A metabolic process that converts GLUCOSE into two molecules of PYRUVIC ACID through a series of enzymatic reactions. Energy generated by this process is conserved in two molecules of ATP. Glycolysis is the universal catabolic pathway for glucose, free glucose, or glucose derived from complex CARBOHYDRATES, such as GLYCOGEN and STARCH.
A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement.
An allosteric enzyme that regulates glycolysis by catalyzing the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to fructose-6-phosphate to yield fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. D-tagatose- 6-phosphate and sedoheptulose-7-phosphate also are acceptors. UTP, CTP, and ITP also are donors. In human phosphofructokinase-1, three types of subunits have been identified. They are PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-1, MUSCLE TYPE; PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-1, LIVER TYPE; and PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-1, TYPE C; found in platelets, brain, and other tissues.
A normal intermediate in the fermentation (oxidation, metabolism) of sugar. The concentrated form is used internally to prevent gastrointestinal fermentation. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
Salts or esters of LACTIC ACID containing the general formula CH3CHOHCOOR.
Allosteric enzymes that regulate glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. These enzymes catalyze phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to either fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-1 reaction), or to fructose-2,6-bisphosphate (PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-2 reaction).
Diphosphoric acid esters of fructose. The fructose-1,6- diphosphate isomer is most prevalent. It is an important intermediate in the glycolysis process.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of ATP and a D-hexose to ADP and a D-hexose 6-phosphate. D-Glucose, D-mannose, D-fructose, sorbitol, and D-glucosamine can act as acceptors; ITP and dATP can act as donors. The liver isoenzyme has sometimes been called glucokinase. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.7.1.1.
Electron transfer through the cytochrome system liberating free energy which is transformed into high-energy phosphate bonds.
ATP:pyruvate 2-O-phosphotransferase. A phosphotransferase that catalyzes reversibly the phosphorylation of pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate in the presence of ATP. It has four isozymes (L, R, M1, and M2). Deficiency of the enzyme results in hemolytic anemia. EC 2.7.1.40.
An allosteric enzyme that regulates glycolysis and gluconeogenesis by catalyzing the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to fructose-6-phosphate to yield fructose-2,6-bisphosphate, an allosteric effector for the other 6-phosphofructokinase, PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-1. Phosphofructokinase-2 is bifunctional: the dephosphorylated form is a kinase and the phosphorylated form is a phosphatase that breaks down fructose-2,6-bisphosphate to yield fructose-6-phosphate.
The chemical reactions involved in the production and utilization of various forms of energy in cells.
An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter.
An oxidative decarboxylation process that converts GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE to D-ribose-5-phosphate via 6-phosphogluconate. The pentose product is used in the biosynthesis of NUCLEIC ACIDS. The generated energy is stored in the form of NADPH. This pathway is prominent in tissues which are active in the synthesis of FATTY ACIDS and STEROIDS.
An intermediate compound in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. In thiamine deficiency, its oxidation is retarded and it accumulates in the tissues, especially in nervous structures. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
Glycogen is a multibranched polysaccharide of glucose serving as the primary form of energy storage in animals, fungi, and bacteria, stored mainly in liver and muscle tissues. (Two sentences combined as per your request)
A series of oxidative reactions in the breakdown of acetyl units derived from GLUCOSE; FATTY ACIDS; or AMINO ACIDS by means of tricarboxylic acid intermediates. The end products are CARBON DIOXIDE, water, and energy in the form of phosphate bonds.
2-Deoxy-D-arabino-hexose. An antimetabolite of glucose with antiviral activity.
Iodinated derivatives of acetic acid. Iodoacetates are commonly used as alkylating sulfhydryl reagents and enzyme inhibitors in biochemical research.
Enzymes that catalyze the dehydrogenation of GLYCERALDEHYDE 3-PHOSPHATE. Several types of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase exist including phosphorylating and non-phosphorylating varieties and ones that transfer hydrogen to NADP and ones that transfer hydrogen to NAD.
Life or metabolic reactions occurring in an environment containing oxygen.
Pyruvates, in the context of medical and biochemistry definitions, are molecules that result from the final step of glycolysis, containing a carboxylic acid group and an aldehyde group, playing a crucial role in cellular metabolism, including being converted into Acetyl-CoA to enter the Krebs cycle or lactate under anaerobic conditions.
An allosteric enzyme that regulates glycolysis by catalyzing the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to fructose-6-phosphate to yield fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. In humans, PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-1 in muscle exists as the homotetramer of M subunits. Defects in this muscle enzyme cause GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASE TYPE VII, also known as Tarui's disease.
An ester of glucose with phosphoric acid, made in the course of glucose metabolism by mammalian and other cells. It is a normal constituent of resting muscle and probably is in constant equilibrium with fructose-6-phosphate. (Stedman, 26th ed)
Biosynthesis of GLUCOSE from nonhexose or non-carbohydrate precursors, such as LACTATE; PYRUVATE; ALANINE; and GLYCEROL.
A derivative of ACETIC ACID that contains one IODINE atom attached to its methyl group.
The rate at which oxygen is used by a tissue; microliters of oxygen STPD used per milligram of tissue per hour; the rate at which oxygen enters the blood from alveolar gas, equal in the steady state to the consumption of oxygen by tissue metabolism throughout the body. (Stedman, 25th ed, p346)
Semiautonomous, self-reproducing organelles that occur in the cytoplasm of all cells of most, but not all, eukaryotes. Each mitochondrion is surrounded by a double limiting membrane. The inner membrane is highly invaginated, and its projections are called cristae. Mitochondria are the sites of the reactions of oxidative phosphorylation, which result in the formation of ATP. They contain distinctive RIBOSOMES, transfer RNAs (RNA, TRANSFER); AMINO ACYL T RNA SYNTHETASES; and elongation and termination factors. Mitochondria depend upon genes within the nucleus of the cells in which they reside for many essential messenger RNAs (RNA, MESSENGER). Mitochondria are believed to have arisen from aerobic bacteria that established a symbiotic relationship with primitive protoeukaryotes. (King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
Hexosephosphates are sugar phosphate molecules, specifically those derived from hexoses (six-carbon sugars), such as glucose-6-phosphate and fructose-6-phosphate, which play crucial roles in various metabolic pathways including glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and the pentose phosphate pathway.
An enzyme of the lyase class that catalyzes the cleavage of fructose 1,6-biphosphate to form dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. The enzyme also acts on (3S,4R)-ketose 1-phosphates. The yeast and bacterial enzymes are zinc proteins. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) E.C. 4.1.2.13.
An endogenous substance found mainly in skeletal muscle of vertebrates. It has been tried in the treatment of cardiac disorders and has been added to cardioplegic solutions. (Reynolds JEF(Ed): Martindale: The Extra Pharmacopoeia (electronic version). Micromedex, Inc, Englewood, CO, 1996)
A derivative of ACETIC ACID that contains two CHLORINE atoms attached to its methyl group.
An aldose-ketose isomerase that catalyzes the reversible interconversion of glucose 6-phosphate and fructose 6-phosphate. In prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms it plays an essential role in glycolytic and gluconeogenic pathways. In mammalian systems the enzyme is found in the cytoplasm and as a secreted protein. This secreted form of glucose-6-phosphate isomerase has been referred to as autocrine motility factor or neuroleukin, and acts as a cytokine which binds to the AUTOCRINE MOTILITY FACTOR RECEPTOR. Deficiency of the enzyme in humans is an autosomal recessive trait, which results in CONGENITAL NONSPHEROCYTIC HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA.
Hexosediphosphates are organic compounds consisting of a hexose sugar molecule, such as glucose, linked to two phosphate groups, playing crucial roles in energy metabolism and signaling pathways in living organisms.
An allosteric enzyme that regulates glycolysis by catalyzing the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to fructose-6-phosphate to yield fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. In the humans, 6-phosphofructose-1-kinase isozyme C is found in platelets, brain, heart, kidney, colon and testis. This isozyme C can exist as the homotetramer of C subunits (P subunits), or heterotetramer of C type and L type subunits.
Fructosephosphates are organic compounds resulting from the combination of fructose with a phosphate group, playing crucial roles in various metabolic processes, particularly within carbohydrate metabolism.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of 2-phospho-D-glycerate to 3-phospho-D-glycerate. EC 5.4.2.1.
Cellular processes in biosynthesis (anabolism) and degradation (catabolism) of CARBOHYDRATES.
A group of enzymes that catalyzes the conversion of ATP and D-glucose to ADP and D-glucose 6-phosphate. They are found in invertebrates and microorganisms, and are highly specific for glucose. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.7.1.2.
An NAD-dependent glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase found in the cytosol of eucaryotes. It catalyses the dehydrogenation and phosphorylation of GLYCERALDEHYDE 3-PHOSPHATE to 3-phospho-D-glyceroyl phosphate, which is an important step in the GLYCOLYSIS pathway.
A tetrameric enzyme that, along with the coenzyme NAD+, catalyzes the interconversion of LACTATE and PYRUVATE. In vertebrates, genes for three different subunits (LDH-A, LDH-B and LDH-C) exist.
A ketotriose compound. Its addition to blood preservation solutions results in better maintenance of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate levels during storage. It is readily phosphorylated to dihydroxyacetone phosphate by triokinase in erythrocytes. In combination with naphthoquinones it acts as a sunscreening agent.
'Glucosephosphates' are organic compounds resulting from the reaction of glucose with phosphoric acid, playing crucial roles in various metabolic processes, such as energy transfer and storage within cells.
Adenine nucleotides are molecules that consist of an adenine base attached to a ribose sugar and one, two, or three phosphate groups, including adenosine monophosphate (AMP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which play crucial roles in energy transfer and signaling processes within cells.
The complete absence, or (loosely) the paucity, of gaseous or dissolved elemental oxygen in a given place or environment. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
Complex sets of enzymatic reactions connected to each other via their product and substrate metabolites.
The metabolic process of all living cells (animal and plant) in which oxygen is used to provide a source of energy for the cell.
Trioses are monosaccharides, specifically simple sugars, that contain three carbon atoms, and can be glyceraldehydes or dihydroxyacetones, which are important intermediates in metabolic pathways such as glycolysis.
A ubiquitously expressed glucose transporter that is important for constitutive, basal GLUCOSE transport. It is predominately expressed in ENDOTHELIAL CELLS and ERYTHROCYTES at the BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER and is responsible for GLUCOSE entry into the BRAIN.
A chemical reaction in which an electron is transferred from one molecule to another. The electron-donating molecule is the reducing agent or reductant; the electron-accepting molecule is the oxidizing agent or oxidant. Reducing and oxidizing agents function as conjugate reductant-oxidant pairs or redox pairs (Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, 1982, p471).
A coenzyme composed of ribosylnicotinamide 5'-diphosphate coupled to adenosine 5'-phosphate by pyrophosphate linkage. It is found widely in nature and is involved in numerous enzymatic reactions in which it serves as an electron carrier by being alternately oxidized (NAD+) and reduced (NADH). (Dorland, 27th ed)
Spectroscopic method of measuring the magnetic moment of elementary particles such as atomic nuclei, protons or electrons. It is employed in clinical applications such as NMR Tomography (MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING).
"Citrates, in a medical context, are compounds containing citric acid, often used in medical solutions for their chelating properties and as a part of certain types of nutritional support."
Hypoxia-inducible factor 1, alpha subunit is a basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor that is regulated by OXYGEN availability and is targeted for degradation by VHL TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEIN.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
A colorless, syrupy, strongly acidic liquid that can form detergents with oleic acid.
A non-essential amino acid present abundantly throughout the body and is involved in many metabolic processes. It is synthesized from GLUTAMIC ACID and AMMONIA. It is the principal carrier of NITROGEN in the body and is an important energy source for many cells.
An organic compound used often as a reagent in organic synthesis, as a flavoring agent, and in tanning. It has been demonstrated as an intermediate in the metabolism of acetone and its derivatives in isolated cell preparations, in various culture media, and in vivo in certain animals.
The normality of a solution with respect to HYDROGEN ions; H+. It is related to acidity measurements in most cases by pH = log 1/2[1/(H+)], where (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per liter of solution. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
A condition of decreased oxygen content at the cellular level.
An element with atomic symbol O, atomic number 8, and atomic weight [15.99903; 15.99977]. It is the most abundant element on earth and essential for respiration.
Adenine nucleotide containing one phosphate group esterified to the sugar moiety in the 2'-, 3'-, or 5'-position.
An aldotriose which is an important intermediate in glycolysis and in tryptophan biosynthesis.
Stable carbon atoms that have the same atomic number as the element carbon, but differ in atomic weight. C-13 is a stable carbon isotope.
Drugs that are chemically similar to naturally occurring metabolites, but differ enough to interfere with normal metabolic pathways. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p2033)
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
A cell line derived from cultured tumor cells.
Inorganic salts of HYDROGEN CYANIDE containing the -CN radical. The concept also includes isocyanides. It is distinguished from NITRILES, which denotes organic compounds containing the -CN radical.
Glycogen stored in the liver. (Dorland, 28th ed)
The dynamic collection of metabolites which represent a cell's or organism's net metabolic response to current conditions.
A compound that inhibits aminobutyrate aminotransferase activity in vivo, thereby raising the level of gamma-aminobutyric acid in tissues.
A 51-amino acid pancreatic hormone that plays a major role in the regulation of glucose metabolism, directly by suppressing endogenous glucose production (GLYCOGENOLYSIS; GLUCONEOGENESIS) and indirectly by suppressing GLUCAGON secretion and LIPOLYSIS. Native insulin is a globular protein comprised of a zinc-coordinated hexamer. Each insulin monomer containing two chains, A (21 residues) and B (30 residues), linked by two disulfide bonds. Insulin is used as a drug to control insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 1).
A nonmetallic element with atomic symbol C, atomic number 6, and atomic weight [12.0096; 12.0116]. It may occur as several different allotropes including DIAMOND; CHARCOAL; and GRAPHITE; and as SOOT from incompletely burned fuel.
Chemical agents that uncouple oxidation from phosphorylation in the metabolic cycle so that ATP synthesis does not occur. Included here are those IONOPHORES that disrupt electron transfer by short-circuiting the proton gradient across mitochondrial membranes.
Biological molecules that possess catalytic activity. They may occur naturally or be synthetically created. Enzymes are usually proteins, however CATALYTIC RNA and CATALYTIC DNA molecules have also been identified.
A family of proteins involved in the transport of monocarboxylic acids such as LACTIC ACID and PYRUVIC ACID across cellular membranes.
The muscle tissue of the HEART. It is composed of striated, involuntary muscle cells (MYOCYTES, CARDIAC) connected to form the contractile pump to generate blood flow.
A closely related group of toxic substances elaborated by various strains of Streptomyces. They are 26-membered macrolides with lactone moieties and double bonds and inhibit various ATPases, causing uncoupling of phosphorylation from mitochondrial respiration. Used as tools in cytochemistry. Some specific oligomycins are RUTAMYCIN, peliomycin, and botrycidin (formerly venturicidin X).
A highly poisonous compound that is an inhibitor of many metabolic processes and is used as a test reagent for the function of chemoreceptors. It is also used in many industrial processes.
Adenosine 5'-(trihydrogen diphosphate). An adenine nucleotide containing two phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety at the 5'-position.
An enzyme that catalyzes reversibly the conversion of D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to dihydroxyacetone phosphate. A deficiency in humans causes nonspherocytic hemolytic disease (ANEMIA, HEMOLYTIC, CONGENITAL NONSPHEROCYTIC). EC 5.3.1.1.
A transplantable, poorly differentiated malignant tumor which appeared originally as a spontaneous breast carcinoma in a mouse. It grows in both solid and ascitic forms.
A chlorinated PROPANEDIOL with antifertility activity in males used as a chemosterilant in rodents.
A trihydroxy sugar alcohol that is an intermediate in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. It is used as a solvent, emollient, pharmaceutical agent, and sweetening agent.
An important intermediate in lipid biosynthesis and in glycolysis.
The systematic identification and quantitation of all the metabolic products of a cell, tissue, organ, or organism under varying conditions. The METABOLOME of a cell or organism is a dynamic collection of metabolites which represent its net response to current conditions.
A botanical insecticide that is an inhibitor of mitochondrial electron transport.
Contractile tissue that produces movement in animals.
ACETIC ACID or acetic acid esters substituted with one or more CHLORINE atoms.
An antibiotic substance produced by Streptomyces species. It inhibits mitochondrial respiration and may deplete cellular levels of ATP. Antimycin A1 has been used as a fungicide, insecticide, and miticide. (From Merck Index, 12th ed)
A hydro-lyase that catalyzes the dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate to form PHOSPHOENOLPYRUVATE. Several different isoforms of this enzyme exist, each with its own tissue specificity.
An autosomal recessive glycogen storage disease in which there is deficient expression of 6-phosphofructose 1-kinase in muscle (PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-1, MUSCLE TYPE) resulting in abnormal deposition of glycogen in muscle tissue. These patients have severe congenital muscular dystrophy and are exercise intolerant.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of D-fructose 1,6-bisphosphate and water to D-fructose 6-phosphate and orthophosphate. EC 3.1.3.11.
Relatively complete absence of oxygen in one or more tissues.
A monosaccharide in sweet fruits and honey that is soluble in water, alcohol, or ether. It is used as a preservative and an intravenous infusion in parenteral feeding.
New abnormal growth of tissue. Malignant neoplasms show a greater degree of anaplasia and have the properties of invasion and metastasis, compared to benign neoplasms.
An enzyme that catalyzes the interconversion of methylglyoxal and lactate, with glutathione serving as a coenzyme. EC 4.4.1.5.
Inorganic salts of phosphoric acid.
Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) is a high-energy organic compound, an intermediate in the glycolytic pathway, that plays a crucial role in the transfer of energy during metabolic processes, and serves as a substrate for various biosynthetic reactions.
Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (G6PD) is an enzyme that plays a critical role in the pentose phosphate pathway, catalyzing the oxidation of glucose-6-phosphate to 6-phosphoglucono-δ-lactone while reducing nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+) to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen (NADPH), thereby protecting cells from oxidative damage and maintaining redox balance.
Hexoses are simple monosaccharides, specifically six-carbon sugars, which include glucose, fructose, and galactose, and play crucial roles in biological processes such as energy production and storage, and structural components of cells.

Activities of glucose metabolic enzymes in human preantral follicles: in vitro modulation by follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, epidermal growth factor, insulin-like growth factor I, and transforming growth factor beta1. (1/3647)

Modulation of glucose metabolic capacity of human preantral follicles in vitro by gonadotropins and intraovarian growth factors was evaluated by monitoring the activities of phosphofructokinase (PFK) and pyruvate kinase (PK), two regulatory enzymes of the glycolytic pathway, and malate dehydrogenase (MDH), a key mitochondrial enzyme of the Krebs cycle. Preantral follicles in classes 1 and 2 from premenopausal women were cultured separately in vitro in the absence or presence of FSH, LH, epidermal growth factor (EGF), insulin-like growth factor (IGF-I), or transforming growth factor beta1 (TGFbeta1) for 24 h. Mitochondrial fraction was separated from the cytosolic fraction, and both fractions were used for enzyme assays. FSH and LH significantly stimulated PFK and PK activities in class 1 and 2 follicles; however, a 170-fold increase in MDH activity was noted for class 2 follicles that were exposed to FSH. Although both EGF and TGFbeta1 stimulated glycolytic and Krebs cycle enzymes for class 1 preantral follicles, TGFbeta1 consistently stimulated the activities of both glycolytic enzymes more than that of EGF. IGF-I induced PK and MDH activities in class 1 follicles but negatively influenced PFK activity for class 1 follicles. In general, only gonadotropins consistently stimulated both glycolytic and Krebs cycle enzyme activities several-fold in class 2 follicles. These results suggest that gonadotropins and ovarian growth factors differentially influence follicular energy-producing capacity from glucose. Moreover, gonadotropins may either directly influence glucose metabolism in class 2 preantral follicles or do so indirectly through factors other than the well-known intraovarian growth factors. Because growth factors modulate granulosa cell mitosis and functionality, their role on energy production may be related to specific cellular activities.  (+info)

Role of mitochondrial dysfunction in the Ca2+-induced decline of transmitter release at K+-depolarized motor neuron terminals. (2/3647)

The present study tested whether a Ca2+-induced disruption of mitochondrial function was responsible for the decline in miniature endplate current (MEPC) frequency that occurs with nerve-muscle preparations maintained in a 35 mM potassium propionate (35 mM KP) solution containing elevated calcium. When the 35 mM KP contained control Ca2+ (1 mM), the MEPC frequency increased and remained elevated for many hours, and the mitochondria within twitch motor neuron terminals were similar in appearance to those in unstimulated terminals. All nerve terminals accumulated FM1-43 when the dye was present for the final 6 min of a 300-min exposure to 35 mM KP with control Ca2+. In contrast, when Ca2+ was increased to 3.6 mM in the 35 mM KP solution, the MEPC frequency initially reached frequencies >350 s-1 but then gradually fell approaching frequencies <50 s-1. A progressive swelling and eventual distortion of mitochondria within the twitch motor neuron terminals occurred during prolonged exposure to 35 mM KP with elevated Ca2+. After approximately 300 min in 35 mM KP with elevated Ca2+, only 58% of the twitch terminals accumulated FM1-43. The decline in MEPC frequency in 35 mM KP with elevated Ca2+ was less when 15 mM glucose was present or when preparations were pretreated with 10 microM oligomycin and then bathed in the 35 mM KP with glucose. When glucose was present, with or without oligomycin pretreatment, a greater percentage of twitch terminals accumulated FM1-43. However, the mitochondria in these preparations were still greatly swollen and distorted. We propose that prolonged depolarization of twitch motor neuron terminals by 35 mM KP with elevated Ca2+ produced a Ca2+-induced decrease in mitochondrial ATP production. Under these conditions, the cytosolic ATP/ADP ratio was decreased thereby compromising both transmitter release and refilling of recycled synaptic vesicles. The addition of glucose stimulated glycolysis which contributed to the maintenance of required ATP levels.  (+info)

Activities of citrate synthase, NAD+-linked and NADP+-linked isocitrate dehydrogenases, glutamate dehydrogenase, aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase in nervous tissues from vertebrates and invertebrates. (3/3647)

1. The activities of citrate synthase and NAD+-linked and NADP+-linked isocitrate dehydrogenases were measured in nervous tissue from different animals in an attempt to provide more information about the citric acid cycle in this tissue. In higher animals the activities of citrate synthase are greater than the sum of activities of the isocitrate dehydrogenases, whereas they are similar in nervous tissues from the lower animals. This suggests that in higher animals the isocitrate dehydrogenase reaction is far-removed from equilibrium. If it is assumed that isocitrate dehydrogenase activities provide an indication of the maximum flux through the citric acid cycle, the maximum glycolytic capacity in nervous tissue is considerably greater than that of the cycle. This suggest that glycolysis can provide energy in excess of the aerobic capacity of the tissue. 2. The activities of glutamate dehydrogenase are high in most nervous tissues and the activities of aspartate aminotransferase are high in all nervous tissue investigated. However, the activities of alanine aminotransferase are low in all tissues except the ganglia of the waterbug and cockroach. In these insect tissues, anaerobic glycolysis may result in the formation of alanine rather than lactate.  (+info)

Mechanism of citrate metabolism in Lactococcus lactis: resistance against lactate toxicity at low pH. (4/3647)

Measurement of the flux through the citrate fermentation pathway in resting cells of Lactococcus lactis CRL264 grown in a pH-controlled fermentor at different pH values showed that the pathway was constitutively expressed, but its activity was significantly enhanced at low pH. The flux through the citrate-degrading pathway correlated with the magnitude of the membrane potential and pH gradient that were generated when citrate was added to the cells. The citrate degradation rate and proton motive force were significantly higher when glucose was metabolized at the same time, a phenomenon that could be mimicked by the addition of lactate, the end product of glucose metabolism. The results clearly demonstrate that citrate metabolism in L. lactis is a secondary proton motive force-generating pathway. Although the proton motive force generated by citrate in cells grown at low pH was of the same magnitude as that generated by glucose fermentation, citrate metabolism did not affect the growth rate of L. lactis in rich media. However, inhibition of growth by lactate was relieved when citrate also was present in the growth medium. Citrate did not relieve the inhibition by other weak acids, suggesting a specific role of the citrate transporter CitP in the relief of inhibition. The mechanism of citrate metabolism presented here provides an explanation for the resistance to lactate toxicity. It is suggested that the citrate metabolic pathway is induced under the acidic conditions of the late exponential growth phase to make the cells (more) resistant to the inhibitory effects of the fermentation product, lactate, that accumulates under these conditions.  (+info)

Reduced cytosolic acidification during exercise suggests defective glycolytic activity in skeletal muscle of patients with Becker muscular dystrophy. An in vivo 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. (5/3647)

Becker muscular dystrophy is an X-linked disorder due to mutations in the dystrophin gene, resulting in reduced size and/or content of dystrophin. The functional role of this subsarcolemma protein and the biochemical mechanisms leading to muscle necrosis in Becker muscular dystrophy are still unknown. In particular, the role of a bioenergetic deficit is still controversial. In this study, we used 31p magnetic resonance spectroscopy (31p-MRS) to investigate skeletal muscle mitochondrial and glycolytic ATP production in vivo in 14 Becker muscular dystrophy patients. Skeletal muscle glycogenolytic ATP production, measured during the first minute of exercise, was similar in patients and controls. On the other hand, during later phases of exercise, skeletal muscle in Becker muscular dystrophy patients was less acidic than in controls, the cytosolic pH at the end of exercise being significantly higher in Becker muscular dystrophy patients. The rate of proton efflux from muscle fibres of Becker muscular dystrophy patients was similar to that of controls, pointing to a deficit in glycolytic lactate production as a cause of higher end-exercise cytosolic pH in patients. The maximum rate of mitochondrial ATP production was similar in muscle of Becker muscular dystrophy patients and controls. The results of this in vivo 31P-MRS study are consistent with reduced glucose availability in dystrophin-deficient muscles.  (+info)

Application of metabolic control analysis to the study of toxic effects of copper in muscle glycolysis. (6/3647)

Experimental and model studies have been performed to characterise the effects of Cu2+ on the activities of individual glycolytic enzymes and on the flux and internal metabolite concentrations of the upper part of glycolysis in mouse muscle extracts. Cu2+ significantly inhibited the triosephosphate production from glucose with an IC50 of about 6.0 microM. At a similar extension Cu2+ inhibited hexokinase and phosphofructokinase, with an IC50 of 6.2 microM and 6.4 microM respectively, whereas the effects on the activities of aldolase, phosphoglucose isomerase and the internal metabolite levels were not significant. Flux control coefficients and flux response coefficients were determined in the presence of copper concentrations between 0 and 10 microM. The same values of flux control coefficients for hexokinase and for phosphofructokinase (0.8 and 0.2 respectively) were found in absence and in presence of copper. At Cu2+ equal to the flux IC50, the response coefficient was -1. The elasticity coefficients for hexokinase and phosphofructokinase at Cu2+ equal to the IC50 were also -1. A mathematical model was used to analyze the effect of copper on glycolysis under different conditions using experimental kinetic parameters and rate equations for enzymatic reactions of the upper part of glycolysis.  (+info)

An inducible gene product for 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase with an AU-rich instability element: role in tumor cell glycolysis and the Warburg effect. (7/3647)

Cancer cells maintain a high glycolytic rate even in the presence of oxygen, a phenomenon first described over 70 years ago and known historically as the Warburg effect. Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate is a powerful allosteric regulator of glycolysis that acts to stimulate the activity of 6-phosphofructo-1-kinase (PFK-1), the most important control point in mammalian glycolysis. The steady state concentration of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate in turn depends on the activity of the enzyme 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase (PFK-2)/fructose-2, 6-bisphosphatase, which is expressed in several tissue-specific isoforms. We report herein the identification of a gene product for this enzyme that is induced by proinflammatory stimuli and which is distinguished by the presence of multiple copies of the AUUUA mRNA instability motif in its 3'-untranslated end. This inducible gene for PFK-2 is expressed constitutively in several human cancer cell lines and was found to be required for tumor cell growth in vitro and in vivo. Inhibition of inducible PFK-2 protein expression decreased the intracellular level of 5-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate, a product of the pentose phosphate pathway and an important precursor for nucleic acid biosynthesis. These studies identify a regulatory isoenzyme that may be essential for tumor growth and provide an explanation for long-standing observations concerning the apparent coupling of enhanced glycolysis and cell proliferation.  (+info)

Low oxygen inhibits but complex high-glucose medium facilitates in vitro maturation of squirrel monkey oocyte-granulosa cell complexes. (8/3647)

PURPOSE: The objectives of these in vitro maturation studies in primate cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) were to evaluate the effect of a reduced-oxygen environment and to compare medium with a high-glucose concentration to medium with pyruvate but no glucose. METHODS: COCs were retrieved from squirrel monkeys stimulated with 1 mg of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) for 4-6 days. Experiment 1 examined maturation after 48 hr in 5% O2/5% CO2/90% N2 compared with 5% CO2/air. The medium was CMRL-1066 containing moderate glucose (5.5 mM) supplemented with 1 mM glutamine, 0.33 mM pyruvate, 0.075 IU/ml human FSH, 5 IU/ml human chorionic gonadotropin, 75 U penicillin G/ml, and 20% fetal bovine serum. Experiment 2 in 5% CO2/air, compared P-1 medium (pyruvate and lactate but no glucose) to Waymouth's medium (27.5 mM glucose), both with identical supplements. RESULTS: Only 3 (8%) of 37 COCs matured in 5% O2, while 39 (49%) of 80 matured in ambient O2. Fourteen (22%) of 64 complexes matured in P-1 medium, compared to 47 (49%) of 96 meiosis II oocytes in Waymouth's medium (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: These are the first primate studies showing detrimental effects of reduced-oxygen culture on in vitro maturation. Additionally, maturation was enhanced with complex high-glucose medium suggesting that the predominant metabolism is aerobic glycolysis.  (+info)

Glycolysis is a fundamental metabolic pathway that occurs in the cytoplasm of cells, consisting of a series of biochemical reactions. It's the process by which a six-carbon glucose molecule is broken down into two three-carbon pyruvate molecules. This process generates a net gain of two ATP molecules (the main energy currency in cells), two NADH molecules, and two water molecules.

Glycolysis can be divided into two stages: the preparatory phase (or 'energy investment' phase) and the payoff phase (or 'energy generation' phase). During the preparatory phase, glucose is phosphorylated twice to form glucose-6-phosphate and then converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. These reactions consume two ATP molecules but set up the subsequent breakdown of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into triose phosphates in the payoff phase. In this second stage, each triose phosphate is further oxidized and degraded to produce one pyruvate molecule, one NADH molecule, and one ATP molecule through substrate-level phosphorylation.

Glycolysis does not require oxygen to proceed; thus, it can occur under both aerobic (with oxygen) and anaerobic (without oxygen) conditions. In the absence of oxygen, the pyruvate produced during glycolysis is further metabolized through fermentation pathways such as lactic acid fermentation or alcohol fermentation to regenerate NAD+, which is necessary for glycolysis to continue.

In summary, glycolysis is a crucial process in cellular energy metabolism, allowing cells to convert glucose into ATP and other essential molecules while also serving as a starting point for various other biochemical pathways.

Glucose is a simple monosaccharide (or single sugar) that serves as the primary source of energy for living organisms. It's a fundamental molecule in biology, often referred to as "dextrose" or "grape sugar." Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and is vital to the functioning of cells, especially those in the brain and nervous system.

In the body, glucose is derived from the digestion of carbohydrates in food, and it's transported around the body via the bloodstream to cells where it can be used for energy. Cells convert glucose into a usable form through a process called cellular respiration, which involves a series of metabolic reactions that generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP)—the main currency of energy in cells.

Glucose is also stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen, a polysaccharide (multiple sugar) that can be broken down back into glucose when needed for energy between meals or during physical activity. Maintaining appropriate blood glucose levels is crucial for overall health, and imbalances can lead to conditions such as diabetes mellitus.

Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) is a rate-limiting enzyme in the glycolytic pathway, which is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH as energy currency for the cell. PFK-1 plays a crucial role in regulating the rate of glycolysis by catalyzing the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, using ATP as the phosphate donor.

PFK-1 is allosterically regulated by various metabolites, such as AMP, ADP, and ATP, which act as positive or negative effectors of the enzyme's activity. For example, an increase in the intracellular concentration of AMP or ADP can activate PFK-1, promoting glycolysis and energy production, while an increase in ATP levels can inhibit the enzyme's activity, conserving glucose for use under conditions of low energy demand.

Deficiencies in PFK-1 can lead to a rare genetic disorder called Tarui's disease or glycogen storage disease type VII, which is characterized by exercise intolerance, muscle cramps, and myoglobinuria (the presence of myoglobin in the urine due to muscle damage).

Lactic acid, also known as 2-hydroxypropanoic acid, is a chemical compound that plays a significant role in various biological processes. In the context of medicine and biochemistry, lactic acid is primarily discussed in relation to muscle metabolism and cellular energy production. Here's a medical definition for lactic acid:

Lactic acid (LA): A carboxylic acid with the molecular formula C3H6O3 that plays a crucial role in anaerobic respiration, particularly during strenuous exercise or conditions of reduced oxygen availability. It is formed through the conversion of pyruvate, catalyzed by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), when there is insufficient oxygen to complete the final step of cellular respiration in the Krebs cycle. The accumulation of lactic acid can lead to acidosis and muscle fatigue. Additionally, lactic acid serves as a vital intermediary in various metabolic pathways and is involved in the production of glucose through gluconeogenesis in the liver.

Lactates, also known as lactic acid, are compounds that are produced by muscles during intense exercise or other conditions of low oxygen supply. They are formed from the breakdown of glucose in the absence of adequate oxygen to complete the full process of cellular respiration. This results in the production of lactate and a hydrogen ion, which can lead to a decrease in pH and muscle fatigue.

In a medical context, lactates may be measured in the blood as an indicator of tissue oxygenation and metabolic status. Elevated levels of lactate in the blood, known as lactic acidosis, can indicate poor tissue perfusion or hypoxia, and may be seen in conditions such as sepsis, cardiac arrest, and severe shock. It is important to note that lactates are not the primary cause of acidemia (low pH) in lactic acidosis, but rather a marker of the underlying process.

Phosphofructokinase (PFK) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in regulating glycolysis, which is the metabolic pathway responsible for the conversion of glucose into energy. PFK catalyzes the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, using a molecule of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as a source of energy. This reaction is a key regulatory step in glycolysis and is subject to allosteric regulation by various metabolites, such as ATP, ADP, and citrate, that signal the cell's energy status.

There are several isoforms of PFK found in different tissues, including PFK-1 (or muscle PFK) and PFK-2 (or liver PFK), which exhibit tissue-specific patterns of expression and regulation. Mutations in the genes encoding PFK can result in various inherited metabolic disorders, such as Tarui's disease, characterized by exercise intolerance, muscle cramps, and myoglobinuria.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Fructosediphosphates" is not a recognized term in medicine or biochemistry. It's possible there may be a spelling mistake or misunderstanding in the term you're looking for.

If you meant "Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate," that is a key intermediate in carbohydrate metabolism. It's formed from fructose 6-phosphate in the process of glucose breakdown (glycolysis) and is then used in the generation of energy through the citric acid cycle.

If these terms are not what you were looking for, could you please provide more context or check the spelling? I'm here to help!

Hexokinase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the initial step of glucose metabolism, which is the phosphorylation of glucose to form glucose-6-phosphate. This reaction is the first step in most glucose catabolic pathways, including glycolysis, pentose phosphate pathway, and glycogen synthesis.

Hexokinase has a high affinity for glucose, meaning it can bind and phosphorylate glucose even at low concentrations. This property makes hexokinase an important regulator of glucose metabolism in cells. There are four isoforms of hexokinase (I-IV) found in different tissues, with hexokinase IV (also known as glucokinase) being primarily expressed in the liver and pancreas.

In summary, hexokinase is a vital enzyme involved in glucose metabolism, catalyzing the conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate, and playing a crucial role in regulating cellular energy homeostasis.

Oxidative phosphorylation is the metabolic process by which cells use enzymes to generate energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from the oxidation of nutrients, such as glucose or fatty acids. This process occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotic cells and is facilitated by the electron transport chain, which consists of a series of protein complexes that transfer electrons from donor molecules to acceptor molecules. As the electrons are passed along the chain, they release energy that is used to pump protons across the membrane, creating a gradient. The ATP synthase enzyme then uses the flow of protons back across the membrane to generate ATP, which serves as the main energy currency for cellular processes.

Pyruvate kinase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the final step of glycolysis, a process by which glucose is broken down to produce energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). Specifically, pyruvate kinase catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), resulting in the formation of pyruvate and ATP.

There are several isoforms of pyruvate kinase found in different tissues, including the liver, muscle, and brain. The type found in red blood cells is known as PK-RBC or PK-M2. Deficiencies in pyruvate kinase can lead to a genetic disorder called pyruvate kinase deficiency, which can result in hemolytic anemia due to the premature destruction of red blood cells.

Phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-2) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in regulating the rate of glycolysis, which is the metabolic pathway responsible for the conversion of glucose into energy. PFK-2 catalyzes the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to form fructose-1,6-bisphosphate and subsequently fructose-2,6-bisphosphate (F-2,6-BP). F-2,6-BP is a potent allosteric activator of another enzyme called phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1), which is the rate-limiting enzyme in glycolysis.

PFK-2 exists as a complex with another enzyme, fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase (FBPase-2), and together they form a bifunctional enzyme called PFK-2/FBPase-2. This enzyme can reversibly convert F-6-P to F-2,6-BP and vice versa depending on the cellular energy status. When cells have high energy levels, FBPase-2 is activated, which leads to a decrease in F-2,6-BP levels and an inhibition of glycolysis. Conversely, when cells require more energy, PFK-2 is activated, leading to an increase in F-2,6-BP levels and an activation of glycolysis.

Regulation of PFK-2 activity occurs through various mechanisms, including allosteric regulation by metabolites such as AMP, citrate, and phosphate, as well as covalent modification by protein kinases and phosphatases. Dysregulation of PFK-2 has been implicated in several diseases, including diabetes, cancer, and neurological disorders.

Energy metabolism is the process by which living organisms produce and consume energy to maintain life. It involves a series of chemical reactions that convert nutrients from food, such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, into energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

The process of energy metabolism can be divided into two main categories: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism is the breakdown of nutrients to release energy, while anabolism is the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones using energy.

There are three main stages of energy metabolism: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH). The citric acid cycle takes place in the mitochondria and involves the further breakdown of pyruvate to produce more ATP, NADH, and carbon dioxide. Oxidative phosphorylation is the final stage of energy metabolism and occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It involves the transfer of electrons from NADH and other electron carriers to oxygen, which generates a proton gradient across the membrane. This gradient drives the synthesis of ATP, producing the majority of the cell's energy.

Overall, energy metabolism is a complex and essential process that allows organisms to grow, reproduce, and maintain their bodily functions. Disruptions in energy metabolism can lead to various diseases, including diabetes, obesity, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is a high-energy molecule that stores and transports energy within cells. It is the main source of energy for most cellular processes, including muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and protein synthesis. ATP is composed of a base (adenine), a sugar (ribose), and three phosphate groups. The bonds between these phosphate groups contain a significant amount of energy, which can be released when the bond between the second and third phosphate group is broken, resulting in the formation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. This process is known as hydrolysis and can be catalyzed by various enzymes to drive a wide range of cellular functions. ATP can also be regenerated from ADP through various metabolic pathways, such as oxidative phosphorylation or substrate-level phosphorylation, allowing for the continuous supply of energy to cells.

The Pentose Phosphate Pathway (also known as the Hexose Monophosphate Shunt or HMP Shunt) is a metabolic pathway that runs parallel to glycolysis. It serves two major functions:

1. Providing reducing equivalents in the form of NADPH for reductive biosynthesis and detoxification processes.
2. Generating ribose-5-phosphate, a pentose sugar used in the synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).

This pathway begins with the oxidation of glucose-6-phosphate to form 6-phosphogluconolactone, catalyzed by the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. The resulting NADPH is used in various anabolic reactions and antioxidant defense systems.

The Pentose Phosphate Pathway also includes a series of reactions called the non-oxidative branch, which interconverts various sugars to meet cellular needs for different types of monosaccharides. These conversions are facilitated by several enzymes including transketolase and transaldolase.

Pyruvic acid, also known as 2-oxopropanoic acid, is a key metabolic intermediate in both anaerobic and aerobic respiration. It is a carboxylic acid with a ketone functional group, making it a β-ketoacid. In the cytosol, pyruvate is produced from glucose during glycolysis, where it serves as a crucial link between the anaerobic breakdown of glucose and the aerobic process of cellular respiration in the mitochondria.

During low oxygen availability or high energy demands, pyruvate can be converted into lactate through anaerobic glycolysis, allowing for the continued production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) without oxygen. In the presence of adequate oxygen and functional mitochondria, pyruvate is transported into the mitochondrial matrix where it undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form acetyl-CoA by the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). This reaction also involves the reduction of NAD+ to NADH and the release of CO2. Acetyl-CoA then enters the citric acid cycle, where it is further oxidized to produce energy in the form of ATP, NADH, FADH2, and GTP (guanosine triphosphate) through a series of enzymatic reactions.

In summary, pyruvic acid is a vital metabolic intermediate that plays a significant role in energy production pathways, connecting glycolysis to both anaerobic and aerobic respiration.

Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate that serves as the primary form of energy storage in animals, fungi, and bacteria. It is a polysaccharide consisting of long, branched chains of glucose molecules linked together by glycosidic bonds. Glycogen is stored primarily in the liver and muscles, where it can be quickly broken down to release glucose into the bloodstream during periods of fasting or increased metabolic demand.

In the liver, glycogen plays a crucial role in maintaining blood glucose levels by releasing glucose when needed, such as between meals or during exercise. In muscles, glycogen serves as an immediate energy source for muscle contractions during intense physical activity. The ability to store and mobilize glycogen is essential for the proper functioning of various physiological processes, including athletic performance, glucose homeostasis, and overall metabolic health.

The Citric Acid Cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, is a crucial metabolic pathway in the cell's powerhouse, the mitochondria. It plays a central role in the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, into carbon dioxide and high-energy electrons. This process generates energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), reducing equivalents (NADH and FADH2), and water.

The cycle begins with the condensation of acetyl-CoA with oxaloacetate, forming citrate. Through a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions, citrate is converted back to oxaloacetate, releasing two molecules of carbon dioxide, one GTP (guanosine triphosphate), three NADH, one FADH2, and regenerating oxaloacetate to continue the cycle. The reduced coenzymes (NADH and FADH2) then donate their electrons to the electron transport chain, driving ATP synthesis through chemiosmosis. Overall, the Citric Acid Cycle is a vital part of cellular respiration, connecting various catabolic pathways and generating energy for the cell's metabolic needs.

Deoxyglucose is a glucose molecule that has had one oxygen atom removed, resulting in the absence of a hydroxyl group (-OH) at the 2' position of the carbon chain. It is used in research and medical settings as a metabolic tracer to study glucose uptake and metabolism in cells and organisms.

Deoxyglucose can be taken up by cells through glucose transporters, but it cannot be further metabolized by glycolysis or other glucose-utilizing pathways. This leads to the accumulation of deoxyglucose within the cell, which can interfere with normal cellular processes and cause toxicity in high concentrations.

In medical research, deoxyglucose is sometimes labeled with radioactive isotopes such as carbon-14 or fluorine-18 to create radiolabeled deoxyglucose (FDG), which can be used in positron emission tomography (PET) scans to visualize and measure glucose uptake in tissues. This technique is commonly used in cancer imaging, as tumors often have increased glucose metabolism compared to normal tissue.

Iodoacetates are salts or esters of iodoacetic acid, an organic compound containing iodine. In medicine, iodoacetates have been used as topical antiseptics and anti-inflammatory agents. However, their use is limited due to potential skin irritation and the availability of safer alternatives.

In a broader context, iodoacetates are also known for their chemical properties. They can act as alkylating agents, which means they can react with proteins and enzymes in living organisms, disrupting their function. This property has been exploited in research to study various cellular processes.

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the metabolic pathway of glycolysis. Its primary function is to convert glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (a triose sugar phosphate) into D-glycerate 1,3-bisphosphate, while also converting nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) into its reduced form NADH. This reaction is essential for the production of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during cellular respiration. GAPDH has also been implicated in various non-metabolic processes, including DNA replication, repair, and transcription regulation, due to its ability to interact with different proteins and nucleic acids.

Aerobiosis is the process of living, growing, and functioning in the presence of oxygen. It refers to the metabolic processes that require oxygen to break down nutrients and produce energy in cells. This is in contrast to anaerobiosis, which is the ability to live and grow in the absence of oxygen.

In medical terms, aerobiosis is often used to describe the growth of microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, that require oxygen to survive and multiply. These organisms are called aerobic organisms, and they play an important role in many biological processes, including decomposition and waste breakdown.

However, some microorganisms are unable to grow in the presence of oxygen and are instead restricted to environments where oxygen is absent or limited. These organisms are called anaerobic organisms, and their growth and metabolism are referred to as anaerobiosis.

Pyruvate is a negatively charged ion or group of atoms, called anion, with the chemical formula C3H3O3-. It is formed from the decomposition of glucose and other sugars in the process of cellular respiration. Pyruvate plays a crucial role in the metabolic pathways that generate energy for cells.

In the cytoplasm, pyruvate is produced through glycolysis, where one molecule of glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate, releasing energy and producing ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide).

In the mitochondria, pyruvate can be further metabolized through the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle) to produce more ATP. The process involves the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA, which then enters the citric acid cycle and undergoes a series of reactions that generate energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2 (reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide).

Overall, pyruvate is an important intermediate in cellular respiration and plays a central role in the production of energy for cells.

Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1), muscle type, is a specific isoform of the glycolytic enzyme Phosphofructokinase-1. This enzyme plays a crucial role in regulating the metabolic pathway of glycolysis, which is the process of converting glucose into energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

PFK-1 catalyzes the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, using a molecule of ATP. This reaction is a key regulatory step in glycolysis and is subject to allosteric regulation by various metabolites, such as AMP, ADP, ATP, citrate, and phosphate, that signal the energy status of the cell.

The muscle type of PFK-1 is predominantly expressed in skeletal and cardiac muscles, where it exhibits unique kinetic properties and regulatory features compared to other isoforms found in non-muscle tissues. The muscle type of PFK-1 has a higher affinity for fructose-6-phosphate and is more sensitive to activation by AMP and inhibition by citrate, reflecting the specific metabolic demands of muscle tissue during exercise and contraction.

Deficiencies in Phosphofructokinase-1, muscle type, can lead to a genetic disorder known as Tarui's disease or glycogen storage disease type VII, which is characterized by exercise intolerance, muscle cramps, and myoglobinuria (the presence of myoglobin in the urine due to muscle damage).

Glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) is a vital intermediate compound in the metabolism of glucose, which is a simple sugar that serves as a primary source of energy for living organisms. G6P plays a critical role in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis pathways, contributing to the regulation of blood glucose levels and energy production within cells.

In biochemistry, glucose-6-phosphate is defined as:

A hexose sugar phosphate ester formed by the phosphorylation of glucose at the 6th carbon atom by ATP in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme hexokinase or glucokinase. This reaction is the first step in both glycolysis and glucose storage (glycogen synthesis) processes, ensuring that glucose can be effectively utilized for energy production or stored for later use.

G6P serves as a crucial metabolic branch point, leading to various pathways such as:

1. Glycolysis: In the presence of sufficient ATP and NAD+ levels, G6P is further metabolized through glycolysis to generate pyruvate, which enters the citric acid cycle for additional energy production in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
2. Gluconeogenesis: During periods of low blood glucose levels, G6P can be synthesized back into glucose through the gluconeogenesis pathway, primarily occurring in the liver and kidneys. This process helps maintain stable blood glucose concentrations and provides energy to cells when dietary intake is insufficient.
3. Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP): A portion of G6P can be shunted into the PPP, an alternative metabolic route that generates NADPH, ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis, and erythrose-4-phosphate for aromatic amino acid production. The PPP is essential in maintaining redox balance within cells and supporting biosynthetic processes.

Overall, glucose-6-phosphate plays a critical role as a central metabolic intermediate, connecting various pathways to regulate energy homeostasis, redox balance, and biosynthesis in response to cellular demands and environmental cues.

Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway that occurs in the liver, kidneys, and to a lesser extent in the small intestine. It involves the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors such as lactate, pyruvate, glycerol, and certain amino acids. This process becomes particularly important during periods of fasting or starvation when glucose levels in the body begin to drop, and there is limited carbohydrate intake to replenish them.

Gluconeogenesis helps maintain blood glucose homeostasis by providing an alternative source of glucose for use by various tissues, especially the brain, which relies heavily on glucose as its primary energy source. It is a complex process that involves several enzymatic steps, many of which are regulated to ensure an adequate supply of glucose while preventing excessive production, which could lead to hyperglycemia.

Iodoacetic acid is not typically defined in the context of medical terminology, but rather it is a chemical compound with the formula CH2ICO2H. It is a colorless, oily liquid that is used in organic synthesis as an alkylating agent and also has been studied for its potential antibacterial and antifungal properties.

In medical contexts, iodoacetic acid may be mentioned in relation to its use in research or in the discussion of certain chemical reactions that may occur in the body. For example, it can inhibit the enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), which plays a crucial role in energy metabolism. However, iodoacetic acid itself is not a medical treatment or therapy.

Oxygen consumption, also known as oxygen uptake, is the amount of oxygen that is consumed or utilized by the body during a specific period of time, usually measured in liters per minute (L/min). It is a common measurement used in exercise physiology and critical care medicine to assess an individual's aerobic metabolism and overall health status.

In clinical settings, oxygen consumption is often measured during cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) to evaluate cardiovascular function, pulmonary function, and exercise capacity in patients with various medical conditions such as heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and other respiratory or cardiac disorders.

During exercise, oxygen is consumed by the muscles to generate energy through a process called oxidative phosphorylation. The amount of oxygen consumed during exercise can provide important information about an individual's fitness level, exercise capacity, and overall health status. Additionally, measuring oxygen consumption can help healthcare providers assess the effectiveness of treatments and rehabilitation programs in patients with various medical conditions.

Mitochondria are specialized structures located inside cells that convert the energy from food into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the primary form of energy used by cells. They are often referred to as the "powerhouses" of the cell because they generate most of the cell's supply of chemical energy. Mitochondria are also involved in various other cellular processes, such as signaling, differentiation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death).

Mitochondria have their own DNA, known as mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which is inherited maternally. This means that mtDNA is passed down from the mother to her offspring through the egg cells. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been linked to a variety of diseases and conditions, including neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes, and aging.

Hexose phosphates are organic compounds that consist of a hexose sugar molecule (a monosaccharide containing six carbon atoms, such as glucose or fructose) that has been phosphorylated, meaning that a phosphate group has been added to it. This process is typically facilitated by enzymes called kinases, which transfer a phosphate group from a donor molecule (usually ATP) to the sugar molecule.

Hexose phosphates play important roles in various metabolic pathways, including glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and the pentose phosphate pathway. For example, glucose-6-phosphate is a key intermediate in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, while fructose-6-phosphate and fructose-1,6-bisphosphate are important intermediates in glycolysis. The pentose phosphate pathway, which is involved in the production of NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate, begins with the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to 6-phosphogluconolactone by the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase.

Overall, hexose phosphates are important metabolic intermediates that help regulate energy production and utilization in cells.

Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase is a crucial enzyme in the glycolytic pathway, which is a metabolic process that breaks down glucose to produce energy. This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into two triose sugars: dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.

There are two main types of aldolase isoenzymes in humans, classified as aldolase A (or muscle type) and aldolase B (or liver type). Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase refers specifically to aldolase A, which is primarily found in the muscles, brain, and red blood cells. Aldolase B, on the other hand, is predominantly found in the liver, kidney, and small intestine.

Deficiency or dysfunction of fructose-bisphosphate aldolase can lead to metabolic disorders, such as hereditary fructose intolerance, which results from a deficiency in another enzyme called aldolase B. However, it is essential to note that the term "fructose-bisphosphate aldolase" typically refers to aldolase A and not aldolase B.

Phosphocreatine (PCr) is a high-energy phosphate compound found in the skeletal muscles, cardiac muscle, and brain. It plays a crucial role in energy metabolism and storage within cells. Phosphocreatine serves as an immediate energy reserve that helps regenerate ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the primary source of cellular energy, during short bursts of intense activity or stress. This process is facilitated by the enzyme creatine kinase, which catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from phosphocreatine to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) to form ATP.

In a medical context, phosphocreatine levels may be assessed in muscle biopsies or magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) imaging to evaluate muscle energy metabolism and potential mitochondrial dysfunction in conditions such as muscular dystrophies, mitochondrial disorders, and neuromuscular diseases. Additionally, phosphocreatine depletion has been implicated in various pathological processes, including ischemia-reperfusion injury, neurodegenerative disorders, and heart failure.

Dichloroacetic acid (DCA) is a chemical compound with the formula CCl2CO2H. It is a colorless liquid that is used as a reagent in organic synthesis and as a laboratory research tool. DCA is also a byproduct of water chlorination and has been found to occur in low levels in some chlorinated drinking waters.

In the medical field, DCA has been studied for its potential anticancer effects. Preclinical studies have suggested that DCA may be able to selectively kill cancer cells by inhibiting the activity of certain enzymes involved in cell metabolism. However, more research is needed to determine whether DCA is safe and effective as a cancer treatment in humans.

It is important to note that DCA is not currently approved by regulatory agencies such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use as a cancer treatment. It should only be used in clinical trials or under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional.

Glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (GPI) is an enzyme involved in the glycolytic and gluconeogenesis pathways. It catalyzes the interconversion of glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) and fructose-6-phosphate (F6P), which are key metabolic intermediates in these pathways. This reaction is a reversible step that helps maintain the balance between the breakdown and synthesis of glucose in the cell.

In glycolysis, GPI converts G6P to F6P, which subsequently gets converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (F1,6BP) by the enzyme phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1). In gluconeogenesis, the reaction is reversed, and F6P is converted back to G6P.

Deficiency or dysfunction of Glucose-6-phosphate isomerase can lead to various metabolic disorders, such as glycogen storage diseases and hereditary motor neuropathies.

Hexose diphosphates refer to a class of organic compounds that consist of a hexose sugar molecule (a monosaccharide containing six carbon atoms) linked to two phosphate groups. The most common examples of hexose diphosphates are glucose 1,6-bisphosphate and fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, which play important roles in cellular metabolism.

Glucose 1,6-bisphosphate is involved in the regulation of glycolysis, a process by which glucose is broken down to produce energy in the form of ATP. It acts as an allosteric regulator of several enzymes involved in this pathway and helps to maintain the balance between different metabolic processes.

Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, on the other hand, is a key intermediate in gluconeogenesis, a process by which cells synthesize glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors. It is also involved in the regulation of glycolysis and helps to control the flow of metabolites through these pathways.

Overall, hexose diphosphates are important regulators of cellular metabolism and play a critical role in maintaining energy homeostasis in living organisms.

Phosphofructokinase-1, Type C (PFK-1, Type C) is a specific isoform of the enzyme phosphofructokinase-1. Phosphofructokinase-1 is a key regulatory enzyme in glycolysis, the metabolic pathway responsible for the conversion of glucose into energy in the form of ATP.

PFK-1, Type C is primarily found in cardiac and skeletal muscle tissues. It plays a crucial role in controlling the rate of glycolysis by catalyzing the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, using ATP as a phosphate donor. This reaction is a critical step in glycolysis and is tightly regulated by various factors such as energy charge (ATP/ADP ratio), pH, and the concentration of certain metabolites like citrate and AMP.

Mutations in the gene encoding PFK-1, Type C can lead to a rare inherited muscle disorder called Tarui's disease or glycogen storage disease type VII. This condition is characterized by exercise intolerance, muscle cramps, myoglobinuria (the presence of myoglobin in the urine), and an increased risk of rhabdomyolysis (a serious condition that can result from muscle damage).

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (also known as fructose 1,6-diphosphate or Fru-1,6-BP) is the chemical compound that plays a crucial role in cellular respiration and glucose metabolism. It is not accurate to refer to "fructosephosphates" as a medical term, but fructose-1-phosphate and fructose-1,6-bisphosphate are important fructose phosphates with specific functions in the body.

Fructose-1-phosphate is an intermediate metabolite formed during the breakdown of fructose in the liver, while fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is a key regulator of glycolysis, the process by which glucose is broken down to produce energy in the form of ATP. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate allosterically regulates the enzyme phosphofructokinase, which is the rate-limiting step in glycolysis, and its levels are tightly controlled to maintain proper glucose metabolism. Dysregulation of fructose metabolism has been implicated in various metabolic disorders, including insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

Phosphoglycerate Mutase (PGM) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the glycolytic pathway, which is a metabolic process that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH as energy currency for the cell.

The enzyme catalyzes the interconversion of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PG) and 2-phosphoglycerate (2-PG), which is the ninth step in glycolysis. Specifically, PGM transfers a phosphate group from the third carbon atom to the second carbon atom of 3-PG, resulting in the formation of 2-PG and inorganic phosphate.

There are two types of Phosphoglycerate Mutase isoenzymes in humans, including:

1. Phosphoglycerate Mutase 1 (PGAM1): This is a cytosolic enzyme that is widely expressed in various tissues, including skeletal muscle, heart, brain, and liver.
2. Phosphoglycerate Mutase 2 (PGAM2): This is a muscle-specific isoenzyme that is primarily found in cardiac and skeletal muscles.

Mutations in the PGAM1 gene have been associated with hemolytic anemia, neurodevelopmental disorders, and other metabolic abnormalities, while mutations in the PGAM2 gene have been linked to myopathies and other muscle-related disorders.

Carbohydrate metabolism is the process by which the body breaks down carbohydrates into glucose, which is then used for energy or stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen. This process involves several enzymes and chemical reactions that convert carbohydrates from food into glucose, fructose, or galactose, which are then absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to cells throughout the body.

The hormones insulin and glucagon regulate carbohydrate metabolism by controlling the uptake and storage of glucose in cells. Insulin is released from the pancreas when blood sugar levels are high, such as after a meal, and promotes the uptake and storage of glucose in cells. Glucagon, on the other hand, is released when blood sugar levels are low and signals the liver to convert stored glycogen back into glucose and release it into the bloodstream.

Disorders of carbohydrate metabolism can result from genetic defects or acquired conditions that affect the enzymes or hormones involved in this process. Examples include diabetes, hypoglycemia, and galactosemia. Proper management of these disorders typically involves dietary modifications, medication, and regular monitoring of blood sugar levels.

Glucokinase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in regulating glucose metabolism. It is primarily found in the liver, pancreas, and brain. In the pancreas, glucokinase helps to trigger the release of insulin in response to rising blood glucose levels. In the liver, it plays a key role in controlling glucose storage and production.

Glucokinase has a unique property among hexokinases (enzymes that phosphorylate six-carbon sugars) in that it is not inhibited by its product, glucose-6-phosphate. This allows it to continue functioning even when glucose levels are high, making it an important regulator of glucose metabolism.

Defects in the gene that codes for glucokinase can lead to several types of inherited diabetes and other metabolic disorders.

L-Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) is an enzyme found in various tissues within the body, including the heart, liver, kidneys, muscles, and brain. It plays a crucial role in the process of energy production, particularly during anaerobic conditions when oxygen levels are low.

In the presence of the coenzyme NADH, LDH catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to lactate, generating NAD+ as a byproduct. Conversely, in the presence of NAD+, LDH can convert lactate back to pyruvate using NADH. This reversible reaction is essential for maintaining the balance between lactate and pyruvate levels within cells.

Elevated blood levels of LDH may indicate tissue damage or injury, as this enzyme can be released into the circulation following cellular breakdown. As a result, LDH is often used as a nonspecific biomarker for various medical conditions, such as myocardial infarction (heart attack), liver disease, muscle damage, and certain types of cancer. However, it's important to note that an isolated increase in LDH does not necessarily pinpoint the exact location or cause of tissue damage, and further diagnostic tests are usually required for confirmation.

Dihydroxyacetone (DHA) is a simple sugar that is used as an ingredient in many self-tanning products. When applied to the skin, DHA reacts with amino acids in the dead layer of the skin to temporarily darken the skin color. This process is known as the Maillard reaction, which is a chemical reaction between an amino acid and a sugar. The effect of DHA is limited to the uppermost layer of the skin and it does not provide any protection against sunburn or UV radiation. The tanning effect produced by DHA usually lasts for about 5-7 days.

It's important to note that while DHA is considered safe for external use, it should not be inhaled or ingested, as it can cause irritation and other adverse effects. Additionally, some people may experience skin irritation or allergic reactions to products containing DHA, so it's always a good idea to do a patch test before using a new self-tanning product.

Glucose phosphates are organic compounds that result from the reaction of glucose (a simple sugar) with phosphate groups. These compounds play a crucial role in various metabolic processes, particularly in energy metabolism within cells. The addition of phosphate groups to glucose makes it more reactive and enables it to undergo further reactions that lead to the formation of important molecules such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is a primary source of energy for cellular functions.

One notable example of a glucose phosphate is glucose 1-phosphate, which is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways, including glycogenesis (the process of forming glycogen, a storage form of glucose) and glycolysis (the breakdown of glucose to release energy). Another example is glucose 6-phosphate, which is a key regulator of carbohydrate metabolism and serves as an important intermediate in the pentose phosphate pathway, a metabolic route that generates reducing equivalents (NADPH) and ribose sugars for nucleotide synthesis.

In summary, glucose phosphates are essential compounds in cellular metabolism, facilitating energy production, storage, and utilization.

Adenine nucleotides are molecules that consist of a nitrogenous base called adenine, which is linked to a sugar molecule (ribose in the case of adenosine monophosphate or AMP, and deoxyribose in the case of adenosine diphosphate or ADP and adenosine triphosphate or ATP) and one, two, or three phosphate groups. These molecules play a crucial role in energy transfer and metabolism within cells.

AMP contains one phosphate group, while ADP contains two phosphate groups, and ATP contains three phosphate groups. When a phosphate group is removed from ATP, energy is released, which can be used to power various cellular processes such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and protein synthesis. The reverse reaction, in which a phosphate group is added back to ADP or AMP to form ATP, requires energy input and often involves the breakdown of nutrients such as glucose or fatty acids.

In addition to their role in energy metabolism, adenine nucleotides also serve as precursors for other important molecules, including DNA and RNA, coenzymes, and signaling molecules.

Anaerobiosis is a state in which an organism or a portion of an organism is able to live and grow in the absence of molecular oxygen (O2). In biological contexts, "anaerobe" refers to any organism that does not require oxygen for growth, and "aerobe" refers to an organism that does require oxygen for growth.

There are two types of anaerobes: obligate anaerobes, which cannot tolerate the presence of oxygen and will die if exposed to it; and facultative anaerobes, which can grow with or without oxygen but prefer to grow in its absence. Some organisms are able to switch between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism depending on the availability of oxygen, a process known as "facultative anaerobiosis."

Anaerobic respiration is a type of metabolic process that occurs in the absence of molecular oxygen. In this process, organisms use alternative electron acceptors other than oxygen to generate energy through the transfer of electrons during cellular respiration. Examples of alternative electron acceptors include nitrate, sulfate, and carbon dioxide.

Anaerobic metabolism is less efficient than aerobic metabolism in terms of energy production, but it allows organisms to survive in environments where oxygen is not available or is toxic. Anaerobic bacteria are important decomposers in many ecosystems, breaking down organic matter and releasing nutrients back into the environment. In the human body, anaerobic bacteria can cause infections and other health problems if they proliferate in areas with low oxygen levels, such as the mouth, intestines, or deep tissue wounds.

Metabolic networks and pathways refer to the complex interconnected series of biochemical reactions that occur within cells to maintain life. These reactions are catalyzed by enzymes and are responsible for the conversion of nutrients into energy, as well as the synthesis and breakdown of various molecules required for cellular function.

A metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions that occur in a specific order, with each reaction being catalyzed by a different enzyme. These pathways are often interconnected, forming a larger network of interactions known as a metabolic network.

Metabolic networks can be represented as complex diagrams or models, which show the relationships between different pathways and the flow of matter and energy through the system. These networks can help researchers to understand how cells regulate their metabolism in response to changes in their environment, and how disruptions to these networks can lead to disease.

Some common examples of metabolic pathways include glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle), and the pentose phosphate pathway. Each of these pathways plays a critical role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and providing energy for cellular functions.

Cell respiration is the process by which cells convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The three main stages of cell respiration are glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle), and the electron transport chain.

During glycolysis, which takes place in the cytoplasm, glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and reducing power in the form of NADH.

The citric acid cycle occurs in the mitochondria and involves the breakdown of acetyl-CoA (formed from pyruvate) to produce more ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

Finally, the electron transport chain, also located in the mitochondria, uses the energy from NADH and FADH2 to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient. The flow of protons back across the membrane drives the synthesis of ATP, which is used as a source of energy by the cell.

Cell respiration is a crucial process that allows cells to generate the energy they need to perform various functions and maintain homeostasis.

Trioses are simple sugars that contain three carbon atoms and a functional group called a ketone or aldehyde. They are the simplest type of sugar molecule, after monosaccharides such as glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone.

Triose sugars can exist in two structural forms:

* Dihydroxyacetone (DHA), which is a ketotriose with the formula CH2OH-CO-CH2OH, and
* Glyceraldehyde (GA), which is an aldotriose with the formula HO-CHOH-CHO.

Trioses play important roles in various metabolic pathways, including glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis. In particular, DHA and GA are intermediates in the conversion of glucose to pyruvate during glycolysis, and they are also produced from pyruvate during gluconeogenesis.

Trioses can be synthesized chemically or biochemically through various methods, such as enzymatic reactions or microbial fermentation. They have potential applications in the food, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries, as they can serve as building blocks for more complex carbohydrates or as precursors for other organic compounds.

Glucose Transporter Type 1 (GLUT1) is a specific type of protein called a glucose transporter, which is responsible for facilitating the transport of glucose across the blood-brain barrier and into the brain cells. It is encoded by the SLC2A1 gene and is primarily found in the endothelial cells of the blood-brain barrier, as well as in other tissues such as the erythrocytes (red blood cells), placenta, and kidney.

GLUT1 plays a critical role in maintaining normal glucose levels in the brain, as it is the main mechanism for glucose uptake into the brain. Disorders of GLUT1 can lead to impaired glucose transport, which can result in neurological symptoms such as seizures, developmental delay, and movement disorders. These disorders are known as GLUT1 deficiency syndromes.

Oxidation-Reduction (redox) reactions are a type of chemical reaction involving a transfer of electrons between two species. The substance that loses electrons in the reaction is oxidized, and the substance that gains electrons is reduced. Oxidation and reduction always occur together in a redox reaction, hence the term "oxidation-reduction."

In biological systems, redox reactions play a crucial role in many cellular processes, including energy production, metabolism, and signaling. The transfer of electrons in these reactions is often facilitated by specialized molecules called electron carriers, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+/NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD/FADH2).

The oxidation state of an element in a compound is a measure of the number of electrons that have been gained or lost relative to its neutral state. In redox reactions, the oxidation state of one or more elements changes as they gain or lose electrons. The substance that is oxidized has a higher oxidation state, while the substance that is reduced has a lower oxidation state.

Overall, oxidation-reduction reactions are fundamental to the functioning of living organisms and are involved in many important biological processes.

NAD (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) is a coenzyme found in all living cells. It plays an essential role in cellular metabolism, particularly in redox reactions, where it acts as an electron carrier. NAD exists in two forms: NAD+, which accepts electrons and becomes reduced to NADH. This pairing of NAD+/NADH is involved in many fundamental biological processes such as generating energy in the form of ATP during cellular respiration, and serving as a critical cofactor for various enzymes that regulate cellular functions like DNA repair, gene expression, and cell death.

Maintaining optimal levels of NAD+/NADH is crucial for overall health and longevity, as it declines with age and in certain disease states. Therefore, strategies to boost NAD+ levels are being actively researched for their potential therapeutic benefits in various conditions such as aging, neurodegenerative disorders, and metabolic diseases.

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) is a non-invasive diagnostic technique that provides information about the biochemical composition of tissues, including their metabolic state. It is often used in conjunction with Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to analyze various metabolites within body tissues, such as the brain, heart, liver, and muscles.

During MRS, a strong magnetic field, radio waves, and a computer are used to produce detailed images and data about the concentration of specific metabolites in the targeted tissue or organ. This technique can help detect abnormalities related to energy metabolism, neurotransmitter levels, pH balance, and other biochemical processes, which can be useful for diagnosing and monitoring various medical conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders, and metabolic diseases.

There are different types of MRS, such as Proton (^1^H) MRS, Phosphorus-31 (^31^P) MRS, and Carbon-13 (^13^C) MRS, each focusing on specific elements or metabolites within the body. The choice of MRS technique depends on the clinical question being addressed and the type of information needed for diagnosis or monitoring purposes.

Citrates are the salts or esters of citric acid, a weak organic acid that is naturally found in many fruits and vegetables. In a medical context, citrates are often used as a buffering agent in intravenous fluids to help maintain the pH balance of blood and other bodily fluids. They are also used in various medical tests and treatments, such as in urine alkalinization and as an anticoagulant in kidney dialysis solutions. Additionally, citrate is a component of some dietary supplements and medications.

Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1 (HIF-1) is a transcription factor that plays a crucial role in the body's response to low oxygen levels, also known as hypoxia. HIF-1 is a heterodimeric protein composed of two subunits: an alpha subunit (HIF-1α) and a beta subunit (HIF-1β).

The alpha subunit, HIF-1α, is the regulatory subunit that is subject to oxygen-dependent degradation. Under normal oxygen conditions (normoxia), HIF-1α is constantly produced in the cell but is rapidly degraded by proteasomes due to hydroxylation of specific proline residues by prolyl hydroxylase domain-containing proteins (PHDs). This hydroxylation reaction requires oxygen as a substrate, and under hypoxic conditions, the activity of PHDs is inhibited, leading to the stabilization and accumulation of HIF-1α.

Once stabilized, HIF-1α translocates to the nucleus, where it heterodimerizes with HIF-1β and binds to hypoxia-responsive elements (HREs) in the promoter regions of target genes. This binding results in the activation of gene transcription programs that promote cellular adaptation to low oxygen levels. These adaptive responses include increased erythropoiesis, angiogenesis, glucose metabolism, and pH regulation, among others.

Therefore, HIF-1α is a critical regulator of the body's response to hypoxia, and its dysregulation has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Biological models, also known as physiological models or organismal models, are simplified representations of biological systems, processes, or mechanisms that are used to understand and explain the underlying principles and relationships. These models can be theoretical (conceptual or mathematical) or physical (such as anatomical models, cell cultures, or animal models). They are widely used in biomedical research to study various phenomena, including disease pathophysiology, drug action, and therapeutic interventions.

Examples of biological models include:

1. Mathematical models: These use mathematical equations and formulas to describe complex biological systems or processes, such as population dynamics, metabolic pathways, or gene regulation networks. They can help predict the behavior of these systems under different conditions and test hypotheses about their underlying mechanisms.
2. Cell cultures: These are collections of cells grown in a controlled environment, typically in a laboratory dish or flask. They can be used to study cellular processes, such as signal transduction, gene expression, or metabolism, and to test the effects of drugs or other treatments on these processes.
3. Animal models: These are living organisms, usually vertebrates like mice, rats, or non-human primates, that are used to study various aspects of human biology and disease. They can provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of diseases, the mechanisms of drug action, and the safety and efficacy of new therapies.
4. Anatomical models: These are physical representations of biological structures or systems, such as plastic models of organs or tissues, that can be used for educational purposes or to plan surgical procedures. They can also serve as a basis for developing more sophisticated models, such as computer simulations or 3D-printed replicas.

Overall, biological models play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of biology and medicine, helping to identify new targets for therapeutic intervention, develop novel drugs and treatments, and improve human health.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Isethionic acid is not typically considered a medical term, but it does have relevance in the field of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. It's a chemical compound with the formula CH2CH2SO3H. Here's a definition related to its chemical and industrial uses:

Isethionic acid is an organic compound that serves as a detergent, surfactant, and pH adjuster in various pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and cleaning formulations. It is a type of carboxylic acid that contains a sulfonate group, making it a zwitterion at neutral pH. This property imparts excellent water solubility and mildness to isethionic acid and its salts, which are often used as alternatives to sulfates in personal care products.

Glutamine is defined as a conditionally essential amino acid in humans, which means that it can be produced by the body under normal circumstances, but may become essential during certain conditions such as stress, illness, or injury. It is the most abundant free amino acid found in the blood and in the muscles of the body.

Glutamine plays a crucial role in various biological processes, including protein synthesis, energy production, and acid-base balance. It serves as an important fuel source for cells in the intestines, immune system, and skeletal muscles. Glutamine has also been shown to have potential benefits in wound healing, gut function, and immunity, particularly during times of physiological stress or illness.

In summary, glutamine is a vital amino acid that plays a critical role in maintaining the health and function of various tissues and organs in the body.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Pyruvaldehyde" is not a recognized term in medical or clinical sciences. It is, however, a chemical compound with the formula CH3COCHO, which is sometimes used in laboratory research. It might be referred to in the context of biochemistry or pathophysiology of certain diseases, but it's not a term commonly used in medical diagnosis or treatment. Always consult with a healthcare professional or trusted medical source for information related to health and medicine.

Hydrogen-ion concentration, also known as pH, is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is defined as the negative logarithm (to the base 10) of the hydrogen ion activity in a solution. The standard unit of measurement is the pH unit. A pH of 7 is neutral, less than 7 is acidic, and greater than 7 is basic.

In medical terms, hydrogen-ion concentration is important for maintaining homeostasis within the body. For example, in the stomach, a high hydrogen-ion concentration (low pH) is necessary for the digestion of food. However, in other parts of the body such as blood, a high hydrogen-ion concentration can be harmful and lead to acidosis. Conversely, a low hydrogen-ion concentration (high pH) in the blood can lead to alkalosis. Both acidosis and alkalosis can have serious consequences on various organ systems if not corrected.

Cell hypoxia, also known as cellular hypoxia or tissue hypoxia, refers to a condition in which the cells or tissues in the body do not receive an adequate supply of oxygen. Oxygen is essential for the production of energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) through a process called oxidative phosphorylation. When the cells are deprived of oxygen, they switch to anaerobic metabolism, which produces lactic acid as a byproduct and can lead to acidosis.

Cell hypoxia can result from various conditions, including:

1. Low oxygen levels in the blood (hypoxemia) due to lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pneumonia, or high altitude.
2. Reduced blood flow to tissues due to cardiovascular diseases such as heart failure, peripheral artery disease, or shock.
3. Anemia, which reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
4. Carbon monoxide poisoning, which binds to hemoglobin and prevents it from carrying oxygen.
5. Inadequate ventilation due to trauma, drug overdose, or other causes that can lead to respiratory failure.

Cell hypoxia can cause cell damage, tissue injury, and organ dysfunction, leading to various clinical manifestations depending on the severity and duration of hypoxia. Treatment aims to correct the underlying cause and improve oxygen delivery to the tissues.

Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that constitutes about 21% of the earth's atmosphere. It is a crucial element for human and most living organisms as it is vital for respiration. Inhaled oxygen enters the lungs and binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, which carries it to tissues throughout the body where it is used to convert nutrients into energy and carbon dioxide, a waste product that is exhaled.

Medically, supplemental oxygen therapy may be provided to patients with conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pneumonia, heart failure, or other medical conditions that impair the body's ability to extract sufficient oxygen from the air. Oxygen can be administered through various devices, including nasal cannulas, face masks, and ventilators.

Adenosine monophosphate (AMP) is a nucleotide that is the monophosphate ester of adenosine, consisting of the nitrogenous base adenine attached to the 1' carbon atom of ribose via a β-N9-glycosidic bond, which in turn is esterified to a phosphate group. It is an important molecule in biological systems as it plays a key role in cellular energy transfer and storage, serving as a precursor to other nucleotides such as ADP and ATP. AMP is also involved in various signaling pathways and can act as a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) is a crucial intermediate in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis metabolic pathways. It is an triose sugar phosphate, which means it contains three carbon atoms and has a phosphate group attached to it.

In the glycolysis process, G3P is produced during the third step of the process from the molecule dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) via the enzyme triosephosphate isomerase. In the following steps, G3P is converted into 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, which eventually leads to the production of ATP and NADH.

In gluconeogenesis, G3P is produced from the reverse reaction of the glycolytic enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, using the molecule dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) as a starting point. G3P is then converted into glucose-6-phosphate, which can be further metabolized or released from the cell.

It's important to note that Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate plays a key role in energy production and carbohydrate metabolism.

Carbon isotopes are variants of the chemical element carbon that have different numbers of neutrons in their atomic nuclei. The most common and stable isotope of carbon is carbon-12 (^{12}C), which contains six protons and six neutrons. However, carbon can also come in other forms, known as isotopes, which contain different numbers of neutrons.

Carbon-13 (^{13}C) is a stable isotope of carbon that contains seven neutrons in its nucleus. It makes up about 1.1% of all carbon found on Earth and is used in various scientific applications, such as in tracing the metabolic pathways of organisms or in studying the age of fossilized materials.

Carbon-14 (^{14}C), also known as radiocarbon, is a radioactive isotope of carbon that contains eight neutrons in its nucleus. It is produced naturally in the atmosphere through the interaction of cosmic rays with nitrogen gas. Carbon-14 has a half-life of about 5,730 years, which makes it useful for dating organic materials, such as archaeological artifacts or fossils, up to around 60,000 years old.

Carbon isotopes are important in many scientific fields, including geology, biology, and medicine, and are used in a variety of applications, from studying the Earth's climate history to diagnosing medical conditions.

Antimetabolites are a class of drugs that interfere with the normal metabolic processes of cells, particularly those involved in DNA replication and cell division. They are commonly used as chemotherapeutic agents to treat various types of cancer because many cancer cells divide more rapidly than normal cells. Antimetabolites work by mimicking natural substances needed for cell growth and division, such as nucleotides or amino acids, and getting incorporated into the growing cells' DNA or protein structures, which ultimately leads to the termination of cell division and death of the cancer cells. Examples of antimetabolites include methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil, and capecitabine.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

A cell line that is derived from tumor cells and has been adapted to grow in culture. These cell lines are often used in research to study the characteristics of cancer cells, including their growth patterns, genetic changes, and responses to various treatments. They can be established from many different types of tumors, such as carcinomas, sarcomas, and leukemias. Once established, these cell lines can be grown and maintained indefinitely in the laboratory, allowing researchers to conduct experiments and studies that would not be feasible using primary tumor cells. It is important to note that tumor cell lines may not always accurately represent the behavior of the original tumor, as they can undergo genetic changes during their time in culture.

Cyanides are a group of chemical compounds that contain the cyano group, -CN, which consists of a carbon atom triple-bonded to a nitrogen atom. They are highly toxic and can cause rapid death due to the inhibition of cellular respiration. Cyanide ions (CN-) bind to the ferric iron in cytochrome c oxidase, a crucial enzyme in the electron transport chain, preventing the flow of electrons and the production of ATP, leading to cellular asphyxiation.

Common sources of cyanides include industrial chemicals such as hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and potassium cyanide (KCN), as well as natural sources like certain fruits, nuts, and plants. Exposure to high levels of cyanides can occur through inhalation, ingestion, or skin absorption, leading to symptoms such as headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, rapid heartbeat, seizures, coma, and ultimately death. Treatment for cyanide poisoning typically involves the use of antidotes that bind to cyanide ions and convert them into less toxic forms, such as thiosulfate and rhodanese.

Liver glycogen is the reserve form of glucose stored in hepatocytes (liver cells) for the maintenance of normal blood sugar levels. It is a polysaccharide, a complex carbohydrate, that is broken down into glucose molecules when blood glucose levels are low. This process helps to maintain the body's energy needs between meals and during periods of fasting or exercise. The amount of glycogen stored in the liver can vary depending on factors such as meal consumption, activity level, and insulin regulation.

The metabolome is the complete set of small molecule metabolites, such as carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and amino acids, present in a biological sample at a given moment. It reflects the physiological state of a cell, tissue, or organism and provides information about the biochemical processes that are taking place. The metabolome is dynamic and constantly changing due to various factors such as genetics, environment, diet, and disease. Studying the metabolome can help researchers understand the underlying mechanisms of health and disease and develop diagnostic tools and treatments for various medical conditions.

Aminooxyacetic acid (AOAA) is a chemical compound that is an irreversible inhibitor of pyridoxal phosphate-dependent enzymes. Pyridoxal phosphate is a cofactor involved in several important biochemical reactions, including the transamination of amino acids. By inhibiting these enzymes, AOAA can alter the normal metabolism of amino acids and other related compounds in the body.

AOAA has been studied for its potential therapeutic uses, such as in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders like Huntington's disease and epilepsy. However, more research is needed to fully understand its mechanisms of action and potential side effects before it can be used as a routine therapy.

It is important to note that AOAA is not a naturally occurring substance in the human body and should only be used under medical supervision.

Insulin is a hormone produced by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets, primarily in response to elevated levels of glucose in the circulating blood. It plays a crucial role in regulating blood glucose levels and facilitating the uptake and utilization of glucose by peripheral tissues, such as muscle and adipose tissue, for energy production and storage. Insulin also inhibits glucose production in the liver and promotes the storage of excess glucose as glycogen or triglycerides.

Deficiency in insulin secretion or action leads to impaired glucose regulation and can result in conditions such as diabetes mellitus, characterized by chronic hyperglycemia and associated complications. Exogenous insulin is used as a replacement therapy in individuals with diabetes to help manage their blood glucose levels and prevent long-term complications.

In the context of medical definitions, 'carbon' is not typically used as a standalone term. Carbon is an element with the symbol C and atomic number 6, which is naturally abundant in the human body and the environment. It is a crucial component of all living organisms, forming the basis of organic compounds, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).

Carbon forms strong covalent bonds with various elements, allowing for the creation of complex molecules that are essential to life. In this sense, carbon is a fundamental building block of life on Earth. However, it does not have a specific medical definition as an isolated term.

Uncoupling agents are chemicals that interfere with the normal process of oxidative phosphorylation in cells. In this process, the energy from food is converted into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the main source of energy for cellular functions. Uncouplers disrupt this process by preventing the transfer of high-energy electrons to oxygen, which normally drives the production of ATP.

Instead, the energy from these electrons is released as heat, leading to an increase in body temperature. This effect is similar to what happens during shivering or exercise, when the body generates heat to maintain its core temperature. Uncoupling agents are therefore also known as "mitochondrial protonophores" because they allow protons to leak across the inner mitochondrial membrane, bypassing the ATP synthase enzyme that would normally use the energy from this proton gradient to produce ATP.

Uncoupling agents have been studied for their potential therapeutic uses, such as in weight loss and the treatment of metabolic disorders. However, they can also be toxic at high doses, and their long-term effects on health are not well understood.

Enzymes are complex proteins that act as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions in the body. They help to lower activation energy required for reactions to occur, thereby enabling the reaction to happen faster and at lower temperatures. Enzymes work by binding to specific molecules, called substrates, and converting them into different molecules, called products. This process is known as catalysis.

Enzymes are highly specific and will only catalyze one particular reaction with a specific substrate. The shape of the enzyme's active site, where the substrate binds, determines this specificity. Enzymes can be regulated by various factors such as temperature, pH, and the presence of inhibitors or activators. They play a crucial role in many biological processes, including digestion, metabolism, and DNA replication.

Monocarboxylic acid transporters (MCTs) are a type of membrane transport protein responsible for the transportation of monocarboxylates, such as lactic acid, pyruvic acid, and ketone bodies, across biological membranes. These transporters play crucial roles in various physiological processes, including cellular energy metabolism, pH regulation, and detoxification. In humans, there are 14 different isoforms of MCTs (MCT1-MCT14) that exhibit distinct substrate specificities, tissue distributions, and transport mechanisms. Among them, MCT1, MCT2, MCT3, and MCT4 have been extensively studied in the context of their roles in lactate and pyruvate transport across cell membranes.

MCTs typically function as proton-coupled symporters, meaning they co-transport monocarboxylates and protons in the same direction. This proton coupling allows MCTs to facilitate the uphill transport of monocarboxylates against their concentration gradients, which is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and energy production. The activity of MCTs can be modulated by various factors, including pH, membrane potential, and pharmacological agents, making them important targets for therapeutic interventions in several diseases, such as cancer, neurological disorders, and metabolic syndromes.

The myocardium is the middle layer of the heart wall, composed of specialized cardiac muscle cells that are responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. It forms the thickest part of the heart wall and is divided into two sections: the left ventricle, which pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body, and the right ventricle, which pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

The myocardium contains several types of cells, including cardiac muscle fibers, connective tissue, nerves, and blood vessels. The muscle fibers are arranged in a highly organized pattern that allows them to contract in a coordinated manner, generating the force necessary to pump blood through the heart and circulatory system.

Damage to the myocardium can occur due to various factors such as ischemia (reduced blood flow), infection, inflammation, or genetic disorders. This damage can lead to several cardiac conditions, including heart failure, arrhythmias, and cardiomyopathy.

Oligomycins are a group of antibiotics produced by various species of Streptomyces bacteria. They are characterized by their ability to inhibit the function of ATP synthase, an enzyme that plays a crucial role in energy production within cells. By binding to the F1 component of ATP synthase, oligomycins prevent the synthesis of ATP, which is a key source of energy for cellular processes.

These antibiotics have been used in research to study the mechanisms of ATP synthase and mitochondrial function. However, their therapeutic use as antibiotics is limited due to their toxicity to mammalian cells. Oligomycin A is one of the most well-known and studied members of this group of antibiotics.

Sodium cyanide is a highly toxic chemical compound with the formula NaCN. It is a white solid that is readily soluble in water, and it has a bitter, almond-like odor that some people can detect. Sodium cyanide is used in various industrial processes, including metal cleaning and electroplating, but it is perhaps best known as a poison.

Cyanide ions (CN-) are extremely toxic because they bind to the ferric iron (Fe3+) in cytochrome c oxidase, a crucial enzyme in the mitochondria that is responsible for cellular respiration and energy production. When cyanide ions bind to this enzyme, it becomes unable to function, leading to a rapid depletion of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and an accumulation of lactic acid, which can cause metabolic acidosis, coma, and death within minutes to hours.

It is important to note that sodium cyanide should be handled with extreme care and only by trained professionals who are familiar with its hazards and proper safety protocols. Exposure to this compound can cause severe health effects, including respiratory failure, convulsions, and cardiac arrest.

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is a chemical compound that plays a crucial role in energy transfer within cells. It is a nucleotide, which consists of a adenosine molecule (a sugar molecule called ribose attached to a nitrogenous base called adenine) and two phosphate groups.

In the cell, ADP functions as an intermediate in the conversion of energy from one form to another. When a high-energy phosphate bond in ADP is broken, energy is released and ADP is converted to adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which serves as the main energy currency of the cell. Conversely, when ATP donates a phosphate group to another molecule, it is converted back to ADP, releasing energy for the cell to use.

ADP also plays a role in blood clotting and other physiological processes. In the coagulation cascade, ADP released from damaged red blood cells can help activate platelets and initiate the formation of a blood clot.

Triose-phosphate isomerase (TPI) is a crucial enzyme in the glycolytic pathway, which is a metabolic process that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH as energy currency for the cell. TPI specifically catalyzes the reversible interconversion of the triose phosphates dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). This interconversion is a vital step in maintaining the balance of metabolites in the glycolytic pathway.

The reaction catalyzed by TPI is as follows:

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate ↔ Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

Deficiency or mutations in the gene encoding triose-phosphate isomerase can lead to a severe autosomal recessive disorder known as Triose Phosphate Isomerase Deficiency (TID). This condition is characterized by chronic hemolytic anemia, neuromuscular symptoms, and shortened lifespan.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Carcinoma, Ehrlich Tumor" is not a recognized medical term or a valid medical definition. The term "Ehrlich tumor" is sometimes used to refer to a type of transplantable tumor that was first developed by the German physician Paul Ehrlich in the early 20th century for cancer research purposes. However, it's important to note that this type of tumor is not a naturally occurring cancer and is typically used only in laboratory experiments.

Carcinoma, on the other hand, is a medical term that refers to a type of cancer that starts in cells that line the inner or outer surfaces of organs. Carcinomas can develop in various parts of the body, including the lungs, breasts, colon, and skin.

If you have any specific questions about cancer or a particular medical condition, I would be happy to try to help answer them for you.

Alpha-chlorohydrin is not typically referred to as a medical term, but it is a chemical compound with the formula HOCH2CHClNH2. It is primarily used in the production of other chemicals and has been used as a reagent in laboratory settings.

Ingestion or exposure to alpha-chlorohydrin can be harmful and may cause symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, dizziness, and difficulty breathing. It is classified as a possible human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).

Medical professionals may encounter alpha-chlorohydrin in cases of accidental or intentional ingestion or exposure, or in the context of occupational health and safety for workers who may be exposed to it in industrial settings.

Glycerol, also known as glycerine or glycerin, is a simple polyol (a sugar alcohol) with a sweet taste and a thick, syrupy consistency. It is a colorless, odorless, viscous liquid that is slightly soluble in water and freely miscible with ethanol and ether.

In the medical field, glycerol is often used as a medication or supplement. It can be used as a laxative to treat constipation, as a source of calories and energy for people who cannot eat by mouth, and as a way to prevent dehydration in people with certain medical conditions.

Glycerol is also used in the production of various medical products, such as medications, skin care products, and vaccines. It acts as a humectant, which means it helps to keep things moist, and it can also be used as a solvent or preservative.

In addition to its medical uses, glycerol is also widely used in the food industry as a sweetener, thickening agent, and moisture-retaining agent. It is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate (DHAP) is a 3-carbon organic compound that plays a crucial role in the metabolic pathway called glycolysis. It is an intermediate molecule formed during the conversion of glucose into pyruvate, which ultimately produces energy in the form of ATP.

In the glycolytic process, DHAP is produced from glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme triose phosphate isomerase. Then, DHAP is converted back to G3P in a subsequent step, which prepares it for further processing in the glycolytic pathway. This reversible conversion of DHAP and G3P helps maintain the equilibrium of the glycolytic process.

Apart from its role in energy metabolism, DHAP is also involved in other biochemical processes, such as the synthesis of glucose during gluconeogenesis and the formation of lipids in the liver.

Metabolomics is a branch of "omics" sciences that deals with the comprehensive and quantitative analysis of all metabolites, which are the small molecule intermediates and products of metabolism, in a biological sample. It involves the identification and measurement of these metabolites using various analytical techniques such as mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The resulting data provides a functional readout of the physiological state of an organism, tissue or cell, and can be used to identify biomarkers of disease, understand drug action and toxicity, and reveal new insights into metabolic pathways and regulatory networks.

Rotenone is not strictly a medical term, but it is a pesticide that is used in some medical situations. According to the National Pesticide Information Center, rotenone is a pesticide derived from the roots and stems of several plants, including Derris Eliptica, Lonchocarpus utilis, and Tephrosia vogelii. It is used as a pesticide to control insects, mites, and fish in both agricultural and residential settings.

In medical contexts, rotenone has been studied for its potential effects on human health, particularly in relation to Parkinson's disease. Some research suggests that exposure to rotenone may increase the risk of developing Parkinson's disease, although more studies are needed to confirm this link. Rotenone works by inhibiting the mitochondria in cells, which can lead to cell death and neurodegeneration.

It is important to note that rotenone is highly toxic and should be handled with care. It can cause skin and eye irritation, respiratory problems, and gastrointestinal symptoms if ingested or inhaled. Therefore, it is recommended to use personal protective equipment when handling rotenone and to follow all label instructions carefully.

A muscle is a soft tissue in our body that contracts to produce force and motion. It is composed mainly of specialized cells called muscle fibers, which are bound together by connective tissue. There are three types of muscles: skeletal (voluntary), smooth (involuntary), and cardiac. Skeletal muscles attach to bones and help in movement, while smooth muscles are found within the walls of organs and blood vessels, helping with functions like digestion and circulation. Cardiac muscle is the specific type that makes up the heart, allowing it to pump blood throughout the body.

Chloroacetates are organic compounds that contain the group-CHClCOO- (chloroacetate). They are derivatives of acetic acid, where one hydrogen atom is replaced by a chlorine atom. Chloroacetates can be esters or salts of chloroacetic acid. These compounds have various applications in industry and research, including as herbicides, biocides, and chemical intermediates. However, they can also be harmful to human health and the environment, requiring careful handling and disposal.

Antimycin A is an antibiotic substance produced by various species of Streptomyces bacteria. It is known to inhibit the electron transport chain in mitochondria, which can lead to cellular dysfunction and death. Antimycin A has been used in research to study the mechanisms of cellular respiration and oxidative phosphorylation.

In a medical context, antimycin A is not used as a therapeutic agent due to its toxicity to mammalian cells. However, it may be used in laboratory settings to investigate various biological processes or to develop new therapies for diseases related to mitochondrial dysfunction.

Phosphopyruvate Hydratase is an enzyme also known as Enolase. It plays a crucial role in the glycolytic pathway, which is a series of reactions that occur in the cell to break down glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH as energy-rich intermediates.

Specifically, Phosphopyruvate Hydratase catalyzes the conversion of 2-phospho-D-glycerate (2-PG) to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), which is the second to last step in the glycolytic pathway. This reaction includes the removal of a water molecule from 2-PG, resulting in the formation of PEP and the release of a molecule of water.

The enzyme requires magnesium ions as a cofactor for its activity, and it is inhibited by fluoride ions. Deficiency or dysfunction of Phosphopyruvate Hydratase can lead to various metabolic disorders, including some forms of muscular dystrophy and neurodegenerative diseases.

Glycogen Storage Disease Type VII, also known as Tarui's disease, is a rare inherited metabolic disorder caused by a deficiency of the enzyme phosphofructokinase (PFK), which is required for glycogenolysis – the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate and ultimately into glucose. This enzyme deficiency results in the accumulation of glycogen, particularly in muscle and red blood cells, leading to symptoms such as exercise-induced muscle cramps, myoglobinuria (the presence of myoglobin in the urine), and hemolytic anemia. The disease can also cause muscle weakness, fatigue, and dark-colored urine after strenuous exercise. It is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, meaning that an individual must inherit two copies of the mutated gene (one from each parent) to develop the condition.

Fructose-bisphosphatase (FBPase) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the regulation of gluconeogenesis, which is the process of generating new glucose molecules from non-carbohydrate sources in the body. Specifically, FBPase is involved in the fourth step of gluconeogenesis, where it catalyzes the conversion of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to fructose-6-phosphate.

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is a key intermediate in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, and its conversion to fructose-6-phosphate represents an important regulatory point in these pathways. FBPase is inhibited by high levels of energy charge (i.e., when the cell has plenty of ATP and low levels of ADP), as well as by certain metabolites such as citrate, which signals that there is abundant energy available from other sources.

There are two main isoforms of FBPase in humans: a cytoplasmic form found primarily in the liver and kidney, and a mitochondrial form found in various tissues including muscle and brain. Mutations in the gene that encodes the cytoplasmic form of FBPase can lead to a rare inherited metabolic disorder known as fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase deficiency, which is characterized by impaired gluconeogenesis and hypoglycemia.

Anoxia is a medical condition that refers to the absence or complete lack of oxygen supply in the body or a specific organ, tissue, or cell. This can lead to serious health consequences, including damage or death of cells and tissues, due to the vital role that oxygen plays in supporting cellular metabolism and energy production.

Anoxia can occur due to various reasons, such as respiratory failure, cardiac arrest, severe blood loss, carbon monoxide poisoning, or high altitude exposure. Prolonged anoxia can result in hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, a serious condition that can cause brain damage and long-term neurological impairments.

Medical professionals use various diagnostic tests, such as blood gas analysis, pulse oximetry, and electroencephalography (EEG), to assess oxygen levels in the body and diagnose anoxia. Treatment for anoxia typically involves addressing the underlying cause, providing supplemental oxygen, and supporting vital functions, such as breathing and circulation, to prevent further damage.

Fructose is a simple monosaccharide, also known as "fruit sugar." It is a naturally occurring carbohydrate that is found in fruits, vegetables, and honey. Fructose has the chemical formula C6H12O6 and is a hexose, or six-carbon sugar.

Fructose is absorbed directly into the bloodstream during digestion and is metabolized primarily in the liver. It is sweeter than other sugars such as glucose and sucrose (table sugar), which makes it a popular sweetener in many processed foods and beverages. However, consuming large amounts of fructose can have negative health effects, including increasing the risk of obesity, diabetes, and heart disease.

Neoplasms are abnormal growths of cells or tissues in the body that serve no physiological function. They can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign neoplasms are typically slow growing and do not spread to other parts of the body, while malignant neoplasms are aggressive, invasive, and can metastasize to distant sites.

Neoplasms occur when there is a dysregulation in the normal process of cell division and differentiation, leading to uncontrolled growth and accumulation of cells. This can result from genetic mutations or other factors such as viral infections, environmental exposures, or hormonal imbalances.

Neoplasms can develop in any organ or tissue of the body and can cause various symptoms depending on their size, location, and type. Treatment options for neoplasms include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy, among others.

Lactoylglutathione lyase is not a commonly used term in medicine, but it is a biochemical term that refers to an enzyme also known as glyoxalase I. This enzyme plays a role in the detoxification of methylglyoxal, a reactive dicarbonyl compound that can cause damage to proteins and DNA. Methylglyoxal is produced during normal metabolic processes, particularly in the breakdown of glucose and other sugars.

Glyoxalase I catalyzes the conversion of hemithioacetal (formed from methylglyoxal and glutathione) to S-D-lactoylglutathione, which is then converted to D-lactic acid and glutathione by glyoxalase II. The overall reaction helps to prevent the accumulation of toxic levels of methylglyoxal in cells.

Defects or mutations in the gene that encodes for glyoxalase I can lead to an increased risk of developing certain diseases, such as diabetes and neurodegenerative disorders.

Phosphates, in a medical context, refer to the salts or esters of phosphoric acid. Phosphates play crucial roles in various biological processes within the human body. They are essential components of bones and teeth, where they combine with calcium to form hydroxyapatite crystals. Phosphates also participate in energy transfer reactions as phosphate groups attached to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Additionally, they contribute to buffer systems that help maintain normal pH levels in the body.

Abnormal levels of phosphates in the blood can indicate certain medical conditions. High phosphate levels (hyperphosphatemia) may be associated with kidney dysfunction, hyperparathyroidism, or excessive intake of phosphate-containing products. Low phosphate levels (hypophosphatemia) might result from malnutrition, vitamin D deficiency, or certain diseases affecting the small intestine or kidneys. Both hypophosphatemia and hyperphosphatemia can have significant impacts on various organ systems and may require medical intervention.

Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) is a key intermediate in the glycolysis pathway and other metabolic processes. It is a high-energy molecule that plays a crucial role in the transfer of energy during cellular respiration. Specifically, PEP is formed from the breakdown of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate and is then converted to pyruvate, releasing energy that is used to generate ATP, a major source of energy for cells.

Medically, abnormal levels of PEP may indicate issues with cellular metabolism or energy production, which can be associated with various medical conditions such as diabetes, mitochondrial disorders, and other metabolic diseases. However, direct measurement of PEP levels in clinical settings is not commonly performed due to technical challenges. Instead, clinicians typically assess overall metabolic function through a variety of other tests and measures.

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), also known as Glucosephosphate Dehydrogenase, is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in cellular metabolism, particularly in the glycolytic pathway. It catalyzes the conversion of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG), while also converting nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to its reduced form NADH. This reaction is essential for the production of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during cellular respiration. GAPDH has been widely used as a housekeeping gene in molecular biology research due to its consistent expression across various tissues and cells, although recent studies have shown that its expression can vary under certain conditions.

Hexoses are simple sugars (monosaccharides) that contain six carbon atoms. The most common hexoses include glucose, fructose, and galactose. These sugars play important roles in various biological processes, such as serving as energy sources or forming complex carbohydrates like starch and cellulose. Hexoses are essential for the structure and function of living organisms, including humans.

A Detailed Glycolysis Animation provided by IUBMB (Adobe Flash Required) The Glycolytic enzymes in Glycolysis at RCSB PDB ... This high glycolysis rate has important medical applications, as high aerobic glycolysis by malignant tumors is utilized ... The overall process of glycolysis is: Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi → 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 ATP If glycolysis were ... Fermentation of pyruvate to lactate is sometimes also called "anaerobic glycolysis", however, glycolysis ends with the ...
... is thought to have been the primary means of energy production in earlier organisms before oxygen was at ... The anaerobic glycolysis (lactic acid) system is dominant from about 10-30 seconds during a maximal effort. It replenishes very ... Anaerobic glycolysis is the transformation of glucose to lactate when limited amounts of oxygen (O2) are available. Anaerobic ... Aerobic glycolysis Lactate shuttle hypothesis Lactic acidosis Stojan, George; Christopher-Stine, Lisa (2015-01-01), Hochberg, ...
The TP53-inducible glycolysis and apoptosis regulator (TIGAR) also known as fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase TIGAR is an enzyme that ... Fructose-6-phosphate levels build up, which has multiple effects inside the cell: The rate of glycolysis decreases The rate of ... When TIGAR is overexpressed in IL-3 deprived cells the rate of glycolysis decreases further which enhances the apoptosis rate. ... Many cancer cells have altered metabolism where the rate of glycolysis and anaerobic respiration are very high whilst oxidative ...
The next step in the chain is crucial for cells in order to make more energy than they expend through the process of glycolysis ... So before glycerol can enter the pathway of glycolysis it must be converted into an intermediate molecule, which in this case ... This molecule can then enter the metabolic pathway of glycolysis and provide more energy for the cell. Looking at the entire ... However, these glycerol molecules must contribute to the process of glycolysis before they can provide energy to the body, as ...
In glycolysis, 3-phosphoglycerate is an intermediate following the dephosphorylation (reduction) of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.: ... "Glycolysis". Biology. OpenStax College. Rose, Z.B.; Dube, S. (1976). "Rates of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of ... Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis edit]] The interactive pathway map can be edited at WikiPathways: "GlycolysisGluconeogenesis_ ... This glycerate is a biochemically significant metabolic intermediate in both glycolysis and the Calvin-Benson cycle. The anion ...
"Glycolysis." The Gale Encyclopedia of Science, edited by K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, 5th ed., vol. 4, Gale, 2014, ... The enzyme used in Glycolysis, Dehydrogenase is used to attach the hydrogen to one of the hydrogen carrier. Electron carrier ...
The pyruvate generated by glycolysis and the fatty acids produced by breakdown of fats enter the mitochondrial IMS through the ... Chaudhry R, Varacallo M (2019). "Biochemistry, Glycolysis". StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. PMID 29493928. Retrieved 2019-04 ...
... many of which are shared with glycolysis. However, this pathway is not simply glycolysis run in reverse, as several steps are ... The glycerol enters glycolysis and the fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation to release acetyl-CoA, which then is fed ... In anaerobic conditions, glycolysis produces lactate, through the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase re-oxidizing NADH to NAD+ for re ... Once inside, the major route of breakdown is glycolysis, where sugars such as glucose and fructose are converted into pyruvate ...
Its main role is in glycolysis instead of gluconeogenesis, but its substrate is the same as FBPase's, so its activity affects ... The substrate of FBPase, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, has also been shown to activate pyruvate kinase in glycolysis, linking ... Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L (2002). "Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis". In Susan Moran (ed.). Biochemistry (5th ed.). New York ... Underwood AH, Newsholme EA (July 1967). "Control of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in rat kidney cortex slices". The ...
"Regulation of Glycolysis". cmgm.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2017-11-18. Sharma S, Guthrie PH, Chan SS, Haq S, Taegtmeyer H (October ... The chemical equation for the conversion of D-glucose to D-glucose-6-phosphate in the first step of glycolysis is given by: D- ... Chapter 14: Glycolysis and the Catabolism of Hexoses. Garrett R (1995). Biochemistry. Saunders College. "Hexokinase - Reaction ... Phosphorylation initiates the reaction in step 1 of the preparatory step (first half of glycolysis), and initiates step 6 of ...
For example, if glycolysis and gluconeogenesis were to be active at the same time, glucose would be converted to pyruvate by ... The simultaneous carrying out of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis is an example of a futile cycle, represented by the following ... "Design of glycolysis". Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 293 (1063): 5-22. Bibcode:1981RSPTB.293....5B. doi:10.1098/rstb. ... glycolysis and then converted back to glucose by gluconeogenesis, with an overall consumption of ATP. Futile cycles may have a ...
"Glycolysis in Detail". Ohio State University at Mansfield. Retrieved 2011-07-10. v t e (Articles with short description, Short ... During glycolysis, fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is broken down into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. ...
Lactic acid created as a byproduct of fermentation of pyruvate from glycolysis accumulates in muscles causing a burning ... Through lactate fermentation, muscle cells are able to regenerate NAD+ to continue glycolysis, even under strenuous activity. [ ... Abedon ST (1998-04-03). "Glycolysis and Fermentation". Ohio State University. Archived from the original on 2010-01-17. ...
"Glycolysis an potassium transport". The Journal of Physiology. 150 (2). 1 February 1960. doi:10.1111/tjp.1960.150.issue-2. ISSN ... the relationship between ion transporting water and respiration and glycolysis. He worked with Daniel C. Tosteson whereby they ...
Bachelard, HS (May 1972). "Deoxyglucose and brain glycolysis". The Biochemical Journal. 127 (5): 83P. doi:10.1042/bj1270083pa. ...
Glycolysis is performed by all living organisms and consists of 10 steps. The net reaction for the overall process of ... Medh, J.D. "Glycolysis" (PDF). CSUN.Edu. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 3 April 2013. Bailey, Regina ... The ten-step catabolic pathway of glycolysis is the initial phase of free-energy release in the breakdown of glucose and can be ... During the initial phases of glycolysis and the TCA cycle, cofactors such as NAD+ donate and accept electrons that aid in the ...
It is an inborn error of carbohydrate metabolism that blocks aerobic glycolysis by preventing the transport of pyruvate from ... Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis edit]] The interactive pathway map can be edited at WikiPathways: "GlycolysisGluconeogenesis_ ... the cytosol into the mitochondrion for oxidative phosphorylation; however, anaerobic glycolysis is preserved. Common signs and ...
Besides glycolysis in tumor cells glutaminolysis is another main pillar for energy production. High extracellular glutamine ... Board, M; Humm S; Newsholme EA (1990). "Maximum activities of key enzymes of glycolysis, glutaminolysis, pentose phosphate ... Medina, MA; Nunez de Castro I (1990). "Glutaminolysis and glycolysis interactions in proliferant cells". International Journal ... Mc Keehan, WL (1982). "Glycolysis, glutaminolysis and cell proliferation". Cell Biology International Reports. 6 (7): 635-650. ...
Hipkiss, A. R. (2006). "Does chronic glycolysis accelerate aging? Could this explain how dietary restriction works?". Annals of ... Hipkiss, A. R. (2006). "Does Chronic Glycolysis Accelerate Aging? Could This Explain How Dietary Restriction Works?". Annals of ...
The Sel'kov model of glycolysis. The daily oscillations in gene expression, hormone levels and body temperature of animals, ... "Self-Oscillations in Glycolysis 1. A Simple Kinetic Model". European Journal of Biochemistry. 4 (1): 79-86. doi:10.1111/j.1432- ...
Glycolysis Snow, Alexander J. D.; Burchill, Laura; Sharma, Mahima; Davies, Gideon J.; Williams, Spencer J. (2021). " ... In all pathways, energy is formed in later stages through the 'pay-off' phase of glycolysis through substrate-level ... Glucose formed in this pathway enters glycolysis. The sulfoglycolytic transketolase (sulfo-TL) pathway was first identified in ... Unlike glycolysis, which allows metabolism of all carbons in glucose, some sulfoglycolysis pathways convert only a fraction of ...
ISBN 978-0-07-337809-1. "Glycolysis: Anaerobic Respiration: Homolactic Fermentation". Covián, Fr. G.; Krogh, A. (1935). "The ...
"GLYCOLYSIS AND THE KREBS CYCLE". homepage.smc.edu. Retrieved 2016-11-08. Miles, Bryant (April 9, 2003). "Protein Catabolism" ( ... The acid can also enter glycolysis, where it will be eventually converted into pyruvate. The pyruvate is then converted into ... Transamination leads to the same result as deamination: the remaining acid will undergo either glycolysis or the TCA cycle to ...
The fact that glycolysis is inhibited by 2-DG, seems not to be sufficient to explain why 2-DG treated cells stop growing. ... Pelicano, H; Martin, DS; Xu, RH; Huang, P (2006). "Glycolysis inhibition for anticancer treatment". Oncogene. 25 (34): 4633- ... step 2 of glycolysis). 2-Deoxyglucose labeled with tritium or carbon-14 has been a popular ligand for laboratory research in ... 2-deoxy-D-glucose elicits cell death in select tumor types not by inhibition of glycolysis but by interfering with N-linked ...
... aerobic glycolysis' consisting of a high level of glucose uptake and glycolysis followed by lactic acid fermentation taking ... Since glycolysis provides most of the building blocks required for cell proliferation, both cancer cells and normal ... Anaerobic glycolysis is less efficient than oxidative phosphorylation for producing adenosine triphosphate and leads to the ... Anaerobic glycolysis favors anabolism and avoids oxidizing precious carbon-carbon bonds into carbon dioxide. In contrast, ...
... compared to the two gained in glycolysis). Analogous to the above reactions, the glucose produced can then undergo glycolysis ... Intermediate products of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the pentose phosphate pathway can be used to form all twenty ... Glucose is mainly metabolized by a very important ten-step pathway called glycolysis, the net result of which is to break down ... The pathway is a crucial reversal of glycolysis from pyruvate to glucose and can use many sources like amino acids, glycerol ...
Thus NADPH is also required for the synthesis of cholesterol from acetyl-CoA; while NADH is generated during glycolysis.) The ... The pyruvate produced by glycolysis is an important intermediary in the conversion of carbohydrates into fatty acids and ...
This enzyme participates in glycolysis / gluconeogenesis. This enzyme belongs to the family of oxidoreductases, specifically ...
This enzyme participates in glycolysis / gluconeogenesis. As of late 2013, 3 structures have been solved for this class of ...
In situations when glycolysis is restricted by phosphate starvation, the switch to MGS serves to release phosphate from ... It has activity levels similar to that of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase from glycolysis, suggesting an interplay ... Cooper RA, Anderson A (December 1970). "The formation and catabolism of methylglyoxal during glycolysis in Escherichia coli". ... Methylglyoxal synthase provides an alternative catabolic pathway for triose phosphates created in glycolysis. ...
A Detailed Glycolysis Animation provided by IUBMB (Adobe Flash Required) The Glycolytic enzymes in Glycolysis at RCSB PDB ... This high glycolysis rate has important medical applications, as high aerobic glycolysis by malignant tumors is utilized ... The overall process of glycolysis is: Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi → 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 ATP If glycolysis were ... Fermentation of pyruvate to lactate is sometimes also called "anaerobic glycolysis", however, glycolysis ends with the ...
Otto Heinrich Warburg demonstrated in 1924 that cancer cells show an increased dependence on glycolysis to meet their energy ... Otto Heinrich Warburg demonstrated in 1924 that cancer cells show an increased dependence on glycolysis to meet their energy ... Current insight revealed aerobic glycolysis supports various biosynthetic pathways and, consequently, the metabolic ... Gatenby RA, Gillies RJ. 2004. Why do cancers have high aerobic glycolysis?. Nat Rev Cancer. 4(11):891-899. https://doi.org/ ...
... glycolysis provides 85% of the ATP required by the entire EC unit[20]. ECs depend on glycolysis for energy production based on ... glycolysis generates limited amounts of energy. However, in contrast to normal cells, cancer cells rely on glycolysis for ... Glycolysis provides the energy for trained immunity, serving as its dynamic foundation. Thus, changes in glycolysis profoundly ... Figure 4 A variety of factors play important roles in diabetic atherosclerosis through glycolysis, including endothelial cells ...
In glycolysis, what is the enzyme, substrate, and product for the committed step? Is ATP generated or used in this reaction?. ... What are some control factors affecting glycolysis?. Definition. 1. PFK-1 inhibition by citrate, high levels of ATP. AMP, cAMP ... What are the starting and ending chemicals of glycolysis. Definition. Glucose pyruvate and/or lactate. Overall aerobic: ...
The word glycolysis originates from the Latin glyco (sugar) and lysis (breakdown). Glycolysis serves two main intracellular ... Regulation of Glycolysis. Tight control and regulation of enzyme-mediated metabolic pathways, such as glycolysis, is critical ... Now, glycolysis is known as the EMP pathway.. Destiny of Glucose. There are two ways that glucose can enter the cell. A group ... 8.2: What is Glycolysis? Overview. Cells make energy by breaking down macromolecules. Cellular respiration is the biochemical ...
Blocking the PPP prevented cholesterol synthesis and thereby HCC in c-Myc mice, while ablating glycolysis did not affect ... A positive feedback between cholesterol synthesis and the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) rather than glycolysis was formed in ... c-Myc activated the PPP and glycolysis (Fig. 2F, G). Glycolysis produces pyruvate that can be converted to acetyl-CoA, a ... We next determined the effect of glycolysis on cholesterol synthesis. NAD is a driver of glycolysis [24, 25]. We, therefore, ...
... aggregate analysis of glycolysis inhibition was used for treatment comparisons. Results: AUC glycolysis (±SE): CTR: 1.86(2.07)a ... 1458 Plaque Glycolysis Response to Cetylpyridinium Chloride Antimicrobial Mouthrinses Saturday, March 24, 2012: 9:45 a.m. - 11 ... Plaque Glycolysis and Regrowth Method (PGRM) is a proven clinical assay for bioavailability, retention and proportional ... Sampled plaques were vortexed, normalized for biomass and incubated under standard conditions to assess glycolysis (J Clin Dent ...
Take a look at the ten enzymes that make possible the ten steps in the breakdown of sugar the process is called glycolysis. ... Take a look at the ten enzymes that make possible the ten steps in the breakdown of sugar the process is called glycolysis. ...
61c) Inhibition of Glycolysis in the Presence of Antigen Generates Antigen Specific Treg Responses in Rheumatoid Arthritis. ... Interestingly, activated DCs and T-effector cells, such as T-helper 1 (Th1) and T-helper 17 (Th17), utilize glycolysis for ... We hypothesize that blocking DC glycolysis and simultaneous antigen expression may lead to the generation of tolerogenic DCs ( ...
Apical Na+/H+ antiporter and glycolysis-dependent H+-ATPase regulate intracellular pH in the rabbit S3 proximal tubule.. ... Apical Na+/H+ antiporter and glycolysis-dependent H+-ATPase regulate intracellular pH in the rabbit S3 proximal tubule.. ... and utilizes ATP derived primarily from glycolysis. ...
Simplified schematic of the EMP (left) and ED (right) pathways of glycolysis. Pfk, Fba, and Tpi reactions are indicated in red ... Expression of Phosphofructokinase Is Not Sufficient to Enable Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas Glycolysis in Zymomonas mobilis ZM4. ... Bar-Even, A., Flamholz, A., Noor, E., and Milo, R. (2012). Rethinking glycolysis: on the biochemical logic of metabolic ... Keywords: Zymomonas mobilis, glycolysis, Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway, Entner-Doudoroff pathway, metabolic engineering ...
Glycolysis - Regulation Lecturer: Rick Kahn RRC G-217 Phone: 7-3561 E-mail: [email protected] Objectives: To begin to think about ... supercharger of glycolysis. Glycolysis 23. PFK2 allows for endocrine (insulin and glucagon) regulation of glycolysis 24. Last ... Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis - Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis Alice Skoumalov Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis Alice Skoumalov ... to glycolysis. 2. Glycolysis is just one of many pathways all going on in a cell. YOU ARE HERE 3. The Glycolytic Pathway. 10 ...
These results suggested that 5-ALA is an inhibitor of glycolysis; due to the structural similarity of 5-ALA to the established ... We subsequently evaluated the effect of 5-ALA-induced glycolysis inhibition on the viability of GBM cells with diverse ... This reduction was accompanied by a decrease in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production from glycolysis. ... δ-aminolevulinic acid; glycolysis; glycolysis inhibition; metabolism; lactate dehydrogenase; glioblastoma multiforme; ...
Glycolysis regulates gene expression by promoting the crosstalk between H3K4 trimethylation and H3K14 acetylation in ...
Glycolysis coverts the glucose into pyruvate which results in release of high energy. ... This video introduces biology tutorial on glycolysis and its reactions. ... Glycolysis Tutorial This video introduces biology tutorial on glycolysis and its reactions. Glycolysis coverts the glucose into ...
4) HC somas, HC processes, BC dendrites, and MGCs have a limited capacity for glycolysis and aerobic glycolysis. 5) HC somas, ... Recent data showed tight coupling of glycolysis and NAKA activity [147]. Glycolysis is coupled to neurotransmission in ... 2) Photoreceptors and their synapses exhibit the highest capacity for glycolysis, aerobic glycolysis, and OXPHOS, and regulate ... retinal glycolysis, aerobic glycolysis, TCA cycle metabolism, OXPHOS, and ~P transferring kinases (see Figure 16 for an ...
Unless otherwise noted, all content © sciencemusicvideos L.L.C. ...
... The breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic acid. ...
Zhang Z, Luan Q, Hao W, Cui Y, Li Y, Li X. NOX4-derived ROS Regulates Aerobic Glycolysis of Breast Cancer through YAP Pathway. ... Zhang Z, Luan Q, Hao W, Cui Y, Li Y, Li X. NOX4-derived ROS Regulates Aerobic Glycolysis of Breast Cancer through YAP Pathway. ... The involvement of NOX4 in glycolysis in breast cancer remains unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the role and ... Zhang, Z.; Luan, Q.; Hao, W.; Cui, Y.; Li, Y.; Li, X. NOX4-derived ROS Regulates Aerobic Glycolysis of Breast Cancer through ...
Mechanistically, KIAA1429 promoted tumor progression and glycolysis via stabilizing ENO1 mRNA in a way dependent on m6A. ... N6-methyladenosine methyltransferase KIAA1429 promoted ovarian cancer aerobic glycolysis and progression through enhancing ENO1 ...
Glycolysis was evaluated by relative glucose consumption, lactate generation, ATP levels, and hexokinase II (HK2), while ... Conclusion: Downregulation of KLF8 inhibits proliferation and glycolysis, and also promotes apoptosis in AML cells via AKT/mTOR ... KLF8 enhances acute myeloid leukemia cell growth and glycolysis via AKT/mTOR pathway ...
... glycolysis and gluconeogenesis (1) and are characterized by increased glycolysis and dependence on this metabolic drift for ... High USP6NL Levels in Breast Cancer Sustain Chronic AKT Phosphorylation and GLUT1 Stability Fueling Aerobic Glycolysis Daniele ... Indeed, elevation of glycolysis is generally associated with tumor aggressiveness and poor prognosis, and is a distinguishing ... One of the best-characterized metabolic outcomes of the upregulation of AKT in cancer is increased aerobic glycolysis (37). In ...
Inhibits Oxygen Glucose Deprivation Induced Autophagic Death in Dopaminergic SH-SY5Y Cells via Mitigation of Glycolysis ... Chu Y, Chang Y, Lu W, Sheng X, Wang S, Xu H, et al. Regulation of autophagy by glycolysis in cancer. Cancer Manag Res 2020;12: ... Wang X, Lu S, He C, Wang C, Wang L, Piao M, et al. RSL3 induced autophagic death in glioma cells via causing glycolysis ... Gao Z, Dlamini MB, Ge H, Jiang L, Geng C, Li Q, et al. ATF4-mediated autophagy-dependent glycolysis plays an important role in ...
Glycolysis is the first step of metabolism and the biochemical pathway by which glucose is converted into pyruvate. Some cells ... Some cells use glycolysis to make pyruvate to use in other metabolic processes; others, like erythrocytes, rely on glycolysis ... Glycolysis is the first step of metabolism and the biochemical pathway by which glucose is converted into pyruvate. ... Because glycolysis is central to energy production, it is tightly regulated by many mechanisms. Metabolites along the ...
Glycolysis and hypoxia were screened as the main risk factors for OS in HNSCC. Using univariate Cox analysis, 97 prognostic ... This nine-gene signature associated with glycolysis and hypoxia can not only be used for prognosis prediction and risk ... analysis combining the cancer hallmarks and risk scores suggested that HNSCC patients with the high hypoxia or glycolysis & ... The hallmark gene sets of glycolysis and hypoxia from the MSigDB were used for GSEA analysis to verify the glycolysis and ...
RT @OndrejDrKucera: This work shows an interesting link between the #cytoskeleton and #glycolysis. The 17 months this paper was ... RT @OndrejDrKucera: This work shows an interesting link between the #cytoskeleton and #glycolysis. The 17 months this paper was ... Mechanical regulation of glycolysis via cytoskeleton architecture. Overview of attention for article published in Nature, ... This work shows an interesting link between the #cytoskeleton and #glycolysis. The 17 months this paper was under review ...
Further, treatment of FLCN-deficient cells with this FLCN-derived peptide is sufficient to suppress glycolysis. Interestingly, ... THE TUMOR SUPPRESSOR FOLLICULIN REGULATES GLYCOLYSIS BY SPECIFICALLY BINDING AND INHIBITING LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE-A. ... the enzyme responsible for the interconversion of pyruvate and lactate in the terminal step of glycolysis. Our work herein ... inhibition of LDHA by the tumor suppressor FLCN provides a mechanistic explanation for the endogenous regulation of glycolysis. ...
... consists of two distinct phases. The first part of the glycolysis pathway traps t... ... Glycolysis begins with the six carbon ring-shaped structure of a single glucose molecule and ends with two molecules of a three ... ATP energy is needed for glycolysis.. Outcomes of Glycolysis. Glycolysis starts with glucose and ends with two pyruvate ... Glycolysis + Glycolysis begins with the six carbon ring-shaped structure of a single glucose molecule and ends with two ...
Keywords - familial adenomatous polyposis, ethylmalonic encephalopathy 1, mitochondrial bioenergetics, aerobic glycolysis, ... We also found that constitutive expression of ETHE1 increased aerobic glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation, and mitochondrial ... ETHE1 overexpression promotes SIRT1 and PGC1α mediated aerobic glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondrial biogenesis ... expressed ETHE1 in CRC cells we identified novel mechanisms that link augmented ETHE1 expression with aerobic glycolysis and ...
  • Anaerobic glycolysis exclusively uses glucose (and glycogen) as a fuel in the absence of oxygen, or more specifically when ATP is needed at rates that exceed those provided by aerobic metabolism. (zestrestaurant.co.za)
  • Anaerobic glycolysis is the main pathway responsible for supplying the cell with both ATP and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (reduced) (NADH), a cofactor for methaemoglobin reductase, the enzyme that catalyses the reduction of methaemoglobin to functional haemoglobin (see … Download PDF for free. (zestrestaurant.co.za)
  • Anaerobic glycolysis is a metabolic process in which glucose, a sugar molecule, is broken down without the use of oxygen.Like aerobic glycolysis, which metabolizes glucose in the presence of oxygen, it produces energy for the cells. (zestrestaurant.co.za)
  • anaerobic glycolysis and aerobic systems share the task of creating ATP for the few minutes it will take the performer to stop from exhaustion. (zestrestaurant.co.za)
  • the glycolytic pathway of this nonpathogenic eukaryote, includ-ing a putative oxymonad-Entamoeba event, further reinforces the major role of LGT in the evolution of anaerobic glycolysis and suggests that it is selection for ATP efficiency and not pathogenicity that drives this phenomenon. (zestrestaurant.co.za)
  • The Cori cycle - anaerobic glycolysis in muscle and gluconeogenesis in the liver. (mo-mag.cz)
  • Anaerobic glycolysis is thought to have been the primary means of energy production in earlier organisms before oxygen was at high concentration in the atmosphere and thus would represent a more ancient form of energy production in cells. (mo-mag.cz)
  • Typically, anaerobic glycolysis occurs in muscle cells during vigorous physical activity. (mo-mag.cz)
  • What does anaerobic glycolysis mean? (mo-mag.cz)
  • Anaerobic glycolysis yields two ATP molecules for each glucose molecule metabolized…oxidation of glucose in the mitochondrion would yield an additional 34 ATP molecules. (mo-mag.cz)
  • Anaerobic glycolysis is only an effective means of energy production during short, intense exercise, providing energy for a period ranging from 10 seconds to 2 minutes. (mo-mag.cz)
  • Conditions in humans that greatly increase anaerobic glycolysis because of a shortage of oxygen, for example, failure of the respiratory system or the blood circulatory system, often cause the production of more acid than can be handled by the buffering systems of the body. (circat.cat)
  • Aerobic glycolysis produces pyruvate at the end of glycolysis while anaerobic glycolysis produces lactate. (circat.cat)
  • Unlike the aerobic glycolysis, anaerobic glycolysis produces lactate, which reduces the pH and inactivates the enzymes. (circat.cat)
  • Aerobic glycolysis occurs in oxygen rich environments, whereas anaerobic glycolysis occurs in oxygen lack environments. (circat.cat)
  • Unlike in anaerobic glycolysis, the end product of Aerobic glycolysis (pyruvate) is used to initiate other pathways in mitochondria. (circat.cat)
  • Anaerobic glycolysis is the transformation of glucose to lactate when limited amounts of oxygen (O2) are available. (circat.cat)
  • Anaerobic glycolysis produces 2ATPs per glucose molecule while aerobic glycolysis produces 36 to 38 ATPs per glucose molecule. (circat.cat)
  • 13 Sept. [2] The anaerobic glycolysis (lactic acid) system is dominant from about 10-30 seconds during a maximal effort. (circat.cat)
  • Anaerobic glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm when a cell lacks oxygenated environment or lacks mitochondria. (circat.cat)
  • When compared to anaerobic glycolysis, this pathway is much more efficient and produces more ATP per glucose molecule. (circat.cat)
  • Pyruvate is reduced to lactate during anaerobic glycolysis whereas, during aerobic glycolysis, pyruvate is oxidation to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl- CoA). (circat.cat)
  • Ultimate end product of anaerobic glycolysis is lactate, which may be harmful to the cell itself, whereas that of aerobic glycolysis is water and carbon dioxide, which are not harmful to cells. (circat.cat)
  • The levels of intermediates of aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis were determined in perchloric acid extracts prepared from glycolyzing suspensions of Saccharomyces cerevisiae by 31 P and 13 C NMR spectroscopy. (umn.edu)
  • There was more scrambling of the label during aerobic than during anaerobic glycolysis. (umn.edu)
  • Ugurbil, K , den Hollander, JA & Shulman, RG 1986, ' 31 P and 13 C NMR Studies of Intermediates of Aerobic and Anaerobic Glycolysis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae ', Biochemistry , vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 212-219. (umn.edu)
  • Lens metabolism maintains a clear lens and derives most of its energy from anaerobic glycolysis. (aao.org)
  • The more active of the 2 pathways, anaerobic glycolysis provides most of the high-energy phosphate bonds required for lens metabolism. (aao.org)
  • In anaerobic glycolysis, substrate-linked phosphorylation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) occurs at 2 steps along the pathway from glucose metabolism to lactate. (aao.org)
  • These further aerobic reactions use pyruvate, and NADH + H+ from glycolysis. (wikipedia.org)
  • The sixth step in glycolysis oxidizes the sugar (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate), extracting high-energy electrons , which are picked up by the electron carrier NAD + , producing NADH. (cloudaccess.net)
  • The second half of glycolysis involves phosphorylation without ATP investment (step 6) and produces two NADH and four ATP molecules per glucose. (cloudaccess.net)
  • During the latter stages of this process NADH (generated during glycolysis) is converted back to NAD by losing a hydrogen. (zestrestaurant.co.za)
  • This article explores how many NADH molecules are produced by glycolysis, and the importance of NADH in energy production and metabolism in the body. (vetrina-eventi.com)
  • It also delves into how NADH is used in fueling the body, and provides a step-by-step guide on glycolysis and its energy output. (vetrina-eventi.com)
  • This article provides a clear understanding of the byproducts, limitations, and significance of glycolysis products, such as pyruvate, NADH, and ATP, in cellular respiration, giving tips on how to identify these products and how they are used in other metabolic pathways. (vetrina-eventi.com)
  • Fermentation allows glycolysis to continue by regenerating NAD+ (the oxidized form of NADH) from NADH. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • The glycolysis equation summarizes the process of breaking down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, along with the production of ATP and NADH. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • During glycolysis, which means breakdown of glucose, glucose is separated into two ATP and two NADH molecules, which are used later in the process of aerobic respiration. (livestrong.com)
  • Glycolysis also refers to other pathways, such as the Entner-Doudoroff pathway and various heterofermentative and homofermentative pathways. (wikipedia.org)
  • Current insight revealed aerobic glycolysis supports various biosynthetic pathways and, consequently, the metabolic requirements for proliferation. (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • Glycolysis serves two main intracellular functions: generating ATP and generating intermediate metabolites to feed into other pathways. (jove.com)
  • Simplified schematic of the EMP (left) and ED (right) pathways of glycolysis. (frontiersin.org)
  • Objectives To begin to think about enzymes as regulated catalysts To understand the different ways enzymes can be regulated To learn the key, regulated steps in glycolysis, the mediators of regulation, and how it is connected to other pathways So today we will talk first about general features of metabolic/enzyme regulation and then the specifics as they relate to glycolysis. (powershow.com)
  • Glycolysis is a central pathway for glucose catabolism because it connects glucose with other metabolic pathways. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • The Krebs Cycle and Glycolysis are two metabolic pathways that serve different purposes in the body. (differencess.com)
  • The difference between the two pathways is that glycolysis generates less ATP than the Krebs cycle. (differencess.com)
  • Glycolysis was evaluated by relative glucose consumption, lactate generation, ATP levels, and hexokinase II (HK2), while glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1) protein expression levels. (ajol.info)
  • Glycolysis refers to the process by which glucose is decomposed into pyruvate in the cytoplasm and produces large amounts of lactate[ 6 ]. (ijpsonline.com)
  • Regardless of whether anaerobic or aerobic, glycolysis produces acid if lactate is the end product of the pathway. (mo-mag.cz)
  • Lactate Threshold - Lactate threshold represents the point at which the athlete's body requires a greater contribution from the glycolysis energy system (anaerobic system) and a smaller contribution from the oxidative phosphorylation energy system (aerobic system). (bigskymultisportcoaching.com)
  • Glycolysis does not use oxygen, instead, it uses lactate as a by-product of glucose metabolism. (differencess.com)
  • The combined results indicate that glycolysis is regulated by the compartmental expression of hexokinase 2, pyruvate kinase M1, and pyruvate kinase M2 in photoreceptors, whereas the inner retinal neurons exhibit a lower capacity for glycolysis and aerobic glycolysis. (molvis.org)
  • Western blot was carried out to detect the expression levels of autophagic-related proteins (Unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1, beclin 1, autophagy related 5, microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3, ubiquitin-binding protein p62), glycolysis-related proteins (hexokinase 2, phosphofructokinase, pyruvate kinase M2) and activated protein kinase signalling pathway proteins. (ijpsonline.com)
  • The first step in glycolysis is catalyzed by hexokinase, an enzyme with broad specificity that catalyzes the phosphorylation of six-carbon sugars. (cloudaccess.net)
  • Metabolism Problem SetProblem 12: HexokinaseIn the first step of glycolysis, the enzyme hexokinase uses ATP to transfer a phosphate to glucose to form glucose-6-phosphate. (jonnevandermeijden.nl)
  • In high-glucose conditions, hexokinase becomes inhibited by products of glycolysis, and aldose reductase becomes relatively increased, converting more glucose to sorbitol. (aao.org)
  • Aerobic respiration has four stages: Glycolysis, formation of acetyl coenzyme A, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. (livestrong.com)
  • Glucose is the major substrate for ATP synthesis through glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), whereas intermediary metabolism through the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle utilizes non-glucose-derived monocarboxylates, amino acids, and alpha ketoacids to support mitochondrial ATP and GTP synthesis. (molvis.org)
  • Glycolysis is the first step of metabolism and the biochemical pathway by which glucose is converted into pyruvate. (usmle-rx.com)
  • Mechanical regulation of cell metabolism (glycolysis)! (altmetric.com)
  • It can occur aerobically or … Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism. (zestrestaurant.co.za)
  • Rather, it is an important energy "shuttle" whose production is triggered by a variety of metabolites even before the onset of anaerobic metabolism as part of an adaptive response to a hypermetabolic state and, in particular, during sepsis.2 Here, we review hyperlactatemia and lactic acidosis in Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism. (zestrestaurant.co.za)
  • Complete aerobic metabolism of glucose produces water andComplete aerobic metabolism of glucose produces water and The Reactions of Glycolysis Fermentation: The Anaerobic Fate of Pyruvate Control of Metabolic Flux Metabolism of Hexoses Other Than Glucose. (zestrestaurant.co.za)
  • Nearly all living organisms carry out glycolysis as part of their metabolism. (zestrestaurant.co.za)
  • The fourth step in glycolysis employs an enzyme, aldolase, to cleave fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into two three-carbon isomers: dihydroxyacetonephosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. (cloudaccess.net)
  • The first step in glycolysis is the breaking down of glucose into two smaller molecules called glycogen and glucose-6-phosphate. (differencess.com)
  • The next step in glycolysis is the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate into fructose-6-phosphate. (differencess.com)
  • [ 3 ] PFK catalyzes the irreversible transfer of phosphate from ATP to fructose-6-phosphate and converts it to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate during the third step in glycolysis. (medscape.com)
  • Explain why glycolysis occurs in all cells, including erythrocytes, and explain the relevance of oxygen availability and mitochondria in terms of the end products of glycolysis. (usmle-rx.com)
  • Start studying End products of glycolysis. (jonnevandermeijden.nl)
  • Products of glycolysis. (jonnevandermeijden.nl)
  • Introduction to Glycolysis - definition Glycolysis or EMP pathway was discovered by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof and J. Parnas in 1930. (zestrestaurant.co.za)
  • We also found that constitutive expression of ETHE1 increased aerobic glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation, and mitochondrial biogenesis in colorectal cancer cell lines, thereby depleting H2S which relieved the inhibition of phosphodiesterase , and increased adenosine monophosphate levels. (oncotarget.com)
  • Describe the roles of insulin and glucagon in the regulation of glycolysis and the enzyme targets. (usmle-rx.com)
  • Aldolase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in glycolysis, a metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate. (labtestpk.com)
  • Since the level of Fru-P 2 did not change much upon oxygenation, this suggests that in aerobic glycolysis there is control of at least one enzyme in the lower part of the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway, below Fru-P 2 , which gives the 13 C level more time to equilibrate between C 1 and C 6 of Fru-P 2 . (umn.edu)
  • PFK is the key regulatory enzyme for glycolysis. (medscape.com)
  • Furthermore, using constitutively expressed ETHE1 in CRC cells we identified novel mechanisms that link augmented ETHE1 expression with aerobic glycolysis and mitochondria biogenesis. (oncotarget.com)
  • Glycolysis is the first step of ATP formation that takes place in the cytosol outside of the mitochondria, using glucose as the energy source. (circat.cat)
  • Eukaryotic aerobic respiration produces approximately 34 additional molecules of ATP for each glucose molecule, however most of these are produced by a mechanism vastly different from the substrate-level phosphorylation in glycolysis. (wikipedia.org)
  • The first part of the glycolysis pathway traps the glucose molecule in the cell and uses energy to modify it so that the six-carbon sugar molecule can be split evenly into the two three-carbon molecules. (cloudaccess.net)
  • The first half of glycolysis uses two ATP molecules in the phosphorylation of glucose, which is then split into two three-carbon molecules. (cloudaccess.net)
  • So far, glycolysis has cost the cell two ATP molecules and produced two small, three-carbon sugar molecules. (cloudaccess.net)
  • Glycolysis is an anaerobic pathway consisting of ten steps in which one molecule of glucose is reduced to form two molecules of pyruvate at the end. (jonnevandermeijden.nl)
  • The answer is glycolysis, a series of biochemical reactions that break down glucose into smaller molecules, releasing energy in the process. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • As the name suggests, glycolysis involves the splitting of a six-carbon glucose molecule into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvate. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • Glycolysis is the process of breaking down glucose molecules into energy-rich molecules called ATP. (differencess.com)
  • Glycolysis is the process by which glucose is converted into energy through the breakdown of glucose molecules. (differencess.com)
  • In fact, glycolysis can only produce 2 ATP molecules per molecule of glucose while the Krebs cycle can produce up to 8 ATP molecules per molecule. (differencess.com)
  • They also shed light on the role of one compound as a glycolysis intermediate: fructose 1,6-bisphosphate. (wikipedia.org)
  • Glycolysis occurs in the Cytoplasm of cells. (mo-mag.cz)
  • Glycolysis is a unique pathway that occurs in the cytoplasm or cytosol of all cells. (mo-mag.cz)
  • Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and is present in all living organisms. (mo-mag.cz)
  • Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm. (mo-mag.cz)
  • The entire glycolysis process occurs in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells (cells with nuclei and membranes). (jonnevandermeijden.nl)
  • Indeed, the reactions that make up glycolysis and its parallel pathway, the pentose phosphate pathway, can occur in the oxygen-free conditions of the Archean oceans, also in the absence of enzymes, catalyzed by metal ions, meaning this is a plausible prebiotic pathway for abiogenesis. (wikipedia.org)
  • The goal of this study was to explore the regulatory mechanism of trehalose on the autophagy death of SHSY5Y cells induced by oxygen and sugar deprivation from the aspect of glycolysis. (ijpsonline.com)
  • Explain 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate and its relevance to glycolysis and the binding of oxygen to hemoglobin. (usmle-rx.com)
  • Glycolysis does not require oxygen and can occur under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. (mo-mag.cz)
  • Cellular respiration in the absence of molecular oxygen is (a) photorespiration (b) glycolysis (c) EMP pathway (d) HMS pathway Answer: (b) glycolysis 2. (mo-mag.cz)
  • The pyruvate end product of glycolysis can be used in either anaerobic respiration if no oxygen is available or in aerobic respiration via the TCA cycle which yields much more usable energy for the cell. (jonnevandermeijden.nl)
  • In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate is oxidized and acetyl CoA is formed, which feeds into the citrate acid cycle and the complete oxidation … In the catabolism of carbohydrates, understand the general chemical reactions of glycolysis and the krebs cycle. (jonnevandermeijden.nl)
  • In the absence of oxygen, the cells make small amounts of ATP as glycolysis is followed by fermentation . (byjus.com)
  • Depending on the availability of oxygen and the type of organism, pyruvate can undergo different fates after glycolysis. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • pH response of the incubation buffers was compared to starting pH's and an Area Under Curve (AUC)aggregate analysis of glycolysis inhibition was used for treatment comparisons. (umich.edu)
  • Studies on the biochemical basis of distal axonopathies - I. Inhibition of glycolysis by neurotoxic hexacarbon compounds. (cdc.gov)
  • A positive feedback between cholesterol synthesis and the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) rather than glycolysis was formed in tumors of c-Myc mice. (nature.com)
  • The glucose 6-phosphate that is formed during the phosphoglucomutase process can be absorbed into glycolysis or a different pathway, such as the pentose phosphate pathway. (microbiologynote.com)
  • 0000001853 00000 n 0000037081 00000 n 0000027082 00000 n Glycolysis Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell and is common to both aerobic and anaerobic respirations. (zestrestaurant.co.za)
  • Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. (unizin.org)
  • Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of cells, which is the fluid part of the cytoplasm. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • The end product of glycolysis - 3 carbon acid formed from glucose, glycerol and some amino acids. (jonnevandermeijden.nl)
  • Learn term:pyruvic acid = three carbon product of glycolysis with free interactive flashcards. (jonnevandermeijden.nl)
  • what is the end product of glycolysis? (jonnevandermeijden.nl)
  • Learn term:pyruvate = the end product of glycolysis with free interactive flashcards. (jonnevandermeijden.nl)
  • Hence, the end product of glycolysis is pyruvate or pyruvic acid … In kinetoplastids (a type of protozoa), glycolysis occurs in special cellular structures known as glycosomes. (jonnevandermeijden.nl)
  • Insight into the component steps of glycolysis were provided by the non-cellular fermentation experiments of Eduard Buchner during the 1890s. (wikipedia.org)
  • Identify the diseases associated with defects in glycolysis, particularly pyruvate kinase defect. (usmle-rx.com)
  • The first step of glycolysis results in the formation of: Glycolysis is stimulated During exercise ATP is being used and generates high amounts of AMP which stimulate Phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase to generate ATP through glycolysis. (jonnevandermeijden.nl)
  • Glycolysis is a sequence of ten reactions catalyzed by enzymes. (wikipedia.org)
  • This video introduces biology tutorial on glycolysis and its reactions. (dnatube.com)
  • Describe the reactions of glycolysis in sequence and know where ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is used and where ATP is made. (usmle-rx.com)
  • Glycolysis is an ancient metabolic pathway that evolved long ago and is found in almost all living organisms. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • The Krebs Cycle is responsible for producing energy while Glycolysis produces glucose. (differencess.com)
  • 1) The Krebs Cycle produces ATP while Glycolysis produces glucose. (differencess.com)
  • 4) The Krebs Cycle produces more waste products than Glycolysis. (differencess.com)
  • The word glycolysis originates from the Latin glyco (sugar) and lysis (breakdown). (jove.com)
  • Take a look at the ten enzymes that make possible the ten steps in the breakdown of sugar the process is called glycolysis. (sharemylesson.com)
  • Several misconceptions contained in this question… Firstly, glycolysis is neither aerobic or anaerobic! (mo-mag.cz)
  • The most common type of glycolysis is the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) pathway, which was discovered by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and Jakub Karol Parnas. (wikipedia.org)
  • In this article, we will explore the details of each step of glycolysis, the enzymes involved, the regulation mechanisms, and the clinical implications of glycolysis defects. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • This reaction is 70-100 times slower than that of other enzymes involved in lens glycolysis and is, therefore, rate-limited. (aao.org)
  • Here, we report that three consecutive triose- phosphate -processing enzymes involved in cytosolic glycolysis , triose- phosphate - isomerase (TPI), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPC), and phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK), designated TGP, negatively regulate autophagy . (bvsalud.org)
  • Glycolysis is followed by the Krebs cycle during aerobic respiration. (byjus.com)
  • Glycolysis Vs Krebs Cycle: What's The Difference? (differencess.com)
  • If you're like most people, you probably don't really understand the glycolysis and krebs cycle differences. (differencess.com)
  • The glycolysis step of the Krebs cycle is responsible for generating energy for your body's cells. (differencess.com)
  • What are the differences between Glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle? (differencess.com)
  • The glycolysis pathway occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is responsible for producing energy from glucose using the Krebs cycle. (differencess.com)
  • Glycolysis coverts the glucose into pyruvate which results in release of high energy. (dnatube.com)
  • Glycolysis is the process in which glucose is broken down to produce energy. (byjus.com)
  • Apical Na+/H+ antiporter and glycolysis-dependent H+-ATPase regulate intracellular pH in the rabbit S3 proximal tubule. (jci.org)
  • S3 tubules also possess a plasma membrane H+-ATPase that can regulate pHi, has a requirement for intracellular chloride, and utilizes ATP derived primarily from glycolysis. (jci.org)
  • This article explores the intracellular location of glycolysis, discussing where glycolysis occurs within cells, the organelles involved, and how this knowledge can be applied to support innovative research and medical treatments. (vetrina-eventi.com)
  • Defects in glycolysis (rare) may cause syndromes similar to GSDs. (msdmanuals.com)
  • The glycolysis process starts with the entry of glucose into the mitochondrion, where it is converted to pyruvate. (differencess.com)
  • In addition, the excess carbohydrate worsens the energy crisis in Tarui disease because the metabolic block in PFK deficiency occurs below the entry of glucose into glycolysis and therefore, it cannot be used by the muscle for energy production. (medscape.com)
  • Pyruvic acid formed during glycolysis is broken down to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide and is released (which is used to form ATP). (zestrestaurant.co.za)
  • Glycolysis is the metabolic process that converts glucose into pyruvic acid. (byjus.com)
  • Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose (C6H12O6) into pyruvate, and in most organisms, occurs in the liquid part of cells, the cytosol. (wikipedia.org)
  • The pattern and intensity of the antibodies and of the COX and LDH activity showed the high capacity of photoreceptors for aerobic glycolysis and OXPHOS. (molvis.org)
  • Based on the antibody intensities and the COX and LDH activity, Müller glial cells (MGCs) had the lowest capacity for glycolysis, aerobic glycolysis, and OXPHOS. (molvis.org)
  • In both in vitro and in vivo settings, steering pyruvate use toward glycolysis or OXPHOS. (lu.se)
  • In both in vitro and in vivo settings, steering pyruvate use toward glycolysis or OXPHOS differentially skews the hematopoietic output of HE cells toward either an erythroid fate with primitive phenotype, or a definitive lymphoid fate, respectively. (lu.se)
  • Interestingly, activated DCs and T-effector cells, such as T-helper 1 (Th1) and T-helper 17 (Th17), utilize glycolysis for their energy needs while Tregs rely on fatty acid oxidation for their energy needs. (aiche.org)
  • Triose-phosphate isomerase converts dihydroxyacetone phosphate into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate which is the substrate in the successive step of glycolysis. (byjus.com)
  • Glycolysis is the primary step of cellular respiration, which occurs in all organisms. (byjus.com)
  • Glycolysis helps to provide the glucose needed for cellular respiration, but it is not the primary source of energy for the body. (differencess.com)
  • Zhang Z, Luan Q, Hao W, Cui Y, Li Y, Li X. NOX4-derived ROS Regulates Aerobic Glycolysis of Breast Cancer through YAP Pathway. (jcancer.org)
  • Li, X. NOX4-derived ROS Regulates Aerobic Glycolysis of Breast Cancer through YAP Pathway. (jcancer.org)
  • Cytoskeletal architecture regulates glycolysis - from @gdanuser1 & co. https://t.co/3800CYabOI 2. (altmetric.com)
  • The wide occurrence of glycolysis in other species indicates that it is an ancient metabolic pathway. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cells performing aerobic respiration synthesize much more ATP, but not as part of glycolysis. (wikipedia.org)
  • Otto Heinrich Warburg demonstrated in 1924 that cancer cells show an increased dependence on glycolysis to meet their energy needs, regardless of whether they were well-oxygenated or not. (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • Glycolysis is an important metabolic pathway that generates energy in various cells of the blood vessel wall. (wjgnet.com)
  • In the present work, we found that 5-ALA, a natural precursor of heme, can hinder cell glycolysis, which is the main path of energy production for most cancer cells. (mdpi.com)
  • NOX4 affects breast cancer glycolysis through ROS-induced activation of the YAP pathway, further promoting the proliferation and migration of breast cancer cells. (jcancer.org)
  • Downregulation of KLF8 inhibits proliferation and glycolysis, and also promotes apoptosis in AML cells via AKT/mTOR pathway. (ajol.info)
  • In the early stage of ischemia and hypoxia, cells will increase the energy supply to the ischemic area, especially the functional area of the ischemic penumbra, by regulating glycolysis. (ijpsonline.com)
  • Since the pH range in which cells can function is quite narrow (pH 7.0-7.6), uncontrolled glycolysis can lead to cell death. (circat.cat)
  • How does Glycolysis result in the production of energy for our cells? (differencess.com)
  • In the second step of glycolysis, an isomerase converts glucose-6-phosphate into one of its isomers, fructose-6-phosphate (this isomer has a phosphate attached at the location of the sixth carbon of the ring). (unizin.org)
  • We attempted to identify carbon metabolic genes that modulate autophagy using VIGS screening of 45 glycolysis - and Calvin-Benson cycle -related genes in Arabidopsis ( Arabidopsis thaliana ). (bvsalud.org)
  • In the second step of glycolysis, an isomerase converts glucose-6-phosphate into one of its isomers , fructose-6-phosphate. (cloudaccess.net)
  • The mechanism may be related to the improvement of glycolysis dysfunction and alleviation of autophagy over activation of activated protein kinase. (ijpsonline.com)