The science dealing with the earth and its life, especially the description of land, sea, and air and the distribution of plant and animal life, including humanity and human industries with reference to the mutual relations of these elements. (From Webster, 3d ed)
The area of medicine concerned with the effects on health and disease due to geographic factors such as CLIMATE, environmental conditions, and geographic location.
The systematic surveying, mapping, charting, and description of specific geographical sites, with reference to the physical features that were presumed to influence health and disease. Medical topography should be differentiated from EPIDEMIOLOGY in that the former emphasizes geography whereas the latter emphasizes disease outbreaks.
The common orally transmitted traditions, myths, festivals, songs, superstitions, and stories of all peoples.
The discipline studying genetic composition of populations and effects of factors such as GENETIC SELECTION, population size, MUTATION, migration, and GENETIC DRIFT on the frequencies of various GENOTYPES and PHENOTYPES using a variety of GENETIC TECHNIQUES.
A field of study concerned with the principles and processes governing the geographic distributions of genealogical lineages, especially those within and among closely related species. (Avise, J.C., Phylogeography: The History and Formation of Species. Harvard University Press, 2000)
The science of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and historical linguistics. (Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2d ed)
I'm sorry for any confusion, but there seems to be a misunderstanding as "South America" is not a medical term and cannot have a medical definition. It is a geographical term referring to the southern portion of the American continent, consisting of twelve independent countries and three territories of other nations.
Computer systems capable of assembling, storing, manipulating, and displaying geographically referenced information, i.e. data identified according to their locations.
Elements of residence that characterize a population. They are applicable in determining need for and utilization of health services.
A healthcare facility equipped to provide all but the most specialized forms of care, surgery, and diagnostic techniques.
Genotypic differences observed among individuals in a population.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
Statistical interpretation and description of a population with reference to distribution, composition, or structure.
Comprehensive planning for the physical development of the city.
The process of leaving one's country to establish residence in a foreign country.
The longterm manifestations of WEATHER. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
In evolutionary theory, overlapping geographic distribution of diverging species. In sympatric GENETIC SPECIATION, genetic diversion occurs without geographic separation.
The splitting of an ancestral species into daughter species that coexist in time (King, Dictionary of Genetics, 6th ed). Causal factors may include geographic isolation, HABITAT geometry, migration, REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION, random GENETIC DRIFT and MUTATION.
The inhabitants of peripheral or adjacent areas of a city or town.
Techniques which study entities using their topological, geometric, or geographic properties.
The branch of science concerned with the interrelationship of organisms and their ENVIRONMENT, especially as manifested by natural cycles and rhythms, community development and structure, interactions between different kinds of organisms, geographic distributions, and population alterations. (Webster's, 3d ed)
The term "United States" in a medical context often refers to the country where a patient or study participant resides, and is not a medical term per se, but relevant for epidemiological studies, healthcare policies, and understanding differences in disease prevalence, treatment patterns, and health outcomes across various geographic locations.
Social and economic factors that characterize the individual or group within the social structure.
The science of the earth and other celestial bodies and their history as recorded in the rocks. It includes the study of geologic processes of an area such as rock formations, weathering and erosion, and sedimentation. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
I'm sorry for any confusion, but 'Europe' is a geographical continent and not a medical term; therefore, it doesn't have a medical definition.
Mathematical procedure that transforms a number of possibly correlated variables into a smaller number of uncorrelated variables called principal components.
The human male sex chromosome, being the differential sex chromosome carried by half the male gametes and none of the female gametes in humans.
A functional system which includes the organisms of a natural community together with their environment. (McGraw Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
The genetic constitution of individuals with respect to one member of a pair of allelic genes, or sets of genes that are closely linked and tend to be inherited together such as those of the MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX.
The detection of RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISMS by selective PCR amplification of restriction fragments derived from genomic DNA followed by electrophoretic analysis of the amplified restriction fragments.
The variety of all native living organisms and their various forms and interrelationships.
Health services, public or private, in rural areas. The services include the promotion of health and the delivery of health care.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Brazil" is not a medical term or concept, it is a country located in South America, known officially as the Federative Republic of Brazil. If you have any questions related to health, medicine, or science, I'd be happy to help answer those!
The degree to which individuals are inhibited or facilitated in their ability to gain entry to and to receive care and services from the health care system. Factors influencing this ability include geographic, architectural, transportational, and financial considerations, among others.
Enumerations of populations usually recording identities of all persons in every place of residence with age or date of birth, sex, occupation, national origin, language, marital status, income, relation to head of household, information on the dwelling place, education, literacy, health-related data (e.g., permanent disability), etc. The census or "numbering of the people" is mentioned several times in the Old Testament. Among the Romans, censuses were intimately connected with the enumeration of troops before and after battle and probably a military necessity. (From Last, A Dictionary of Epidemiology, 3d ed; Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine, 4th ed, p66, p119)
A variety of simple repeat sequences that are distributed throughout the GENOME. They are characterized by a short repeat unit of 2-8 basepairs that is repeated up to 100 times. They are also known as short tandem repeats (STRs).
Double-stranded DNA of MITOCHONDRIA. In eukaryotes, the mitochondrial GENOME is circular and codes for ribosomal RNAs, transfer RNAs, and about 10 proteins.
The largest of the continents. It was known to the Romans more specifically as what we know today as Asia Minor. The name comes from at least two possible sources: from the Assyrian asu (to rise) or from the Sanskrit usa (dawn), both with reference to its being the land of the rising sun, i.e., eastern as opposed to Europe, to the west. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p82 & Room, Brewer's Dictionary of Names, 1992, p34)
The change in gene frequency in a population due to migration of gametes or individuals (ANIMAL MIGRATION) across population barriers. In contrast, in GENETIC DRIFT the cause of gene frequency changes are not a result of population or gamete movement.
Groups of individuals whose putative ancestry is from native continental populations based on similarities in physical appearance.
The process whereby a society changes from a rural to an urban way of life. It refers also to the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas.
Differences in access to or availability of medical facilities and services.
A group of people with a common cultural heritage that sets them apart from others in a variety of social relationships.
The inhabitants of a city or town, including metropolitan areas and suburban areas.
The process of cumulative change over successive generations through which organisms acquire their distinguishing morphological and physiological characteristics.
A method of analyzing the variation in utilization of health care in small geographic or demographic areas. It often studies, for example, the usage rates for a given service or procedure in several small areas, documenting the variation among the areas. By comparing high- and low-use areas, the analysis attempts to determine whether there is a pattern to such use and to identify variables that are associated with and contribute to the variation.
The region of southwest Asia and northeastern Africa usually considered as extending from Libya on the west to Afghanistan on the east. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988)
A province of Canada on the Pacific coast. Its capital is Victoria. The name given in 1858 derives from the Columbia River which was named by the American captain Robert Gray for his ship Columbia which in turn was named for Columbus. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p178 & Room, Brewer's Dictionary of Names, 1992, p81-2)
A set of statistical methods used to group variables or observations into strongly inter-related subgroups. In epidemiology, it may be used to analyze a closely grouped series of events or cases of disease or other health-related phenomenon with well-defined distribution patterns in relation to time or place or both.
I'm afraid there seems to be a misunderstanding - "Africa" is not a medical term and does not have a medical definition. Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, consisting of 54 countries with diverse cultures, peoples, languages, and landscapes. If you have any questions related to medical topics or definitions, I would be happy to help answer those for you!
The inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Oregon" is a geographical location and not a medical concept or condition. It is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to help answer those!
A great expanse of continuous bodies of salt water which together cover more than 70 percent of the earth's surface. Seas may be partially or entirely enclosed by land, and are smaller than the five oceans (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic).
A verbal or nonverbal means of communicating ideas or feelings.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
A theorem in probability theory named for Thomas Bayes (1702-1761). In epidemiology, it is used to obtain the probability of disease in a group of people with some characteristic on the basis of the overall rate of that disease and of the likelihood of that characteristic in healthy and diseased individuals. The most familiar application is in clinical decision analysis where it is used for estimating the probability of a particular diagnosis given the appearance of some symptoms or test result.
Variation in rates of disease occurrence and disabilities between population groups defined by socioeconomic characteristics such as age, ethnicity, economic resources, or gender and populations identified geographically or similar measures.
Individuals whose ancestral origins are in the continent of Europe.
The interchange of goods or commodities, especially on a large scale, between different countries or between populations within the same country. It includes trade (the buying, selling, or exchanging of commodities, whether wholesale or retail) and business (the purchase and sale of goods to make a profit). (From Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2d ed, p411, p2005 & p283)
The external elements and conditions which surround, influence, and affect the life and development of an organism or population.
A geographic area defined and served by a health program or institution.
The status of health in urban populations.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Mexico" is not a medical term and does not have a medical definition. It is the name of a country located in North America, known officially as the United Mexican States. If you have any questions related to medical topics or terminology, I would be happy to help answer those!
Time period from 1901 through 2000 of the common era.
A distribution function used to describe the occurrence of rare events or to describe the sampling distribution of isolated counts in a continuum of time or space.
While there isn't a specific medical definition for "North America," I can provide a geographical definition that is often used in public health and medical contexts: North America is the third largest continent by area, encompassing 23 independent states, including the United States, Canada, and Mexico, which are home to diverse populations, cultures, and ecosystems, and share common health-related challenges such as obesity, diabetes, and healthcare access disparities.
Number of individuals in a population relative to space.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Wales" is not a medical term and does not have a medical definition. It is a country that is part of the United Kingdom, located in Europe. If you have any questions about a specific medical topic, I would be happy to help answer those!
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "California" is a place, specifically a state on the western coast of the United States, and not a medical term or concept. Therefore, it doesn't have a medical definition.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but 'England' is not a medical term and does not have a medical definition. England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom, known for its rich history, cultural heritage, and contributions to medical science. However, in a medical context, it may refer to the location of a patient, healthcare provider, or research study, but it is not a term with a specific medical meaning.
A province of Canada lying between the provinces of Manitoba and Quebec. Its capital is Toronto. It takes its name from Lake Ontario which is said to represent the Iroquois oniatariio, beautiful lake. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p892 & Room, Brewer's Dictionary of Names, 1992, p391)
The process of cumulative change at the level of DNA; RNA; and PROTEINS, over successive generations.
All deaths reported in a given population.
Maleness or femaleness as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from SEX CHARACTERISTICS, anatomical or physiological manifestations of sex, and from SEX DISTRIBUTION, the number of males and females in given circumstances.
The protection, preservation, restoration, and rational use of all resources in the total environment.
Federal program, created by Public Law 89-97, Title XVIII-Health Insurance for the Aged, a 1965 amendment to the Social Security Act, that provides health insurance benefits to persons over the age of 65 and others eligible for Social Security benefits. It consists of two separate but coordinated programs: hospital insurance (MEDICARE PART A) and supplementary medical insurance (MEDICARE PART B). (Hospital Administration Terminology, AHA, 2d ed and A Discursive Dictionary of Health Care, US House of Representatives, 1976)
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
A stratum of people with similar position and prestige; includes social stratification. Social class is measured by criteria such as education, occupation, and income.
The concept pertaining to the health status of inhabitants of the world.
A situation in which the level of living of an individual, family, or group is below the standard of the community. It is often related to a specific income level.
Divisions of the year according to some regularly recurrent phenomena usually astronomical or climatic. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
The status of health in rural populations.
The proportion of one particular in the total of all ALLELES for one genetic locus in a breeding POPULATION.
The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from INCIDENCE, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time.
Revenues or receipts accruing from business enterprise, labor, or invested capital.
The pattern of any process, or the interrelationship of phenomena, which affects growth or change within a population.
A country spanning from central Asia to the Pacific Ocean.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Scotland" is not a medical term and does not have a medical definition. Scotland is one of the four constituent countries of the United Kingdom, located in the northern part of Great Britain. If you have any questions related to healthcare or medical terminology, I would be happy to help answer those!
The concept concerned with all aspects of providing and distributing health services to a patient population.
The genetic constitution of the individual, comprising the ALLELES present at each GENETIC LOCUS.
The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from PREVALENCE, which refers to all cases, new or old, in the population at a given time.
The complete genetic complement contained in the DNA of a set of CHROMOSOMES in a HUMAN. The length of the human genome is about 3 billion base pairs.
Persons living in the United States having origins in any of the black groups of Africa.
Statistical formulations or analyses which, when applied to data and found to fit the data, are then used to verify the assumptions and parameters used in the analysis. Examples of statistical models are the linear model, binomial model, polynomial model, two-parameter model, etc.
Branch of medicine concerned with the prevention and control of disease and disability, and the promotion of physical and mental health of the population on the international, national, state, or municipal level.
Decisions, usually developed by government policymakers, for determining present and future objectives pertaining to the health care system.
Individuals whose ancestral origins are in the continent of Africa.
The frequency of different ages or age groups in a given population. The distribution may refer to either how many or what proportion of the group. The population is usually patients with a specific disease but the concept is not restricted to humans and is not restricted to medicine.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "India" is not a medical term that can be defined in a medical context. It is a geographical location, referring to the Republic of India, a country in South Asia. If you have any questions related to medical topics or definitions, I would be happy to help with those!
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of systems, processes, or phenomena. They include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
Persons living in the United States of Mexican (MEXICAN AMERICANS), Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South American, or other Spanish culture or origin. The concept does not include Brazilian Americans or Portuguese Americans.
Ongoing scrutiny of a population (general population, study population, target population, etc.), generally using methods distinguished by their practicability, uniformity, and frequently their rapidity, rather than by complete accuracy.
The number of males and females in a given population. The distribution may refer to how many men or women or what proportion of either in the group. The population is usually patients with a specific disease but the concept is not restricted to humans and is not restricted to medicine.
Differential and non-random reproduction of different genotypes, operating to alter the gene frequencies within a population.
Procedures for finding the mathematical function which best describes the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. In linear regression (see LINEAR MODELS) the relationship is constrained to be a straight line and LEAST-SQUARES ANALYSIS is used to determine the best fit. In logistic regression (see LOGISTIC MODELS) the dependent variable is qualitative rather than continuously variable and LIKELIHOOD FUNCTIONS are used to find the best relationship. In multiple regression, the dependent variable is considered to depend on more than a single independent variable.
A single nucleotide variation in a genetic sequence that occurs at appreciable frequency in the population.
Factors which produce cessation of all vital bodily functions. They can be analyzed from an epidemiologic viewpoint.
Statistical models which describe the relationship between a qualitative dependent variable (that is, one which can take only certain discrete values, such as the presence or absence of a disease) and an independent variable. A common application is in epidemiology for estimating an individual's risk (probability of a disease) as a function of a given risk factor.
The regular and simultaneous occurrence in a single interbreeding population of two or more discontinuous genotypes. The concept includes differences in genotypes ranging in size from a single nucleotide site (POLYMORPHISM, SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE) to large nucleotide sequences visible at a chromosomal level.
The integration of epidemiologic, sociological, economic, and other analytic sciences in the study of health services. Health services research is usually concerned with relationships between need, demand, supply, use, and outcome of health services. The aim of the research is evaluation, particularly in terms of structure, process, output, and outcome. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
Systematic gathering of data for a particular purpose from various sources, including questionnaires, interviews, observation, existing records, and electronic devices. The process is usually preliminary to statistical analysis of the data.
The largest country in North America, comprising 10 provinces and three territories. Its capital is Ottawa.
A set of techniques used when variation in several variables has to be studied simultaneously. In statistics, multivariate analysis is interpreted as any analytic method that allows simultaneous study of two or more dependent variables.
Studies in which the presence or absence of disease or other health-related variables are determined in each member of the study population or in a representative sample at one particular time. This contrasts with LONGITUDINAL STUDIES which are followed over a period of time.
Variant forms of the same gene, occupying the same locus on homologous CHROMOSOMES, and governing the variants in production of the same gene product.
The confinement of a patient in a hospital.
Age as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or the effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from AGING, a physiological process, and TIME FACTORS which refers only to the passage of time.
A loose confederation of computer communication networks around the world. The networks that make up the Internet are connected through several backbone networks. The Internet grew out of the US Government ARPAnet project and was designed to facilitate information exchange.
The systems and processes involved in the establishment, support, management, and operation of registers, e.g., disease registers.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
An infant during the first month after birth.
Includes the spectrum of human immunodeficiency virus infections that range from asymptomatic seropositivity, thru AIDS-related complex (ARC), to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

Using physical-chemistry-based substitution models in phylogenetic analyses of HIV-1 subtypes. (1/6654)

HIV-1 subtype phylogeny is investigated using a previously developed computational model of natural amino acid site substitutions. This model, based on Boltzmann statistics and Metropolis kinetics, involves an order of magnitude fewer adjustable parameters than traditional substitution matrices and deals more effectively with the issue of protein site heterogeneity. When optimized for sequences of HIV-1 envelope (env) proteins from a few specific subtypes, our model is more likely to describe the evolutionary record for other subtypes than are methods using a single substitution matrix, even a matrix optimized over the same data. Pairwise distances are calculated between various probabilistic ancestral subtype sequences, and a distance matrix approach is used to find the optimal phylogenetic tree. Our results indicate that the relationships between subtypes B, C, and D and those between subtypes A and H may be closer than previously thought.  (+info)

Prehistoric birds from New Ireland, Papua New Guinea: extinctions on a large Melanesian island. (2/6654)

At least 50 species of birds are represented in 241 bird bones from five late Pleistocene and Holocene archaeological sites on New Ireland (Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea). The bones include only two of seabirds and none of migrant shorebirds or introduced species. Of the 50 species, at least 12 (petrel, hawk, megapode, quail, four rails, cockatoo, two owls, and crow) are not part of the current avifauna and have not been recorded previously from New Ireland. Larger samples of bones undoubtedly would indicate more extirpated species and refine the chronology of extinction. Humans have lived on New Ireland for ca. 35,000 years, whereas most of the identified bones are 15,000 to 6,000 years old. It is suspected that most or all of New Ireland's avian extinction was anthropogenic, but this suspicion remains undetermined. Our data show that significant prehistoric losses of birds, which are well documented on Pacific islands more remote than New Ireland, occurred also on large, high, mostly forested islands close to New Guinea.  (+info)

Ancestral origins and worldwide distribution of the PRNP 200K mutation causing familial Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. (3/6654)

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) belongs to a group of prion diseases that may be infectious, sporadic, or hereditary. The 200K point mutation in the PRNP gene is the most frequent cause of hereditary CJD, accounting for >70% of families with CJD worldwide. Prevalence of the 200K variant of familial CJD is especially high in Slovakia, Chile, and Italy, and among populations of Libyan and Tunisian Jews. To study ancestral origins of the 200K mutation-associated chromosomes, we selected microsatellite markers flanking the PRNP gene on chromosome 20p12-pter and an intragenic single-nucleotide polymorphism at the PRNP codon 129. Haplotypes were constructed for 62 CJD families originating from 11 world populations. The results show that Libyan, Tunisian, Italian, Chilean, and Spanish families share a major haplotype, suggesting that the 200K mutation may have originated from a single mutational event, perhaps in Spain, and spread to all these populations with Sephardic migrants expelled from Spain in the Middle Ages. Slovakian families and a family of Polish origin show another unique haplotype. The haplotypes in families from Germany, Sicily, Austria, and Japan are different from the Mediterranean or eastern European haplotypes. On the basis of this study, we conclude that founder effect and independent mutational events are responsible for the current geographic distribution of hereditary CJD associated with the 200K mutation.  (+info)

mtDNA analysis of Nile River Valley populations: A genetic corridor or a barrier to migration? (4/6654)

To assess the extent to which the Nile River Valley has been a corridor for human migrations between Egypt and sub-Saharan Africa, we analyzed mtDNA variation in 224 individuals from various locations along the river. Sequences of the first hypervariable segment (HV1) of the mtDNA control region and a polymorphic HpaI site at position 3592 allowed us to designate each mtDNA as being of "northern" or "southern" affiliation. Proportions of northern and southern mtDNA differed significantly between Egypt, Nubia, and the southern Sudan. At slowly evolving sites within HV1, northern-mtDNA diversity was highest in Egypt and lowest in the southern Sudan, and southern-mtDNA diversity was highest in the southern Sudan and lowest in Egypt, indicating that migrations had occurred bidirectionally along the Nile River Valley. Egypt and Nubia have low and similar amounts of divergence for both mtDNA types, which is consistent with historical evidence for long-term interactions between Egypt and Nubia. Spatial autocorrelation analysis demonstrates a smooth gradient of decreasing genetic similarity of mtDNA types as geographic distance between sampling localities increases, strongly suggesting gene flow along the Nile, with no evident barriers. We conclude that these migrations probably occurred within the past few hundred to few thousand years and that the migration from north to south was either earlier or lesser in the extent of gene flow than the migration from south to north.  (+info)

Distribution of haplotypes from a chromosome 21 region distinguishes multiple prehistoric human migrations. (5/6654)

Despite mounting genetic evidence implicating a recent origin of modern humans, the elucidation of early migratory gene-flow episodes remains incomplete. Geographic distribution of haplotypes may show traces of ancestral migrations. However, such evolutionary signatures can be erased easily by recombination and mutational perturbations. A 565-bp chromosome 21 region near the MX1 gene, which contains nine sites frequently polymorphic in human populations, has been found. It is unaffected by recombination and recurrent mutation and thus reflects only migratory history, genetic drift, and possibly selection. Geographic distribution of contemporary haplotypes implies distinctive prehistoric human migrations: one to Oceania, one to Asia and subsequently to America, and a third one predominantly to Europe. The findings with chromosome 21 are confirmed by independent evidence from a Y chromosome phylogeny. Loci of this type will help to decipher the evolutionary history of modern humans.  (+info)

High recombination rate in natural populations of Plasmodium falciparum. (6/6654)

Malaria parasites are sexually reproducing protozoa, although the extent of effective meiotic recombination in natural populations has been debated. If meiotic recombination occurs frequently, compared with point mutation and mitotic rearrangement, linkage disequilibrium between polymorphic sites is expected to decline with increasing distance along a chromosome. The rate of this decline should be proportional to the effective meiotic recombination rate in the population. Multiple polymorphic sites covering a 5-kb region of chromosome 9 (the msp1 gene) have been typed in 547 isolates from six populations in Africa to test for such a decline and estimate its rate in populations of Plasmodium falciparum. The magnitude of two-site linkage disequilibrium declines markedly with increasing molecular map distance between the sites, reaching nonsignificant levels within a map range of 0.3-1.0 kb in five of the populations and over a larger map distance in the population with lowest malaria endemicity. The rate of decline in linkage disequilibrium over molecular map distance is at least as rapid as that observed in most chromosomal regions of other sexually reproducing eukaryotes, such as humans and Drosophila. These results are consistent with the effective recombination rate expected in natural populations of P. falciparum, predicted on the basis of the underlying molecular rate of meiotic crossover and the coefficient of inbreeding caused by self-fertilization events. This is conclusive evidence to reject any hypothesis of clonality or low rate of meiotic recombination in P. falciparum populations. Moreover, the data have major implications for the design and interpretation of population genetic studies of selection on P. falciparum genes.  (+info)

The modulation of DNA content: proximate causes and ultimate consequences. (7/6654)

The forces responsible for modulating the large-scale features of the genome remain one of the most difficult issues confronting evolutionary biology. Although diversity in chromosomal architecture, nucleotide composition, and genome size has been well documented, there is little understanding of either the evolutionary origins or impact of much of this variation. The 80,000-fold divergence in genome sizes among eukaryotes represents perhaps the greatest challenge for genomic holists. Although some researchers continue to characterize much variation in genome size as a mere by-product of an intragenomic selfish DNA "free-for-all" there is increasing evidence for the primacy of selection in molding genome sizes via impacts on cell size and division rates. Moreover, processes inducing quantum or doubling series variation in gametic or somatic genome sizes are common. These abrupt shifts have broad effects on phenotypic attributes at both cellular and organismal levels and may play an important role in explaining episodes of rapid-or even saltational-character state evolution.  (+info)

Identification of a distinct common strain of "Norwalk-like viruses" having a global distribution. (8/6654)

"Norwalk-like viruses" (NLVs) are the most common cause of outbreaks of nonbacterial gastroenteritis. During molecular surveillance of NLV strains from 152 outbreaks of gastroenteritis that occurred in the US between August 1993 and July 1997, we identified an NLV strain that predominated during the 1995-1996 season. The "95/96-US" strain caused 60 outbreaks in geographically distant locations within the US and was identified, by sequence comparisons, in an additional 7 countries on 5 continents during the same period. This is the first demonstration linking a single NLV strain globally and suggests that the circulation of these strains might involve patterns of transmission not previously considered. The diagnostic techniques are now available to establish a global network for surveillance of NLV strains that would highlight the importance of NLVs worldwide and allow molecular identification of common strains having a global distribution so as to consider interventions for their control.  (+info)

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "geography" is not a term that has a medical definition. Geography is a field of study that deals with the location and distribution of physical and cultural features on Earth's surface, as well as how humans interact with and affect those features. It is not a concept that is typically used in a medical context. If you have any questions related to medicine or healthcare, I would be happy to try to help answer them for you!

Medical geography, also known as health geography, is a branch of both human and physical geography that focuses on the spatial aspects of health and disease. It is an interdisciplinary field that incorporates concepts from epidemiology, medical sociology, public health, and health services research to examine the distribution, determinants, and patterns of health and disease in human populations.

Medical geographers study a variety of topics related to health, including environmental hazards, access to healthcare, infectious diseases, chronic conditions, and health disparities. They use spatial analysis techniques, such as geographic information systems (GIS) and spatial statistics, to map and analyze the geographical patterns of health outcomes and determinants.

Medical geography has important applications in public health policy and planning, including identifying areas with high rates of disease or limited access to healthcare, developing targeted interventions to address health disparities, and evaluating the effectiveness of public health programs.

Medical topography refers to the detailed description and mapping of the locations and relative positions of various anatomical structures, abnormalities, or lesions in the body. It is often used in the context of imaging techniques such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRI scans, where it helps to visualize and communicate the spatial relationships between different bodily features. Medical topography may also involve the use of physical examination, surgical exploration, or other diagnostic methods to gather information about the location and extent of medical conditions.

In summary, medical topography is a detailed mapping and description of the location and position of anatomical structures or pathological changes in the body.

I'm afraid there seems to be a misunderstanding. Folklore is not a medical term and does not have a medical definition. It refers to the traditional customs, tales, sayings, dances, or art forms that are passed down from generation to generation within a culture or community. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I'd be happy to help!

Population Genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with the genetic composition of populations and how this composition changes over time. It involves the study of the frequency and distribution of genes and genetic variations in populations, as well as the evolutionary forces that contribute to these patterns, such as mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection.

Population genetics can provide insights into a wide range of topics, including the history and relationships between populations, the genetic basis of diseases and other traits, and the potential impacts of environmental changes on genetic diversity. This field is important for understanding evolutionary processes at the population level and has applications in areas such as conservation biology, medical genetics, and forensic science.

Phylogeography is not a medical term, but rather a subfield of biogeography and phylogenetics that investigates the spatial distribution of genealogical lineages and the historical processes that have shaped them. It uses genetic data to infer the geographic origins, dispersal routes, and demographic history of organisms, including pathogens and vectors that can affect human health.

In medical and public health contexts, phylogeography is often used to study the spread of infectious diseases, such as HIV/AIDS, influenza, or tuberculosis, by analyzing the genetic diversity and geographic distribution of pathogen isolates. This information can help researchers understand how diseases emerge, evolve, and move across populations and landscapes, which can inform disease surveillance, control, and prevention strategies.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "linguistics" is not a term that has a medical definition. Lingustics is the scientific study of language and its structure. It involves analysing language form, language meaning, and language in context.

If you have any questions related to healthcare or medicine, I'd be happy to try to help answer them!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "South America" is not a medical term. It is a geographical term that refers to the southern portion of the Americas, which is a continent in the Western Hemisphere. South America is generally defined as including the countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela, as well as the overseas departments and territories of French Guiana (France), and the Falkland Islands (UK).

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to help answer them for you.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Geographic Information Systems" (GIS) is not a medical term. GIS is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of geographical data. It can be used in various fields, including public health and epidemiology, to map and analyze the spread of diseases, identify environmental risk factors, plan health services delivery, and inform evidence-based decision making.

I'm happy to help, but I need to clarify that "residence characteristics" is not a commonly used medical term. It is more related to the field of public health or epidemiology. However, if you are asking for the characteristics of a residence that could be relevant to medical or health research, they might include:

1. Housing type (single-family home, apartment, mobile home, etc.)
2. Age and condition of the housing unit
3. Presence of environmental hazards (lead paint, asbestos, radon, etc.)
4. Quality of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems
5. Access to clean water and sanitation facilities
6. Safety features (smoke detectors, carbon monoxide detectors, etc.)
7. Presence of pests (rodents, cockroaches, bed bugs, etc.)
8. Neighborhood characteristics (crime rates, access to healthy food options, walkability, etc.)

These factors can all have an impact on the health outcomes of individuals and communities, and are often studied in public health research.

Secondary care centers are facilities or services in the healthcare system that provide specialized care and support for patients who have been referred from primary care providers. These centers consist of medical professionals with advanced training in specific areas, such as cardiology, neurology, oncology, or orthopedics. They offer a higher level of complexity in diagnostic and treatment options than primary care services. The main goal of secondary care is to address more complex medical conditions, provide further diagnosis, and deliver treatments that cannot be managed within the primary care setting.

Genetic variation refers to the differences in DNA sequences among individuals and populations. These variations can result from mutations, genetic recombination, or gene flow between populations. Genetic variation is essential for evolution by providing the raw material upon which natural selection acts. It can occur within a single gene, between different genes, or at larger scales, such as differences in the number of chromosomes or entire sets of chromosomes. The study of genetic variation is crucial in understanding the genetic basis of diseases and traits, as well as the evolutionary history and relationships among species.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

Demography is the statistical study of populations, particularly in terms of size, distribution, and characteristics such as age, race, gender, and occupation. In medical contexts, demography is often used to analyze health-related data and trends within specific populations. This can include studying the prevalence of certain diseases or conditions, identifying disparities in healthcare access and outcomes, and evaluating the effectiveness of public health interventions. Demographic data can also be used to inform policy decisions and allocate resources to address population health needs.

City planning, also known as urban planning, is the process of designing and managing the development of urban areas to create functional, sustainable, and livable spaces. It involves the integration of various disciplines, including architecture, engineering, sociology, environmental studies, and public health, to address the needs of a city's residents and ensure the optimal use of resources.

City planning encompasses several key components, such as land use planning, transportation planning, housing and neighborhood development, infrastructure development, and open space preservation. The goal is to create safe, healthy, and equitable communities that promote social, economic, and environmental sustainability.

In terms of public health, city planning plays a critical role in shaping the physical environment in which people live, work, and play. By creating walkable neighborhoods with easy access to parks, community facilities, and public transportation, city planners can encourage physical activity, reduce traffic congestion and air pollution, and promote social interaction and community engagement.

Moreover, city planning can help address health disparities by ensuring that all residents have equal access to essential services and resources, such as quality housing, healthy food options, and safe outdoor spaces. By working closely with public health professionals, city planners can develop evidence-based policies and strategies that promote health and well-being in urban areas.

Emigration is the process of leaving one's country of origin or habitual residence to settle in another country. It involves giving up the rights and privileges associated with citizenship in the country of origin and acquiring new rights and responsibilities as a citizen or resident of the destination country. Emigrants are people who choose to leave their native land to live elsewhere, often driven by factors such as economic opportunities, political instability, or conflict.

Immigration, on the other hand, is the process of entering and settling in a new country with the intention of becoming a permanent resident or citizen. Immigrants are individuals who come from another country to live in a new place, often seeking better job opportunities, education, or quality of life. They must comply with the immigration laws and regulations of the host country and may be required to undergo medical examinations, background checks, and other screening processes before being granted permission to enter and reside in the country.

In summary, emigration refers to leaving one's home country, while immigration refers to entering and settling in a new country.

Climate, in the context of environmental science and medicine, refers to the long-term average of weather conditions (such as temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, and other meteorological elements) in a given region over a period of years to decades. It is the statistical description of the weather patterns that occur in a particular location over long periods of time.

In medical terms, climate can have significant impacts on human health, both physical and mental. For example, extreme temperatures, air pollution, and ultraviolet radiation levels associated with certain climates can increase the risk of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, heat-related illnesses, and skin cancer. Similarly, changes in climate patterns can affect the distribution and prevalence of infectious diseases, such as malaria and Lyme disease.

Climate change, which refers to significant long-term changes in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years, can have even more profound impacts on human health, including increased rates of heat-related illnesses and deaths, worsening air quality, and altered transmission patterns of infectious diseases.

Sympatry is a term used in biology and ecology, including in the study of human health and disease, to describe the situation where two or more species or populations coexist in the same geographical area and often interact with each other. In medical contexts, sympatry may refer to the co-occurrence of two or more diseases or pathogens within a particular population or geographic region.

For example, in epidemiology, sympatric distribution of infectious diseases can occur when multiple pathogens are transmitted by the same vector or host species, leading to overlapping distributions and potential interactions between the diseases. This can have implications for disease surveillance, control, and prevention efforts.

It is important to note that sympatry should not be confused with symbiosis, which refers to a close and often long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms, typically involving mutual benefits or cooperation.

Genetic speciation is not a widely used term in the scientific literature, but it generally refers to the process by which new species arise due to genetic differences and reproductive isolation. This process can occur through various mechanisms such as mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, natural selection, or chromosomal changes that lead to the accumulation of genetic differences between populations. Over time, these genetic differences can result in the development of reproductive barriers that prevent interbreeding between the populations, leading to the formation of new species.

In other words, genetic speciation is a type of speciation that involves the evolution of genetic differences that ultimately lead to the formation of new species. It is an essential concept in the field of evolutionary biology and genetics, as it explains how biodiversity arises over time.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Suburban Population" is not a medical term. It refers to the people living in suburban areas, which are typically residential districts or communities that lie outside a city center. They are often characterized by single-family homes and less population density than in urban areas. If you have any questions related to medical terminology, I would be happy to help with those!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Spatial Analysis" is not a term that has a specific medical definition. Spatial analysis is a broader geographical term that refers to the examination of data related to locations and the relationships between those locations. It is often used in fields such as epidemiology and public health to analyze patterns of disease distribution and spread, but it is not a medical concept itself.

In the context of healthcare and public health, spatial analysis can involve mapping the geographic distribution of diseases or health outcomes, identifying clusters of cases, examining spatial patterns and trends, and exploring potential environmental or sociodemographic factors that may be contributing to those patterns. These techniques can help inform disease prevention and control efforts, resource allocation, and policy decisions.

Ecology is not a medical term, but rather a term used in the field of biology. It refers to the study of the relationships between living organisms and their environment. This includes how organisms interact with each other and with their physical surroundings, such as climate, soil, and water. Ecologists may study the distribution and abundance of species, the flow of energy through an ecosystem, and the effects of human activities on the environment. While ecology is not a medical field, understanding ecological principles can be important for addressing public health issues related to the environment, such as pollution, climate change, and infectious diseases.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "United States" is a geopolitical entity, specifically the name of the country consisting of 50 states, and it is not a medical term or concept. Therefore, I can't provide a medical definition for it. If you have any questions related to health, medicine, or biology, I would be happy to try to help answer those!

Socioeconomic factors are a range of interconnected conditions and influences that affect the opportunities and resources a person or group has to maintain and improve their health and well-being. These factors include:

1. Economic stability: This includes employment status, job security, income level, and poverty status. Lower income and lack of employment are associated with poorer health outcomes.
2. Education: Higher levels of education are generally associated with better health outcomes. Education can affect a person's ability to access and understand health information, as well as their ability to navigate the healthcare system.
3. Social and community context: This includes factors such as social support networks, discrimination, and community safety. Strong social supports and positive community connections are associated with better health outcomes, while discrimination and lack of safety can negatively impact health.
4. Healthcare access and quality: Access to affordable, high-quality healthcare is an important socioeconomic factor that can significantly impact a person's health. Factors such as insurance status, availability of providers, and cultural competency of healthcare systems can all affect healthcare access and quality.
5. Neighborhood and built environment: The physical conditions in which people live, work, and play can also impact their health. Factors such as housing quality, transportation options, availability of healthy foods, and exposure to environmental hazards can all influence health outcomes.

Socioeconomic factors are often interrelated and can have a cumulative effect on health outcomes. For example, someone who lives in a low-income neighborhood with limited access to healthy foods and safe parks may also face challenges related to employment, education, and healthcare access that further impact their health. Addressing socioeconomic factors is an important part of promoting health equity and reducing health disparities.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "geology" is not a medical term. It is a scientific discipline that deals with the Earth's physical structure and substance, its history, and the processes that act on it. If you have any questions about medical terminology or concepts, I would be happy to help!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Europe" is a geographical and political designation, rather than a medical one. It refers to the continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Europe is made up of approximately 50 countries, depending on how one defines a "country."

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I'd be happy to help answer them!

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is not a medical term, but a statistical technique that is used in various fields including bioinformatics and medicine. It is a method used to identify patterns in high-dimensional data by reducing the dimensionality of the data while retaining most of the variation in the dataset.

In medical or biological research, PCA may be used to analyze large datasets such as gene expression data or medical imaging data. By applying PCA, researchers can identify the principal components, which are linear combinations of the original variables that explain the maximum amount of variance in the data. These principal components can then be used for further analysis, visualization, and interpretation of the data.

PCA is a widely used technique in data analysis and has applications in various fields such as genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and medical imaging. It helps researchers to identify patterns and relationships in complex datasets, which can lead to new insights and discoveries in medical research.

Human Y chromosomes are one of the two sex-determining chromosomes in humans (the other being the X chromosome). They are found in the 23rd pair of human chromosomes and are significantly smaller than the X chromosome.

The Y chromosome is passed down from father to son through the paternal line, and it plays a crucial role in male sex determination. The SRY gene (sex-determining region Y) on the Y chromosome initiates the development of male sexual characteristics during embryonic development.

In addition to the SRY gene, the human Y chromosome contains several other genes that are essential for sperm production and male fertility. However, the Y chromosome has a much lower gene density compared to other chromosomes, with only about 80 protein-coding genes, making it one of the most gene-poor chromosomes in the human genome.

Because of its small size and low gene density, the Y chromosome is particularly susceptible to genetic mutations and deletions, which can lead to various genetic disorders and male infertility. Nonetheless, the Y chromosome remains a critical component of human genetics and evolution, providing valuable insights into sex determination, inheritance patterns, and human diversity.

An "ecosystem" is not a term that has a specific medical definition, as it is a concept that is more commonly used in the fields of ecology and environmental science. However, I can provide you with the general ecological definition of an ecosystem:

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms interacting with each other and their non-living environment, including both biotic factors (plants, animals, microorganisms) and abiotic factors (climate, soil, water, and air). These interactions create a complex network of relationships that form the foundation of ecological processes, such as energy flow, nutrient cycling, and population dynamics.

While there is no direct medical definition for an ecosystem, understanding the principles of ecosystems can have important implications for human health. For example, healthy ecosystems can provide clean air and water, regulate climate, support food production, and offer opportunities for recreation and relaxation, all of which contribute to overall well-being. Conversely, degraded ecosystems can lead to increased exposure to environmental hazards, reduced access to natural resources, and heightened risks of infectious diseases. Therefore, maintaining the health and integrity of ecosystems is crucial for promoting human health and preventing disease.

A haplotype is a group of genes or DNA sequences that are inherited together from a single parent. It refers to a combination of alleles (variant forms of a gene) that are located on the same chromosome and are usually transmitted as a unit. Haplotypes can be useful in tracing genetic ancestry, understanding the genetic basis of diseases, and developing personalized medical treatments.

In population genetics, haplotypes are often used to study patterns of genetic variation within and between populations. By comparing haplotype frequencies across populations, researchers can infer historical events such as migrations, population expansions, and bottlenecks. Additionally, haplotypes can provide information about the evolutionary history of genes and genomic regions.

In clinical genetics, haplotypes can be used to identify genetic risk factors for diseases or to predict an individual's response to certain medications. For example, specific haplotypes in the HLA gene region have been associated with increased susceptibility to certain autoimmune diseases, while other haplotypes in the CYP450 gene family can affect how individuals metabolize drugs.

Overall, haplotypes provide a powerful tool for understanding the genetic basis of complex traits and diseases, as well as for developing personalized medical treatments based on an individual's genetic makeup.

Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) analysis is a molecular biology technique used for DNA fingerprinting, genetic mapping, and population genetics studies. It is based on the selective amplification of restriction fragments from a total digest of genomic DNA, followed by separation and detection of the resulting fragments using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.

In AFLP analysis, genomic DNA is first digested with two different restriction enzymes, one that cuts frequently (e.g., EcoRI) and another that cuts less frequently (e.g., MseI). The resulting fragments are then ligated to adapter sequences that provide recognition sites for PCR amplification.

Selective amplification of the restriction fragments is achieved by using primers that anneal to the adapter sequences and contain additional selective nucleotides at their 3' ends. This allows for the amplification of a subset of the total number of restriction fragments, resulting in a pattern of bands that is specific to the DNA sample being analyzed.

The amplified fragments are then separated by size using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and visualized by staining with a fluorescent dye. The resulting banding pattern can be used for various applications, including identification of genetic differences between individuals, detection of genomic alterations in cancer cells, and analysis of population structure and diversity.

Overall, AFLP analysis is a powerful tool for the study of complex genomes and has been widely used in various fields of biology, including plant and animal breeding, forensic science, and medical research.

Biodiversity is the variety of different species of plants, animals, and microorganisms that live in an ecosystem. It also includes the variety of genes within a species and the variety of ecosystems (such as forests, grasslands, deserts, and oceans) that exist in a region or on Earth as a whole. Biodiversity is important for maintaining the health and balance of ecosystems, providing resources and services such as food, clean water, and pollination, and contributing to the discovery of new medicines and other useful products. The loss of biodiversity can have negative impacts on the functioning of ecosystems and the services they provide, and can threaten the survival of species and the livelihoods of people who depend on them.

Rural health services refer to the healthcare delivery systems and facilities that are located in rural areas and are designed to meet the unique health needs of rural populations. These services can include hospitals, clinics, community health centers, mental health centers, and home health agencies, as well as various programs and initiatives aimed at improving access to care, addressing health disparities, and promoting health and wellness in rural communities.

Rural health services are often characterized by longer travel distances to healthcare facilities, a greater reliance on primary care and preventive services, and a higher prevalence of certain health conditions such as chronic diseases, injuries, and mental health disorders. As a result, rural health services must be tailored to address these challenges and provide high-quality, affordable, and accessible care to rural residents.

In many countries, rural health services are supported by government policies and programs aimed at improving healthcare infrastructure, workforce development, and telehealth technologies in rural areas. These efforts are critical for ensuring that all individuals, regardless of where they live, have access to the healthcare services they need to maintain their health and well-being.

I apologize, but "Brazil" is not a medical term or condition. It is the largest country in both South America and Latin America by land area and population. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health concerns, please provide more information and I will do my best to help.

Health services accessibility refers to the degree to which individuals and populations are able to obtain needed health services in a timely manner. It includes factors such as physical access (e.g., distance, transportation), affordability (e.g., cost of services, insurance coverage), availability (e.g., supply of providers, hours of operation), and acceptability (e.g., cultural competence, language concordance).

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), accessibility is one of the key components of health system performance, along with responsiveness and fair financing. Improving accessibility to health services is essential for achieving universal health coverage and ensuring that everyone has access to quality healthcare without facing financial hardship. Factors that affect health services accessibility can vary widely between and within countries, and addressing these disparities requires a multifaceted approach that includes policy interventions, infrastructure development, and community engagement.

A census is a official count or survey of a population, typically conducted by a governmental authority to gather information about the demographics, economic characteristics, and other important data about the people living within its borders. In the medical context, censuses may refer to counts or surveys of specific populations, such as patients in a hospital or residents of a particular geographic area, to gather health-related data. This information can be used to inform public health policy, allocate resources, and plan for future healthcare needs.

Microsatellite repeats, also known as short tandem repeats (STRs), are repetitive DNA sequences made up of units of 1-6 base pairs that are repeated in a head-to-tail manner. These repeats are spread throughout the human genome and are highly polymorphic, meaning they can have different numbers of repeat units in different individuals.

Microsatellites are useful as genetic markers because of their high degree of variability. They are commonly used in forensic science to identify individuals, in genealogy to trace ancestry, and in medical research to study genetic diseases and disorders. Mutations in microsatellite repeats have been associated with various neurological conditions, including Huntington's disease and fragile X syndrome.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is the genetic material present in the mitochondria, which are specialized structures within cells that generate energy. Unlike nuclear DNA, which is present in the cell nucleus and inherited from both parents, mtDNA is inherited solely from the mother.

MtDNA is a circular molecule that contains 37 genes, including 13 genes that encode for proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation, a process that generates energy in the form of ATP. The remaining genes encode for rRNAs and tRNAs, which are necessary for protein synthesis within the mitochondria.

Mutations in mtDNA can lead to a variety of genetic disorders, including mitochondrial diseases, which can affect any organ system in the body. These mutations can also be used in forensic science to identify individuals and establish biological relationships.

I apologize for any confusion, but "Asia" is not a medical term. It is the largest continent in the world, comprising about 30% of the Earth's total land area and containing around 60% of the world's current human population. It is divided into several regions, including Northern Asia (Siberia), Eastern Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Taiwan), Southern Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives), Southeastern Asia (Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Brunei), and Western Asia (Middle East).

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I'd be happy to help.

Gene flow, also known as genetic migration or gene admixture, refers to the transfer of genetic variation from one population to another. It occurs when individuals reproduce and exchange genes with members of other populations through processes such as migration and interbreeding. This can result in an alteration of the genetic composition of both populations, increasing genetic diversity and reducing the differences between them. Gene flow is an important mechanism in evolutionary biology and population genetics, contributing to the distribution and frequency of alleles (versions of a gene) within and across populations.

I'm not aware of a specific medical definition for "Continental Population Groups." However, in the context of genetics and population health, continental population groups often refer to the major population divisions based on genetic ancestry and geographical origin. These groups typically include:

1. African: Individuals with recent ancestry primarily from Africa, particularly sub-Saharan Africa.
2. European: Individuals with recent ancestry primarily from Europe.
3. Asian: Individuals with recent ancestry primarily from Asia, including East Asia, South Asia, and Central Asia.
4. Native American: Individuals with recent ancestry primarily from the indigenous populations of North, Central, and South America.
5. Oceanian: Individuals with recent ancestry primarily from Australia, New Guinea, and neighboring islands in the Pacific region.

It is important to note that these categories are not exhaustive or mutually exclusive, as human migration and admixture have led to a complex web of genetic ancestries. Furthermore, using continental population labels can oversimplify the rich diversity within each group and may perpetuate harmful stereotypes or misunderstandings about racial and ethnic identities.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "urbanization" is a term that is more commonly used in the context of sociology and urban planning. It refers to the process through which rural areas become urbanized, or turned into cities, as a result of growth in population and infrastructure development.

However, if you are asking about the health implications of urbanization, then there is a field of study called "urban health" that focuses on how the urban environment impacts the physical and mental health of its inhabitants. Factors such as air pollution, noise pollution, lack of green spaces, inadequate housing, and limited access to healthy food options can all contribute to negative health outcomes in urban areas.

Healthcare disparities refer to differences in the quality, accessibility, and outcomes of healthcare that are systematically related to social or economic disadvantage. These disparities may exist between different racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, gender, sexual orientation, geographic, or disability status groups. They can result from a complex interplay of factors including provider bias, patient-provider communication, health system policies, and structural racism, among others. Healthcare disparities often lead to worse health outcomes and reduced quality of life for disadvantaged populations.

An ethnic group is a category of people who identify with each other based on shared ancestry, language, culture, history, and/or physical characteristics. The concept of an ethnic group is often used in the social sciences to describe a population that shares a common identity and a sense of belonging to a larger community.

Ethnic groups can be distinguished from racial groups, which are categories of people who are defined by their physical characteristics, such as skin color, hair texture, and facial features. While race is a social construct based on physical differences, ethnicity is a cultural construct based on shared traditions, beliefs, and practices.

It's important to note that the concept of ethnic groups can be complex and fluid, as individuals may identify with multiple ethnic groups or switch their identification over time. Additionally, the boundaries between different ethnic groups can be blurred and contested, and the ways in which people define and categorize themselves and others can vary across cultures and historical periods.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Urban Population" is not a medical term. It is a demographic term used to describe the portion of a country's population that lives in areas classified as urban. The United Nations defines an urban area as a city, town, or other agglomeration with a population of 20,000 or more. However, the specific definition can vary by country and organization.

In contrast, medical terms typically refer to conditions, diseases, symptoms, treatments, or healthcare-related concepts. If you have any questions related to health or medicine, I'd be happy to help if I can!

Biological evolution is the change in the genetic composition of populations of organisms over time, from one generation to the next. It is a process that results in descendants differing genetically from their ancestors. Biological evolution can be driven by several mechanisms, including natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation. These processes can lead to changes in the frequency of alleles (variants of a gene) within populations, resulting in the development of new species and the extinction of others over long periods of time. Biological evolution provides a unifying explanation for the diversity of life on Earth and is supported by extensive evidence from many different fields of science, including genetics, paleontology, comparative anatomy, and biogeography.

Small-area analysis is a research method used in epidemiology and public health to examine health outcomes, healthcare utilization, and other health-related factors across small geographic areas or populations. This approach allows for the identification of spatial patterns, disparities, and clustering of health issues within communities, which can inform the development and targeting of interventions, policies, and resources to improve health outcomes and reduce inequalities.

Small-area analysis often involves the use of statistical techniques, such as spatial statistics and geographic information systems (GIS), to analyze data at a fine spatial resolution, typically at the level of census tracts, zip codes, or other small administrative units. This method can help identify areas with high rates of disease or poor health outcomes, as well as social determinants of health that may contribute to these disparities, such as poverty, lack of access to healthcare, and environmental exposures.

Overall, small-area analysis is a valuable tool for understanding the geographic distribution of health issues and developing targeted interventions to improve population health.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Middle East" is not a medical term. It is a geographical region that includes countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey, Egypt, and others. If you have any questions related to medicine or health, I would be happy to try to help answer those!

British Columbia is a province located on the west coast of Canada. It is not a medical term or concept. The province has a diverse geography, with mountains, forests, and coastal areas. Its largest city is Vancouver, and its capital is Victoria. The province is known for its natural beauty and outdoor recreational opportunities, as well as its vibrant cities and cultural attractions. It is home to a number of medical facilities and healthcare providers, and the provincial government plays a role in regulating and funding healthcare services within the province.

Cluster analysis is a statistical method used to group similar objects or data points together based on their characteristics or features. In medical and healthcare research, cluster analysis can be used to identify patterns or relationships within complex datasets, such as patient records or genetic information. This technique can help researchers to classify patients into distinct subgroups based on their symptoms, diagnoses, or other variables, which can inform more personalized treatment plans or public health interventions.

Cluster analysis involves several steps, including:

1. Data preparation: The researcher must first collect and clean the data, ensuring that it is complete and free from errors. This may involve removing outlier values or missing data points.
2. Distance measurement: Next, the researcher must determine how to measure the distance between each pair of data points. Common methods include Euclidean distance (the straight-line distance between two points) or Manhattan distance (the distance between two points along a grid).
3. Clustering algorithm: The researcher then applies a clustering algorithm, which groups similar data points together based on their distances from one another. Common algorithms include hierarchical clustering (which creates a tree-like structure of clusters) or k-means clustering (which assigns each data point to the nearest centroid).
4. Validation: Finally, the researcher must validate the results of the cluster analysis by evaluating the stability and robustness of the clusters. This may involve re-running the analysis with different distance measures or clustering algorithms, or comparing the results to external criteria.

Cluster analysis is a powerful tool for identifying patterns and relationships within complex datasets, but it requires careful consideration of the data preparation, distance measurement, and validation steps to ensure accurate and meaningful results.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Africa" actually refers to a continent, not a medical condition or concept. Africa is the second-largest continent in the world, consisting of 54 countries and a wide range of diverse ethnic groups, cultures, languages, and landscapes. It is home to a vast array of wildlife, including many species that are not found anywhere else in the world. If you have any questions about Africa's geography, history, or culture, I would be happy to try to help answer them!

A rural population refers to people who live in areas that are outside of urban areas, typically defined as having fewer than 2,000 residents and lacking certain infrastructure and services such as running water, sewage systems, and paved roads. Rural populations often have less access to healthcare services, education, and economic opportunities compared to their urban counterparts. This population group can face unique health challenges, including higher rates of poverty, limited access to specialized medical care, and a greater exposure to environmental hazards such as agricultural chemicals and industrial pollutants.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Oregon" is not a medical term or concept. It is a geographical location, being the name of a state in the United States, located in the Pacific Northwest region. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Oceans and Seas" are not medical terms. Generally speaking, an ocean is a large body of saltwater that covers a majority of the Earth's surface, and a sea is a smaller body of saltwater that may be partially enclosed by land. However, if you have any questions related to marine biology or environmental science, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you!

In the context of medicine, particularly in neurolinguistics and speech-language pathology, language is defined as a complex system of communication that involves the use of symbols (such as words, signs, or gestures) to express and exchange information. It includes various components such as phonology (sound systems), morphology (word structures), syntax (sentence structure), semantics (meaning), and pragmatics (social rules of use). Language allows individuals to convey their thoughts, feelings, and intentions, and to understand the communication of others. Disorders of language can result from damage to specific areas of the brain, leading to impairments in comprehension, production, or both.

Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.

For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.

Bayes' theorem, also known as Bayes' rule or Bayes' formula, is a fundamental principle in the field of statistics and probability theory. It describes how to update the probability of a hypothesis based on new evidence or data. The theorem is named after Reverend Thomas Bayes, who first formulated it in the 18th century.

In mathematical terms, Bayes' theorem states that the posterior probability of a hypothesis (H) given some observed evidence (E) is proportional to the product of the prior probability of the hypothesis (P(H)) and the likelihood of observing the evidence given the hypothesis (P(E|H)):

Posterior Probability = P(H|E) = [P(E|H) x P(H)] / P(E)

Where:

* P(H|E): The posterior probability of the hypothesis H after observing evidence E. This is the probability we want to calculate.
* P(E|H): The likelihood of observing evidence E given that the hypothesis H is true.
* P(H): The prior probability of the hypothesis H before observing any evidence.
* P(E): The marginal likelihood or probability of observing evidence E, regardless of whether the hypothesis H is true or not. This value can be calculated as the sum of the products of the likelihood and prior probability for all possible hypotheses: P(E) = Σ[P(E|Hi) x P(Hi)]

Bayes' theorem has many applications in various fields, including medicine, where it can be used to update the probability of a disease diagnosis based on test results or other clinical findings. It is also widely used in machine learning and artificial intelligence algorithms for probabilistic reasoning and decision making under uncertainty.

Health status disparities refer to differences in the health outcomes that are observed between different populations. These populations can be defined by various sociodemographic factors such as race, ethnicity, sex, gender identity, sexual orientation, age, disability, income, education level, and geographic location. Health status disparities can manifest as differences in rates of illness, disease prevalence or incidence, morbidity, mortality, access to healthcare services, and quality of care received. These disparities are often the result of systemic inequities and social determinants of health that negatively impact certain populations, leading to worse health outcomes compared to other groups. It is important to note that health status disparities are preventable and can be addressed through targeted public health interventions and policies aimed at reducing health inequities.

The term "European Continental Ancestry Group" is a medical/ethnic classification that refers to individuals who trace their genetic ancestry to the continent of Europe. This group includes people from various ethnic backgrounds and nationalities, such as Northern, Southern, Eastern, and Western European descent. It is often used in research and medical settings for population studies or to identify genetic patterns and predispositions to certain diseases that may be more common in specific ancestral groups. However, it's important to note that this classification can oversimplify the complex genetic diversity within and between populations, and should be used with caution.

I believe you may have mixed up the terms "medicine" and "commerce." Commerce is a broad term that refers to the buying and selling of goods and services. It is not typically used in a medical context, so it does not have a specific medical definition. However, I can provide you with some related terms that might be helpful:

1. Medical commerce: This term generally refers to the business aspects of healthcare, such as the buying and selling of medical supplies, equipment, and services. It may also refer to the economic relationships between various stakeholders in the healthcare system, including providers, insurers, pharmaceutical companies, and patients.
2. Telemedicine commerce: This term specifically refers to the use of technology to facilitate remote consultations and transactions between healthcare providers and patients. Examples include online appointment scheduling, virtual consultations, and electronic prescribing.
3. Medical tourism: This is a form of commerce where people travel to other countries to receive medical treatment or procedures that may be less expensive or more accessible than in their home country. It can also refer to the business of providing medical services to international patients.
4. Healthcare marketing: This term refers to the activities and strategies used by healthcare organizations to promote their products, services, and brands to potential customers. It includes advertising, public relations, social media, content marketing, and other tactics designed to build awareness, generate leads, and drive sales.

I hope this information is helpful! Let me know if you have any further questions or concerns.

The term "environment" in a medical context generally refers to the external conditions and surroundings that can have an impact on living organisms, including humans. This includes both physical factors such as air quality, water supply, soil composition, temperature, and radiation, as well as biological factors such as the presence of microorganisms, plants, and animals.

In public health and epidemiology, the term "environmental exposure" is often used to describe the contact between an individual and a potentially harmful environmental agent, such as air pollution or contaminated water. These exposures can have significant impacts on human health, contributing to a range of diseases and disorders, including respiratory illnesses, cancer, neurological disorders, and reproductive problems.

Efforts to protect and improve the environment are therefore critical for promoting human health and preventing disease. This includes measures to reduce pollution, conserve natural resources, promote sustainable development, and mitigate the impacts of climate change.

Urban health is a branch of public health that focuses on the unique health challenges and disparities faced by urban populations. It encompasses the physical, mental, and social well-being of people living in urban areas, which are characterized by high population density, diverse cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds, and unique environmental exposures.

Urban health addresses a range of issues, including infectious diseases, chronic conditions, injuries, violence, and mental health disorders, as well as the social determinants of health such as housing, education, income, and access to healthcare services. It also considers the impact of urbanization on health, including the effects of pollution, noise, crowding, and lack of green spaces.

The goal of urban health is to promote health equity and improve the overall health outcomes of urban populations by addressing these challenges through evidence-based interventions, policies, and programs that are tailored to the unique needs of urban communities.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Mexico" is not a medical term or concept. It is the name of a country located in North America. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "History, 20th Century" is a broad and complex topic that refers to the events, developments, and transformations that occurred throughout the world during the 1900s. It is not a medical term or concept. If you're interested in learning more about this historical period, I would recommend consulting a history textbook, reputable online resources, or speaking with a historian. They can provide detailed information about the political, social, economic, and cultural changes that took place during the 20th century.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but Poisson Distribution is actually a statistical concept rather than a medical term. Here's a general definition:

Poisson Distribution is a discrete probability distribution that expresses the probability of a given number of events occurring in a fixed interval of time or space, as long as these events occur with a known average rate and independently of each other. It is often used in fields such as physics, engineering, economics, and medical research to model rare events or low-probability phenomena.

In the context of medical research, Poisson Distribution might be used to analyze the number of adverse events that occur during a clinical trial, the frequency of disease outbreaks in a population, or the rate of successes or failures in a series of experiments.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "North America" is not a medical term. It is a geographical term that refers to the third largest continent in the world, which includes countries such as the United States, Canada, and Mexico, among others. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health topics, I'd be happy to help with those!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "population density" is actually a term used in population geography and epidemiology, rather than medical terminology. It refers to the number of people living in a specific area or region, usually measured as the number of people per square mile or square kilometer.

However, understanding population density can be important in public health and medicine because it can influence various factors related to health outcomes and healthcare delivery, such as:

1. Disease transmission rates: Higher population densities can facilitate the spread of infectious diseases, particularly those that are transmitted through close contact between individuals.
2. Access to healthcare services: Areas with lower population density might have fewer healthcare resources and providers available, making it more challenging for residents to access necessary medical care.
3. Health disparities: Population density can contribute to health inequities, as urban areas often have better access to healthcare, education, and economic opportunities than rural areas, leading to differences in health outcomes between these populations.
4. Environmental factors: Higher population densities might lead to increased pollution, noise, and other environmental hazards that can negatively impact health.

Therefore, while "population density" is not a medical definition per se, it remains an essential concept for understanding various public health and healthcare issues.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Wales" is not a medical term. It is a country that is part of the United Kingdom, located in Western Europe. If you have any questions about medical terms or concepts, I would be happy to help answer those!

"California" is a geographical location and does not have a medical definition. It is a state located on the west coast of the United States, known for its diverse landscape including mountains, beaches, and forests. However, in some contexts, "California" may refer to certain medical conditions or situations that are associated with the state, such as:

* California encephalitis: a viral infection transmitted by mosquitoes that is common in California and other western states.
* California king snake: a non-venomous snake species found in California and other parts of the southwestern United States, which can bite and cause allergic reactions in some people.
* California roll: a type of sushi roll that originated in California and is made with avocado, cucumber, and crab meat, which may pose an allergy risk for some individuals.

It's important to note that these uses of "California" are not medical definitions per se, but rather descriptive terms that refer to specific conditions or situations associated with the state.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "England" is not a medical term or concept. It is one of the four constituent countries that make up the United Kingdom, along with Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. England is located in the southern part of Great Britain, which is the largest island of the British Isles.

If you have any questions related to medicine or healthcare, I would be happy to try to help answer them for you!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Ontario" is not a medical term. It is the name of a province in Canada, similar to how "California" is the name of a state in the United States. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health conditions, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you!

Molecular evolution is the process of change in the DNA sequence or protein structure over time, driven by mechanisms such as mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and natural selection. It refers to the evolutionary study of changes in DNA, RNA, and proteins, and how these changes accumulate and lead to new species and diversity of life. Molecular evolution can be used to understand the history and relationships among different organisms, as well as the functional consequences of genetic changes.

Mortality, in medical terms, refers to the state or condition of being mortal; the quality or fact of being subject to death. It is often used in reference to the mortality rate, which is the number of deaths in a specific population, divided by the size of that population, per a given time period. This can be used as a measure of the risk of death among a population.

"Sex factors" is a term used in medicine and epidemiology to refer to the differences in disease incidence, prevalence, or response to treatment that are observed between males and females. These differences can be attributed to biological differences such as genetics, hormones, and anatomy, as well as social and cultural factors related to gender.

For example, some conditions such as autoimmune diseases, depression, and osteoporosis are more common in women, while others such as cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancer are more prevalent in men. Additionally, sex differences have been observed in the effectiveness and side effects of various medications and treatments.

It is important to consider sex factors in medical research and clinical practice to ensure that patients receive appropriate and effective care.

The conservation of natural resources refers to the responsible use and management of natural resources, such as water, soil, minerals, forests, and wildlife, in a way that preserves their availability for future generations. This may involve measures such as reducing waste and pollution, promoting sustainable practices, protecting habitats and ecosystems, and engaging in careful planning and decision-making to ensure the long-term sustainability of these resources. The goal of conservation is to balance the needs of the present with the needs of the future, so that current and future generations can continue to benefit from the many goods and services that natural resources provide.

Medicare is a social insurance program in the United States, administered by the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS), that provides health insurance coverage to people who are aged 65 and over; or who have certain disabilities; or who have End-Stage Renal Disease (permanent kidney failure requiring dialysis or a transplant).

The program consists of four parts:

1. Hospital Insurance (Part A), which helps pay for inpatient care in hospitals, skilled nursing facilities, hospices, and home health care.
2. Medical Insurance (Part B), which helps pay for doctors' services, outpatient care, medical supplies, and preventive services.
3. Medicare Advantage Plans (Part C), which are private insurance plans that provide all of your Part A and Part B benefits, and may include additional benefits like dental, vision, and hearing coverage.
4. Prescription Drug Coverage (Part D), which helps pay for medications doctors prescribe for treatment.

Medicare is funded by payroll taxes, premiums paid by beneficiaries, and general revenue. Beneficiaries typically pay a monthly premium for Part B and Part D coverage, while Part A is generally free for those who have worked and paid Medicare taxes for at least 40 quarters.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "social class" is not a term that has a medical definition. It is a sociological concept that refers to the grouping of individuals in a society based on their shared economic and social positions. This can include factors such as income, education, occupation, and wealth.

However, social class can have an impact on health outcomes and access to healthcare. For example, people in lower socioeconomic groups are more likely to experience chronic diseases, mental health disorders, and have limited access to quality healthcare services compared to those in higher socioeconomic groups. This relationship is often referred to as the "social determinants of health."

"World Health" is not a term that has a specific medical definition. However, it is often used in the context of global health, which can be defined as:

"The area of study, research and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in health for all people worldwide. It emphasizes trans-national health issues, determinants, and solutions; involves many disciplines within and beyond the health sciences and engages stakeholders from across sectors and societies." (World Health Organization)

Therefore, "world health" could refer to the overall health status and health challenges faced by populations around the world. It encompasses a broad range of factors that affect the health of individuals and communities, including social, economic, environmental, and political determinants. The World Health Organization (WHO) plays a key role in monitoring and promoting global health, setting international standards and guidelines, and coordinating responses to global health emergencies.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "poverty" is not a medical condition or term. It is a social condition defined by the World Bank as "pronounced deprivation in well-being," and measured through indicators such as income, consumption, and access to basic services. Poverty can have significant impacts on health outcomes and healthcare access, but it is not considered a medical diagnosis. If you have any questions related to health or medicine, I'd be happy to try my best to help answer them!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "seasons" is not a term that has a medical definition. Seasons refer to the four divisions of the year (spring, summer, autumn or fall, and winter) based on the position of the earth in its orbit around the sun. If you have any questions related to health or medicine, I'd be happy to try to help answer those!

Medical Definition:

"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.

Rural health is a branch of healthcare that focuses on the unique health challenges and needs of people living in rural areas. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines rural health as "the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, in the rural population."

Rural populations often face disparities in healthcare access and quality compared to their urban counterparts. Factors such as geographic isolation, poverty, lack of transportation, and a shortage of healthcare providers can contribute to these disparities. Rural health encompasses a broad range of services, including primary care, prevention, chronic disease management, mental health, oral health, and emergency medical services.

The goal of rural health is to improve the health outcomes of rural populations by addressing these unique challenges and providing high-quality, accessible healthcare services that meet their needs. This may involve innovative approaches such as telemedicine, mobile health clinics, and community-based programs to reach people in remote areas.

Gene frequency, also known as allele frequency, is a measure in population genetics that reflects the proportion of a particular gene or allele (variant of a gene) in a given population. It is calculated as the number of copies of a specific allele divided by the total number of all alleles at that genetic locus in the population.

For example, if we consider a gene with two possible alleles, A and a, the gene frequency of allele A (denoted as p) can be calculated as follows:

p = (number of copies of allele A) / (total number of all alleles at that locus)

Similarly, the gene frequency of allele a (denoted as q) would be:

q = (number of copies of allele a) / (total number of all alleles at that locus)

Since there are only two possible alleles for this gene in this example, p + q = 1. These frequencies can help researchers understand genetic diversity and evolutionary processes within populations.

Prevalence, in medical terms, refers to the total number of people in a given population who have a particular disease or condition at a specific point in time, or over a specified period. It is typically expressed as a percentage or a ratio of the number of cases to the size of the population. Prevalence differs from incidence, which measures the number of new cases that develop during a certain period.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "income" is not a medical term. Income is an economic term that refers to the inflow of monetary resources or earnings that an individual or household receives from various sources, such as employment, investments, or government benefits. It is typically used in financial and economic contexts rather than medical ones. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or concepts, I would be happy to help with those!

Population dynamics, in the context of public health and epidemiology, refers to the study of the changes in size and structure of a population over time, as well as the factors that contribute to those changes. This can include birth rates, death rates, migration patterns, aging, and other demographic characteristics. Understanding population dynamics is crucial for planning and implementing public health interventions, such as vaccination programs or disease prevention strategies, as they allow researchers and policymakers to identify vulnerable populations, predict future health trends, and evaluate the impact of public health initiatives.

I am not aware of a specific medical definition for the term "China." Generally, it is used to refer to:

1. The People's Republic of China (PRC), which is a country in East Asia. It is the most populous country in the world and the fourth largest by geographical area. Its capital city is Beijing.
2. In a historical context, "China" was used to refer to various dynasties and empires that existed in East Asia over thousands of years. The term "Middle Kingdom" or "Zhongguo" (中国) has been used by the Chinese people to refer to their country for centuries.
3. In a more general sense, "China" can also be used to describe products or goods that originate from or are associated with the People's Republic of China.

If you have a specific context in which you encountered the term "China" related to medicine, please provide it so I can give a more accurate response.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Scotland" is not a medical term or concept. It is one of the four constituent countries of the United Kingdom. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you.

The "delivery of health care" refers to the process of providing medical services, treatments, and interventions to individuals in order to maintain, restore, or improve their health. This encompasses a wide range of activities, including:

1. Preventive care: Routine check-ups, screenings, immunizations, and counseling aimed at preventing illnesses or identifying them at an early stage.
2. Diagnostic services: Tests and procedures used to identify and understand medical conditions, such as laboratory tests, imaging studies, and biopsies.
3. Treatment interventions: Medical, surgical, or therapeutic treatments provided to manage acute or chronic health issues, including medications, surgeries, physical therapy, and psychotherapy.
4. Acute care services: Short-term medical interventions focused on addressing immediate health concerns, such as hospitalizations for infections, injuries, or complications from medical conditions.
5. Chronic care management: Long-term care and support provided to individuals with ongoing medical needs, such as those living with chronic diseases like diabetes, heart disease, or cancer.
6. Rehabilitation services: Programs designed to help patients recover from illnesses, injuries, or surgeries, focusing on restoring physical, cognitive, and emotional function.
7. End-of-life care: Palliative and hospice care provided to individuals facing terminal illnesses, with an emphasis on comfort, dignity, and quality of life.
8. Public health initiatives: Population-level interventions aimed at improving community health, such as disease prevention programs, health education campaigns, and environmental modifications.

The delivery of health care involves a complex network of healthcare professionals, institutions, and systems working together to ensure that patients receive the best possible care. This includes primary care physicians, specialists, nurses, allied health professionals, hospitals, clinics, long-term care facilities, and public health organizations. Effective communication, coordination, and collaboration among these stakeholders are essential for high-quality, patient-centered care.

Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.

It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.

Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.

In epidemiology, the incidence of a disease is defined as the number of new cases of that disease within a specific population over a certain period of time. It is typically expressed as a rate, with the number of new cases in the numerator and the size of the population at risk in the denominator. Incidence provides information about the risk of developing a disease during a given time period and can be used to compare disease rates between different populations or to monitor trends in disease occurrence over time.

A human genome is the complete set of genetic information contained within the 23 pairs of chromosomes found in the nucleus of most human cells. It includes all of the genes, which are segments of DNA that contain the instructions for making proteins, as well as non-coding regions of DNA that regulate gene expression and provide structural support to the chromosomes.

The human genome contains approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA and is estimated to contain around 20,000-25,000 protein-coding genes. The sequencing of the human genome was completed in 2003 as part of the Human Genome Project, which has had a profound impact on our understanding of human biology, disease, and evolution.

African Americans are defined as individuals who have ancestry from any of the black racial groups of Africa. This term is often used to describe people living in the United States who have total or partial descent from enslaved African peoples. The term does not refer to a single ethnicity but is a broad term that includes various ethnic groups with diverse cultures, languages, and traditions. It's important to note that some individuals may prefer to identify as Black or of African descent rather than African American, depending on their personal identity and background.

Statistical models are mathematical representations that describe the relationship between variables in a given dataset. They are used to analyze and interpret data in order to make predictions or test hypotheses about a population. In the context of medicine, statistical models can be used for various purposes such as:

1. Disease risk prediction: By analyzing demographic, clinical, and genetic data using statistical models, researchers can identify factors that contribute to an individual's risk of developing certain diseases. This information can then be used to develop personalized prevention strategies or early detection methods.

2. Clinical trial design and analysis: Statistical models are essential tools for designing and analyzing clinical trials. They help determine sample size, allocate participants to treatment groups, and assess the effectiveness and safety of interventions.

3. Epidemiological studies: Researchers use statistical models to investigate the distribution and determinants of health-related events in populations. This includes studying patterns of disease transmission, evaluating public health interventions, and estimating the burden of diseases.

4. Health services research: Statistical models are employed to analyze healthcare utilization, costs, and outcomes. This helps inform decisions about resource allocation, policy development, and quality improvement initiatives.

5. Biostatistics and bioinformatics: In these fields, statistical models are used to analyze large-scale molecular data (e.g., genomics, proteomics) to understand biological processes and identify potential therapeutic targets.

In summary, statistical models in medicine provide a framework for understanding complex relationships between variables and making informed decisions based on data-driven insights.

Public health is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "the art and science of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting human health through organized efforts of society." It focuses on improving the health and well-being of entire communities, populations, and societies, rather than individual patients. This is achieved through various strategies, including education, prevention, surveillance of diseases, and promotion of healthy behaviors and environments. Public health also addresses broader determinants of health, such as access to healthcare, housing, food, and income, which have a significant impact on the overall health of populations.

Health policy refers to a set of decisions, plans, and actions that are undertaken to achieve specific healthcare goals within a population. It is formulated by governmental and non-governmental organizations with the objective of providing guidance and direction for the management and delivery of healthcare services. Health policies address various aspects of healthcare, including access, financing, quality, and equity. They can be designed to promote health, prevent disease, and provide treatment and rehabilitation services to individuals who are sick or injured. Effective health policies require careful consideration of scientific evidence, ethical principles, and societal values to ensure that they meet the needs of the population while being fiscally responsible.

The term "African Continental Ancestry Group" is a racial category used in the field of genetics and population health to describe individuals who have ancestral origins in the African continent. This group includes people from diverse ethnic backgrounds, cultures, and languages across the African continent. It's important to note that this term is used for genetic and epidemiological research purposes and should not be used to make assumptions about an individual's personal identity, culture, or experiences.

It's also worth noting that there is significant genetic diversity within Africa, and using a single category to describe all individuals with African ancestry can oversimplify this diversity. Therefore, it's more accurate and informative to specify the particular population or region of African ancestry when discussing genetic research or health outcomes.

"Age distribution" is a term used to describe the number of individuals within a population or sample that fall into different age categories. It is often presented in the form of a graph, table, or chart, and can provide important information about the demographic structure of a population.

The age distribution of a population can be influenced by a variety of factors, including birth rates, mortality rates, migration patterns, and aging. Public health officials and researchers use age distribution data to inform policies and programs related to healthcare, social services, and other areas that affect the well-being of populations.

For example, an age distribution graph might show a larger number of individuals in the younger age categories, indicating a population with a high birth rate. Alternatively, it might show a larger number of individuals in the older age categories, indicating a population with a high life expectancy or an aging population. Understanding the age distribution of a population can help policymakers plan for future needs and allocate resources more effectively.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "India" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country in South Asia, the second-most populous country in the world, known for its rich history, diverse culture, and numerous contributions to various fields including medicine. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to help answer them!

The term "Theoretical Models" is used in various scientific fields, including medicine, to describe a representation of a complex system or phenomenon. It is a simplified framework that explains how different components of the system interact with each other and how they contribute to the overall behavior of the system. Theoretical models are often used in medical research to understand and predict the outcomes of diseases, treatments, or public health interventions.

A theoretical model can take many forms, such as mathematical equations, computer simulations, or conceptual diagrams. It is based on a set of assumptions and hypotheses about the underlying mechanisms that drive the system. By manipulating these variables and observing the effects on the model's output, researchers can test their assumptions and generate new insights into the system's behavior.

Theoretical models are useful for medical research because they allow scientists to explore complex systems in a controlled and systematic way. They can help identify key drivers of disease or treatment outcomes, inform the design of clinical trials, and guide the development of new interventions. However, it is important to recognize that theoretical models are simplifications of reality and may not capture all the nuances and complexities of real-world systems. Therefore, they should be used in conjunction with other forms of evidence, such as experimental data and observational studies, to inform medical decision-making.

Hispanic Americans, also known as Latino Americans, are individuals in the United States who are of Spanish-speaking origin or whose ancestors came from Spain, Mexico, Cuba, the Caribbean, Central and South America. This group includes various cultures, races, and nationalities. It is important to note that "Hispanic" refers to a cultural and linguistic affiliation rather than a racial category. Therefore, Hispanic Americans can be of any race, including White, Black, Asian, Native American, or mixed races.

Population surveillance in a public health and medical context refers to the ongoing, systematic collection, analysis, interpretation, and dissemination of health-related data for a defined population over time. It aims to monitor the health status, identify emerging health threats or trends, and evaluate the impact of interventions within that population. This information is used to inform public health policy, prioritize healthcare resources, and guide disease prevention and control efforts. Population surveillance can involve various data sources, such as vital records, disease registries, surveys, and electronic health records.

"Sex distribution" is a term used to describe the number of males and females in a study population or sample. It can be presented as a simple count, a percentage, or a ratio. This information is often used in research to identify any differences in health outcomes, disease prevalence, or response to treatment between males and females. Additionally, understanding sex distribution can help researchers ensure that their studies are representative of the general population and can inform the design of future studies.

Genetic selection, also known as natural selection, is a fundamental mechanism of evolution. It refers to the process by which certain heritable traits become more or less common in a population over successive generations due to differential reproduction of organisms with those traits.

In genetic selection, traits that increase an individual's fitness (its ability to survive and reproduce) are more likely to be passed on to the next generation, while traits that decrease fitness are less likely to be passed on. This results in a gradual change in the distribution of traits within a population over time, leading to adaptation to the environment and potentially speciation.

Genetic selection can occur through various mechanisms, including viability selection (differential survival), fecundity selection (differences in reproductive success), and sexual selection (choices made by individuals during mating). The process of genetic selection is driven by environmental pressures, such as predation, competition for resources, and changes in the availability of food or habitat.

Regression analysis is a statistical technique used in medicine, as well as in other fields, to examine the relationship between one or more independent variables (predictors) and a dependent variable (outcome). It allows for the estimation of the average change in the outcome variable associated with a one-unit change in an independent variable, while controlling for the effects of other independent variables. This technique is often used to identify risk factors for diseases or to evaluate the effectiveness of medical interventions. In medical research, regression analysis can be used to adjust for potential confounding variables and to quantify the relationship between exposures and health outcomes. It can also be used in predictive modeling to estimate the probability of a particular outcome based on multiple predictors.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) is a type of genetic variation that occurs when a single nucleotide (A, T, C, or G) in the DNA sequence is altered. This alteration must occur in at least 1% of the population to be considered a SNP. These variations can help explain why some people are more susceptible to certain diseases than others and can also influence how an individual responds to certain medications. SNPs can serve as biological markers, helping scientists locate genes that are associated with disease. They can also provide information about an individual's ancestry and ethnic background.

The "cause of death" is a medical determination of the disease, injury, or event that directly results in a person's death. This information is typically documented on a death certificate and may be used for public health surveillance, research, and legal purposes. The cause of death is usually determined by a physician based on their clinical judgment and any available medical evidence, such as laboratory test results, autopsy findings, or eyewitness accounts. In some cases, the cause of death may be uncertain or unknown, and the death may be classified as "natural," "accidental," "homicide," or "suicide" based on the available information.

Logistic models, specifically logistic regression models, are a type of statistical analysis used in medical and epidemiological research to identify the relationship between the risk of a certain health outcome or disease (dependent variable) and one or more independent variables, such as demographic factors, exposure variables, or other clinical measurements.

In contrast to linear regression models, logistic regression models are used when the dependent variable is binary or dichotomous in nature, meaning it can only take on two values, such as "disease present" or "disease absent." The model uses a logistic function to estimate the probability of the outcome based on the independent variables.

Logistic regression models are useful for identifying risk factors and estimating the strength of associations between exposures and health outcomes, adjusting for potential confounders, and predicting the probability of an outcome given certain values of the independent variables. They can also be used to develop clinical prediction rules or scores that can aid in decision-making and patient care.

Genetic polymorphism refers to the occurrence of multiple forms (called alleles) of a particular gene within a population. These variations in the DNA sequence do not generally affect the function or survival of the organism, but they can contribute to differences in traits among individuals. Genetic polymorphisms can be caused by single nucleotide changes (SNPs), insertions or deletions of DNA segments, or other types of genetic rearrangements. They are important for understanding genetic diversity and evolution, as well as for identifying genetic factors that may contribute to disease susceptibility in humans.

Health services research (HSR) is a multidisciplinary field of scientific investigation that studies how social factors, financing systems, organizational structures and processes, health technologies, and personal behaviors affect access to healthcare, the quality and cost of care, and ultimately, our health and well-being. The goal of HSR is to inform policy and practice, improve system performance, and enhance the health and well-being of individuals and communities. It involves the use of various research methods, including epidemiology, biostatistics, economics, sociology, management science, political science, and psychology, to answer questions about the healthcare system and how it can be improved.

Examples of HSR topics include:

* Evaluating the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of different healthcare interventions and technologies
* Studying patient-centered care and patient experiences with the healthcare system
* Examining healthcare workforce issues, such as shortages of primary care providers or the impact of nurse-to-patient ratios on patient outcomes
* Investigating the impact of health insurance design and financing systems on access to care and health disparities
* Analyzing the organization and delivery of healthcare services in different settings, such as hospitals, clinics, and long-term care facilities
* Identifying best practices for improving healthcare quality and safety, reducing medical errors, and eliminating wasteful or unnecessary care.

Data collection in the medical context refers to the systematic gathering of information relevant to a specific research question or clinical situation. This process involves identifying and recording data elements, such as demographic characteristics, medical history, physical examination findings, laboratory results, and imaging studies, from various sources including patient interviews, medical records, and diagnostic tests. The data collected is used to support clinical decision-making, inform research hypotheses, and evaluate the effectiveness of treatments or interventions. It is essential that data collection is performed in a standardized and unbiased manner to ensure the validity and reliability of the results.

I apologize, but "Canada" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country located in North America, known for its vast wilderness, multicultural cities, and significant natural resources. If you have any questions related to healthcare or medical terms, I would be happy to help answer those!

Multivariate analysis is a statistical method used to examine the relationship between multiple independent variables and a dependent variable. It allows for the simultaneous examination of the effects of two or more independent variables on an outcome, while controlling for the effects of other variables in the model. This technique can be used to identify patterns, associations, and interactions among multiple variables, and is commonly used in medical research to understand complex health outcomes and disease processes. Examples of multivariate analysis methods include multiple regression, factor analysis, cluster analysis, and discriminant analysis.

A cross-sectional study is a type of observational research design that examines the relationship between variables at one point in time. It provides a snapshot or a "cross-section" of the population at a particular moment, allowing researchers to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition and identify potential risk factors or associations.

In a cross-sectional study, data is collected from a sample of participants at a single time point, and the variables of interest are measured simultaneously. This design can be used to investigate the association between exposure and outcome, but it cannot establish causality because it does not follow changes over time.

Cross-sectional studies can be conducted using various data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, or medical examinations. They are often used in epidemiology to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition in a population and to identify potential risk factors that may contribute to its development. However, because cross-sectional studies only provide a snapshot of the population at one point in time, they cannot account for changes over time or determine whether exposure preceded the outcome.

Therefore, while cross-sectional studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying potential associations between variables, further research using other study designs, such as cohort or case-control studies, is necessary to establish causality and confirm any findings.

An allele is a variant form of a gene that is located at a specific position on a specific chromosome. Alleles are alternative forms of the same gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same locus or position on homologous chromosomes.

Each person typically inherits two copies of each gene, one from each parent. If the two alleles are identical, a person is said to be homozygous for that trait. If the alleles are different, the person is heterozygous.

For example, the ABO blood group system has three alleles, A, B, and O, which determine a person's blood type. If a person inherits two A alleles, they will have type A blood; if they inherit one A and one B allele, they will have type AB blood; if they inherit two B alleles, they will have type B blood; and if they inherit two O alleles, they will have type O blood.

Alleles can also influence traits such as eye color, hair color, height, and other physical characteristics. Some alleles are dominant, meaning that only one copy of the allele is needed to express the trait, while others are recessive, meaning that two copies of the allele are needed to express the trait.

Hospitalization is the process of admitting a patient to a hospital for the purpose of receiving medical treatment, surgery, or other health care services. It involves staying in the hospital as an inpatient, typically under the care of doctors, nurses, and other healthcare professionals. The length of stay can vary depending on the individual's medical condition and the type of treatment required. Hospitalization may be necessary for a variety of reasons, such as to receive intensive care, to undergo diagnostic tests or procedures, to recover from surgery, or to manage chronic illnesses or injuries.

"Age factors" refer to the effects, changes, or differences that age can have on various aspects of health, disease, and medical care. These factors can encompass a wide range of issues, including:

1. Physiological changes: As people age, their bodies undergo numerous physical changes that can affect how they respond to medications, illnesses, and medical procedures. For example, older adults may be more sensitive to certain drugs or have weaker immune systems, making them more susceptible to infections.
2. Chronic conditions: Age is a significant risk factor for many chronic diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and arthritis. As a result, age-related medical issues are common and can impact treatment decisions and outcomes.
3. Cognitive decline: Aging can also lead to cognitive changes, including memory loss and decreased decision-making abilities. These changes can affect a person's ability to understand and comply with medical instructions, leading to potential complications in their care.
4. Functional limitations: Older adults may experience physical limitations that impact their mobility, strength, and balance, increasing the risk of falls and other injuries. These limitations can also make it more challenging for them to perform daily activities, such as bathing, dressing, or cooking.
5. Social determinants: Age-related factors, such as social isolation, poverty, and lack of access to transportation, can impact a person's ability to obtain necessary medical care and affect their overall health outcomes.

Understanding age factors is critical for healthcare providers to deliver high-quality, patient-centered care that addresses the unique needs and challenges of older adults. By taking these factors into account, healthcare providers can develop personalized treatment plans that consider a person's age, physical condition, cognitive abilities, and social circumstances.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Internet" is a term that pertains to the global network of interconnected computers and servers that enable the transmission and reception of data via the internet protocol (IP). It is not a medical term and does not have a specific medical definition. If you have any questions related to medicine or health, I'd be happy to try to help answer them for you!

A registry in the context of medicine is a collection or database of standardized information about individuals who share a certain condition or attribute, such as a disease, treatment, exposure, or demographic group. These registries are used for various purposes, including:

* Monitoring and tracking the natural history of diseases and conditions
* Evaluating the safety and effectiveness of medical treatments and interventions
* Conducting research and generating hypotheses for further study
* Providing information to patients, clinicians, and researchers
* Informing public health policy and decision-making

Registries can be established for a wide range of purposes, including disease-specific registries (such as cancer or diabetes registries), procedure-specific registries (such as joint replacement or cardiac surgery registries), and population-based registries (such as birth defects or cancer registries). Data collected in registries may include demographic information, clinical data, laboratory results, treatment details, and outcomes.

Registries can be maintained by a variety of organizations, including hospitals, clinics, academic medical centers, professional societies, government agencies, and industry. Participation in registries is often voluntary, although some registries may require informed consent from participants. Data collected in registries are typically de-identified to protect the privacy of individuals.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

A newborn infant is a baby who is within the first 28 days of life. This period is also referred to as the neonatal period. Newborns require specialized care and attention due to their immature bodily systems and increased vulnerability to various health issues. They are closely monitored for signs of well-being, growth, and development during this critical time.

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection is a viral illness that progressively attacks and weakens the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to other infections and diseases. The virus primarily infects CD4+ T cells, a type of white blood cell essential for fighting off infections. Over time, as the number of these immune cells declines, the body becomes increasingly vulnerable to opportunistic infections and cancers.

HIV infection has three stages:

1. Acute HIV infection: This is the initial stage that occurs within 2-4 weeks after exposure to the virus. During this period, individuals may experience flu-like symptoms such as fever, fatigue, rash, swollen glands, and muscle aches. The virus replicates rapidly, and the viral load in the body is very high.
2. Chronic HIV infection (Clinical latency): This stage follows the acute infection and can last several years if left untreated. Although individuals may not show any symptoms during this phase, the virus continues to replicate at low levels, and the immune system gradually weakens. The viral load remains relatively stable, but the number of CD4+ T cells declines over time.
3. AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome): This is the most advanced stage of HIV infection, characterized by a severely damaged immune system and numerous opportunistic infections or cancers. At this stage, the CD4+ T cell count drops below 200 cells/mm3 of blood.

It's important to note that with proper antiretroviral therapy (ART), individuals with HIV infection can effectively manage the virus, maintain a healthy immune system, and significantly reduce the risk of transmission to others. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial for improving long-term health outcomes and reducing the spread of HIV.

... geography Cultural geography Development geography Economic geography Health geography Historical geography Internet geography ... geography or Demography Religion geography Social geography Transportation geography Tourism geography Urban geography Various ... human geography, physical geography, and technical geography. Human geography largely focuses on the built environment and how ... Antipode Applied Geography Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography Dialogues in Human Geography Economic Geography ...
Animal geographies Behavioral geography Cognitive geography Critical geography Feminist geography Marxist geography Non- ... Geography Emotional geography Geography of food Integrated geography Physical geography Political ecology Technical geography ... Subfields include: Social geography, Animal geographies, Language geography, Sexuality and space, Children's geographies, and ... Subfields include: Electoral geography, Geopolitics, Strategic geography and Military geography Population geography is the ...
The Horrible Geography Handbook: Planet in Peril won the 2009 Blue Peter Book Award for Best Book with Facts. In 2010, Anita ... Horrible Geography is a series of children's non-fiction books written by Anita Ganeri, illustrated by Mike Phillips, and ... Horrible Geography: Odious Oceans, Violent Volcanoes and Stormy Weather won the Geographical Association Silver Award in 1999. ... It is a spin-off from the Horrible Histories series, and is designed to get children interested in geography. The Royal ...
Quechua is one of the eight Natural Regions of Peru and is between 2,300 and 3,500 m above sea level. It is composed of big valleys divided by rivers fed by estival rains. Its flora includes Andean alder, gongapa, and arracacha. People who live in this region, cultivate corn, squash, passionfruit, papaya, wheat, and peach. Notable fauna include birds like the chihuanco or white-necked thrush. Andean Continental Divide Mountain Top: Mountain passes - 4,100 m Puna grassland Andean-alpine desert Snow line - about 5,000 m Janca - Rocks, Snow and Ice Peak Climate zones by altitude Altitudinal zonation Pulgar Vidal, Javier: Geografía del Perú; Las Ocho Regiones Naturales del Perú. Edit. Universo S.A., Lima 1979. First Edition (his dissertation of 1940): Las ocho regiones naturales del Perú, Boletín del Museo de historia natural „Javier Prado", n° especial, Lima, 1941, 17, pp. 145-161. (Articles needing additional references from May 2013, All articles needing additional references, Peru ...
... addresses the degree of complexity of this infrastructure. One of the earliest endeavors that investigated the ... Cyber geography is mapping the physical network of broadband cables. While servers, routers, cables, and other physical ... Dodge identified "electronic places" that exist behind the computer screen as part of such geography. "Space" in this case is ... "About Cyber-Geography Research". Retrieved 2014-08-29. Corn, Geoffrey; VanLandingham, Rachel; Reeves, Shane (2016). U.S. ...
Geography journals, Academic journals established in 1981, All stub articles, Geography journal stubs). ... Applied Geography is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published quarterly by Elsevier. The journal covers research that ... applies geographic methods to solve human problems, including human geography, physical geography, and geographical information ...
... via creative geography and suspension of disbelief, the transition is made seamless. An extreme example of creative geography ... Creative geography is used constantly in film and television, for instance when a character walks through the front door of a ... Creative geography, or artificial landscape, is a film editing technique invented by the early Russian filmmaker Lev Kuleshov ... However, the assembly achieved the effect of creative geography, that is, it seemed that they were in the same place. A notable ...
Transportation geography, Human geography, Economic geography, Urban geography). ... Transport geography or transportation geography is a branch of geography that investigates the movement and connections between ... Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography Economics Geographic mobility Human geography Journal of Transport Geography Street ... Therefore, transport geography and economic geography are largely interrelated. At the most basic level, humans move and thus ...
Belki // Geography / Prof. A.P. Gorkin (ed.). - M .: Rosmen-Press, 2006 .-- 624 p. - (Modern Illustrated Encyclopedia). - ISBN ...
... is also a certain approach to geographical study, comparable to quantitative geography or critical geography ... Regional geography is a major branch of geography. It focuses on the interaction of different cultural and natural geofactors ... The regional geography paradigm has influenced many other geographical sciences, including economic geography and geomorphology ... Regional geography is still taught in some universities as a study of the major regions of the world. In the Western Hemisphere ...
... is the subdiscipline of geography that derives from a study of cities and urban processes. Urban geographers ... Urban geography includes different other fields in geography such as the physical, social, and economic aspects of urban ... The first courses in urban geography were not taught until the 1940s (by Chauncy Harris, the father of urban geography,at ... Urban geographical research can be part of both human geography and physical geography. The two fundamental aspects of cities ...
This field is a subset of human geography, itself a subset of the more general study of geography. It is also related to ... Geopolitics, Geography and Strategy. Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1999. Kemp G., Harkavy R. Strategic Geography and the changing ... Human geography, International security, All stub articles, Geography stubs, Environmental social science stubs, Anthropology ... Strategic geography is concerned with the control of, or access to, spatial areas that affect the security and prosperity of ...
In geography, a bight (/baɪt/) is a concave bend or curvature in a coastline, river or other geographical feature (such as a ... geography), Bodies of water, Coastal and oceanic landforms). ...
In geography and geodesy, a meridian is the locus connecting points of equal longitude, which is the angle (in degrees or other ... Harper's School Geography: With Maps and Illustrations. American Book Company. 1885. p. 129. Standard meridians … They are 15° ...
... is a sub-discipline of human geography concerned with the spatial relationships found between ... The latter approach of agricultural geography is often applied within regional geography. The war in Bosnia-Herzegovia from ... Economic geography, All stub articles, Agriculture stubs, Geography stubs). ... Geography of food Agricultural sciences Spencer, J. E.; Horvath, Ronald J. (1963). "How Does an Agricultural Region Originate ...
In: Economic Geography, Vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 346-355 Jordan, T.G. 1966: On the nature of settlement geography. In: The ... Settlement geography is a branch of human geography that investigates the earth's surface's part settled by humans. According ... 26-28 Mayda, C. 1965: The Development of a Focus for the Geography of Settlement. In: Warf, B: Encyclopedia of Geography , SAGE ... it belongs to cultural geography and is divided into the geography of urban settlements (cities and towns) and rural ...
Behavioral geography Cognitive geography Critical geography Cultural geography Emotional geography Feminist geography Geosophy ... While qualitative geography is often viewed as the opposite of quantitative geography, the two sets of techniques are ... Qualitative geography is a subfield and methodological approach to geography focusing on the subjective and interpretive ... Thus, qualitative geography is traditionally placed under the branch of human geography; however, technical geographers are ...
A knee, or river knee, is a bend in a river changing its course greatly, suddenly to a different general direction (in an angle of around 90 degrees). It is different from most (one-off) riverbends, and from a (particular) meander which connotes one of several bends in a sinuous course, without changing the general direction. Knees navigable by large vessels or set in upland areas or arid drainage basins were similar to major confluences in that they were particularly suitable for trade and defense, and therefore gave rise to forts, governing army camps or cities. Many major world rivers have such a notable knee close to major settled places: the Rhine knee in Basel, Switzerland is the river's greatest knee - others are in German cities Wiesbaden and Bingen the Danube knee in Vác, Hungary (35 km north of Budapest) the Volga knee at Volgograd, Russia the upper Rhône knee at Martigny, Switzerland the Petitcodiac knee at Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada, locally known as Le Coude The Irawaddy knee ...
In physical geography, a channel is a type of landform consisting of the outline of a path of relatively shallow and narrow ...
In addition, behavioral geography is an ideology/approach in human geography that makes use of the methods and assumptions of ... Behavioral geography is an approach to human geography that examines human behavior by separating it into different parts. ... using Actor-Network Theory Cognitive geography Norton, William (22 September 2001). "Initiating an affair: human geography and ... Behavioral geography is the branch of human science which deals with the study of cognitive processes with its response to its ...
Hartinger later adapted his novel into a play, Geography Club. Huffington Pictures' Geography Club was filmed in June 2012 with ... Geography Club is a 2003 young adult novel by American author Brent Hartinger. It is the first book in The Russel Middlebrook ... The Geography Club resumes meeting this time seeking more open membership as an official club. After a showdown with the ... Brian wants to join the Geography Club but Kevin and Russel vote against this. Min wanted to let him join and is angry with ...
Das, Raju J (March 2022). "What is Marxist geography today, or what is left of Marxist geography?". Human Geography. 15 (1): 33 ... Marxist geography is a strand of critical geography that uses the theories and philosophy of Marxism to examine the spatial ... In Marxist geography, the relations that geography has traditionally analyzed - natural environment and spatial relations - are ... Social metabolism Peet, J. Richard (1985). "An Introduction to Marxist Geography". Journal of Geography. 84 (1): 5-10. doi: ...
The revival of geography and military geography as a sub-discipline is a remarkable trend since 2000 with a number of key ... Military geography is a sub-field of geography that is used by the military, as well as academics and politicians, to ... Outlines of Military Geography. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press (1899) O'Sullivan, Patrick M. The Geography of War in ... Military Geography: From Peace to War. Boston: McGraw-Hill (2005). Peltier, Louis C. Bibliography of Military Geography. ...
A bajada consists of a series of coalescing alluvial fans along a mountain front. These fan-shaped deposits form by the deposition of sediment within a stream onto flat land at the base of a mountain. The usage of the term in landscape description or geomorphology derives from the Spanish word bajada, generally having the sense of "descent" or "inclination". When a stream flows downhill, it picks up sediment along with other materials. As this stream emerges from a mountain front, the sediment carried begins to be deposited, such that coarser sediment is deposited closest to the base and the finer sediment grades outwards and deposits in a fan-shape away from the mountain face. The sediment is transported across a pediment into a closed basin where the bajadas grade back into a pediment, making the boundary difficult to distinguish. Bajadas frequently contain playa lakes. Bajadas are common in dry climates (e.g., the Southwestern US) where flash floods deposit sediment over time, although they ...
Geography may also refer to: Geography (Front 242 album) Geography (Tom Misch album) "Geography", a song by Macintosh Plus from ... Look up geography in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Geography is the study of Earth and its features, inhabitants, and ... "Geography", a Series G episode of the television series QI (2009) Outline of geography Geographical (magazine) Geographer, one ... a lost 3-volume work by Eratosthenes Geography (Ptolemy), Ptolemy's main work besides the Almagest Geography (Strabo), Strabo's ...
19-. ISBN 978-3-8258-1387-1. v t e (Geographic taxonomies, Regions, All stub articles, Geography terminology stubs). ...
... is a branch of geography which refers to the standard of living and its quality of life of its human ... Codrington, Stephen Planet Geography 3rd Edition (2005) Page 97 J. Sachs, A. Mellinger and J. Gallup (2001) "The Geography of ... Geography can also affect economic development in a number of ways. Analysis of current data sets show three significant ... In development geography, geographers study spatial patterns in development. They try to find by what characteristics they can ...
... is a subfield of the nature-society/human-environment branch of geography as well as a part of the larger, ... Animals, ethics, and geography, in: Wolch, J., Emel, J. (Eds.), Animal Geographies. Verso, London and New York, pp. 280-297. ... Animals, Geography, and the City: Notes on Inclusions and Exclusions, in: Wolch, J., Emel, J. (Eds.), Animal Geographies: Place ... Animal Geographies. In Oxford Bibliographies in Geography, edited by B. Warf. New York: Oxford University Press. Whatmore, S., ...
... is an interdisciplinary study of cognitive science and geography. It aims to understand how humans view ... Cognitive geography and behavioral geography draw from early behaviorist works such as Tolman's concepts of "cognitive maps". ... Montello, Daniel R. (2009). "Cognitive geography." pp. 160-166 in International Encyclopedia of Human Geography 2. Montello, ... Examples of early works on Cognitive Geography include Tolman's "Cognitive maps in rats and men" compared the behavior of ...
"Swallowing Geography". SOLO. Retrieved 16 March 2019. "Swallowing Geography". Penguin Books. Retrieved 15 March 2019. v t e ( ... Swallowing Geography is a novel by Deborah Levy, published in 1993 by Jonathan Cape. It was rereleased by Penguin Essentials in ... Miller, Lucasta (30 January 1993). "BOOK REVIEW / On the road with a doll: Swallowing Geography - Deborah Levy: Jonathan Cape, ... Clark, Alex (29 March 2014). "Deborah Levy: Beautiful Mutants, Swallowing Geography, The Unloved". The Guardian. Retrieved 16 ...
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Animal geographies Behavioral geography Cognitive geography Critical geography Feminist geography Marxist geography Non- ... Geography Emotional geography Geography of food Integrated geography Physical geography Political ecology Technical geography ... Subfields include: Social geography, Animal geographies, Language geography, Sexuality and space, Childrens geographies, and ... Subfields include: Electoral geography, Geopolitics, Strategic geography and Military geography Population geography is the ...
I have spent my whole professional life as an international economist thinking and writing about economic geography, without ... In Geography and Trade he provides a stimulating synthesis of ideas in the literature and describes new models for implementing ... "I have spent my whole professional life as an international economist thinking and writing about economic geography, without ... Krugman observes that his own shortcomings in ignoring economic geography have been shared by many professional economists, ...
"The Five Themes of Geography". About.com. Retrieved November 16, 2013.. *^ "The Five Themes of Geography" (PDF). Retrieved 2 ... Massachusetts Geographic Alliance (1990). Global Geography: Activities for Teaching the Five Themes of Geography (Grades 3-9). ... The five themes of geography are an educational tool for teaching geography. The five themes were published in 1984[1] and ... They also played a role in reestablishing geography in school curricula.[1] When the National Geography Standards were released ...
This book explains how weather works and forms. It also tells why some places have differnent climates than others, and what the earths rotation does.
Mark D. Schwartz, a distinguished professor of geography, developed the spring indices, which measure relationships between ...
Geography at Middlebury College is an interdisciplinary field of study that explores virtually all aspects of life on earth. ... The Geography Department at Middlebury focuses on human geography. We provide our majors with a strong foundation in geographic ... Why Geography? If you love maps and have spent hours poring over an atlas, if youre fascinated by human interactions across ... Contemporary geography is a far cry from the rote learning of capitals, rivers, and mountains you might have experienced in ...
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Study Physical Geography at Newcastle and develop the scientific knowledge, skills and understanding for a career addressing ... Chat to a Geography student. At Newcastle, I have the opportunity to study the interplay between human and physical geography. ... As a geography student at Newcastle, youll be based in the School of Geography, Politics and Sociology. ... Recent Physical Geography trips have visited Iceland, Ireland and the Netherlands. Human Geography trips have been to Barcelona ...
PhD, Geography, University of Iowa, 2009. MPH, Global Health, University of Iowa, 2005. MS, Clinical and Translational Science ...
Geography is not just about reading maps and the learning of capital cities. Geography involves hard, critical thinking and the ... The draft curriculum for geography argues that: Geography answers our questions about why places are like they are and how ... Geography needs to be a core subject for the compulsory years of schooling and not an optional extra. It deserves the same ... Similarly, students of geography would know that the worlds poorest people are already suffering due to climate change and ...
Pages in category "Geography of Wales". This category contains only the following page. ... Media in category "Geography of Wales". This category contains only the following file. ... geography of Wales; xeografía de Gales; geografia de Gal·les; Уэлс географиясе; geografia del País de Galas; Overview of the ... geography of Wales; rivières; 概述; conjunto de características físicas de Gales; Daearyddiaeth Cymru; Wales geography; geografia ...
... , the study of the diverse environments, places, and spaces of Earths surface and their interactions. The modern ... Professor of Geography, University of Bristol. Author of Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American Human Geography Since 1945 ... Historical development of geography. The history of geography has two main parts: the history of exploration and mapmaking and ... To most people, geography means knowing where places are and what they are like. Discussion of an areas geography usually ...
Encourage students to develop their knowledge of the world around them with our selection of Geography resources. Discover more ... Cambridge IGCSE™ and O Level Geography 2nd Edition. Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Geography has been written specifically for ... Geography. From theories of demographic knowledge and urbanisation, to spheres of influence and population density, our ... Our collection of geography textbooks, guides and digital media tools are designed to encourage students with their learning, ...
Geography Marketing in retail. Source: hbr.org. The evolution and transformation of retail marketing have included geography ... Geography-Based Marketing Ideas. Source: braze.com. Effective messaging and the right marketing channels are the two ... Geography-based marketing is the perfect tool for making the best use of finite resources. These are the people who might walk ... Geography-based marketing is one tool that can go a long way toward maximizing your resources. In many cases, smaller brands ...
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... * Marsha Bryan Edelman , Yigal Levin , Peter Malone , Nils Holger Petersen , Alessandro Scafi , Anthony Swindell and ... "Geography" In Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception Online edited by Constance M. Furey, Peter Gemeinhardt, Joel Marcus ... "Geography". Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception Online, edited by Constance M. Furey, Peter Gemeinhardt, Joel Marcus ... Geography. In: Furey, C., Gemeinhardt, P., LeMon, J., Römer, T., Schröter, J., Walfish, B. and Ziolkowski, E. ed. Encyclopedia ...
Explain the contribution of geography to planning and decision-making processes This standard has expired and is no longer ... TOP , Social Sciences , Social Science Studies , Geography 0 Qualifications. 49 Assessment Standards (49 Achievements). View ... Apply geography concepts and skills to demonstrate understanding of a given environment ...
This course is compulsory for any students completing a single Honours degree in Geography and for any joint Honours student ...
Geography of Paraíba; بؤلمه:پارائیبا جوغرافیاسی; 분류:파라이바주의 지리; Category:Geography of Paraíba; تصنيف:جغرافيا بارايبا; Categorie: ... Geography of Paraíba; رده:جغرافیای پارائیبا; Kategori:Paraíba coğrafyası; Categoria:Geografia da Paraíba; Category:Geografie o ... Retrieved from "https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Geography_of_Paraíba&oldid=413512254" ...
The LSU Department of Geography and Anthropology is a national leader in education and research. From climate change to ... LSU Department of Geography & Anthropology. 227 Howe-Russell-Kniffen Geoscience Complex. Louisiana State University. Phone: 225 ... Learn more about the Bachelor of Arts in Geography with a concentration in Environmental Studies ...
Index of Articles on Nigeria Political Geography ...
Social Explorer is a detailed reference tool for current and historical Census data from 1790 to 2000. Our tools allow you to explore Census data visually through the use of interactive data maps and also browse and download Census data in convenient formats for offline processing.". American FactFinder - U.S. Census Bureau ...
DXX-3601: Food Geography: Entrep & Innov (20) (Semester 1 + 2) neu. DXC-3601: Daearydd Bwyd: Arloesi a Mentr (20) (Semester 1 ... DXX-3600: Food Geographies (10) (Semester 1) neu. DXC-3600: Daearyddiaeth Bwyd (10) (Semester 1) ... DXX-3013: Critical Human Geographies(10 (10) (Semester 2) neu. DXC-3013: Daearyddiaethau Dynol Beirniad (10) (Semester 2) ... DXX-3014: Critical Human Geographies(20 (20) (Semester 2) neu. DXC-3014: Daearyddiaethau Dynol Beirniad (20) (Semester 2) ...
Geography at the University of Leicester is top-ranked with particular strengths in critical geography, environmental change ... We research and teach across three core areas: Human Geography, Physical Geography and Geographic Information Science (GIS). ... We have state-of-the-art facilities, including physical geography labs and a dedicated student study area. ...
Index of Articles on Australian and New Zealand Political Geography ... Brush up on your geography and finally learn what countries are in Eastern Europe with our maps. ... Not sure about the geography of the middle east? Weve got you covered with our map collection. ...
Overview of Development Geography at McGill Development geography is one of the cornerstones of the Department of Geography at ... What is Development Geography? Development geography is based upon an understanding that wealth is unequally distributed on ... Development geography professors in the Department also contribute to the International Development Studies programme, and the ... McGill Graduate students focusing upon development geography for their MA, MSc or PhD degrees complete fieldwork across the ...
LSU Department of Geography & Anthropology. 227 Howe-Russell-Kniffen Geoscience Complex. Louisiana State University. Phone: 225 ...
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Ivy, R. (2012). The Geography of Market Concentration in the U.S. Airline Industry. Papers of the Applied Geography Conferences ... Papers in Applied Geography, Vol. 2, (2), P. 160-177.​. *Cordoba, H. & Ivy, R. (2014).Modeling the Spatial Variation in U.S. ... Papers of the Applied Geography Conferences. Vol. 34, p. 93-101.. *Cordoba, H., Ivy, R., Fadiman, M. (2011). Cultural and ... Geography Department. Harris Hall 215. Marshall University. 1 John Marshall Drive. Huntington, WV 25755 ...
  • I have spent my whole professional life as an international economist thinking and writing about economic geography, without being aware of it," begins Paul Krugman in the readable and anecdotal style that has become a hallmark of his writings. (mit.edu)
  • Krugman observes that his own shortcomings in ignoring economic geography have been shared by many professional economists, primarily because of the lack of explanatory models. (mit.edu)
  • In Geography and Trade he provides a stimulating synthesis of ideas in the literature and describes new models for implementing a study of economic geography that could change the nature of the field. (mit.edu)
  • Optimizing your website for search engines can help you rank higher, and following a local approach to SEO can help you reach more potential customers in nearby geographies. (fotolog.com)
  • However, the concepts of geography (such as cartography) date back to the earliest attempts to understand the world spatially, with the earliest example of an attempted world map dating to the 9th century BCE in ancient Babylon. (wikipedia.org)
  • This has led to geography being associated with cartography and place names. (wikipedia.org)
  • Technical geography involves studying and developing the tools and techniques used by geographers, such as remote sensing, cartography, and geographic information system. (wikipedia.org)
  • Geography was not recognized as a formal academic discipline until the 18th century, although many scholars had undertaken geographical scholarship for much longer, particularly through cartography. (wikipedia.org)
  • We provide our majors with a strong foundation in geographic concepts and theory, substantive knowledge of human geography, and extensive training in geospatial methods including GIS and cartography, among other technology skills. (middlebury.edu)
  • The Geography Department manages four laboratories that support digital cartography, geographic information systems (GIS), and remote sensing, all of which is readily available to students. (middlebury.edu)
  • To commemorate Dr. O'Dea's work in Newfoundland cartography, the scholarship is to be awarded to a student majoring in Geography who achieves scholarship standing. (mun.ca)
  • Due to a perceived lack of scientific rigor in an overly descriptive nature of the discipline, and a continued separation of geography from its two subfields of physical and human geography and from geology, geographers in the mid-20th century began to apply statistical and mathematical models in order to solve spatial problems. (wikipedia.org)
  • The geography and the geology departments are housed in Swenson Hall of Geosciences , a proximity that encourages cross-disciplinary work and interests in the earth sciences. (augustana.edu)
  • The Geographies of Sustainability course provides interdisciplinary perspectives aimed at studying the dynamics of social and environmental change in particular places. (lu.se)
  • Author of Geography and Geographers: Anglo-American Human Geography Since 1945 and others. (britannica.com)
  • Though Snow was primarily a physician and a pioneer of epidemiology rather than a geographer, his map is probably one of the earliest examples of health geography. (wikipedia.org)
  • The Geography Department at Middlebury focuses on human geography. (middlebury.edu)
  • Development geography is one of the cornerstones of the Department of Geography at McGill. (mcgill.ca)
  • Development geography professors in the Department also contribute to the International Development Studies programme, and the School of the Environment at McGill, and students are encouraged to take courses in these to complement their studies in geography. (mcgill.ca)
  • The development geography professors in the Department have a broad range of complementary interests. (mcgill.ca)
  • We hope to raise €80,000 in order to fund a research student for three years to complete a PhD in the Geography Department. (tcd.ie)
  • You'll also embark on field trips with class groups or the whole department, investigating site-specific issues and exploring the geography of more distant places. (augustana.edu)
  • A fund was established in 1979 by members of the Department of Geography to honor the memory of Captain James Cook (1728-1779), explorer, navigator and cartographer, whose years of painstaking mapping of the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador laid the basis for a comprehensive scientific knowledge of the province. (mun.ca)
  • At least one scholarship is awarded annually on the recommendation of the Department of Geography to a student demonstrating particular merit in geography. (mun.ca)
  • The scholarship is to be awarded by The Senate Committee on Undergraduate Bursaries and Awards upon the recommendation of the Head, Department of Geography. (mun.ca)
  • In addition to eight majors, the Geography Department offers two minors, in Geography and in Meteorology, which help students tailor their focus of study. (ohio.edu)
  • Geography students are well prepared to do independent research and to work with faculty members as research assistants. (middlebury.edu)
  • The geography department's research boat , The Scholarship , takes students and faculty out onto the Mississippi and Rock rivers for research on water resources, urban planning, transportation and biogeography. (augustana.edu)
  • Some geography students also assist faculty on research projects for area agencies. (augustana.edu)
  • The first chapter in tracking heat loss at Augustana College, a project by Logan Pierard '21 and geography faculty. (augustana.edu)
  • The term "historical geography" is used in different ways by members of different scholarly disciplines. (degruyter.com)
  • Historical Geography of the U.S. (unomaha.edu)
  • William Hughes, 1863 Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into three main branches: human geography, physical geography, and technical geography. (wikipedia.org)
  • Geography at Middlebury is an interdisciplinary field of study that explores virtually all aspects of life on earth. (middlebury.edu)
  • In the interdisciplinary field of geography, you'll make connections between related fields throughout the liberal arts. (augustana.edu)
  • The difference between these approaches led to the development of integrated geography, which combines physical and human geography and concerns the interactions between the environment and humans. (wikipedia.org)
  • The now fairly distinct differences between the subfields of physical and human geography developed at a later date. (wikipedia.org)
  • The connection between both physical and human properties of geography is most apparent in the theory of environmental determinism, made popular in the 19th century by Carl Ritter and others, and has close links to the field of evolutionary biology of the time. (wikipedia.org)
  • A similar concern with both human and physical aspects is apparent during the later 19th and first half of the 20th centuries focused on regional geography. (wikipedia.org)
  • The goal of regional geography, through something known as regionalisation, was to delineate space into regions and then understand and describe the unique characteristics of each region through both human and physical aspects. (wikipedia.org)
  • If you love maps and have spent hours poring over an atlas, if you're fascinated by human interactions across space and time, both globally and in particular locations, and if you want to better understand how politics, economics, culture, and the physical environment affect human activity at different scales, then geography is your place of discovery. (middlebury.edu)
  • Study Physical Geography at Newcastle and develop the scientific knowledge, skills and understanding for a career addressing the global challenges facing our natural environments. (ncl.ac.uk)
  • This degree allows you to focus on physical geography from the very start. (ncl.ac.uk)
  • You'll receive a thorough grounding in the concepts and techniques of physical geography in Stage 1. (ncl.ac.uk)
  • You'll explore global environmental issues alongside physical geography concepts and techniques. (ncl.ac.uk)
  • We research and teach across three core areas: Human Geography, Physical Geography and Geographic Information Science (GIS). (le.ac.uk)
  • It specialises in physical geography. (ed.ac.uk)
  • The Geography Minor affords students flexibility in designing a curriculum that combines the traditions of physical and human geography with analytical and technical skills. (ohio.edu)
  • Geography is a multifaceted discipline that bridges the social sciences, the humanities, and the physical sciences. (unomaha.edu)
  • The selected cases will seek to integrate approaches and perspectives from both human and physical geography, highlighting the interdisciplinary focus of the course. (lu.se)
  • The course is compulsory at the second-cycle level for a Degree of Master (120 credits) in geographic information science and remote sensing for modelling and environmental monitoring (GEM), computational science with a specialisation in physical geography and computational science with a specialisation in earth sciences. (lu.se)
  • The course is an elective course at the second-cycle level for a Degree of Master of Science (120 credits) in physical geography and ecosystem science with a specialisation in physical geography and ecosystem science with a specialisation in environmental changes at higher latitudes (EnCHiL) and for the general specialisation. (lu.se)
  • The Master Programme in Applied Computational Science with specialisation in Physical Geography will give you detailed knowledge about the underlying methods with respect to physical geography. (lu.se)
  • In the first year of the specialisation Physical Geography, you initially study a course on greenhouse gases and biochemical cycles followed by a basic course in mathematics and a course on Ecosystem modelling. (lu.se)
  • A focal point of the course is to recognise the geographies of place and how different forms of natural resource use and environmental change at the local scale are influenced by structures and processes cutting across scales, and vice versa. (lu.se)
  • This course is compulsory for any students completing a single Honours degree in Geography and for any joint Honours student who has not registered to complete a dissertation in their other Honours subject. (abdn.ac.uk)
  • The Graduate School of Geography offers undergraduate majors and minors in geography and global environmental studies. (clarku.edu)
  • For something to fall into the domain of geography, it generally needs some sort of spatial component that can be placed on a map, such as coordinates, place names, or addresses. (wikipedia.org)
  • Human geography or anthropogeography is the branch of geography that studies spatial relationships between human communities, cultures, economies, and their interactions with the environment, examples of which include urban sprawl and urban redevelopment. (wikipedia.org)
  • the use of statistics, spatial modeling, and positivist approaches are still important to many branches of human geography. (wikipedia.org)
  • Geography is therefore a beneficial minor for students because its theories and methods provide them with analytical skills relevant to occupations focused on solving social and environmental problems. (ohio.edu)
  • A theoretical dissertation elaborates on various theoretical approaches to problems in geography education, requiring a high degree of abstract and analytical thinking and insight. (muni.cz)
  • Similarly, students of geography would know that the world's poorest people are already suffering due to climate change and will continue to suffer the most with more prolonged droughts, more severe floods and storms, less food and more disease. (theage.com.au)
  • It is important to study geography because many of the world's problems require understanding the interdependence between human activities and the environment. (ohio.edu)
  • The course covers perspectives from a variety of research fields from land-change science and landscape geography to political economy and cultural geography. (lu.se)
  • The first professor of geography in the United Kingdom was appointed in 1883, and the first major geographical intellect to emerge in the UK was Halford John Mackinder, appointed professor of geography at the London School of Economics in 1922. (wikipedia.org)
  • Mark D. Schwartz , a distinguished professor of geography, developed the spring indices, which measure relationships between temperature and plant growth. (uwm.edu)
  • Professor of Geography, University of Bristol. (britannica.com)
  • Geography has higher aims than this: it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world, in so far as it treats of the latter), to compare, to generalize, to ascend from effects to causes, and, in doing so, to trace out the laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man. (wikipedia.org)
  • This research initiative aims at exploring unused potential in promoting cross-disciplinary research on the geography of innovation and societal transformation, and thereby also contributing to Lund University's contribution to tackling society's challenges. (lu.se)
  • Geography is a systematic study of the Earth (other celestial bodies are specified, such as "geography of Mars", or given another name, such as areography in the case of Mars), its features, and phenomena that take place on it. (wikipedia.org)
  • Just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a history, they also exist in space and have a geography. (wikipedia.org)
  • Ptolemy , author of one of the discipline's first books, Guide to Geography (2nd century ce ), defined geography as "a representation in pictures of the whole known world together with the phenomena which are contained therein. (britannica.com)
  • By harnessing the knowledge presented in our geography resources, students can choose study methods they prefer, and work towards their ambitions in their own way. (cambridge.org)
  • [4] This theme is not exclusive to geography, as it is a goal for many disciplines of study. (wikipedia.org)
  • Geography students can further enrich their education through summer internships with government agencies and nonprofit organizations and through study abroad. (middlebury.edu)
  • geography , the study of the diverse environments , places, and spaces of Earth 's surface and their interactions. (britannica.com)
  • Geography is the study of the way the world works. (ed.ac.uk)
  • You will also study aspects of human geography. (ed.ac.uk)
  • Bridging the natural and social sciences, geography is the interdisciplinary study of environments and how people interact with the environment. (ohio.edu)
  • Geography is the study of Earth's landscapes, peoples, places and environments. (unomaha.edu)
  • Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and its human and natural complexities-not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be. (wikipedia.org)
  • The history of geography as a discipline spans cultures and millennia, being independently developed by multiple groups, and cross-pollinated by trade between these groups. (wikipedia.org)
  • Today, geography is an extremely broad discipline with multiple approaches and modalities. (wikipedia.org)
  • There have been multiple attempts to organize the discipline, including the four traditions of geography, and into branches. (wikipedia.org)
  • Known under the term 'critical geography,' these critiques signaled another turning point in the discipline. (wikipedia.org)
  • The modern academic discipline of geography is rooted in ancient practice, concerned with the characteristics of places, in particular their natural environments and peoples, as well as the relations between the two. (britannica.com)
  • Although there was a much earlier teaching of what is now called geography, the academic discipline is largely a 20th-century creation, forming a bridge between the natural and social sciences. (britannica.com)
  • Geography combines the natural and social sciences. (augustana.edu)
  • From theories of demographic knowledge and urbanisation, to spheres of influence and population density, our geography resources cater to immediate studying needs, preparing students for the Cambridge IGCSE , AQA and IB Diploma qualifications. (cambridge.org)
  • Our collection of geography textbooks, guides and digital media tools are designed to encourage students with their learning, inspiring them to tackle areas of geography that they may struggle with, and applying their skills to future career opportunities. (cambridge.org)
  • Students wanting to learn geography can immerse themselves in case studies of Indonesian volcanos, Mauritian coastline areas, tropical rainforest ecosystems and the Sahara Desert. (cambridge.org)
  • Need help choosing the best geography books for your students? (cambridge.org)
  • McGill Graduate students focusing upon development geography for their MA, MSc or PhD degrees complete fieldwork across the globe in developing regions from Sierra Leone to Peru , Northern Québec to Vietnam. (mcgill.ca)
  • Students who major in geography can also enroll in a 3+3 Master of Landscape Architecture coordinated degree program with University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. (augustana.edu)
  • I am energized by the wonderful gift of doing so with my new colleagues, students, and friends at SFU Geography! (sfu.ca)
  • It is not an exception that students of doctoral studies work as geography teachers or educators directly in practice at different levels and types of schools and out-of-school facilities. (muni.cz)
  • A high proportion of our students go on to graduate work, in geography or cognate fields, and we have placed students at some of the best graduate programs in the country. (unomaha.edu)
  • Geography has been called "a bridge between natural science and social science disciplines. (wikipedia.org)
  • My goals in Human Geography revolve around building the social and intellectual resources necessary to move through these challenging problems and generate new possibilities out of planetary crisis. (sfu.ca)
  • The core concepts of geography consistent between all approaches are a focus on space, place, time, and scale. (wikipedia.org)
  • While geography is specific to Earth, many concepts can be applied more broadly to other celestial bodies in the field of planetary science. (wikipedia.org)
  • GEOG 0339 Practicing Human Geography, field trip to local orchard. (middlebury.edu)
  • But, what do you actually do on a geography field trip? (ed.ac.uk)
  • Applying geography techniques in the field is rewarding and brings your subject to life. (ed.ac.uk)
  • developers of the conceptual frameworks in the field of geography education. (muni.cz)
  • Human geography largely focuses on the built environment and how humans create, view, manage, and influence space. (wikipedia.org)
  • Radical geography and the links to Marxism and related theories remain an important part of contemporary human geography (See: Antipode). (wikipedia.org)
  • Geography helps draw connections between human activity and the natural world, paying particular attention to different scales, and is fundamentally interdisciplinary. (middlebury.edu)
  • Discussion of an area's geography usually refers to its topography-its relief and drainage patterns and predominant vegetation, along with climate and weather patterns-together with human responses to that environment , as in agricultural, industrial, and other land uses and in settlement and urbanization patterns. (britannica.com)
  • Contemporary geography is a far cry from the rote learning of capitals, rivers, and mountains you might have experienced in grade school-geography analyzes real-world problems. (middlebury.edu)
  • Geography involves hard, critical thinking and the development of important knowledge and skills. (theage.com.au)
  • The Bachelor of Science (BSc) Geography is an environmental geography degree. (ed.ac.uk)
  • Many Augustana geography graduates enter graduate programs in geography, urban planning, geomorphology, landscape architecture and environmental studies. (augustana.edu)
  • https://doi.org/10.1515/ebr.geography [Accessed 2 Oct 2023]. (degruyter.com)
  • In a word, Geography is a Science-a thing not of mere names but of argument and reason, of cause and effect. (wikipedia.org)
  • The geography of inter-state resource wars ," LSE Research Online Documents on Economics 51548, London School of Economics and Political Science, LSE Library. (repec.org)
  • Hunter Ridley '20 is completing a two-year honors-affiliated degree in geography at St. John's College at Cambridge University, England. (augustana.edu)
  • The Geography of Interstate Resource Wars ," The Quarterly Journal of Economics , Oxford University Press, vol. 130(1), pages 267-315. (repec.org)
  • We are ranked 19th in the world and 7th in the UK for geography in the QS World University Rankings by Subject 2023. (ed.ac.uk)