Agents that cause agglutination of red blood cells. They include antibodies, blood group antigens, lectins, autoimmune factors, bacterial, viral, or parasitic blood agglutinins, etc.
Specific hemagglutinin subtypes encoded by VIRUSES.
Membrane glycoproteins from influenza viruses which are involved in hemagglutination, virus attachment, and envelope fusion. Fourteen distinct subtypes of HA glycoproteins and nine of NA glycoproteins have been identified from INFLUENZA A VIRUS; no subtypes have been identified for Influenza B or Influenza C viruses.
The type species of the genus INFLUENZAVIRUS A that causes influenza and other diseases in humans and animals. Antigenic variation occurs frequently between strains, allowing classification into subtypes and variants. Transmission is usually by aerosol (human and most non-aquatic hosts) or waterborne (ducks). Infected birds shed the virus in their saliva, nasal secretions, and feces.
A family of RNA viruses causing INFLUENZA and other diseases. There are five recognized genera: INFLUENZAVIRUS A; INFLUENZAVIRUS B; INFLUENZAVIRUS C; ISAVIRUS; and THOGOTOVIRUS.
An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of alpha-2,3, alpha-2,6-, and alpha-2,8-glycosidic linkages (at a decreasing rate, respectively) of terminal sialic residues in oligosaccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, colominic acid, and synthetic substrate. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992)
Serologic tests in which a known quantity of antigen is added to the serum prior to the addition of a red cell suspension. Reaction result is expressed as the smallest amount of antigen which causes complete inhibition of hemagglutination.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 5 and neuraminidase 1. The H5N1 subtype, frequently referred to as the bird flu virus, is endemic in wild birds and very contagious among both domestic (POULTRY) and wild birds. It does not usually infect humans, but some cases have been reported.
Virus diseases caused by the ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE.
Vaccines used to prevent infection by viruses in the family ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE. It includes both killed and attenuated vaccines. The composition of the vaccines is changed each year in response to antigenic shifts and changes in prevalence of influenza virus strains. The vaccine is usually bivalent or trivalent, containing one or two INFLUENZAVIRUS A strains and one INFLUENZAVIRUS B strain.
The aggregation of ERYTHROCYTES by AGGLUTININS, including antibodies, lectins, and viral proteins (HEMAGGLUTINATION, VIRAL).
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 3 and neuraminidase 2. The H3N2 subtype was responsible for the Hong Kong flu pandemic of 1968.
An acute viral infection in humans involving the respiratory tract. It is marked by inflammation of the NASAL MUCOSA; the PHARYNX; and conjunctiva, and by headache and severe, often generalized, myalgia.
Infection of domestic and wild fowl and other BIRDS with INFLUENZA A VIRUS. Avian influenza usually does not sicken birds, but can be highly pathogenic and fatal in domestic POULTRY.
Sensitive tests to measure certain antigens, antibodies, or viruses, using their ability to agglutinate certain erythrocytes. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
The type species of MORBILLIVIRUS and the cause of the highly infectious human disease MEASLES, which affects mostly children.
Immunoglobulins produced in response to VIRAL ANTIGENS.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS with the surface proteins hemagglutinin 1 and neuraminidase 1. The H1N1 subtype was responsible for the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918.
Agglutination of ERYTHROCYTES by a virus.
Protein-digesting and milk-clotting enzymes found in PINEAPPLE fruit juice and stem tissue. Enzymes from the two sources are distinguished as fruit bromelain and stem bromelain. This enzyme was formerly listed as EC 3.4.22.4.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Specific molecular components of the cell capable of recognizing and interacting with a virus, and which, after binding it, are capable of generating some signal that initiates the chain of events leading to the biological response.
Semidomesticated variety of European polecat much used for hunting RODENTS and/or RABBITS and as a laboratory animal. It is in the subfamily Mustelinae, family MUSTELIDAE.
Substances, usually of biological origin, that cause cells or other organic particles to aggregate and stick to each other. They include those ANTIBODIES which cause aggregation or agglutination of particulate or insoluble ANTIGENS.
The adherence and merging of cell membranes, intracellular membranes, or artificial membranes to each other or to viruses, parasites, or interstitial particles through a variety of chemical and physical processes.
Species of the genus INFLUENZAVIRUS B that cause HUMAN INFLUENZA and other diseases primarily in humans. Antigenic variation is less extensive than in type A viruses (INFLUENZA A VIRUS) and consequently there is no basis for distinct subtypes or variants. Epidemics are less likely than with INFLUENZA A VIRUS and there have been no pandemics. Previously only found in humans, Influenza B virus has been isolated from seals which may constitute the animal reservoir from which humans are exposed.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A phenomenon manifested by an agent or substance adhering to or being adsorbed on the surface of a red blood cell, as tuberculin can be adsorbed on red blood cells under certain conditions. (Stedman, 25th ed)
Proteins, usually glycoproteins, found in the viral envelopes of a variety of viruses. They promote cell membrane fusion and thereby may function in the uptake of the virus by cells.
Viruses containing two or more pieces of nucleic acid (segmented genome) from different parents. Such viruses are produced in cells coinfected with different strains of a given virus.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 2 and neuraminidase 2. The H2N2 subtype was responsible for the Asian flu pandemic of 1957.
Warm-blooded VERTEBRATES possessing FEATHERS and belonging to the class Aves.
The domestic dog, Canis familiaris, comprising about 400 breeds, of the carnivore family CANIDAE. They are worldwide in distribution and live in association with people. (Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th ed, p1065)
An epithelial cell line derived from a kidney of a normal adult female dog.
Substances elaborated by viruses that have antigenic activity.
Sites on an antigen that interact with specific antibodies.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 9 and neuraminidase 2. The H9N2 subtype usually infects domestic birds (POULTRY) but there have been some human infections reported.
Common name for the species Gallus gallus, the domestic fowl, in the family Phasianidae, order GALLIFORMES. It is descended from the red jungle fowl of SOUTHEAST ASIA.
An N-acyl derivative of neuraminic acid. N-acetylneuraminic acid occurs in many polysaccharides, glycoproteins, and glycolipids in animals and bacteria. (From Dorland, 28th ed, p1518)
Serological reactions in which an antiserum against one antigen reacts with a non-identical but closely related antigen.
Antibodies that reduce or abolish some biological activity of a soluble antigen or infectious agent, usually a virus.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 7 and neuraminidase 7. The H7N7 subtype produced an epidemic in 2003 which was highly pathogenic among domestic birds (POULTRY). Some infections in humans were reported.
Change in the surface ANTIGEN of a microorganism. There are two different types. One is a phenomenon, especially associated with INFLUENZA VIRUSES, where they undergo spontaneous variation both as slow antigenic drift and sudden emergence of new strains (antigenic shift). The second type is when certain PARASITES, especially trypanosomes, PLASMODIUM, and BORRELIA, survive the immune response of the host by changing the surface coat (antigen switching). (From Herbert et al., The Dictionary of Immunology, 4th ed)
A ubiquitously expressed complement receptor that binds COMPLEMENT C3B and COMPLEMENT C4B and serves as a cofactor for their inactivation. CD46 also interacts with a wide variety of pathogens and mediates immune response.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 3 and neuraminidase 8. The H3N8 subtype has frequently been found in horses.
The measurement of infection-blocking titer of ANTISERA by testing a series of dilutions for a given virus-antiserum interaction end-point, which is generally the dilution at which tissue cultures inoculated with the serum-virus mixtures demonstrate cytopathology (CPE) or the dilution at which 50% of test animals injected with serum-virus mixtures show infectivity (ID50) or die (LD50).
A group of naturally occurring N-and O-acyl derivatives of the deoxyamino sugar neuraminic acid. They are ubiquitously distributed in many tissues.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 5 and neuraminidase 2. The H5N2 subtype has been found to be highly pathogenic in chickens.
Proteins found in any species of virus.
A species of MORBILLIVIRUS causing distemper in dogs, wolves, foxes, raccoons, and ferrets. Pinnipeds have also been known to contract Canine distemper virus from contact with domestic dogs.
The developmental entity of a fertilized chicken egg (ZYGOTE). The developmental process begins about 24 h before the egg is laid at the BLASTODISC, a small whitish spot on the surface of the EGG YOLK. After 21 days of incubation, the embryo is fully developed before hatching.
A respiratory infection caused by BORDETELLA PERTUSSIS and characterized by paroxysmal coughing ending in a prolonged crowing intake of breath.
The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. The pathogenic capacity of an organism is determined by its VIRULENCE FACTORS.
Red blood cells. Mature erythrocytes are non-nucleated, biconcave disks containing HEMOGLOBIN whose function is to transport OXYGEN.
The chemical or biochemical addition of carbohydrate or glycosyl groups to other chemicals, especially peptides or proteins. Glycosyl transferases are used in this biochemical reaction.
The etiologic agent of CHOLERA.
Small synthetic peptides that mimic surface antigens of pathogens and are immunogenic, or vaccines manufactured with the aid of recombinant DNA techniques. The latter vaccines may also be whole viruses whose nucleic acids have been modified.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
A highly contagious infectious disease caused by MORBILLIVIRUS, common among children but also seen in the nonimmune of any age, in which the virus enters the respiratory tract via droplet nuclei and multiplies in the epithelial cells, spreading throughout the MONONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTE SYSTEM.
A set of BACTERIAL ADHESINS and TOXINS, BIOLOGICAL produced by BORDETELLA organisms that determine the pathogenesis of BORDETELLA INFECTIONS, such as WHOOPING COUGH. They include filamentous hemagglutinin; FIMBRIAE PROTEINS; pertactin; PERTUSSIS TOXIN; ADENYLATE CYCLASE TOXIN; dermonecrotic toxin; tracheal cytotoxin; Bordetella LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES; and tracheal colonization factor.
The binding of virus particles to receptors on the host cell surface. For enveloped viruses, the virion ligand is usually a surface glycoprotein as is the cellular receptor. For non-enveloped viruses, the virus CAPSID serves as the ligand.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
The characteristic 3-dimensional shape of a protein, including the secondary, supersecondary (motifs), tertiary (domains) and quaternary structure of the peptide chain. PROTEIN STRUCTURE, QUATERNARY describes the conformation assumed by multimeric proteins (aggregates of more than one polypeptide chain).
Models used experimentally or theoretically to study molecular shape, electronic properties, or interactions; includes analogous molecules, computer-generated graphics, and mechanical structures.
Proteins that share the common characteristic of binding to carbohydrates. Some ANTIBODIES and carbohydrate-metabolizing proteins (ENZYMES) also bind to carbohydrates, however they are not considered lectins. PLANT LECTINS are carbohydrate-binding proteins that have been primarily identified by their hemagglutinating activity (HEMAGGLUTININS). However, a variety of lectins occur in animal species where they serve diverse array of functions through specific carbohydrate recognition.
Fusion of somatic cells in vitro or in vivo, which results in somatic cell hybridization.
Protection conferred on a host by inoculation with one strain or component of a microorganism that prevents infection when later challenged with a similar strain. Most commonly the microorganism is a virus.
Vaccines in which the infectious microbial nucleic acid components have been destroyed by chemical or physical treatment (e.g., formalin, beta-propiolactone, gamma radiation) without affecting the antigenicity or immunogenicity of the viral coat or bacterial outer membrane proteins.
The normality of a solution with respect to HYDROGEN ions; H+. It is related to acidity measurements in most cases by pH = log 1/2[1/(H+)], where (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per liter of solution. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
The naturally occurring or experimentally induced replacement of one or more AMINO ACIDS in a protein with another. If a functionally equivalent amino acid is substituted, the protein may retain wild-type activity. Substitution may also diminish, enhance, or eliminate protein function. Experimentally induced substitution is often used to study enzyme activities and binding site properties.
Epidemics of infectious disease that have spread to many countries, often more than one continent, and usually affecting a large number of people.
The functional hereditary units of VIRUSES.
Layers of protein which surround the capsid in animal viruses with tubular nucleocapsids. The envelope consists of an inner layer of lipids and virus specified proteins also called membrane or matrix proteins. The outer layer consists of one or more types of morphological subunits called peplomers which project from the viral envelope; this layer always consists of glycoproteins.
A species of CERCOPITHECUS containing three subspecies: C. tantalus, C. pygerythrus, and C. sabeus. They are found in the forests and savannah of Africa. The African green monkey (C. pygerythrus) is the natural host of SIMIAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS and is used in AIDS research.
Proteins associated with the inner surface of the lipid bilayer of the viral envelope. These proteins have been implicated in control of viral transcription and may possibly serve as the "glue" that binds the nucleocapsid to the appropriate membrane site during viral budding from the host cell.
Domesticated birds raised for food. It typically includes CHICKENS; TURKEYS, DUCKS; GEESE; and others.
A genus of the family PARAMYXOVIRIDAE (subfamily PARAMYXOVIRINAE) where the virions of most members have hemagglutinin but not neuraminidase activity. All members produce both cytoplasmic and intranuclear inclusion bodies. MEASLES VIRUS is the type species.
Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.
Thin, hairlike appendages, 1 to 20 microns in length and often occurring in large numbers, present on the cells of gram-negative bacteria, particularly Enterobacteriaceae and Neisseria. Unlike flagella, they do not possess motility, but being protein (pilin) in nature, they possess antigenic and hemagglutinating properties. They are of medical importance because some fimbriae mediate the attachment of bacteria to cells via adhesins (ADHESINS, BACTERIAL). Bacterial fimbriae refer to common pili, to be distinguished from the preferred use of "pili", which is confined to sex pili (PILI, SEX).
Administration of vaccines to stimulate the host's immune response. This includes any preparation intended for active immunological prophylaxis.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS with the surface proteins hemagglutinin 7 and neuraminidase 9. This avian origin virus was first identified in humans in 2013.
The type species of ORTHOPOXVIRUS, related to COWPOX VIRUS, but whose true origin is unknown. It has been used as a live vaccine against SMALLPOX. It is also used as a vector for inserting foreign DNA into animals. Rabbitpox virus is a subspecies of VACCINIA VIRUS.
The property of antibodies which enables them to react with some ANTIGENIC DETERMINANTS and not with others. Specificity is dependent on chemical composition, physical forces, and molecular structure at the binding site.
A species of gram-negative, anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria originally classified within the BACTEROIDES genus. This bacterium produces a cell-bound, oxygen-sensitive collagenase and is isolated from the human mouth.
The destruction of ERYTHROCYTES by many different causal agents such as antibodies, bacteria, chemicals, temperature, and changes in tonicity.
A CELL LINE derived from the kidney of the African green (vervet) monkey, (CERCOPITHECUS AETHIOPS) used primarily in virus replication studies and plaque assays.
The process of intracellular viral multiplication, consisting of the synthesis of PROTEINS; NUCLEIC ACIDS; and sometimes LIPIDS, and their assembly into a new infectious particle.
Conjugated protein-carbohydrate compounds including mucins, mucoid, and amyloid glycoproteins.
The use of techniques that produce a functional MUTATION or an effect on GENE EXPRESSION of a specific gene of interest in order to identify the role or activity of the gene product of that gene.
A viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals caused by MORBILLIVIRUS. It may be acute, subacute, or chronic with the major lesions characterized by inflammation and ulceration of the entire digestive tract. The disease was declared successfully eradicated worldwide in 2010.
A species of MORBILLIVIRUS causing cattle plague, a disease with high mortality. Sheep, goats, pigs, and other animals of the order Artiodactyla can also be infected.
A live attenuated virus vaccine of chick embryo origin, used for routine immunization of children and for immunization of adolescents and adults who have not had measles or been immunized with live measles vaccine and have no serum antibodies against measles. Children are usually immunized with measles-mumps-rubella combination vaccine. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Deliberate stimulation of the host's immune response. ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of ANTIGENS or IMMUNOLOGIC ADJUVANTS. PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of IMMUNE SERA or LYMPHOCYTES or their extracts (e.g., transfer factor, immune RNA) or transplantation of immunocompetent cell producing tissue (thymus or bone marrow).
A name for several highly contagious viral diseases of animals, especially canine distemper. In dogs, it is caused by the canine distemper virus (DISTEMPER VIRUS, CANINE). It is characterized by a diphasic fever, leukopenia, gastrointestinal and respiratory inflammation and sometimes, neurologic complications. In cats it is known as FELINE PANLEUKOPENIA.
A family of spherical viruses, of the order MONONEGAVIRALES, somewhat larger than the orthomyxoviruses, and containing single-stranded RNA. Subfamilies include PARAMYXOVIRINAE and PNEUMOVIRINAE.
The most well known avian paramyxovirus in the genus AVULAVIRUS and the cause of a highly infectious pneumoencephalitis in fowl. It is also reported to cause CONJUNCTIVITIS in humans. Transmission is by droplet inhalation or ingestion of contaminated water or food.
The entering of cells by viruses following VIRUS ATTACHMENT. This is achieved by ENDOCYTOSIS, by direct MEMBRANE FUSION of the viral membrane with the CELL MEMBRANE, or by translocation of the whole virus across the cell membrane.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to BACTERIAL ANTIGENS.
The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.
The properties of a pathogen that makes it capable of infecting one or more specific hosts. The pathogen can include PARASITES as well as VIRUSES; BACTERIA; FUNGI; or PLANTS.
The lipid- and protein-containing, selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Serum that contains antibodies. It is obtained from an animal that has been immunized either by ANTIGEN injection or infection with microorganisms containing the antigen.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 7 and neuraminidase 2. It has been involved in a number of outbreaks in the 21st century on poultry farms and has been isolated a few times in humans.
A guanido-neuraminic acid that is used to inhibit NEURAMINIDASE.
Process of growing viruses in live animals, plants, or cultured cells.
A subfamily in the family MURIDAE, comprising the hamsters. Four of the more common genera are Cricetus, CRICETULUS; MESOCRICETUS; and PHODOPUS.
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
Proteins conjugated with nucleic acids.
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
A hexose or fermentable monosaccharide and isomer of glucose from manna, the ash Fraxinus ornus and related plants. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed & Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2d ed)
Live vaccines prepared from microorganisms which have undergone physical adaptation (e.g., by radiation or temperature conditioning) or serial passage in laboratory animal hosts or infected tissue/cell cultures, in order to produce avirulent mutant strains capable of inducing protective immunity.
The production of ANTIBODIES by proliferating and differentiated B-LYMPHOCYTES under stimulation by ANTIGENS.
A species of BORDETELLA that is parasitic and pathogenic. It is found in the respiratory tract of domestic and wild mammalian animals and can be transmitted from animals to man. It is a common cause of bronchopneumonia in lower animals.
Diseases of birds which are raised as a source of meat or eggs for human consumption and are usually found in barnyards, hatcheries, etc. The concept is differentiated from BIRD DISEASES which is for diseases of birds not considered poultry and usually found in zoos, parks, and the wild.
DNA molecules capable of autonomous replication within a host cell and into which other DNA sequences can be inserted and thus amplified. Many are derived from PLASMIDS; BACTERIOPHAGES; or VIRUSES. They are used for transporting foreign genes into recipient cells. Genetic vectors possess a functional replicator site and contain GENETIC MARKERS to facilitate their selective recognition.
A species of gram-negative bacteria pathogenic to CHICKENS; TURKEYS, and guinea fowls. It causes disease in a wide variety of organs and tissues including JOINTS, tendon sheaths and the RESPIRATORY TRACT.
The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.
Ribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
The clumping together of suspended material resulting from the action of AGGLUTININS.
Methods used for studying the interactions of antibodies with specific regions of protein antigens. Important applications of epitope mapping are found within the area of immunochemistry.
Delivery of medications through the nasal mucosa.
Inoculation of a series of animals or in vitro tissue with an infectious bacterium or virus, as in VIRULENCE studies and the development of vaccines.
The expelling of virus particles from the body. Important routes include the respiratory tract, genital tract, and intestinal tract. Virus shedding is an important means of vertical transmission (INFECTIOUS DISEASE TRANSMISSION, VERTICAL).
A serine endopeptidase that is formed from TRYPSINOGEN in the pancreas. It is converted into its active form by ENTEROPEPTIDASE in the small intestine. It catalyzes hydrolysis of the carboxyl group of either arginine or lysine. EC 3.4.21.4.
Recombinant DNA vectors encoding antigens administered for the prevention or treatment of disease. The host cells take up the DNA, express the antigen, and present it to the immune system in a manner similar to that which would occur during natural infection. This induces humoral and cellular immune responses against the encoded antigens. The vector is called naked DNA because there is no need for complex formulations or delivery agents; the plasmid is injected in saline or other buffers.
Production of new arrangements of DNA by various mechanisms such as assortment and segregation, CROSSING OVER; GENE CONVERSION; GENETIC TRANSFORMATION; GENETIC CONJUGATION; GENETIC TRANSDUCTION; or mixed infection of viruses.
Pyrans are a type of cyclic carbohydrate compound that can be found in various natural products, including some vitamins and pigments.
Method for measuring viral infectivity and multiplication in CULTURED CELLS. Clear lysed areas or plaques develop as the VIRAL PARTICLES are released from the infected cells during incubation. With some VIRUSES, the cells are killed by a cytopathic effect; with others, the infected cells are not killed but can be detected by their hemadsorptive ability. Sometimes the plaque cells contain VIRAL ANTIGENS which can be measured by IMMUNOFLUORESCENCE.
Thin, filamentous protein structures, including proteinaceous capsular antigens (fimbrial antigens), that mediate adhesion of E. coli to surfaces and play a role in pathogenesis. They have a high affinity for various epithelial cells.
Cell line derived from SF21 CELLS which are a cell line isolated from primary explants of SPODOPTERA FRUGIPERDA pupal tissue.
Sudden increase in the incidence of a disease. The concept includes EPIDEMICS and PANDEMICS.
Carbohydrates consisting of between two (DISACCHARIDES) and ten MONOSACCHARIDES connected by either an alpha- or beta-glycosidic link. They are found throughout nature in both the free and bound form.
Any of various animals that constitute the family Suidae and comprise stout-bodied, short-legged omnivorous mammals with thick skin, usually covered with coarse bristles, a rather long mobile snout, and small tail. Included are the genera Babyrousa, Phacochoerus (wart hogs), and Sus, the latter containing the domestic pig (see SUS SCROFA).
Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of long chains of monosaccharide units, with important functions in the body including energy storage, structural support, and immune response.
Substances elaborated by bacteria that have antigenic activity.
The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.
Microscopy using an electron beam, instead of light, to visualize the sample, thereby allowing much greater magnification. The interactions of ELECTRONS with specimens are used to provide information about the fine structure of that specimen. In TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY the reactions of the electrons that are transmitted through the specimen are imaged. In SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY an electron beam falls at a non-normal angle on the specimen and the image is derived from the reactions occurring above the plane of the specimen.
Recombinant proteins produced by the GENETIC TRANSLATION of fused genes formed by the combination of NUCLEIC ACID REGULATORY SEQUENCES of one or more genes with the protein coding sequences of one or more genes.
Electrophoresis in which a polyacrylamide gel is used as the diffusion medium.
Either of the pair of organs occupying the cavity of the thorax that effect the aeration of the blood.
Members of the class of compounds composed of AMINO ACIDS joined together by peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids into linear, branched or cyclical structures. OLIGOPEPTIDES are composed of approximately 2-12 amino acids. Polypeptides are composed of approximately 13 or more amino acids. PROTEINS are linear polypeptides that are normally synthesized on RIBOSOMES.
Substances that augment, stimulate, activate, potentiate, or modulate the immune response at either the cellular or humoral level. The classical agents (Freund's adjuvant, BCG, Corynebacterium parvum, et al.) contain bacterial antigens. Some are endogenous (e.g., histamine, interferon, transfer factor, tuftsin, interleukin-1). Their mode of action is either non-specific, resulting in increased immune responsiveness to a wide variety of antigens, or antigen-specific, i.e., affecting a restricted type of immune response to a narrow group of antigens. The therapeutic efficacy of many biological response modifiers is related to their antigen-specific immunoadjuvanticity.
Sorbitan mono-9-octadecanoate poly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl) derivatives; complex mixtures of polyoxyethylene ethers used as emulsifiers or dispersing agents in pharmaceuticals.
Suspensions of attenuated or killed viruses administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious viral disease.
Artificial, single or multilaminar vesicles (made from lecithins or other lipids) that are used for the delivery of a variety of biological molecules or molecular complexes to cells, for example, drug delivery and gene transfer. They are also used to study membranes and membrane proteins.
Vaccines using VIROSOMES as the antigen delivery system that stimulates the desired immune response.
The level of protein structure in which combinations of secondary protein structures (alpha helices, beta sheets, loop regions, and motifs) pack together to form folded shapes called domains. Disulfide bridges between cysteines in two different parts of the polypeptide chain along with other interactions between the chains play a role in the formation and stabilization of tertiary structure. Small proteins usually consist of only one domain but larger proteins may contain a number of domains connected by segments of polypeptide chain which lack regular secondary structure.
Any of various enzymatically catalyzed post-translational modifications of PEPTIDES or PROTEINS in the cell of origin. These modifications include carboxylation; HYDROXYLATION; ACETYLATION; PHOSPHORYLATION; METHYLATION; GLYCOSYLATION; ubiquitination; oxidation; proteolysis; and crosslinking and result in changes in molecular weight and electrophoretic motility.
The process of cumulative change at the level of DNA; RNA; and PROTEINS, over successive generations.
A species of anaerobic, gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria in the family Clostridiaceae that produces proteins with characteristic neurotoxicity. It is the etiologic agent of BOTULISM in humans, wild fowl, HORSES; and CATTLE. Seven subtypes (sometimes called antigenic types, or strains) exist, each producing a different botulinum toxin (BOTULINUM TOXINS). The organism and its spores are widely distributed in nature.
The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.
An antiviral that is used in the prophylactic or symptomatic treatment of influenza A. It is also used as an antiparkinsonian agent, to treat extrapyramidal reactions, and for postherpetic neuralgia. The mechanisms of its effects in movement disorders are not well understood but probably reflect an increase in synthesis and release of dopamine, with perhaps some inhibition of dopamine uptake.
A dilated cavity extended caudally from the hindgut. In adult birds, reptiles, amphibians, and many fishes but few mammals, cloaca is a common chamber into which the digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts discharge their contents. In most mammals, cloaca gives rise to LARGE INTESTINE; URINARY BLADDER; and GENITALIA.
The infective system of a virus, composed of the viral genome, a protein core, and a protein coat called a capsid, which may be naked or enclosed in a lipoprotein envelope called the peplos.
Test for tissue antigen using either a direct method, by conjugation of antibody with fluorescent dye (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, DIRECT) or an indirect method, by formation of antigen-antibody complex which is then labeled with fluorescein-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin antibody (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, INDIRECT). The tissue is then examined by fluorescence microscopy.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
A genus of the family PARAMYXOVIRIDAE (subfamily PARAMYXOVIRINAE) where all the virions have both HEMAGGLUTININ and NEURAMINIDASE activities and encode a non-structural C protein. SENDAI VIRUS is the type species.
CELL LINE derived from the ovary of the Chinese hamster, Cricetulus griseus (CRICETULUS). The species is a favorite for cytogenetic studies because of its small chromosome number. The cell line has provided model systems for the study of genetic alterations in cultured mammalian cells.
Infections with bacteria of the genus BORDETELLA.
Genotypic differences observed among individuals in a population.
Any immunization following a primary immunization and involving exposure to the same or a closely related antigen.
Represents 15-20% of the human serum immunoglobulins, mostly as the 4-chain polymer in humans or dimer in other mammals. Secretory IgA (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A, SECRETORY) is the main immunoglobulin in secretions.
Forceful administration into a muscle of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle piercing the muscle and any tissue covering it.
Diseases of domestic swine and of the wild boar of the genus Sus.
Glycoprotein from Sendai, para-influenza, Newcastle Disease, and other viruses that participates in binding the virus to cell-surface receptors. The HN protein possesses both hemagglutinin and neuraminidase activity.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 1 and neuraminidase 2. It is endemic in both human and pig populations.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
An acetamido cyclohexene that is a structural homolog of SIALIC ACID and inhibits NEURAMINIDASE.
The degree of similarity between sequences of amino acids. This information is useful for the analyzing genetic relatedness of proteins and species.
Genetically engineered MUTAGENESIS at a specific site in the DNA molecule that introduces a base substitution, or an insertion or deletion.
Infections with bacteria of the family BACTEROIDACEAE.
The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and drugs) through a biological system at the cellular level. The transport can be across cell membranes and epithelial layers. It also can occur within intracellular compartments and extracellular compartments.
The ability of a substance to be dissolved, i.e. to form a solution with another substance. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
Glycoproteins found on the membrane or surface of cells.
A protozoan, previously also considered a fungus. Characteristics include sporangia that are stalked and multilobed. It is widely used in biomedical research.
A mutation in which a codon is mutated to one directing the incorporation of a different amino acid. This substitution may result in an inactive or unstable product. (From A Dictionary of Genetics, King & Stansfield, 5th ed)
A subfamily of the family MURIDAE comprised of 69 genera. New World mice and rats are included in this subfamily.
Squalene is a naturally occurring polyunsaturated hydrocarbon that has potential therapeutic applications in the medical field, including as a component of some moisturizers and as a precursor to the synthesis of steroids.
Agents used in the prophylaxis or therapy of VIRUS DISEASES. Some of the ways they may act include preventing viral replication by inhibiting viral DNA polymerase; binding to specific cell-surface receptors and inhibiting viral penetration or uncoating; inhibiting viral protein synthesis; or blocking late stages of virus assembly.
The arrangement of two or more amino acid or base sequences from an organism or organisms in such a way as to align areas of the sequences sharing common properties. The degree of relatedness or homology between the sequences is predicted computationally or statistically based on weights assigned to the elements aligned between the sequences. This in turn can serve as a potential indicator of the genetic relatedness between the organisms.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
Technique involving the diffusion of antigen or antibody through a semisolid medium, usually agar or agarose gel, with the result being a precipitin reaction.
Substances that are recognized by the immune system and induce an immune reaction.
Extrachromosomal, usually CIRCULAR DNA molecules that are self-replicating and transferable from one organism to another. They are found in a variety of bacterial, archaeal, fungal, algal, and plant species. They are used in GENETIC ENGINEERING as CLONING VECTORS.
A genus of the family ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE comprising viruses similar to types A and B but less common, more stable, more homogeneous, and lacking the neuraminidase protein. They have not been associated with epidemics but may cause mild influenza. Influenza C virus is the type species.
The tubular and cavernous organs and structures, by means of which pulmonary ventilation and gas exchange between ambient air and the blood are brought about.
The relationship between the chemical structure of a compound and its biological or pharmacological activity. Compounds are often classed together because they have structural characteristics in common including shape, size, stereochemical arrangement, and distribution of functional groups.
Transfer of immunity from immunized to non-immune host by administration of serum antibodies, or transplantation of lymphocytes (ADOPTIVE TRANSFER).
Vaccines using supra-molecular structures composed of multiple copies of recombinantly expressed viral structural proteins. They are often antigentically indistinguishable from the virus from which they were derived.
The property of objects that determines the direction of heat flow when they are placed in direct thermal contact. The temperature is the energy of microscopic motions (vibrational and translational) of the particles of atoms.
Centrifugation using a rotating chamber of large capacity in which to separate cell organelles by density-gradient centrifugation. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
Biologically active DNA which has been formed by the in vitro joining of segments of DNA from different sources. It includes the recombination joint or edge of a heteroduplex region where two recombining DNA molecules are connected.
Body organ that filters blood for the secretion of URINE and that regulates ion concentrations.
One of the virulence factors produced by BORDETELLA PERTUSSIS. It is a multimeric protein composed of five subunits S1 - S5. S1 contains mono ADPribose transferase activity.

A new member of the Sin3 family of corepressors is essential for cell viability and required for retroelement propagation in fission yeast. (1/1495)

Tf1 is a long terminal repeat (LTR)-containing retrotransposon that propagates within the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. LTR-retrotransposons possess significant similarity to retroviruses and therefore serve as retrovirus models. To determine what features of the host cell are important for the proliferation of this class of retroelements, we screened for mutations in host genes that reduced the transposition activity of Tf1. We report here the isolation and characterization of pst1(+), a gene required for Tf1 transposition. The predicted amino acid sequence of Pst1p possessed high sequence homology with the Sin3 family of proteins, known for their interaction with histone deacetylases. However, unlike the SIN3 gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, pst1(+) is essential for cell viability. Immunofluorescence microscopy indicated that Pst1p was localized in the nucleus. Consistent with the critical role previously reported for Sin3 proteins in the histone acetylation process, we found that the growth of the strain with the pst1-1 allele was supersensitive to the specific histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A. However, our analysis of strains with the pst1-1 mutation was unable to detect any changes in the acetylation of specific lysines of histones H3 and H4 as measured in bulk chromatin. Interestingly, the pst1-1 mutant strain produced wild-type levels of Tf1-encoded proteins and cDNA, indicating that the defect in transposition occurred after reverse transcription. The results of immunofluorescence microscopy showed that the nuclear localization of the Tf1 capsid protein was disrupted in the strain with the pst1-1 mutation, indicating an important role of pst1(+) in modulating the nuclear import of Tf1 virus-like particles.  (+info)

Role of antibodies against Bordetella pertussis virulence factors in adherence of Bordetella pertussis and Bordetella parapertussis to human bronchial epithelial cells. (2/1495)

Immunization with whole-cell pertussis vaccines (WCV) containing heat-killed Bordetella pertussis cells and with acellular vaccines containing genetically or chemically detoxified pertussis toxin (PT) in combination with filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA), pertactin (Prn), or fimbriae confers protection in humans and animals against B. pertussis infection. In an earlier study we demonstrated that FHA is involved in the adherence of these bacteria to human bronchial epithelial cells. In the present study we investigated whether mouse antibodies directed against B. pertussis FHA, PTg, Prn, and fimbriae, or against two other surface molecules, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and the 40-kDa outer membrane porin protein (OMP), that are not involved in bacterial adherence, were able to block adherence of B. pertussis and B. parapertussis to human bronchial epithelial cells. All antibodies studied inhibited the adherence of B. pertussis to these epithelial cells and were equally effective in this respect. Only antibodies against LPS and 40-kDa OMP affected the adherence of B. parapertussis to epithelial cells. We conclude that antibodies which recognize surface structures on B. pertussis or on B. parapertussis can inhibit adherence of the bacteria to bronchial epithelial cells, irrespective whether these structures play a role in adherence of the bacteria to these cells.  (+info)

Role of Bordetella pertussis virulence factors in adherence to epithelial cell lines derived from the human respiratory tract. (3/1495)

During colonization of the respiratory tract by Bordetella pertussis, virulence factors contribute to adherence of the bacterium to the respiratory tract epithelium. In the present study, we examined the roles of the virulence factors filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA), fimbriae, pertactin (Prn), and pertussis toxin (PT) in the adherence of B. pertussis to cells of the human bronchial epithelial cell line NCI-H292 and of the laryngeal epithelial cell line HEp-2. Using B. pertussis mutant strains and purified FHA, fimbriae, Prn, and PT, we demonstrated that both fimbriae and FHA are involved in the adhesion of B. pertussis to laryngeal epithelial cells, whereas only FHA is involved in the adherence to bronchial epithelial cells. For PT and Prn, no role as adhesion factor was found. However, purified PT bound to both bronchial and laryngeal cells and as such reduced the adherence of B. pertussis to these cells. These data may imply that fimbriae play a role in infection of only the laryngeal mucosa, while FHA is the major factor in colonization of the entire respiratory tract.  (+info)

Genetic characterization of a new type IV-A pilus gene cluster found in both classical and El Tor biotypes of Vibrio cholerae. (4/1495)

The Vibrio cholerae genome contains a 5.4-kb pil gene cluster that resembles the Aeromonas hydrophila tap gene cluster and other type IV-A pilus assembly operons. The region consists of five complete open reading frames designated pilABCD and yacE, based on the nomenclature of related genes from Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli K-12. This cluster is present in both classical and El Tor biotypes, and the pilA and pilD genes are 100% conserved. The pilA gene encodes a putative type IV pilus subunit. However, deletion of pilA had no effect on either colonization of infant mice or adherence to HEp-2 cells, demonstrating that pilA does not encode the primary subunit of a pilus essential for these processes. The pilD gene product is similar to other type IV prepilin peptidases, proteins that process type IV signal sequences. Mutational analysis of the pilD gene showed that pilD is essential for secretion of cholera toxin and hemagglutinin-protease, mannose-sensitive hemagglutination (MSHA), production of toxin-coregulated pili, and colonization of infant mice. Defects in these functions are likely due to the lack of processing of N termini of four Eps secretion proteins, four proteins of the MSHA cluster, and TcpB, all of which contain type IV-A leader sequences. Some pilD mutants also showed reduced adherence to HEp-2 cells, but this defect could not be complemented in trans, indicating that the defect may not be directly due to a loss of pilD. Taken together, these data demonstrate the effectiveness of the V. cholerae genome project for rapid identification and characterization of potential virulence factors.  (+info)

Conformational changes in the A3 domain of von Willebrand factor modulate the interaction of the A1 domain with platelet glycoprotein Ib. (5/1495)

Bitiscetin has recently been shown to induce von Willebrand factor (vWF)-dependent aggregation of fixed platelets (Hamako J, et al, Biochem Biophys Res Commun 226:273, 1996). We have purified bitiscetin from Bitis arietans venom and investigated the mechanism whereby it promotes a form of vWF that is reactive with platelets. In the presence of bitiscetin, vWF binds to platelets in a dose-dependent and saturable manner. The binding of vWF to platelets involves glycoprotein (GP) Ib because it was totally blocked by monoclonal antibody (MoAb) 6D1 directed towards the vWF-binding site of GPIb. The binding also involves the GPIb-binding site of vWF located on the A1 domain because it was inhibited by MoAb to vWF whose epitopes are within this domain and that block binding of vWF to platelets induced by ristocetin or botrocetin. However, in contrast to ristocetin or botrocetin, the binding site of bitiscetin does not reside within the A1 domain but within the A3 domain of vWF. Thus, among a series of vWF fragments, 125I-bitiscetin only binds to those that overlap the A3 domain, ie, SpIII (amino acid [aa] 1-1365), SpI (aa 911-1365), and rvWF-A3 domain (aa 920-1111). It does not bind to SpII corresponding to the C-terminal part of vWF subunit (aa 1366-2050) nor to the 39/34/kD dispase species (aa 480-718) or T116 (aa 449-728) overlapping the A1 domain. In addition, bitiscetin that does not bind to DeltaA3-rvWF (deleted between aa 910-1113) has no binding site ouside the A3 domain. The localization of the binding site of bitiscetin within the A3 domain was further supported by showing that MoAb to vWF, which are specific for this domain and block the interaction between vWF and collagen, are potent inhibitors of the binding of bitiscetin to vWF and consequently of the bitiscetin-induced binding of vWF to platelets. Thus, our data support the hypothesis that an interaction between the A1 and A3 domains exists that may play a role in the function of vWF by regulating the ability of the A1 domain to bind to platelet GPIb.  (+info)

Rapid evolution of H5N1 influenza viruses in chickens in Hong Kong. (6/1495)

The H5N1 avian influenza virus that killed 6 of 18 persons infected in Hong Kong in 1997 was transmitted directly from poultry to humans. Viral isolates from this outbreak may provide molecular clues to zoonotic transfer. Here we demonstrate that the H5N1 viruses circulating in poultry comprised two distinguishable phylogenetic lineages in all genes that were in very rapid evolution. When introduced into new hosts, influenza viruses usually undergo rapid alteration of their surface glycoproteins, especially in the hemagglutinin (HA). Surprisingly, these H5N1 isolates had a large proportion of amino acid changes in all gene products except in the HA. These viruses maybe reassortants each of whose HA gene is well adapted to domestic poultry while the rest of the genome arises from a different source. The consensus amino acid sequences of "internal" virion proteins reveal amino acids previously found in human strains. These human-specific amino acids may be important factors in zoonotic transmission.  (+info)

Effect of temperature on growth, hemagglutination, and protease activity of Porphyromonas gingivalis. (7/1495)

Bacteria persisting in periodontal pockets are exposed to elevated temperatures during periods of inflammation. Temperature is an environmental factor that can modulate gene expression. Consequently, in the present study we examined the effect of temperature on the expression of virulence determinants by the periodontopathogen, Porphyromonas gingivalis. P. gingivalis W50 was grown in a complex medium under hemin excess at pH 7.0 and at a constant temperature of either 37, 39, or 41 degrees C; cultures were monitored for protease and hemagglutinin activity. P. gingivalis grew well at all three temperatures. An increase in growth temperature from 37 to 39 degrees C resulted in a 65% reduction in both total arginine- and lysine-specific activities (P < 0.01). A further rise in growth temperature to 41 degrees C led to even greater reductions in arginine-specific (82%; P < 0.001) and lysine-specific (73%; P < 0. 01) activities. These reductions were also associated with an altered distribution of individual arginine-specific enzyme isoforms. At 41 degrees C, there was a disproportionate reduction in the level of the heterodimeric RI protease, which also contains adhesin domains. The reduction also correlated with a markedly diminished hemagglutination activity of cells, especially in those grown at 41 degrees C, and a reduced immunoreactivity with a monoclonal antibody which recognizes gene products involved in hemagglutination. Thus, as the environmental temperature increased, P. gingivalis adopted a less aggressive phenotype, while retaining cell population levels. The coordinate down-regulation of virulence gene expression in response to an environmental cue linked to the intensity of the host inflammatory response is consistent with the clinically observed cyclical nature of disease progression in periodontal diseases.  (+info)

Enzymatic synthesis of natural and 13C enriched linear poly-N-acetyllactosamines as ligands for galectin-1. (8/1495)

As part of a study of protein-carbohydrate interactions, linear N-acetyl-polyllactosamines [Galbeta1,4GlcNAcbeta1,3]nwere synthesized at the 10-100 micromol scale using enzymatic methods. The methods described also provided specifically [1-13C]-galactose-labeled tetra- and hexasaccharides ([1-13C]-Galbeta1,4GlcNAcbeta1,3Galbeta1,4Glc and Galbeta1, 4GlcNAcbeta1,3[1-13C]Galbeta1,4GlcNAcbeta1,3Galbeta 1,4Glc) suitable for NMR studies. Two series of oligosaccharides were produced, with either glucose or N-acetlyglucosamine at the reducing end. In both cases, large amounts of starting primer were available from human milk oligosaccharides (trisaccharide primer GlcNAcbeta1,3Galbeta1, 4Glc) or via transglycosylation from N-acetyllactosamine. Partially purified and immobilized glycosyltransferases, such as bovine milk beta1,4 galactosyltransferase and human serum beta1,3 N- acetylglucosaminyltransferase, were used for the synthesis. All the oligo-saccharide products were characterized by1H and13C NMR spectroscopy and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. The target molecules were then used to study their interactions with recombinant galectin-1, and initial1H NMR spectroscopic results are presented to illustrate this approach. These results indicate that, for oligomers containing up to eight sugars, the principal interaction of the binding site of galectin-1 is with the terminal N-acetyllactosamine residues.  (+info)

Hemagglutinins, viral are a type of protein found on the surface of certain viruses, such as influenza viruses. These proteins have the ability to bind to and agglutinate (clump together) red blood cells, which is why they are called hemagglutinins. This property is important for the virus to infect host cells, as it allows the virus to attach to and enter the cells. Hemagglutinins are also used as diagnostic tools in the laboratory to detect the presence of certain viruses.

Hemagglutinin glycoproteins, also known as HA glycoproteins, are a type of protein found on the surface of influenza viruses. These proteins play a crucial role in the ability of the virus to infect host cells. HA glycoproteins are responsible for binding to receptors on the surface of host cells, allowing the virus to enter the cell and replicate. There are 18 different subtypes of HA glycoproteins, which are classified based on their antigenic properties. Each subtype has a unique structure, which allows the immune system to recognize and respond to the virus. HA glycoproteins are also the target of the influenza vaccine, which is designed to stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies against the virus. By recognizing and binding to the HA glycoproteins, these antibodies can prevent the virus from infecting host cells and protect against influenza. In summary, HA glycoproteins are a key component of the influenza virus and play a critical role in its ability to infect host cells. They are also the target of the influenza vaccine and are an important area of research in the development of new treatments for influenza.

Neuraminidase is an enzyme that cleaves sialic acid residues from the terminal ends of glycoproteins and glycolipids. It plays a crucial role in the replication and spread of influenza viruses, as well as other viruses and bacteria. In the medical field, neuraminidase inhibitors are used to treat influenza infections by blocking the activity of the enzyme, preventing the virus from spreading to uninfected cells. Neuraminidase is also used as a diagnostic tool in the detection of certain viral infections, such as influenza and some types of cancer.

Orthomyxoviridae infections refer to a group of viral infections caused by viruses belonging to the family Orthomyxoviridae. These viruses are single-stranded RNA viruses that are characterized by their ability to cause both respiratory and systemic infections in humans and animals. The most well-known member of the Orthomyxoviridae family is the influenza virus, which causes seasonal flu outbreaks and pandemics. Other viruses in this family include the parainfluenza viruses, which can cause respiratory infections in humans and animals, and the equine influenza virus, which can cause respiratory infections in horses. Symptoms of Orthomyxoviridae infections can vary depending on the specific virus and the severity of the infection. Common symptoms include fever, cough, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, body aches, and fatigue. In severe cases, infections can lead to pneumonia, bronchitis, and other complications. Treatment for Orthomyxoviridae infections typically involves supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications. Antiviral medications may also be used to treat certain types of Orthomyxoviridae infections, such as influenza. Vaccines are available to prevent influenza and some other Orthomyxoviridae infections.

Influenza vaccines are medical products that are designed to protect against the influenza virus. They are typically administered through injection or nasal spray and contain either killed or weakened forms of the virus, or pieces of the virus that can stimulate an immune response without causing the disease. Influenza vaccines are typically given annually, as the virus can mutate and new strains can emerge each flu season. They are an important tool in preventing the spread of influenza and reducing the severity of illness associated with the disease.

Influenza, Human, also known as the flu, is a highly contagious respiratory illness caused by the influenza virus. It can cause mild to severe illness, and in some cases, can lead to death. The virus is transmitted through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes, or by touching a surface contaminated with the virus and then touching the mouth, nose, or eyes. Symptoms of the flu can include fever, cough, sore throat, body aches, headache, chills, and fatigue. In severe cases, the flu can lead to pneumonia, which can be life-threatening. The flu is preventable through vaccination, and antiviral medications can be used to treat the illness.

Influenza in birds, also known as avian influenza, is a highly contagious viral infection that affects birds, including chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys. The virus can also infect other animals, including humans, pigs, and horses. There are several different strains of avian influenza viruses, some of which can cause mild illness in birds, while others can be highly pathogenic and cause severe illness or death. The most well-known strain of avian influenza is H5N1, which has caused numerous outbreaks in birds and has also been responsible for several human deaths. Influenza in birds can be transmitted through direct contact with infected birds or their droppings, as well as through the air via respiratory droplets. The virus can also be transmitted to humans through contact with infected birds or contaminated surfaces. In the medical field, the diagnosis of avian influenza in birds is typically made through laboratory testing of samples from infected birds. Treatment options for avian influenza in birds include supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent secondary infections, as well as antiviral medications in some cases. Prevention measures for avian influenza in birds include vaccination, biosecurity measures to prevent the spread of the virus, and culling of infected birds to prevent further spread of the disease.

Antibodies, viral, are proteins produced by the immune system in response to a viral infection. They are also known as immunoglobulins or antibodies. Viral antibodies are specific to a particular virus and can help to neutralize and eliminate the virus from the body. They are typically detected in the blood or other bodily fluids using laboratory tests, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) or immunofluorescence assays. The presence of viral antibodies can be used as a diagnostic tool to confirm a viral infection or to determine the immune status of an individual.

Bromelains are a group of proteolytic enzymes that are found in the stem and fruit of pineapple plants. They are commonly used in the food industry as a natural food additive and in the medical field for their anti-inflammatory and digestive properties. In the medical field, bromelain is often used to treat conditions such as inflammation, swelling, and pain. It has been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects by breaking down proteins that contribute to inflammation, and it may also help to reduce pain by blocking the production of certain chemicals in the body. Bromelain is also sometimes used to help with digestion, as it can break down proteins and other substances in the digestive tract, making it easier for the body to absorb nutrients. It may also be used to help with conditions such as osteoarthritis, as it has been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects on the joints. Bromelain is available in supplement form, and it is generally considered safe when taken in recommended doses. However, it may interact with certain medications, so it is important to talk to a healthcare provider before taking bromelain if you are taking any other medications.

Receptors, Virus are proteins on the surface of host cells that recognize and bind to specific viral proteins, allowing the virus to enter and infect the cell. These receptors play a crucial role in the viral life cycle and are often targeted by antiviral drugs and vaccines. Examples of viral receptors include the ACE2 receptor for SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19) and the CD4 receptor for HIV.

Viral fusion proteins are a class of proteins that are expressed on the surface of enveloped viruses, such as influenza, HIV, and Ebola. These proteins play a critical role in the viral life cycle by facilitating the fusion of the viral envelope with the host cell membrane, allowing the virus to enter the cell and initiate infection. Viral fusion proteins are typically composed of two subunits, a highly conserved heptad repeat region (HR) and a variable ectodomain. The HR region is responsible for mediating the interaction between the viral and host cell membranes, while the ectodomain is responsible for recognizing and binding to specific receptors on the host cell surface. The process of viral fusion involves the conformational change of the viral fusion protein, which leads to the formation of a six-helix bundle structure that brings the viral and host cell membranes into close proximity. This allows the viral envelope to fuse with the host cell membrane, creating a pore through which the viral genome can enter the cell. Viral fusion proteins are a target for antiviral drugs, as they are essential for viral entry and infection. Inhibitors of viral fusion proteins can prevent the virus from entering the cell and can be effective in treating a wide range of viral infections.

N-Acetylneuraminic Acid (NANA), also known as Neu5Ac or sialic acid, is a type of sugar molecule that is found in the human body and is essential for the proper functioning of the immune system. It is a monosaccharide that is attached to other sugars to form complex carbohydrates, such as glycoproteins and glycolipids, which are found on the surface of cells. NANA plays a critical role in the immune system by serving as a receptor for viruses and bacteria, helping to prevent them from infecting cells. It is also involved in the development and function of the central nervous system, and has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties. In the medical field, NANA is used as a diagnostic tool to detect and monitor certain diseases, such as influenza and cancer. It is also used in the development of vaccines and other therapeutic agents.

Antibodies, neutralizing are proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence of a foreign substance, such as a virus or bacteria. Neutralizing antibodies are a specific type of antibody that can bind to and neutralize the harmful effects of a pathogen, preventing it from infecting cells or causing damage to the body. Neutralizing antibodies are an important part of the immune response and are often used in medical treatments to help the body fight off infections.

CD46 is a protein found on the surface of many different types of cells in the body, including immune cells, epithelial cells, and endothelial cells. It is a member of the complement regulatory protein family and plays a role in regulating the immune system's response to infections and other stimuli. Antigens, CD46 refers to molecules that bind to the CD46 protein on the surface of cells. These antigens can be recognized by the immune system as foreign and trigger an immune response. In some cases, the immune system may mistakenly attack cells that express CD46, leading to autoimmune diseases such as lupus or Goodpasture's syndrome. CD46 is also a target for certain viruses, such as measles virus, which uses it to enter and infect cells. Vaccines against measles virus often contain a small amount of inactivated or weakened measles virus that binds to CD46 on cells, triggering an immune response without causing the disease. Overall, CD46 plays an important role in regulating the immune system and is a target for both the immune system and certain viruses.

Sialic acids are a group of nine-carbon sugar molecules that are commonly found on the surface of many types of cells in the human body. They are attached to proteins and lipids on the surface of cells, and play important roles in a variety of biological processes. In the medical field, sialic acids are often studied in relation to a number of different diseases and conditions. For example, certain types of cancer cells are known to overproduce sialic acids, which can make them more resistant to immune system attack. Sialic acids have also been linked to the development of autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. In addition, sialic acids are important for the function of the immune system. They are involved in the recognition and binding of pathogens by immune cells, and play a role in the activation of immune responses. Sialic acids are also important for the proper functioning of the nervous system, and have been linked to the development of neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Overall, sialic acids are an important class of molecules that play a variety of roles in the human body, and are the subject of ongoing research in the medical field.

Viral proteins are proteins that are synthesized by viruses during their replication cycle within a host cell. These proteins play a crucial role in the viral life cycle, including attachment to host cells, entry into the cell, replication of the viral genome, assembly of new viral particles, and release of the virus from the host cell. Viral proteins can be classified into several categories based on their function, including structural proteins, non-structural proteins, and regulatory proteins. Structural proteins are the building blocks of the viral particle, such as capsid proteins that form the viral coat. Non-structural proteins are proteins that are not part of the viral particle but are essential for viral replication, such as proteases that cleave viral polyproteins into individual proteins. Regulatory proteins are proteins that control the expression of viral genes or the activity of viral enzymes. Viral proteins are important targets for antiviral drugs and vaccines, as they are essential for viral replication and survival. Understanding the structure and function of viral proteins is crucial for the development of effective antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Whooping cough, also known as pertussis, is a highly contagious respiratory infection caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis. It is characterized by a series of coughing fits that can last for several weeks, often followed by a whooping sound when the person inhales after a coughing fit. The symptoms of whooping cough typically begin with a runny nose, sneezing, and mild cough. As the infection progresses, the coughing fits become more severe and may be followed by a high-pitched "whoop" sound when the person inhales. The coughing fits can be so severe that they can cause vomiting and loss of consciousness in severe cases. Whooping cough is most common in children, but it can also affect adults. It is highly contagious and can be spread through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes. The best way to prevent whooping cough is through vaccination, which is recommended for all children and adults.

In the medical field, "Vaccines, Synthetic" refers to vaccines that are made using synthetic or man-made methods, rather than being derived from natural sources such as live or attenuated viruses or bacteria. These vaccines are typically made using recombinant DNA technology, which involves inserting a small piece of genetic material from the pathogen into a harmless host cell, such as a yeast or bacteria, that is then grown in large quantities. The resulting protein is then purified and used to make the vaccine. Synthetic vaccines have several advantages over traditional vaccines, including the ability to produce vaccines quickly and efficiently, the ability to produce vaccines for diseases that are difficult to grow in the laboratory, and the ability to produce vaccines that are safe and effective for people with weakened immune systems or other health conditions. Some examples of synthetic vaccines include the hepatitis B vaccine, the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine, and the influenza vaccine.

Measles is a highly contagious viral infection caused by the measles virus. It is characterized by a fever, cough, runny nose, and a distinctive red rash that spreads from the head to the rest of the body. Measles can also cause complications such as pneumonia, encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), and blindness. It is primarily spread through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Measles is preventable through vaccination, which is recommended for all children.

Lectins are a class of proteins that are found in many plants, animals, and microorganisms. They are characterized by their ability to bind to specific carbohydrates, such as sugars and starches, on the surface of cells. In the medical field, lectins have been studied for their potential therapeutic applications. For example, some lectins have been shown to have antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal properties, and may be useful in the development of new drugs to treat infections. Lectins have also been used as research tools to study cell-cell interactions and to identify specific cell surface markers. In addition, some lectins have been used in diagnostic tests to detect specific diseases or conditions, such as cancer or diabetes. However, it is important to note that not all lectins are safe or effective for medical use, and some may even be toxic. Therefore, the use of lectins in medicine requires careful consideration and testing to ensure their safety and efficacy.

In the medical field, "Vaccines, Inactivated" refers to vaccines that contain viruses or bacteria that have been killed or inactivated, meaning they are no longer able to cause disease. These vaccines stimulate the immune system to produce an immune response without causing the disease itself. Inactivated vaccines are often used to prevent viral diseases such as polio, hepatitis A, and influenza. They are usually given by injection and require two or more doses to provide full protection. Inactivated vaccines are considered safe and effective, and are widely used in vaccination programs around the world.

Viral envelope proteins are proteins that are found on the surface of enveloped viruses. These proteins play a crucial role in the viral life cycle, as they are involved in the attachment of the virus to host cells, entry into the host cell, and release of new virus particles from the host cell. There are several different types of viral envelope proteins, including glycoproteins, which are proteins that have attached carbohydrates, and matrix proteins, which help to stabilize the viral envelope. These proteins can be important targets for antiviral drugs, as they are often essential for the virus to infect host cells. In addition to their role in viral infection, viral envelope proteins can also play a role in the pathogenesis of viral diseases. For example, some viral envelope proteins can trigger an immune response in the host, leading to inflammation and tissue damage. Other viral envelope proteins can help the virus evade the host immune system, allowing the virus to persist and cause disease. Overall, viral envelope proteins are important components of enveloped viruses and play a critical role in the viral life cycle and pathogenesis of viral diseases.

In the medical field, viral matrix proteins refer to a group of proteins that are produced by viruses and play a crucial role in the assembly and release of new virus particles from infected cells. These proteins are typically synthesized as precursor proteins that are cleaved into smaller, functional units during or after virus assembly. The viral matrix proteins are often involved in the organization of the viral components, including the viral genome, envelope proteins, and other structural proteins, into a stable structure that can be released from the host cell. They may also play a role in protecting the virus from host immune defenses and facilitating the entry of new virus particles into neighboring cells. Examples of viral matrix proteins include the matrix protein of influenza virus, the matrix protein of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and the matrix protein of herpes simplex virus (HSV). Understanding the function of viral matrix proteins is important for the development of antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are laboratory-made proteins that can mimic the immune system's ability to fight off harmful pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria. They are produced by genetically engineering cells to produce large quantities of a single type of antibody, which is specific to a particular antigen (a molecule that triggers an immune response). In the medical field, monoclonal antibodies are used to treat a variety of conditions, including cancer, autoimmune diseases, and infectious diseases. They can be administered intravenously, intramuscularly, or subcutaneously, depending on the condition being treated. Monoclonal antibodies work by binding to specific antigens on the surface of cells or pathogens, marking them for destruction by the immune system. They can also block the activity of specific molecules involved in disease processes, such as enzymes or receptors. Overall, monoclonal antibodies have revolutionized the treatment of many diseases, offering targeted and effective therapies with fewer side effects than traditional treatments.

Hemolysis is the breakdown of red blood cells (RBCs) in the bloodstream. This process can occur due to various factors, including mechanical stress, exposure to certain medications or toxins, infections, or inherited genetic disorders. When RBCs are damaged or destroyed, their contents, including hemoglobin, are released into the bloodstream. Hemoglobin is a protein that carries oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs. When hemoglobin is released into the bloodstream, it can cause the blood to appear dark brown or black, a condition known as hemoglobinuria. Hemolysis can lead to a variety of symptoms, including jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), fatigue, shortness of breath, abdominal pain, and dark urine. In severe cases, hemolysis can cause life-threatening complications, such as kidney failure or shock. Treatment for hemolysis depends on the underlying cause. In some cases, treatment may involve medications to slow down the breakdown of RBCs or to remove excess hemoglobin from the bloodstream. In other cases, treatment may involve blood transfusions or other supportive therapies to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Glycoproteins are a type of protein that contains one or more carbohydrate chains covalently attached to the protein molecule. These carbohydrate chains are made up of sugars and are often referred to as glycans. Glycoproteins play important roles in many biological processes, including cell signaling, cell adhesion, and immune response. They are found in many different types of cells and tissues throughout the body, and are often used as markers for various diseases and conditions. In the medical field, glycoproteins are often studied as potential targets for the development of new drugs and therapies.

Rinderpest is a highly contagious viral disease that affects cattle and other ruminants, such as sheep and goats. It is caused by the rinderpest virus, which is transmitted through direct contact with infected animals or their bodily fluids, as well as through contaminated feed or water. Symptoms of rinderpest include high fever, loss of appetite, weakness, and difficulty breathing. In severe cases, the disease can lead to death within a few days. Rinderpest is considered one of the most devastating livestock diseases in the world, as it can cause significant economic losses and have a major impact on food security. Efforts to control and eradicate rinderpest have been ongoing for several decades, and the disease has been eradicated from most parts of the world. However, it still exists in a few regions, including parts of Africa, and continued efforts are needed to ensure its complete eradication.

Measles vaccine is a vaccine that is used to prevent measles, a highly contagious viral infection that can cause serious health complications, particularly in young children. The vaccine is made from a weakened form of the measles virus and is typically given as a shot in the arm or thigh. The measles vaccine is an important tool in preventing the spread of measles and reducing the number of cases of the disease worldwide. It is typically given to children as part of a routine vaccination schedule, usually between the ages of 12 and 15 months, and again between the ages of 4 and 6 years. The measles vaccine is highly effective in preventing measles, with a success rate of over 95%. However, it is important to note that the vaccine does not provide 100% protection against the disease, and there is a small risk of side effects, such as fever, soreness at the injection site, and mild rash. Overall, the measles vaccine is an important tool in preventing the spread of this highly contagious and potentially serious viral infection, and is an important part of public health efforts to protect the health and well-being of individuals and communities around the world.

In the medical field, "distemper" can refer to a variety of illnesses or conditions that affect the mind or emotions. One common use of the term "distemper" is to describe a viral infection that primarily affects dogs, known as canine distemper. This highly contagious disease can cause fever, coughing, runny nose, and a variety of other symptoms, and can be fatal if left untreated. In humans, "distemper" can also refer to a range of mental health conditions, including depression, anxiety, and mood disorders. It can also be used to describe a general feeling of being out of sorts or unwell, without a specific diagnosis. Overall, the term "distemper" is often used to describe a range of conditions that affect the mind or emotions, and can be used to describe both physical and mental health issues.

Antibodies, Bacterial are proteins produced by the immune system in response to bacterial infections. They are also known as bacterial antibodies or bacterial immunoglobulins. These antibodies are specific to bacterial antigens, which are molecules found on the surface of bacteria that trigger an immune response. When the immune system detects a bacterial infection, it produces antibodies that bind to the bacterial antigens and mark them for destruction by other immune cells. This helps to neutralize the bacteria and prevent them from causing harm to the body. Bacterial antibodies can be detected in the blood or other bodily fluids using laboratory tests. These tests are often used to diagnose bacterial infections and to monitor the effectiveness of antibiotic treatments.

Immune sera refers to a type of blood serum that contains antibodies produced by the immune system in response to an infection or vaccination. These antibodies are produced by B cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune response. Immune sera can be used to diagnose and treat certain infections, as well as to prevent future infections. For example, immune sera containing antibodies against a specific virus or bacteria can be used to diagnose a current infection or to prevent future infections in people who have been exposed to the virus or bacteria. Immune sera can also be used as a research tool to study the immune response to infections and to develop new vaccines and treatments. In some cases, immune sera may be used to treat patients with severe infections or allergies, although this is less common than using immune sera for diagnostic or preventive purposes.

Zanamivir is a medication used to treat influenza (the flu) in people 12 years of age and older. It is an antiviral drug that works by preventing the influenza virus from multiplying in the body. Zanamivir is available as a powder that is inhaled through a special inhaler device. It is usually taken twice a day for 5 days. Zanamivir is most effective when taken within 2 days of the onset of flu symptoms. It is not effective against bacterial infections and should not be used to treat the flu if the person has been exposed to someone with the flu who has a bacterial infection.

Recombinant proteins are proteins that are produced by genetically engineering bacteria, yeast, or other organisms to express a specific gene. These proteins are typically used in medical research and drug development because they can be produced in large quantities and are often more pure and consistent than proteins that are extracted from natural sources. Recombinant proteins can be used for a variety of purposes in medicine, including as diagnostic tools, therapeutic agents, and research tools. For example, recombinant versions of human proteins such as insulin, growth hormones, and clotting factors are used to treat a variety of medical conditions. Recombinant proteins can also be used to study the function of specific genes and proteins, which can help researchers understand the underlying causes of diseases and develop new treatments.

Nucleoproteins are complex molecules that consist of a protein and a nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. In the medical field, nucleoproteins play important roles in various biological processes, including gene expression, DNA replication, and DNA repair. One example of a nucleoprotein is histone, which is a protein that helps package DNA into a compact structure called chromatin. Histones are important for regulating gene expression, as they can affect the accessibility of DNA to transcription factors and other regulatory proteins. Another example of a nucleoprotein is ribonucleoprotein (RNP), which is a complex molecule that consists of RNA and one or more proteins. RNPs play important roles in various cellular processes, including mRNA processing, translation, and RNA interference. In the context of viral infections, nucleoproteins are often found in viral particles and play important roles in viral replication and pathogenesis. For example, the nucleoprotein of influenza virus is involved in the packaging of viral RNA into viral particles, while the nucleoprotein of HIV is involved in the regulation of viral gene expression. Overall, nucleoproteins are important molecules in the medical field, and their study can provide insights into various biological processes and diseases.

Mannose is a simple sugar that is a monosaccharide with the chemical formula C6H12O6. It is a component of many complex carbohydrates, including glycans and glycoproteins, which are found in the human body and play important roles in various biological processes. In the medical field, mannose is used as a diagnostic tool to detect certain diseases and conditions. For example, it is used in the diagnosis of certain types of cancer, such as ovarian cancer, by detecting changes in the levels of mannose in the blood or urine. Mannose is also used in the treatment of certain conditions, such as diabetes, by helping to regulate blood sugar levels. It is also used in the development of vaccines and as a component of some dietary supplements. In addition, mannose has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and immune-boosting properties, which may make it useful in the treatment of a variety of conditions, including infections, autoimmune diseases, and allergies.

In the medical field, "Vaccines, Attenuated" refers to vaccines that are made by weakening or attenuating a pathogen, such as a virus or bacteria, so that it can no longer cause disease in a healthy individual. This weakened pathogen is then introduced into the body to stimulate an immune response, which helps the body to recognize and fight off the pathogen if it is encountered again in the future. Attenuated vaccines are often used to prevent infectious diseases such as measles, mumps, rubella, polio, and yellow fever. They are typically made by growing the pathogen in a laboratory and then exposing it to conditions that weaken it, such as low temperatures or the absence of certain nutrients. The weakened pathogen is then injected into the body, where it triggers an immune response without causing the disease. Attenuated vaccines are generally considered to be safe and effective, and they are one of the most common types of vaccines used in the world. However, like all vaccines, they can cause side effects, such as fever, soreness at the injection site, and rare allergic reactions.

Poultry diseases refer to any illness or infection that affects birds that are raised for meat, eggs, or other products. These diseases can be caused by a variety of factors, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and environmental conditions. Some common poultry diseases include avian influenza, Newcastle disease, fowl pox, coccidiosis, and salmonellosis. These diseases can have significant economic impacts on the poultry industry, as well as pose a risk to human health if the birds are consumed or the disease is transmitted to other animals or humans. Treatment and prevention strategies for poultry diseases include vaccination, proper sanitation and hygiene practices, and the use of antibiotics or other medications as needed.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of protein that is produced by the immune system in response to the presence of foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins. It is the most abundant type of immunoglobulin in the blood and is responsible for the majority of the body's defense against infections. IgG is produced by B cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune response. When a B cell encounters a foreign substance, it produces IgG antibodies that can recognize and bind to the substance, marking it for destruction by other immune cells. IgG antibodies can also be transferred from mother to child through the placenta during pregnancy, providing the baby with some protection against infections during the first few months of life. In addition, some vaccines contain IgG antibodies to help stimulate the immune system and provide protection against specific diseases. Overall, IgG is an important component of the immune system and plays a critical role in protecting the body against infections and diseases.

RNA, Viral refers to the genetic material of viruses that are composed of RNA instead of DNA. Viral RNA is typically single-stranded and can be either positive-sense or negative-sense. Positive-sense RNA viruses can be directly translated into proteins by the host cell's ribosomes, while negative-sense RNA viruses require a complementary positive-sense RNA intermediate before protein synthesis can occur. Viral RNA is often encapsidated within a viral capsid and can be further protected by an envelope made of lipids and proteins derived from the host cell. RNA viruses include a wide range of pathogens that can cause diseases in humans and other organisms, such as influenza, hepatitis C, and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus responsible for COVID-19).

Trypsin is a proteolytic enzyme that is produced by the pancreas and is responsible for breaking down proteins into smaller peptides and amino acids. It is a serine protease that cleaves peptide bonds on the carboxyl side of lysine and arginine residues. Trypsin is an important digestive enzyme that helps to break down dietary proteins into smaller peptides and amino acids that can be absorbed and used by the body. It is also used in medical research and in the development of diagnostic tests and therapeutic agents.

DNA vaccines are a type of vaccine that uses a small piece of genetic material, usually DNA, to stimulate an immune response in the body. This genetic material is designed to encode a specific protein that is found on the surface of a pathogen, such as a virus or bacteria. When the DNA is introduced into the body, it is taken up by cells and used to produce the protein. The immune system recognizes the protein as foreign and mounts an immune response against it, which can provide protection against future infections by the pathogen. DNA vaccines are still in the experimental stage and have not yet been widely used in humans. However, they have shown promise in preclinical studies and are being investigated as a potential way to prevent a variety of infectious diseases, including influenza, HIV, and malaria. One advantage of DNA vaccines is that they can be easily and quickly produced, and they do not require the use of live or attenuated pathogens, which can be more difficult to work with and may pose a risk of causing disease.

In the medical field, "Pyrans" refers to a type of cyclic compound that contains a six-membered ring with five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom. Pyrans are a subclass of the larger group of heterocyclic compounds, which are molecules that contain at least one atom other than carbon in their ring structure. Pyrans are commonly found in nature and are often used as building blocks for the synthesis of various natural products, such as sugars, flavonoids, and alkaloids. In medicine, pyrans are used as active ingredients in various drugs and therapeutic agents, including antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs, and antiviral agents. One well-known example of a pyran is glucose, which is a simple sugar that is essential for energy metabolism in living organisms. Other examples of pyrans include fructose, ribose, and xanthan gum, which are used in food and pharmaceutical industries.

Adhesins, Escherichia coli are proteins expressed on the surface of Escherichia coli bacteria that enable them to adhere to and colonize various host tissues. These adhesins interact with specific receptors on the host cells, allowing the bacteria to attach and form biofilms, which can lead to infection and disease. Examples of adhesins in E. coli include FimH (fimbrial adhesin), intimin, and curli. Understanding the mechanisms of adhesion and colonization by E. coli is important for the development of effective treatments for E. coli infections.

Oligosaccharides are short chains of sugar molecules that are composed of three to ten monosaccharide units. They are also known as "oligos" or "short-chain carbohydrates." In the medical field, oligosaccharides have been studied for their potential health benefits, including their ability to improve gut health, boost the immune system, and reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as diabetes and obesity. Some specific types of oligosaccharides that have been studied in the medical field include: 1. Prebiotics: These are oligosaccharides that selectively stimulate the growth of beneficial bacteria in the gut, such as Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli. 2. Galactooligosaccharides (GOS): These are oligosaccharides that are found naturally in breast milk and have been shown to improve gut health and immune function in infants. 3. Fructooligosaccharides (FOS): These are oligosaccharides that are found in many fruits and vegetables and have been shown to improve gut health and reduce the risk of chronic diseases. Overall, oligosaccharides are an important class of carbohydrates that have potential health benefits and are being studied in the medical field for their potential therapeutic applications.

Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that are composed of long chains of monosaccharide units linked together by glycosidic bonds. They are found in many different types of biological materials, including plant cell walls, animal tissues, and microorganisms. In the medical field, polysaccharides are often used as drugs or therapeutic agents, due to their ability to modulate immune responses, promote wound healing, and provide other beneficial effects. Some examples of polysaccharides that are used in medicine include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, heparin, and dextran.

Recombinant fusion proteins are proteins that are produced by combining two or more genes in a single molecule. These proteins are typically created using genetic engineering techniques, such as recombinant DNA technology, to insert one or more genes into a host organism, such as bacteria or yeast, which then produces the fusion protein. Fusion proteins are often used in medical research and drug development because they can have unique properties that are not present in the individual proteins that make up the fusion. For example, a fusion protein might be designed to have increased stability, improved solubility, or enhanced targeting to specific cells or tissues. Recombinant fusion proteins have a wide range of applications in medicine, including as therapeutic agents, diagnostic tools, and research reagents. Some examples of recombinant fusion proteins used in medicine include antibodies, growth factors, and cytokines.

In the medical field, peptides are short chains of amino acids that are linked together by peptide bonds. They are typically composed of 2-50 amino acids and can be found in a variety of biological molecules, including hormones, neurotransmitters, and enzymes. Peptides play important roles in many physiological processes, including growth and development, immune function, and metabolism. They can also be used as therapeutic agents to treat a variety of medical conditions, such as diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. In the pharmaceutical industry, peptides are often synthesized using chemical methods and are used as drugs or as components of drugs. They can be administered orally, intravenously, or topically, depending on the specific peptide and the condition being treated.

Polysorbates are a class of nonionic surfactants that are commonly used in the medical field as emulsifiers, solubilizers, and stabilizers. They are composed of a mixture of sorbitan esters and polyoxyethylene alkyl ethers, and are typically derived from vegetable oils such as coconut or palm kernel oil. Polysorbates are used in a variety of medical applications, including as ingredients in parenteral drugs, ophthalmic solutions, and topical creams and lotions. They are also used in the production of medical devices, such as intravenous catheters and implants. One of the key benefits of polysorbates is their ability to improve the solubility and stability of drugs and other active ingredients, making them more effective and easier to use. They are also generally considered to be safe and well-tolerated by patients, although some people may experience skin irritation or other adverse reactions when using products containing polysorbates. Overall, polysorbates play an important role in the development and production of many medical products, and are widely used in the healthcare industry.

Viral vaccines are a type of vaccine that use a weakened or inactivated form of a virus to stimulate the immune system to produce an immune response against the virus. This immune response can provide protection against future infections with the virus. There are several different types of viral vaccines, including live attenuated vaccines, inactivated vaccines, and subunit vaccines. Live attenuated vaccines use a weakened form of the virus that is still able to replicate, but is not strong enough to cause disease. Inactivated vaccines use a killed form of the virus that is no longer able to replicate. Subunit vaccines use only a small part of the virus, such as a protein or a piece of genetic material, to stimulate an immune response. Viral vaccines are used to prevent a wide range of viral diseases, including influenza, measles, mumps, rubella, polio, hepatitis A and B, and human papillomavirus (HPV). They are typically given by injection, but can also be given by mouth or nose in some cases. Viral vaccines are an important tool in preventing the spread of viral diseases and reducing the number of cases and deaths caused by these diseases. They are generally safe and effective, and are an important part of public health efforts to control the spread of viral diseases.

Vaccines, virosomes are a type of vaccine that uses virosomes, which are small, lipid-bilayer vesicles that contain viral antigens. Virosomes are derived from viruses and are similar in structure to the viral envelope. They are used to deliver viral antigens to the immune system, triggering an immune response that can protect against viral infections. Virosome vaccines are typically made by isolating viral proteins and incorporating them into the virosome membrane. The virosomes are then administered to the body, where they are taken up by immune cells and processed to stimulate an immune response. Virosome vaccines have been shown to be effective in preventing a variety of viral infections, including influenza, hepatitis B, and human papillomavirus (HPV). One advantage of virosome vaccines is that they can be designed to target specific parts of the virus, allowing for a more targeted immune response. They can also be formulated to enhance the immune response, making them more effective than traditional vaccines. However, virosome vaccines are still in the experimental stage and have not yet been widely used in clinical practice.

Amantadine is a medication that is used to treat influenza (the flu) and to prevent and treat Parkinson's disease. It works by blocking the action of a chemical in the brain called dopamine, which helps to reduce symptoms such as tremors, stiffness, and slowness of movement. Amantadine is also sometimes used to treat restless legs syndrome, a condition characterized by an irresistible urge to move the legs, usually accompanied by an uncomfortable sensation. It is available in both oral and intravenous forms.

Bacterial proteins are proteins that are synthesized by bacteria. They are essential for the survival and function of bacteria, and play a variety of roles in bacterial metabolism, growth, and pathogenicity. Bacterial proteins can be classified into several categories based on their function, including structural proteins, metabolic enzymes, regulatory proteins, and toxins. Structural proteins provide support and shape to the bacterial cell, while metabolic enzymes are involved in the breakdown of nutrients and the synthesis of new molecules. Regulatory proteins control the expression of other genes, and toxins can cause damage to host cells and tissues. Bacterial proteins are of interest in the medical field because they can be used as targets for the development of antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents. They can also be used as diagnostic markers for bacterial infections, and as vaccines to prevent bacterial diseases. Additionally, some bacterial proteins have been shown to have therapeutic potential, such as enzymes that can break down harmful substances in the body or proteins that can stimulate the immune system.

Bordetella infections are caused by bacteria of the genus Bordetella, which includes Bordetella pertussis (whooping cough), Bordetella parapertussis, and Bordetella bronchiseptica. These bacteria can cause a range of respiratory infections in humans and animals, including whooping cough, bronchitis, and pneumonia. Bordetella pertussis is the most well-known of these bacteria and is responsible for whooping cough, a highly contagious respiratory infection that primarily affects children. Whooping cough is characterized by a severe cough that can last for several weeks, often followed by a whooping sound when the person inhales. In severe cases, whooping cough can be life-threatening, particularly in young children. Bordetella parapertussis is a less common cause of whooping cough, but it can cause similar symptoms to Bordetella pertussis. Bordetella bronchiseptica is a common cause of respiratory infections in animals, but it can also cause infections in humans, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. Treatment for Bordetella infections typically involves antibiotics to kill the bacteria. In the case of whooping cough, vaccination is also an important preventive measure.

Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is a type of antibody that plays a crucial role in the body's immune system. It is the most abundant antibody in the mucous membranes, which line the surfaces of the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts. IgA is produced by plasma cells in the bone marrow and is secreted into the bloodstream and mucous membranes. It is particularly important in protecting against infections in the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, where it helps to neutralize and eliminate pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. IgA can also be found in tears, saliva, and breast milk, where it provides protection against infections in the eyes, mouth, and digestive tract. In addition, IgA plays a role in the immune response to certain types of cancer and autoimmune diseases. Overall, IgA is a critical component of the body's immune system and plays a vital role in protecting against infections and diseases.

Swine diseases refer to any illness or infection that affects pigs. These diseases can be caused by a variety of factors, including viruses, bacteria, parasites, fungi, and environmental factors. Swine diseases can range from mild to severe and can affect pigs of all ages and sizes. Some common swine diseases include: 1. Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS) 2. Swine Influenza (Swine Flu) 3. Porcine Circovirus Type 2 (PCV2) 4. Porcine Parvovirus (PPV) 5. Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea (PED) 6. Swine Leukosis Virus (SLV) 7. Porcine Dermatitis and Necrosis Syndrome (PDNS) 8. Porcine Enterotoxemia (PED) 9. Porcine Circovirus Type 1 (PCV1) 10. Porcine Circovirus Type 3 (PCV3) Swine diseases can have significant economic impacts on the pork industry, as well as on animal welfare and public health. Therefore, it is important for veterinarians, farmers, and other stakeholders to be aware of the signs and symptoms of swine diseases and to take appropriate measures to prevent and control their spread.

In the medical field, "HN Protein" typically refers to the "Nucleocapsid Protein" of the "Hepatitis C Virus" (HCV). The HN protein is a viral protein that plays a crucial role in the replication and assembly of the HCV genome. It is encoded by the 5' non-coding region of the HCV genome and is responsible for packaging the viral RNA into a nucleocapsid structure. The HN protein is also involved in the interaction of the virus with host cells, including the entry of the virus into the cell and the assembly of new virus particles. The HN protein is a target for antiviral therapy and is the subject of ongoing research for the development of new treatments for HCV infection.

Oseltamivir is an antiviral medication used to treat and prevent influenza (the flu). It works by inhibiting the activity of an enzyme called neuraminidase, which is essential for the replication and spread of the influenza virus. Oseltamivir is available in oral tablet and capsule forms and is typically prescribed to people who have been exposed to the flu virus or who are experiencing flu-like symptoms. It is most effective when taken within the first 48 hours of symptom onset. Oseltamivir is not effective against other types of viruses, such as the common cold. Common side effects of oseltamivir include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and headache.

Bacteroidaceae infections refer to infections caused by bacteria belonging to the family Bacteroidaceae. This family of bacteria is commonly found in the human gut and is a normal part of the gut microbiota. However, under certain circumstances, such as when the gut microbiota is disrupted or when the bacteria become pathogenic, they can cause infections in various parts of the body. Bacteroidaceae infections can occur in a variety of settings, including hospitals, long-term care facilities, and the community. They can affect different parts of the body, including the respiratory tract, urinary tract, skin, and soft tissues. Some common infections caused by Bacteroidaceae include pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and wound infections. Bacteroidaceae infections can be treated with antibiotics, although the choice of antibiotic may depend on the specific bacteria involved and the location of the infection. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove infected tissue or drain an abscess. It is important to note that not all Bacteroidaceae bacteria are pathogenic, and many are actually beneficial to human health. However, when these bacteria become pathogenic, they can cause serious infections that require prompt medical attention.

Membrane glycoproteins are proteins that are attached to the cell membrane through a glycosyl group, which is a complex carbohydrate. These proteins play important roles in cell signaling, cell adhesion, and cell recognition. They are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including immune response, cell growth and differentiation, and nerve transmission. Membrane glycoproteins can be classified into two main types: transmembrane glycoproteins, which span the entire cell membrane, and peripheral glycoproteins, which are located on one side of the membrane.

Squalene is a naturally occurring, unsaturated hydrocarbon that is found in the bodies of humans and other animals. It is a component of the cell membranes of many types of cells, and it plays a role in the production of cholesterol and other important molecules in the body. In the medical field, squalene is sometimes used as a component of topical medications and skincare products. It is believed to have moisturizing and anti-inflammatory properties, and it may help to protect the skin from damage caused by UV radiation and other environmental factors. Squalene is also used in the production of certain types of vaccines, including the COVID-19 vaccine. In these vaccines, squalene is used to help the immune system recognize and respond to the vaccine's active ingredients. Overall, squalene is an important molecule that plays a number of important roles in the body, and it has a number of potential medical applications.

Vaccines, Virus-Like Particle (VLPs) are a type of vaccine that uses harmless viral particles to stimulate an immune response in the body. These particles are similar in structure to the virus they are designed to protect against, but they do not contain any infectious material. VLPs are often used to create vaccines for viruses that do not have a live attenuated or inactivated vaccine available. They are also used in combination with other vaccine components to enhance the immune response. VLP vaccines are typically made by using genetic engineering techniques to produce the viral particles in the laboratory. Once the particles are produced, they are purified and formulated into a vaccine that can be administered to humans. Examples of VLP vaccines include the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine, which protects against several types of HPV that can cause cervical cancer, and the hepatitis B vaccine, which protects against the hepatitis B virus.

In the medical field, "DNA, Recombinant" refers to a type of DNA that has been artificially synthesized or modified to contain specific genes or genetic sequences. This is achieved through a process called genetic engineering, which involves inserting foreign DNA into a host organism's genome. Recombinant DNA technology has revolutionized the field of medicine, allowing scientists to create new drugs, vaccines, and other therapeutic agents. For example, recombinant DNA technology has been used to create insulin for the treatment of diabetes, human growth hormone for the treatment of growth disorders, and vaccines for a variety of infectious diseases. Recombinant DNA technology also has important applications in basic research, allowing scientists to study the function of specific genes and genetic sequences, and to investigate the mechanisms of diseases.

Pertussis toxin is a protein toxin produced by Bordetella pertussis, the bacterium responsible for whooping cough. It is one of the major virulence factors of B. pertussis and plays a key role in the pathogenesis of the disease. Pertussis toxin is a complex molecule composed of two subunits: the A subunit, which is responsible for its toxic effects, and the B subunit, which is responsible for its binding to host cells. The A subunit of pertussis toxin ADP-ribosylates a specific host cell protein, called the G protein, which is involved in signal transduction pathways. This ADP-ribosylation leads to the inhibition of the G protein, which in turn disrupts normal cellular signaling and causes a variety of toxic effects, including inflammation, cell death, and disruption of the respiratory system. Pertussis toxin is a major contributor to the severity of whooping cough, and it is the target of several vaccines used to prevent the disease. In addition to its role in whooping cough, pertussis toxin has also been studied for its potential use as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of other diseases, such as cancer and autoimmune disorders.

Neuraminic acids are a group of nine related organic compounds that are important in the structure and function of the human body. They are also known as sialic acids and are found in many different types of cells, including neurons, immune cells, and red blood cells. Neuraminic acids are synthesized from the amino acid aspartic acid and are involved in a number of important biological processes, including the formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids, which are complex carbohydrates that are found on the surface of cells. These molecules play a role in cell recognition and communication, and are also involved in the immune response. Neuraminic acids are also important for the function of the nervous system. They are found in high concentrations in the brain and spinal cord, and are thought to play a role in the development and maintenance of neural connections. In addition, they are involved in the regulation of neurotransmitter release and the formation of synapses, which are the connections between neurons. Neuraminic acids are also used in the treatment of certain medical conditions, including influenza, cancer, and neurological disorders. They are available as dietary supplements and are sometimes used to enhance the immune system or improve cognitive function. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential benefits and risks of using neuraminic acids for these purposes.

In the medical field, "toxoids" refer to vaccines or immunizing agents that are made from inactivated or weakened forms of toxins produced by bacteria or other microorganisms. These toxins are usually produced by the same microorganisms that cause diseases, such as diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis. Toxoids are used to stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies against the toxins, which can then protect against the disease caused by the microorganism. They are often used in combination with other vaccines to provide comprehensive protection against a range of diseases. Toxoids are considered safe and effective, and are widely used in vaccination programs around the world. They are typically administered through injection, and can be given to people of all ages, including infants and children.

Bacterial outer membrane proteins (OMPs) are proteins that are located on the outer surface of the cell membrane of bacteria. They play important roles in the survival and pathogenicity of bacteria, as well as in their interactions with the environment and host cells. OMPs can be classified into several categories based on their function, including porins, which allow the passage of small molecules and ions across the outer membrane, and lipoproteins, which are anchored to the outer membrane by a lipid moiety. Other types of OMPs include adhesins, which mediate the attachment of bacteria to host cells or surfaces, and toxins, which can cause damage to host cells. OMPs are important targets for the development of new antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents, as they are often essential for bacterial survival and can be differentially expressed by different bacterial strains or species. They are also the subject of ongoing research in the fields of microbiology, immunology, and infectious diseases.

Botulinum toxins are a group of neurotoxins produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. These toxins are used in the medical field for a variety of therapeutic purposes, including the treatment of muscle spasms, wrinkles, and other conditions. Botulinum toxins work by blocking the release of a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine, which is responsible for transmitting signals between nerve cells. When acetylcholine is blocked, the muscles that it controls become relaxed, which can help to reduce muscle spasms and wrinkles. There are several different types of botulinum toxins, each with slightly different properties and uses. The most commonly used types are Botox, Dysport, and Xeomin. These toxins are typically injected into the affected muscles to achieve the desired therapeutic effect. Botulinum toxins are generally considered safe and effective when used by trained medical professionals. However, like all medications, they can cause side effects, such as pain, redness, and swelling at the injection site, and in rare cases, more serious complications. It is important to discuss the potential risks and benefits of botulinum toxin therapy with a healthcare provider before undergoing treatment.

In the medical field, a peptide fragment refers to a short chain of amino acids that are derived from a larger peptide or protein molecule. Peptide fragments can be generated through various techniques, such as enzymatic digestion or chemical cleavage, and are often used in diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Peptide fragments can be used as biomarkers for various diseases, as they may be present in the body at elevated levels in response to specific conditions. For example, certain peptide fragments have been identified as potential biomarkers for cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and cardiovascular disease. In addition, peptide fragments can be used as therapeutic agents themselves. For example, some peptide fragments have been shown to have anti-inflammatory or anti-cancer properties, and are being investigated as potential treatments for various diseases. Overall, peptide fragments play an important role in the medical field, both as diagnostic tools and as potential therapeutic agents.

Membrane proteins are proteins that are embedded within the lipid bilayer of a cell membrane. They play a crucial role in regulating the movement of substances across the membrane, as well as in cell signaling and communication. There are several types of membrane proteins, including integral membrane proteins, which span the entire membrane, and peripheral membrane proteins, which are only in contact with one or both sides of the membrane. Membrane proteins can be classified based on their function, such as transporters, receptors, channels, and enzymes. They are important for many physiological processes, including nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and cell growth and division.

Benzoylarginine Nitroanilide (BAN) is a synthetic peptide that is used as a substrate for the measurement of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) activity. ACE is an enzyme that plays a key role in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which regulates blood pressure and fluid balance in the body. In medical research and clinical practice, BAN is often used to assess ACE activity in various tissues and fluids, including blood, urine, and tissue extracts. This information can be useful in the diagnosis and treatment of a variety of conditions, including hypertension, heart failure, and kidney disease. BAN is typically administered as a solution or suspension, and its effects are measured by monitoring changes in the absorbance of light at a specific wavelength. The rate of absorption is proportional to the amount of ACE activity present in the sample, allowing researchers and clinicians to quantify ACE activity and assess its role in various physiological and pathological processes.

Botulinum Antitoxin is a medication used to treat botulism, a rare but potentially life-threatening illness caused by the botulinum toxin produced by certain types of bacteria. The antitoxin works by neutralizing the botulinum toxin in the body, preventing it from causing further damage to the nervous system. Botulinum Antitoxin is typically administered intravenously and is most effective when given as soon as possible after exposure to the toxin. It is also used to prevent botulism in people who have been exposed to the toxin but have not yet developed symptoms. Botulinum Antitoxin is considered a critical treatment for botulism and is available in the United States through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

Natural Cytotoxicity Triggering Receptor 1 (NCR1) is a type of immune cell receptor found on the surface of natural killer (NK) cells, a type of white blood cell that plays a critical role in the body's immune response. NCR1 is a member of the natural killer cell receptor (NKR) family, which includes several other receptors that are involved in the recognition and elimination of infected or cancerous cells. NCR1 recognizes and binds to specific molecules on the surface of infected or cancerous cells, triggering the NK cell to release cytotoxic molecules that can kill the target cell. NCR1 is also involved in the regulation of NK cell activation and proliferation, and it plays a role in the development and function of other immune cells, such as T cells and dendritic cells. In the medical field, NCR1 is of interest because it is involved in the immune response to a wide range of infections and cancers. Researchers are studying NCR1 and other NKR receptors as potential targets for the development of new therapies for these diseases. Additionally, NCR1 is being studied as a biomarker for the diagnosis and prognosis of certain cancers, as well as for the monitoring of immune responses to cancer treatments.

DNA primers are short, single-stranded DNA molecules that are used in a variety of molecular biology techniques, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. They are designed to bind to specific regions of a DNA molecule, and are used to initiate the synthesis of new DNA strands. In PCR, DNA primers are used to amplify specific regions of DNA by providing a starting point for the polymerase enzyme to begin synthesizing new DNA strands. The primers are complementary to the target DNA sequence, and are added to the reaction mixture along with the DNA template, nucleotides, and polymerase enzyme. The polymerase enzyme uses the primers as a template to synthesize new DNA strands, which are then extended by the addition of more nucleotides. This process is repeated multiple times, resulting in the amplification of the target DNA sequence. DNA primers are also used in DNA sequencing to identify the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. In this application, the primers are designed to bind to specific regions of the DNA molecule, and are used to initiate the synthesis of short DNA fragments. The fragments are then sequenced using a variety of techniques, such as Sanger sequencing or next-generation sequencing. Overall, DNA primers are an important tool in molecular biology, and are used in a wide range of applications to study and manipulate DNA.

In the medical field, viral core proteins refer to the internal proteins that are essential for the replication and survival of a virus. These proteins are typically found within the viral capsid, which is the protein shell that surrounds the viral genome. The viral core proteins play a crucial role in the viral life cycle by facilitating the replication of the viral genome and the assembly of new virus particles. They may also be involved in protecting the viral genome from degradation or preventing the host immune system from recognizing and eliminating the virus. Examples of viral core proteins include the core protein of the hepatitis B virus, which is essential for the replication of the viral genome, and the core protein of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which plays a role in the assembly of new virus particles. Understanding the structure and function of viral core proteins is important for the development of antiviral drugs and vaccines, as well as for understanding the pathogenesis of viral infections.

HLA-DR1 Antigen is a type of protein found on the surface of cells in the human immune system. It is a member of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II family of proteins, which play a crucial role in the immune response by presenting foreign antigens to immune cells. HLA-DR1 Antigen is encoded by the HLA-DRB1 gene, which is located on chromosome 6. It is expressed on the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells, where it can bind to foreign antigens and present them to T cells. The HLA-DR1 Antigen plays an important role in the immune response to infections, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. It is also used in the diagnosis and treatment of certain diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and type 1 diabetes.

Amino acids are organic compounds that are the building blocks of proteins. They are composed of an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a side chain (R group) that varies in size and structure. There are 20 different amino acids that are commonly found in proteins, each with a unique side chain that gives it distinct chemical and physical properties. In the medical field, amino acids are important for a variety of functions, including the synthesis of proteins, enzymes, and hormones. They are also involved in energy metabolism and the maintenance of healthy tissues. Deficiencies in certain amino acids can lead to a range of health problems, including muscle wasting, anemia, and neurological disorders. In some cases, amino acids may be prescribed as supplements to help treat these conditions or to support overall health and wellness.

In the medical field, a mutant protein refers to a protein that has undergone a genetic mutation, resulting in a change in its structure or function. Mutations can occur in the DNA sequence that codes for a protein, leading to the production of a protein with a different amino acid sequence than the normal, or wild-type, protein. Mutant proteins can be associated with a variety of medical conditions, including genetic disorders, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. For example, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes can increase the risk of breast and ovarian cancer, while mutations in the huntingtin gene can cause Huntington's disease. In some cases, mutant proteins can be targeted for therapeutic intervention. For example, drugs that inhibit the activity of mutant proteins or promote the degradation of mutant proteins may be used to treat certain types of cancer or other diseases.

Immunoglobulin A, Secretory (IgA) is a type of antibody that is produced by plasma cells in the immune system. It is the most abundant antibody in the human body and is primarily found in the mucous membranes of the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts, as well as in breast milk. Secretory IgA plays an important role in protecting the body against infections and other harmful substances that may enter the body through the mucous membranes. It is able to neutralize viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens, and can also help to prevent them from adhering to the mucous membranes. In addition to its role in protecting the body against infections, secretory IgA has been shown to play a role in regulating the immune system and preventing autoimmune diseases. It is also important for the development of the immune system in infants, as it is present in high concentrations in breast milk and helps to protect the baby from infections. Overall, secretory IgA is an important component of the body's immune system and plays a crucial role in protecting the body against infections and other harmful substances.

Fimbriae proteins are protein structures found on the surface of certain bacteria. They are thin, hair-like projections that extend from the bacterial cell surface and are involved in the attachment of bacteria to surfaces, including host cells and other bacteria. Fimbriae proteins play an important role in the pathogenesis of many bacterial infections, as they allow bacteria to adhere to and colonize host tissues. They are also involved in the transfer of genetic material between bacteria, as well as in the movement of bacteria across surfaces. In the medical field, fimbriae proteins are of interest as potential targets for the development of new antibacterial therapies.

Hemolysin proteins are a group of toxins produced by certain bacteria that can cause damage to red blood cells (erythrocytes). These proteins are capable of disrupting the integrity of the cell membrane, leading to the release of hemoglobin, which can cause hemoglobinemia (an excess of hemoglobin in the blood) and hemoglobinuria (the presence of hemoglobin in the urine). Hemolysins can be classified into several types based on their mechanism of action and the target cells they affect. Some hemolysins, such as streptolysin O and pneumolysin, are pore-forming toxins that create holes in the cell membrane, leading to cell lysis and death. Other hemolysins, such as alpha-hemolysin, act by disrupting the cell membrane's lipid bilayer, leading to cell lysis. Hemolysins are produced by a variety of bacterial species, including Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Clostridium perfringens. Infections caused by these bacteria can lead to a range of symptoms, including fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. In severe cases, hemolysin production can lead to sepsis, a life-threatening condition characterized by widespread inflammation and organ dysfunction.

Myelin and Lymphocyte-Associated Proteolipid Proteins (MaLPs) are a group of proteins that are found in the central nervous system (CNS) of vertebrates. These proteins are involved in the formation and maintenance of myelin, which is a fatty substance that surrounds and insulates nerve fibers in the CNS. MaLPs are also found in the immune system, where they play a role in the development and function of lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. MaLPs are composed of two main subunits: proteolipid protein (PLP) and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG). PLP is the most abundant protein in myelin, and it is essential for the proper formation and maintenance of myelin sheaths. MOG is also important for myelin formation, and it is also involved in the immune response to myelin in the CNS. Abnormalities in the expression or function of MaLPs have been linked to a number of neurological disorders, including multiple sclerosis (MS), a chronic inflammatory disease of the CNS that affects the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers. In MS, the immune system mistakenly attacks and damages the myelin sheaths, leading to a range of symptoms including muscle weakness, fatigue, and difficulty with coordination and balance.

In the medical field, "DNA, Viral" refers to the genetic material of viruses, which is composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Viruses are infectious agents that can only replicate inside living cells of organisms, including humans. The genetic material of viruses is different from that of cells, as viruses do not have a cellular structure and cannot carry out metabolic processes on their own. Instead, they rely on the host cell's machinery to replicate and produce new viral particles. Understanding the genetic material of viruses is important for developing treatments and vaccines against viral infections. By studying the DNA or RNA (ribonucleic acid) of viruses, researchers can identify potential targets for antiviral drugs and design vaccines that stimulate the immune system to recognize and fight off viral infections.

Receptors, cell surface are proteins that are located on the surface of cells and are responsible for receiving signals from the environment. These signals can be chemical, electrical, or mechanical in nature and can trigger a variety of cellular responses. There are many different types of cell surface receptors, including ion channels, G-protein coupled receptors, and enzyme-linked receptors. These receptors play a critical role in many physiological processes, including sensation, communication, and regulation of cellular activity. In the medical field, understanding the function and regulation of cell surface receptors is important for developing new treatments for a wide range of diseases and conditions.

In the medical field, lipid bilayers refer to the two layers of phospholipid molecules that form the basic structure of cell membranes. The lipid bilayer is composed of a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and a hydrophobic (water-fearing) tail. The hydrophilic heads face outward, towards the aqueous environment of the cell, while the hydrophobic tails face inward, towards each other. This arrangement creates a barrier that separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment, while also allowing for the selective passage of molecules in and out of the cell. The lipid bilayer is essential for maintaining the integrity and function of cells, and is involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell signaling, metabolism, and transport.

Mannose-binding lectin (MBL) is a protein that plays a role in the innate immune system. It is produced by the liver and circulates in the blood, where it binds to specific carbohydrate structures on the surface of microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses. This binding triggers a series of immune responses, including the activation of complement proteins and the recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection. MBL is also involved in the clearance of damaged or apoptotic cells from the body. Deficiencies in MBL can increase the risk of infections and autoimmune diseases.

Immunoglobulin Fab fragments, also known as Fab fragments or Fabs, are a type of protein that is derived from the variable regions of the heavy and light chains of an immunoglobulin (antibody). They are composed of two antigen-binding sites, which are responsible for recognizing and binding to specific antigens. Fab fragments are often used in medical research and diagnostic testing because they have a high specificity for their target antigens and can be easily produced and purified. They are also used in the development of therapeutic antibodies, as they can be engineered to have a variety of functions, such as delivering drugs to specific cells or tissues. In addition to their use in research and diagnostic testing, Fab fragments have also been used in the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases. They are typically administered intravenously or intramuscularly and can be used alone or in combination with other therapies.

Diphtheria-Tetanus-Pertussis (DTP) vaccine is a combination vaccine that protects against three infectious diseases: diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (also known as whooping cough). The vaccine is typically given to children as part of their routine childhood immunization schedule, starting at around 2 months of age and continuing through adolescence. Diphtheria is a bacterial infection that can cause severe respiratory and cardiovascular problems, and can be fatal if left untreated. Tetanus is caused by a bacterial infection that affects the nervous system and can cause muscle stiffness and spasms, as well as difficulty breathing. Pertussis, or whooping cough, is a highly contagious respiratory infection that can cause severe coughing fits, difficulty breathing, and even death in severe cases. The DTP vaccine is made from killed or weakened forms of the bacteria that cause these diseases, and it stimulates the body's immune system to produce antibodies that can protect against future infections. The vaccine is typically given as a series of three doses, with the second and third doses given at intervals of 4-6 weeks and 6-12 months, respectively.

In the medical field, carbohydrates are one of the three macronutrients that provide energy to the body. They are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms and are found in foods such as grains, fruits, vegetables, and dairy products. Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose (a simple sugar) during digestion and are then transported to cells throughout the body to be used as energy. The body can store excess glucose as glycogen in the liver and muscles for later use. There are two main types of carbohydrates: simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates, also known as sugars, are made up of one or two sugar molecules and are quickly digested and absorbed by the body. Complex carbohydrates, on the other hand, are made up of many sugar molecules and take longer to digest and absorb. In the medical field, carbohydrates are often discussed in the context of nutrition and diabetes management. People with diabetes need to carefully monitor their carbohydrate intake to help manage their blood sugar levels.

Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is a type of antibody that is produced by B cells in response to an infection or foreign substance. It is the first antibody to be produced during an immune response and is present in the blood and other body fluids in relatively low concentrations. IgM antibodies are large, Y-shaped molecules that can bind to multiple antigens at once, making them highly effective at neutralizing pathogens and marking them for destruction by other immune cells. They are also able to activate the complement system, a series of proteins that can directly destroy pathogens or mark them for destruction by immune cells. IgM antibodies are often used as a diagnostic tool in medical testing, as they are typically the first antibodies to be produced in response to a new infection. They can also be used to monitor the effectiveness of vaccines and to detect the presence of certain diseases, such as viral or bacterial infections, autoimmune disorders, and certain types of cancer.

Endopeptidases are enzymes that cleave peptide bonds within polypeptide chains, typically within the interior of the molecule. They are a type of protease, which are enzymes that break down proteins into smaller peptides or individual amino acids. Endopeptidases are involved in a variety of physiological processes, including the regulation of hormone levels, the breakdown of blood clots, and the maintenance of tissue homeostasis. They are also important in the immune response, where they help to degrade and remove damaged or infected cells. In the medical field, endopeptidases are often used as research tools to study protein function and as potential therapeutic agents for a variety of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and inflammatory conditions.

Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence of foreign substances, such as viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens. Antibodies are designed to recognize and bind to specific molecules on the surface of these foreign substances, marking them for destruction by other immune cells. There are five main classes of antibodies: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE. Each class of antibody has a unique structure and function, and they are produced by different types of immune cells in response to different types of pathogens. Antibodies play a critical role in the immune response, helping to protect the body against infection and disease. They can neutralize pathogens by binding to them and preventing them from entering cells, or they can mark them for destruction by other immune cells. In some cases, antibodies can also help to stimulate the immune response by activating immune cells or by recruiting other immune cells to the site of infection. Antibodies are often used in medical treatments, such as in the development of vaccines, where they are used to stimulate the immune system to produce a response to a specific pathogen. They are also used in diagnostic tests to detect the presence of specific pathogens or to monitor the immune response to a particular treatment.

Glycoconjugates are complex molecules that consist of carbohydrates (sugars) covalently attached to other molecules, such as proteins, lipids, or nucleic acids. In the medical field, glycoconjugates play important roles in various biological processes, including cell signaling, immune response, and disease pathogenesis. Glycoconjugates are found on the surface of cells and in the extracellular matrix, and they can be modified in response to various stimuli. For example, changes in the glycosylation patterns of proteins can affect their function and stability, and altered glycosylation has been implicated in many diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases. In addition to their biological functions, glycoconjugates are also important targets for drug discovery and development. Many drugs and vaccines target specific glycoconjugates on the surface of cells or viruses, and the development of glycoconjugate-based therapies is an active area of research in the medical field.

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Hemagglutinins are small proteins that project from the virus membrane surface as 135 Å long spikes with a diameter of 30-50 Å ... Hemagglutinins recognize cell-surface glycoconjugates containing sialic acid on the surface of host red blood cells with a low ... In the endosome, hemagglutinins are activated at a pH of 5 - 6.5 to undergo conformational changes that enable viral attachment ... Hemagglutinins are responsible for binding to receptors on red blood cells to initiate viral attachment and infection. The ...
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They require cooking for two to three hours to destroy the trypsin inhibitors and hemagglutinins that inhibit digestion. They ...
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Soybeans also contain biologically active or metabolic proteins, such as enzymes, trypsin inhibitors, hemagglutinins, and ... Soybeans also contain biologically active or metabolic proteins, such as enzymes, trypsin inhibitors, hemagglutinins, and ...
The avian influenza hemagglutinin binds alpha 2-3 sialic acid receptors, while human influenza hemagglutinins bind alpha 2-6 ...
They bind viral ligands such as hemagglutinins and hemagglutinin neuraminidases, some bacterial ligands and cellular ligands ...
His research interests included hemagglutinins, the study of which led to the development of a new pertussis vaccine, which was ...
By vaccinating twice with hemagglutinins that have different "heads" but the same membrane-proximal "stalk", the immune system ...
When erythrocytes are exposed to hemagglutinins (anti-A and Anti-B antibodies), those expressing antigen A or B coagulate upon ... Agglutination, using blood agglutinins known as hemagglutinins, is used diagnostically to identify blood types of human beings ... Erythrocytes expressing both antigens coagulate upon contacting either anti-A or anti-B hemagglutinins while those not ... contacting anti-A and anti-B hemagglutinins respectively. ...
... containing hemagglutinins, lipoxygenases, b-amylase, and β-conglycinin. The major soy protein components, in the two fractions ...
A positive blood test for cold-hemagglutinins in 50-70% of patients after 10 days of infection (cold-hemagglutinin-test should ...
... hemagglutinins MeSH D27.505.696.477.274 - biological response modifiers MeSH D27.505.696.477.274.050 - adjuvants, immunologic ...
... hemagglutinins, viral MeSH D12.776.964.970.880.345.500 - hemagglutinin glycoproteins, influenza virus MeSH D12.776.964.970. ...
... to remove naturally occurring hemagglutinins) and kaolin (to remove or reduce nonantibody inhibitors of HA). Trypsin also has ...
... hemagglutinins, viral MeSH D23.050.327.461.350 - hn protein MeSH D23.050.327.495 - hepatitis antigens MeSH D23.050.327.495.249 ...
... such as lentiviral vectors pseudotyped with influenza A hemagglutinins in microneutralization assays (pMN) is a safe and ... Development of Lentiviral Vectors Pseudotyped With Influenza B Hemagglutinins: Application in Vaccine Immunogenicity, mAb ... Development of Lentiviral Vectors Pseudotyped With Influenza B Hemagglutinins: Application in Vaccine Immunogenicity, mAb ... such as lentiviral vectors pseudotyped with influenza A hemagglutinins in microneutralization assays (pMN) is a safe and ...
Structures and receptor binding of hemagglutinins from human-infecting H7N9 influenza viruses. Science 342, 243-247 (2013). ...
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Synonyms:Agglutininsand Lectins, phytohemagglutinins; Hemagglutinins, phyto-; Agglutinins andLectins, phytohem-; Agglutinins ... and lectins, phytohemagglutinin; Agglutinins,phytohemagglutinin; Agglutinins, phytohemagglutinins; Hemagglutinins, ...
Quantification of influenza virus hemagglutinins in complex mixtures using isotope dilution tandem mass spectrometry. Vaccine ...
Categories: Hemagglutinins Image Types: Photo, Illustrations, Video, Color, Black&White, PublicDomain, CopyrightRestricted 65 ...
In density gradient at least two separable hemagglutinins, CF antigens and precipitins (3). * Pool of 14 females, 12 males, 182 ... In density gradient at least two separable hemagglutinins, CF antigens and precipitins (3). * Pool of 14 females, 12 males, 182 ...
hemagglutinins 1. 116). Recombinant Bax or cytosolic Bax exposed to Triton X-100 or octyl gluco- side form oligomers with a ...
... of the Sialic Acid Binding Activity of Influenza A Viruses Using Soluble Variants of the H7 and H9 Hemagglutinins. [Source: ... of the Sialic Acid Binding Activity of Influenza A Viruses Using Soluble Variants of the H7 and H9 Hemagglutinins ...
The surface of flu viruses is studded with proteins called hemagglutinins, which are the part of the virus that binds to cells ... Hemagglutinins are shaped a bit like a lollypop - they have a globe-like head attached to a stalk. ...
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... hemagglutinins or phytohemagglutinins) are proteins found in most plant foods, however, in human food, pulses are the main ...
LABEL: fast and accurate lineage assignment with assessment of H5N1 and H9N2 influenza A hemagglutinins. Samuel S Shepard, C ...
Induction of Broadly Cross-Reactive Stalk-Specific Antibody Responses to Influenza Group 1 and Group 2 Hemagglutinins by ...
Ha, Y. et al., X-ray structures of H5 avian and H9 swine influenza virus hemagglutinins bound to avian and human receptor ...
Lang S, Xie J, Zhu X, Wu N, Lerner R, Wilson I. Antibody 27F3 broadly targets influenza A group 1 and 2 hemagglutinins through ...
All hemagglutinins and neuraminidases infect wild waterfowl, and the various combinations of H and N yield 144 potential ... The most common subtypes of human influenza virus identified to date contain only hemagglutinins 1, 2, and 3 and neuraminidases ...
Hemagglutinins Medicine & Life Sciences 100% * Orthomyxoviridae Medicine & Life Sciences 90% * Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies ...
Molecular Docking of Human-Like Receptor to Hemagglutinins of Avian Influenza A Viruses Ying-Chun DENG,Qing LIU,Qiang HUANG*(. ... Molecular Docking of Human-Like Receptor to Hemagglutinins of Avian Influenza A Viruses[J]. Acta Phys. -Chim. Sin. 2017, 33(3 ...
Dive into the research topics of Blood group antigens and antibodies in human brain tumor cysts. Together they form a unique fingerprint. ...
Influenza VirusAntiviral AgentsViral Structural ProteinsCapsid ProteinsHemagglutinins, ViralAntibodies, ViralNeuraminidaseViral ...
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Seib, K. L., Jen, F. E. C., Tan, A., Scott, A. L., Kumar, R., Power, P. M., Chen, L. T., Wu, H. J., Wang, A. H. J., Hill, D. M. C., Luyten, Y. A., Morgan, R. D., Roberts, R. J., Maiden, M. C. J., Boitano, M., Clark, T. A., Korlach, J., Rao, D. N. & Jennings, M. P., 3月 3 2015, 於: Nucleic Acids Research. 43, 8, p. 4150-4162 13 p.. 研究成果: 雜誌貢獻 › 文章 › 同行評審 ...
Hemagglutinins, Viral - Preferred Concept UI. M0010029. Scope note. Specific hemagglutinin subtypes encoded by VIRUSES. ...
hemagglutinins Agriculture & Biology 54% * Hemagglutinins Medicine & Life Sciences 53% * adjuvants Agriculture & Biology 50% ...
Hemagglutinins Medicine & Life Sciences 80% * Influenza A virus Medicine & Life Sciences 78% ...
TY - JOUR. T1 - Production and characterization of soluble human TNFRI-Fc and human HO-1(HMOX1) transgenic pigs by using the F2A peptide. AU - Park, Sol Ji. AU - Cho, Bumrae. AU - Koo, Ok Jae. AU - Kim, Hwajung. AU - Kang, Jung Taek. AU - Hurh, Sunghoon. AU - Kim, Su Jin. AU - Yeom, Hye Jung. AU - Moon, Joonho. AU - Lee, Eun Mi. AU - Choi, Ji Yei. AU - Hong, Ju Ho. AU - Jang, Goo. AU - Hwang, Joing Ik. AU - Yang, Jaeseok. AU - Lee, Byeong Chun. AU - Ahn, Curie. N1 - Funding Information: Acknowledgments This study was supported by MKE (#10033805, #1033838, #1033839), RDA (#PJ009802), BK 21 for Veterinary Science, and Hanwha L&C. We thank Dr. Young Seek Lee for his valuable contribution and discussions. We also thank Miss Asong Kim and Nari Lee for their excellent administrative support.. PY - 2014/6. Y1 - 2014/6. N2 - Generation of transgenic pigs for xenotransplantation is one of the most promising technologies for resolving organ shortages. Human heme oxygenase-1 (hHO-1/HMOX1) can protect ...
TY - JOUR. T1 - The role of cell surface expression of influenza virus neuraminidase in induction of human lymphocyte apoptosis. AU - Nichols, Joan E.. AU - Niles, Jean A.. AU - Fleming, Elisa H.. AU - Roberts, Norbert J.. N1 - Funding Information: This work was supported by an NIH Institutional Training Grant ( T32-AI07526 ) and a Robert D. Watkins Minority Fellowship from the American Society for Microbiology (E.H.F.) , and the Paul R. Stalnaker, M.D. Endowment Fund (N.J.R.). The funding sources had no role in the design and conduct of the studies; data collection and analysis; preparation or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication. Publisher Copyright: © 2019 Elsevier Inc.. PY - 2019/8. Y1 - 2019/8. N2 - The immunopathological mechanisms as well as the role played by influenza A virus infection of human leukocytes and induction of apoptosis have not been fully elucidated. We confirm here that the percentage of cells that are infected is less than the ...
NKp46 is a specific NK killer receptor that recognizes various influenza hemagglutinins and unknown tumor ligands. It was ... NKp46 is a specific NK killer receptor that recognizes various influenza hemagglutinins and unknown tumor ligands. It was ... NKp46 is a specific NK killer receptor that recognizes various influenza hemagglutinins and unknown tumor ligands. It was ... NKp46 is a specific NK killer receptor that recognizes various influenza hemagglutinins and unknown tumor ligands. It was ...
  • X-ray structures of H5 avian and H9 swine influenza virus hemagglutinins bound to avian and human receptor analogs. (expasy.org)
  • Molecular Docking of Human-Like Receptor to Hemagglutinins of Avian Influenza A Viruses[J]. Acta Phys. (pku.edu.cn)
  • NKp46 is a specific NK killer receptor that recognizes various influenza hemagglutinins and unknown tumor ligands. (huji.ac.il)
  • Development of Lentiviral Vectors Pseudotyped With Influenza B Hemagglutinins: Application in Vaccine Immunogenicity, mAb Potency, and Sero-Surveillance Studies. (ox.ac.uk)
  • It has been previously demonstrated that the use of replication-defective viruses, such as lentiviral vectors pseudotyped with influenza A hemagglutinins in microneutralization assays (pMN) is a safe and sensitive alternative to study antibody responses elicited by natural influenza infection or vaccination. (ox.ac.uk)
  • The surface of flu viruses is studded with proteins called hemagglutinins, which are the part of the virus that binds to cells in a person's respiratory tract, initiating infection. (foxnews.com)
  • 14. A Replication-Defective Influenza Virus Harboring H5 and H7 Hemagglutinins Provides Protection against H5N1 and H7N9 Infection in Mice. (nih.gov)
  • Expression of such modified neuraminidases by influenza virus may also stabilize co-expressed hemagglutinins so that the hemagglutinins do not undergo mutation or decrease the need for HA binding to cells. (warf.org)
  • The hemagglutinins from H5N1 viruses, in contrast, bind mainly to cone-shaped glycans. (nih.gov)
  • LABEL: fast and accurate lineage assignment with assessment of H5N1 and H9N2 influenza A hemagglutinins. (cdc.gov)
  • In density gradient at least two separable hemagglutinins, CF antigens and precipitins (3). (cdc.gov)
  • When chicken red blood cells and preparations of influenza viruses were mixed together, the influenza hemagglutinins present were rapidly adsorbed onto the cells. (nih.gov)
  • The time of maximum adsorption of hemagglutinins was the same, regardiess of red cell concentration, and with the larger amounts of red cells the speed and degree of elution was decreased. (nih.gov)