Signs and symptoms of higher cortical dysfunction caused by organic conditions. These include certain behavioral alterations and impairments of skills involved in the acquisition, processing, and utilization of knowledge or information.
The disappearance of responsiveness to a repeated stimulation. It does not include drug habituation.
The study of the physiological basis of human and animal behavior.
A group of disorders characterized by physical symptoms that are affected by emotional factors and involve a single organ system, usually under AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM control. (American Psychiatric Glossary, 1988)
A complex involuntary response to an unexpected strong stimulus usually auditory in nature.
The tendency to explore or investigate a novel environment. It is considered a motivation not clearly distinguishable from curiosity.
Use of sound to elicit a response in the nervous system.
The observable response an animal makes to any situation.
A change in electrical resistance of the skin, occurring in emotion and in certain other conditions.
Innate response elicited by sensory stimuli associated with a threatening situation, or actual confrontation with an enemy.
An involuntary movement or exercise of function in a part, excited in response to a stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to the brain or spinal cord.
The ability to detect scents or odors, such as the function of OLFACTORY RECEPTOR NEURONS.
The volatile portions of substances perceptible by the sense of smell. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
An opisthobranch mollusk of the order Anaspidea. It is used frequently in studies of nervous system development because of its large identifiable neurons. Aplysiatoxin and its derivatives are not biosynthesized by Aplysia, but acquired by ingestion of Lyngbya (seaweed) species.
The period from about 5 to 7 years to adolescence when there is an apparent cessation of psychosexual development.
A response to a cue that is instrumental in avoiding a noxious experience.
Defense mechanisms involving approach and avoidance responses to threatening stimuli. The sensitizing process involves intellectualization in approaching or controlling the stimulus whereas repression involves unconscious denial in avoiding the stimulus.
A class of disabling primary headache disorders, characterized by recurrent unilateral pulsatile headaches. The two major subtypes are common migraine (without aura) and classic migraine (with aura or neurological symptoms). (International Classification of Headache Disorders, 2nd ed. Cephalalgia 2004: suppl 1)
Act of eliciting a response from a person or organism through physical contact.
Use of a device for the purpose of controlling movement of all or part of the body. Splinting and casting are FRACTURE FIXATION.
The process by which the nature and meaning of olfactory stimuli, such as odors, are recognized and interpreted by the brain.
Recurrent unilateral pulsatile headaches, not preceded or accompanied by an aura, in attacks lasting 4-72 hours. It is characterized by PAIN of moderate to severe intensity; aggravated by physical activity; and associated with NAUSEA and / or PHOTOPHOBIA and PHONOPHOBIA. (International Classification of Headache Disorders, 2nd ed. Cephalalgia 2004: suppl 1)
The principle that items experienced together enter into a connection, so that one tends to reinstate the other.

Modulation of Hydra attenuata rhythmic activity: phase response curve. (1/799)

We investigated the effect of photic stimulation on the frequency of Hydra attenuata column contractions. We used positive or negative abrupt light transitions, single or repetitive light or darkness pulses, and alternation of light and darkness periods. The main results are: (a) The frequency of the contraction pulse trains (CPTs) varies transiently in response to an abrupt variation of the light intensity. (b) CPTs in progress can be inhibited by different types of photic stimuli. (c) The response time to a single photic stimulus varies during the inter-CPT interval and depends also on the polarity of the stimulus. (d) The CPTs are entrainable with repetitive light stimulation of various frequencies. (e) Long-lasting variations of the frequency of CPTs occur after the end of a repetitive light stimulation. We suggest that the mechanism responsible for the rhythym of column contractions is quite similar to that on which other biological rhythmic phenomena are based.  (+info)

Time and memory: towards a pacemaker-free theory of interval timing. (2/799)

A popular view of interval timing in animals is that it is driven by a discrete pacemaker-accumulator mechanism that yields a linear scale for encoded time. But these mechanisms are fundamentally at odds with the Weber law property of interval timing, and experiments that support linear encoded time can be interpreted in other ways. We argue that the dominant pacemaker-accumulator theory, scalar expectancy theory (SET), fails to explain some basic properties of operant behavior on interval-timing procedures and can only accommodate a number of discrepancies by modifications and elaborations that raise questions about the entire theory. We propose an alternative that is based on principles of memory dynamics derived from the multiple-time-scale (MTS) model of habituation. The MTS timing model can account for data from a wide variety of time-related experiments: proportional and Weber law temporal discrimination, transient as well as persistent effects of reinforcement omission and reinforcement magnitude, bisection, the discrimination of relative as well as absolute duration, and the choose-short effect and its analogue in number-discrimination experiments. Resemblances between timing and counting are an automatic consequence of the model. We also argue that the transient and persistent effects of drugs on time estimates can be interpreted as well within MTS theory as in SET. Recent real-time physiological data conform in surprising detail to the assumptions of the MTS habituation model. Comparisons between the two views suggest a number of novel experiments.  (+info)

Visual evoked potentials in migraine patients: alterations depend on pattern spatial frequency. (3/799)

Visual information is conducted by two parallel pathways (luminance- and contour-processing pathways) which are thought to be differentially affected in migraine and can be investigated by means of pattern-reversal visual evoked potentials (VEPs). Components and habituation of VEPs at four spatial frequencies were compared between 26 migraineurs (13 without aura, MO; 13 with aura, MA) and 28 healthy volunteers. Migraineurs were recorded in the headache-free interval (at least 72 h before and after an attack). Five blocks of 50 responses to chequerboards of 0.5, 1, 2 and 4 cycles per degree (c.p.d.) were sequentially averaged and analysed for latency and amplitude. Differences in VEPs were dependent on spatial frequency. Only when small checks were presented, i.e. at high spatial frequency (2 and 4 c.p.d.), was the latency of N2 significantly prolonged in MA and did it tend to be delayed in MO subjects. Habituation behaviour was not significantly different between groups under the stimulating conditions employed. Prolonged N2 latency might be explained by the lack or attenuation of a contour-specific component N130 in migraineurs, indicating an imbalance of the two visual pathways with relative predominance of the luminance-processing Y system. These results reflect an interictally persisting dysfunction of precortical visual processing which might be relevant in the pathophysiology of migraine.  (+info)

Ischemic preconditioning in 18- to 20-month-old gerbils: long-term survival with functional outcome measures. (4/799)

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: In young animals, ischemic preconditioning protects CA1 hippocampal neurons against global ischemia. However, cerebral ischemia occurs most frequently in individuals aged >/=65 years. This study examined the protection provided by ischemic preconditioning in a population of aged (18- to 20-month-old) gerbils. METHODS: One group of animals was exposed to two 1.5-minute episodes of global ischemia separated by 24 hours and followed 72 hours later by a 5-minute occlusion of both carotid arteries. A second group was given 2 episodes of preconditioning only. Two other groups were exposed to 5 minutes of ischemia or sham surgery. The animals survived 10, 30, or 60 days. Functional and histological assessments were used to determine the extent of protection. RESULTS: Ten days after ischemia there was >80% protection of CA1 neurons in ischemic preconditioned animals compared with 6% in ischemic gerbils. Nevertheless, these preconditioned animals were impaired in open-field tests of habituation. In addition, CA1 dendritic field potentials were smaller in amplitude compared with those in sham animals. While there was a complete loss of staining for CA1 microtubule-associated protein-2 in ischemic animals, staining in ischemic preconditioned animals was normal. This suggests that dendritic abnormalities per se were not responsible for the observed functional deficits. CA1 cell survival declined to approximately 75% of sham values (P<0.05) at 60 days after ischemia. CONCLUSIONS: Ischemic preconditioning provided substantial neuroprotection in aged gerbils. Nonetheless, the striking dissociation between histological and functional protection provided by ischemic preconditioning in aged animals emphasizes the need to use functional end points and long-term survival when assessing neuroprotection. Although functional recovery was evident with increasing survival time, CA1 cell death continued, thereby raising the possibility that the level of neuroprotection attained was not permanent.  (+info)

Spatial summation in the receptive fields of MT neurons. (5/799)

Receptive fields (RFs) of cells in the middle temporal area (MT or V5) of monkeys will often encompass multiple objects under normal image viewing. We therefore have studied how multiple moving stimuli interact when presented within and near the RF of single MT cells. We used moving Gabor function stimuli, <1 degrees in spatial extent and approximately 100 msec in duration, presented on a grid of possible locations over the RF of the cell. Responses to these stimuli were typically robust, and their small spatial and temporal extent allowed detailed mapping of RFs and of interactions between stimuli. The responses to pairs of such stimuli were compared against the responses to the same stimuli presented singly. The responses were substantially less than the sum of the responses to the component stimuli and were well described by a power-law summation model with divisive inhibition. Such divisive inhibition is a key component of recently proposed "normalization" models of cortical physiology and is presumed to arise from lateral interconnections within a region. One open question is whether the normalization occurs only once in primary visual cortex or multiple times in different cortical areas. We addressed this question by exploring the spatial extent over which one stimulus would divide the response to another and found effective normalization from stimuli quite far removed from the RF center. This supports models under which normalization occurs both in MT and in earlier stages.  (+info)

Effects of sustained phencyclidine exposure on sensorimotor gating of startle in rats. (6/799)

Phencyclidine (PCP), a non-competitive NMDA antagonist with actions at multiple other central nervous system receptors, can cause both acute and lasting psychoses in humans, and has also been used in cross-species models of psychosis. Acute exposure to PCP in rats produces behavioral changes, including a loss of prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the startle reflex, which parallels the loss of PPI observed in schizophrenia patients. Sustained exposure to PCP in rats produces neuropathological changes in several limbic regions and prolonged behavioral abnormalities that may parallel neuropsychological deficits in schizophrenia. It is unclear whether sustained PCP exposure will also produce a loss of prepulse inhibition which parallels the decrease observed in schizophrenia patients. In the present study, we examined changes in PPI during and after sustained PCP administration, using 5-day PCP exposure via subcutaneous osmotic minipumps, or 14-day PCP exposure via repeated intraperitoneal injections. In both forms of drug delivery, PPI was disrupted during, but not after, sustained drug exposure. PPI does not appear to be sensitive to neuropathological effects of sustained PCP exposure.  (+info)

The vibrational startle response of the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria. (7/799)

Substratum vibrations elicit a fast startle response in unrestrained quiescent desert locusts (Schistocerca gregaria). The response is graded with stimulus intensity and consists of a small, rapid but conspicuous movement of the legs and body, but it does not result in any positional change of the animal. With stimuli just above threshold, it begins with a fast twitch of the hindlegs generated by movements of the coxa-trochanter and femur-tibia joints. With increasing stimulus intensity, a rapid movement of all legs may follow, resulting in an up-down movement of the whole body. The magnitude of both the hindleg movement and electromyographic recordings from hindleg extensor and flexor tibiae muscles increases with stimulus amplitude and reaches a plateau at vibration accelerations above 20 m s(-)(2) (peak-to-peak). Hindleg extensor and flexor tibiae muscles in unrestrained animals are co-activated with a mean latency of 30 ms. Behavioural thresholds are as low as 0. 47 m s(-)(2) (peak-to-peak) at frequencies below 100 Hz but rise steeply above 200 Hz. The response habituates rapidly, and inter-stimulus intervals of 2 min or more are necessary to evoke maximal reactions. Intracellular recordings in fixed (upside-down) locusts also revealed co-activation of both flexor and extensor motor neurones with latencies of approximately 25 ms. This shows that the neuronal network underlying the startle movement is functional in a restrained preparation and can therefore be studied in great detail at the level of identified neurones.  (+info)

Dizocilpine (MK-801) prevents the development of sensitization to ethanol in DBA/2J mice. (8/799)

DBA/2J mice repeatedly exposed to ethanol (2 g/kg, i.p. every 48 h for 8 days) exhibit sensitization to the locomotor stimulant effects of ethanol. Pretreatment with the NMDA receptor antagonist dizocilpine (0.2-0.3 mg/kg, i.p.) completely prevents the development of sensitization. Thus, NMDA receptors appear to play an important role in behavioural sensitization to ethanol.  (+info)

Neurobehavioral manifestations refer to the observable behaviors and symptoms that result from an underlying neurological disorder or injury. These manifestations can include cognitive, emotional, and motor impairments, such as difficulties with attention, memory, mood regulation, communication, and coordination. The specific neurobehavioral manifestations exhibited can vary widely depending on the location and extent of the neurological damage or dysfunction. They are often assessed and diagnosed by healthcare professionals trained in neuropsychology, neurology, or related fields.

Habituation, psychophysiologic, refers to the decrease in autonomic nervous system response to repeated exposure to a stimulus. It is a form of learning that occurs when an individual is exposed to a stimulus repeatedly over time, leading to a reduced reaction or no reaction at all. This process involves the decreased responsiveness of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system.

Examples of psychophysiologic habituation include the decreased heart rate and skin conductance response that occurs with repeated exposure to a startling stimulus, such as a loud noise. This form of habituation is thought to be an adaptive mechanism that allows individuals to respond appropriately to novel or important stimuli while reducing the response to non-significant or irrelevant stimuli.

It's worth noting that habituation can also occur in other systems and contexts, such as sensory habituation (decreased response to repeated sensory stimulation) or cognitive habituation (reduced attention or memory for repeated exposure to a stimulus). However, the term "psychophysiologic habituation" specifically refers to the decreased autonomic nervous system response that occurs with repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Psychophysiology is a branch of psychology that deals with the scientific study of the relationships between physical processes (such as heart rate, skin conductance, brain activity) and mental or emotional states. It involves the use of physiological measures to understand psychological phenomena and how they relate to behavior. This field of study often employs various research methods, including laboratory experiments, observational studies, and neuroimaging techniques, to examine these relationships in both healthy individuals and those with psychological disorders. The goal of psychophysiology is to better understand the underlying mechanisms that contribute to emotional, cognitive, and behavioral functioning.

Psychophysiologic Disorders, also known as psychosomatic disorders, refer to a category of mental health conditions where psychological stress and emotional factors play a significant role in causing physical symptoms. These disorders are characterized by the presence of bodily complaints for which no physiological explanation can be found, or where the severity of the symptoms is far greater than what would be expected from any underlying medical condition.

Examples of psychophysiologic disorders include:

* Conversion disorder: where physical symptoms such as blindness, paralysis, or difficulty swallowing occur in the absence of a clear medical explanation.
* Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): where abdominal pain, bloating, and changes in bowel habits are thought to be caused or worsened by stress and emotional factors.
* Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures (PNES): where episodes that resemble epileptic seizures occur without any electrical activity in the brain.
* Chronic pain syndromes: where pain persists for months or years beyond the expected healing time, often accompanied by depression and anxiety.

The diagnosis of psychophysiologic disorders typically involves a thorough medical evaluation to rule out other potential causes of the symptoms. Treatment usually includes a combination of psychotherapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), relaxation techniques, stress management, and sometimes medication for co-occurring mental health conditions.

A startle reaction is a natural, defensive response to an unexpected stimulus that is characterized by a sudden contraction of muscles, typically in the face, neck, and arms. It's a reflexive action that occurs involuntarily and is mediated by the brainstem. The startle reaction can be observed in many different species, including humans, and is thought to have evolved as a protective mechanism to help organisms respond quickly to potential threats. In addition to the muscle contraction, the startle response may also include other physiological changes such as an increase in heart rate and blood pressure.

Exploratory behavior refers to the actions taken by an individual to investigate and gather information about their environment. This type of behavior is often driven by curiosity and a desire to understand new or unfamiliar situations, objects, or concepts. In a medical context, exploratory behavior may refer to a patient's willingness to learn more about their health condition, try new treatments, or engage in self-care activities. It can also refer to the behaviors exhibited by young children as they explore their world and develop their cognitive and motor skills. Exploratory behavior is an important aspect of learning and development, and it can have a positive impact on overall health and well-being.

Acoustic stimulation refers to the use of sound waves or vibrations to elicit a response in an individual, typically for the purpose of assessing or treating hearing, balance, or neurological disorders. In a medical context, acoustic stimulation may involve presenting pure tones, speech sounds, or other types of auditory signals through headphones, speakers, or specialized devices such as bone conduction transducers.

The response to acoustic stimulation can be measured using various techniques, including electrophysiological tests like auditory brainstem responses (ABRs) or otoacoustic emissions (OAEs), behavioral observations, or functional imaging methods like fMRI. Acoustic stimulation is also used in therapeutic settings, such as auditory training programs for hearing impairment or vestibular rehabilitation for balance disorders.

It's important to note that acoustic stimulation should be administered under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional to ensure safety and effectiveness.

'Animal behavior' refers to the actions or responses of animals to various stimuli, including their interactions with the environment and other individuals. It is the study of the actions of animals, whether they are instinctual, learned, or a combination of both. Animal behavior includes communication, mating, foraging, predator avoidance, and social organization, among other things. The scientific study of animal behavior is called ethology. This field seeks to understand the evolutionary basis for behaviors as well as their physiological and psychological mechanisms.

Galvanic Skin Response (GSR), also known as Electrodermal Activity (EDA), is a physiological response that reflects the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. It measures changes in the electrical properties of the skin, which are influenced by the sweat gland activity. GSR is often used as an indicator of emotional arousal or psychological stress in various research and clinical settings.

An "escape reaction" is a behavioral response displayed by an organism when it attempts to escape from a harmful, noxious, or stressful stimulus or situation. This response is typically characterized by rapid and directed movement away from the source of discomfort or danger. It is a fundamental survival mechanism that is observed across many species, including humans.

In a medical context, an escape reaction may be observed in response to painful medical procedures or treatments. For example, a patient may try to move or pull away during an injection or other invasive procedure. Healthcare providers must be aware of and prepared to manage escape reactions to ensure the safety and comfort of their patients during medical procedures.

A reflex is an automatic, involuntary and rapid response to a stimulus that occurs without conscious intention. In the context of physiology and neurology, it's a basic mechanism that involves the transmission of nerve impulses between neurons, resulting in a muscle contraction or glandular secretion.

Reflexes are important for maintaining homeostasis, protecting the body from harm, and coordinating movements. They can be tested clinically to assess the integrity of the nervous system, such as the knee-j jerk reflex, which tests the function of the L3-L4 spinal nerve roots and the sensitivity of the stretch reflex arc.

In medical terms, the sense of smell is referred to as olfaction. It is the ability to detect and identify different types of chemicals in the air through the use of the olfactory system. The olfactory system includes the nose, nasal passages, and the olfactory bulbs located in the brain.

When a person inhales air containing volatile substances, these substances bind to specialized receptor cells in the nasal passage called olfactory receptors. These receptors then transmit signals to the olfactory bulbs, which process the information and send it to the brain's limbic system, including the hippocampus and amygdala, as well as to the cortex. The brain interprets these signals and identifies the various scents or smells.

Impairment of the sense of smell can occur due to various reasons such as upper respiratory infections, sinusitis, nasal polyps, head trauma, or neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Loss of smell can significantly impact a person's quality of life, including their ability to taste food, detect dangers such as smoke or gas leaks, and experience emotions associated with certain smells.

In the context of medicine, "odors" refer to smells or scents that are produced by certain medical conditions, substances, or bodily functions. These odors can sometimes provide clues about underlying health issues. For example, sweet-smelling urine could indicate diabetes, while foul-smelling breath might suggest a dental problem or gastrointestinal issue. However, it's important to note that while odors can sometimes be indicative of certain medical conditions, they are not always reliable diagnostic tools and should be considered in conjunction with other symptoms and medical tests.

'Aplysia' is a genus of marine mollusks belonging to the family Aplysiidae, also known as sea hares. These are large, slow-moving herbivores that inhabit temperate and tropical coastal waters worldwide. They have a unique appearance with a soft, ear-like parapodia on either side of their body and a rhinophore at the front end, which they use to detect chemical cues in their environment.

One of the reasons 'Aplysia' is well-known in the medical and scientific community is because of its use as a model organism in neuroscience research. The simple nervous system of 'Aplysia' has made it an ideal subject for studying the basic principles of learning and memory at the cellular level.

In particular, the work of Nobel laureate Eric Kandel and his colleagues on 'Aplysia' helped to establish important concepts in synaptic plasticity, a key mechanism underlying learning and memory. By investigating how sensory stimulation can modify the strength of connections between neurons in 'Aplysia', researchers have gained valuable insights into the molecular and cellular mechanisms that underlie learning and memory processes in all animals, including humans.

Avoidance learning is a type of conditioning in which an individual learns to act in a certain way to avoid experiencing an unpleasant or aversive stimulus. It is a form of learning that occurs when an organism changes its behavior to avoid a negative outcome or situation. This can be seen in both animals and humans, and it is often studied in the field of psychology and neuroscience.

In avoidance learning, the individual learns to associate a particular cue or stimulus with the unpleasant experience. Over time, they learn to perform an action to escape or avoid the cue, thereby preventing the negative outcome from occurring. For example, if a rat receives an electric shock every time it hears a certain tone, it may eventually learn to press a lever to turn off the tone and avoid the shock.

Avoidance learning can be adaptive in some situations, as it allows individuals to avoid dangerous or harmful stimuli. However, it can also become maladaptive if it leads to excessive fear or anxiety, or if it interferes with an individual's ability to function in daily life. For example, a person who has been attacked may develop a phobia of public places and avoid them altogether, even though this limits their ability to engage in social activities and live a normal life.

In summary, avoidance learning is a type of conditioning in which an individual learns to act in a certain way to avoid experiencing an unpleasant or aversive stimulus. It can be adaptive in some situations but can also become maladaptive if it leads to excessive fear or anxiety or interferes with daily functioning.

"Repression-Sensitization" is not a standard term in medicine or psychiatry. However, it may refer to a concept from psychoanalytic theory that describes two opposite ways in which an individual deals with unconscious impulses and anxieties.

"Repression" refers to the defense mechanism by which the ego keeps unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or memories out of consciousness by pushing them into the unconscious mind. This can help the individual avoid anxiety or distress associated with those impulses but may also lead to psychological symptoms or difficulties in functioning.

On the other hand, "sensitization" refers to the process by which an individual becomes increasingly aware of and sensitive to their unconscious impulses and anxieties. This increased awareness can lead to greater insight into their inner world and behavior, allowing them to work through and resolve underlying conflicts.

It's important to note that these concepts are not universally accepted or used in contemporary psychiatry and psychology, and there is ongoing debate about the validity and usefulness of psychoanalytic theory in explaining mental health and illness.

A migraine disorder is a neurological condition characterized by recurrent headaches that often involve one side of the head and are accompanied by various symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, sensitivity to light and sound, and visual disturbances. Migraines can last from several hours to days and can be severely debilitating. The exact cause of migraines is not fully understood, but they are believed to result from a combination of genetic and environmental factors that affect the brain and blood vessels. There are different types of migraines, including migraine without aura, migraine with aura, chronic migraine, and others, each with its own specific set of symptoms and diagnostic criteria. Treatment typically involves a combination of lifestyle changes, medications, and behavioral therapies to manage symptoms and prevent future attacks.

Physical stimulation, in a medical context, refers to the application of external forces or agents to the body or its tissues to elicit a response. This can include various forms of touch, pressure, temperature, vibration, or electrical currents. The purpose of physical stimulation may be therapeutic, as in the case of massage or physical therapy, or diagnostic, as in the use of reflex tests. It is also used in research settings to study physiological responses and mechanisms.

In a broader sense, physical stimulation can also refer to the body's exposure to physical activity or exercise, which can have numerous health benefits, including improving cardiovascular function, increasing muscle strength and flexibility, and reducing the risk of chronic diseases.

Physical restraint, in a medical context, refers to the use of physical force or equipment to limit a person's movements or access to their own body. This is typically done to prevent harm to the individual themselves or to others. It can include various devices such as wrist restraints, vest restraints, or bed rails. The use of physical restraints should be a last resort and must be in accordance with established guidelines and regulations to ensure the safety and rights of the patient are respected.

Olfactory perception refers to the ability to perceive and recognize odors or smells, which is mediated by olfactory receptor neurons located in the nasal cavity. These neurons detect and transmit information about chemical compounds present in the inhaled air to the brain, specifically to the primary olfactory cortex, where the perception of smell is processed and integrated with other sensory inputs. Olfactory perception plays a crucial role in various aspects of human behavior, including food selection, safety, and emotional responses.

"Migraine without Aura," also known as "Common Migraine," is defined by the International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD-3) as follows:

"Headaches fulfilling criteria C and D:

C. At least five attacks fulfilling criterion B

B. Headache lasting 4-72 hours (untreated or unsuccessfully treated)

1. a) Has at least two of the following characteristics:
b) One-sided location
c) Pulsating quality
d) Moderate or severe pain intensity
e) Aggravation by or causing avoidance of routine physical activity (e.g., walking or climbing stairs)

D. During headache at least one of the following:

1. a) Nausea and/or vomiting
2. b) Photophobia and phonophobia"

In simpler terms, Migraine without Aura is a recurring headache disorder characterized by moderate to severe headaches that typically occur on one side of the head, have a pulsating quality, and are aggravated by physical activity. The headaches last between 4 and 72 hours if not treated or if treatment is unsuccessful. Additionally, during the headache, at least one of the following symptoms must be present: nausea/vomiting, sensitivity to light (photophobia), or sensitivity to sound (phonophobia).

Association learning, also known as associative learning, is a type of learning in which an individual learns to associate two stimuli or a response with a particular outcome. This can occur through classical conditioning or operant conditioning.

In classical conditioning, first described by Ivan Pavlov, an initially neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) is repeatedly paired with a biologically significant stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus), until the conditioned stimulus elicits a response (the conditioned response) similar to that of the unconditioned stimulus. For example, a dog may learn to salivate at the sound of a bell if the bell is repeatedly rung just before it is fed.

In operant conditioning, described by B.F. Skinner, behavior is modified by its consequences, with desired behaviors being reinforced and undesired behaviors being punished. For example, a child may learn to put their toys away if they are given a reward for doing so.

Association learning is an important mechanism in the acquisition of many types of knowledge and skills, and it plays a key role in the development and modification of behavior.

... via habituation) with clinical outcomes of exposure therapy. We observed 459 videotaped exposure tasks with 111 participants in ... This study measured therapist behaviors in relation to subsequent habituation within exposure tasks, and also tested their ... Habituation, Psychophysiologic * Humans * Implosive Therapy* * Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder* / therapy * Randomized Controlled ... Outcomes were habituation and posttreatment change in symptom severity, global improvement, and treatment response. More ...
Habituation, Psychophysiologic * Humans * Nystagmus, Pathologic / diagnosis* * Occupational Therapy* * Reflex, Vestibulo-Ocular ...
Habituation, Psychophysiologic (MeSH) * Learning (MeSH) * Methods (MeSH) * Rabbits (MeSH) published in * Journal of Comparative ...
C16 - Congenital, Hereditary, and Neonatal Diseases and Abnormalities ...
C16 - Congenital, Hereditary, and Neonatal Diseases and Abnormalities ...
C16 - Congenital, Hereditary, and Neonatal Diseases and Abnormalities ...
C16 - Congenital, Hereditary, and Neonatal Diseases and Abnormalities ...
C16 - Congenital, Hereditary, and Neonatal Diseases and Abnormalities ...
C16 - Congenital, Hereditary, and Neonatal Diseases and Abnormalities ...
C16 - Congenital, Hereditary, and Neonatal Diseases and Abnormalities ...
C16 - Congenital, Hereditary, and Neonatal Diseases and Abnormalities ...
C16 - Congenital, Hereditary, and Neonatal Diseases and Abnormalities ...
C16 - Congenital, Hereditary, and Neonatal Diseases and Abnormalities ...
C16 - Congenital, Hereditary, and Neonatal Diseases and Abnormalities ...
C16 - Congenital, Hereditary, and Neonatal Diseases and Abnormalities ...
We applied structural equation modeling methods to the 3 conditioning phases of habituation, acquisition, and extinction to ... CONCLUSION: Genes represent a significant source of individual variation in the habituation, acquisition, and extinction of ... one that most strongly affects nonassociative processes of habituation that also is shared with acquisition and extinction, and ... Habituation, Psychophysiologic * Humans * Male * Models, Genetic * Multivariate Analysis * Phobic Disorders * Reinforcement, ...
Habituation, Kreutzberg J D, Levodopa/pharmacology, Male, Memory/*drug effects, Mice, Psychophysiologic/drug effects ... Habituation; Levodopa/pharmacology; Male; Memory/*drug effects; Mice; Psychophysiologic/drug effects ... Administration of L-DOPA at 45 min prior to behavioral testing in MPTP animals restored their performance on the habituation- ... Treatment with MPTP severely disrupted the males habituation-dishabituation response profile compared to vehicle treated ...
Habituation,Psychophysiologic;Humans;Statistics,Nonparametric. ...
Habituation, Psychophysiological use Habituation, Psychophysiologic Habituations (Psychophysiology) use Habituation, ...
All indices pointed to slowed habituation in patients compared with normals: number of trials to response habituation, total ... Skin conductance habituation was compared between 38 patients meeting DSM-III criteria for Panic Disorder and 29 normal ... Acoustic Stimulation, Adult, Agoraphobia, Arousal, Fear, Female, Galvanic Skin Response, Habituation, Psychophysiologic, Humans ... All indices pointed to slowed habituation in patients compared with normals: number of trials to response habituation, total ...
Habituation, Psychophysiologic [F02.830.422] Habituation, Psychophysiologic * Lie Detection [F02.830.512] Lie Detection ... Feedback, Psychophysiologic Feedback, Psychophysiological Psychology Biofeedback Psychology Biofeedbacks Psychophysiologic ... Feedback, Psychophysiologic. Feedback, Psychophysiological. Feedbacks, Bogus Physiological. Feedbacks, False Physiological. ...
This short-term habituation process may be independent of associative learning mechanisms and may be best described by A. R. ... The longer-lasting habituation displayed by the GlyT1 mice is consistent with a role for glycine/NMDAR-dependent synaptic ... Animals, Animals, Genetically Modified, Glycine, Glycine Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins, Habituation, Psychophysiologic, ... This short-term habituation process may be independent of associative learning mechanisms and may be best described by A. R. ...
Habituation, Psychophysiologic [F02.463.425.393] Habituation, Psychophysiologic * Helplessness, Learned [F02.463.425.420] ...
Habituation, Psychophysiologic. *Helplessness, Learned. *Imprinting (Psychology). *Inhibition (Psychology). *Memory. * ...
Habituation, Psychophysiologic. *Higher Nervous Activity. *Kindling, Neurologic. *Nerve Regeneration. *Neural Conduction. * ...
Habituation, Psychophysiologic. *Higher Nervous Activity. *Kindling, Neurologic. *Membrane Potentials. *Nerve Regeneration. * ...
  • Male mice treated with MPTP or vehicle were tested for their ability to demonstrate a memory-recognition response as evaluated in a habituation-dishabituation task. (omeka.net)
  • The longer-lasting habituation displayed by the GlyT1 mice is consistent with a role for glycine/NMDAR-dependent synaptic plasticity in supporting a nonassociative, short-term memory trace of a recently experienced stimulus. (ox.ac.uk)
  • We applied structural equation modeling methods to the 3 conditioning phases of habituation, acquisition, and extinction to determine the extent to which genetic and environmental factors underlie individual variation in associative and nonassociative learning. (tamu.edu)
  • For six of seven therapist behaviors analyzed, the relationship with subsequent habituation within exposure differed by patient fear (low, moderate, or high) at the time the behavior was used. (nih.gov)
  • Best-fitting multivariate models suggest that 2 sets of genes may underlie the trait of fear conditioning: one that most strongly affects nonassociative processes of habituation that also is shared with acquisition and extinction, and a second that appears related to associative fear conditioning processes. (tamu.edu)
  • CONCLUSION: Genes represent a significant source of individual variation in the habituation, acquisition, and extinction of fears, and genetic effects specific to fear conditioning are involved. (tamu.edu)
  • Treatment with MPTP severely disrupted the male's habituation-dishabituation response profile compared to vehicle treated animals. (omeka.net)
  • Administration of L-DOPA at 45 min prior to behavioral testing in MPTP animals restored their performance on the habituation-dishabituation test to levels observed in vehicle treated animals. (omeka.net)
  • More therapist behaviors that encourage approach-and less use of accommodation, unrelated talk, and externalizing language-predicted greater subsequent habituation during individual exposure tasks (exposure-level), and also predicted improved patient clinical outcomes via higher "total dose" of habituation across treatment (patient-level indirect effect). (nih.gov)
  • All indices pointed to slowed habituation in patients compared with normals: number of trials to response habituation, total number of responses, and slope of decline of skin conductance level. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Outcomes were habituation and posttreatment change in symptom severity, global improvement, and treatment response. (nih.gov)
  • Habituation to repetitive painful stimulation may represent an important protection mechanism against the development of chronic pain states. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Repetitive painful stimulation over several days resulted in a significant habituation to pain at the site of daily stimulation. (ox.ac.uk)
  • A role for impaired short-term habituation and the GRIA1 (GluA1) AMPA receptor subunit. (ox.ac.uk)
  • We propose that this mouse phenotype represents a cause of aberrant salience and, in turn, that aberrant salience (and the resulting positive symptoms) in schizophrenia may arise, at least in part, from a glutamatergic genetic predisposition and a deficit in short-term habituation. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Taken together, these results strongly support the role of central components in the mechanism of pain habituation that do not directly involve the endogenous opioid system. (ox.ac.uk)