected blood or bodily fluids containing the virus, such as through sexual contact, sharing needles, or from mother to child during childbirth. Prevention strategies include vaccination, safe sex practices, and avoiding needle-sharing behaviors. Treatment for hepatitis B typically involves antiviral medications that can help suppress viral replication and reduce the risk of liver damage.

Hepatitis B is a viral infection that attacks the liver and can cause both acute and chronic disease. The virus is transmitted through contact with infected blood, semen, and other bodily fluids. It can also be passed from an infected mother to her baby at birth.

Acute hepatitis B infection lasts for a few weeks to several months and often causes no symptoms. However, some people may experience mild to severe flu-like symptoms, yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice), dark urine, and fatigue. Most adults with acute hepatitis B recover completely and develop lifelong immunity to the virus.

Chronic hepatitis B infection can lead to serious liver damage, including cirrhosis and liver cancer. People with chronic hepatitis B may experience long-term symptoms such as fatigue, joint pain, and depression. They are also at risk for developing liver failure and liver cancer.

Prevention measures include vaccination, safe sex practices, avoiding sharing needles or other drug injection equipment, and covering wounds and skin rashes. There is no specific treatment for acute hepatitis B, but chronic hepatitis B can be treated with antiviral medications to slow the progression of liver damage.

Chronic Hepatitis B is a persistent infection of the liver caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV), which can lead to chronic inflammation and scarring of the liver over time. It is defined as the presence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in the blood for more than six months.

The infection can be asymptomatic or may cause nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, and joint pain. A small percentage of people with chronic HBV infection may develop serious complications, including cirrhosis, liver failure, and liver cancer. Treatment options for chronic hepatitis B include antiviral medications that can help to suppress the virus and reduce the risk of liver damage. Vaccination is available to prevent hepatitis B infection.

Hepatitis B Surface Antigens (HBsAg) are proteins found on the surface of the Hepatitis B virus. They are present in the blood of individuals infected with the Hepatitis B virus and are used as a marker for the presence of a current Hepatitis B infection. The detection of HBsAg in the blood indicates that an individual is infectious and can transmit the virus to others. It is typically used in diagnostic tests to detect and diagnose Hepatitis B infections, monitor treatment response, and assess the risk of transmission.

Hepatitis B antigens are proteins or particles present on the surface (HBsAg) or inside (HBcAg, HBeAg) the hepatitis B virus.

1. HBsAg (Hepatitis B surface antigen): This is a protein found on the outer surface of the hepatitis B virus. Its presence in the blood indicates an active infection with hepatitis B virus. It's also used as a marker to diagnose hepatitis B infection and monitor treatment response.

2. HBcAg (Hepatitis B core antigen): This is a protein found inside the hepatitis B virus core. It's not usually detected in the blood, but its antibodies (anti-HBc) are used to diagnose past or present hepatitis B infection.

3. HBeAg (Hepatitis B e antigen): This is a protein found inside the hepatitis B virus core and is associated with viral replication. Its presence in the blood indicates high levels of viral replication, increased infectivity, and higher risk of liver damage. It's used to monitor disease progression and treatment response.

These antigens play a crucial role in the diagnosis, management, and prevention of hepatitis B infection.

Hepatitis B core antigen (HBcAg) is a protein found in the core of the hepatitis B virus (HBV). It is present during active replication of the virus and plays a crucial role in the formation of the viral capsid or core. The antibodies produced against HBcAg (anti-HBc) can be detected in the blood, which serves as a marker for current or past HBV infection. It is important to note that HBcAg itself is not detectable in the blood because it is confined within the viral particle. However, during the serological testing of hepatitis B, the detection of anti-HBc IgM indicates a recent acute infection, while the presence of anti-HBc IgG suggests either a past resolved infection or an ongoing chronic infection.

Hepatitis B antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence of the Hepatitis B virus. There are two main types of Hepatitis B antibodies:

1. Hepatitis B surface antibody (anti-HBs): This is produced when a person has recovered from a Hepatitis B infection or has been successfully vaccinated against the virus. The presence of anti-HBs indicates immunity to Hepatitis B.
2. Hepatitis B core antibody (anti-HBC): This is produced during a Hepatitis B infection and remains present for life, even after the infection has been cleared. However, the presence of anti-HBC alone does not indicate immunity to Hepatitis B, as it can also be present in people who have a chronic Hepatitis B infection.

It's important to note that testing for Hepatitis B antibodies is typically done through blood tests and can help determine whether a person has been infected with the virus, has recovered from an infection, or has been vaccinated against it.

Lamivudine is an antiretroviral medication used in the treatment and management of HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection and HBV (Hepatitis B Virus) infection. It is a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI), which means it works by blocking the action of the reverse transcriptase enzyme that the viruses need to multiply. By doing this, Lamivudine helps to reduce the amount of the virus in the body, which in turn helps to slow down or prevent the damage that the virus can cause to the immune system and improve the patient's quality of life.

The medical definition of Lamivudine is: "A synthetic nucleoside analogue with activity against both HIV-1 and HBV. It is used in the treatment of HIV infection and AIDS, as well as chronic hepatitis B."

"Hepatitis B vaccines are vaccines that prevent infection caused by the hepatitis B virus. They work by introducing a small and harmless piece of the virus to your body, which triggers your immune system to produce antibodies to fight off the infection. These antibodies remain in your body and provide protection if you are exposed to the real hepatitis B virus in the future.

The hepatitis B vaccine is typically given as a series of three shots over a six-month period. It is recommended for all infants, children and adolescents who have not previously been vaccinated, as well as for adults who are at increased risk of infection, such as healthcare workers, people who inject drugs, and those with certain medical conditions.

It's important to note that hepatitis B vaccine does not provide protection against other types of viral hepatitis, such as hepatitis A or C."

Viral DNA refers to the genetic material present in viruses that consist of DNA as their core component. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is one of the two types of nucleic acids that are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information in living organisms. Viruses are infectious agents much smaller than bacteria that can only replicate inside the cells of other organisms, called hosts.

Viral DNA can be double-stranded (dsDNA) or single-stranded (ssDNA), depending on the type of virus. Double-stranded DNA viruses have a genome made up of two complementary strands of DNA, while single-stranded DNA viruses contain only one strand of DNA.

Examples of dsDNA viruses include Adenoviruses, Herpesviruses, and Poxviruses, while ssDNA viruses include Parvoviruses and Circoviruses. Viral DNA plays a crucial role in the replication cycle of the virus, encoding for various proteins necessary for its multiplication and survival within the host cell.

Antiviral agents are a class of medications that are designed to treat infections caused by viruses. Unlike antibiotics, which target bacteria, antiviral agents interfere with the replication and infection mechanisms of viruses, either by inhibiting their ability to replicate or by modulating the host's immune response to the virus.

Antiviral agents are used to treat a variety of viral infections, including influenza, herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, hepatitis B and C, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections.

These medications can be administered orally, intravenously, or topically, depending on the type of viral infection being treated. Some antiviral agents are also used for prophylaxis, or prevention, of certain viral infections.

It is important to note that antiviral agents are not effective against all types of viruses and may have significant side effects. Therefore, it is essential to consult with a healthcare professional before starting any antiviral therapy.

Alanine transaminase (ALT) is a type of enzyme found primarily in the cells of the liver and, to a lesser extent, in the cells of other tissues such as the heart, muscles, and kidneys. Its primary function is to catalyze the reversible transfer of an amino group from alanine to another alpha-keto acid, usually pyruvate, to form pyruvate and another amino acid, usually glutamate. This process is known as the transamination reaction.

When liver cells are damaged or destroyed due to various reasons such as hepatitis, alcohol abuse, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, or drug-induced liver injury, ALT is released into the bloodstream. Therefore, measuring the level of ALT in the blood is a useful diagnostic tool for evaluating liver function and detecting liver damage. Normal ALT levels vary depending on the laboratory, but typically range from 7 to 56 units per liter (U/L) for men and 6 to 45 U/L for women. Elevated ALT levels may indicate liver injury or disease, although other factors such as muscle damage or heart disease can also cause elevations in ALT.

A carrier state is a condition in which a person carries and may be able to transmit a genetic disorder or infectious disease, but does not show any symptoms of the disease themselves. This occurs when an individual has a recessive allele for a genetic disorder or is infected with a pathogen, but does not have the necessary combination of genes or other factors required to develop the full-blown disease.

For example, in the case of cystic fibrosis, which is caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, a person who carries one normal allele and one mutated allele for the disease is considered a carrier. They do not have symptoms of cystic fibrosis themselves, but they can pass the mutated allele on to their offspring, who may then develop the disease if they inherit the mutation from both parents.

Similarly, in the case of infectious diseases, a person who is infected with a pathogen but does not show any symptoms may still be able to transmit the infection to others. This is known as being an asymptomatic carrier or a healthy carrier. For example, some people who are infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) may not develop any symptoms of liver disease, but they can still transmit the virus to others through contact with their blood or other bodily fluids.

It's important to note that in some cases, carriers of certain genetic disorders or infectious diseases may have mild or atypical symptoms that do not meet the full criteria for a diagnosis of the disease. In these cases, they may be considered to have a "reduced penetrance" or "incomplete expression" of the disorder or infection.

Chronic hepatitis is a type of liver inflammation that lasts for more than six months and can lead to scarring of the liver (cirrhosis), liver failure, and even liver cancer in some cases. It can be caused by various factors, including viral infections such as Hepatitis B and C, autoimmune disorders, alcohol abuse, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. The symptoms of chronic hepatitis may include fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, joint pain, dark urine, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). Treatment for chronic hepatitis depends on the underlying cause and may include antiviral medications, immunosuppressive drugs, or lifestyle changes.

Organophosphonates are a class of organic compounds characterized by the presence of a carbon-phosphorus bond. They contain a phosphonic acid group, which consists of a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen or nitrogen atoms, with one of those bonds being replaced by a carbon atom.

In a medical context, organophosphonates are commonly used as radiopharmaceuticals in diagnostic nuclear medicine procedures, such as bone scans. These compounds have the ability to bind to hydroxyapatite, the mineral component of bones, and can be labeled with radioactive isotopes for imaging purposes. They may also be used in therapeutic settings, including as treatments for conditions such as tumor-induced hypercalcemia and Paget's disease of bone.

It is important to note that organophosphonates are distinct from organophosphates, another class of compounds that contain a phosphorus atom bonded to three oxygen or sulfur atoms and one carbon atom. Organophosphates have been widely used as pesticides and chemical warfare agents, and can pose significant health risks due to their toxicity.

Hepatitis C is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). It's primarily spread through contact with contaminated blood, often through sharing needles or other equipment to inject drugs. For some people, hepatitis C is a short-term illness but for most — about 75-85% — it becomes a long-term, chronic infection that can lead to serious health problems like liver damage, liver failure, and even liver cancer. The virus can infect and inflame the liver, causing symptoms like jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), abdominal pain, fatigue, and dark urine. Many people with hepatitis C don't have any symptoms, so they might not know they have the infection until they experience complications. There are effective treatments available for hepatitis C, including antiviral medications that can cure the infection in most people. Regular testing is important to diagnose and treat hepatitis C early, before it causes serious health problems.

Adenine is a purine nucleotide base that is a fundamental component of DNA and RNA, the genetic material of living organisms. In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine via double hydrogen bonds, while in RNA, it pairs with uracil. Adenine is essential for the structure and function of nucleic acids, as well as for energy transfer reactions in cells through its role in the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary energy currency of the cell.

Hepatitis A is a viral infection that specifically targets the liver, causing inflammation and impaired function. This disease is caused by the hepatitis A virus (HAV), which spreads primarily through the fecal-oral route, often due to poor sanitation and hygiene. Individuals can become infected by consuming food or water contaminated with HAV or by coming into direct contact with an infected person's stool.

The symptoms of hepatitis A may include fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dark urine, clay-colored bowel movements, joint pain, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). However, in some cases, particularly in children under six years old, the infection may be asymptomatic.

While hepatitis A can be unpleasant and cause serious complications, it is rarely fatal and most people recover completely within a few months. Preventive measures include vaccination, practicing good hygiene, and avoiding potentially contaminated food and water.

Interferon-alpha (IFN-α) is a type I interferon, which is a group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of viruses, parasites, and tumor cells. It plays a crucial role in the immune response against viral infections. IFN-α has antiviral, immunomodulatory, and anti-proliferative effects.

IFN-α is produced naturally by various cell types, including leukocytes (white blood cells), fibroblasts, and epithelial cells, in response to viral or bacterial stimulation. It binds to specific receptors on the surface of nearby cells, triggering a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of genes involved in the antiviral response. This results in the production of proteins that inhibit viral replication and promote the presentation of viral antigens to the immune system, enhancing its ability to recognize and eliminate infected cells.

In addition to its role in the immune response, IFN-α has been used as a therapeutic agent for various medical conditions, including certain types of cancer, chronic hepatitis B and C, and multiple sclerosis. However, its use is often limited by side effects such as flu-like symptoms, depression, and neuropsychiatric disorders.

Viral load refers to the amount or quantity of virus (like HIV, Hepatitis C, SARS-CoV-2) present in an individual's blood or bodily fluids. It is often expressed as the number of virus copies per milliliter of blood or fluid. Monitoring viral load is important in managing and treating certain viral infections, as a higher viral load may indicate increased infectivity, disease progression, or response to treatment.

Liver cirrhosis is a chronic, progressive disease characterized by the replacement of normal liver tissue with scarred (fibrotic) tissue, leading to loss of function. The scarring is caused by long-term damage from various sources such as hepatitis, alcohol abuse, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and other causes. As the disease advances, it can lead to complications like portal hypertension, fluid accumulation in the abdomen (ascites), impaired brain function (hepatic encephalopathy), and increased risk of liver cancer. It is generally irreversible, but early detection and treatment of underlying causes may help slow down its progression.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of primary liver cancer in adults. It originates from the hepatocytes, which are the main functional cells of the liver. This type of cancer is often associated with chronic liver diseases such as cirrhosis caused by hepatitis B or C virus infection, alcohol abuse, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and aflatoxin exposure.

The symptoms of HCC can vary but may include unexplained weight loss, lack of appetite, abdominal pain or swelling, jaundice, and fatigue. The diagnosis of HCC typically involves imaging tests such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI, as well as blood tests to measure alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) levels. Treatment options for Hepatocellular carcinoma depend on the stage and extent of the cancer, as well as the patient's overall health and liver function. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or liver transplantation.

Vertical transmission of infectious diseases refers to the spread of an infection from an infected mother to her offspring during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. This mode of transmission can occur through several pathways:

1. Transplacental transmission: The infection crosses the placenta and reaches the fetus while it is still in the womb. Examples include HIV, syphilis, and toxoplasmosis.
2. Intrauterine infection: The mother's infection causes direct damage to the developing fetus or its surrounding tissues, leading to complications such as congenital defects. Examples include rubella and cytomegalovirus (CMV).
3. Perinatal transmission: This occurs during childbirth when the infant comes into contact with the mother's infected genital tract or bodily fluids. Examples include group B streptococcus, herpes simplex virus (HSV), and hepatitis B.
4. Postnatal transmission: This occurs after birth, often through breastfeeding, when the infant ingests infected milk or comes into contact with the mother's contaminated bodily fluids. Examples include HIV and HTLV-I (human T-lymphotropic virus type I).

Vertical transmission is a significant concern in public health, as it can lead to severe complications, congenital disabilities, or even death in newborns. Preventive measures, such as prenatal screening, vaccination, and antimicrobial treatment, are crucial for reducing the risk of vertical transmission and ensuring better outcomes for both mothers and their offspring.

An antigen is a substance (usually a protein) that is recognized as foreign by the immune system and stimulates an immune response, leading to the production of antibodies or activation of T-cells. Antigens can be derived from various sources, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and tumor cells. They can also come from non-living substances such as pollen, dust mites, or chemicals.

Antigens contain epitopes, which are specific regions on the antigen molecule that are recognized by the immune system. The immune system's response to an antigen depends on several factors, including the type of antigen, its size, and its location in the body.

In general, antigens can be classified into two main categories:

1. T-dependent antigens: These require the help of T-cells to stimulate an immune response. They are typically larger, more complex molecules that contain multiple epitopes capable of binding to both MHC class II molecules on antigen-presenting cells and T-cell receptors on CD4+ T-cells.
2. T-independent antigens: These do not require the help of T-cells to stimulate an immune response. They are usually smaller, simpler molecules that contain repetitive epitopes capable of cross-linking B-cell receptors and activating them directly.

Understanding antigens and their properties is crucial for developing vaccines, diagnostic tests, and immunotherapies.

Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.

It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.

Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.

Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (RTIs) are a class of antiretroviral drugs that are primarily used in the treatment and management of HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection. They work by inhibiting the reverse transcriptase enzyme, which is essential for the replication of HIV.

HIV is a retrovirus, meaning it has an RNA genome and uses a unique enzyme called reverse transcriptase to convert its RNA into DNA. This process is necessary for the virus to integrate into the host cell's genome and replicate. Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors interfere with this process by binding to the reverse transcriptase enzyme, preventing it from converting the viral RNA into DNA.

RTIs can be further divided into two categories: nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs). NRTIs are analogs of the building blocks of DNA, which get incorporated into the growing DNA chain during replication, causing termination of the chain. NNRTIs bind directly to the reverse transcriptase enzyme, causing a conformational change that prevents it from functioning.

By inhibiting the reverse transcriptase enzyme, RTIs can prevent the virus from replicating and reduce the viral load in an infected individual, thereby slowing down the progression of HIV infection and AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome).

Drug resistance, viral, refers to the ability of a virus to continue replicating in the presence of antiviral drugs that are designed to inhibit or stop its growth. This occurs when the virus mutates and changes its genetic makeup in such a way that the drug can no longer effectively bind to and inhibit the function of its target protein, allowing the virus to continue infecting host cells and causing disease.

Viral drug resistance can develop due to several factors, including:

1. Mutations in the viral genome that alter the structure or function of the drug's target protein.
2. Changes in the expression levels or location of the drug's target protein within the virus-infected cell.
3. Activation of alternative pathways that allow the virus to replicate despite the presence of the drug.
4. Increased efflux of the drug from the virus-infected cell, reducing its intracellular concentration and effectiveness.

Viral drug resistance is a significant concern in the treatment of viral infections such as HIV, hepatitis B and C, herpes simplex virus, and influenza. It can lead to reduced treatment efficacy, increased risk of treatment failure, and the need for more toxic or expensive drugs. Therefore, it is essential to monitor viral drug resistance during treatment and adjust therapy accordingly to ensure optimal outcomes.

Liver neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the liver that can be benign or malignant. Benign liver neoplasms are non-cancerous tumors that do not spread to other parts of the body, while malignant liver neoplasms are cancerous tumors that can invade and destroy surrounding tissue and spread to other organs.

Liver neoplasms can be primary, meaning they originate in the liver, or secondary, meaning they have metastasized (spread) to the liver from another part of the body. Primary liver neoplasms can be further classified into different types based on their cell of origin and behavior, including hepatocellular carcinoma, cholangiocarcinoma, and hepatic hemangioma.

The diagnosis of liver neoplasms typically involves a combination of imaging studies, such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI, and biopsy to confirm the type and stage of the tumor. Treatment options depend on the type and extent of the neoplasm and may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or liver transplantation.

Hepatitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the liver, often resulting in damage to liver cells. It can be caused by various factors, including viral infections (such as Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E), alcohol abuse, toxins, medications, and autoimmune disorders. Symptoms may include jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, and dark urine. The severity of the disease can range from mild illness to severe, life-threatening conditions, such as liver failure or cirrhosis.

Infectious pregnancy complications refer to infections that occur during pregnancy and can affect the mother, fetus, or both. These infections can lead to serious consequences such as preterm labor, low birth weight, birth defects, stillbirth, or even death. Some common infectious agents that can cause pregnancy complications include:

1. Bacteria: Examples include group B streptococcus, Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes, which can cause sepsis, meningitis, or pneumonia in the mother and lead to preterm labor or stillbirth.
2. Viruses: Examples include cytomegalovirus, rubella, varicella-zoster, and HIV, which can cause congenital anomalies, developmental delays, or transmission of the virus to the fetus.
3. Parasites: Examples include Toxoplasma gondii, which can cause severe neurological damage in the fetus if transmitted during pregnancy.
4. Fungi: Examples include Candida albicans, which can cause fungal infections in the mother and lead to preterm labor or stillbirth.

Preventive measures such as vaccination, good hygiene practices, and avoiding high-risk behaviors can help reduce the risk of infectious pregnancy complications. Prompt diagnosis and treatment of infections during pregnancy are also crucial to prevent adverse outcomes.

A nucleoside is a biochemical molecule that consists of a pentose sugar (a type of simple sugar with five carbon atoms) covalently linked to a nitrogenous base. The nitrogenous base can be one of several types, including adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, or uracil. Nucleosides are important components of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, which are the genetic materials found in cells. They play a crucial role in various biological processes, including cell division, protein synthesis, and gene expression.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

Viral hepatitis in humans refers to inflammation of the liver caused by infection with viruses that primarily target the liver. There are five main types of human viral hepatitis, designated as Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E virus (HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV, and HEV). These viruses can cause a range of illnesses, from acute self-limiting hepatitis to chronic hepatitis, which can lead to cirrhosis and liver cancer.

1. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is typically spread through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water. It usually results in an acute self-limiting infection, but rarely can cause chronic hepatitis in individuals with weakened immune systems.
2. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood, semen, and other bodily fluids. It can lead to both acute and chronic hepatitis, which may result in cirrhosis and liver cancer if left untreated.
3. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is predominantly spread through exposure to infected blood, such as through sharing needles or receiving contaminated blood transfusions. Chronic hepatitis C is common, and it can lead to serious liver complications like cirrhosis and liver cancer if not treated.
4. Hepatitis D virus (HDV) is an incomplete virus that requires the presence of HBV for its replication. HDV infection occurs only in individuals already infected with HBV, leading to more severe liver disease compared to HBV monoinfection.
5. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water. It usually results in an acute self-limiting infection but can cause chronic hepatitis in pregnant women and individuals with weakened immune systems.

Prevention measures include vaccination for HAV and HBV, safe sex practices, avoiding sharing needles, and ensuring proper hygiene and sanitation to prevent fecal-oral transmission.

Chronic Hepatitis C is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV) that lasts for more than six months. This long-term infection can lead to scarring of the liver (cirrhosis), which can cause serious health problems, such as liver failure or liver cancer, in some individuals. The infection is usually asymptomatic until complications arise, but it can be detected through blood tests that identify antibodies to the virus or viral RNA. Chronic hepatitis C is typically managed with antiviral therapy, which can help clear the virus from the body and reduce the risk of liver damage.

Virus replication is the process by which a virus produces copies or reproduces itself inside a host cell. This involves several steps:

1. Attachment: The virus attaches to a specific receptor on the surface of the host cell.
2. Penetration: The viral genetic material enters the host cell, either by invagination of the cell membrane or endocytosis.
3. Uncoating: The viral genetic material is released from its protective coat (capsid) inside the host cell.
4. Replication: The viral genetic material uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
5. Assembly: The newly synthesized viral components are assembled into new virus particles.
6. Release: The newly formed viruses are released from the host cell, often through lysis (breaking) of the cell membrane or by budding off the cell membrane.

The specific mechanisms and details of virus replication can vary depending on the type of virus. Some viruses, such as DNA viruses, use the host cell's DNA polymerase to replicate their genetic material, while others, such as RNA viruses, use their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase enzymes. Understanding the process of virus replication is important for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Guanine is not a medical term per se, but it is a biological molecule that plays a crucial role in the body. Guanine is one of the four nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, along with adenine, cytosine, and thymine (in DNA) or uracil (in RNA). Specifically, guanine pairs with cytosine via hydrogen bonds to form a base pair.

Guanine is a purine derivative, which means it has a double-ring structure. It is formed through the synthesis of simpler molecules in the body and is an essential component of genetic material. Guanine's chemical formula is C5H5N5O.

While guanine itself is not a medical term, abnormalities or mutations in genes that contain guanine nucleotides can lead to various medical conditions, including genetic disorders and cancer.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Polyethylene glycols (PEGs) are a family of synthetic, water-soluble polymers with a wide range of molecular weights. They are commonly used in the medical field as excipients in pharmaceutical formulations due to their ability to improve drug solubility, stability, and bioavailability. PEGs can also be used as laxatives to treat constipation or as bowel cleansing agents prior to colonoscopy examinations. Additionally, some PEG-conjugated drugs have been developed for use in targeted cancer therapies.

In a medical context, PEGs are often referred to by their average molecular weight, such as PEG 300, PEG 400, PEG 1500, and so on. Higher molecular weight PEGs tend to be more viscous and have longer-lasting effects in the body.

It's worth noting that while PEGs are generally considered safe for use in medical applications, some people may experience allergic reactions or hypersensitivity to these compounds. Prolonged exposure to high molecular weight PEGs has also been linked to potential adverse effects, such as decreased fertility and developmental toxicity in animal studies. However, more research is needed to fully understand the long-term safety of PEGs in humans.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is the causative agent of hepatitis A, a viral infection that causes inflammation of the liver. It is a small, non-enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Picornaviridae family and Hepatovirus genus. The virus primarily spreads through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water, or close contact with an infected person. After entering the body, HAV infects hepatocytes in the liver, leading to liver damage and associated symptoms such as jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, and nausea. The immune system eventually clears the infection, providing lifelong immunity against future HAV infections. Preventive measures include vaccination and practicing good hygiene to prevent transmission.

Duck hepatitis B virus (DHBV) is not a medical definition related to human health, but it is a species of hepatitis B virus that primarily infects various species of ducks and other Anseriformes (waterfowl). It is closely related to the human hepatitis B virus (HBV), but it is not known to infect humans or other mammals.

DHBV, like HBV, is a DNA virus that targets the liver and can cause both acute and chronic infections. The virus is transmitted through the fecal-oral route and primarily affects young ducklings. Infection with DHBV can lead to liver damage and death in infected birds.

Researchers study DHBV as a model system for understanding HBV infection and pathogenesis, due to their similarities in viral structure, replication strategy, and host-virus interactions. However, it is important to note that DHBV is not a human health concern and does not pose a risk of infection to humans or other mammals.

Hepatitis viruses refer to a group of viral agents that primarily target the liver, causing inflammation and damage to hepatocytes (liver cells). This results in various clinical manifestations, ranging from an acute infection to a chronic, persistent infection. There are five main types of hepatitis viruses, named Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E virus, each with distinct genetic material, modes of transmission, and disease severity.

1. Hepatitis A Virus (HAV): This is a single-stranded RNA virus that is primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often via contaminated food or water. Infected individuals may experience symptoms such as jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, and loss of appetite. While most people recover completely within a few months, severe complications can occur in rare cases. A vaccine is available to prevent HAV infection.
2. Hepatitis B Virus (HBV): This is a double-stranded DNA virus that is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood or bodily fluids, such as during sexual contact, sharing needles, or from mother to child during childbirth. HBV can cause both acute and chronic hepatitis, which may lead to severe liver complications like cirrhosis and liver cancer if left untreated. A vaccine is available to prevent HBV infection.
3. Hepatitis C Virus (HCV): This is a single-stranded RNA virus that is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood, often through sharing needles or during medical procedures using contaminated equipment. Like HBV, HCV can cause both acute and chronic hepatitis, which may lead to severe liver complications if left untreated. No vaccine is currently available for HCV; however, antiviral treatments can cure the infection in many cases.
4. Hepatitis D Virus (HDV): This is a defective RNA virus that requires the presence of HBV to replicate and cause infection. HDV is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood or bodily fluids, similar to HBV. Co-infection with both HBV and HDV can result in more severe liver disease compared to HBV infection alone. Antiviral treatments are available for HDV; however, a vaccine is not.
5. Hepatitis E Virus (HEV): This is a single-stranded RNA virus that primarily causes acute hepatitis and is usually transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water. In most cases, HEV infection resolves on its own without treatment. However, in pregnant women and individuals with weakened immune systems, HEV can cause severe liver complications. No vaccine is currently available for HEV in the United States; however, a vaccine has been approved in some countries.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Recombinant proteins are artificially created proteins produced through the use of recombinant DNA technology. This process involves combining DNA molecules from different sources to create a new set of genes that encode for a specific protein. The resulting recombinant protein can then be expressed, purified, and used for various applications in research, medicine, and industry.

Recombinant proteins are widely used in biomedical research to study protein function, structure, and interactions. They are also used in the development of diagnostic tests, vaccines, and therapeutic drugs. For example, recombinant insulin is a common treatment for diabetes, while recombinant human growth hormone is used to treat growth disorders.

The production of recombinant proteins typically involves the use of host cells, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, which are engineered to express the desired protein. The host cells are transformed with a plasmid vector containing the gene of interest, along with regulatory elements that control its expression. Once the host cells are cultured and the protein is expressed, it can be purified using various chromatography techniques.

Overall, recombinant proteins have revolutionized many areas of biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study and manipulate proteins in ways that were previously impossible.

Hepatitis antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to an infection caused by a hepatitis virus. There are several types of hepatitis viruses, including A, B, C, D, and E, each with their own specific antibodies.

The presence of hepatitis antibodies in the blood can indicate a current or past infection with the corresponding hepatitis virus. For example, the detection of anti-HAV (hepatitis A virus) antibodies indicates a past infection or immunization against hepatitis A, while the detection of anti-HBs (hepatitis B surface antigen) antibodies indicates immunity due to vaccination or recovery from a hepatitis B infection.

It's important to note that some hepatitis antibodies may not provide immunity to future infections, and individuals can still be infected with the virus even if they have previously produced antibodies against it. Therefore, regular testing and vaccination are essential for preventing the spread of hepatitis viruses and protecting public health.

Bacterial antigens are substances found on the surface or produced by bacteria that can stimulate an immune response in a host organism. These antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, teichoic acids, lipopolysaccharides, or other molecules that are recognized as foreign by the host's immune system.

When a bacterial antigen is encountered by the host's immune system, it triggers a series of responses aimed at eliminating the bacteria and preventing infection. The host's immune system recognizes the antigen as foreign through the use of specialized receptors called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which are found on various immune cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils.

Once a bacterial antigen is recognized by the host's immune system, it can stimulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses. The innate immune response involves the activation of inflammatory pathways, the recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection, and the production of antimicrobial peptides.

The adaptive immune response, on the other hand, involves the activation of T cells and B cells, which are specific to the bacterial antigen. These cells can recognize and remember the antigen, allowing for a more rapid and effective response upon subsequent exposures.

Bacterial antigens are important in the development of vaccines, as they can be used to stimulate an immune response without causing disease. By identifying specific bacterial antigens that are associated with virulence or pathogenicity, researchers can develop vaccines that target these antigens and provide protection against infection.

Hepacivirus is a genus of viruses in the family Flaviviridae. The most well-known member of this genus is Hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is a major cause of liver disease worldwide. HCV infection can lead to chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer.

Hepaciviruses are enveloped viruses with a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome. They have a small icosahedral capsid and infect a variety of hosts, including humans, non-human primates, horses, and birds. The virus enters the host cell by binding to specific receptors on the cell surface and is then internalized through endocytosis.

HCV has a high degree of genetic diversity and is classified into seven major genotypes and numerous subtypes based on differences in its RNA sequence. This genetic variability can affect the virus's ability to evade the host immune response, making treatment more challenging.

In addition to HCV, other hepaciviruses have been identified in various animal species, including equine hepacivirus (EHCV), rodent hepacivirus (RHV), and bat hepacivirus (BtHepCV). These viruses are being studied to better understand the biology of hepaciviruses and their potential impact on human health.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Hepatitis A vaccines are inactivated or live attenuated viral vaccines that are administered to prevent infection and illness caused by the hepatitis A virus. The vaccine contains antigens that stimulate an immune response in the body, leading to the production of antibodies that protect against future infection with the virus.

The inactivated hepatitis A vaccine is made from viruses that have been chemically treated to destroy their ability to cause disease while preserving their ability to stimulate an immune response. This type of vaccine is typically given in two doses, six months apart, and provides long-term protection against the virus.

The live attenuated hepatitis A vaccine contains a weakened form of the virus that is unable to cause illness but can still stimulate an immune response. This type of vaccine is given as a single dose and provides protection against the virus for at least 20 years.

Hepatitis A vaccines are recommended for people who are at increased risk of infection, including travelers to areas where hepatitis A is common, men who have sex with men, people who use injection drugs, and people with chronic liver disease or clotting factor disorders. The vaccine is also recommended for children in certain states and communities where hepatitis A is endemic.

A chronic disease is a long-term medical condition that often progresses slowly over a period of years and requires ongoing management and care. These diseases are typically not fully curable, but symptoms can be managed to improve quality of life. Common chronic diseases include heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes, arthritis, and COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). They are often associated with advanced age, although they can also affect children and younger adults. Chronic diseases can have significant impacts on individuals' physical, emotional, and social well-being, as well as on healthcare systems and society at large.

I am not aware of a specific medical definition for the term "China." Generally, it is used to refer to:

1. The People's Republic of China (PRC), which is a country in East Asia. It is the most populous country in the world and the fourth largest by geographical area. Its capital city is Beijing.
2. In a historical context, "China" was used to refer to various dynasties and empires that existed in East Asia over thousands of years. The term "Middle Kingdom" or "Zhongguo" (中国) has been used by the Chinese people to refer to their country for centuries.
3. In a more general sense, "China" can also be used to describe products or goods that originate from or are associated with the People's Republic of China.

If you have a specific context in which you encountered the term "China" related to medicine, please provide it so I can give a more accurate response.

Hepatitis C antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to an infection with the hepatitis C virus (HCV). Detection of these antibodies in the blood indicates a past or present HCV infection. However, it does not necessarily mean that the person is currently infected, as antibodies can persist for years even after the virus has been cleared from the body. Additional tests are usually needed to confirm whether the infection is still active and to guide treatment decisions.

Neoplasm antigens, also known as tumor antigens, are substances that are produced by cancer cells (neoplasms) and can stimulate an immune response. These antigens can be proteins, carbohydrates, or other molecules that are either unique to the cancer cells or are overexpressed or mutated versions of normal cellular proteins.

Neoplasm antigens can be classified into two main categories: tumor-specific antigens (TSAs) and tumor-associated antigens (TAAs). TSAs are unique to cancer cells and are not expressed by normal cells, while TAAs are present at low levels in normal cells but are overexpressed or altered in cancer cells.

TSAs can be further divided into viral antigens and mutated antigens. Viral antigens are produced when cancer is caused by a virus, such as human papillomavirus (HPV) in cervical cancer. Mutated antigens are the result of genetic mutations that occur during cancer development and are unique to each patient's tumor.

Neoplasm antigens play an important role in the immune response against cancer. They can be recognized by the immune system, leading to the activation of immune cells such as T cells and natural killer (NK) cells, which can then attack and destroy cancer cells. However, cancer cells often develop mechanisms to evade the immune response, allowing them to continue growing and spreading.

Understanding neoplasm antigens is important for the development of cancer immunotherapies, which aim to enhance the body's natural immune response against cancer. These therapies include checkpoint inhibitors, which block proteins that inhibit T cell activation, and therapeutic vaccines, which stimulate an immune response against specific tumor antigens.

Combination drug therapy is a treatment approach that involves the use of multiple medications with different mechanisms of action to achieve better therapeutic outcomes. This approach is often used in the management of complex medical conditions such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, and cardiovascular diseases. The goal of combination drug therapy is to improve efficacy, reduce the risk of drug resistance, decrease the likelihood of adverse effects, and enhance the overall quality of life for patients.

In combining drugs, healthcare providers aim to target various pathways involved in the disease process, which may help to:

1. Increase the effectiveness of treatment by attacking the disease from multiple angles.
2. Decrease the dosage of individual medications, reducing the risk and severity of side effects.
3. Slow down or prevent the development of drug resistance, a common problem in chronic diseases like HIV/AIDS and cancer.
4. Improve patient compliance by simplifying dosing schedules and reducing pill burden.

Examples of combination drug therapy include:

1. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV treatment, which typically involves three or more drugs from different classes to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
2. Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where multiple cytotoxic agents are used to target various stages of the cell cycle and reduce the likelihood of tumor cells developing resistance.
3. Cardiovascular disease management, which may involve combining medications such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, beta-blockers, diuretics, and statins to control blood pressure, heart rate, fluid balance, and cholesterol levels.
4. Treatment of tuberculosis, which often involves a combination of several antibiotics to target different aspects of the bacterial life cycle and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

When prescribing combination drug therapy, healthcare providers must carefully consider factors such as potential drug interactions, dosing schedules, adverse effects, and contraindications to ensure safe and effective treatment. Regular monitoring of patients is essential to assess treatment response, manage side effects, and adjust the treatment plan as needed.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Viral Hepatitis, Animal" is not a standard medical classification or definition. Hepatitis refers to inflammation of the liver, and viral hepatitis refers to inflammation caused by a virus. The term "animal" in this context doesn't provide a clear meaning.

However, it's worth noting that some animals can contract viral hepatitis, similar to humans. For instance, there are hepatitis A, B, and C-like viruses that have been identified in various animal species. These are typically not transmissible to humans.

If you're referring to a specific medical condition or context, could you please provide more details? I'd be happy to help further with more information.

Hepatitis D, also known as Delta hepatitis, is a viral infection of the liver that can only occur in people who have a current infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV). It's caused by the hepatitis delta virus (HDV), which is a small, enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus.

HDV requires the presence of HBV for its replication and survival, so it can't infect someone who doesn't already have HBV. When both viruses are present, they can interact in ways that lead to more severe liver disease than either virus would cause alone.

Hepatitis D can be an acute or chronic infection, and it can range from mild to severe, with symptoms similar to those of other types of viral hepatitis, such as jaundice, fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and joint pain. In some cases, hepatitis D can lead to serious complications, including liver failure and death.

Hepatitis D is primarily spread through contact with infected blood or other bodily fluids, such as during sexual contact, sharing needles, or mother-to-child transmission during childbirth. It's preventable through vaccination against hepatitis B, which provides immunity to both viruses. There is no specific treatment for hepatitis D, but antiviral therapy for hepatitis B can help manage the infection and prevent complications.

Surface antigens are molecules found on the surface of cells that can be recognized by the immune system as being foreign or different from the host's own cells. Antigens are typically proteins or polysaccharides that are capable of stimulating an immune response, leading to the production of antibodies and activation of immune cells such as T-cells.

Surface antigens are important in the context of infectious diseases because they allow the immune system to identify and target infected cells for destruction. For example, viruses and bacteria often display surface antigens that are distinct from those found on host cells, allowing the immune system to recognize and attack them. In some cases, these surface antigens can also be used as targets for vaccines or other immunotherapies.

In addition to their role in infectious diseases, surface antigens are also important in the context of cancer. Tumor cells often display abnormal surface antigens that differ from those found on normal cells, allowing the immune system to potentially recognize and attack them. However, tumors can also develop mechanisms to evade the immune system, making it difficult to mount an effective response.

Overall, understanding the properties and behavior of surface antigens is crucial for developing effective immunotherapies and vaccines against infectious diseases and cancer.

Viral hepatitis vaccines are vaccines that prevent infection caused by various hepatitis viruses, including hepatitis A and B. These vaccines contain antigens that stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies that protect against infection with the corresponding virus. The vaccines are typically administered through injection and may require multiple doses for full protection.

The hepatitis A vaccine is made from inactivated hepatitis A virus, while the hepatitis B vaccine is made from recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen. Both vaccines have been shown to be highly effective in preventing infection and reducing the risk of complications associated with viral hepatitis, such as liver disease and liver cancer.

It's important to note that there are no vaccines available for other types of viral hepatitis, such as hepatitis C, D, or E. Prevention strategies for these types of viral hepatitis typically involve measures to reduce exposure to the virus, such as safe injection practices and avoiding high-risk behaviors like sharing needles or having unprotected sex with infected individuals.

An antigen is any substance that can stimulate an immune response, particularly the production of antibodies. Viral antigens are antigens that are found on or produced by viruses. They can be proteins, glycoproteins, or carbohydrates present on the surface or inside the viral particle.

Viral antigens play a crucial role in the immune system's recognition and response to viral infections. When a virus infects a host cell, it may display its antigens on the surface of the infected cell. This allows the immune system to recognize and target the infected cells for destruction, thereby limiting the spread of the virus.

Viral antigens are also important targets for vaccines. Vaccines typically work by introducing a harmless form of a viral antigen to the body, which then stimulates the production of antibodies and memory T-cells that can recognize and respond quickly and effectively to future infections with the actual virus.

It's worth noting that different types of viruses have different antigens, and these antigens can vary between strains of the same virus. This is why there are often different vaccines available for different viral diseases, and why flu vaccines need to be updated every year to account for changes in the circulating influenza virus strains.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Follow-up studies are a type of longitudinal research that involve repeated observations or measurements of the same variables over a period of time, in order to understand their long-term effects or outcomes. In medical context, follow-up studies are often used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments, interventions, or procedures.

In a typical follow-up study, a group of individuals (called a cohort) who have received a particular treatment or intervention are identified and then followed over time through periodic assessments or data collection. The data collected may include information on clinical outcomes, adverse events, changes in symptoms or functional status, and other relevant measures.

The results of follow-up studies can provide important insights into the long-term benefits and risks of medical interventions, as well as help to identify factors that may influence treatment effectiveness or patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that follow-up studies can be subject to various biases and limitations, such as loss to follow-up, recall bias, and changes in clinical practice over time, which must be carefully considered when interpreting the results.

Hepatitis Delta Virus (HDV) is not a traditional virus but rather a defective RNA particle that requires the assistance of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) to replicate. It's also known as delta agent or hepatitis D. HDV is a unique pathogen that only infects individuals who are already infected with HBV.

The virus causes a more severe form of viral hepatitis than HBV alone, leading to a higher risk of fulminant hepatitis (acute liver failure) and chronic hepatitis, which can progress to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. HDV is primarily transmitted through percutaneous or sexual contact with infected blood or body fluids.

Prevention strategies include vaccination against HBV, which also prevents HDV infection, and avoiding high-risk behaviors such as intravenous drug use and unprotected sex with multiple partners. There is no specific treatment for HDV; however, antiviral therapy for HBV can help manage the infection.

Hepatitis E is a viral infection that specifically affects the liver, caused by the hepatitis E virus (HEV). The disease is primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated water or food. It can also be spread through blood transfusions and vertical transmission from mother to fetus.

The incubation period for hepatitis E ranges from 2 to 10 weeks. Symptoms of the disease are similar to other types of viral hepatitis and may include jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), fatigue, loss of appetite, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, joint pain, and dark urine.

In most cases, hepatitis E is a self-limiting disease, meaning that it resolves on its own within a few weeks to months. However, in some individuals, particularly those with weakened immune systems, the infection can lead to severe complications such as acute liver failure and death. Pregnant women, especially those in the third trimester, are at higher risk of developing severe disease and have a mortality rate of up to 25%.

Prevention measures include maintaining good hygiene practices, practicing safe food handling and preparation, and ensuring access to clean water sources. Currently, there is no specific treatment for hepatitis E, but supportive care can help manage symptoms. Vaccines are available in some countries to prevent the disease.

Hepatitis A antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to a Hepatitis A virus infection or after vaccination. There are two types of Hepatitis A antibodies:

1. IgM anti-HAV (Hepatitis A Virus) antibodies: These are the first type of antibodies produced by the immune system during a Hepatitis A infection. They appear in the blood within 2 to 4 weeks after exposure to the virus and remain detectable for up to 12 weeks. The presence of IgM anti-HAV antibodies indicates a recent or ongoing Hepatitis A infection.

2. IgG anti-HAV antibodies: These are the second type of antibodies produced by the immune system during a Hepatitis A infection, and they appear in the blood several weeks after the onset of illness. IgG anti-HAV antibodies remain detectable for many years, providing long-term immunity against future Hepatitis A infections. After vaccination, only IgG anti-HAV antibodies are produced, indicating immunity to Hepatitis A.

Testing for Hepatitis A antibodies is used to diagnose acute or past Hepatitis A infections and to assess immunity following vaccination.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus that belongs to the family Hepeviridae and genus Orthohepevirus. It primarily infects the liver, causing acute hepatitis in humans. The virus is transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated water or food sources. Ingestion of raw or undercooked pork or deer meat can also lead to HEV infection.

HEV infection typically results in self-limiting acute hepatitis, characterized by symptoms such as jaundice, fatigue, loss of appetite, abdominal pain, and dark urine. In some cases, particularly among pregnant women and individuals with weakened immune systems, HEV infection can lead to severe complications, including fulminant hepatic failure and death.

There are four main genotypes of HEV that infect humans: genotype 1 and 2 are primarily found in developing countries and are transmitted through contaminated water; genotype 3 and 4 are found worldwide and can be transmitted through both zoonotic and human-to-human routes.

Prevention measures include improving sanitation, access to clean water, and food safety practices. Currently, there is no specific antiviral treatment for HEV infection, but supportive care can help manage symptoms. A vaccine against HEV is available in China and has shown efficacy in preventing the disease.

Autoimmune hepatitis is a chronic (long-term) disease in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks the liver, leading to inflammation and damage. This results in decreased liver function over time if not treated. The exact cause of autoimmune hepatitis is unknown, but it is believed to be associated with genetic factors and exposure to certain environmental triggers, such as viral infections or medications.

There are two main types of autoimmune hepatitis:

1. Type 1 (classic) autoimmune hepatitis: This form can affect both adults and children, and it is more common in women than men. People with this type may also have other autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis, thyroid disease, or ulcerative colitis.
2. Type 2 autoimmune hepatitis: This form primarily affects children and young women. It is less common than type 1 and tends to be more severe. People with this type may also have other autoimmune disorders, such as celiac disease or chronic candidiasis.

Symptoms of autoimmune hepatitis can vary widely, from mild to severe. They may include fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, joint pain, jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), dark urine, and light-colored stools.

Diagnosis typically involves blood tests, imaging studies, and sometimes a liver biopsy to assess the extent of damage. Treatment usually includes medications that suppress the immune system, such as corticosteroids and immunosuppressants, which can help reduce inflammation and slow or stop liver damage. In some cases, lifestyle changes and supportive care may also be necessary.

Seroepidemiologic studies are a type of epidemiological study that measures the presence and levels of antibodies in a population's blood serum to investigate the prevalence, distribution, and transmission of infectious diseases. These studies help to identify patterns of infection and immunity within a population, which can inform public health policies and interventions.

Seroepidemiologic studies typically involve collecting blood samples from a representative sample of individuals in a population and testing them for the presence of antibodies against specific pathogens. The results are then analyzed to estimate the prevalence of infection and immunity within the population, as well as any factors associated with increased or decreased risk of infection.

These studies can provide valuable insights into the spread of infectious diseases, including emerging and re-emerging infections, and help to monitor the effectiveness of vaccination programs. Additionally, seroepidemiologic studies can also be used to investigate the transmission dynamics of infectious agents, such as identifying sources of infection or tracking the spread of antibiotic resistance.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

Hepatitis A Virus, Human (HAV): A single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus belonging to the Picornaviridae family, specifically the Hepatovirus genus. It is the causative agent of Hepatitis A, a viral infection that primarily affects the liver. The virus is typically transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often via contaminated food or water, or close contact with an infected individual. Following incubation (15-50 days), symptoms may include jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, nausea, diarrhea, and fever. Most people recover completely within a few weeks; however, severe complications and death are possible, especially in individuals with preexisting liver disease. Prevention is primarily achieved through vaccination and practicing good hygiene.

A biological marker, often referred to as a biomarker, is a measurable indicator that reflects the presence or severity of a disease state, or a response to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers can be found in various materials such as blood, tissues, or bodily fluids, and they can take many forms, including molecular, histologic, radiographic, or physiological measurements.

In the context of medical research and clinical practice, biomarkers are used for a variety of purposes, such as:

1. Diagnosis: Biomarkers can help diagnose a disease by indicating the presence or absence of a particular condition. For example, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a biomarker used to detect prostate cancer.
2. Monitoring: Biomarkers can be used to monitor the progression or regression of a disease over time. For instance, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels are monitored in diabetes patients to assess long-term blood glucose control.
3. Predicting: Biomarkers can help predict the likelihood of developing a particular disease or the risk of a negative outcome. For example, the presence of certain genetic mutations can indicate an increased risk for breast cancer.
4. Response to treatment: Biomarkers can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific treatment by measuring changes in the biomarker levels before and after the intervention. This is particularly useful in personalized medicine, where treatments are tailored to individual patients based on their unique biomarker profiles.

It's important to note that for a biomarker to be considered clinically valid and useful, it must undergo rigorous validation through well-designed studies, including demonstrating sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and clinical relevance.

Pregnancy is a physiological state or condition where a fertilized egg (zygote) successfully implants and grows in the uterus of a woman, leading to the development of an embryo and finally a fetus. This process typically spans approximately 40 weeks, divided into three trimesters, and culminates in childbirth. Throughout this period, numerous hormonal and physical changes occur to support the growing offspring, including uterine enlargement, breast development, and various maternal adaptations to ensure the fetus's optimal growth and well-being.

A viral RNA (ribonucleic acid) is the genetic material found in certain types of viruses, as opposed to viruses that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). These viruses are known as RNA viruses. The RNA can be single-stranded or double-stranded and can exist as several different forms, such as positive-sense, negative-sense, or ambisense RNA. Upon infecting a host cell, the viral RNA uses the host's cellular machinery to translate the genetic information into proteins, leading to the production of new virus particles and the continuation of the viral life cycle. Examples of human diseases caused by RNA viruses include influenza, COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), hepatitis C, and polio.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Animal Hepatitis" is not a medical term used to describe a specific disease. Hepatitis refers to inflammation of the liver, and it can be caused by various factors, including viruses, alcohol, drugs, and certain medical conditions.

However, there are several viral hepatitis types that can infect animals, such as Hepatitis A, B, and C, which primarily affect humans. But there are also other hepatitis viruses that are species-specific and primarily infect animals, such as:

1. Canine Hepatitis (Adenovirus Type 1): This is a viral infection that affects dogs and causes liver damage, respiratory signs, and occasionally death.
2. Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP) Virus: While not strictly a hepatitis virus, this feline coronavirus can cause severe inflammation of the liver and other organs in cats.
3. Equine Infectious Anemia Virus (EIAV): This retrovirus affects horses and causes cyclic fever, anemia, and occasionally liver disease.
4. Avian Hepatitis E Virus: A recently discovered virus that infects birds and can cause hepatitis and other systemic signs in chickens and other avian species.

If you're looking for information on a specific animal hepatitis virus or a different medical term, please provide more context so I can give you a more accurate answer.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Viral core proteins are the structural proteins that make up the viral capsid or protein shell, enclosing and protecting the viral genome. These proteins play a crucial role in the assembly of the virion, assist in the infection process by helping to deliver the viral genome into the host cell, and may also have functions in regulating viral replication. The specific composition and structure of viral core proteins vary among different types of viruses.

Hepatitis B virus (Woodchuck) refers to the hepadnavirus that naturally infects North American woodchucks (Marmota monax). This virus is closely related to the human Hepatitis B virus (HBV), and it is used as a model for studying HBV infection and related liver diseases in woodchucks. The woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) can cause both acute and chronic hepatitis, liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer in its natural host. The virus-host interactions and the disease progression in woodchucks closely mimic those observed in humans with HBV infection. Therefore, studies of WHV infection in woodchucks have contributed significantly to our understanding of HBV biology, host immune responses, and the development of novel therapies for HBV infection in humans.

Hepatitis Delta Antigens (HDAg) are proteins found on the surface of the Hepatitis Delta Virus (HDV), a defective virus that requires the assistance of the Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) to replicate. There are two types of HDAg: small (S-HDAg) and large (L-HDAg). S-HDAg is a 195-amino acid protein that is essential for viral replication, while L-HDAg is a 214-amino acid protein that regulates the packaging of the viral genome into new virus particles. The presence of HDAg can be used to diagnose HDV infection and distinguish it from other forms of hepatitis.

Antibodies, viral are proteins produced by the immune system in response to an infection with a virus. These antibodies are capable of recognizing and binding to specific antigens on the surface of the virus, which helps to neutralize or destroy the virus and prevent its replication. Once produced, these antibodies can provide immunity against future infections with the same virus.

Viral antibodies are typically composed of four polypeptide chains - two heavy chains and two light chains - that are held together by disulfide bonds. The binding site for the antigen is located at the tip of the Y-shaped structure, formed by the variable regions of the heavy and light chains.

There are five classes of antibodies in humans: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each class has a different function and is distributed differently throughout the body. For example, IgG is the most common type of antibody found in the bloodstream and provides long-term immunity against viruses, while IgA is found primarily in mucous membranes and helps to protect against respiratory and gastrointestinal infections.

In addition to their role in the immune response, viral antibodies can also be used as diagnostic tools to detect the presence of a specific virus in a patient's blood or other bodily fluids.

Hepatitis C antigens refer to the proteins present on the surface of the hepatitis C virus (HCV). The most commonly studied and clinically relevant antigen is the core protein, which plays a crucial role in the viral replication process. Detection of HCV antigens in serum or plasma can indicate an ongoing infection, as they appear during the early stages of infection and usually persist until the development of a humoral immune response, which leads to the production of antibodies against these antigens.

The detection of HCV core antigen (HCVcAg) has been used as an alternative diagnostic marker for HCV infection, especially in resource-limited settings where nucleic acid testing (NAT), such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for HCV RNA, might not be readily available. However, the sensitivity and specificity of HCVcAg detection are generally lower than those of NAT methods. Nonetheless, it remains a valuable tool in monitoring treatment response and disease progression in individuals with chronic hepatitis C infection.

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... (core antigen) is a hepatitis B viral protein. It is an indicator of active viral replication; this means the person ... May 2003). "New enzyme immunoassay for detection of hepatitis B virus core antigen (HBcAg) and relation between levels of HBcAg ... HBcAg is an antigen that can be found on the surface of the nucleocapsid core (the inner most layer of the hepatitis B virus). ... "In vivo inhibition of anti-hepatitis B virus core antigen (HBcAg) immunoglobulin G production by HBcAg-specific CD4(+) Th1-type ...
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The coating, hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), is not infectious; however, HBsAG can provoke an immune response. In order to ... Donald G. McNeil, Jr., April 26, 2012, Irving Millman Dies at 88; Worked to Stop Hepatitis B, The New York Times. His Hepatitis ... Millman's work with Baruch Blumberg helped lead to the creation of a test to detect hepatitis B. The test allowed blood banks ... helped develop hepatitis B vaccine". The Washington Post. Washington, D.C. ISSN 0190-8286. OCLC 1330888409. v t e (Articles ...
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A recombinant viral vector was first used when a hepatitis B surface antigen gene was inserted into a vaccinia virus. ... "Infectious vaccinia virus recombinants that express hepatitis B virus surface antigen". Nature. 302 (5908): 490-495. doi: ... Viral vector vaccines do not cause infection with either the virus used as the vector or the source of the antigen. The genetic ... Viral vector vaccines enable antigen expression within cells and induce a robust cytotoxic T cell response, unlike subunit ...
... has been found to have homology to hepatitis delta virus antigen (HDAg). DIPA interacts with the viral antigen, HDAg, and can ... Long M, de Souza SJ, Gilbert W (May 1997). "Delta-interacting protein A and the origin of hepatitis delta antigen". Science. ... Brazas R, Ganem D (Oct 1996). "A cellular homolog of hepatitis delta antigen: implications for viral replication and evolution ... Hepatitis delta virus (HDV) is a pathogenic human virus whose RNA genome and replication cycle resemble those of plant viroids ...
"Identification of target antigen for SLA/LP autoantibodies in autoimmune hepatitis". Lancet. 355 (9214): 1510-5. doi:10.1016/ ... "Entrez Gene: SLA/LP soluble liver antigen/liver pancreas antigen". Herkel J, Heidrich B, Nieraad N, Wies I, Rother M, Lohse AW ... Volkmann M, Martin L, Bäurle A, Heid H, Strassburg CP, Trautwein C, Fiehn W, Manns MP (2001). "Soluble liver antigen: isolation ... SECp43 and soluble liver antigen, in the selenoprotein synthesis machinery". J. Biol. Chem. 280 (50): 41568-75. doi:10.1074/jbc ...
... certain antigens present during hepatitis can accumulate in the kidneys and damage them. Sjögren's syndrome: this autoimmune ... HIV: the virus's antigens provoke an obstruction in the glomerular capillary's lumen that alters normal kidney function. ... Syphilis: kidney damage can occur during the secondary stage of this disease (between 2 and 8 weeks from onset). Hepatitis B: ... Liver failure caused by cirrhosis, hepatitis and other conditions such as alcoholism, IV drug use or some hereditary diseases ...
"Gold nanoparticle based capacitive immunosensor for detection of hepatitis B surface antigen". Analytical Methods. 5 (17): 4448 ... Hepatitis B Prepared AuNPs-Hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA gene probes could be used to detect HBV DNA directly. The detection- ...
Hraber P, Kuiken C, Yusim K (December 2007). "Evidence for human leukocyte antigen heterozygote advantage against hepatitis C ... doi:10.1002/hep.21889. PMID 17935228. Rikowski A, Grammer K (May 1999). "Human body odour, symmetry and attractiveness". Proc. ...
"Suppression of La antigen exerts potential antiviral effects against hepatitis A virus". PLOS ONE. 9 (7): e101993. Bibcode: ... Page for Hepatitis A virus internal ribosome entry site (IRES) at Rfam (GO template errors, Cis-regulatory RNA elements, ... HAV IRES is a 450 nucleotide long sequence located in the 735 nt long 5' UTR (untranslated region) of Hepatitis A viral RNA ... Glass MJ, Jia XY, Summers DF (April 1993). "Identification of the hepatitis A virus internal ribosome entry site: in vivo and ...
... but hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) is absent. The X gene codes for HBxAg. The product of the X gene is hepatitis B x antigen ( ... A precore mutant is a variety of hepatitis B virus that does not produce hepatitis B virus e antigen (HBeAg). These mutants are ... doi:10.1002/hep.25636. PMID 22307831. S2CID 39590902. Cleveland Clinic CME hepatitis B Retrieved 15 March 2013 Tacke F, Gehrke ... core promoter mutants limits the probability of response to peginterferon in hepatitis B e antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B ...
... (also known as the Australia antigen) is the surface antigen of the hepatitis B virus (HBV). Its presence in blood ... Today, these antigen-proteins can be genetically manufactured (e.g. transgene E. coli) to produce material for a simple antigen ... "Positive hepatitis B surface antigen tests due to recent vaccination: a persistent problem". BMC Clinical Pathology. 12 (1): 15 ... The viral envelope of an enveloped virus has different surface proteins from the rest of the virus which act as antigens. These ...
Hepatitis Weekly, Autoimmune Diseases, "Cytotoxic Antigen Induces Hypophysitis in Cancer Patients," 2006-1-9; see also, Weston ... "Cancer regression and autoimmunity induced by cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 blockade in patients with metastatic ...
Walewski JL, Keller TR, Stump DD, Branch AD (2001). "Evidence for a new hepatitis C virus antigen encoded in an overlapping ... The hepatitis C virus is the cause of hepatitis C and some cancers such as liver cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma, abbreviated ... doi:10.1002/hep.20819. PMID 16149085. S2CID 21393716. Yu ML, Chuang WL (2009). "Treatment of chronic hepatitis C in Asia: when ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hepatitis C virus. Wikispecies has information related to Hepatitis C virus. Academic ...
Immunologic properties of Human Hepatitis B Virus Surface Antigen mimotopes displayed on filamentous phage". The Journal of ... 2002). "The human scavenger receptor class B type I is a novel candidate receptor for the hepatitis C virus". The EMBO Journal ... 2004). "Discovery of alpha,gamma-diketo acids as potent selective and reversible inhibitors of hepatitis C virus NS5b RNA- ... 1996). "Identification and properties of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of hepatitis C virus". The EMBO Journal. 15 (1): 12- ...
"Fibronectin and asialoglyprotein receptor mediate hepatitis B surface antigen binding to the cell surface". Arch. Virol. 155 (6 ... The asialoglycoprotein receptor may facilitate hepatic infection by multiple viruses including hepatitis B, and is also a ... "Asialoglycoprotein receptor interacts with the preS1 domain of hepatitis B virus in vivo and in vitro". Arch. Virol. 156 (4): ...
Inactivated hepatitis A virus produced in MRC-5 cells. An adult dose contains 50 U of antigen adsorbed onto 0.45 mg of ... Hepatitis A and B vaccine is a vaccine against hepatitis A and hepatitis B. Hepatitis A and typhoid vaccine is a vaccine ... Inactivated hepatitis A virus produced in MRC-5 cells. Each adult dose contains 1440 ELISA units of viral antigen adsorbed on ... Inactivated hepatitis A virus produced in MRC-5 cells. Each dose contains 160 U of antigen adsorbed on aluminium hydroxide (0.3 ...
... there is cross-reactivity between influenza virus-specific CD8+ T cells and hepatitis C virus antigens. Cross reactivity may ... In immunology, cross-reactivity has a more narrow meaning of the reaction between an antibody and an antigen that differs from ... There can be cross-reactivity between the immune system and the antigens of two different pathogens, or between one pathogen ... For example, the tetanus toxin is a single protein macromolecular antigen but will stimulate many immune responses due to the ...
West, D. J.; Calandra, G. B. (1996). "Vaccine induced immunologic memory for hepatitis B surface antigen: implications for ...
"Australian Product Information - Vivaxim (Salmonella typhi Vi polysaccharide and hepatitis A virus antigen) Vaccine" (PDF). ... Hepatitis A and typhoid vaccine is a combination vaccine to protect against the infectious diseases hepatitis A and typhoid. It ... Hepatitis vaccines, Combination vaccines, Hepatitis A, Typhoid fever, GSK plc brands, Sanofi, All stub articles, Vaccine stubs) ... Active substance(s): hepatitis a (inactivated) / typhoid polysaccharide vaccine (adsorbed) (PDF) (Report). European Medicines ...
"Chronic liver disease and primary liver-cell cancer with hepatitis-associated (Australia) antigen in serum". Lancet. 1 (7659): ... In this post she worked on hepatitis, which she was able to continue from 1943 to 1947 with funding from the Medical Research ... Davidson, C. S. (1969). "Discussions of the paper by Sheila Sherlock: "The treatment of hepatitis"". Bulletin of the New York ... Eisenmenger, W. (1969). "Discussions of the paper by Sheila Sherlock: "The treatment of hepatitis"". Bulletin of the New York ...
"Hepatitis B small surface antigen particles are octahedral". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United ... Cited in PMC Wieland, S. F.; Chisari, F. V. (2005). "Stealth and cunning: Hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses". Journal of ... known for his research on virus-host interactions of hepatitis B and hepatitis C. Chisari graduated in 1963 with a bachelor's ... "Contributions of transgenic mouse studies on the research of hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus-induced ...
Petersen NJ, Barrett DH, Bond WW, Berquist KR, Favero MS, Bender TR, Maynard JE (1976). "Hepatitis B surface antigen in saliva ... 44 (3): 521-6. doi:10.1002/hep.21347. PMID 16941687. WHO , Hepatitis B FAQ about Hepatitis B Archived 2009-02-09 at the Wayback ... The 2009 Gujarat hepatitis B outbreak was a cluster of hepatitis B cases that appeared in Modasa, northern Gujarat, India in ... "Doctors held over hepatitis deaths". Press Association. 2009-02-22. Retrieved 2009-02-22. "Hepatitis outbreak: 2 doctors booked ...
February 2003). "Adefovir dipivoxil for the treatment of hepatitis B e antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B". N. Engl. J. Med. ... doi:10.1002/hep.510250635. PMID 9185779. S2CID 22635775. Wada M, Toh S, Taniguchi K, et al. (1998). "Mutations in the ... doi:10.1002/hep.510300617. PMID 10573531. S2CID 22514353. St-Pierre MV, Serrano MA, Macias RI, et al. (2000). "Expression of ...
2011). "Evaluation of saliva specimens as an alternative sampling method to detect hepatitis B surface antigen". J. Clin. Lab. ... Hepatitis C has also been identified using salivary detection methods. Yaari, et al., reported in 2006 that saliva testing for ... Amado LA, Villar LM, de Paula VS, Gaspar AM (March 2008). "Comparison between serum and saliva for the detection of hepatitis A ... A 2011 study demonstrated that HBV surface antigen saliva testing using ELISA had a sensitivity and specificity of 93.6% and ...
LBDHBG - Hepatitis B surface antigen. Variable Name: LBDHBG SAS Label: Hepatitis B surface antigen. English Text: Hepatitis B ... LBDHD - Hepatitis D (anti-HDV). Variable Name: LBDHD SAS Label: Hepatitis D (anti-HDV). English Text: Hepatitis D (anti-HDV). ... Hepatitis B: Core Antibody, Surface Antigen; Hepatitis D Antibody (HEPBD_G) Data File: HEPBD_G.xpt First Published: September ... The Hepatitis B surface antigen is tested only when the Hepatitis B core antibody test is positive. Participant results are ...
The cross-talk between the hepatitis B virus X protein (HBx) and B7-H1 in hepatocarcinoma (HCC) is unclear. This study analyzed ... Stimulation of B7-H1 in hepatocarcinoma cells by hepatitis B virus X antigen Immunol Invest. 2010;39(7):754-69. doi: 10.3109/ ... The cross-talk between the hepatitis B virus X protein (HBx) and B7-H1 in hepatocarcinoma (HCC) is unclear. This study analyzed ... Our results suggest that the expression of B7-H1 in hepatocarcimona cells can be initiated by HBx antigen, thus inducing T cell ...
Detecting Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Mutants On This Page Mechanism of HBV Mutant Generation Surface Antigen Structure Surface ... Divergent Genotype of Hepatitis A Virus in Alpacas Hepatitis C Virus Elimination among Inmates Rat Hepatitis E Virus in Norway ... Carman W, van Deursen F, Mimms L, Hardie D, Coppola R, Decker R, The prevalence of surface antigen variants of hepatitis B ... Koyanagi T, Nakamuta M, Sakai H, Sugimoto R, Enjoji M, Koto K, Analysis of HBs antigen negative variant of hepatitis B virus: ...
ProSpecs HBsAg include: HBsAg preS2, HBsAg preS1, HBsAg adw, HBsAg adr CHO, HBsAg adr, HBsAg ayw pichia, HBsAg ayw
Recommendations for the Management of Donor and Units that are Initially Reactive for Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBsAg) ... Recommendations for the Management of Donor and Units that are Initially Reactive for Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBsAg) ...
Partially purified Recombinant Hepatitis D antigen is isolated from E. coli and purified by chromatographic methodologies. ... Partially purified Recombinant Hepatitis D antigen is isolated from E. coli and purified by chromatographic methodologies. ...
Immunogenicity and Safety of a 3-Antigen Hepatitis B Vaccine vs a Single-Antigen Hepatitis B Vaccine: A Phase 3 Randomized ... Importance: There is a need for improved immunogenicity of hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccines among young adults with risk of ... The safety and efficacy of 3A-HBV shows its usefulness for the prevention of hepatitis B in young healthy adults. ... Main outcomes and measures: Geometric mean concentration (GMC) of serum hepatitis B surface antibodies (anti-HBs) and ...
... levels during the natural history of chronic hepatitis B virus infection (CHB). Patients were categorized according to the ... patterns and their association with hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) ... "Hepatitis b surface antigen Seroclearance: Relationship to hepatitis b e-Antigen Seroclearance and hepatitis b e-Antigen- ... hepatitis B e antigen; HBsAg: hepatitis B surface antigen; HBV DNA: hepatitis B virus DNA; TCMS: traditional Chinese medicine ...
Hepatitis B virus e antigen (HBeAg) standard, for use in running standard curves in AlphaLISA detection and quantitation assays ...
Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Producing Human Primary Liver Cell Cancer in Nude (Athymic) Mice M. F. Bassendine; M. F. Bassendine ... M. F. Bassendine, B. A. M. Arborgh, J. Monjardino, H. C. Thomas, S. Sherlock; Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Producing Human ...
3. Mason H.S., Lam D.M., Arntzen C.J. Expression of hepatitis B surface antigen in transgenic plants. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA ... 6. Richter L.J., Thanavala Y., Arntzen D.J., Mason H.S. Production of hepatitis B surface antigen in transgenic plants for oral ... 7. Kawashima C.G., Babá E.H., Hansen E. Expression of recombinant hepatitis B virus antigen HBsAg in transgenic plant callus. ... Key-Words: Edible vaccine, Hepatitis B, Oral immunization, Recombinant antigen, Transgenic plants. ...
US-6362320-B1 chemical patent summary.
Attempts to detect hepatitis B antigen in faeces and bile should take into account the degradation and disappearance of the ... The problem of the demonstration of hepatitis B antigen in faeces and bile ... The problem of the demonstration of hepatitis B antigen in faeces and bile ... The cores of the Dane particles are much more stable than the surface antigens and these may best be identified by immune ...
... no overall prevalence of hepatitis B has been previously estimated and yet it is a country located in an area of high ... Prevalence of the Surface Antigen of Hepatitis B Virus among Youth Aged 15 to 24 in TOGO in 2010 Banla AK1*, Gani KT1, Halatoko ... The surface antigen, HBsAg is a good marker in the estimation of the number of hepatitis B virus (HBV) carriers among a ... 2015) Prevalence of the Surface Antigen of Hepatitis B Virus among Youth Aged 15 to 24 in TOGO in 2010. J Infect Dis Ther ...
Walton - KIR Content Genotypes Associate with Carriage of Hepatitis B Surface Antigen, e Antigen and HBV Viral Load in Gambians ... Conclusion: Certain KIR profiles may promote clearance of hepatitis B surface antigen whilst others predispose to e antigen ... and incidence is rising rapidly in the developed world with the spread of hepatitis B (HBV) and C (HCV) viruses. Natural Killer ... Thus genes and haplotypes encoding these receptors may be important in determining both outcome of initial hepatitis infection ...
DQB1 genes in 72 patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB) and HLA-DRB1 in 200 healthy people ready to donate their bone marrow ... To study the relationship of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DRB1 and -DQB1 alleles with the genetic susceptibility to HBV ... 首页 > 世界胃肠病学杂志(英文版) > Relationship of human leukocyte antigen class Ⅱ genes with the susceptibility to hepatitis B virus ... Relationship of human leukocyte antigen class Ⅱ genes with the susceptibility to hepatitis B virus infection and the response ...
Assay is a qualitative enzyme immunoassay for the detection of Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBsAg) in human serum and plasma.. ... Assay is a chemiluminescent immunoassay for the qualitative detection of hepatitis B surface antigen in human serum and plasma. ...
... ... Diaz-Mitoma, Francisco (2022). Safety & immunogenicity of a 3-Antigen hepatitis B vaccine, PreHevbrio™ [Hepatitis B vaccine ( ... Title : Safety & immunogenicity of a 3-Antigen hepatitis B vaccine, PreHevbrio™ [Hepatitis B vaccine (recombinant)] Personal ... Diaz-Mitoma, Francisco "Safety & immunogenicity of a 3-Antigen hepatitis B vaccine, PreHevbrio™ [Hepatitis B vaccine ( ...
Check whether carry any hepatitis B virus and theirnumber.. - If the test results show a positive reaction, that meanswho have ... If the test results show a negative reaction and noantibodies, you may consider taking hepatitis B vaccine to prevent ...
... Another strain of Hepatitis is the Hepatitis B virus that is transmissible ... A positive test for Hepatitis B surface Antigen indicates exposure.. SKU Number: HBsAg129 Price: $35.00 ...
... core Antigen) in the cytoplasm and nucleus may reflect disease activity and predict response to antiviral treatment. ... Hepatitis B Core antigen test is used to detect hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in an individual. This test also helps to ... Presence of HBcAg (core Antigen) in the cytoplasm and nucleus may reflect disease activity and predict response to antiviral ... though it can persist in some cases of chronic hepatitis. Anti-HBc (IgG antibody) usually remains detectable for a lifetime.. ...
HBsAg adalah kepanjangan dari Hepatitis B surface Antigen, yang merupakan antigen permukaan virus hepatitis B. Pemeriksaan ... HBsAg adalah tes darah untuk mendiagnosis hepatitis B. Virus hepatitis B memiliki antigen permukaan (disebut HBsAg) yang ... Penyakit hepatitis B adalah infeksi hati serius yang disebabkan oleh virus hepatitis B (VHB). Menurut South East Asian Region, ... Menderita HIV atau hepatitis C. *Traveling ke negara dengan kasus hepatitis B yang tinggi, termasuk Asia, Kepulauan Pasifik, ...
... surface antigen (HbsAg) without a visit to the laboratory from Lab24, quickly and qualitatively. Infectious panel. Hepatitis. ... To control chronic hepatitis B (prescribed together with the determination of other antigens and antibodies to the hepatitis B ... There are several tests for the diagnosis of current or transferred viral hepatitis B. The determination of viral antigens and ... Viral hepatitis B (HBV) is an infectious liver disease caused by the DNA-containing hepatitis B virus (HBV). Among all the ...
Explore our extensive range of highly specific antibodies recognising Hepatitis C virus, suitable for all of your research and ... Our Hepatitis C antigen is a highly purified core protein for use in assay development, vaccine research and as antigens for ... Mouse Anti-Hepatitis C Virus E1 Antibody (1879). $376.65. excl. VAT *. Mouse Anti-Hepatitis C Virus NS3 Antibody (1828). $ ... The Native Antigen Company offers a large panel of monoclonal antibodies specific to Hepatitis C, suitable for R&D and ...
Recombinant Hepatitis B virus core antigen, amino acids 1-183. ... Recombinant Hepatitis B Core Antigen. Hepatitis B Core Antigen ... Recombinant Hepatitis B Core Antigen. Product Type. Recombinant Protein. Specificity. Hepatitis B Core Antigen. Quick Links:. * ... View more products with HEPATITIS B specificity Please Note: All Products are "FOR RESEARCH PURPOSES ONLY" ... Diagnostic Assay Development Clinical Diagnostic Antigens and Antibodies Immunoglobulins Leukemia Markers Tumor Markers ...
... Sautto Giuseppe ... Objective: The recent availability of novel antiviral drugs has raised new hope for a more effective treatment of hepatitis C ... To this end we have used chimeric antigen receptors (CARs), a very promising approach recently used in several clinical trials ... Objective: The recent availability of novel antiviral drugs has raised new hope for a more effective treatment of hepatitis C ...
Viral hepatitis : report of a WHO meeting [held in Geneva from 8 to 11 October 1974] by WHO Meeting on Viral Hepatitis (1974: ... Hepatitis virica : informe de una reunion de la OMS [se reunio en Ginebra del 8 al 11 de octubre de 1974] by Reunion de la ... OMS sobre Hepatitis Virica (1974: Ginebra) , World Health Organization.. Series: Organizacion Mundial de la Salud. Serie de ...
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Artron One Step Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Test is an immunochromatographic assay for the qualitative detection of HBsAg in ... Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Test. Artron One Step Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Test is an immunochromatographic assay for the ... Be the first to review "Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Test" Cancel reply. Your email address will not be published. Required ... Artron Hepatitis B Virus Surface Antigen Test. Rated 0 out of 5 ... Artron COVID-19 Antigen Test - Copy. Rated 0 out of 5. Read ...
  • Mutations that occur within the immunodominant epitopes of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) allow mutant virus to propagate in the presence of a neutralizing immune response, while wild-type virus is reduced to undetectable levels. (cdc.gov)
  • An understanding of immunoassay reactivity with HBsAg mutants is key to establishing an appropriate testing algorithm for hepatitis B virus detection programs. (cdc.gov)
  • This article addresses recent information concerning the emergence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) mutants, their impact on viral antigen presentation, latest prevalence data, and discussion of the issues associated with detection of mutants in healthcare settings. (cdc.gov)
  • We determined the serum level of antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen (anti-HBsAg) in 273 randomly selected 7-9-year-old schoolchildren from Zanjan City, Islamic Republic of Iran, who had been fully vaccinated against hepatitis B starting at birth. (who.int)
  • Here we report a strategy for genetic transformation of lettuce plants (Lactuca sativa L.) using the surface antigen HBsAg of hepatitis B virus. (scielo.br)
  • HBsAg was the first viral antigen chosen to be produced in transgenic plants, firstly in tobacco [3] and subsequently in lupin callus and lettuce adapted to colder climates [4]. (scielo.br)
  • Thus, striking improvements in recombinant antigen were achieved by alternative polyadenylation signals and fusion proteins containing targeting signals designed to enhance integration or retention of HBsAg in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of plant cells [6]. (scielo.br)
  • The surface antigen, HBsAg is a good marker in the estimation of the number of hepatitis B virus (HBV) carriers among a population because its presence shows either an acute viral hepatitis B or a chronic carriage state of the HBV [ 1 - 3 ]. (omicsonline.org)
  • HBsAg adalah kepanjangan dari Hepatitis B surface Antigen, yang merupakan antigen permukaan virus hepatitis B. Pemeriksaan HBsAg dilakukan untuk memastikan diagnosis hepatitis B. Jika hasil pemeriksaan HBsAg positif, berarti Anda terinfeksi virus hepatitis B (VHB) dan berisiko menularkan penyakit ini ke orang lain melalui darah atau cairan tubuh Anda. (sinergimsas.net)
  • Virus hepatitis B memiliki antigen permukaan (disebut HBsAg) yang menyebabkan sistem kekebalan tubuh Anda membuat antibodi. (sinergimsas.net)
  • Apabila setelah pemeriksaan diketahui hasil HBsAg positif, artinya Anda terinfeksi virus hepatitis B dan berpotensi menyebarkan VHB ke orang lain. (sinergimsas.net)
  • Meski pemeriksaan HBsAg dapat membantu mendiagnosis hepatitis B, tes ini tidak dapat membedakan apakah infeksi yang dialami oleh penderita bersifat akut atau kronis. (sinergimsas.net)
  • Seseorang mungkin memerlukan pemeriksaan HBsAg jika dokter mencurigai adanya kemungkinan Anda mengalami infeksi hati yang disebabkan oleh virus hepatitis B. (sinergimsas.net)
  • Anda mungkin juga akan memerlukan pemeriksaan HBsAg jika Anda mengalami gejala khas hepatitis B seperti jaundice atau ikterus ( penyakit kuning ), air kencing berwarna pekat atau gelap, nyeri perut bagian bawah, serta nafsu makan yang menurun secara drastis selama beberapa waktu. (sinergimsas.net)
  • Selain digunakan untuk mendiagnosis penyakit hepatitis B, pemeriksaan HBsAg juga dilakukan untuk melihat seberapa baik pengobatan hepatitis B yang Anda jalani bekerja. (sinergimsas.net)
  • The main antigen of the shell is HBsAg - the surface antigen of the virus. (lab24.pl)
  • Artron One Step Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Test is an immunochromatographic assay for the qualitative detection of HBsAg in human serum or plasma at or above the concentration of 1 ng/ml. (artronlab.com)
  • Artron One Step HBsAg test is an antigen-capture immunochromatographic assay, that detects the presence of HBsAg in blood samples. (artronlab.com)
  • HBsAg is the serologic hallmark of Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) infection that appears after acute inflammation. (yashraj.com)
  • For more than two decades, our flagship products of CRP, Cancer Antigens and HBsAg-Ad, HBsAg-Ay, NGAL, rSLO and rProlactin have routinely passed quality audits of leading global diagnostic manufacturers. (yashraj.com)
  • We evaluated hepatitis B floor antigen (HBsAg) kinetics after NAs discontinuation and through retreatment resulting from off-treatment scientific relapse amongst non-cirrhotic HBeAg-positive CHB sufferers. (jointsjournal.eu)
  • Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) is the first serologic marker appearing in the serum at 6 to 16 weeks following exposure to HBV. (bookmytest.co.in)
  • Therefore, HBsAg quantification (qHBsAg), HB corerelated antigen (HBcrAg) and HBV RNA among others, have been suggested as additional markers that could predict more precisely, patients with active infection who are likely to have long term complications [12]. (jscimedcentral.com)
  • There is a renewed interest in the quantitative HBsAg (qHBsAg) assay as a marker of hepatitis B viral activities in the last ten years [13]. (jscimedcentral.com)
  • Therefore, laboratory diagnosis is undertaken using serological and molecular methods to detect HBsAg and specific IgM antibodies recognising core antigen HbcAg. (thenativeantigencompany.com)
  • The LINEAR Hepatitis B Antigen ( HBsAg ) Cassette Test detects HBSAG concentration greater than 2 ng/ml ( including any subtypes ) in human serum by the development of a colored line in the test region of the test device. (frenovobio.com)
  • The LINEAR Hepatitis B Antigen ( HBsAg ) Cassette Test uses an antibody that is highly specific for Hepatitis B Antigen ( HBsAg ) in serum. (frenovobio.com)
  • The Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) test is done to confirm the presence or absence of the Hepatitis virus in the blood. (frenovobio.com)
  • HBsAg is also known as Australian Antigen. (frenovobio.com)
  • The hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) test is used to detect the presence of hepatitis B surface antigens in your blood. (metropolisindia.com)
  • The HBsAg test is usually performed as part of a panel of tests, such as the hepatitis B panel, which also includes tests for other hepatitis viruses. (metropolisindia.com)
  • Your doctor may recommend the HBsAg test if you have symptoms of acute hepatitis B, such as fatigue, fever, abdominal pain, dark urine, or yellowing of your skin or eyes ( jaundice ). (metropolisindia.com)
  • If the HBsAg test is positive, it means that you have a chronic hepatitis B infection and require treatment. (metropolisindia.com)
  • The HBsAg test is used to screen for hepatitis B infection and to help diagnose acute or chronic hepatitis B. This test can also be used to monitor people who are at risk for hepatitis B infection, such as people with HIV or those who have been exposed to the virus. (metropolisindia.com)
  • The HBsAg test is used to diagnose hepatitis B, determine if you are a carrier of the virus, and monitor the effectiveness of treatment for hepatitis B. (metropolisindia.com)
  • The HBsAg test is usually done as part of a panel of tests for hepatitis B. Other tests in this panel may include the hepatitis B core antibody (HBcAb) and the hepatitis B surface antibody (HBsAb). (metropolisindia.com)
  • Background and objectives: Serum Hepatitis B surface Antigen (HBsAg) levels correlate with hepatitis B virus intrahepatic covalently closed circular DNA and may predict response to treatment. (eur.nl)
  • Study design: HBsAg levels were measured in 1427 serum samples from HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B patients who participated in a randomized trial of peginterferon alfa-2b +/- lamivudine. (eur.nl)
  • Here, we aimed to investigate the role of HBV DNA and hepatitis B surface antigen ( HBsAg ) monitoring to predict off- treatment sustained response. (bvsalud.org)
  • Monitoring of HBsAg level can guide the timing of stopping lamivudine in HBeAg -negative chronic hepatitis B . (bvsalud.org)
  • Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) was employed as a model protein biomarker to demonstrate the analytical performance of the sensor in this study. (cdc.gov)
  • In these investigations, a case of acute HBV infection was defined as seroconversion from hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg)-negative to HBsAg-positive in a hemodialysis patient during the exposure period defined in each investigation. (cdc.gov)
  • A susceptible patient was defined as a hemodialysis patient who was negative for HBsAg, antibody to HBsAg (anti-HBs), and antibody to hepatitis B core antigen (anti-HBc). (cdc.gov)
  • A screening law was identified if the state requires screening of pregnant woman for hepatitis B infection or hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg). (cdc.gov)
  • Prediction of off-treatment response to lamivudine by serum hepatitis B surface antigen quantification in hepatitis B e antigen-negative patients. (bvsalud.org)
  • The foremost histocompatibility complicated (MHC) class II characterised by monocytes CD14+ expression of human leukocyte antigen receptors (HLA-DR), is important for the synapse between innate and adaptive immune response in infectious illness. (jointsjournal.eu)
  • Allogeneic transplants are further categorized by the degree of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) match between the donor and recipient. (medscape.com)
  • Assay is a chemiluminescent immunoassay for the qualitative detection of hepatitis B surface antigen in human serum and plasma. (bloodworksnw.org)
  • Our Hepatitis C antigen is a highly purified core protein for use in assay development, vaccine research and as antigens for the preparation of specific antibodies. (thenativeantigencompany.com)
  • Florea D, Neaga E, Nicolae I, Maxim D, Popa M, Otelea D. Clinical Usefulness of HCV Core Antigen Assay for the Management of Patients with Chronic Hepatitis C. JGLD [Internet]. (jgld.ro)
  • Their respective clinical diagnoses are asymptomatic carrier, hepatitis B e antigen- (HBeAg-) positive hepatitis, inactive carrier, and HBeAg-negative hepatitis. (hindawi.com)
  • The One Step HBeAg Test is designed for in vitro diagnostic use in the rapid and qualitative detection of Hepatitis Be antigen directly from serum. (prsbio.com)
  • The one-step strip-style HBeAg test is a direct binding rapid test for the visual detection of hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) in serum to aid in the diagnosis of hepatitis B infection. (prsbio.com)
  • The timing of antiviral therapy cessation in hepatitis B e antigen ( HBeAg )-negative patients is controversial. (bvsalud.org)
  • A total of 53 HBeAg -negative chronic hepatitis B patients who received lamivudine for 34 ±23 (range 12-76) months and had lamivudine stopped for 47 ±35 months were studied. (bvsalud.org)
  • The Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Test is a very important test for people who are at risk for hepatitis B infection. (metropolisindia.com)
  • In 1991, the World at least 6-8 years before with 3 doses of Health Organization (WHO) recommended hepatitis B vaccine starting at birth to that hepatitis B vaccination be included provide information on the effect of the in national immunization programmes in immunization strategy for hepatitis B and countries with a hepatitis B surface antigen the need for booster doses. (who.int)
  • To demonstrate manufacturing equivalence of a 3-antigen (3A) HBV vaccine, evaluate noninferiority of seroprotection rate (SPR) of 3A-HBV vs single-antigen (1A) HBV after 2 and 3 vaccine doses, and compare safety and reactogenicity between 3A-HBV and 1A-HBV vaccines. (nih.gov)
  • The obtainment of transgenic edible plants carrying recombinant antigens is a desired issue in search for economic alternatives viewing vaccine production. (scielo.br)
  • Title : Safety & immunogenicity of a 3-Antigen hepatitis B vaccine, PreHevbrio™ [Hepatitis B vaccine (recombinant)] Personal Author(s) : Diaz-Mitoma, Francisco Corporate Authors(s) : VBI Vaccines Conference Author(s) : United States. (cdc.gov)
  • If the test results show a negative reaction and noantibodies, you may consider taking hepatitis B vaccine to prevent viralinfection. (kinetics-eshop.hk)
  • There is a need for improved immunogenicity of hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccines among young adults with risk of infection. (nih.gov)
  • For pregnancy, those include hepatitis A and meningococcal vaccines, which I'll not go into today. (cdc.gov)
  • Vaccines recommended during pregnancy that are in yellow across these two slides include hepatitis B, COVID-19, influenza, and Tdap. (cdc.gov)
  • The Native Antigen Company offers a large panel of monoclonal antibodies specific to Hepatitis C, suitable for R&D and immunoassay development. (thenativeantigencompany.com)
  • This involves the reaction of anti-HBc in the sample with hepatitis B core antigen (HBcAg) coated wells. (cdc.gov)
  • Presence of HBcAg (core Antigen) in the cytoplasm and nucleus may reflect disease activity and predict response to antiviral treatment. (thyrocare.com)
  • However, one of the factors that make it difficult and raise the price of production in every system consists in the purification process of the recombinant antigen. (scielo.br)
  • It has two determinants Ad and Ay and helps in detection of Hepatitis infection or any other liver ailments. (yashraj.com)
  • Prior informed consent, antigen detection of hepatitis B surface was performed by ELISA in women between 15 and 44 years with a mean age of 26.6 (±6.8) years. (una.py)
  • citation needed] Hep G2 cells and their derivatives are also used as a model system for studies of liver metabolism and toxicity of xenobiotics, the detection of environmental and dietary cytotoxic and genotoxic (and thus cytoprotective, anti-genotoxic, and cogenotoxic) agents, understanding hepatocarcinogenesis[citation needed], and for drug targeting studies[citation needed]. (wikipedia.org)
  • This study aimed to describe the pattern of quantitative hepatitis B surface antigen and DNA quantification among patients with e negative chronic hepatitis B. (jscimedcentral.com)
  • Major international and local guidelines suggested the use of serum HBV DNA quantification and serum alanine transferase (ALT) as markers to select patients with active chronic hepatitis B infection [7-10]. (jscimedcentral.com)
  • European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL) and Asian Pacific Association for the study of the liver (APASL) guidelines recommended HBVDNA quantification greater than or equal to 2000IU/ml and raised serum alanine transaminase as criteria for active chronic hepatitis B infection which should be treated. (jscimedcentral.com)
  • The aim of this study was to describe the pattern of Hepatitis B surface antigen and DNA quantification among patients with e negative chronic hepatitis B virus infection attending two hospitals in south west Nigeria and determine if any, correlation between the two. (jscimedcentral.com)
  • Murine monoclonal IgG1 antibody to Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBs). (arxsciences.com)
  • Due to high risk of developing acute or chronic hepatic failure and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection (CHB) remains a heavy burden and substantial challenge to global public health [ 1 - 3 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • Background: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) causes over 800,000 deaths worldwide annually, mainly in low income countries, and incidence is rising rapidly in the developed world with the spread of hepatitis B (HBV) and C (HCV) viruses. (edgehill.ac.uk)
  • Patients may also develop chronic hepatitis, which can progress to cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma. (thenativeantigencompany.com)
  • HBV infection causes liver disease which can vary from acute, or chronic hepatitis to cirrhosis of the liver and potentially hepatocellular carcinoma. (thenativeantigencompany.com)
  • Neonatal hepatitis can lead to chronic virus carriage, which in turn may lead to liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma in young adults [ 7 , 8 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Hep G2 is an immortal cell line which was derived in 1975 from the liver tissue of a 15-year-old Caucasian male from Argentina with a well-differentiated hepatocellular carcinoma. (wikipedia.org)
  • ABSTRACT The duration of protection after hepatitis B vaccination in children is unknown. (who.int)
  • With an emphasis on long term stability and specificity, our antigens are tested in multiple platforms for quality by Immunonephelometry, Immunoturbidimetry, Latex Agglutination, ECLIA and ELISA to ensure batch to batch consistency and by US-FDA approved CLIA and PCR for compliance and safety. (yashraj.com)
  • New immunization strategies have been developed to eliminate the spread of HBV and hepatitis A virus (HAV) in the United States. (cdc.gov)
  • Practices (ACIP), is the introduction of study carried out from February 2003 to hepatitis B immunization at birth [ 5,6 ]. (who.int)
  • Brazilian National Immunization Program presents a good schedule viewing hepatitis B immunization for infants, adolescents, and adults. (scielo.br)
  • We offer a large panel of monoclonal antibodies specific to Hepatitis C. Our Hepatitis C antibodies recognise a number of different HCV-specific proteins, including the core antigen, E1, E2 and NS3 - all of which may be used in a wide range of applications to study the biology of Hepatitis C. (thenativeantigencompany.com)
  • Mouse anti-Hepatitis B virus core antigen monoclonal IgG2a antibody (clone 1824). (thenativeantigencompany.com)
  • The cross-talk between the hepatitis B virus X protein (HBx) and B7-H1 in hepatocarcinoma (HCC) is unclear. (nih.gov)
  • Three of the children had antibodies to hepatitis B core protein. (who.int)
  • HCV was first recognised in 1970 and described as non-A, non-B hepatitis, until 1989 when the pathogen was identified as hepatitis C. The structural proteins produced by Hepatitis C virus include the core protein and envelope glycoproteins E1 and E2, which are necessary for viral entry into host cells. (thenativeantigencompany.com)
  • Among all the causes of the development of acute hepatitis and chronic viral infection, the hepatitis B virus is considered one of the most common in the world. (lab24.pl)
  • HCV is responsible for 15-20% of cases of acute hepatitis worldwide (WHO). (thenativeantigencompany.com)
  • Acute hepatitis B infection is a serious viral infection that can cause liver damage. (metropolisindia.com)
  • Because of their high degree of morphological and functional differentiation in vitro, Hep G2 cells are a suitable model to study the intracellular trafficking and dynamics of bile canalicular, sinusoidal membrane proteins, and lipids in human hepatocytes in vitro. (wikipedia.org)
  • Thus genes and haplotypes encoding these receptors may be important in determining both outcome of initial hepatitis infection and subsequent chronic liver disease and tumour formation. (edgehill.ac.uk)
  • To this end we have used chimeric antigen receptors (CARs), a very promising approach recently used in several clinical trials to redirect primary human T cells against different tumours. (uninsubria.it)
  • The asymptomatic nature of HBV infection, and the similarity of clinical symptoms to other types of hepatitis virus infection makes clinical diagnosis difficult. (thenativeantigencompany.com)
  • Molecular biology of hepatitis B virus infection. (thenativeantigencompany.com)
  • Chronic viral hepatitis B is associated with the development of cirrhosis and liver cancer. (lab24.pl)
  • Over the past decade, the importance of hepatitis B virus (HBV) mutants has made a transition from an academic phenomenon of unknown prevalence to a factor for consideration during disease diagnosis. (cdc.gov)
  • The prevalence of infection for at least 15 years, that antibody hepatitis B carriers varies in different parts levels decrease the most among persons of the world, ranging from less than 1% to immunized at 4 years of age or younger, and 15% [ 2 ]. (who.int)
  • Background: In Togo, no overall prevalence of hepatitis B has been previously estimated and yet it is a country located in an area of high transmission of this virus. (omicsonline.org)
  • The objective of this study was to document the prevalence of HBs antigen among youth aged 15 to 24 in Togo in 2010 and its associated factors. (omicsonline.org)
  • It has been reported that when hepatitis services is good throughout the territory, B vaccination is initiated at birth, there and vaccinations are delivered through local is an increased likelihood that the child health districts which are able to reach the will complete the series [ 8,9 ] hence an whole population. (who.int)
  • When deciding on the need for vaccination against viral hepatitis B. (lab24.pl)
  • The hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccination schedule in Libya follows international recommendations (1st dose at birth, 2nd after 1 month and 3rd after 6 months). (hud.ac.uk)
  • Madour, A, Alkout, A & Vanin, S 2013, ' Première évaluation de la concentration sérique de l'antigène de surface du virus de l'hépatite b après la vaccination en Libye ', Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal , vol. 19, no. 12, pp. 990-994. (hud.ac.uk)
  • Attempts to detect hepatitis B antigen in faeces and bile should take into account the degradation and disappearance of the surface antigens in an environment containing proteolytic enzymes in the presence of bile salts as in the intestinal lumen. (bmj.com)
  • Hepatitis B Core antigen test is used to detect hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in an individual. (thyrocare.com)
  • There are several tests for the diagnosis of current or transferred viral hepatitis B. The determination of viral antigens and antibodies is performed to detect carriage, acute or chronic infection in the presence or absence of symptoms, in the monitoring of chronic infection. (lab24.pl)
  • The hepatitis B surface antibody (HBsAb) test is used to detect the presence of antibodies against the hepatitis B virus (HBV). (metropolisindia.com)
  • The cores of the Dane particles are much more stable than the surface antigens and these may best be identified by immune electron microscopy using core antibody. (bmj.com)
  • The core antigen is found on virus particles but disappears early in the course of infection. (immunopaedia.org.za)
  • There is however paucity of data on the pattern of quantitative hepatitis B surface antigenaemia and its correlation with the viral loadin sub-Sahara Africa. (jscimedcentral.com)
  • However, Hepatitis C virus is difficult to isolate, and the asymptomatic nature of HCV infection makes clinical diagnosis difficult. (thenativeantigencompany.com)
  • One Hundred and Twenty-One asymptomatic, treatment naïve, e negative chronic hepatitis B patients were recruited. (jscimedcentral.com)
  • Conclusion: Certain KIR profiles may promote clearance of hepatitis B surface antigen whilst others predispose to e antigen carriage and high viral load. (edgehill.ac.uk)
  • Established in 1999 as a research focused Biotech Company with ISO certifications ISO 13485:2016 and ISO 9001:2015, YBL manufactures a wide range of high pure biomarkers in the form of native and recombinant antigens that are used by the diagnostic industry as controls, calibrators and immunogens. (yashraj.com)
  • Co-infection with hepatitis D virus (HDV) in persons with acute or chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection can lead to fulminant hepatitis. (cdc.gov)
  • NHANES testing for markers of infection with hepatitis viruses will be used to determine secular trends in infection rates across most age and racial/ethnic groups, and will provide a national picture of the epidemiologic determinants of these infections. (cdc.gov)
  • approximately about 2 billion people have serologic evidence of infection with hepatitis B virus. (una.py)
  • The study aimed to evaluate the clinical utility of the chemiluminescent HCV core Ag test compared to viral load assessment in the management of patients with chronic hepatitis C. (jgld.ro)
  • Restricting access to hepatitis C treatment turns an infectious disease into a health injustice," he added. (medscape.com)
  • Serum specimens are processed, stored, and shipped to the Division of Viral Hepatitis, National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (cdc.gov)
  • These criteria prevent patients from getting the care that they need, said Jonathan Mermin, MD, MPH, director of the CDC's National Center for HIV, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, during the press call. (medscape.com)
  • Viral hepatitis B (HBV) is an infectious liver disease caused by the DNA-containing hepatitis B virus (HBV). (lab24.pl)
  • The main symptoms of hepatitis: yellowness of the skin, fever, nausea, rapid fatigue, in tests - signs of impaired liver function and specific antigens of the hepatitis B virus. (lab24.pl)
  • Hepatitis B is a serious viral infection that affects the liver. (metropolisindia.com)
  • Chronic hepatitis B infection is a serious disease that can lead to liver failure, liver cancer, and death. (metropolisindia.com)
  • Viral hepatitis is a life-threatening liver disease that has become important public health issue in developing countries including Ethiopia. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Hepatitis is the inflammation of liver, most commonly caused by viral infections. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Hep G2 (or HepG2) is a human liver cancer cell line. (wikipedia.org)
  • Hep G2 cells are also employed in trials with bio-artificial liver devices[citation needed]. (wikipedia.org)
  • The test is designed to be used as an aid in the diagnosis of hepatitis B virus infections. (prsbio.com)
  • Fewer than 1 in 3 people infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV) begin receiving treatment within a year of their diagnosis, according to a new report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (medscape.com)
  • If we are going to make an impact against hepatitis C, we need to connect more people to treatments and reduce disparities of access to diagnosis and treatment," said Carolyn Wester, MD, MPH, director of the CDC's Division of Viral Hepatitis, during an August 9 press call. (medscape.com)
  • Geometric mean concentration (GMC) of serum hepatitis B surface antibodies (anti-HBs) and proportion of participants achieving seroprotection. (nih.gov)
  • The period between the disappearance of the antigen and the appearance of antibodies («window» period, or «serological gap») can be from 1 week to several months. (lab24.pl)
  • Hepatitis B viral mutants can emerge in patients as a result of selection pressure from either immune response or treatment options. (cdc.gov)
  • With knowledge of the initial immune target, early antigen-specific treatments can block continued tissue damage, epitope spreading and clinical disease. (nature.com)
  • Understanding the cellular and molecular basis of epitope spreading in various chronic immune-mediated human diseases and their animal models is crucial to understanding the pathogenesis of these diseases and to the ultimate goal of designing antigen-specific treatments. (nature.com)
  • To decide on the expediency of prescribing immunoglobulin to patients with viral hepatitis and a high risk of infection. (lab24.pl)
  • However, not all patients with chronic hepatitis B will develop these complications. (jscimedcentral.com)
  • The test is done to screen patients for Hepatitis B infection. (frenovobio.com)
  • and failure to vaccinate susceptible patients against hepatitis B. (cdc.gov)
  • Hepatitis viruses constitute a major public health problem because of the morbidity and mortality associated with the acute and chronic consequences of these infections. (cdc.gov)
  • In addition, NHANES provides the means to better define the epidemiology of other hepatitis viruses. (cdc.gov)
  • Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a small, partially double-stranded DNA virus that belongs to the genus O rthohepadnaviruses of the Hepadnaviridae family of viruses. (thenativeantigencompany.com)
  • Five hepatotropic viruses (A to E) are known to cause hepatitis. (biomedcentral.com)