Genetic code. Medical search

The meaning ascribed to the BASE SEQUENCE with respect to how it is translated into AMINO ACID SEQUENCE. The start, stop, and order of amino acids of a protein is specified by consecutive triplets of nucleotides called codons (CODON).

A set of three nucleotides in a protein coding sequence that specifies individual amino acids or a termination signal (CODON, TERMINATOR). Most codons are universal, but some organisms do not produce the transfer RNAs (RNA, TRANSFER) complementary to all codons. These codons are referred to as unassigned codons (CODONS, NONSENSE).

The sequential set of three nucleotides in TRANSFER RNA that interacts with its complement in MESSENGER RNA, the CODON, during translation in the ribosome.

Any codon that signals the termination of genetic translation (TRANSLATION, GENETIC). PEPTIDE TERMINATION FACTORS bind to the stop codon and trigger the hydrolysis of the aminoacyl bond connecting the completed polypeptide to the tRNA. Terminator codons do not specify amino acids.

The conversion of uncharged TRANSFER RNA to AMINO ACYL TRNA.

A subclass of enzymes that aminoacylate AMINO ACID-SPECIFIC TRANSFER RNA with their corresponding AMINO ACIDS.

The small RNA molecules, 73-80 nucleotides long, that function during translation (TRANSLATION, GENETIC) to align AMINO ACIDS at the RIBOSOMES in a sequence determined by the mRNA (RNA, MESSENGER). There are about 30 different transfer RNAs. Each recognizes a specific CODON set on the mRNA through its own ANTICODON and as aminoacyl tRNAs (RNA, TRANSFER, AMINO ACYL), each carries a specific amino acid to the ribosome to add to the elongating peptide chains.

A transfer RNA which is specific for carrying cysteine to sites on the ribosomes in preparation for protein synthesis.

The process of cumulative change at the level of DNA; RNA; and PROTEINS, over successive generations.

A reaction that introduces an aminoacyl group to a molecule. TRANSFER RNA AMINOACYLATION is the first step in GENETIC TRANSLATION.

Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (-COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins.

The biosynthesis of PEPTIDES and PROTEINS on RIBOSOMES, directed by MESSENGER RNA, via TRANSFER RNA that is charged with standard proteinogenic AMINO ACIDS.

An enzyme that activates tyrosine with its specific transfer RNA. EC 6.1.1.1.

A phylum of EUKARYOTES characterized by the presence of cilia at some time during the life cycle. It comprises three classes: KINETOFRAGMINOPHOREA; OLIGOHYMENOPHOREA; and POLYMENOPHOREA.

Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of genetic processes or phenomena. They include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.

The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.

An order of amoeboid EUKARYOTES characterized by reticulating pseudopods and a complex life cycle with an alternation of generations. Most are less than 1mm in size and found in marine or brackish water.

A transfer RNA which is specific for carrying alanine to sites on the ribosomes in preparation for protein synthesis.

A transfer RNA which is specific for carrying isoleucine to sites on the ribosomes in preparation for protein synthesis.

A group of transfer RNAs which are specific for carrying each one of the 20 amino acids to the ribosome in preparation for protein synthesis.

An order of anaerobic methanogens in the kingdom EURYARCHAEOTA. They are pseudosarcina, coccoid or sheathed rod-shaped and catabolize methyl groups. The cell wall is composed of protein. The order includes one family, METHANOCOCCACEAE. (From Bergey's Manual of Systemic Bacteriology, 1989)

Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.

An enzyme that activates alanine with its specific transfer RNA. EC 6.1.1.7.

A genus of SQUID in the family Loliginidae, superorder DECAPODIFORMES, with a spindle-shaped body. They are well-studied, common inshore squids of the Atlantic and eastern Pacific Oceans, but their various species are taxonomically unresolved.

The spatial arrangement of the atoms of a nucleic acid or polynucleotide that results in its characteristic 3-dimensional shape.

A transfer RNA which is specific for carrying serine to sites on the ribosomes in preparation for protein synthesis.

Intermediates in protein biosynthesis. The compounds are formed from amino acids, ATP and transfer RNA, a reaction catalyzed by aminoacyl tRNA synthetase. They are key compounds in the genetic translation process.

A process that changes the nucleotide sequence of mRNA from that of the DNA template encoding it. Some major classes of RNA editing are as follows: 1, the conversion of cytosine to uracil in mRNA; 2, the addition of variable number of guanines at pre-determined sites; and 3, the addition and deletion of uracils, templated by guide-RNAs (RNA, GUIDE).

An enzyme that activates leucine with its specific transfer RNA. EC 6.1.1.4.

The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.

A transfer RNA which is specific for carrying tyrosine to sites on the ribosomes in preparation for protein synthesis.

A naturally occurring amino acid in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. It is found in tRNAs and in the catalytic site of some enzymes. The genes for glutathione peroxidase and formate dehydrogenase contain the TGA codon, which codes for this amino acid.

A genus of ciliate protozoa having a dorsoventrally flattened body with widely spaced rows of short bristle-like cilia on the dorsal surface.

A product from the iodination of tyrosine. In the biosynthesis of thyroid hormones (THYROXINE and TRIIODOTHYRONINE), tyrosine is first iodized to monoiodotyrosine.

A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.

Genes that are located on the MITOCHONDRIAL DNA. Mitochondrial inheritance is often referred to as maternal inheritance but should be differentiated from maternal inheritance that is transmitted chromosomally.

The process of cumulative change over successive generations through which organisms acquire their distinguishing morphological and physiological characteristics.

The origin of life. It includes studies of the potential basis for life in organic compounds but excludes studies of the development of altered forms of life through mutation and natural selection, which is BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION.

A group of flagellated, mostly symbiotic EUKARYOTES characterized by twofold symmetry associated with the presence of a pair of karyomastigont organellar systems. Two nuclei are attached by fibers to the flagella and there are no MITOCHONDRIA. Diplomonadida were formerly members of the class Zoomastigophora in the old five kingdom paradigm.

Systematic statements of principles or rules of appropriate professional conduct, usually established by professional societies.

An enzyme that activates isoleucine with its specific transfer RNA. EC 6.1.1.5.

The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.

A transfer RNA which is specific for carrying glycine to sites on the ribosomes in preparation for protein synthesis.

A transfer RNA which is specific for carrying tryptophan to sites on the ribosomes in preparation for protein synthesis.

An enzyme that activates serine with its specific transfer RNA. EC 6.1.1.11.

A transfer RNA which is specific for carrying leucine to sites on the ribosomes in preparation for protein synthesis.

A genus of anaerobic, irregular spheroid-shaped METHANOSARCINALES whose organisms are nonmotile. Endospores are not formed. These archaea derive energy via formation of methane from acetate, methanol, mono-, di-, and trimethylamine, and possibly, carbon monoxide. Organisms are isolated from freshwater and marine environments.

Proteins that are involved in the peptide chain termination reaction (PEPTIDE CHAIN TERMINATION, TRANSLATIONAL) on RIBOSOMES. They include codon-specific class-I release factors, which recognize stop signals (TERMINATOR CODON) in the MESSENGER RNA; and codon-nonspecific class-II release factors.

An enzyme that activates tryptophan with its specific transfer RNA. EC 6.1.1.2.

A genus in the family ENTOMOPLASMATACEAE, order Entomoplasmatales. It is pathogenic to GOATS, causing caprine pleuropneumonia (PLEUROPNEUMONIA, CONTAGIOUS).

A polynucleotide consisting essentially of chains with a repeating backbone of phosphate and ribose units to which nitrogenous bases are attached. RNA is unique among biological macromolecules in that it can encode genetic information, serve as an abundant structural component of cells, and also possesses catalytic activity. (Rieger et al., Glossary of Genetics: Classical and Molecular, 5th ed)

The techniques used to produce molecules exhibiting properties that conform to the demands of the experimenter. These techniques combine methods of generating structural changes with methods of selection. They are also used to examine proposed mechanisms of evolution under in vitro selection conditions.

An enzyme that activates lysine with its specific transfer RNA. EC 6.1.1.6.

Any of the enzymatically catalyzed modifications of the individual AMINO ACIDS of PROTEINS, and enzymatic cleavage or crosslinking of peptide chains that occur pre-translationally (on the amino acid component of AMINO ACYL TRNA), co-translationally (during the process of GENETIC TRANSLATION), or after translation is completed (POST-TRANSLATIONAL PROTEIN PROCESSING).

Pairing of purine and pyrimidine bases by HYDROGEN BONDING in double-stranded DNA or RNA.

An enzyme that activates threonine with its specific transfer RNA. EC 6.1.1.3.

A transfer RNA which is specific for carrying asparagine to sites on the ribosomes in preparation for protein synthesis.

Linear POLYPEPTIDES that are synthesized on RIBOSOMES and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of AMINO ACIDS determines the shape the polypeptide will take, during PROTEIN FOLDING, and the function of the protein.

One of the three domains of life (the others being BACTERIA and Eukarya), formerly called Archaebacteria under the taxon Bacteria, but now considered separate and distinct. They are characterized by: (1) the presence of characteristic tRNAs and ribosomal RNAs; (2) the absence of peptidoglycan cell walls; (3) the presence of ether-linked lipids built from branched-chain subunits; and (4) their occurrence in unusual habitats. While archaea resemble bacteria in morphology and genomic organization, they resemble eukarya in their method of genomic replication. The domain contains at least four kingdoms: CRENARCHAEOTA; EURYARCHAEOTA; NANOARCHAEOTA; and KORARCHAEOTA.

Cells of the higher organisms, containing a true nucleus bounded by a nuclear membrane.

Procedures by which protein structure and function are changed or created in vitro by altering existing or synthesizing new structural genes that direct the synthesis of proteins with sought-after properties. Such procedures may include the design of MOLECULAR MODELS of proteins using COMPUTER GRAPHICS or other molecular modeling techniques; site-specific mutagenesis (MUTAGENESIS, SITE-SPECIFIC) of existing genes; and DIRECTED MOLECULAR EVOLUTION techniques to create new genes.

Double-stranded DNA of MITOCHONDRIA. In eukaryotes, the mitochondrial GENOME is circular and codes for ribosomal RNAs, transfer RNAs, and about 10 proteins.

Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.

Cells lacking a nuclear membrane so that the nuclear material is either scattered in the cytoplasm or collected in a nucleoid region.

Multicomponent ribonucleoprotein structures found in the CYTOPLASM of all cells, and in MITOCHONDRIA, and PLASTIDS. They function in PROTEIN BIOSYNTHESIS via GENETIC TRANSLATION.

Selenoproteins are proteins that specifically incorporate SELENOCYSTEINE into their amino acid chain. Most selenoproteins are enzymes with the selenocysteine residues being responsible for their catalytic functions.

The most common of the microsatellite tandem repeats (MICROSATELLITE REPEATS) dispersed in the euchromatic arms of chromosomes. They consist of two nucleotides repeated in tandem; guanine and thymine, (GT)n, is the most frequently seen.

A sequence of successive nucleotide triplets that are read as CODONS specifying AMINO ACIDS and begin with an INITIATOR CODON and end with a stop codon (CODON, TERMINATOR).

An enzyme that activates phenylalanine with its specific transfer RNA. EC 6.1.1.20.

The naturally occurring or experimentally induced replacement of one or more AMINO ACIDS in a protein with another. If a functionally equivalent amino acid is substituted, the protein may retain wild-type activity. Substitution may also diminish, enhance, or eliminate protein function. Experimentally induced substitution is often used to study enzyme activities and binding site properties.

The arrangement of two or more amino acid or base sequences from an organism or organisms in such a way as to align areas of the sequences sharing common properties. The degree of relatedness or homology between the sequences is predicted computationally or statistically based on weights assigned to the elements aligned between the sequences. This in turn can serve as a potential indicator of the genetic relatedness between the organisms.

Physical and functional heterogeneity in TYMV RNA: evidence for the existence of an independent messenger coding for coat protein. (1/1209)

Turnip yellow mosaic virus RNA can be separated into two distinct components of 2 times 10(6) and 300 000 daltons molecular weight after moderate heat treatment in the presence of SDS or EDTA. The two species cannot have arisen by accidental in vitro degradation of a larger RNA, as they both possess capped 5' ends. Analysis of the newly synthesized proteins resulting from translation of each RNA by a wheat germ extract shows that the 300 000 molecular weight RNA can be translated very efficiently into coat protein. When translated in vitro the longer RNA gave a series of high molecular weight polypeptides but only very small amounts of a polypeptide having about the same mass as the coat protein. Thus our results suggest that the small RNA is the functional messenger for coat protein synthesis in infected cells. (+info)

The presence of pseudouridine in the anticodon alters the genetic code: a possible mechanism for assignment of the AAA lysine codon as asparagine in echinoderm mitochondria. (2/1209)

It has been inferred from DNA sequence analyses that in echinoderm mitochondria not only the usual asparagine codons AAU and AAC, but also the usual lysine codon AAA, are translated as asparagine by a single mitochondrial (mt) tRNAAsn with the anticodon GUU. Nucleotide sequencing of starfish mt tRNAAsn revealed that the anticodon is GPsiU, U35 at the anticodon second position being modified to pseudouridine (Psi). In contrast, mt tRNALys, corresponding to another lysine codon, AAG, has the anticodon CUU. mt tRNAs possessing anti-codons closely related to that of tRNAAsn, but responsible for decoding only two codons each-tRNAHis, tRNAAsp and tRNATyr-were found to possess unmodified U35 in all cases, suggesting the importance of Psi35 for decoding the three codons. Therefore, the decoding capabilities of two synthetic Escherichia coli tRNAAla variants with the anticodon GPsiU or GUU were examined using an E.coli in vitro translation system. Both tRNAs could translate not only AAC and AAU with similar efficiency, but also AAA with an efficiency that was approximately 2-fold higher in the case of tRNAAlaGPsiU than tRNAAlaGUU. These findings imply that Psi35 of echinoderm mt tRNAAsn actually serves to decode the unusual asparagine codon AAA, resulting in the alteration of the genetic code in echinoderm mitochondria. (+info)

nimO, an Aspergillus gene related to budding yeast Dbf4, is required for DNA synthesis and mitotic checkpoint control. (3/1209)

The nimO predicted protein of Aspergillus nidulans is related structurally and functionally to Dbf4p, the regulatory subunit of Cdc7p kinase in budding yeast. nimOp and Dbf4p are most similar in their C-termini, which contain a PEST motif and a novel, short-looped Cys2-His2 zinc finger-like motif. DNA labelling and reciprocal shift assays using ts-lethal nimO18 mutants showed that nimO is required for initiation of DNA synthesis and for efficient progression through S phase. nimO18 mutants abrogated a cell cycle checkpoint linking S and M phases by segregating their unreplicated chromatin. This checkpoint defect did not interfere with other checkpoints monitoring spindle assembly and DNA damage (dimer lesions), but did prevent activation of a DNA replication checkpoint. The division of unreplicated chromatin was accelerated in cells lacking a component of the anaphase-promoting complex (bimEAPC1), consistent with the involvement of nimO and APC/C in separate checkpoint pathways. A nimO deletion conferred DNA synthesis and checkpoint defects similar to nimO18. Inducible nimO alleles lacking as many as 244 C-terminal amino acids supported hyphal growth, but not asexual development, when overexpressed in a ts-lethal nimO18 strain. However, the truncated alleles could not rescue a nimO deletion, indicating that the C terminus is essential and suggesting some type of interaction among nimO polypeptides. (+info)

Progress toward the evolution of an organism with an expanded genetic code. (4/1209)

Several significant steps have been completed toward a general method for the site-specific incorporation of unnatural amino acids into proteins in vivo. An "orthogonal" suppressor tRNA was derived from Saccharomyces cerevisiae tRNA2Gln. This yeast orthogonal tRNA is not a substrate in vitro or in vivo for any Escherichia coli aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, including E. coli glutaminyl-tRNA synthetase (GlnRS), yet functions with the E. coli translational machinery. Importantly, S. cerevisiae GlnRS aminoacylates the yeast orthogonal tRNA in vitro and in E. coli, but does not charge E. coli tRNAGln. This yeast-derived suppressor tRNA together with yeast GlnRS thus represents a completely orthogonal tRNA/synthetase pair in E. coli suitable for the delivery of unnatural amino acids into proteins in vivo. A general method was developed to select for mutant aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases capable of charging any ribosomally accepted molecule onto an orthogonal suppressor tRNA. Finally, a rapid nonradioactive screen for unnatural amino acid uptake was developed and applied to a collection of 138 amino acids. The majority of glutamine and glutamic acid analogs under examination were found to be uptaken by E. coli. Implications of these results are discussed. (+info)

HIP/PAP gene, encoding a C-type lectin overexpressed in primary liver cancer, is expressed in nervous system as well as in intestine and pancreas of the postimplantation mouse embryo. (5/1209)

We originally isolated the HIP/PAP gene in a differential screen of a human hepatocellular carcinoma cDNA library. This gene is expressed at high levels in 25% of primary liver cancers but not in nontumorous liver. HIP/PAP belongs to the family of C-type lectins and acts as an adhesion molecule for hepatocytes. In normal adult human tissues, HIP/PAP expression is found in pancreas (exocrine and endocrine cells) and small intestine (Paneth and neuroendocrine cells). In order to gain insight into the possible role of HIP/PAP in vivo, we have investigated the pattern of HIP/PAP expression in the developing postimplantation mouse embryo by in situ hybridization. Detailed analysis of developing mouse embryos revealed that HIP/PAP gene exhibits a restricted expression pattern during development. Thus, HIP/PAP transcripts are first observed within the nervous system from day 14.5 onwards in trigeminal ganglia, dorsal root ganglia, and spinal cord where it appears to be an early specific marker of a subpopulation of motor neurons. At laster stages, HIP/PAP transcripts were detected in intestine and pancreas at day 16.5 but not in embryonic liver. This highly restricted expression pattern suggests that HIP/PAP might participate in neuronal as well as intestinal and pancreatic cell development. (+info)

Complete sequence, gene arrangement, and genetic code of mitochondrial DNA of the cephalochordate Branchiostoma floridae (Amphioxus) (6/1209)

We have determined the 15,083-nucleotide (nt) sequence of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of the lancelet Branchiostoma floridae (Chordata: Cephalochordata). As is typical in metazoans, the mtDNA encodes 13 protein, 2 rRNA, and 22 tRNA genes. The gene arrangement differs from the common vertebrate arrangement by only four tRNA gene positions. Three of these are unique to Branchiostoma, but the fourth is in a position that is primitive for chordates. It shares the genetic code variations found in vertebrate mtDNAs except that AGA = serine, a code variation found in many invertebrate phyla but not in vertebrates (the related codon AGG was not found). Branchiostoma mtDNA lacks a vertebrate-like control region; its largest noncoding region (129 nt) is unremarkable in sequence or base composition, and its location between ND5 and tRNAG differs from that usually found in vertebrates. It also lacks a potential hairpin DNA structure like those found in many (though not in all) vertebrates to serve as the second-strand (i.e., L-strand) origin of replication. Perhaps related to this, the sequence corresponding to the DHU arm of tRNAC cannot form a helical stem, a condition found in a few other vertebrate mtDNAs that also lack a canonical L-strand origin of replication. ATG and GTG codons appear to initiate translation in 11 and 2 of the protein-encoding genes, respectively. Protein genes end with complete (TAA or TAG) or incomplete (T or TA) stop codons; the latter are presumably converted to TAA by post-transcriptional polyadenylation. (+info)

Crystal structure of acceptor stem of tRNA(Ala) from Escherichia coli shows unique G.U wobble base pair at 1.16 A resolution. (7/1209)

The acceptor stem of Escherichia coli tRNA(Ala), rGGGGCUA.rUAGCUCC (ALAwt), contains the main identity element for the correct aminoacylation by the alanyl tRNA synthetase. The presence of a G3.U70 wobble base pair is essential for the specificity of this reaction, but there is a debate whether direct minor-groove contact with the 2-amino group of G3 or a distortion of the acceptor stem induced by the wobble pair is the critical feature recognized by the synthetase. We here report the structure analysis of ALAwt at near-atomic resolution using twinned crystals. The crystal lattice is stabilized by a novel strontium binding motif between two cis-diolic O3'-terminal riboses. The two independent molecules in the asymmetric unit of the crystal show overall A-RNA geometry. A comparison with the crystal structure of the G3-C70 mutant of the acceptor stem (ALA(C70)) determined at 1.4 A exhibits a modulation in ALAwt of helical twist and slide due to the wobble base pair, but no recognizable distortion of the helix fragment distant from the wobble base pair. We suggest that a highly conserved hydration pattern in both grooves around the G3.U70 wobble base pair may be functionally significant. (+info)

A nuclear localization signal can enhance both the nuclear transport and expression of 1 kb DNA. (8/1209)

Although the entry of DNA into the nucleus is a crucial step of non-viral gene delivery, fundamental features of this transport process have remained unexplored. This study analyzed the effect of linear double stranded DNA size on its passive diffusion, its active transport and its NLS-assisted transport. The size limit for passive diffusion was found to be between 200 and 310 bp. DNA of 310-1500 bp entered the nuclei of digitonin treated cells in the absence of cytosolic extract by an active transport process. Both the size limit and the intensity of DNA nuclear transport could be increased by the attachment of strong nuclear localization signals. Conjugation of a 900 bp expression cassette to nuclear localization signals increased both its nuclear entry and expression in microinjected, living cells. (+info)

The genetic code is the set of rules that dictates how DNA and RNA sequences are translated into proteins. It consists of a 64-unit "alphabet" formed by all possible combinations of four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) in DNA or uracil (U) in RNA. These triplets, also known as codons, specify the addition of specific amino acids during protein synthesis or signal the start or stop of translation. This code is universal across all known organisms, with only a few exceptions.

A codon is a sequence of three adjacent nucleotides in DNA or RNA that specifies the insertion of a particular amino acid during protein synthesis, or signals the beginning or end of translation. In DNA, these triplets are read during transcription to produce a complementary mRNA molecule, which is then translated into a polypeptide chain during translation. There are 64 possible codons in the standard genetic code, with 61 encoding for specific amino acids and three serving as stop codons that signal the termination of protein synthesis.

An anticodon is a sequence of three ribonucleotides (RNA bases) in a transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule that pair with a complementary codon in a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule during protein synthesis. This interaction occurs within the ribosome during translation, where the genetic code in the mRNA is translated into an amino acid sequence in a polypeptide. Specifically, each tRNA carries a specific amino acid that corresponds to its anticodon sequence, allowing for the accurate and systematic addition of amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain.

In summary, an anticodon is a crucial component of the translation machinery, facilitating the precise decoding of genetic information and enabling the synthesis of proteins according to the instructions encoded in mRNA molecules.

A codon is a sequence of three adjacent nucleotides in DNA or RNA that specifies a particular amino acid during the process of protein synthesis, or codes for the termination of translation. In DNA, these triplets are read in a 5' to 3' direction, while in mRNA, they are read in a 5' to 3' direction as well. There are 64 possible codons (4^3) in the genetic code, and 61 of them specify amino acids. The remaining three codons, UAA, UAG, and UGA, are terminator or stop codons that signal the end of protein synthesis.

Terminator codons, also known as nonsense codons, do not code for any amino acids. Instead, they cause the release of the newly synthesized polypeptide chain from the ribosome, which is the complex machinery responsible for translating the genetic code into a protein. This process is called termination or translation termination.

In prokaryotic cells, termination occurs when a release factor recognizes and binds to the stop codon in the A site of the ribosome. This triggers the hydrolysis of the peptidyl-tRNA bond, releasing the completed polypeptide chain from the tRNA and the ribosome. In eukaryotic cells, a similar process occurs, but it involves different release factors and additional steps to ensure accurate termination.

In summary, a codon is a sequence of three adjacent nucleotides in DNA or RNA that specifies an amino acid or signals the end of protein synthesis. Terminator codons are specific codons that do not code for any amino acids and instead signal the end of translation, leading to the release of the newly synthesized polypeptide chain from the ribosome.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) aminoacylation is the process by which an amino acid is chemically linked to a specific tRNA molecule through an ester bond. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme called aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, which plays a crucial role in protein synthesis. Each type of tRNA corresponds to a particular amino acid, and the correct pairing between them ensures that the genetic code carried by messenger RNA (mRNA) is accurately translated into the corresponding amino acid sequence during protein synthesis. This precise matching of tRNAs with their respective amino acids is essential for maintaining the fidelity of the translation process and ultimately, for the proper functioning of proteins in living organisms.

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (also known as aminoacyl-tRNA ligases) are a group of enzymes that play a crucial role in protein synthesis. They are responsible for attaching specific amino acids to their corresponding transfer RNAs (tRNAs), creating aminoacyl-tRNA complexes. These complexes are then used in the translation process to construct proteins according to the genetic code.

Each aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase is specific to a particular amino acid, and there are 20 different synthetases in total, one for each of the standard amino acids. The enzymes catalyze the reaction between an amino acid and ATP to form an aminoacyl-AMP intermediate, which then reacts with the appropriate tRNA to create the aminoacyl-tRNA complex. This two-step process ensures the fidelity of the translation process by preventing mismatching of amino acids with their corresponding tRNAs.

Defects in aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases can lead to various genetic disorders and diseases, such as Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2D, distal spinal muscular atrophy, and leukoencephalopathy with brainstem and spinal cord involvement and lactate acidosis (LBSL).

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is a type of RNA molecule that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis, the process by which cells create proteins. In protein synthesis, tRNAs serve as adaptors, translating the genetic code present in messenger RNA (mRNA) into the corresponding amino acids required to build a protein.

Each tRNA molecule has a distinct structure, consisting of approximately 70-90 nucleotides arranged in a cloverleaf shape with several loops and stems. The most important feature of a tRNA is its anticodon, a sequence of three nucleotides located in one of the loops. This anticodon base-pairs with a complementary codon on the mRNA during translation, ensuring that the correct amino acid is added to the growing polypeptide chain.

Before tRNAs can participate in protein synthesis, they must be charged with their specific amino acids through an enzymatic process involving aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. These enzymes recognize and bind to both the tRNA and its corresponding amino acid, forming a covalent bond between them. Once charged, the aminoacyl-tRNA complex is ready to engage in translation and contribute to protein formation.

In summary, transfer RNA (tRNA) is a small RNA molecule that facilitates protein synthesis by translating genetic information from messenger RNA into specific amino acids, ultimately leading to the creation of functional proteins within cells.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) that carries the amino acid cysteine (Cys) is a type of adaptor molecule in the process of translation during protein synthesis. The genetic code for cysteine is UGU and UGC, which are the anticodon sequences on specific tRNAs. These tRNA molecules recognize and bind to the corresponding mRNA codons through base-pairing, allowing for the addition of cysteine to the growing polypeptide chain in a ribosome. The tRNA^Cys plays a crucial role in maintaining the fidelity and efficiency of protein synthesis.

Molecular evolution is the process of change in the DNA sequence or protein structure over time, driven by mechanisms such as mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and natural selection. It refers to the evolutionary study of changes in DNA, RNA, and proteins, and how these changes accumulate and lead to new species and diversity of life. Molecular evolution can be used to understand the history and relationships among different organisms, as well as the functional consequences of genetic changes.

Aminoacylation is a biochemical process in which an amino acid is linked to a transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule through the formation of an ester bond. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme called an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, which specifically recognizes and activates a particular amino acid and then attaches it to the appropriate tRNA molecule.

The resulting aminoacyl-tRNA complexes are essential for protein synthesis in all living organisms. During translation, the genetic information encoded in messenger RNA (mRNA) is used to direct the sequential addition of amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain. Each aminoacyl-tRNA molecule carries a specific amino acid that corresponds to a particular codon in the mRNA, ensuring that the correct amino acids are added to the protein in the proper order.

Therefore, the process of aminoacylation plays a crucial role in maintaining the fidelity and accuracy of protein synthesis, as well as contributing to the regulation of gene expression and the maintenance of cellular homeostasis.

Amino acids are organic compounds that serve as the building blocks of proteins. They consist of a central carbon atom, also known as the alpha carbon, which is bonded to an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom (H), and a variable side chain (R group). The R group can be composed of various combinations of atoms such as hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon, which determine the unique properties of each amino acid.

There are 20 standard amino acids that are encoded by the genetic code and incorporated into proteins during translation. These include:

1. Alanine (Ala)
2. Arginine (Arg)
3. Asparagine (Asn)
4. Aspartic acid (Asp)
5. Cysteine (Cys)
6. Glutamine (Gln)
7. Glutamic acid (Glu)
8. Glycine (Gly)
9. Histidine (His)
10. Isoleucine (Ile)
11. Leucine (Leu)
12. Lysine (Lys)
13. Methionine (Met)
14. Phenylalanine (Phe)
15. Proline (Pro)
16. Serine (Ser)
17. Threonine (Thr)
18. Tryptophan (Trp)
19. Tyrosine (Tyr)
20. Valine (Val)

Additionally, there are several non-standard or modified amino acids that can be incorporated into proteins through post-translational modifications, such as hydroxylation, methylation, and phosphorylation. These modifications expand the functional diversity of proteins and play crucial roles in various cellular processes.

Amino acids are essential for numerous biological functions, including protein synthesis, enzyme catalysis, neurotransmitter production, energy metabolism, and immune response regulation. Some amino acids can be synthesized by the human body (non-essential), while others must be obtained through dietary sources (essential).

Protein biosynthesis is the process by which cells generate new proteins. It involves two major steps: transcription and translation. Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. This RNA copy, or messenger RNA (mRNA), carries the genetic information to the site of protein synthesis, the ribosome. During translation, the mRNA is read by transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which bring specific amino acids to the ribosome based on the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA. The ribosome then links these amino acids together in the correct order to form a polypeptide chain, which may then fold into a functional protein. Protein biosynthesis is essential for the growth and maintenance of all living organisms.

Tyrosine-tRNA ligase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis, specifically in the process of translating the genetic code from messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. More formally known as tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase, this enzyme is responsible for charging tRNA molecules with their specific amino acids. In this case, it catalyzes the attachment of the amino acid tyrosine to its corresponding transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule. This enzymatic reaction involves the activation of tyrosine with ATP to form an aminoacyl-AMP intermediate, followed by the transfer of the tyrosyl group from the intermediate to the 3' end of its appropriate tRNA. The resulting tyrosine-tRNA complex is then used in the translation process to incorporate tyrosine into the growing polypeptide chain during protein synthesis.

Ciliophora is a phylum in the taxonomic classification system that consists of unicellular organisms commonly known as ciliates. These are characterized by the presence of hair-like structures called cilia, which are attached to the cell surface and beat in a coordinated manner to facilitate movement and feeding. Ciliophora includes a diverse group of organisms, many of which are found in aquatic environments. Examples of ciliates include Paramecium, Tetrahymena, and Vorticella.

Genetic models are theoretical frameworks used in genetics to describe and explain the inheritance patterns and genetic architecture of traits, diseases, or phenomena. These models are based on mathematical equations and statistical methods that incorporate information about gene frequencies, modes of inheritance, and the effects of environmental factors. They can be used to predict the probability of certain genetic outcomes, to understand the genetic basis of complex traits, and to inform medical management and treatment decisions.

There are several types of genetic models, including:

1. Mendelian models: These models describe the inheritance patterns of simple genetic traits that follow Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment. Examples include autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked inheritance.
2. Complex trait models: These models describe the inheritance patterns of complex traits that are influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors. Examples include heart disease, diabetes, and cancer.
3. Population genetics models: These models describe the distribution and frequency of genetic variants within populations over time. They can be used to study evolutionary processes, such as natural selection and genetic drift.
4. Quantitative genetics models: These models describe the relationship between genetic variation and phenotypic variation in continuous traits, such as height or IQ. They can be used to estimate heritability and to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that contribute to trait variation.
5. Statistical genetics models: These models use statistical methods to analyze genetic data and infer the presence of genetic associations or linkage. They can be used to identify genetic risk factors for diseases or traits.

Overall, genetic models are essential tools in genetics research and medical genetics, as they allow researchers to make predictions about genetic outcomes, test hypotheses about the genetic basis of traits and diseases, and develop strategies for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Foraminifera" is not a medical term. It is a term from the field of biology and refers to a type of single-celled organism called protozoa. These organisms have shells with tiny openings or pores called foramen, hence the name Foraminifera. They are commonly found in marine environments and their fossilized remains are used in various scientific fields such as geology and paleontology.

'RNA, Transfer, Ala' refers to a specific type of transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule that is involved in protein synthesis. In molecular biology, the term 'RNA' stands for ribonucleic acid, which is a nucleic acid present in the cells of all living organisms. Transfer RNAs are a type of RNA that help translate genetic information from messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins during the process of protein synthesis or translation.

'Transfer, Ala' more specifically refers to a transfer RNA molecule that carries the amino acid alanine (Ala) to the ribosome during protein synthesis. Each tRNA has a specific anticodon sequence that can base-pair with a complementary codon sequence in the mRNA, and it also carries a specific amino acid that corresponds to that codon. In this case, the anticodon on the 'Transfer, Ala' tRNA molecule is capable of base-pairing with any one of the three codons (GCU, GCC, GCA, or GCG) that specify alanine in the genetic code.

Therefore, 'RNA, Transfer, Ala' can be defined as a type of transfer RNA molecule that carries and delivers the amino acid alanine to the growing polypeptide chain during protein synthesis.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) that carries the amino acid isoleucine is referred to as 'tRNA-Ile' in medical and molecular biology terminology.

tRNAs are specialized RNA molecules that play a crucial role in protein synthesis, by transporting specific amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosomes, where proteins are assembled. Each tRNA has an anticodon region that recognizes and binds to a complementary codon sequence on messenger RNA (mRNA). When a tRNA with the correct anticodon pairs with an mRNA codon during translation, the attached amino acid is added to the growing polypeptide chain.

Ile, or isoleucine, is a genetically encoded, hydrophobic amino acid that is one of the 20 standard amino acids found in proteins. Isoleucine is transported by its specific tRNA-Ile molecule during protein synthesis.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) are small RNA molecules that play a crucial role in protein synthesis. They are responsible for translating the genetic code contained within messenger RNA (mRNA) into the specific sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis.

Amino acid-specific tRNAs are specialized tRNAs that recognize and bind to specific amino acids. Each tRNA has an anticodon region that can base-pair with a complementary codon on the mRNA, which determines the specific amino acid that will be added to the growing polypeptide chain during protein synthesis.

Therefore, a more detailed medical definition of "RNA, Transfer, Amino Acid-Specific" would be:

A type of transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule that is specific to a particular amino acid and plays a role in translating the genetic code contained within messenger RNA (mRNA) into the specific sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. The anticodon region of an amino acid-specific tRNA base-pairs with a complementary codon on the mRNA, which determines the specific amino acid that will be added to the growing polypeptide chain during protein synthesis.

Methanococcales is an order of methanogenic archaea within the kingdom Euryarchaeota. These are microorganisms that produce methane as a metabolic byproduct in anaerobic environments. Members of this order are distinguished by their ability to generate energy through the reduction of carbon dioxide with hydrogen gas, a process known as CO2 reduction. They are typically found in marine sediments, deep-sea vents, and other extreme habitats. The most well-known genus within Methanococcales is Methanococcus, which includes several species that are capable of living at relatively high temperatures and pressures.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Alanine-tRNA ligase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis. Its primary function is to join alanine, one of the 20 standard amino acids, with its corresponding transfer RNA (tRNA). This enzyme catalyzes the formation of an alanine-tRNA complex, which is essential for translating genetic information from messenger RNA (mRNA) into a specific sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis.

In humans, there are two types of alanine-tRNA ligases: cytoplasmic and mitochondrial. The cytoplasmic enzyme is responsible for attaching alanine to cytosolic tRNAs, while the mitochondrial enzyme performs this function for mitochondrial tRNAs. Both forms of the enzyme are necessary for maintaining proper cellular functions and overall health.

Deficiencies or mutations in alanine-tRNA ligase can lead to various genetic disorders, such as mitochondrial disorders, that may result in neurological symptoms, muscle weakness, and other health issues.

"Loligo" is not a medical term, but a genus name in the cephalopod family. It refers to several species of squid, including the common market squid ("Loligo opalescens") and the European squid ("Loligo vulgaris"). These squids are often used in scientific research and as a food source.

Nucleic acid conformation refers to the three-dimensional structure that nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) adopt as a result of the bonding patterns between the atoms within the molecule. The primary structure of nucleic acids is determined by the sequence of nucleotides, while the conformation is influenced by factors such as the sugar-phosphate backbone, base stacking, and hydrogen bonding.

Two common conformations of DNA are the B-form and the A-form. The B-form is a right-handed helix with a diameter of about 20 Å and a pitch of 34 Å, while the A-form has a smaller diameter (about 18 Å) and a shorter pitch (about 25 Å). RNA typically adopts an A-form conformation.

The conformation of nucleic acids can have significant implications for their function, as it can affect their ability to interact with other molecules such as proteins or drugs. Understanding the conformational properties of nucleic acids is therefore an important area of research in molecular biology and medicine.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is a type of RNA molecule that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis in the cell. It carries and transfers specific amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain during translation, the process by which the genetic code in mRNA is translated into a protein sequence.

tRNAs have a characteristic cloverleaf-like secondary structure and a stem-loop tertiary structure, which allows them to bind both to specific amino acids and to complementary codon sequences on the messenger RNA (mRNA) through anticodons. This enables the precise matching of the correct amino acid to its corresponding codon in the mRNA during protein synthesis.

Ser, or serine, is one of the 20 standard amino acids that make up proteins. It is encoded by six different codons (UCU, UCC, UCA, UCG, AGU, and AGC) in the genetic code. The corresponding tRNA molecule that carries serine during protein synthesis is called tRNASer. There are multiple tRNASer isoacceptors, each with a different anticodon sequence but all carrying the same amino acid, serine.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is a type of RNA molecule that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis. It serves as the adaptor molecule that translates the genetic code present in messenger RNA (mRNA) into the corresponding amino acids, which are then linked together to form a polypeptide chain during protein synthesis.

Aminoacyl tRNA is a specific type of tRNA molecule that has been charged or activated with an amino acid. This process is called aminoacylation and is carried out by enzymes called aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. Each synthetase specifically recognizes and attaches a particular amino acid to its corresponding tRNA, ensuring the fidelity of protein synthesis. Once an amino acid is attached to a tRNA, it forms an aminoacyl-tRNA complex, which can then participate in translation and contribute to the formation of a new protein.

RNA editing is a process that alters the sequence of a transcribed RNA molecule after it has been synthesized from DNA, but before it is translated into protein. This can result in changes to the amino acid sequence of the resulting protein or to the regulation of gene expression. The most common type of RNA editing in mammals is the hydrolytic deamination of adenosine (A) to inosine (I), catalyzed by a family of enzymes called adenosine deaminases acting on RNA (ADARs). Inosine is recognized as guanosine (G) by the translation machinery, leading to A-to-G changes in the RNA sequence. Other types of RNA editing include cytidine (C) to uridine (U) deamination and insertion/deletion of nucleotides. RNA editing is a crucial mechanism for generating diversity in gene expression and has been implicated in various biological processes, including development, differentiation, and disease.

Leucine-tRNA Ligase, also known as Leucyl-tRNA Synthetase, is an enzyme (EC 6.1.1.4) that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis. This enzyme is responsible for catalyzing the esterification of the amino acid leucine to its corresponding transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule. The resulting leucine-tRNA complex is then used in the translation process, where genetic information encoded in mRNA is translated into a specific protein sequence.

The reaction catalyzed by Leucine-tRNA Ligase can be represented as follows:

Leucine + tRNA(Leu) + ATP → Leucyl-tRNA(Leu) + AMP + PP\_i

In this reaction, leucine is activated by attachment to an adenosine monophosphate (AMP) molecule with the help of ATP. The activated leucine is then transferred to the appropriate tRNA molecule, releasing AMP and inorganic pyrophosphate (PP\_i). This enzyme's function is essential for maintaining the accuracy of protein synthesis, as it ensures that only the correct amino acids are incorporated into proteins according to the genetic code.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) that specifically carries the amino acid tyrosine (Tyr) during protein synthesis. In genetic code, Tyr is coded by the codons UAC and UAU. The corresponding anticodon on the tRNA molecule is AUA, which pairs with the mRNA codons to bring tyrosine to the ribosome for incorporation into the growing polypeptide chain.

Selenocysteine (Sec) is a rare, naturally occurring amino acid that contains selenium. It is encoded by the opal (TGA) codon, which typically signals stop translation in mRNA. However, when followed by a specific hairpin-like structure called the Sec insertion sequence (SECIS) element in the 3' untranslated region of the mRNA, the TGA codon is interpreted as a signal for selenocysteine incorporation during protein synthesis.

Selenocysteine plays an essential role in several enzymes involved in antioxidant defense and redox homeostasis, such as glutathione peroxidases, thioredoxin reductases, and iodothyronine deiodinases. These enzymes require selenocysteine for their catalytic activity due to its unique chemical properties, which allow them to neutralize harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS) and maintain proper cellular function.

In summary, selenocysteine is a specialized amino acid containing selenium that is encoded by the TGA codon in mRNA when accompanied by a SECIS element. It is crucial for the activity of several enzymes involved in antioxidant defense and redox homeostasis.

"Euplotes" is a genus of ciliate protozoans, which are single-celled organisms with hair-like structures called cilia. These cilia help the organism move and also aid in feeding. "Euplotes" species are typically found in freshwater or brackish environments and have a complex cell structure with two types of nuclei and specialized organelles for digestion. They are often used as model organisms in studies of cellular differentiation, evolution, and ecology.

Monoiodotyrosine (MIT) is a thyroid hormone precursor that is formed by the iodination of the amino acid tyrosine. It is produced in the thyroid gland as part of the process of creating triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), which are active forms of thyroid hormones. MIT itself does not have significant biological activity, but it plays a crucial role in the synthesis of more important thyroid hormones.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

Mitochondrial genes are a type of gene that is located in the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) found in the mitochondria, which are small organelles present in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells (cells with a true nucleus). Mitochondria are responsible for generating energy for the cell through a process called oxidative phosphorylation.

The human mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule that contains 37 genes, including 13 genes that encode for proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation, 22 genes that encode for transfer RNAs (tRNAs), and 2 genes that encode for ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs). Mutations in mitochondrial genes can lead to a variety of inherited mitochondrial disorders, which can affect any organ system in the body and can present at any age.

Mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited, meaning that it is passed down from the mother to her offspring through the egg cell. This is because during fertilization, only the sperm's nucleus enters the egg, while the mitochondria remain outside. As a result, all of an individual's mitochondrial DNA comes from their mother.

Biological evolution is the change in the genetic composition of populations of organisms over time, from one generation to the next. It is a process that results in descendants differing genetically from their ancestors. Biological evolution can be driven by several mechanisms, including natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation. These processes can lead to changes in the frequency of alleles (variants of a gene) within populations, resulting in the development of new species and the extinction of others over long periods of time. Biological evolution provides a unifying explanation for the diversity of life on Earth and is supported by extensive evidence from many different fields of science, including genetics, paleontology, comparative anatomy, and biogeography.

Biogenesis is the biological process by which living organisms reproduce or generate new individuals through reproduction. This term also refers to the idea that a living organism can only arise from another living organism, and not from non-living matter. It was first proposed as a hypothesis by Thomas Henry Huxley in 1870, and later supported by the work of Louis Pasteur in the mid-19th century, who demonstrated that microorganisms could not spontaneously generate from non-living matter. This concept is now widely accepted in biology and is a fundamental principle of modern cell theory.

Diplomonadida is a group of mostly free-living, parasitic flagellated protozoans that are characterized by having two nuclei in their trophozoites (the feeding and dividing stage of the cell): a larger macronucleus that controls vegetative functions and a smaller micronucleus that is involved in reproduction. The most well-known member of this group is Giardia lamblia, a common cause of waterborne diarrheal disease in humans. Other members of Diplomonadida are found in various aquatic environments and are important components of microbial food webs.

A Code of Ethics is a set of principles and guidelines that outline appropriate behavior and conduct for individuals within a particular profession or organization. In the medical field, Codes of Ethics are designed to uphold the values of respect for autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice, which are fundamental to the practice of ethical medicine.

The Code of Ethics for medical professionals may include guidelines on issues such as patient confidentiality, informed consent, conflicts of interest, and professional competence. These codes serve as a framework for decision-making and help to ensure that healthcare providers maintain high standards of conduct and behavior in their interactions with patients, colleagues, and the broader community.

The American Medical Association (AMA) and other medical organizations have developed Codes of Ethics that provide specific guidance for medical professionals on ethical issues that may arise in the course of their work. These codes are regularly reviewed and updated to reflect changes in medical practice and societal values.

Isoleucine-tRNA ligase is an enzyme involved in the process of protein synthesis in cells. Its specific role is to catalyze the attachment of the amino acid isoleucine to its corresponding transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule, which then participates in the translation of genetic information from messenger RNA (mRNA) into a polypeptide chain during protein synthesis. This enzyme helps ensure that the correct amino acids are incorporated into proteins according to the genetic code.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is a type of RNA molecule that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis. During this process, tRNAs serve as adaptors between the mRNA (messenger RNA) molecules and the amino acids used to construct proteins. Each tRNA contains a specific anticodon sequence that can base-pair with a complementary codon on the mRNA. At the other end of the tRNA, there is a site where an amino acid can attach. This attachment is facilitated by enzymes called aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, which recognize specific tRNAs and catalyze the formation of the ester bond between the tRNA and its cognate amino acid.

Gly (glycine) is one of the 20 standard amino acids found in proteins. It has a simple structure, consisting of an amino group (-NH2), a carboxylic acid group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom (-H), and a side chain made up of a single hydrogen atom (-CH2-). Glycine is the smallest and most flexible of all amino acids due to its lack of a bulky side chain, which allows it to fit into tight spaces within protein structures.

Therefore, 'RNA, Transfer, Gly' can be understood as a transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule specifically responsible for delivering the amino acid glycine (-Gly) during protein synthesis. This tRNA will have an anticodon sequence that base-pairs with the mRNA codons specifying glycine: GGU, GGC, GGA, or GGG.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) for tryptophan (Trp) is a specific type of tRNA molecule that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis. In the process of translation, genetic information from messenger RNA (mRNA) is translated into a corresponding sequence of amino acids to form a protein.

Tryptophan is one of the twenty standard amino acids found in proteins. Each tRNA molecule carries a specific amino acid that corresponds to a particular codon (a sequence of three nucleotides) on the mRNA. The tRNA with tryptophan attached to it recognizes and binds to the mRNA codon UGG, which is the only codon that specifies tryptophan in the genetic code.

The tRNA molecule has a characteristic cloverleaf-like structure, composed of a stem region made up of base pairs and loop regions containing unpaired nucleotides. The anticodon loop contains the complementary sequence to the mRNA codon, allowing for specific recognition and binding. The other end of the tRNA molecule carries the amino acid, in this case tryptophan, which is attached via an ester linkage to a specific nucleotide called the 3'-end of the tRNA.

In summary, tRNA (Trp) is a key player in protein synthesis, responsible for delivering tryptophan to the ribosome during translation, where it can be incorporated into the growing polypeptide chain according to the genetic information encoded in mRNA.

Serine-tRNA ligase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis, specifically in the attachment of the amino acid serine to its corresponding transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule. This enzyme catalyzes the formation of a ester bond between the carboxyl group of L-serine and the 3'-hydroxyl group of the tRNASerine, creating a charged tRNASerine molecule that can participate in protein synthesis on the ribosome.

The systematic name for this enzyme is L-serine:tRNA(Ser) ligase (AMP-forming), and it belongs to the family of ligases, specifically the transfer RNA ligases, which form aminoacyl-tRNA and related compounds. This enzyme is essential for maintaining the accuracy and fidelity of protein synthesis, as it ensures that the correct amino acid is attached to its corresponding tRNA molecule before being translated into a polypeptide chain on the ribosome.

A transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule that carries the amino acid leucine is referred to as "tRNA-Leu." This specific tRNA molecule recognizes and binds to a codon (a sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA) during protein synthesis or translation. In this case, tRNA-Leu can recognize and pair with any of the following codons: UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, and CUG. Once bound to the mRNA at the ribosome, leucine is added to the growing polypeptide chain through the action of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase enzymes that catalyze the attachment of specific amino acids to their corresponding tRNAs. This ensures the accurate and efficient production of proteins based on genetic information encoded in mRNA.

Methanosarcina is a genus of archaea, which are single-celled microorganisms that lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. These archaea are characterized by their ability to produce methane as a metabolic byproduct during the process of anaerobic respiration or fermentation. Methanosarcina species are found in various environments, including freshwater and marine sediments, waste treatment facilities, and the digestive tracts of animals. They are capable of degrading a wide range of organic compounds, such as acetate, methanol, and methylamines, to produce methane. It's important to note that while Methanosarcina species can be beneficial in certain environments, they may also contribute to the release of greenhouse gases, particularly methane, which is a potent contributor to climate change.

Peptide termination factors, also known as release factors, are proteins involved in the process of protein biosynthesis in cells. Specifically, they play a crucial role in the termination step of translation, which is the process by which the genetic code in messenger RNA (mRNA) is translated into a specific sequence of amino acids to form a protein.

During translation, ribosomes move along the mRNA and read the codons (three-nucleotide sequences) to add the corresponding amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain. When the ribosome encounters a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA), peptide termination factors recognize it and bind to the ribosome. The specific factor that recognizes each stop codon is called a class 1 release factor.

In eukaryotic cells, there are two main class 1 release factors: eRF1 (eukaryotic release factor 1) and eRF3. eRF1 recognizes all three stop codons and promotes the hydrolysis of the peptidyl-tRNA bond, releasing the completed polypeptide chain from the ribosome. eRF3 acts as a GTPase and interacts with eRF1 to facilitate its binding to the ribosome.

Once the polypeptide is released, the ribosome dissociates from the mRNA, allowing for another round of translation or degradation of the mRNA. Peptide termination factors are essential for accurate protein synthesis and preventing errors due to premature termination or readthrough of stop codons.

Tryptophan-tRNA ligase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis. Its primary function is to join tryptophan, one of the twenty standard amino acids, to its corresponding transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule. This enzyme catalyzes the formation of a peptide bond between tryptophan and the tRNA during the translation process, where genetic information from messenger RNA (mRNA) is translated into a specific protein sequence. The correct pairing of amino acids with their respective tRNAs is essential for maintaining the fidelity of protein synthesis and ensuring the production of functional proteins.

"Mycoplasma capricolum" is a species of bacteria that belongs to the class Mollicutes and the genus Mycoplasma. These bacteria are characterized by their small size, lack of a cell wall, and unique mode of reproduction through budding or binary fission. "Mycoplasma capricolum" is a common pathogen in goats and sheep, causing various respiratory and mammary gland infections. It can also be found in the genital tract of these animals and can cause reproductive disorders.

The bacteria are typically transmitted through direct contact between infected and non-infected animals, as well as through contaminated feed and water. Infection with "Mycoplasma capricolum" can result in a range of clinical signs, including coughing, nasal discharge, difficulty breathing, decreased milk production, and abortion.

Diagnosis of "Mycoplasma capricolum" infection typically involves the detection of the bacteria in samples taken from the affected animal, such as respiratory secretions or milk. Treatment usually involves the use of antibiotics, although resistance to certain antibiotics has been reported. Prevention and control measures include good biosecurity practices, such as quarantine and testing of new animals before introducing them into a herd, as well as vaccination.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) is a single-stranded, linear polymer of ribonucleotides. It is a nucleic acid present in the cells of all living organisms and some viruses. RNAs play crucial roles in various biological processes such as protein synthesis, gene regulation, and cellular signaling. There are several types of RNA including messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), small nuclear RNA (snRNA), microRNA (miRNA), and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA). These RNAs differ in their structure, function, and location within the cell.

Directed molecular evolution is a laboratory technique used to generate proteins or other molecules with desired properties through an iterative process that mimics natural evolution. This process typically involves the following steps:

1. Generation of a diverse library of variants: A population of molecules is created, usually by introducing random mutations into a parent sequence using techniques such as error-prone PCR or DNA shuffling. The resulting library contains a large number of different sequences, each with potentially unique properties.
2. Screening or selection for desired activity: The library is subjected to a screening or selection process that identifies molecules with the desired activity or property. This could involve an in vitro assay, high-throughput screening, or directed cell sorting.
3. Amplification and reiteration: Molecules that exhibit the desired activity are amplified, either by PCR or through cell growth, and then used as templates for another round of mutagenesis and selection. This process is repeated until the desired level of optimization is achieved.

Directed molecular evolution has been successfully applied to a wide range of molecules, including enzymes, antibodies, and aptamers, enabling the development of improved catalysts, biosensors, and therapeutics.

Lysine-tRNA ligase is an enzyme involved in the process of protein synthesis, specifically during the step of translation. Its primary function is to catalyze the attachment of the amino acid lysine to its corresponding transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule. This reaction forms a covalent bond between the carboxyl group of the lysine and the 3'-hydroxyl group of the tRNA, creating a charged lysine-tRNA complex.

The resulting complex is then transported to the ribosome, where it participates in the elongation phase of translation. Here, the lysine-tRNA complex binds to the appropriate codon on the mRNA and contributes to the formation of a polypeptide chain. The proper matching of amino acids to their corresponding tRNAs is crucial for maintaining the fidelity of protein synthesis and ensuring that the correct proteins are produced in the cell.

There are two main types of lysine-tRNA ligases: Lys-tRNA^Lys ligase (also known as lysyl-tRNA synthetase) and Lys-tRNA^UUG ligase (also known as bifunctional lysyl-tRNA synthetase). These enzymes differ in their substrate specificity, with the former recognizing tRNA^Lys molecules and the latter recognizing tRNA^UUG molecules. Both enzymes play essential roles in maintaining the accuracy of protein synthesis and ensuring proper cellular function.

Translational protein modification refers to the covalent alteration of a protein during or shortly after its synthesis on the ribosome. This process is an essential mechanism for regulating protein function and can have a significant impact on various aspects of protein biology, including protein stability, localization, activity, and interaction with other molecules.

During translation, as the nascent polypeptide chain emerges from the ribosome, it can be modified by enzymes that recognize specific sequences or motifs within the protein. These modifications can include the addition of chemical groups such as phosphate, acetyl, methyl, ubiquitin, or SUMO (small ubiquitin-like modifier) groups, among others.

Examples of translational protein modifications include:

1. N-terminal acetylation: The addition of an acetyl group to the alpha-amino group of the first amino acid in a polypeptide chain. This modification can affect protein stability and localization.
2. Ubiquitination: The covalent attachment of ubiquitin molecules to lysine residues within a protein, which can target it for degradation by the proteasome or regulate its activity and interactions with other proteins.
3. SUMOylation: The addition of a SUMO group to a lysine residue in a protein, which can modulate protein-protein interactions, subcellular localization, and stability.
4. Phosphorylation: The addition of a phosphate group to serine, threonine, or tyrosine residues within a protein, which can regulate enzymatic activity, protein-protein interactions, and signal transduction pathways.

Translational protein modifications play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including gene expression regulation, DNA repair, cell cycle control, stress response, and apoptosis. Dysregulation of these modifications has been implicated in numerous diseases, such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and metabolic disorders.

Base pairing is a specific type of chemical bonding that occurs between complementary base pairs in the nucleic acid molecules DNA and RNA. In DNA, these bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). Adenine always pairs with thymine via two hydrogen bonds, while guanine always pairs with cytosine via three hydrogen bonds. This precise base pairing is crucial for the stability of the double helix structure of DNA and for the accurate replication and transcription of genetic information. In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine and pairs with adenine.

Threonine-tRNA ligase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis, specifically in the attachment of threonine (Thr) to its corresponding transfer RNA (tRNA). This enzyme catalyzes the formation of a ester bond between the carboxyl group of threonine and the 3'-hydroxyl group of the tRNAThr, creating a charged tRNA molecule that can participate in translation at the ribosome. Proper function of threonine-tRNA ligase is essential for maintaining the fidelity and efficiency of protein synthesis, as it ensures that the correct amino acids are incorporated into proteins according to the genetic code.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) that carries asparagine (Asn) is a type of RNA molecule that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis. Specifically, tRNAs are responsible for delivering the appropriate amino acids to the ribosome during translation, the process by which genetic information encoded in messenger RNA (mRNA) is translated into proteins.

In the case of tRNA-Asn, this RNA molecule carries the amino acid asparagine, which is one of the 20 standard amino acids used to build proteins. The tRNA-Asn molecule recognizes a specific codon (a sequence of three nucleotides) in the mRNA that corresponds to asparagine, and then brings the appropriate amino acid to the ribosome to be incorporated into the growing polypeptide chain.

The correct pairing of tRNAs with their corresponding codons is facilitated by anticodon loops present on the tRNA molecules, which contain complementary sequences to the codons in the mRNA. In the case of tRNA-Asn, the anticodon loop contains the sequence UGU, which is complementary to the asparagine codons AAU and AAC in the mRNA.

Overall, tRNAs like tRNA-Asn are essential for the accurate and efficient synthesis of proteins in all living organisms.

Proteins are complex, large molecules that play critical roles in the body's functions. They are made up of amino acids, which are organic compounds that are the building blocks of proteins. Proteins are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs. They are essential for the growth, repair, and maintenance of body tissues, and they play a crucial role in many biological processes, including metabolism, immune response, and cellular signaling. Proteins can be classified into different types based on their structure and function, such as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and structural proteins. They are found in various foods, especially animal-derived products like meat, dairy, and eggs, as well as plant-based sources like beans, nuts, and grains.

Archaea are a domain of single-celled microorganisms that lack membrane-bound nuclei and other organelles. They are characterized by the unique structure of their cell walls, membranes, and ribosomes. Archaea were originally classified as bacteria, but they differ from bacteria in several key ways, including their genetic material and metabolic processes.

Archaea can be found in a wide range of environments, including some of the most extreme habitats on Earth, such as hot springs, deep-sea vents, and highly saline lakes. Some species of Archaea are able to survive in the absence of oxygen, while others require oxygen to live.

Archaea play important roles in global nutrient cycles, including the nitrogen cycle and the carbon cycle. They are also being studied for their potential role in industrial processes, such as the production of biofuels and the treatment of wastewater.

Eukaryotic cells are complex cells that characterize the cells of all living organisms except bacteria and archaea. They are typically larger than prokaryotic cells and contain a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. The nucleus houses the genetic material, DNA, which is organized into chromosomes. Other organelles include mitochondria, responsible for energy production; chloroplasts, present in plant cells and responsible for photosynthesis; endoplasmic reticulum, involved in protein synthesis; Golgi apparatus, involved in the processing and transport of proteins and lipids; lysosomes, involved in digestion and waste disposal; and vacuoles, involved in storage and waste management. Eukaryotic cells also have a cytoskeleton made up of microtubules, intermediate filaments, and actin filaments that provide structure, support, and mobility to the cell.

Protein engineering is a branch of molecular biology that involves the modification of proteins to achieve desired changes in their structure and function. This can be accomplished through various techniques, including site-directed mutagenesis, gene shuffling, directed evolution, and rational design. The goal of protein engineering may be to improve the stability, activity, specificity, or other properties of a protein for therapeutic, diagnostic, industrial, or research purposes. It is an interdisciplinary field that combines knowledge from genetics, biochemistry, structural biology, and computational modeling.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is the genetic material present in the mitochondria, which are specialized structures within cells that generate energy. Unlike nuclear DNA, which is present in the cell nucleus and inherited from both parents, mtDNA is inherited solely from the mother.

MtDNA is a circular molecule that contains 37 genes, including 13 genes that encode for proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation, a process that generates energy in the form of ATP. The remaining genes encode for rRNAs and tRNAs, which are necessary for protein synthesis within the mitochondria.

Mutations in mtDNA can lead to a variety of genetic disorders, including mitochondrial diseases, which can affect any organ system in the body. These mutations can also be used in forensic science to identify individuals and establish biological relationships.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Prokaryotic cells are simple, single-celled organisms that do not have a true nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles. They include bacteria and archaea. The genetic material of prokaryotic cells is composed of a single circular chromosome located in the cytoplasm, along with small, circular pieces of DNA called plasmids. Prokaryotic cells have a rigid cell wall, which provides protection and support, and a flexible outer membrane that helps them to survive in diverse environments. They reproduce asexually by binary fission, where the cell divides into two identical daughter cells. Compared to eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic cells are generally smaller and have a simpler structure.

Ribosomes are complex macromolecular structures composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins that play a crucial role in protein synthesis within cells. They serve as the site for translation, where messenger RNA (mRNA) is translated into a specific sequence of amino acids to create a polypeptide chain, which eventually folds into a functional protein.

Ribosomes consist of two subunits: a smaller subunit and a larger subunit. These subunits are composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules and proteins. In eukaryotic cells, the smaller subunit is denoted as the 40S subunit, while the larger subunit is referred to as the 60S subunit. In prokaryotic cells, these subunits are named the 30S and 50S subunits, respectively. The ribosome's overall structure resembles a "doughnut" or a "cotton reel," with grooves and binding sites for various factors involved in protein synthesis.

Ribosomes can be found floating freely within the cytoplasm of cells or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane, forming part of the rough ER. Membrane-bound ribosomes are responsible for synthesizing proteins that will be transported across the ER and ultimately secreted from the cell or inserted into the membrane. In contrast, cytoplasmic ribosomes synthesize proteins destined for use within the cytoplasm or organelles.

In summary, ribosomes are essential components of cells that facilitate protein synthesis by translating mRNA into functional polypeptide chains. They can be found in various cellular locations and exist as either free-floating entities or membrane-bound structures.

Selenoproteins are a specific group of proteins that contain the essential micronutrient selenium in the form of selenocysteine (Sec), which is a naturally occurring amino acid. Selenocysteine is encoded by the opal codon UGA, which typically serves as a stop codon in mRNA.

There are 25 known human selenoproteins, and they play crucial roles in various physiological processes, including antioxidant defense, DNA synthesis, thyroid hormone metabolism, and immune function. Some of the well-known selenoproteins include glutathione peroxidases (GPxs), thioredoxin reductases (TrxRs), and iodothyronine deiodinases (IDIs).

The presence of selenocysteine in these proteins makes them particularly efficient at catalyzing redox reactions, which involve the gain or loss of electrons. This property is essential for their functions as antioxidants and regulators of cellular signaling pathways.

Deficiencies in selenium can lead to impaired function of selenoproteins, potentially resulting in various health issues, such as increased oxidative stress, weakened immune response, and disrupted thyroid hormone metabolism.

Dinucleotide repeats are a type of simple sequence repeat (SSR) in DNA, which consists of two adjacent nucleotides that are repeated in tandem. In the case of dinucleotide repeats, the repetitive unit is specifically a pair of nucleotides, such as "AT" or "CG." These repeats can vary in length from person to person and can be found throughout the human genome, although they are particularly prevalent in non-coding regions.

Expansions of dinucleotide repeats have been associated with several neurological disorders, including Huntington's disease, myotonic dystrophy, and fragile X syndrome. In these cases, the number of repeat units is unstable and can expand over generations, leading to the onset of disease. The length of the repeat expansion can also correlate with the severity of symptoms.

An open reading frame (ORF) is a continuous stretch of DNA or RNA sequence that has the potential to be translated into a protein. It begins with a start codon (usually "ATG" in DNA, which corresponds to "AUG" in RNA) and ends with a stop codon ("TAA", "TAG", or "TGA" in DNA; "UAA", "UAG", or "UGA" in RNA). The sequence between these two points is called a coding sequence (CDS), which, when transcribed into mRNA and translated into amino acids, forms a polypeptide chain.

In eukaryotic cells, ORFs can be located in either protein-coding genes or non-coding regions of the genome. In prokaryotic cells, multiple ORFs may be present on a single strand of DNA, often organized into operons that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule.

It's important to note that not all ORFs necessarily represent functional proteins; some may be pseudogenes or result from errors in genome annotation. Therefore, additional experimental evidence is typically required to confirm the expression and functionality of a given ORF.

Phenylalanine-tRNA ligase, also known as Phe-tRNA synthetase, is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis. Its primary function is to catalyze the attachment of the amino acid phenylalanine to its corresponding transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule. This reaction forms a phenylalanine-tRNA complex, which is then used in the translation process to create proteins according to the genetic code. The systematic name for this enzyme is phenylalanyl-tRNA synthetase (EC 6.1.1.20). Any defects or mutations in the Phe-tRNA ligase can lead to various medical conditions, including neurological disorders and impaired growth.

An amino acid substitution is a type of mutation in which one amino acid in a protein is replaced by another. This occurs when there is a change in the DNA sequence that codes for a particular amino acid in a protein. The genetic code is redundant, meaning that most amino acids are encoded by more than one codon (a sequence of three nucleotides). As a result, a single base pair change in the DNA sequence may not necessarily lead to an amino acid substitution. However, if a change does occur, it can have a variety of effects on the protein's structure and function, depending on the nature of the substituted amino acids. Some substitutions may be harmless, while others may alter the protein's activity or stability, leading to disease.

In genetics, sequence alignment is the process of arranging two or more DNA, RNA, or protein sequences to identify regions of similarity or homology between them. This is often done using computational methods to compare the nucleotide or amino acid sequences and identify matching patterns, which can provide insight into evolutionary relationships, functional domains, or potential genetic disorders. The alignment process typically involves adjusting gaps and mismatches in the sequences to maximize the similarity between them, resulting in an aligned sequence that can be visually represented and analyzed.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Genetic code. The Genetic Codes: Genetic Code Tables The Codon Usage Database - Codon ... the concept of the evolution of the genetic code from the original and ambiguous genetic code to a well-defined ("frozen") code ... That scheme is often referred to as the canonical or standard genetic code, or simply the genetic code, though variant codes ( ... "The Origin of the Genetic Code". J. Mol. Biol. Barrell BG, Bankier AT, Drouin J (1979). "A different genetic code in human ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_code

An expanded genetic code is an artificially modified genetic code in which one or more specific codons have been re-allocated ... A major problem for the genetic code expansion is that there are no free codons. The genetic code has a non-random layout that ... allowing it to be used for genetic code expansion. While triplet codons are the basis of the genetic code in nature, programmed ... The genetic code expansion described above is in vivo. An alternative is the change of coding in vitro translation experiments ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expanded_genetic_code

Genetic codes is a simple ASN.1 database hosted by the National Center for Biotechnology Information and listing all the known ... Genetic codes. Genetic code Galperin, Michael Y; Cochrane Guy R (Jan 2011). "The 2011 Nucleic Acids Research Database Issue and ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_codes_(database)

"The Genetic Codes". "NCBI genetic code table". Su, Huei-Jiun; Barkman, Todd J.; Hao, Weilong; Jones, Samuel S.; Naumann, Julia ... nuclear code The karyorelict nuclear code The Condylostoma nuclear code The Mesodinium nuclear code The peritrich nuclear code ... Genetic codes: list of alternative codons NCBI List of Alternative Codes Stefanie Gabriele Sammet; Ugo Bastolla & Markus Porto ... When translating from genome to protein, the use of the correct genetic code is essential. The mitochondrial codes are the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_genetic_codes

"Deciphering the Genetic Code: Marshall Nirenberg". Office of NIH History. Shapiro, James A. (July 2013). "How life changes ... Natural genetic engineering (NGE) is a class of process proposed by molecular biologist James A. Shapiro to account for novelty ... Natural genetic engineering has been cited as a legitimate scientific controversy (in contrast to the controversies raised by ... Shapiro first laid out his ideas of natural genetic engineering in 1992 and has continued to develop them in both the primary ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_genetic_engineering

Binary Coding for Genetic Algorithms", Machine Learning Proceedings 1988, Elsevier, pp. 153-161, doi:10.1016/b978-0-934613-64- ... In nature, this is termed a degenerate genetic code. In the case of a redundant representation, neutral mutations are possible ... Herrera, F.; Lozano, M.; Verdegay, J.L. (1998). "Tackling Real-Coded Genetic Algorithms: Operators and Tools for Behavioural ... Coli, M.; Palazzari, P. (1995), "Searching for the optimal coding in genetic algorithms", Proceedings of 1995 IEEE ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_representation

Bacci, A.; Petrillo, V.; Rossetti Conti, M. (2016). "GIOTTO: A Genetic Code for Demanding Beam-dynamics Optimizations" (PDF). ... Learning robot behavior using genetic algorithms Image processing: Dense pixel matching Learning fuzzy rule base using genetic ... A Bug-Based Search Strategy using Genetic Algorithms. PPSN 1992: Ibrahim, W. and Amer, H.: An Adaptive Genetic Algorithm for ... a tutorial on genetic particle models Joachim De Zutter Craig Aaen Stockdale (June 1, 2008). "A (r)evolution in Crime-fighting ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_genetic_algorithm_applications

The system uses twelve different nucleobases in its genetic code. These include the four canonical nucleobases found in DNA ( ... Artificially Expanded Genetic Information System (AEGIS) is a synthetic DNA analog experiment that uses some unnatural base ... Yang, Z.; Hutter, D.; Sheng, P.; Sismour, A. M.; Benner, S. A. (29 October 2006). "Artificially expanded genetic information ... Bradley, K. M.; Benner, S. A. (2014). "OligArch: A software tool to allow artificially expanded genetic information systems ( ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificially_Expanded_Genetic_Information_System

Goldberg, David E. (1991). "Real-coded Genetic Algorithms, Virtual Alphabets, and Blocking". Complex Syst. 5 (2): 139-167. ... Traditional genetic algorithms store genetic information in a chromosome represented by a bit array. Crossover methods for bit ... In genetic algorithms and evolutionary computation, crossover, also called recombination, is a genetic operator used to combine ... Evolutionary algorithm Genetic representation Fitness function Selection (genetic algorithm) John Holland (1975). Adaptation in ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossover_(genetic_algorithm)

ISBN 978-1-55860-100-0. Rocha LM, Hordijk W (2005). "Material representations: From the genetic code to the evolution of ... Genetic memory and genetic algorithms have also gained an interest in the creation of artificial life. Rogers, David (1989). ... In computer science, genetic memory refers to an artificial neural network combination of genetic algorithm and the ... v t e (Genetic algorithms, All stub articles, Computer science stubs). ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_memory_(computer_science)

"Real-Coded Genetic Algorithms and Interval-Schemata", Foundations of Genetic Algorithms, Elsevier, vol. 2, pp. 187-202, doi: ... Mutation is a genetic operator used to maintain genetic diversity of the chromosomes of a population of a genetic or, more ... Many EAs, such as the evolution strategy or the real-coded genetic algorithms, work with real numbers instead of bit strings. ... The classic example of a mutation operator of a binary coded genetic algorithm (GA) involves a probability that an arbitrary ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation_(genetic_algorithm)

DNA damage theory of aging Epigenetics Gene mapping Genetic code Genetic recombination Genomic imprinting History of genetics ... The genetic code is made of four base pairs: adenine, cytosine, uracil, and guanine and is redundant meaning multiple ... The discovery of DNA as a means to transfer the genetic code of life from one cell to another and between generations was ... "Genetic Code". Genome.gov. Retrieved 2020-12-04. "A Brief Guide to Genomics". Genome.gov. Retrieved 2020-12-04. "Selection ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_genetics

A codon table can be used to translate a genetic code into a sequence of amino acids. The standard genetic code is ... The genetic code was once believed to be universal: a codon would code for the same amino acid regardless of the organism or ... In this context, the standard genetic code is referred to as translation table 1. It can also be represented in a DNA codon ... There are 64 different codons in the genetic code and the below tables; most specify an amino acid. Three sequences, UAG, UGA, ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_and_RNA_codon_tables

The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is ... The genetic code is read three nucleotides at a time, in units called codons, via interactions with specialized RNA molecules ... The nucleotide sequence of a gene's DNA specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein through the genetic code. Sets of three ... The genome is the total genetic material of an organism and includes both the genes and non-coding sequences. Eukaryotic genes ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene

"The Genetic Codes". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2023-02-10. Jukes TH, Osawa S (December 1990). "The genetic code in ... consistent with the standard genetic code for tryptophan. Of note, the arthropod mitochondrial genetic code has undergone ... Some of these differences should be regarded as pseudo-changes in the genetic code due to the phenomenon of RNA editing, which ... Abascal F, Posada D, Knight RD, Zardoya R (May 2006). "Parallel evolution of the genetic code in arthropod mitochondrial ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrion

... depending on where you start reading the code. Finally, use the table at Genetic code to translate the above into a structural ... nuclear code The karyorelict nuclear code The Condylostoma nuclear code The Mesodinium nuclear code The peritrich nuclear code ... and hexamita nuclear code The kinetoplast code The echinoderm and flatworm mitochondrial code The euplotid nuclear code The ... plastid code The alternative yeast nuclear code The ascidian mitochondrial code The alternative flatworm mitochondrial code The ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(biology)

Elzanowski, Andrzej; Jim Ostell (7 July 2010). "The Genetic Codes". National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved 6 ... "A unique genetic code change in the mitochondrial genome of the parasitic nematode Radopholus similis". BMC Res Notes. 2: 192. ... It is notable as an early example, along with Radopholus similis, of the alternative flatworm mitochondrial code. "Taxonomy ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radopholus_arabocoffeae

ISBN 978-1-904455-25-7. Enzyme definition Dictionary.com Accessed 6 April 2007 Woese C (1967). The Genetic Code. New York: ... Possible pre-genetic-code RNA catalysts which are their own replicase". Origins of Life. 14 (1-4): 291-300. Bibcode:1984OrLi... ... According to this scenario, at the origin of life, all enzymatic activity and genetic information encoding was done by one ... The 1982 discovery of ribozymes demonstrated that RNA can be both genetic material (like DNA) and a biological catalyst (like ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribozyme

Genetic Code of the Universe at the Tatarstan National Museum, Kazan, Russia, and Universe: Genetic Code at the National Museum ... Genetic code of the Universe exhibition by Luba Sterlikova at the National Museum of Tatarstan Kazakh TV. B НАЦМУЗЕЕ ОТКРЫЛАСЬ ... "Genetic Code of the Universe". The Feminist Art Project. Rutgers University. October, 2015. "SCIENCEART: Соединение науки и ... 226, 227.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) Genetic Code of the Universe. Exhibition catalogue. National Museum of Fine ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luba_Sterlikova

Cobb, Matthew (2015). Life's Greatest Secret: The Race to Crack the Genetic Code. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-06267-6. When ... DNA codes A, G, T, and C are transferred to RNA codes U, C, A, and G, respectively. The encoding of proteins is done in groups ... p. 263) Barrell BG, Bankier AT, Drouin J (1979). "A different genetic code in human mitochondria". Nature. 282 (5735): 189-194 ... However, it was unclear whether this mechanism of translation corresponded specifically to the genetic code. After protein ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology

The Blepharisma nuclear code (translation table 15) is a genetic code found in the nuclei of Blepharisma. AAs = FFLLSSSSYY*QCC* ... Elzanowski A, Ostell J, Leipe D, Soussov V. "The Genetic Codes". Taxonomy browser. National Center for Biotechnology ... Andrzej Elzanowski; Jim Ostell (26 September 1996). "The Genetic Codes". National Center for Biotechnology Information. ... Blepharisma List of genetic codes This article incorporates text from the United States National Library of Medicine, which is ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blepharisma_nuclear_code

See genetic code.) Site-directed mutagenesis selectively introduces mutations that change the structure of a protein. The ... Some examples of genetic methods include conceptual translation, Site-directed mutagenesis, using a fusion protein, and ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_methods

Only about 3% of them code for ATP production proteins. This means most of the genetic information coding for the protein ... "The Genetic Codes". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved 16 March 2019. Asin-Cayuela ... The entire human mitochondrial DNA molecule has been mapped[1][2]. The genetic code is, for the most part, universal, with few ... The mitochondrial diseases are genetic disorders carried in mitochondrial DNA, or nuclear DNA coding for mitochondrial ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_genetics

"The Genetic Codes". NCBI. Retrieved 29 March 2019. Andreev, Dmitry E.; Loughran, Gary; Fedorova, Alla D.; Mikhaylova, Maria S ... The Genetic Codes. Compiled by Andrzej (Anjay) Elzanowski and Jim Ostell, National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI ... Watanabe, Kimitsuna; Suzuki, Tsutomu (2001). "Genetic Code and its Variants". Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. doi:10.1038/npg. ... "Dual functions of codons in the genetic code". Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 45 (4): 257-65. doi: ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Start_codon

Andrzej (Anjay) Elzanowski and Jim Ostell (7 July 2010). "The Alternative Yeast Nuclear Code". The Genetic Codes. Bethesda, ... This is an unusual example of a departure from the standard genetic code, and most such departures are in start codons or, for ... October 2007). "Critical roles for a genetic code alteration in the evolution of the genus Candida". The EMBO Journal. 26 (21 ... mitochondrial genetic codes. This alteration may, in some environments, help these Candida species by inducing a permanent ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candida_albicans

Deletion/duplication testing is a type of testing designed to detect larger areas of the genetic code that are missing or extra ... "What is a Genetic Test?". "Information about Genetic Testing". "Help Me Understand Genetics Genetic Testing". Genetics Home ... Genotyping is testing that looks at specific variants in a particular area of the genetic code. This technology is limited only ... Elective genetic and genomic testing will continue to evolve as the cost of genetic testing technology falls and patients ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elective_genetic_and_genomic_testing

Eshelman, Larry J.; Schaffer, J. David (1993), "Real-Coded Genetic Algorithms and Interval-Schemata", Foundations of Genetic ... Deep, Kusum; Singh, Krishna Pratap; Kansal, M.L.; Mohan, C. (June 2009). "A real coded genetic algorithm for solving integer ... Wang, Fuchang; Cao, Huirong; Qian, Xiaoshi (2011), Liu, Baoxiang; Chai, Chunlai (eds.), "Decimal-Integer-Coded Genetic ... ISBN 0-471-57148-2 "Introduction to genetic algorithms: IV. Genetic Algorithm". Retrieved 12 August 2015. Eiben, A.E.; Smith, J ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome_(genetic_algorithm)

List of all genetic codes: translation tables 1 to 16, and 21 to 31. The genetic codes database. This article incorporates text ... The Condylostoma nuclear code (translation table 28) is a genetic code used by the nuclear genome of the heterotrich ciliate ... Elzanowski A, Ostell J, Leipe D, Soussov V. "The Genetic Codes". Taxonomy browser. National Center for Biotechnology ... "Novel Ciliate Genetic Code Variants Including the Reassignment of All Three Stop Codons to Sense Codons in Condylostoma magnum ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condylostoma_nuclear_code

List of all genetic codes: translation tables 1 to 16, and 21 to 33. The genetic codes database. This article incorporates text ... The Blastocrithidia nuclear code (translation table 31) is a genetic code used by the nuclear genome of the trypanosomatid ... Elzanowski A, Ostell J, Leipe D, Soussov V. "The Genetic Codes". Taxonomy browser. National Center for Biotechnology ... "An Unprecedented Non-canonical Nuclear Genetic Code with All Three Termination Codons Reassigned as Sense Codons". Current ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blastocrithidia_nuclear_code

List of all genetic codes: translation tables 1 to 16, and 21 to 31. The genetic codes database. This article incorporates text ... The peritrich nuclear code (translation table 30) is a genetic code used by the nuclear genome of the peritrich ciliates ... Elzanowski A, Ostell J, Leipe D, Soussov V. "The Genetic Codes". Taxonomy browser. National Center for Biotechnology ... Sánchez-Silva, Rocı́o; Villalobo, Eduardo; Morin, Loı̈c; Torres, Antonio (2003). "A New Noncanonical Nuclear Genetic Code". ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peritrich_nuclear_code

List of genetic engineering software: software to code the genetic modifications Mutagenesis (molecular biology technique) Root ... Traditional methods of genetic engineering generally insert the new genetic material randomly within the host genome. This can ... "The process of genetic modification". Nicholl ST (29 May 2008). An Introduction to Genetic Engineering. Cambridge University ... Transformation is the direct alteration of a cell's genetic components by passing the genetic material through the cell ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering_techniques

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_code

Scientists unlock the entire genetic code of two common cancers - skin and lung - a move they say could revolutionise cancer ... Scientists have unlocked the entire genetic code of two of the most common cancers - skin and lung - a move they say could ... Telegraph Genetic breakthrough hails new cancer research era - 1 hr ago. Nature* Moredun Animal Health Ltd / SPLCancer genomes ... The scientists found the DNA code for a skin cancer called melanoma contained more than 30,000 errors almost entirely caused by ...

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8414124.stm

There are 20 canonical amino acids that are encoded by the genetic code of nearly all known organisms - there are only very few ... Changes to the genetic code. The genetic code consists of 64 triplets of nucleotides called codons, with each codon, except 3, ... What is the Expanded Genetic Code?. News-Medical. https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/What-is-the-Expanded-Genetic-Code ... Expanding the genetic code. To date, with the development of new orthogonal aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase and tRNA pairs, over 70 c ...

https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/What-is-the-Expanded-Genetic-Code.aspx

Researchers show simpler versions of the universal genetic code can still function in protein synthesis. In addition to ... Simplifying genetic codes to look back in time. Date:. August 26, 2012. Source:. Tokyo Institute of Technology. Summary:. ... "Simplifying genetic codes to look back in time." ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com. /. releases. /. 2012. /. 08. /. ... "Simplifying genetic codes to look back in time." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 26 August 2012. ,www.sciencedaily.com. /. releases ...

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/08/120826170404.htm

Use this page to view details for the Local Coverage Article for billing and coding: moldx: mecp2 genetic testing . ... MECP2 Genetic Testing Coding and Billing Guidelines" to "Billing and Coding: MolDX: MECP2 Genetic Testing". Under Article Text ... Local Coverage Article Billing and Coding Billing and Coding: MolDX: MECP2 Genetic Testing A54278 ... Finding a specific code. Some articles contain a large number of codes. If you are looking for a specific code, use your ...

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Amino acids genetic coding. Can you name the amino acids translated by a given codon?. ...

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Some discoveries might be surprising from an evolutionary perspective, but not necessarily from a perspective of intelligent design.. ...

https://evolutionnews.org/tag/alternative-genetic-codes/

CPT Code 81351, Tier 1 Molecular Pathology Procedures, Genetic Analysis Procedures - Codify by AAPC ... CPT® 81351, Under Genetic Analysis Procedures. The Current Procedural Terminology (CPT®) code 81351 as maintained by American ... View the CPT® codes corresponding procedural code and DRG. In a click, check the DRGs IPPS allowable, length of stay, and ... View any code changes for 2023 as well as historical information on code creation and revision. ...

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Discover your perfect read today! filtered by Genetic Wealth Code audio ... Download Genetic Wealth Code (Ancient Wealth Secrets PDF & Audio Files)) - Discover the Power of Your Genes Now! Find out how ...

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Decoding the Genetic Code from DNA to mRNA to tRNA to Amino Acid ...

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By adding two genetic units to the DNA of E. coli bacteria, U.S. scientists have created an alien organism capable of producing ... Scientists Create First Life-Form With Man-Made Genetic Code. By adding two genetic units to the DNA of E. coli bacteria, U.S. ... Meaning, outside the lab in their current state, theyd either die or revert back to a four-unit genetic code. ... like this could produce whole new kinds of medicine and proteins that life forms with only four units in their genetic code ...

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The combination of genetic code expansion (GCE) and baculovirus-based protein expression in Spodoptera frugiperda cells is a ... MultiBacTAG-Genetic Code Expansion Using the Baculovirus Expression System in Sf21 Cells. *Christine Koehler3,4,5 & ... The combination of genetic code expansion (GCE) and baculovirus-based protein expression in Spodoptera frugiperda cells is a ... Koehler, C., Lemke, E.A. (2018). MultiBacTAG-Genetic Code Expansion Using the Baculovirus Expression System in Sf21 Cells. In: ...

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The set of known dialects of the genetic code is analyzed from the viewpoint of the genetic 8-dimensional Yin-Yang-algebra. ... The Evolution of the Genetic Code from the Viewpoint of the Genetic 8-Dimensional Yin-Yang-Algebra: 10.4018/978-1-60566-124-7. ... They include 7 phenomenological rules of evolution of the dialects of the genetic code. The evolution of the genetic code ... S. Petoukhov & M. He (2010). The Evolution of the Genetic Code from the Viewpoint of the Genetic 8-Dimensional Yin-Yang-Algebra ...

https://www.igi-global.com/chapter/evolution-genetic-code-viewpoint-genetic/37901

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mRNA Shots Install an Operating System to Program Humans

https://sway.office.com/gDGCMfi7qIFwDtxo

Justia › US Law › US Codes and Statutes › Delaware Code › 2021 Delaware Code › Title 13 - Domestic Relations › Chapter 8. ... Universal Citation: 13 DE Code § 8-506. (2021). § 8-506. Costs of genetic testing. (a) Subject to assessment of costs under ... 2021 Delaware Code. Title 13 - Domestic Relations. Chapter 8. Uniform Parentage Act. Subchapter V. Genetic Testing. § 8-506. ... Costs of genetic testing. There is a newer version of this Section 2022. 2021 (you are here). 2020. 2019. 2018. Other previous ...

https://law.justia.com/codes/delaware/2021/title-13/chapter-8/subchapter-v/section-8-506/

Justia › US Law › US Codes and Statutes › Delaware Code › 2019 Delaware Code › Title 13 - Domestic Relations › Chapter 8. ... Universal Citation: 13 DE Code § 8-503 (2019). (a) Genetic testing must be of a type reasonably relied upon by experts in the ... 2019 Delaware Code. Title 13 - Domestic Relations. Chapter 8. Uniform Parentage Act. Subchapter V Genetic Testing. § 8-503 ... Uniform Parentage Act › Subchapter V Genetic Testing › § 8-503 Requirements for genetic testing. There is a newer version of ...

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Researchers Unlock Genetic Code of the Brightest and Most Vibrant Colors in Nature. February 28, 2018 ... Researchers have unlocked the genetic code of some of the brightest and most vibrant colors in nature. The study, published in ... Researchers Unlock Genetic Code of the Brightest and Most Vibrant Colors in Nature ... Researchers Unlock Genetic Code of the Brightest and Most Vibrant Colors in Nature ...

https://www.isaaa.org/kc/cropbiotechupdate/article/default.asp?ID=16217

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https://www.garvan.org.au/news-resources/news/australian-researchers-reveal-new-insights-into-retina2019s-genetic-code

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https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/spotlight/sc/catalog?f%5Breadonly_genre_ssim%5D%5B%5D=Summaries&f%5Breadonly_language_ssim%5D%5B%5D=English&f%5Breadonly_subject_ssim%5D%5B%5D=Genetic+Code&per_page=100&search_field=all_fields&sort=readonly_date-yyyymmdd_ssim+desc&view=slideshow

... of the genetic code is why exactly the canonical code was selected among this huge number of possible genetic codes. Many ... some researches employ optimization algorithms to identify regions of the genetic code space where best codes, according to a ... In order to test our hypothesis that the multiobjective approach is useful for the analysis of the genetic code adaptability, ... We propose a multiobjective approach where two or more objectives are considered simultaneously to evaluate the genetic codes. ...

https://bmcbioinformatics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12859-015-0480-9

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https://www.geisinger.org/about-geisinger/news-and-media/news-releases/2020/09/25/15/18/preventive-medicine-lecture-oct-2020

Heres why the mRNA cant insert into your genetic code. Your genetic code is made up of a different, but related, molecule to ... Can the Pfizer or Moderna mRNA vaccines affect my genetic code?. By Archa Fox, Jen Martin and Traude Beilharz. June 28, 2021 ... some people are concerned these vaccines can affect their genetic code.. Heres why the chances of that happening are next to ... One is where genetic elements, known as retro-transposons, hijack cellular mRNA, convert it into DNA and insert that DNA back ...

https://allianceforscience.org/blog/2021/06/can-the-pfizer-or-moderna-mrna-vaccines-affect-my-genetic-code/

The suspicion is lung cells containing mutations are eventually replaced with new ones free of genetic errors. (bbc.co.uk)
This has allowed the code to be fairly refractory to change and enables it to shape how mutations that arise affect the evolution of the genome. (news-medical.net)
Many researchers argue that the organization of the canonical code is a product of natural selection and that the code's robustness against mutations would support this hypothesis. (biomedcentral.com)
The hypothesis that the genetic code has evolved is mainly supported by the robustness of the canonical code against mutations when some amino acids properties are considered [ 2 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
Then, the number of random codes better than the canonical genetic code is estimated using a evaluation function with only one objective, usually the robustness against mutations considering an amino acid property. (biomedcentral.com)
12] These errors, mutations, can affect an organism's phenotype, especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene. (mercinewyork.com)
The genetic code is universal i.e. [39] In large populations of asexually reproducing organisms, for example, E. coli, multiple beneficial mutations may co-occur. (mercinewyork.com)
A team led by Henne Holstege, of the VU University Medical Center in Amsterdam, has begun to compare DNA from van Andel-Schipper's blood and brain, to determine how different genetic mutations arise in these tissues. (themuslimtimes.info)
IGS also tests for key DNA/Genetic Mutations that affect how the body metabolizes certain hormones, can increase the risk factor for clotting and stroke, and impair body's immune response and ability to detoxify. (atlantchiropractic.com)
Identifying these genetic mutations are imperative. (atlantchiropractic.com)
IGS continues to expand the number of lab tests and DNA/Genetic Mutations as the current medical body of knowledge evolves. (atlantchiropractic.com)
Genetic variation is also important in individual susceptibility to various diseases across the life span, including the thousands of rare "genetic diseases" such as sickle cell disease and cystic fibrosis in which single mutations (genetic changes) can have drastic effects on health and disease. (cdc.gov)
The testing involved deletions, variants, or mutations in the genetic coding for peripheral myelin protein (PMP22) and transthyretin (TTR). (cdc.gov)

The simple genetic algorithm (GA) is search algorithms based on the mechanics of natural selection and genetics. (actapress.com)
In order to investigate the natural selection hypothesis, some researches employ optimization algorithms to identify regions of the genetic code space where best codes, according to a given evaluation function, can be found (engineering approach). (biomedcentral.com)
Because most genetic algorithms I've seen tend to converge(get fitter over each iteration).Though mine works it doesn't necessarily converge like the others. (stackexchange.com)
Genetic Algorithms ( GA s) are heuristic approaches to iteratively find near-optimal solutions in large search spaces. (free-thesis.com)

The hypothesis states that the triplet code was not passed on to amino acids as Gamow thought, but carried by a different molecule, an adaptor, that interacts with amino acids. (wikipedia.org)
There are 20 canonical amino acids that are encoded by the genetic code of nearly all known organisms - there are only very few exceptions. (news-medical.net)
There are no indications that any organism's genetic code has ever had any of its canonical amino acids completely replaced by an analog. (news-medical.net)
The genetic code consists of 64 triplets of nucleotides called codons, with each codon, except 3, encoding one of the 20 amino acids. (news-medical.net)
There is some redundancy in the code as most of the amino acids may be encoded by more than one codon. (news-medical.net)
Daisuke Kiga and co-workers at the Department of Computational Intelligence and Systems Science at Tokyo Institute of Technology, together with researchers across Japan, have shown that simpler versions of the universal genetic code, created by knocking out certain amino acids, can still function efficiently and accurately in protein synthesis [1]. (sciencedaily.com)
All current life forms on Earth have 20 amino acids in their genetic code. (sciencedaily.com)
However, scientists believe that this was not always the case, and that organisms evolved from simpler genetic codes with fewer amino acids. (sciencedaily.com)
Amino acids are linked in accordance with codons -- a 3-letter combination of the four base nucleotides (G, A, T and C) in a genetic code. (sciencedaily.com)
Before emergence of the current universal genetic code, primitive organisms that may have used only 19 amino acids could benefit from horizontal gene transfer, where cells transfer genetic material between one another. (sciencedaily.com)
An organism with the current universal genetic code for 20 amino acids would have competitive advantages in its ability to synthesize proteins, but could not engage in genetic transfer with the rest of the population. (sciencedaily.com)
Simplification of the genetic code: restricted diversity of genetically encoded amino acids. (sciencedaily.com)
The combination of genetic code expansion (GCE) and baculovirus-based protein expression in Spodoptera frugiperda cells is a powerful tool to express multiprotein complexes with site-specifically introduced noncanonical amino acids. (springer.com)
If we consider all codes mapping the 64 codes into 20 amino acids and one stop codon, there are more than 1.51×10 84 possible genetic codes. (biomedcentral.com)
Using as objectives the robustness against mutation with the amino acids properties polar requirement (objective 1) and robustness with respect to hydropathy index or molecular volume (objective 2), we found solutions closer to the canonical genetic code in terms of robustness, when compared with the results using only one objective reported by other authors. (biomedcentral.com)
The particular sequence order of the amino acids in the protein is dictated by the messenger RNA according to the canonical genetic code. (biomedcentral.com)
This code maps each triplet of nucleotides, known as codon, to amino acids. (biomedcentral.com)
However, the most popular theory is the adaptation of the genetic code from a primitive code, possibly with a small subset of precursors amino acids [ 14 ], via natural selection towards a frozen state [ 3 ], i.e., towards a local optimum if we view the adaptability process as an optimization process. (biomedcentral.com)
Optimality: the genetic code continued to evolve after its initial creation, so that the current code maximizes some, Chemical principles govern specific RNA interaction with amino acids. (mercinewyork.com)

Moreover, the code can be expressed as RNA or DNA codons with the former being used during translation (i.e. biosynthesis of proteins) after acquiring its sequence of nucleotides from the latter during transcription (i.e. copying of DNA into mRNA). (news-medical.net)
Can the Pfizer or Moderna mRNA vaccines affect my genetic code? (allianceforscience.org)
Both the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines are mRNA vaccines, which contain tiny fragments of the genetic material known as "messenger ribonucleic acid. (allianceforscience.org)
Your genetic code is made up of a different, but related, molecule to the vaccine mRNA, known as DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid. (allianceforscience.org)
One is where genetic elements, known as retro-transposons , hijack cellular mRNA, convert it into DNA and insert that DNA back into your genetic material. (allianceforscience.org)
The active ingredient in an mRNA shot is genetic code that provides the instructions for human cells to produce the virus's spike protein. (nationalgeographic.com)

Triplet code AAA in DNA during transcription is changed into UUU code of RNA. (mercinewyork.com)
The genetic code is so well-structured for hydropathicity that a mathematical analysis (Singular Value Decomposition) of 12 variables (4 nucleotides x 3 positions) yields a remarkable correlation (C = 0.95) for predicting the hydropathicity of the encoded amino acid directly from the triplet nucleotide sequence, without translation. (mercinewyork.com)

After researchers chemically created the X and Y nucleotides, they inserted them into E. coli bacteria, which then reproduced normally and passed along the new genetic units. (scrippsnews.com)
A codon is a DNA or RNA sequence of three nucleotides (a trinucleotide) that forms a unit of genetic information encoding a particular amino acid. (genome.gov)

That scheme is often referred to as the canonical or standard genetic code, or simply the genetic code, though variant codes (such as in mitochondria) exist. (wikipedia.org)
The organization of the canonical code has intrigued researches since it was first described. (biomedcentral.com)
The main question related to the organization of the genetic code is why exactly the canonical code was selected among this huge number of possible genetic codes. (biomedcentral.com)
Only one objective is also employed in the statistical approach for the comparison of the canonical code with random codes. (biomedcentral.com)
The multiobjective approach is also more natural, because more than one objective was adapted during the evolutionary process of the canonical genetic code. (biomedcentral.com)
The reason why the canonical code was selected over the large number of possible codes has intrigued researchers for decades [ 2 - 11 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
Haig and Hurst [ 15 ], and some other authors after them [ 5 , 16 ], showed that a very small percentage of random codes are better than the canonical code in minimizing the deleterious effects of errors in the translation process. (biomedcentral.com)
However, when evaluation functions with good quality are used, it is very hard to find random codes better than the canonical code. (biomedcentral.com)

Kiga and his team took the codon for tryptophan, and reassigned it to code for the amino acid alanine instead. (sciencedaily.com)
The resulting amino acid probabilities for each codon are displayed in a genetic code logo, that also shows the support for a stop codon. (mercinewyork.com)

While it may be regarded as a common language shared between nearly all organisms, the genetic code is imperative for the interpretation of genes and the production of proteins. (news-medical.net)
Download Genetic Wealth Code (Ancient Wealth Secrets PDF & Audio Files)) - Discover the Power of Your Genes Now! (scoop.it)
The researchers compared the genetic information to optical properties and anatomy of wild-type and mutated bacterial colonies to understand how genes regulate the color of the colony. (isaaa.org)
The group examined the complex genetic sequences behind more than 20,000 individual cells to develop a profile of all major cell types in retina and the genes they 'express' to function normally. (garvan.org.au)
That only a very small part of the DNA chain consisted of genes which code for protein could not be explained and those parts were irreverently called junk DNA as their function was not understood. (lu.se)
Finally, we demonstrate that these data can be used for the efficient filtering of candidate disease-causing variants, and for the discovery of human 'knockout' variants in protein-coding genes. (ox.ac.uk)
By examining the interactions between alleles within genes, scientists can unravel the intricate mechanisms underlying inheritance patterns and genetic diversity. (echase.org)
Six years later, however, scientists hope her genes may provide a better answer - and as a result they have sequenced her complete genetic code, The Times of London reported Saturday. (themuslimtimes.info)
Although many genes have been studied, few clear and consistent genetic associations with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis have been identified. (medlineplus.gov)
Transcription and translation Genes are segments of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that contain the code for a specific protein that functions in one or more types of cells in the body or the code for functional ribonucleic. (msdmanuals.com)

This means that compensatory changes throughout the rest of the genome must occur if there are small changes to the genetic code. (news-medical.net)
He has been a participant and leader in the Human Genome Project since its inception in 1990 with a focus on the translation of new genomics technologies into clinically useful genetic tests for early diagnosis, intervention and prevention of disease. (geisinger.org)
A team from the Universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, Public Health Scotland and the Scottish Legionella Reference Laboratory conducted a comparison of the entire genome or genetic code of more than 3,000 Legionella bacteria samples found in patients and water sources from Scotland and around the world. (ed.ac.uk)
To understand the genetic basis for a given disease, scientists sequence a person's DNA and compare it against a reference genome. (nist.gov)
SalioGen's Gene Coding platform is designed to turn on, turn off or modify the function of any gene in the genome. (retinaldegenerationfund.org)
The epigenetic code (literally means "above" the genome) does not affect the information contained in DNA sequence, but controls when and where this information is available to cells. (cdc.gov)
Thanks to the Human Genome Project, we know the genetic code for lipoprotein(a), so inventing an siRNA to target it specifically is trivial. (medscape.com)
By offering empowerment and control, companies convince consumers to sequence their genome by granting the company access to their genetic data in exchange to results that are not always accurate. (bvsalud.org)

The genetic code is the set of rules used by living cells to translate information encoded within genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences of nucleotide triplets, or codons) into proteins. (wikipedia.org)
They removed the amino acid tryptophan and discovered that the resulting simplified code could still generate proteins as before. (sciencedaily.com)
By adding two genetic units to the DNA of E. coli bacteria, U.S. scientists have created an alien organism capable of producing new types of proteins. (scrippsnews.com)
Organisms like this could produce whole new kinds of medicine and proteins that life forms with only four units in their genetic code can't make. (scrippsnews.com)
Our cells naturally make thousands of our own mRNAs all the time (to code for a range of other proteins). (allianceforscience.org)
Under this hypothesis, any model for the emergence of the genetic code is intimately related to a model of the transfer from ribozymes (RNA enzymes) to proteins as the principal enzymes in cells. (mercinewyork.com)
The series then moves to introduce the viewer to the genetic code and how it works, and tackles such issues as the optimality of the genetic code, the myth of junk DNA, the information enigma of DNA, and the "chicken-and-egg," problem of DNA and proteins. (islamicity.org)
In 1958, Francis Crick coined the concept of the central dogma of molecular biology, which can be succinctly described as DNA coding for RNA and RNA coding for proteins. (lu.se)
Integrated Genetic Solutions programs are designed to return hormones, pre-hormones, vitamins, minerals, proteins and electrolytes to optimal levels. (atlantchiropractic.com)
The genetic code is the sequence of DNA (base pairs) that tells a cell how to build proteins, the essential building blocks of life. (cdc.gov)

coded for the polypeptide poly-lysine and that the poly-cytosine RNA sequence (CCCCC. (wikipedia.org)
Large-scale reference data sets of human genetic variation are critical for the medical and functional interpretation of DNA sequence changes. (ox.ac.uk)
Here we describe the aggregation and analysis of high-quality exome (protein-coding region) DNA sequence data for 60,706 individuals of diverse ancestries generated as part of the Exome Aggregation Consortium (ExAC). (ox.ac.uk)

abstract = "Genetic Programming (GP) is a technique that allows computer programs encoded as a set of tree structures to be evolved using an evolutionary algorithm. (ucl.ac.uk)

At the time, the RNA molecule was seen as a mere messenger which decodes (transcribes) information from genetic sequences of DNA, in the form of a messenger RNA, which is then used as a template when the protein molecules are combined (translation). (lu.se)
First, because of degeneracy of the genetic code, HEV amino acid sequences are more conserved than nucleotide sequences. (cdc.gov)

The genetic code is highly similar among all organisms and can be expressed in a simple table with 64 entries. (wikipedia.org)
This implies that organisms with a simpler genetic code could be used as a barrier in laboratory experiments, preventing new genetically modified strains from escaping to the natural world. (sciencedaily.com)

There will be also numerous applications for simplified genetic strains in laboratory experiments, which could potentially prevent non-natural genetically modified materials from entering the natural world. (sciencedaily.com)
Your lipoprotein(a) level seems to be more or less hard-coded genetically. (medscape.com)

Analyze genetic information to identify patients or families at risk for specific disorders or syndromes. (onetcodeconnector.org)
According to the authors in [ 16 ], two approaches can be used to analyze the genetic code adaptability by natural selection. (biomedcentral.com)

They play a crucial role in determining an organism's traits and characteristics, serving as building blocks of genetic variation. (echase.org)

Researchers show simpler versions of the universal genetic code can still function in protein synthesis. (sciencedaily.com)
Nikic I, Lemke EA (2015) Genetic code expansion enabled site-specific dual-color protein labeling: superresolution microscopy and beyond. (springer.com)
But to their astonishment, the gene turned out not to code for a protein. (lu.se)
Analysis of protein-coding genetic variation in 60,706 humans. (ox.ac.uk)

In order to test our hypothesis that the multiobjective approach is useful for the analysis of the genetic code adaptability, we implemented a multiobjective optimization algorithm where two objectives are simultaneously optimized. (biomedcentral.com)

However, contemporary feats in engineering are enabling the possibility of making rational changes to the genetic code. (news-medical.net)
With these data, CDC uses genomic surveillance to track the spread of variants, and monitor changes to the genetic code of SARS-CoV-2 variants and the impact on public health. (cdc.gov)

From analysis of the genetic code, researchers found that Legionella infections following travel were often closely related to other variants from the same UK or international travel destination. (ed.ac.uk)

coded for the polypeptide poly-proline. (wikipedia.org)

But this link will help explain genetic codes in hamsters - Genetics and Inheritance and also this link has Syrian colours Syrian . (hamstercentral.com)
Autosomal dominant is a pattern of inheritance characteristic of some genetic disorders. (genome.gov)
Autosomal recessive is a pattern of inheritance characteristic of some genetic disorders. (genome.gov)
This knowledge forms the basis for understanding patterns of inheritance, genetic diseases, and the evolution of traits within populations. (echase.org)
The inheritance pattern of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis is unclear because many genetic and environmental factors appear to be involved. (medlineplus.gov)

These harmful variants can lead to genetic disorders or increase an individual's susceptibility to certain conditions. (echase.org)

Like molecular archaeologists, these researchers have dug through layers of genetic information to uncover the history of these patients' disease. (bbc.co.uk)
The researchers conducted experiments altering the genetic code in a test tube. (sciencedaily.com)
The researchers conducted cell-free experiments altering the genetic code. (sciencedaily.com)
Associate Professor Powell says the retinal cell atlas would benefit researchers investigating Inherited Retinal Diseases, which occur when genetic 'mistakes' cause retinal cells to stop functioning, leading to vision loss and blindness. (garvan.org.au)

The Evolution of the Genetic Code from the Viewpoint of the Genetic 8-Dimensional Yin-Yang-Algebra. (igi-global.com)
The only way a stochastic search scheme like evolution can find such systems is by adapting the genetic representation. (logos-verlag.de)
This work develops a theory on the implicit adaptation of genetic representations during evolution. (logos-verlag.de)
In GP, code bloat is a common phenomenon characterised by the size of individuals gradually increasing during the evolution. (ucl.ac.uk)

Scientists have unlocked the entire genetic code of two of the most common cancers - skin and lung - a move they say could revolutionise cancer care. (bbc.co.uk)
The scientists found the DNA code for a skin cancer called melanoma contained more than 30,000 errors almost entirely caused by too much sun exposure. (bbc.co.uk)
The retinal cell atlas will give scientists a clear benchmark to assess the quality of the cells derived from stem cells to determine whether they have the correct genetic code which will enable them to function. (garvan.org.au)

Assess individual or family risk for a variety of inherited conditions, such as genetic disorders and birth defects. (onetcodeconnector.org)
Collect for, or share with, research projects patient data on specific genetic disorders or syndromes. (onetcodeconnector.org)
She is interested in determining the genetic cause for these disorders and correlating genotype with phenotype by genetic sub-type. (geisinger.org)

However, the concept of alleles remains essential in understanding how genetic variation contributes to overall trait diversity. (echase.org)
More than 99.9% of the genetic code is identical among us, and the 0.1% variation is important in health traits such as height, weight and eye color. (cdc.gov)

People ask, what is the genetic wealth code program? (ancientwealthsecrets.com)
The Genetic Wealth Code is a special program to activate your genetic wealth code using sound. (ancientwealthsecrets.com)
Once your genetic wealth code is activated you are ready to at last experience a flood of wealth into your life like never before. (ancientwealthsecrets.com)
How is The Genetic Wealth Code different? (ancientwealthsecrets.com)
Wealthy people have their genetic wealth code already switched on for some reason. (ancientwealthsecrets.com)
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You get an entire 12 months to decide if the Genetic Wealth Code is right for you! (ancientwealthsecrets.com)
The more consistently you listen to the Genetic Wealth Code sound, the more powerful your results will be. (ancientwealthsecrets.com)
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You will be taken straight to the member's area where you can access the Genetic Wealth Code sound and all the bonuses. (ancientwealthsecrets.com)

Integrated Genetic Solutions (IGS) combines individual's genetic and chemistry analysis to unlock the potential for better health. (atlantchiropractic.com)

Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis probably results from a combination of genetic and environmental factors. (medlineplus.gov)

Engage in research activities related to the field of medical genetics or genetic counseling. (onetcodeconnector.org)
Provide genetic counseling in specified areas of clinical genetics, such as obstetrics, pediatrics, oncology and neurology. (onetcodeconnector.org)

These types of studies also need to be seen in context of the public's wariness of genetic technology more broadly. (allianceforscience.org)
SalioGen Therapeutics has launched Gene Coding™, a genetic medicine platform, to develop durable, broadly applicable genetic medicines, using its Exact DNA Integration Technology™ (EDIT™) platform. (retinaldegenerationfund.org)

Scoliosis can occur as a feature of other conditions, including a variety of genetic syndromes. (medlineplus.gov)

The specimen used in the testing need not be of the same kind for each individual undergoing genetic testing. (justia.com)

Symmetrical Analysis Techniques for Genetic Systems and Bioinformatics: Advanced Patterns and Applications, IGI Global, 2010, pp.168-192. (igi-global.com)

Routine sampling of water supplies and genomic sequencing - determination of the entire genetic makeup - of Legionella bacteria could play a key role in identifying the source of Legionnaires' disease outbreaks, research suggests. (ed.ac.uk)

For that reason, we talk about codons made of RNA, which uses Uracil, instead of the original DNA code which uses Thymine. (mercinewyork.com)
The genetic code can be expressed as either RNA codons or DNA codons. (mercinewyork.com)

This catalogue of human genetic diversity contains an average of one variant every eight bases of the exome, and provides direct evidence for the presence of widespread mutational recurrence. (ox.ac.uk)
Testing helps to identify chemistry imbalances through the analysis of each patient's unique genetic variant (genetic mutation), blood composition (hormones, minerals, vitamins and essential markers), body physiology, nutritional assessment and stress management. (atlantchiropractic.com)

In 2000, approximately 20 railroad track workers who filed injury reports or compensation claims for carpal tunnel syndrome were tested by their employer for two genetic traits to determine the work relatedness of the condition. (cdc.gov)

Chin JW (2014) Expanding and reprogramming the genetic code of cells and animals. (springer.com)

Since 99% of classic cases result in a single random mutation, genetic testing is not useful to screen carriers. (cms.gov)

Write detailed consultation reports to provide information on complex genetic concepts to patients or referring physicians. (onetcodeconnector.org)

At Atlant Health Chiropractic and Functional Medicine, we are proud to offer Integrated Genetic Solutions (IGS) service, the world's first highly sophisticated approach to evaluate and calibrate body chemistry. (atlantchiropractic.com)

If you think genetic information is useful only for patients under the care of specialists for rare or complex diseases, David Ledbetter, PhD and Christa Lese Martin, PhD would like you to reconsider. (geisinger.org)
Grounded by a shared mission to transform the treatment paradigm for patients with inherited diseases, the team and advisory boards we've built have unparalleled expertise to usher in the first applications of Gene Coding. (retinaldegenerationfund.org)

It allows us to understand how genetic information is passed down from generation to generation and how it shapes the incredible diversity observed in nature. (echase.org)

Having it coded right there - we have this problem list that jumps up - really can give you a much better understanding as to what the patient's going through. (kcur.org)

Others suggest that the organization of the code is a result of symmetry breaking processes [ 12 , 13 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
In recent years, genetic testing has become "golden standard" in understanding human body's physiological processes. (atlantchiropractic.com)

There are also numerous applications for simplified genetic codes in laboratory experiments and clinical trials. (sciencedaily.com)
Your roadmap to health starts with laboratory certified Genetic and blood testing. (atlantchiropractic.com)

The Gene Coding platform is designed to address the limitations of current genetic medicine approaches, including gene editing and viral vector-based gene therapies, and to realize the potential of genetic medicines to reach broader patient populations. (retinaldegenerationfund.org)

Using test results and highly intuitive algorithm, IGS helps to "unlock the code" to improve gene expression (epigenetic response). (atlantchiropractic.com)
The epigenetic code is determined by several mechanisms that affect gene expression, the most well-known of which is DNA methylation (See Figure 1). (cdc.gov)
The epigenetic code can be altered by environmental exposures such as chemicals, nutrition and stress, especially in early life. (cdc.gov)

The optimization process uses only one objective to evaluate the codes, generally based on the robustness for an amino acid property. (biomedcentral.com)
We propose a multiobjective approach where two or more objectives are considered simultaneously to evaluate the genetic codes. (biomedcentral.com)

A modified genetic algorithm is the RcGA, which basically employs real value vectors for representation of the chromosomes, and is widely applied to many optimization problems. (actapress.com)

This multi-lecture series takes an in depth look at DNA, the repository of genetic information, and makes the case that DNA speaks strongly for intelligent and deliberate design, and against a random origin of life on earth, which has been the prevalent dogma in the biological sciences. (islamicity.org)
This zoom meeting feature schedules a meeting with the code repository owner. (free-thesis.com)
This repository simulates the applications allocation to different services in cloud computing optimally to improve and mantain high Quality of Service (QoS) using Genetic Algorithm in MATLAB. (free-thesis.com)

Proceeds from the financing are expected to be used to continue building out the Gene Coding platform, expand the company's team, establish manufacturing and automation capabilities critical for Gene Coding and accelerate the advancement of its preclinical programs. (retinaldegenerationfund.org)

Every species on Earth - bacteria, animals, humans - has the same genetic structure, made up of four units. (scrippsnews.com)

Altering the Johnson & Johnson vaccine, where the genetic code is delivered by an adenovirus vector, may be a bit more challenging. (nationalgeographic.com)

EDIT is based on the novel mammal-derived genomic engineering tool, for use in potentially curative genetic medicines. (retinaldegenerationfund.org)

Tryptophan is thought to be the most recent amino acid to become part of the universal genetic code. (sciencedaily.com)

Ultimately, this "genotype-first" approach will lead to targeted treatment modalities based on the underlying genetic etiology. (geisinger.org)
Everything in our cells is ultimately built based on the genetic code. (mercinewyork.com)

In this way the information contained in the DNA is transformed into all of the materials of life, using the genetic code! (mercinewyork.com)
Together, we will explore key components of your unique genetic coding that will guide you in breaking through the areas you feel most unaligned in your life. (stefaniedawn.com)
These genetic codes contain all the information of life. (nist.gov)

It turns out we all have two "biological codes" that are important in development, health and disease. (cdc.gov)

b) A specimen used in genetic testing may consist of one or more samples, or a combination or samples, of blood, buccal cells, bone, hair or other body tissue or fluid. (justia.com)
Dr Wong says the study provides unprecedented insights into the genetic signals of cells in the retina - the thin layer of cells at the back of eye that sense light and send messages to the brain via the optic nerve to enable us to see. (garvan.org.au)
By creating a genetic map of the human retina, we can understand the factors that enable cells to keep functioning and contribute to healthy vision,'' says Dr Wong. (garvan.org.au)
If everything is to run smoothly in living cells, the genetic information must be correct. (analytica-world.com)

One would think detecting larger insertions and deletions would be easier, but it's actually harder because "the most widely used sequencing technologies output relatively short strings of genetic code, making it hard to reconstruct what's happening," says Zook. (nist.gov)

5. How do you write a genetic code for a hamster 'who carries, or carrier' a certain gene? (hamstercentral.com)

Anatomy3

Organisms10

Chemicals and Drugs33

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment5

Phenomena and Processes22

Humanities1

Information Science4

Health Care1

Physical and functional heterogeneity in TYMV RNA: evidence for the existence of an independent messenger coding for coat protein. (1/1209)

The presence of pseudouridine in the anticodon alters the genetic code: a possible mechanism for assignment of the AAA lysine codon as asparagine in echinoderm mitochondria. (2/1209)

nimO, an Aspergillus gene related to budding yeast Dbf4, is required for DNA synthesis and mitotic checkpoint control. (3/1209)

Progress toward the evolution of an organism with an expanded genetic code. (4/1209)

HIP/PAP gene, encoding a C-type lectin overexpressed in primary liver cancer, is expressed in nervous system as well as in intestine and pancreas of the postimplantation mouse embryo. (5/1209)

Complete sequence, gene arrangement, and genetic code of mitochondrial DNA of the cephalochordate Branchiostoma floridae (Amphioxus) (6/1209)

Crystal structure of acceptor stem of tRNA(Ala) from Escherichia coli shows unique G.U wobble base pair at 1.16 A resolution. (7/1209)

A nuclear localization signal can enhance both the nuclear transport and expression of 1 kb DNA. (8/1209)

Genetic Code

Codon

Anticodon

Codon, Terminator

Transfer RNA Aminoacylation

Amino Acyl-tRNA Synthetases

RNA, Transfer

RNA, Transfer, Cys

Evolution, Molecular

Aminoacylation

Amino Acids

Protein Biosynthesis

Tyrosine-tRNA Ligase

Ciliophora

Models, Genetic

Base Sequence

Foraminifera

RNA, Transfer, Ala

RNA, Transfer, Ile

RNA, Transfer, Amino Acid-Specific

Methanococcales

Molecular Sequence Data

Alanine-tRNA Ligase

Loligo

Nucleic Acid Conformation

RNA, Transfer, Ser

RNA, Transfer, Amino Acyl

RNA Editing

Leucine-tRNA Ligase

Amino Acid Sequence

RNA, Transfer, Tyr

Selenocysteine

Euplotes

Monoiodotyrosine

Escherichia coli

Genes, Mitochondrial

Biological Evolution

Biogenesis

Diplomonadida

Codes of Ethics

Isoleucine-tRNA Ligase

Phylogeny

RNA, Transfer, Gly

RNA, Transfer, Trp

Serine-tRNA Ligase

RNA, Transfer, Leu

Methanosarcina

Peptide Termination Factors

Tryptophan-tRNA Ligase

Mycoplasma capricolum

RNA

Directed Molecular Evolution

Lysine-tRNA Ligase

Protein Modification, Translational

Base Pairing

Threonine-tRNA Ligase

RNA, Transfer, Asn

Proteins

Archaea

Eukaryotic Cells

Protein Engineering

DNA, Mitochondrial

Mutation

Prokaryotic Cells

Ribosomes

Selenoproteins

Dinucleotide Repeats

Open Reading Frames

Phenylalanine-tRNA Ligase

Amino Acid Substitution

Sequence Alignment

Physical and functional heterogeneity in TYMV RNA: evidence for the existence of an independent messenger coding for coat protein. (1/1209)

The presence of pseudouridine in the anticodon alters the genetic code: a possible mechanism for assignment of the AAA lysine codon as asparagine in echinoderm mitochondria. (2/1209)

nimO, an Aspergillus gene related to budding yeast Dbf4, is required for DNA synthesis and mitotic checkpoint control. (3/1209)

Progress toward the evolution of an organism with an expanded genetic code. (4/1209)

HIP/PAP gene, encoding a C-type lectin overexpressed in primary liver cancer, is expressed in nervous system as well as in intestine and pancreas of the postimplantation mouse embryo. (5/1209)

Complete sequence, gene arrangement, and genetic code of mitochondrial DNA of the cephalochordate Branchiostoma floridae (Amphioxus) (6/1209)

Crystal structure of acceptor stem of tRNA(Ala) from Escherichia coli shows unique G.U wobble base pair at 1.16 A resolution. (7/1209)

A nuclear localization signal can enhance both the nuclear transport and expression of 1 kb DNA. (8/1209)

Genetic code