Periodic movement of human settlement from one geographical location to another.
Genotypic differences observed among individuals in a population.
The discipline studying genetic composition of populations and effects of factors such as GENETIC SELECTION, population size, MUTATION, migration, and GENETIC DRIFT on the frequencies of various GENOTYPES and PHENOTYPES using a variety of GENETIC TECHNIQUES.
The process of leaving one's country to establish residence in a foreign country.
The science dealing with the earth and its life, especially the description of land, sea, and air and the distribution of plant and animal life, including humanity and human industries with reference to the mutual relations of these elements. (From Webster, 3d ed)
A species of the Chenopodium genus which is the source of edible seed called quinoa. It contains makisterone A and other STEROIDS, some having ECDYSTEROID activity on insects.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
The period of history before 500 of the common era.
Double-stranded DNA of MITOCHONDRIA. In eukaryotes, the mitochondrial GENOME is circular and codes for ribosomal RNAs, transfer RNAs, and about 10 proteins.
A phenomenon that is observed when a small subgroup of a larger POPULATION establishes itself as a separate and isolated entity. The subgroup's GENE POOL carries only a fraction of the genetic diversity of the parental population resulting in an increased frequency of certain diseases in the subgroup, especially those diseases known to be autosomal recessive.
The change in gene frequency in a population due to migration of gametes or individuals (ANIMAL MIGRATION) across population barriers. In contrast, in GENETIC DRIFT the cause of gene frequency changes are not a result of population or gamete movement.
The general name for NORTH AMERICA; CENTRAL AMERICA; and SOUTH AMERICA unspecified or combined.
Differential and non-random reproduction of different genotypes, operating to alter the gene frequencies within a population.
A variety of simple repeat sequences that are distributed throughout the GENOME. They are characterized by a short repeat unit of 2-8 basepairs that is repeated up to 100 times. They are also known as short tandem repeats (STRs).
The process of cumulative change at the level of DNA; RNA; and PROTEINS, over successive generations.
The geographical area of Africa comprising ALGERIA; EGYPT; LIBYA; MOROCCO; and TUNISIA. It includes also the vast deserts and oases of the Sahara. It is often referred to as North Africa, French-speaking Africa, or the Maghreb. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p856)
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
The pattern of any process, or the interrelationship of phenomena, which affects growth or change within a population.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of genetic processes or phenomena. They include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
The production of offspring by selective mating or HYBRIDIZATION, GENETIC in animals or plants.
The human male sex chromosome, being the differential sex chromosome carried by half the male gametes and none of the female gametes in humans.
The genetic constitution of individuals with respect to one member of a pair of allelic genes, or sets of genes that are closely linked and tend to be inherited together such as those of the MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX.
The genetic constitution of the individual, comprising the ALLELES present at each GENETIC LOCUS.
I'm afraid there seems to be a misunderstanding - "Africa" is not a medical term and does not have a medical definition. Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, consisting of 54 countries with diverse cultures, peoples, languages, and landscapes. If you have any questions related to medical topics or definitions, I would be happy to help answer those for you!
The process of cumulative change over successive generations through which organisms acquire their distinguishing morphological and physiological characteristics.
The longterm manifestations of WEATHER. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
Variant forms of the same gene, occupying the same locus on homologous CHROMOSOMES, and governing the variants in production of the same gene product.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
The fluctuation of the ALLELE FREQUENCY from one generation to the next.
The proportion of one particular in the total of all ALLELES for one genetic locus in a breeding POPULATION.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
A delayed response interval occurring when two stimuli are presented in close succession.
Periodic movements of animals in response to seasonal changes or reproductive instinct. Hormonal changes are the trigger in at least some animals. Most migrations are made for reasons of climatic change, feeding, or breeding.
The type species of LENTIVIRUS and the etiologic agent of AIDS. It is characterized by its cytopathic effect and affinity for the T4-lymphocyte.
Number of individuals in a population relative to space.
A group of people with a common cultural heritage that sets them apart from others in a variety of social relationships.
The movement of cells from one location to another. Distinguish from CYTOKINESIS which is the process of dividing the CYTOPLASM of a cell.
The science devoted to the comparative study of man.
A field of study concerned with the principles and processes governing the geographic distributions of genealogical lineages, especially those within and among closely related species. (Avise, J.C., Phylogeography: The History and Formation of Species. Harvard University Press, 2000)
A plant genus of the family CRUCIFERAE.
Phenomenon of cell-mediated immunity measured by in vitro inhibition of the migration or phagocytosis of antigen-stimulated LEUKOCYTES or MACROPHAGES. Specific CELL MIGRATION ASSAYS have been developed to estimate levels of migration inhibitory factors, immune reactivity against tumor-associated antigens, and immunosuppressive effects of infectious microorganisms.
The mating of plants or non-human animals which are closely related genetically.
An animal or plant species in danger of extinction. Causes can include human activity, changing climate, or change in predator/prey ratios.
Migration of a foreign body from its original location to some other location in the body.
Inoculation of a series of animals or in vitro tissue with an infectious bacterium or virus, as in VIRULENCE studies and the development of vaccines.
A theorem in probability theory named for Thomas Bayes (1702-1761). In epidemiology, it is used to obtain the probability of disease in a group of people with some characteristic on the basis of the overall rate of that disease and of the likelihood of that characteristic in healthy and diseased individuals. The most familiar application is in clinical decision analysis where it is used for estimating the probability of a particular diagnosis given the appearance of some symptoms or test result.
A plant genus of the family RANUNCULACEAE.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of plants.
Computer-based representation of physical systems and phenomena such as chemical processes.
A procedure consisting of a sequence of algebraic formulas and/or logical steps to calculate or determine a given task.
A genus of long-legged, swift-moving felines (FELIDAE) from Africa (and formerly Asia) about the size of a small leopard.
Statistical interpretation and description of a population with reference to distribution, composition, or structure.
Nonrandom association of linked genes. This is the tendency of the alleles of two separate but already linked loci to be found together more frequently than would be expected by chance alone.
The regular and simultaneous occurrence in a single interbreeding population of two or more discontinuous genotypes. The concept includes differences in genotypes ranging in size from a single nucleotide site (POLYMORPHISM, SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE) to large nucleotide sequences visible at a chromosomal level.
A plant species cultivated for the seed used as animal feed and as a source of canola cooking oil.
Sequential operating programs and data which instruct the functioning of a digital computer.
A plant genus of the family CUCURBITACEAE, order Violales, subclass Dilleniidae, which includes pumpkin, gourd and squash.
A group comprised of several species of eared seals found in two genera, in the family Otariidae. In comparison to SEA LIONS, they have an especially dense wooly undercoat.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
A field of biology concerned with the development of techniques for the collection and manipulation of biological data, and the use of such data to make biological discoveries or predictions. This field encompasses all computational methods and theories for solving biological problems including manipulation of models and datasets.
The study of early forms of life through fossil remains.
Changes in biological features that help an organism cope with its ENVIRONMENT. These changes include physiological (ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL), phenotypic and genetic changes.
The total genetic information possessed by the reproductive members of a POPULATION of sexually reproducing organisms.
A plant genus in the LAURACEAE family. The bark of the trees is used in FOLK MEDICINE and FLAVORING AGENTS.
Adherence of cells to surfaces or to other cells.
The relative amount by which the average fitness of a POPULATION is lowered, due to the presence of GENES that decrease survival, compared to the GENOTYPE with maximum or optimal fitness. (From Rieger et al., Glossary of Genetics: Classical and Molecular, 5th ed)
Individual members of Central American ethnic groups with ancient historic ancestral origins in Asia. Mexican Indians are not included.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
Cytochromes of the b group that have alpha-band absorption of 563-564 nm. They occur as subunits in MITOCHONDRIAL ELECTRON TRANSPORT COMPLEX III.
Specific assays that measure the migration of cells. They are commonly used to measure the migration of immune cells in response to stimuli and the inhibition of immune cell migration by immunosuppressive factors.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but 'Europe' is a geographical continent and not a medical term; therefore, it doesn't have a medical definition.
A plant family of the order Cycadales, class Cycadopsida, division CYCADOPHYTA.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of CHLOROPLASTS.
The systematic study of the complete DNA sequences (GENOME) of organisms.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
The splitting of an ancestral species into daughter species that coexist in time (King, Dictionary of Genetics, 6th ed). Causal factors may include geographic isolation, HABITAT geometry, migration, REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION, random GENETIC DRIFT and MUTATION.
A plant genus of the family ASTERACEAE. Members contain scandenolide (a sesquiterpene lactone) and germacranolides.
The physical distribution of plants in various forms and stages of development through time and space.
Methods and techniques used to genetically modify cells' biosynthetic product output and develop conditions for growing the cells as BIOREACTORS.
A functional system which includes the organisms of a natural community together with their environment. (McGraw Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Proteins released by sensitized LYMPHOCYTES and possibly other cells that inhibit the migration of MACROPHAGES away from the release site. The structure and chemical properties may vary with the species and type of releasing cell.
A set of statistical methods used to group variables or observations into strongly inter-related subgroups. In epidemiology, it may be used to analyze a closely grouped series of events or cases of disease or other health-related phenomenon with well-defined distribution patterns in relation to time or place or both.
Production of new arrangements of DNA by various mechanisms such as assortment and segregation, CROSSING OVER; GENE CONVERSION; GENETIC TRANSFORMATION; GENETIC CONJUGATION; GENETIC TRANSDUCTION; or mixed infection of viruses.
Increase, over a specific period of time, in the number of individuals living in a country or region.
A family (Aphididae) of small insects, in the suborder Sternorrhyncha, that suck the juices of plants. Important genera include Schizaphis and Myzus. The latter is known to carry more than 100 virus diseases between plants.
The movement of cells or organisms toward or away from a substance in response to its concentration gradient.
Non-native organisms brought into a region, habitat, or ECOSYSTEM by human activity.
The total number of individuals inhabiting a particular region or area.
The largest of the continents. It was known to the Romans more specifically as what we know today as Asia Minor. The name comes from at least two possible sources: from the Assyrian asu (to rise) or from the Sanskrit usa (dawn), both with reference to its being the land of the rising sun, i.e., eastern as opposed to Europe, to the west. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p82 & Room, Brewer's Dictionary of Names, 1992, p34)
The interactions between a host and a pathogen, usually resulting in disease.
Functions constructed from a statistical model and a set of observed data which give the probability of that data for various values of the unknown model parameters. Those parameter values that maximize the probability are the maximum likelihood estimates of the parameters.
Temporary visual deficit or impaired visual processing occurring in a rapid serial visual presentation task. After a person identifies the first of two visual targets, the ability to detect the second target is impaired for the next few hundred milliseconds. This phenomenon is called attentional blink.
Specific regions that are mapped within a GENOME. Genetic loci are usually identified with a shorthand notation that indicates the chromosome number and the position of a specific band along the P or Q arm of the chromosome where they are found. For example the locus 6p21 is found within band 21 of the P-arm of CHROMOSOME 6. Many well known genetic loci are also known by common names that are associated with a genetic function or HEREDITARY DISEASE.
An island south of Australia and the smallest state of the Commonwealth. Its capital is Hobart. It was discovered and named Van Diemen's Island in 1642 by Abel Tasman, a Dutch navigator, in honor of the Dutch governor-general of the Dutch East Indian colonies. It was renamed for the discoverer in 1853. In 1803 it was taken over by Great Britain and was used as a penal colony. It was granted government in 1856 and federated as a state in 1901. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p1190 & Room, Brewer's Dictionary of Names, p535)
I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Pacific Ocean" is a geographical term referring to the largest ocean in the world, covering an area of about 63,800,000 square miles (165,200,000 square kilometers), and it is not a medical term.
Statistical formulations or analyses which, when applied to data and found to fit the data, are then used to verify the assumptions and parameters used in the analysis. Examples of statistical models are the linear model, binomial model, polynomial model, two-parameter model, etc.
Conceptual functions or thinking in all its forms.
A phenotypically recognizable genetic trait which can be used to identify a genetic locus, a linkage group, or a recombination event.
Linear POLYPEPTIDES that are synthesized on RIBOSOMES and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of AMINO ACIDS determines the shape the polypeptide will take, during PROTEIN FOLDING, and the function of the protein.
The genetic complement of an organism, including all of its GENES, as represented in its DNA, or in some cases, its RNA.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
A genus of the family Bovidae having two species: B. bison and B. bonasus. This concept is differentiated from BUFFALOES, which refers to Bubalus arnee and Syncerus caffer.
Body of knowledge related to the use of organisms, cells or cell-derived constituents for the purpose of developing products which are technically, scientifically and clinically useful. Alteration of biologic function at the molecular level (i.e., GENETIC ENGINEERING) is a central focus; laboratory methods used include TRANSFECTION and CLONING technologies, sequence and structure analysis algorithms, computer databases, and gene and protein structure function analysis and prediction.
Remains, impressions, or traces of animals or plants of past geological times which have been preserved in the earth's crust.
While there isn't a specific medical definition for "North America," I can provide a geographical definition that is often used in public health and medical contexts: North America is the third largest continent by area, encompassing 23 independent states, including the United States, Canada, and Mexico, which are home to diverse populations, cultures, and ecosystems, and share common health-related challenges such as obesity, diabetes, and healthcare access disparities.
A plant family of the order Solanales, subclass Asteridae. Among the most important are POTATOES; TOMATOES; CAPSICUM (green and red peppers); TOBACCO; and BELLADONNA.
Any of several large carnivorous mammals of the family CANIDAE that usually hunt in packs.
Complex sets of enzymatic reactions connected to each other via their product and substrate metabolites.
The arrangement of two or more amino acid or base sequences from an organism or organisms in such a way as to align areas of the sequences sharing common properties. The degree of relatedness or homology between the sequences is predicted computationally or statistically based on weights assigned to the elements aligned between the sequences. This in turn can serve as a potential indicator of the genetic relatedness between the organisms.
The reproductive cells of plants.
A process by which animals in various forms and stages of development are physically distributed through time and space.
The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.
A division of predominantly marine EUKARYOTA, commonly known as brown algae, having CHROMATOPHORES containing carotenoid PIGMENTS, BIOLOGICAL. ALGINATES and phlorotannins occur widely in all major orders. They are considered the most highly evolved algae because of their well-developed multicellular organization and structural complexity.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
Warm-blooded VERTEBRATES possessing FEATHERS and belonging to the class Aves.
The passage of cells across the layer of ENDOTHELIAL CELLS, i.e., the ENDOTHELIUM; or across the layer of EPITHELIAL CELLS, i.e. the EPITHELIUM.
The different ways GENES and their ALLELES interact during the transmission of genetic traits that effect the outcome of GENE EXPRESSION.
The capability of an organism to survive and reproduce. The phenotypic expression of the genotype in a particular environment determines how genetically fit an organism will be.
Techniques of nucleotide sequence analysis that increase the range, complexity, sensitivity, and accuracy of results by greatly increasing the scale of operations and thus the number of nucleotides, and the number of copies of each nucleotide sequenced. The sequencing may be done by analysis of the synthesis or ligation products, hybridization to preexisting sequences, etc.
An island in the Malay Archipelago, east of Sumatra, north of Java, and west of Celebes. It is the third largest island in the world. Its name is a Portuguese alteration of BRUNEI, located on it. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p163; Room, Brewer's Dictionary of Names, 1992, p73)
The movement of leukocytes in response to a chemical concentration gradient or to products formed in an immunologic reaction.
A single nucleotide variation in a genetic sequence that occurs at appreciable frequency in the population.
Cultivated plants or agricultural produce such as grain, vegetables, or fruit. (From American Heritage Dictionary, 1982)
All of the processes involved in increasing CELL NUMBER including CELL DIVISION.
A cell line derived from cultured tumor cells.
The statistical reproducibility of measurements (often in a clinical context), including the testing of instrumentation or techniques to obtain reproducible results. The concept includes reproducibility of physiological measurements, which may be used to develop rules to assess probability or prognosis, or response to a stimulus; reproducibility of occurrence of a condition; and reproducibility of experimental results.
A subdiscipline of human genetics which entails the reliable prediction of certain human disorders as a function of the lineage and/or genetic makeup of an individual or of any two parents or potential parents.
Short sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) of DNA that are complementary to sequences of messenger RNA and allow reverse transcriptases to start copying the adjacent sequences of mRNA. Primers are used extensively in genetic and molecular biology techniques.
A mitochondrial disorder featuring the triad of chronic progressive EXTERNAL OPHTHALMOPLEGIA, cardiomyopathy (CARDIOMYOPATHIES) with conduction block (HEART BLOCK), and RETINITIS PIGMENTOSA. Disease onset is in the first or second decade. Elevated CSF protein, sensorineural deafness, seizures, and pyramidal signs may also be present. Ragged-red fibers are found on muscle biopsy. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p984)
Restoration of integrity to traumatized tissue.
An excessive number of individuals, human or animal, in relation to available space.
Family of the suborder HAPLORHINI (Anthropoidea) comprising bipedal primate MAMMALS. It includes modern man (HOMO SAPIENS) and the great apes: gorillas (GORILLA GORILLA), chimpanzees (PAN PANISCUS and PAN TROGLODYTES), and orangutans (PONGO PYGMAEUS).
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
PASSERIFORMES of the suborder, Oscines, in which the flexor tendons of the toes are separate, and the lower syrinx has 4 to 9 pairs of tensor muscles inserted at both ends of the tracheal half rings. They include many commonly recognized birds such as CROWS; FINCHES; robins; SPARROWS; and SWALLOWS.
The genetic complement of MITOCHONDRIA as represented in their DNA.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of systems, processes, or phenomena. They include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
Databases devoted to knowledge about specific genes and gene products.
The family Phocidae, suborder PINNIPEDIA, order CARNIVORA, comprising the true seals. They lack external ears and are unable to use their hind flippers to walk. It includes over 18 species including the harp seal, probably the best known seal species in the world.
Description of pattern of recurrent functions or procedures frequently found in organizational processes, such as notification, decision, and action.

I'm happy to help! However, it looks like there might be a bit of confusion in your question. "Human migration" is not a medical term per se, but rather a sociological or anthropological concept that refers to the large-scale movement of human populations from one area to another.

That being said, human migration can certainly have significant impacts on health and healthcare systems, both for the migrating populations themselves and for the communities they move into. For example, migrants may face language barriers, discrimination, or other challenges that affect their access to care, while also potentially bringing new diseases or health risks into a community.

In summary, while "human migration" is not a medical definition in and of itself, it is an important concept to consider in the context of public health and healthcare delivery.

Genetic variation refers to the differences in DNA sequences among individuals and populations. These variations can result from mutations, genetic recombination, or gene flow between populations. Genetic variation is essential for evolution by providing the raw material upon which natural selection acts. It can occur within a single gene, between different genes, or at larger scales, such as differences in the number of chromosomes or entire sets of chromosomes. The study of genetic variation is crucial in understanding the genetic basis of diseases and traits, as well as the evolutionary history and relationships among species.

Population Genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with the genetic composition of populations and how this composition changes over time. It involves the study of the frequency and distribution of genes and genetic variations in populations, as well as the evolutionary forces that contribute to these patterns, such as mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection.

Population genetics can provide insights into a wide range of topics, including the history and relationships between populations, the genetic basis of diseases and other traits, and the potential impacts of environmental changes on genetic diversity. This field is important for understanding evolutionary processes at the population level and has applications in areas such as conservation biology, medical genetics, and forensic science.

Emigration is the process of leaving one's country of origin or habitual residence to settle in another country. It involves giving up the rights and privileges associated with citizenship in the country of origin and acquiring new rights and responsibilities as a citizen or resident of the destination country. Emigrants are people who choose to leave their native land to live elsewhere, often driven by factors such as economic opportunities, political instability, or conflict.

Immigration, on the other hand, is the process of entering and settling in a new country with the intention of becoming a permanent resident or citizen. Immigrants are individuals who come from another country to live in a new place, often seeking better job opportunities, education, or quality of life. They must comply with the immigration laws and regulations of the host country and may be required to undergo medical examinations, background checks, and other screening processes before being granted permission to enter and reside in the country.

In summary, emigration refers to leaving one's home country, while immigration refers to entering and settling in a new country.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "geography" is not a term that has a medical definition. Geography is a field of study that deals with the location and distribution of physical and cultural features on Earth's surface, as well as how humans interact with and affect those features. It is not a concept that is typically used in a medical context. If you have any questions related to medicine or healthcare, I would be happy to try to help answer them for you!

Chenopodium quinoa is commonly known as "quinoa." It is not a true grass or cereal grain, but rather a pseudocereal that is closely related to beets and spinach. Quinoa is native to the Andean region of South America and has been cultivated and consumed for thousands of years by indigenous peoples in this region.

Quinoa is a highly nutritious food that is rich in protein, fiber, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. It contains all nine essential amino acids, making it a complete protein source. Quinoa is also gluten-free, which makes it a popular alternative to wheat and other grains for people with celiac disease or gluten intolerance.

The seeds of the quinoa plant are typically cooked and consumed as a grain, and they have a mild, nutty flavor and a fluffy texture when cooked. Quinoa can be used in a variety of dishes, including salads, pilafs, stir-fries, and breakfast cereals. It is also commonly used as a stuffing for vegetables or meat dishes.

Quinoa has gained popularity in recent years due to its numerous health benefits and versatility in cooking. It is now widely available in grocery stores and health food stores around the world.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

I'm not a medical professional, but the term "History, Ancient" is not a medical term per se. However, in a broader context, it could refer to the study of ancient medical practices, theories, and beliefs that existed in civilizations prior to the Middle Ages or Classical Antiquity. This might include the examination of ancient texts, artifacts, and archaeological evidence to understand how illnesses were treated and viewed in these historical periods. It forms an essential part of the evolution of medical knowledge and practices over time.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is the genetic material present in the mitochondria, which are specialized structures within cells that generate energy. Unlike nuclear DNA, which is present in the cell nucleus and inherited from both parents, mtDNA is inherited solely from the mother.

MtDNA is a circular molecule that contains 37 genes, including 13 genes that encode for proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation, a process that generates energy in the form of ATP. The remaining genes encode for rRNAs and tRNAs, which are necessary for protein synthesis within the mitochondria.

Mutations in mtDNA can lead to a variety of genetic disorders, including mitochondrial diseases, which can affect any organ system in the body. These mutations can also be used in forensic science to identify individuals and establish biological relationships.

The Founder Effect is a concept in population genetics that refers to the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new colony is established by a small number of individuals from a larger population. This decrease in genetic diversity can lead to an increase in homozygosity, which can in turn result in a higher frequency of certain genetic disorders or traits within the founding population and its descendants. The Founder Effect is named after the "founding" members of the new colony who carry and pass on their particular set of genes to the next generations. It is one of the mechanisms that can lead to the formation of distinct populations or even new species over time.

Gene flow, also known as genetic migration or gene admixture, refers to the transfer of genetic variation from one population to another. It occurs when individuals reproduce and exchange genes with members of other populations through processes such as migration and interbreeding. This can result in an alteration of the genetic composition of both populations, increasing genetic diversity and reducing the differences between them. Gene flow is an important mechanism in evolutionary biology and population genetics, contributing to the distribution and frequency of alleles (versions of a gene) within and across populations.

The "Americas" is a term used to refer to the combined landmasses of North America and South America, which are separated by the Isthmus of Panama. The Americas also include numerous islands in the Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. This region is home to a diverse range of cultures, ecosystems, and historical sites. It is named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci, who was one of the first Europeans to explore and map parts of South America in the late 15th century.

Genetic selection, also known as natural selection, is a fundamental mechanism of evolution. It refers to the process by which certain heritable traits become more or less common in a population over successive generations due to differential reproduction of organisms with those traits.

In genetic selection, traits that increase an individual's fitness (its ability to survive and reproduce) are more likely to be passed on to the next generation, while traits that decrease fitness are less likely to be passed on. This results in a gradual change in the distribution of traits within a population over time, leading to adaptation to the environment and potentially speciation.

Genetic selection can occur through various mechanisms, including viability selection (differential survival), fecundity selection (differences in reproductive success), and sexual selection (choices made by individuals during mating). The process of genetic selection is driven by environmental pressures, such as predation, competition for resources, and changes in the availability of food or habitat.

Microsatellite repeats, also known as short tandem repeats (STRs), are repetitive DNA sequences made up of units of 1-6 base pairs that are repeated in a head-to-tail manner. These repeats are spread throughout the human genome and are highly polymorphic, meaning they can have different numbers of repeat units in different individuals.

Microsatellites are useful as genetic markers because of their high degree of variability. They are commonly used in forensic science to identify individuals, in genealogy to trace ancestry, and in medical research to study genetic diseases and disorders. Mutations in microsatellite repeats have been associated with various neurological conditions, including Huntington's disease and fragile X syndrome.

Molecular evolution is the process of change in the DNA sequence or protein structure over time, driven by mechanisms such as mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and natural selection. It refers to the evolutionary study of changes in DNA, RNA, and proteins, and how these changes accumulate and lead to new species and diversity of life. Molecular evolution can be used to understand the history and relationships among different organisms, as well as the functional consequences of genetic changes.

Northern Africa is a geographical region that broadly consists of the countries of the African Transverse, which are Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, and Western Sahara. Sometimes, it may also include Sudan, South Sudan, and Mauritania. This region is characterized by its proximity to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlas Mountains, as well as its unique cultural and historical heritage. Northern Africa has a diverse climate, with a hot, dry desert climate in the interior and a milder, wetter climate along the coasts. The major languages spoken in this region include Arabic, Berber, and French.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

Population dynamics, in the context of public health and epidemiology, refers to the study of the changes in size and structure of a population over time, as well as the factors that contribute to those changes. This can include birth rates, death rates, migration patterns, aging, and other demographic characteristics. Understanding population dynamics is crucial for planning and implementing public health interventions, such as vaccination programs or disease prevention strategies, as they allow researchers and policymakers to identify vulnerable populations, predict future health trends, and evaluate the impact of public health initiatives.

Genetic models are theoretical frameworks used in genetics to describe and explain the inheritance patterns and genetic architecture of traits, diseases, or phenomena. These models are based on mathematical equations and statistical methods that incorporate information about gene frequencies, modes of inheritance, and the effects of environmental factors. They can be used to predict the probability of certain genetic outcomes, to understand the genetic basis of complex traits, and to inform medical management and treatment decisions.

There are several types of genetic models, including:

1. Mendelian models: These models describe the inheritance patterns of simple genetic traits that follow Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment. Examples include autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked inheritance.
2. Complex trait models: These models describe the inheritance patterns of complex traits that are influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors. Examples include heart disease, diabetes, and cancer.
3. Population genetics models: These models describe the distribution and frequency of genetic variants within populations over time. They can be used to study evolutionary processes, such as natural selection and genetic drift.
4. Quantitative genetics models: These models describe the relationship between genetic variation and phenotypic variation in continuous traits, such as height or IQ. They can be used to estimate heritability and to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that contribute to trait variation.
5. Statistical genetics models: These models use statistical methods to analyze genetic data and infer the presence of genetic associations or linkage. They can be used to identify genetic risk factors for diseases or traits.

Overall, genetic models are essential tools in genetics research and medical genetics, as they allow researchers to make predictions about genetic outcomes, test hypotheses about the genetic basis of traits and diseases, and develop strategies for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.

In medical terms, "breeding" is not a term that is commonly used. It is more frequently used in the context of animal husbandry to refer to the process of mating animals in order to produce offspring with specific desired traits or characteristics. In human medicine, the term is not typically applied to people and instead, related concepts such as reproduction, conception, or pregnancy are used.

Human Y chromosomes are one of the two sex-determining chromosomes in humans (the other being the X chromosome). They are found in the 23rd pair of human chromosomes and are significantly smaller than the X chromosome.

The Y chromosome is passed down from father to son through the paternal line, and it plays a crucial role in male sex determination. The SRY gene (sex-determining region Y) on the Y chromosome initiates the development of male sexual characteristics during embryonic development.

In addition to the SRY gene, the human Y chromosome contains several other genes that are essential for sperm production and male fertility. However, the Y chromosome has a much lower gene density compared to other chromosomes, with only about 80 protein-coding genes, making it one of the most gene-poor chromosomes in the human genome.

Because of its small size and low gene density, the Y chromosome is particularly susceptible to genetic mutations and deletions, which can lead to various genetic disorders and male infertility. Nonetheless, the Y chromosome remains a critical component of human genetics and evolution, providing valuable insights into sex determination, inheritance patterns, and human diversity.

A haplotype is a group of genes or DNA sequences that are inherited together from a single parent. It refers to a combination of alleles (variant forms of a gene) that are located on the same chromosome and are usually transmitted as a unit. Haplotypes can be useful in tracing genetic ancestry, understanding the genetic basis of diseases, and developing personalized medical treatments.

In population genetics, haplotypes are often used to study patterns of genetic variation within and between populations. By comparing haplotype frequencies across populations, researchers can infer historical events such as migrations, population expansions, and bottlenecks. Additionally, haplotypes can provide information about the evolutionary history of genes and genomic regions.

In clinical genetics, haplotypes can be used to identify genetic risk factors for diseases or to predict an individual's response to certain medications. For example, specific haplotypes in the HLA gene region have been associated with increased susceptibility to certain autoimmune diseases, while other haplotypes in the CYP450 gene family can affect how individuals metabolize drugs.

Overall, haplotypes provide a powerful tool for understanding the genetic basis of complex traits and diseases, as well as for developing personalized medical treatments based on an individual's genetic makeup.

Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.

It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.

Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Africa" actually refers to a continent, not a medical condition or concept. Africa is the second-largest continent in the world, consisting of 54 countries and a wide range of diverse ethnic groups, cultures, languages, and landscapes. It is home to a vast array of wildlife, including many species that are not found anywhere else in the world. If you have any questions about Africa's geography, history, or culture, I would be happy to try to help answer them!

Biological evolution is the change in the genetic composition of populations of organisms over time, from one generation to the next. It is a process that results in descendants differing genetically from their ancestors. Biological evolution can be driven by several mechanisms, including natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation. These processes can lead to changes in the frequency of alleles (variants of a gene) within populations, resulting in the development of new species and the extinction of others over long periods of time. Biological evolution provides a unifying explanation for the diversity of life on Earth and is supported by extensive evidence from many different fields of science, including genetics, paleontology, comparative anatomy, and biogeography.

Climate, in the context of environmental science and medicine, refers to the long-term average of weather conditions (such as temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, and other meteorological elements) in a given region over a period of years to decades. It is the statistical description of the weather patterns that occur in a particular location over long periods of time.

In medical terms, climate can have significant impacts on human health, both physical and mental. For example, extreme temperatures, air pollution, and ultraviolet radiation levels associated with certain climates can increase the risk of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, heat-related illnesses, and skin cancer. Similarly, changes in climate patterns can affect the distribution and prevalence of infectious diseases, such as malaria and Lyme disease.

Climate change, which refers to significant long-term changes in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years, can have even more profound impacts on human health, including increased rates of heat-related illnesses and deaths, worsening air quality, and altered transmission patterns of infectious diseases.

An allele is a variant form of a gene that is located at a specific position on a specific chromosome. Alleles are alternative forms of the same gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same locus or position on homologous chromosomes.

Each person typically inherits two copies of each gene, one from each parent. If the two alleles are identical, a person is said to be homozygous for that trait. If the alleles are different, the person is heterozygous.

For example, the ABO blood group system has three alleles, A, B, and O, which determine a person's blood type. If a person inherits two A alleles, they will have type A blood; if they inherit one A and one B allele, they will have type AB blood; if they inherit two B alleles, they will have type B blood; and if they inherit two O alleles, they will have type O blood.

Alleles can also influence traits such as eye color, hair color, height, and other physical characteristics. Some alleles are dominant, meaning that only one copy of the allele is needed to express the trait, while others are recessive, meaning that two copies of the allele are needed to express the trait.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution that causes changes in the frequency of alleles (versions of a gene) in a population due to random sampling. It occurs when the sample size is small, and therefore the genetic variation may not reflect the population's genetic diversity as a whole. This can lead to the loss of certain alleles and an increase in others, even if those alleles are not necessarily advantageous or disadvantageous. Genetic drift can be a significant factor in shaping the genetic composition of small, isolated populations and can result in the fixation (complete loss or gain) of particular alleles over time.

Gene frequency, also known as allele frequency, is a measure in population genetics that reflects the proportion of a particular gene or allele (variant of a gene) in a given population. It is calculated as the number of copies of a specific allele divided by the total number of all alleles at that genetic locus in the population.

For example, if we consider a gene with two possible alleles, A and a, the gene frequency of allele A (denoted as p) can be calculated as follows:

p = (number of copies of allele A) / (total number of all alleles at that locus)

Similarly, the gene frequency of allele a (denoted as q) would be:

q = (number of copies of allele a) / (total number of all alleles at that locus)

Since there are only two possible alleles for this gene in this example, p + q = 1. These frequencies can help researchers understand genetic diversity and evolutionary processes within populations.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

The refractory period, psychological, is a concept in sexual psychology that refers to the temporary inability of an individual to achieve further sexual arousal or orgasm after experiencing one. It is a normal part of the sexual response cycle and varies from person to person, as well as between different sexual experiences for the same individual.

During the refractory period, the body undergoes a recovery phase where it returns to its pre-aroused state. This period can last from minutes to hours, depending on various factors such as age, overall health, and fatigue level. It is important to note that this concept applies only to psychological aspects of sexual response and does not refer to the refractory period in cardiology or neurology, which refers to the time it takes for a nerve or muscle to respond to a second stimulus after an initial response.

Animal migration is a seasonal movement of animals from one place to another, typically over long distances, to find food, reproduce, or escape harsh conditions. This phenomenon is observed in various species, including birds, mammals, fish, and insects. The routes and destinations of these migrations are often genetically programmed and can be quite complex. Animal migration has important ecological consequences and is influenced by factors such as climate change, habitat loss, and human activities.

HIV-1 (Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1) is a species of the retrovirus genus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). It is primarily transmitted through sexual contact, exposure to infected blood or blood products, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. HIV-1 infects vital cells in the human immune system, such as CD4+ T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells, leading to a decline in their numbers and weakening of the immune response over time. This results in the individual becoming susceptible to various opportunistic infections and cancers that ultimately cause death if left untreated. HIV-1 is the most prevalent form of HIV worldwide and has been identified as the causative agent of the global AIDS pandemic.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "population density" is actually a term used in population geography and epidemiology, rather than medical terminology. It refers to the number of people living in a specific area or region, usually measured as the number of people per square mile or square kilometer.

However, understanding population density can be important in public health and medicine because it can influence various factors related to health outcomes and healthcare delivery, such as:

1. Disease transmission rates: Higher population densities can facilitate the spread of infectious diseases, particularly those that are transmitted through close contact between individuals.
2. Access to healthcare services: Areas with lower population density might have fewer healthcare resources and providers available, making it more challenging for residents to access necessary medical care.
3. Health disparities: Population density can contribute to health inequities, as urban areas often have better access to healthcare, education, and economic opportunities than rural areas, leading to differences in health outcomes between these populations.
4. Environmental factors: Higher population densities might lead to increased pollution, noise, and other environmental hazards that can negatively impact health.

Therefore, while "population density" is not a medical definition per se, it remains an essential concept for understanding various public health and healthcare issues.

An ethnic group is a category of people who identify with each other based on shared ancestry, language, culture, history, and/or physical characteristics. The concept of an ethnic group is often used in the social sciences to describe a population that shares a common identity and a sense of belonging to a larger community.

Ethnic groups can be distinguished from racial groups, which are categories of people who are defined by their physical characteristics, such as skin color, hair texture, and facial features. While race is a social construct based on physical differences, ethnicity is a cultural construct based on shared traditions, beliefs, and practices.

It's important to note that the concept of ethnic groups can be complex and fluid, as individuals may identify with multiple ethnic groups or switch their identification over time. Additionally, the boundaries between different ethnic groups can be blurred and contested, and the ways in which people define and categorize themselves and others can vary across cultures and historical periods.

Cell movement, also known as cell motility, refers to the ability of cells to move independently and change their location within tissue or inside the body. This process is essential for various biological functions, including embryonic development, wound healing, immune responses, and cancer metastasis.

There are several types of cell movement, including:

1. **Crawling or mesenchymal migration:** Cells move by extending and retracting protrusions called pseudopodia or filopodia, which contain actin filaments. This type of movement is common in fibroblasts, immune cells, and cancer cells during tissue invasion and metastasis.
2. **Amoeboid migration:** Cells move by changing their shape and squeezing through tight spaces without forming protrusions. This type of movement is often observed in white blood cells (leukocytes) as they migrate through the body to fight infections.
3. **Pseudopodial extension:** Cells extend pseudopodia, which are temporary cytoplasmic projections containing actin filaments. These protrusions help the cell explore its environment and move forward.
4. **Bacterial flagellar motion:** Bacteria use a whip-like structure called a flagellum to propel themselves through their environment. The rotation of the flagellum is driven by a molecular motor in the bacterial cell membrane.
5. **Ciliary and ependymal movement:** Ciliated cells, such as those lining the respiratory tract and fallopian tubes, have hair-like structures called cilia that beat in coordinated waves to move fluids or mucus across the cell surface.

Cell movement is regulated by a complex interplay of signaling pathways, cytoskeletal rearrangements, and adhesion molecules, which enable cells to respond to environmental cues and navigate through tissues.

Anthropology is the scientific study of humans, human behavior, and societies in the past and present. It includes the study of language, culture, biology, and archaeology. In a medical context, anthropologists may study how cultural factors influence health and illness, health care practices and beliefs, and the impact of medical systems on individuals and communities. This field is known as medical anthropology.

Phylogeography is not a medical term, but rather a subfield of biogeography and phylogenetics that investigates the spatial distribution of genealogical lineages and the historical processes that have shaped them. It uses genetic data to infer the geographic origins, dispersal routes, and demographic history of organisms, including pathogens and vectors that can affect human health.

In medical and public health contexts, phylogeography is often used to study the spread of infectious diseases, such as HIV/AIDS, influenza, or tuberculosis, by analyzing the genetic diversity and geographic distribution of pathogen isolates. This information can help researchers understand how diseases emerge, evolve, and move across populations and landscapes, which can inform disease surveillance, control, and prevention strategies.

"Capsella" is the name of a genus of plants in the family Brassicaceae, also known as the mustard family. The most common species in this genus is "Capsella bursa-pastoris," which is commonly known as shepherd's purse. This plant is native to Europe and Asia, but it has been introduced widely throughout the world and can now be found growing in many different regions.

Shepherd's purse is a small annual herb that typically grows to a height of about 20-40 centimeters (8-16 inches). It has narrow, lobed leaves and small white flowers that bloom in the spring and summer. The fruit of the plant is a small, heart-shaped pod that contains several tiny seeds.

Shepherd's purse has been used traditionally in folk medicine as a treatment for various ailments, including wounds, bleeding, and urinary tract infections. However, there is limited scientific evidence to support these uses, and it is important to consult with a healthcare provider before using any herbal remedies.

Cell migration inhibition refers to the process or agents that restrict the movement of cells, particularly in the context of cancer metastasis. Cell migration is a critical biological process involved in various physiological and pathological conditions, including embryonic development, wound healing, and tumor cell dissemination. Inhibiting cell migration can help prevent the spread of cancer to distant organs, thereby improving treatment outcomes and patient survival rates.

Various factors and mechanisms contribute to cell migration inhibition, such as:

1. Modulation of signaling pathways: Cell migration is regulated by complex intracellular signaling networks that control cytoskeletal rearrangements, adhesion molecules, and other components required for cell motility. Inhibiting specific signaling proteins or pathways can suppress cell migration.
2. Extracellular matrix (ECM) modifications: The ECM provides structural support and biochemical cues that guide cell migration. Altering the composition or organization of the ECM can hinder cell movement.
3. Inhibition of adhesion molecules: Cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions are mediated by adhesion molecules, such as integrins and cadherins. Blocking these molecules can prevent cells from attaching to their surroundings and migrating.
4. Targeting cytoskeletal components: The cytoskeleton is responsible for the mechanical forces required for cell migration. Inhibiting cytoskeletal proteins, such as actin or tubulin, can impair cell motility.
5. Use of pharmacological agents: Several drugs and compounds have been identified to inhibit cell migration, either by targeting specific molecules or indirectly affecting the overall cellular environment. These agents include chemotherapeutic drugs, natural compounds, and small molecule inhibitors.

Understanding the mechanisms underlying cell migration inhibition can provide valuable insights into developing novel therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment and other diseases involving aberrant cell migration.

Inbreeding, in a medical context, refers to the practice of mating closely related individuals within a given family or breeding population. This leads to an increased proportion of homozygous genes, meaning that the same alleles (versions of a gene) are inherited from both parents. As a result, recessive traits and disorders become more likely to be expressed because the necessary dominant allele may be absent.

In human medicine, consanguinity is the term often used instead of inbreeding, and it refers to relationships between individuals who share a common ancestor. Consanguinity increases the risk of certain genetic disorders due to the increased likelihood of sharing harmful recessive genes. The closer the relationship, the higher the risk.

In animal breeding, inbreeding can lead to reduced fertility, lower birth weights, higher infant mortality, and a decreased lifespan. It is crucial to maintain genetic diversity within populations to ensure their overall health and vigor.

An endangered species is a species of animal, plant, or other organism that is at risk of becoming extinct because its population is declining or threatened by changing environmental or demographic factors. This term is defined and used in the context of conservation biology and wildlife management to identify species that need protection and preservation efforts.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) maintains a "Red List" of species, categorizing them based on their extinction risk. The categories include "Critically Endangered," "Endangered," "Vulnerable," and "Near Threatened." A species is considered endangered if it meets certain criteria indicating that it faces a very high risk of extinction in the wild.

The primary causes for species to become endangered include habitat loss, fragmentation, degradation, pollution, climate change, overexploitation, and introduction of invasive species. Conservation efforts often focus on protecting habitats, managing threats, and implementing recovery programs to help endangered species recover their populations and reduce the risk of extinction.

Foreign-body migration is a medical condition that occurs when a foreign object, such as a surgical implant, tissue graft, or trauma-induced fragment, moves from its original position within the body to a different location. This displacement can cause various complications and symptoms depending on the type of foreign body, the location it migrated to, and the individual's specific physiological response.

Foreign-body migration may result from insufficient fixation or anchoring of the object during implantation, inadequate wound healing, infection, or an inflammatory reaction. Symptoms can include pain, swelling, redness, or infection at the new location, as well as potential damage to surrounding tissues and organs. Diagnosis typically involves imaging techniques like X-rays, CT scans, or MRIs to locate the foreign body, followed by a surgical procedure to remove it and address any resulting complications.

"Serial passage" is a term commonly used in the field of virology and microbiology. It refers to the process of repeatedly transmitting or passing a virus or other microorganism from one cultured cell line or laboratory animal to another, usually with the aim of adapting the microorganism to grow in that specific host system or to increase its virulence or pathogenicity. This technique is often used in research to study the evolution and adaptation of viruses and other microorganisms.

Bayes' theorem, also known as Bayes' rule or Bayes' formula, is a fundamental principle in the field of statistics and probability theory. It describes how to update the probability of a hypothesis based on new evidence or data. The theorem is named after Reverend Thomas Bayes, who first formulated it in the 18th century.

In mathematical terms, Bayes' theorem states that the posterior probability of a hypothesis (H) given some observed evidence (E) is proportional to the product of the prior probability of the hypothesis (P(H)) and the likelihood of observing the evidence given the hypothesis (P(E|H)):

Posterior Probability = P(H|E) = [P(E|H) x P(H)] / P(E)

Where:

* P(H|E): The posterior probability of the hypothesis H after observing evidence E. This is the probability we want to calculate.
* P(E|H): The likelihood of observing evidence E given that the hypothesis H is true.
* P(H): The prior probability of the hypothesis H before observing any evidence.
* P(E): The marginal likelihood or probability of observing evidence E, regardless of whether the hypothesis H is true or not. This value can be calculated as the sum of the products of the likelihood and prior probability for all possible hypotheses: P(E) = Σ[P(E|Hi) x P(Hi)]

Bayes' theorem has many applications in various fields, including medicine, where it can be used to update the probability of a disease diagnosis based on test results or other clinical findings. It is also widely used in machine learning and artificial intelligence algorithms for probabilistic reasoning and decision making under uncertainty.

"Nigella" is a term that refers to the seeds or oil derived from the Nigella sativa plant, also known as black cumin or fennel flower. The seeds and oil have been used in traditional medicine for various health purposes, such as treating digestive issues, respiratory conditions, and headaches. However, it is important to note that while some studies suggest potential health benefits of Nigella, more research is needed to confirm its effectiveness and safety.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the genetic material present in the cells of all living organisms, including plants. In plants, DNA is located in the nucleus of a cell, as well as in chloroplasts and mitochondria. Plant DNA contains the instructions for the development, growth, and function of the plant, and is passed down from one generation to the next through the process of reproduction.

The structure of DNA is a double helix, formed by two strands of nucleotides that are linked together by hydrogen bonds. Each nucleotide contains a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming the rungs of the ladder that make up the double helix.

The genetic information in DNA is encoded in the sequence of these nitrogenous bases. Large sequences of bases form genes, which provide the instructions for the production of proteins. The process of gene expression involves transcribing the DNA sequence into a complementary RNA molecule, which is then translated into a protein.

Plant DNA is similar to animal DNA in many ways, but there are also some differences. For example, plant DNA contains a higher proportion of repetitive sequences and transposable elements, which are mobile genetic elements that can move around the genome and cause mutations. Additionally, plant cells have cell walls and chloroplasts, which are not present in animal cells, and these structures contain their own DNA.

A computer simulation is a process that involves creating a model of a real-world system or phenomenon on a computer and then using that model to run experiments and make predictions about how the system will behave under different conditions. In the medical field, computer simulations are used for a variety of purposes, including:

1. Training and education: Computer simulations can be used to create realistic virtual environments where medical students and professionals can practice their skills and learn new procedures without risk to actual patients. For example, surgeons may use simulation software to practice complex surgical techniques before performing them on real patients.
2. Research and development: Computer simulations can help medical researchers study the behavior of biological systems at a level of detail that would be difficult or impossible to achieve through experimental methods alone. By creating detailed models of cells, tissues, organs, or even entire organisms, researchers can use simulation software to explore how these systems function and how they respond to different stimuli.
3. Drug discovery and development: Computer simulations are an essential tool in modern drug discovery and development. By modeling the behavior of drugs at a molecular level, researchers can predict how they will interact with their targets in the body and identify potential side effects or toxicities. This information can help guide the design of new drugs and reduce the need for expensive and time-consuming clinical trials.
4. Personalized medicine: Computer simulations can be used to create personalized models of individual patients based on their unique genetic, physiological, and environmental characteristics. These models can then be used to predict how a patient will respond to different treatments and identify the most effective therapy for their specific condition.

Overall, computer simulations are a powerful tool in modern medicine, enabling researchers and clinicians to study complex systems and make predictions about how they will behave under a wide range of conditions. By providing insights into the behavior of biological systems at a level of detail that would be difficult or impossible to achieve through experimental methods alone, computer simulations are helping to advance our understanding of human health and disease.

An algorithm is not a medical term, but rather a concept from computer science and mathematics. In the context of medicine, algorithms are often used to describe step-by-step procedures for diagnosing or managing medical conditions. These procedures typically involve a series of rules or decision points that help healthcare professionals make informed decisions about patient care.

For example, an algorithm for diagnosing a particular type of heart disease might involve taking a patient's medical history, performing a physical exam, ordering certain diagnostic tests, and interpreting the results in a specific way. By following this algorithm, healthcare professionals can ensure that they are using a consistent and evidence-based approach to making a diagnosis.

Algorithms can also be used to guide treatment decisions. For instance, an algorithm for managing diabetes might involve setting target blood sugar levels, recommending certain medications or lifestyle changes based on the patient's individual needs, and monitoring the patient's response to treatment over time.

Overall, algorithms are valuable tools in medicine because they help standardize clinical decision-making and ensure that patients receive high-quality care based on the latest scientific evidence.

"Acinonyx" is a genus name that refers to a single species of big cat, the cheetah. The correct medical definition of "Acinonyx" is:

* Acinonyx jubatus: a large, slender wild cat that is known for its incredible speed and unique adaptations for running. It is the fastest land animal, capable of reaching speeds up to 60-70 miles per hour. The cheetah's body is built for speed, with long legs, a flexible spine, and a non-retractable claw that provides traction while running.

The cheetah's habitat ranges from the savannas of Africa to the deserts of Iran. It primarily hunts medium-sized ungulates, such as gazelles and wildebeest. The cheetah's population has been declining due to habitat loss, human-wildlife conflict, and illegal wildlife trade. Conservation efforts are underway to protect this iconic species and its habitat.

Demography is the statistical study of populations, particularly in terms of size, distribution, and characteristics such as age, race, gender, and occupation. In medical contexts, demography is often used to analyze health-related data and trends within specific populations. This can include studying the prevalence of certain diseases or conditions, identifying disparities in healthcare access and outcomes, and evaluating the effectiveness of public health interventions. Demographic data can also be used to inform policy decisions and allocate resources to address population health needs.

Linkage disequilibrium (LD) is a term used in genetics that refers to the non-random association of alleles at different loci (genetic locations) on a chromosome. This means that certain combinations of genetic variants, or alleles, at different loci occur more frequently together in a population than would be expected by chance.

Linkage disequilibrium can arise due to various factors such as genetic drift, selection, mutation, and population structure. It is often used in the context of genetic mapping studies to identify regions of the genome that are associated with particular traits or diseases. High levels of LD in a region of the genome suggest that the loci within that region are in linkage, meaning they tend to be inherited together.

The degree of LD between two loci can be measured using various statistical methods, such as D' and r-squared. These measures provide information about the strength and direction of the association between alleles at different loci, which can help researchers identify causal genetic variants underlying complex traits or diseases.

Genetic polymorphism refers to the occurrence of multiple forms (called alleles) of a particular gene within a population. These variations in the DNA sequence do not generally affect the function or survival of the organism, but they can contribute to differences in traits among individuals. Genetic polymorphisms can be caused by single nucleotide changes (SNPs), insertions or deletions of DNA segments, or other types of genetic rearrangements. They are important for understanding genetic diversity and evolution, as well as for identifying genetic factors that may contribute to disease susceptibility in humans.

'Brassica rapa' is the scientific name for a species of plant that includes various types of vegetables such as turnips, Chinese cabbages, and bok choy. It is a member of the Brassicaceae family, also known as the mustard or cabbage family. The plants in this species are characterized by their broad leaves and branching stem, and they are native to Europe and Central Asia.

Turnips, which are one of the most common vegetables in this species, are cool-season root crops that are grown for their enlarged taproot. They have a white or yellowish flesh that is crisp and tender with a sweet, slightly bitter flavor. Turnips can be eaten raw or cooked and are often used in soups, stews, and casseroles.

Chinese cabbages, also known as Napa cabbages, are another type of vegetable in the 'Brassica rapa' species. They have elongated, pale green leaves that form a compact head, and they are often used in Asian cuisine. Chinese cabbages have a mild flavor and can be eaten raw or cooked.

Bok choy, also known as pak choi, is another type of vegetable in the 'Brassica rapa' species. It has dark green leaves and white stems, and it is often used in stir-fries and soups. Bok choy has a mild flavor and a crisp texture.

Overall, 'Brassica rapa' is an important species of plant that includes many nutritious and delicious vegetables that are popular around the world.

I am not aware of a widely accepted medical definition for the term "software," as it is more commonly used in the context of computer science and technology. Software refers to programs, data, and instructions that are used by computers to perform various tasks. It does not have direct relevance to medical fields such as anatomy, physiology, or clinical practice. If you have any questions related to medicine or healthcare, I would be happy to try to help with those instead!

'Cucurbita' is a genus of herbaceous vines in the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae. This genus includes several species of plants that are commonly known as squashes or gourds, such as pumpkins, zucchinis, and acorn squashes. The fruits of these plants are widely cultivated and consumed for their nutritional value and versatility in cooking.

The name 'Cucurbita' comes from the Latin word for "gourd" or "pumpkin." Plants in this genus are native to the Americas, with some species originating in Mexico and Central America and others in the southern United States. They have been cultivated by humans for thousands of years and are an important part of many traditional diets around the world.

In a medical context, 'Cucurbita' may be mentioned in relation to the use of certain species as traditional remedies or in nutritional studies. For example, pumpkin seeds have been used in traditional medicine to treat parasitic infections, and some research suggests that they may have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. However, it is important to note that the scientific evidence for these potential health benefits is still limited, and more research is needed before any firm conclusions can be drawn.

I apologize for any confusion, but "Fur Seals" are not a medical term. They are a type of marine mammal classified under the family Otariidae, also known as eared seals. Fur seals have external ears and long foreflippers that allow them to move efficiently on land, in contrast to true seals (family Phocidae) which lack external ears and move awkwardly on land.

There are several species of fur seals, including the Northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus), the Southern fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri), the Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella), and a few others. These animals are known for their thick fur coats, which were once highly sought after by hunters for the fur trade.

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to help!

Biological models, also known as physiological models or organismal models, are simplified representations of biological systems, processes, or mechanisms that are used to understand and explain the underlying principles and relationships. These models can be theoretical (conceptual or mathematical) or physical (such as anatomical models, cell cultures, or animal models). They are widely used in biomedical research to study various phenomena, including disease pathophysiology, drug action, and therapeutic interventions.

Examples of biological models include:

1. Mathematical models: These use mathematical equations and formulas to describe complex biological systems or processes, such as population dynamics, metabolic pathways, or gene regulation networks. They can help predict the behavior of these systems under different conditions and test hypotheses about their underlying mechanisms.
2. Cell cultures: These are collections of cells grown in a controlled environment, typically in a laboratory dish or flask. They can be used to study cellular processes, such as signal transduction, gene expression, or metabolism, and to test the effects of drugs or other treatments on these processes.
3. Animal models: These are living organisms, usually vertebrates like mice, rats, or non-human primates, that are used to study various aspects of human biology and disease. They can provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of diseases, the mechanisms of drug action, and the safety and efficacy of new therapies.
4. Anatomical models: These are physical representations of biological structures or systems, such as plastic models of organs or tissues, that can be used for educational purposes or to plan surgical procedures. They can also serve as a basis for developing more sophisticated models, such as computer simulations or 3D-printed replicas.

Overall, biological models play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of biology and medicine, helping to identify new targets for therapeutic intervention, develop novel drugs and treatments, and improve human health.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Computational biology is a branch of biology that uses mathematical and computational methods to study biological data, models, and processes. It involves the development and application of algorithms, statistical models, and computational approaches to analyze and interpret large-scale molecular and phenotypic data from genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and other high-throughput technologies. The goal is to gain insights into biological systems and processes, develop predictive models, and inform experimental design and hypothesis testing in the life sciences. Computational biology encompasses a wide range of disciplines, including bioinformatics, systems biology, computational genomics, network biology, and mathematical modeling of biological systems.

Paleontology is not a medical field, but rather it is a branch of earth sciences and biology that deals with the study of prehistoric life forms through the examination of plant and animal fossils, including those of extinct organisms. It involves various disciplines such as stratigraphy, geochronology, and systematics to understand the evolutionary history of life on Earth.

However, I understand that you are looking for information related to a non-medical topic, so here is some additional context:

Paleontology can be divided into several subdisciplines, including vertebrate paleontology (the study of fossilized animals with backbones), invertebrate paleontology (the study of fossilized animals without backbones), paleobotany (the study of fossil plants), micropaleontology (the study of microscopic fossils), and taphonomy (the study of the processes that occur after an organism's death, leading to its preservation as a fossil).

Paleontologists use various techniques to study fossils, including comparative anatomy, histology (the study of tissue structure), and geochemistry. They also rely on other scientific fields such as genetics, physics, and chemistry to help them interpret the data they collect from fossils.

Through their research, paleontologists can learn about the morphology, behavior, ecology, and evolutionary relationships of extinct organisms, providing valuable insights into the history of life on Earth.

Biological adaptation is the process by which a organism becomes better suited to its environment over generations as a result of natural selection. It involves changes in an organism's structure, metabolism, or behavior that increase its fitness, or reproductive success, in a given environment. These changes are often genetic and passed down from one generation to the next through the process of inheritance.

Examples of biological adaptation include the development of camouflage in animals, the ability of plants to photosynthesize, and the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. Biological adaptation is an important concept in the field of evolutionary biology and helps to explain the diversity of life on Earth.

A gene pool refers to the total sum of genes contained within a population of interbreeding individuals of a species. It includes all the variations of genes, or alleles, that exist in that population. The concept of a gene pool is important in understanding genetic diversity and how traits are passed down from one generation to the next.

The size and diversity of a gene pool can have significant implications for the long-term survival and adaptability of a species. A larger and more diverse gene pool can provide a species with greater resistance to diseases, environmental changes, and other threats, as there is a wider variety of traits and genetic combinations available. On the other hand, a smaller or less diverse gene pool may make a species more susceptible to genetic disorders, reduced fitness, and extinction.

Geneticists and population biologists often study gene pools to understand the evolutionary history and dynamics of populations, as well as to inform conservation efforts for endangered species.

'Cinnamomum' is a genus name in the plant family Lauraceae, which includes several species of trees that are sources of cinnamon, a popular spice. The bark of these trees is dried and ground into a powder or rolled into quills, which are used to flavor food and drinks.

Two common species of Cinnamomum that are used for their aromatic bark are:

1. Cinnamomum verum (also known as Ceylon cinnamon or "true" cinnamon) - This species is native to Sri Lanka and southern India, and its bark has a sweet, delicate flavor and aroma. It contains less coumarin, a compound that can be harmful in large amounts, compared to other cinnamon species.
2. Cinnamomum cassia (also known as Chinese cinnamon or "cassia") - This species is native to southern China and Southeast Asia, and its bark has a stronger, more pungent flavor and aroma than Ceylon cinnamon. It contains higher levels of coumarin, which may pose health concerns if consumed in large quantities.

It's important to note that 'Cinnamomum' is a plant genus name and not a medical term or diagnosis. However, the spice derived from these trees, cinnamon, has been studied for its potential medicinal properties, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and blood sugar regulation effects. More research is needed to confirm these benefits and determine safe and effective dosages.

Cell adhesion refers to the binding of cells to extracellular matrices or to other cells, a process that is fundamental to the development, function, and maintenance of multicellular organisms. Cell adhesion is mediated by various cell surface receptors, such as integrins, cadherins, and immunoglobulin-like cell adhesion molecules (Ig-CAMs), which interact with specific ligands in the extracellular environment. These interactions lead to the formation of specialized junctions, such as tight junctions, adherens junctions, and desmosomes, that help to maintain tissue architecture and regulate various cellular processes, including proliferation, differentiation, migration, and survival. Disruptions in cell adhesion can contribute to a variety of diseases, including cancer, inflammation, and degenerative disorders.

Genetic load is a term used in population genetics that refers to the reduction in average fitness (or reproductive success) of a population due to the presence of deleterious or harmful alleles (versions of genes). These alleles can negatively impact an individual's survival, reproduction, or both. Genetic load can be caused by various factors such as mutations, genetic drift, and selection.

There are several types of genetic load, including:

1. Mutation load: The decrease in fitness due to the accumulation of new deleterious mutations in a population over time.
2. Segregation load: The reduction in average fitness caused by the presence of recessive deleterious alleles that are hidden in heterozygotes (individuals with one normal and one deleterious allele).
3. Inbreeding load: The decrease in fitness due to an increase in homozygosity (the presence of identical alleles on both chromosomes) resulting from inbreeding, which exposes recessive deleterious alleles.
4. Genetic drift load: The reduction in fitness caused by the random loss of beneficial or neutral alleles due to genetic drift, leading to a decrease in genetic diversity and an increase in the frequency of deleterious alleles.
5. Coevolutionary load: The decline in fitness resulting from the disruption of coadapted gene complexes (combinations of interacting genes) when populations are separated or experience environmental changes.

Overall, genetic load represents the cost of maintaining genetic variation within a population and can impact its long-term evolutionary potential and adaptability to changing environments.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Indians, Central American" is not a medical term. It refers to individuals or populations that originate from Central America and self-identify as indigenous or native to the region. In a medical context, it's more common to see specific references to individual ethnic groups or populations, such as Maya, Garifuna, or Miskitu, among others. These groups may have unique genetic characteristics, health risks, or cultural practices that are relevant to medical care and research. However, it's important to note that any discussion of medical issues should be sensitive to the individual's self-identified ethnicity and personal preferences.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Cytochromes b are a group of electron transport proteins that contain a heme c group, which is the prosthetic group responsible for their redox activity. They play a crucial role in the electron transport chain (ETC) located in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotic cells and in the plasma membrane of prokaryotic cells.

The cytochromes b are part of Complex III, also known as the cytochrome bc1 complex or ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase, in the ETC. In this complex, they function as electron carriers between ubiquinone (Q) and cytochrome c, participating in the process of oxidative phosphorylation to generate ATP.

There are multiple isoforms of cytochromes b found in various organisms, with different numbers of subunits and structures. However, they all share a common function as essential components of the electron transport chain, facilitating the transfer of electrons during cellular respiration and energy production.

Cell migration assays are a type of in vitro laboratory experiments used to study the movement or motility of cells, typically in the context of cellular migration during wound healing, cancer metastasis, inflammation, and embryonic development. These assays allow researchers to quantify and analyze the migratory behavior of various cell types under different experimental conditions.

There are several types of cell migration assays, including:

1. Boyden Chamber Assay: This is a classic and widely used assay that measures the directional migration of cells through a porous membrane towards a chemoattractant source. The cells are placed in the upper chamber, while the chemoattractant is added to the lower chamber. After a set period, the number of cells that have migrated through the membrane to the lower chamber is quantified.
2. Wound Healing Assay: Also known as a scratch assay, this method measures the migration of cells into a wounded area created on a confluent cell monolayer. The width of the wound is measured at different time points, and the rate of wound closure is calculated to determine the migratory capacity of the cells.
3. Transwell Assay: Similar to the Boyden Chamber assay, this method uses a porous membrane in a transwell insert placed in a well of a tissue culture plate. Cells are added to the upper chamber, and a chemoattractant is added to the lower chamber. After incubation, the cells that have migrated through the membrane are stained and quantified.
4. Dunn Chamber Assay: This assay measures the chemotaxis of cells in response to a gradient of chemoattractants. Cells are placed in the center of a circular chamber, and a chemoattractant source is positioned at one end of the chamber. The movement of cells towards the chemoattractant source is recorded and analyzed using time-lapse microscopy.
5. Microfluidic Assay: This assay uses microfabricated channels to create precise gradients of chemoattractants, allowing for the study of cell migration under more physiologically relevant conditions. Cells are introduced into one end of the channel, and their movement towards or away from the chemoattractant gradient is monitored using time-lapse microscopy.

These assays help researchers understand the mechanisms underlying cell migration and can be used to study various aspects of cell behavior, such as chemotaxis, haptotaxis, and durotaxis. Additionally, these assays can be employed to investigate the effects of drugs, genetic modifications, or environmental factors on cell migration, which is crucial for understanding disease progression and developing novel therapeutic strategies.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Europe" is a geographical and political designation, rather than a medical one. It refers to the continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Europe is made up of approximately 50 countries, depending on how one defines a "country."

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I'd be happy to help answer them!

I apologize for any confusion, but "Zamiaceae" is not a medical term. It is a taxonomic category in botany, specifically a family of plants that includes cycads, which are seed plants with a long fossil history that date back to the Mesozoic Era. They are often mistaken for palms or ferns due to their tropical appearance. If you have any questions about medical terminology or concepts, I would be happy to help!

Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) refers to the genetic material present in the chloroplasts, which are organelles found in the cells of photosynthetic organisms such as plants, algae, and some bacteria. Chloroplasts are responsible for capturing sunlight energy and converting it into chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis.

Chloroplast DNA is circular and contains a small number of genes compared to the nuclear genome. It encodes for some of the essential components required for chloroplast function, including proteins involved in photosynthesis, transcription, and translation. The majority of chloroplast proteins are encoded by the nuclear genome and are imported into the chloroplast after being synthesized in the cytoplasm.

Chloroplast DNA is inherited maternally in most plants, meaning that it is passed down from the maternal parent to their offspring through the egg cell. This mode of inheritance has been used in plant breeding and genetic engineering to introduce desirable traits into crops.

Genomics is the scientific study of genes and their functions. It involves the sequencing and analysis of an organism's genome, which is its complete set of DNA, including all of its genes. Genomics also includes the study of how genes interact with each other and with the environment. This field of study can provide important insights into the genetic basis of diseases and can lead to the development of new diagnostic tools and treatments.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Genetic speciation is not a widely used term in the scientific literature, but it generally refers to the process by which new species arise due to genetic differences and reproductive isolation. This process can occur through various mechanisms such as mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, natural selection, or chromosomal changes that lead to the accumulation of genetic differences between populations. Over time, these genetic differences can result in the development of reproductive barriers that prevent interbreeding between the populations, leading to the formation of new species.

In other words, genetic speciation is a type of speciation that involves the evolution of genetic differences that ultimately lead to the formation of new species. It is an essential concept in the field of evolutionary biology and genetics, as it explains how biodiversity arises over time.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Mikania" is not a medical term. It is actually the name of a genus of plants in the family Asteraceae, also known as the daisy family. The most well-known species is Mikania micrantha, which is native to Central and South America but has become an invasive weed in many other parts of the world, including Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Pacific Islands. It is often referred to by the common name "climbing hempvine" or "mile-a-minute weed."

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health concerns, I'd be happy to try to help answer those for you!

I apologize for the confusion, but "Plant Dispersal" is not a term used in medical definitions. It is a concept from botany and ecology that refers to the means by which plants distribute their seeds or spores to new locations, enhancing their chances of colonizing new habitats and ensuring genetic diversity.

If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to help. Please provide more information so I can better assist you.

Metabolic engineering is a branch of biotechnology that involves the modification and manipulation of metabolic pathways in organisms to enhance their production of specific metabolites or to alter their flow of energy and carbon. This field combines principles from genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, and chemical engineering to design and construct novel metabolic pathways or modify existing ones with the goal of optimizing the production of valuable compounds or improving the properties of organisms for various applications.

Examples of metabolic engineering include the modification of microorganisms to produce biofuels, pharmaceuticals, or industrial chemicals; the enhancement of crop yields and nutritional value in agriculture; and the development of novel bioremediation strategies for environmental pollution control. The ultimate goal of metabolic engineering is to create organisms that can efficiently and sustainably produce valuable products while minimizing waste and reducing the impact on the environment.

An "ecosystem" is not a term that has a specific medical definition, as it is a concept that is more commonly used in the fields of ecology and environmental science. However, I can provide you with the general ecological definition of an ecosystem:

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms interacting with each other and their non-living environment, including both biotic factors (plants, animals, microorganisms) and abiotic factors (climate, soil, water, and air). These interactions create a complex network of relationships that form the foundation of ecological processes, such as energy flow, nutrient cycling, and population dynamics.

While there is no direct medical definition for an ecosystem, understanding the principles of ecosystems can have important implications for human health. For example, healthy ecosystems can provide clean air and water, regulate climate, support food production, and offer opportunities for recreation and relaxation, all of which contribute to overall well-being. Conversely, degraded ecosystems can lead to increased exposure to environmental hazards, reduced access to natural resources, and heightened risks of infectious diseases. Therefore, maintaining the health and integrity of ecosystems is crucial for promoting human health and preventing disease.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Macrophage migration-inhibitory factors (MIFs) are a group of proteins that were initially identified for their ability to inhibit the random migration of macrophages. However, subsequent research has revealed that MIFs have diverse functions in the immune system and other biological processes. They play crucial roles in inflammation, immunoregulation, and stress responses.

MIF is constitutively expressed and secreted by various cell types, including T-cells, macrophages, epithelial cells, endothelial cells, and neurons. It functions as a proinflammatory cytokine that can counteract the anti-inflammatory effects of glucocorticoids. MIF is involved in several signaling pathways and contributes to various physiological and pathophysiological processes, such as cell growth, differentiation, and survival.

Dysregulation of MIF has been implicated in numerous diseases, including autoimmune disorders, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative conditions. Therefore, understanding the functions and regulation of MIFs is essential for developing novel therapeutic strategies to target these diseases.

Cluster analysis is a statistical method used to group similar objects or data points together based on their characteristics or features. In medical and healthcare research, cluster analysis can be used to identify patterns or relationships within complex datasets, such as patient records or genetic information. This technique can help researchers to classify patients into distinct subgroups based on their symptoms, diagnoses, or other variables, which can inform more personalized treatment plans or public health interventions.

Cluster analysis involves several steps, including:

1. Data preparation: The researcher must first collect and clean the data, ensuring that it is complete and free from errors. This may involve removing outlier values or missing data points.
2. Distance measurement: Next, the researcher must determine how to measure the distance between each pair of data points. Common methods include Euclidean distance (the straight-line distance between two points) or Manhattan distance (the distance between two points along a grid).
3. Clustering algorithm: The researcher then applies a clustering algorithm, which groups similar data points together based on their distances from one another. Common algorithms include hierarchical clustering (which creates a tree-like structure of clusters) or k-means clustering (which assigns each data point to the nearest centroid).
4. Validation: Finally, the researcher must validate the results of the cluster analysis by evaluating the stability and robustness of the clusters. This may involve re-running the analysis with different distance measures or clustering algorithms, or comparing the results to external criteria.

Cluster analysis is a powerful tool for identifying patterns and relationships within complex datasets, but it requires careful consideration of the data preparation, distance measurement, and validation steps to ensure accurate and meaningful results.

Genetic recombination is the process by which genetic material is exchanged between two similar or identical molecules of DNA during meiosis, resulting in new combinations of genes on each chromosome. This exchange occurs during crossover, where segments of DNA are swapped between non-sister homologous chromatids, creating genetic diversity among the offspring. It is a crucial mechanism for generating genetic variability and facilitating evolutionary change within populations. Additionally, recombination also plays an essential role in DNA repair processes through mechanisms such as homologous recombinational repair (HRR) and non-homologous end joining (NHEJ).

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "population growth" is actually a demographic term rather than a medical one. It refers to the increase in the size of a population over time, typically due to births and immigrants exceeding deaths and emigrants. It is commonly used in discussions of societal development, resource management, and environmental impact, among other fields.

If you have any questions related to medical definitions or health-related topics, I'd be happy to help with those as well!

Aphids, also known as plant lice, are small sap-sucking insects that belong to the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. They are soft-bodied and pear-shaped, with most species measuring less than 1/8 inch (3 millimeters) long.

Aphids feed on a wide variety of plants by inserting their needle-like mouthparts into the plant's vascular system to extract phloem sap. This feeding can cause stunted growth, yellowing, curling, or distortion of leaves and flowers, and may even lead to the death of the plant in severe infestations.

Aphids reproduce rapidly and can produce several generations per year. Many species give birth to live young (nymphs) rather than laying eggs, which allows them to increase their population numbers quickly. Aphids also have a complex life cycle that may involve sexual reproduction, parthenogenesis (reproduction without fertilization), and winged or wingless forms.

Aphids are an important pest in agriculture and horticulture, causing significant damage to crops and ornamental plants. They can also transmit plant viruses and produce honeydew, a sticky substance that attracts ants and supports the growth of sooty mold fungi.

Controlling aphids may involve cultural practices such as pruning, watering, and removing weeds; biological control using natural enemies such as lady beetles, lacewings, and parasitic wasps; or chemical control using insecticides.

Chemotaxis is a term used in biology and medicine to describe the movement of an organism or cell towards or away from a chemical stimulus. This process plays a crucial role in various biological phenomena, including immune responses, wound healing, and the development and progression of diseases such as cancer.

In chemotaxis, cells can detect and respond to changes in the concentration of specific chemicals, known as chemoattractants or chemorepellents, in their environment. These chemicals bind to receptors on the cell surface, triggering a series of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to changes in the cytoskeleton and directed movement of the cell towards or away from the chemical gradient.

For example, during an immune response, white blood cells called neutrophils use chemotaxis to migrate towards sites of infection or inflammation, where they can attack and destroy invading pathogens. Similarly, cancer cells can use chemotaxis to migrate towards blood vessels and metastasize to other parts of the body.

Understanding chemotaxis is important for developing new therapies and treatments for a variety of diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and inflammatory disorders.

In the context of medical and ecological health, an "introduced species" refers to a plant or animal population that has been intentionally or unintentionally introduced by human actions into a new environment, outside of their natural historical range, where they do not have any known native predecessors. These introductions can occur through various means such as accidental transportation in cargo, deliberate releases for purposes like biological control or pets, and escapes from cultivation.

Introduced species can become invasive if they adapt well to their new environment, reproduce rapidly, outcompete native species for resources, and disrupt local ecosystems. This can lead to significant ecological changes, loss of biodiversity, impacts on human health, and economic consequences. Some introduced species carry diseases or parasites that can affect humans, livestock, and wildlife in the new environment, posing potential public health concerns.

In the context of public health and epidemiology, a population refers to a group of individuals who share common characteristics or are defined by specific boundaries and parameters. These parameters can include geographical location, age range, sex, race, ethnicity, exposure to certain risk factors, or shared health status.

The health status and trends of a population are often studied through surveillance and research to understand the determinants of health, disease patterns, and health disparities within the group. This information is then used to inform public health policies, interventions, and programs aimed at improving the overall health and well-being of the population.

I apologize for any confusion, but "Asia" is not a medical term. It is the largest continent in the world, comprising about 30% of the Earth's total land area and containing around 60% of the world's current human population. It is divided into several regions, including Northern Asia (Siberia), Eastern Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Taiwan), Southern Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives), Southeastern Asia (Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Brunei), and Western Asia (Middle East).

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I'd be happy to help.

Host-pathogen interactions refer to the complex and dynamic relationship between a living organism (the host) and a disease-causing agent (the pathogen). This interaction can involve various molecular, cellular, and physiological processes that occur between the two entities. The outcome of this interaction can determine whether the host will develop an infection or not, as well as the severity and duration of the illness.

During host-pathogen interactions, the pathogen may release virulence factors that allow it to evade the host's immune system, colonize tissues, and obtain nutrients for its survival and replication. The host, in turn, may mount an immune response to recognize and eliminate the pathogen, which can involve various mechanisms such as inflammation, phagocytosis, and the production of antimicrobial agents.

Understanding the intricacies of host-pathogen interactions is crucial for developing effective strategies to prevent and treat infectious diseases. This knowledge can help identify new targets for therapeutic interventions, inform vaccine design, and guide public health policies to control the spread of infectious agents.

"Likelihood functions" is a statistical concept that is used in medical research and other fields to estimate the probability of obtaining a given set of data, given a set of assumptions or parameters. In other words, it is a function that describes how likely it is to observe a particular outcome or result, based on a set of model parameters.

More formally, if we have a statistical model that depends on a set of parameters θ, and we observe some data x, then the likelihood function is defined as:

L(θ | x) = P(x | θ)

This means that the likelihood function describes the probability of observing the data x, given a particular value of the parameter vector θ. By convention, the likelihood function is often expressed as a function of the parameters, rather than the data, so we might instead write:

L(θ) = P(x | θ)

The likelihood function can be used to estimate the values of the model parameters that are most consistent with the observed data. This is typically done by finding the value of θ that maximizes the likelihood function, which is known as the maximum likelihood estimator (MLE). The MLE has many desirable statistical properties, including consistency, efficiency, and asymptotic normality.

In medical research, likelihood functions are often used in the context of Bayesian analysis, where they are combined with prior distributions over the model parameters to obtain posterior distributions that reflect both the observed data and prior knowledge or assumptions about the parameter values. This approach is particularly useful when there is uncertainty or ambiguity about the true value of the parameters, as it allows researchers to incorporate this uncertainty into their analyses in a principled way.

The attentional blink is a phenomenon in visual perception where an individual fails to detect the second of two target stimuli presented in close succession within a rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) stream of distractors. This occurs because the processing of the first target interferes with the ability to attend to and identify the second target when it appears within approximately 200-500 milliseconds after the first. The attentional blink is thought to reflect limitations in attentional resources and the capacity of working memory.

A genetic locus (plural: loci) is a specific location on a chromosome where a particular gene or DNA sequence is found. It is the precise position where a specific genetic element, such as a gene or marker, is located on a chromsomere. This location is defined in terms of its relationship to other genetic markers and features on the same chromosome. Genetic loci can be used in linkage and association studies to identify the inheritance patterns and potential relationships between genes and various traits or diseases.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Tasmania" is not a medical term. It's actually the name of an island state of Australia. It's located south of the mainland Australian continent, separated by the Bass Strait. It's known for its unique wildlife, including the Tasmanian devil, and diverse landscapes ranging from mountains and forests to beaches and coastline. If you have any medical terms you would like defined, I'd be happy to help!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Pacific Ocean" is a geographical term referring to the largest single body of saltwater on Earth, extending from the Arctic in the north to the Antarctic in the south. It covers an area of about 63,800,000 square miles (165,200,000 square kilometers).

If you're looking for a medical term or definition, I'd be happy to help with that as well. Could you please provide more context?

Statistical models are mathematical representations that describe the relationship between variables in a given dataset. They are used to analyze and interpret data in order to make predictions or test hypotheses about a population. In the context of medicine, statistical models can be used for various purposes such as:

1. Disease risk prediction: By analyzing demographic, clinical, and genetic data using statistical models, researchers can identify factors that contribute to an individual's risk of developing certain diseases. This information can then be used to develop personalized prevention strategies or early detection methods.

2. Clinical trial design and analysis: Statistical models are essential tools for designing and analyzing clinical trials. They help determine sample size, allocate participants to treatment groups, and assess the effectiveness and safety of interventions.

3. Epidemiological studies: Researchers use statistical models to investigate the distribution and determinants of health-related events in populations. This includes studying patterns of disease transmission, evaluating public health interventions, and estimating the burden of diseases.

4. Health services research: Statistical models are employed to analyze healthcare utilization, costs, and outcomes. This helps inform decisions about resource allocation, policy development, and quality improvement initiatives.

5. Biostatistics and bioinformatics: In these fields, statistical models are used to analyze large-scale molecular data (e.g., genomics, proteomics) to understand biological processes and identify potential therapeutic targets.

In summary, statistical models in medicine provide a framework for understanding complex relationships between variables and making informed decisions based on data-driven insights.

Mental processes, also referred to as cognitive processes, are the ways in which our minds perceive, process, and understand information from the world around us. These processes include:

1. Attention: The ability to focus on specific stimuli while ignoring others.
2. Perception: The way in which we interpret and organize sensory information.
3. Memory: The storage and retrieval of information.
4. Learning: The process of acquiring new knowledge or skills.
5. Language: The ability to understand, produce and communicate using words and symbols.
6. Thinking: The process of processing information, reasoning, problem-solving, and decision making.
7. Intelligence: The capacity to understand, learn, and adapt to new situations.
8. Emotion: The ability to experience and respond to different feelings.
9. Consciousness: The state of being aware of and able to think and perceive one's surroundings, thoughts, and feelings.

These mental processes are interconnected and influence each other in complex ways. They allow us to interact with our environment, make decisions, and communicate with others. Disorders in these mental processes can lead to various neurological and psychiatric conditions.

Genetic markers are specific segments of DNA that are used in genetic mapping and genotyping to identify specific genetic locations, diseases, or traits. They can be composed of short tandem repeats (STRs), single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), or variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs). These markers are useful in various fields such as genetic research, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and breeding programs. They can help to track inheritance patterns, identify genetic predispositions to diseases, and solve crimes by linking biological evidence to suspects or victims.

Proteins are complex, large molecules that play critical roles in the body's functions. They are made up of amino acids, which are organic compounds that are the building blocks of proteins. Proteins are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs. They are essential for the growth, repair, and maintenance of body tissues, and they play a crucial role in many biological processes, including metabolism, immune response, and cellular signaling. Proteins can be classified into different types based on their structure and function, such as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and structural proteins. They are found in various foods, especially animal-derived products like meat, dairy, and eggs, as well as plant-based sources like beans, nuts, and grains.

A genome is the complete set of genetic material (DNA, or in some viruses, RNA) present in a single cell of an organism. It includes all of the genes, both coding and noncoding, as well as other regulatory elements that together determine the unique characteristics of that organism. The human genome, for example, contains approximately 3 billion base pairs and about 20,000-25,000 protein-coding genes.

The term "genome" was first coined by Hans Winkler in 1920, derived from the word "gene" and the suffix "-ome," which refers to a complete set of something. The study of genomes is known as genomics.

Understanding the genome can provide valuable insights into the genetic basis of diseases, evolution, and other biological processes. With advancements in sequencing technologies, it has become possible to determine the entire genomic sequence of many organisms, including humans, and use this information for various applications such as personalized medicine, gene therapy, and biotechnology.

Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.

For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.

I apologize for any confusion, but "Bison" is not a medical term. It is a common name used to refer to large, hoofed mammals that are part of the Bovidae family, which also includes cattle, buffalo, and antelope. The two most commonly known species of bison are the American bison (Bison bison) and the European bison, or wisent (Bison bonasus). These animals are native to North America and Europe, respectively, and have distinctive features such as a large head, humped back, and shaggy coat. They once roamed in great herds but were hunted to near extinction in the late 19th century. Conservation efforts have helped bring their populations back from the brink, although they still face threats from habitat loss and disease.

Biotechnology is defined in the medical field as a branch of technology that utilizes biological processes, organisms, or systems to create products that are technologically useful. This can include various methods and techniques such as genetic engineering, cell culture, fermentation, and others. The goal of biotechnology is to harness the power of biology to produce drugs, vaccines, diagnostic tests, biofuels, and other industrial products, as well as to advance our understanding of living systems for medical and scientific research.

The use of biotechnology has led to significant advances in medicine, including the development of new treatments for genetic diseases, improved methods for diagnosing illnesses, and the creation of vaccines to prevent infectious diseases. However, it also raises ethical and societal concerns related to issues such as genetic modification of organisms, cloning, and biosecurity.

In medical terms, "fossils" do not have a specific or direct relevance to the field. However, in a broader scientific context, fossils are the remains or impressions of prehistoric organisms preserved in petrified form or as a mold or cast in rock. They offer valuable evidence about the Earth's history and the life forms that existed on it millions of years ago.

Paleopathology is a subfield of paleontology that deals with the study of diseases in fossils, which can provide insights into the evolution of diseases and human health over time.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "North America" is not a medical term. It is a geographical term that refers to the third largest continent in the world, which includes countries such as the United States, Canada, and Mexico, among others. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health topics, I'd be happy to help with those!

"Solanaceae" is not a medical term but a taxonomic category in biology, referring to the Nightshade family of plants. This family includes several plants that have economic and medicinal importance, as well as some that are toxic or poisonous. Some common examples of plants in this family include:

- Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)
- Solanum tuberosum (potato)
- Capsicum annuum (bell pepper and chili pepper)
- Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco)
- Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade)
- Hyoscyamus niger (henbane)

While Solanaceae isn't a medical term itself, certain plants within this family have medical significance. For instance, some alkaloids found in these plants can be used as medications or pharmaceutical precursors, such as atropine and scopolamine from Atropa belladonna, hyoscine from Hyoscyamus niger, and capsaicin from Capsicum species. However, it's important to note that many of these plants also contain toxic compounds, so they must be handled with care and used only under professional supervision.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Wolves" are not a medical term, but rather they refer to a large canine species. If you're asking about a medical condition that might be referred to as "wolf," the closest possible term I could find is "wolfian development." This term refers to the development of structures in the human body that originate from the wolfian ducts during embryonic development, such as the epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicles in males. However, I want to emphasize that this is not a common medical term and might not be what you're looking for.

Metabolic networks and pathways refer to the complex interconnected series of biochemical reactions that occur within cells to maintain life. These reactions are catalyzed by enzymes and are responsible for the conversion of nutrients into energy, as well as the synthesis and breakdown of various molecules required for cellular function.

A metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions that occur in a specific order, with each reaction being catalyzed by a different enzyme. These pathways are often interconnected, forming a larger network of interactions known as a metabolic network.

Metabolic networks can be represented as complex diagrams or models, which show the relationships between different pathways and the flow of matter and energy through the system. These networks can help researchers to understand how cells regulate their metabolism in response to changes in their environment, and how disruptions to these networks can lead to disease.

Some common examples of metabolic pathways include glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle), and the pentose phosphate pathway. Each of these pathways plays a critical role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and providing energy for cellular functions.

In genetics, sequence alignment is the process of arranging two or more DNA, RNA, or protein sequences to identify regions of similarity or homology between them. This is often done using computational methods to compare the nucleotide or amino acid sequences and identify matching patterns, which can provide insight into evolutionary relationships, functional domains, or potential genetic disorders. The alignment process typically involves adjusting gaps and mismatches in the sequences to maximize the similarity between them, resulting in an aligned sequence that can be visually represented and analyzed.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "germ cells" is typically used in the context of animals and humans, referring to the reproductive cells (sperm and eggs) that can give rise to new individuals. It is not commonly used to describe plants.

In plants, the terms often used to refer to the reproductive cells are "male gametophyte" and "female gametophyte." The male gametophyte produces sperm cells, while the female gametophyte produces egg cells. These gametophytes are found within the pollen grains (male) and ovules (female) of plants.

Therefore, there isn't a medical definition for "germ cells, plant," as the term is not applicable in this context.

I'm not a medical professional, but I can tell you that the term "animal distribution" is not typically used in medical definitions. It is more commonly used in ecology and wildlife biology to refer to the pattern or manner in which animals are spatially arranged or distributed in their environment. If you have any concerns related to health or medicine, it would be best to consult a healthcare professional for accurate information.

A phenotype is the physical or biochemical expression of an organism's genes, or the observable traits and characteristics resulting from the interaction of its genetic constitution (genotype) with environmental factors. These characteristics can include appearance, development, behavior, and resistance to disease, among others. Phenotypes can vary widely, even among individuals with identical genotypes, due to differences in environmental influences, gene expression, and genetic interactions.

Phaeophyta is a taxonomic division that refers to a group of complex, multicellular brown algae found in marine environments. These algae are characterized by their pigmentation, which includes fucoxanthin, chlorophyll-a, and chlorophyll-c, giving them a brown color. They have diverse morphology, ranging from simple thread-like forms to large seaweeds.

Phaeophyta species are primarily found in cold, nutrient-rich waters and play an essential role in marine ecosystems as primary producers and habitats for various marine organisms. Some examples of Phaeophyta include kelps, rockweed, and bladderwrack. It's worth noting that the classification and nomenclature of algae are continually evolving, so different sources might use slightly different terminology or categorization.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

I am not aware of a medical definition for the term "birds." Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves, characterized by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, and lightweight but strong skeletons. Some birds, such as pigeons and chickens, have been used in medical research, but the term "birds" itself does not have a specific medical definition.

Transendothelial migration (TEM) and transepithelial migration (TRM) are terms used to describe the movement of cells, typically leukocytes (white blood cells), across endothelial or epithelial cell layers. These processes play a crucial role in immune surveillance and inflammation.

Transendothelial migration refers specifically to the movement of cells across the endothelium, which is the layer of cells that lines the interior surface of blood vessels. This process allows leukocytes to leave the bloodstream and enter surrounding tissues during an immune response. TEM can be further divided into two main steps:

1. Adhesion: The initial attachment of leukocytes to the endothelium, mediated by adhesion molecules expressed on both the leukocyte and endothelial cell surfaces.
2. Diapedesis: The transmigration step where leukocytes squeeze between adjacent endothelial cells and move through the basement membrane to reach the underlying tissue.

Transepithelial migration, on the other hand, refers to the movement of cells across an epithelium, which is a layer of cells that forms a barrier between a body cavity or lumen (such as the gut or airways) and the underlying tissue. TRM can be observed in various physiological processes like wound healing and immune cell trafficking, but it also plays a role in pathological conditions such as cancer metastasis. Similar to TEM, TRM can be divided into several steps:

1. Adhesion: The initial attachment of cells to the epithelium, facilitated by adhesion molecules and receptors.
2. Polarization: Cells become polarized, forming protrusions that help them navigate through the tight junctions between epithelial cells.
3. Diapedesis: The transmigration step where cells move across the epithelium, often involving the disassembly and reassembly of tight junctions between epithelial cells.
4. Re-epithelialization: After cell migration is complete, the epithelial layer needs to be restored by re-establishing tight junctions and maintaining barrier integrity.

Inheritance patterns refer to the way in which a particular genetic trait or disorder is passed down from one generation to the next, following the rules of Mendelian genetics. There are several different inheritance patterns, including:

1. Autosomal dominant: A single copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the disorder. An affected parent has a 50% chance of passing on the altered gene to each offspring.
2. Autosomal recessive: Two copies of the altered gene in each cell are necessary for the disorder to occur. Both parents must be carriers of the altered gene and have a 25% chance of passing on the altered gene to each offspring, who may then develop the disorder.
3. X-linked dominant: The altered gene is located on the X chromosome, and one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the disorder. Females are more likely to be affected than males, and an affected female has a 50% chance of passing on the altered gene to each offspring.
4. X-linked recessive: The altered gene is located on the X chromosome, and two copies of the altered gene in each cell are necessary for the disorder to occur. Males are more likely to be affected than females, and an affected male will pass on the altered gene to all of his daughters (who will be carriers) but none of his sons.
5. Mitochondrial inheritance: The altered gene is located in the mitochondria, the energy-producing structures in cells. Both males and females can pass on mitochondrial genetic disorders, but only through the female line because offspring inherit their mother's mitochondria.

Understanding inheritance patterns helps medical professionals predict the likelihood of a genetic disorder occurring in families and provides information about how a disorder may be passed down through generations.

Genetic fitness is a term used in the field of genetics and evolutionary biology to describe the ability of an individual organism to survive and reproduce, passing its genes on to the next generation. An organism that is highly genetically fit has a greater likelihood of producing offspring that will also survive and reproduce, thereby ensuring the survival of its genetic traits in the population.

In the context of human genetics, genetic fitness may refer to the ability of an individual to pass on their genes to future generations due to certain genetic traits or characteristics that enhance their chances of survival and reproduction. However, it is important to note that the concept of "fitness" in this context does not necessarily imply superiority or inferiority, but rather a measure of reproductive success.

It's also worth noting that genetic fitness can be influenced by various factors such as environmental conditions, cultural practices, and social structures, which can all interact with an individual's genetic traits to affect their overall fitness.

High-throughput nucleotide sequencing, also known as next-generation sequencing (NGS), refers to a group of technologies that allow for the rapid and parallel determination of nucleotide sequences of DNA or RNA molecules. These techniques enable the sequencing of large numbers of DNA or RNA fragments simultaneously, resulting in the generation of vast amounts of sequence data in a single run.

High-throughput sequencing has revolutionized genomics research by allowing for the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes, transcriptomes, and epigenomes. It has numerous applications in basic research, including genome assembly, gene expression analysis, variant detection, and methylation profiling, as well as in clinical settings, such as diagnosis of genetic diseases, identification of pathogens, and monitoring of cancer progression and treatment response.

Some common high-throughput sequencing platforms include Illumina (sequencing by synthesis), Ion Torrent (semiconductor sequencing), Pacific Biosciences (single molecule real-time sequencing), and Oxford Nanopore Technologies (nanopore sequencing). Each platform has its strengths and limitations, and the choice of technology depends on the specific research question and experimental design.

I'm not aware of a medical definition specifically for "Borneo." Borneo is the third-largest island in the world, located in Southeast Asia and divided among three countries: Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei. It has a rich biodiversity with many plant and animal species, some of which have been studied in medical or scientific research. However, there is no established medical definition for "Borneo" itself.

Chemotaxis, Leukocyte is the movement of leukocytes (white blood cells) towards a higher concentration of a particular chemical substance, known as a chemotactic factor. This process plays a crucial role in the immune system's response to infection and injury.

When there is an infection or tissue damage, certain cells release chemotactic factors, which are small molecules or proteins that can attract leukocytes to the site of inflammation. Leukocytes have receptors on their surface that can detect these chemotactic factors and move towards them through a process called chemotaxis.

Once they reach the site of inflammation, leukocytes can help eliminate pathogens or damaged cells by phagocytosis (engulfing and destroying) or releasing toxic substances that kill the invading microorganisms. Chemotaxis is an essential part of the immune system's defense mechanisms and helps to maintain tissue homeostasis and prevent the spread of infection.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) is a type of genetic variation that occurs when a single nucleotide (A, T, C, or G) in the DNA sequence is altered. This alteration must occur in at least 1% of the population to be considered a SNP. These variations can help explain why some people are more susceptible to certain diseases than others and can also influence how an individual responds to certain medications. SNPs can serve as biological markers, helping scientists locate genes that are associated with disease. They can also provide information about an individual's ancestry and ethnic background.

Agricultural crops refer to plants that are grown and harvested for the purpose of human or animal consumption, fiber production, or other uses such as biofuels. These crops can include grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and legumes, among others. They are typically cultivated using various farming practices, including traditional row cropping, companion planting, permaculture, and organic farming methods. The choice of crop and farming method depends on factors such as the local climate, soil conditions, and market demand. Proper management of agricultural crops is essential for ensuring food security, promoting sustainable agriculture, and protecting the environment.

Cell proliferation is the process by which cells increase in number, typically through the process of cell division. In the context of biology and medicine, it refers to the reproduction of cells that makes up living tissue, allowing growth, maintenance, and repair. It involves several stages including the transition from a phase of quiescence (G0 phase) to an active phase (G1 phase), DNA replication in the S phase, and mitosis or M phase, where the cell divides into two daughter cells.

Abnormal or uncontrolled cell proliferation is a characteristic feature of many diseases, including cancer, where deregulated cell cycle control leads to excessive and unregulated growth of cells, forming tumors that can invade surrounding tissues and metastasize to distant sites in the body.

A cell line that is derived from tumor cells and has been adapted to grow in culture. These cell lines are often used in research to study the characteristics of cancer cells, including their growth patterns, genetic changes, and responses to various treatments. They can be established from many different types of tumors, such as carcinomas, sarcomas, and leukemias. Once established, these cell lines can be grown and maintained indefinitely in the laboratory, allowing researchers to conduct experiments and studies that would not be feasible using primary tumor cells. It is important to note that tumor cell lines may not always accurately represent the behavior of the original tumor, as they can undergo genetic changes during their time in culture.

Reproducibility of results in a medical context refers to the ability to obtain consistent and comparable findings when a particular experiment or study is repeated, either by the same researcher or by different researchers, following the same experimental protocol. It is an essential principle in scientific research that helps to ensure the validity and reliability of research findings.

In medical research, reproducibility of results is crucial for establishing the effectiveness and safety of new treatments, interventions, or diagnostic tools. It involves conducting well-designed studies with adequate sample sizes, appropriate statistical analyses, and transparent reporting of methods and findings to allow other researchers to replicate the study and confirm or refute the results.

The lack of reproducibility in medical research has become a significant concern in recent years, as several high-profile studies have failed to produce consistent findings when replicated by other researchers. This has led to increased scrutiny of research practices and a call for greater transparency, rigor, and standardization in the conduct and reporting of medical research.

Medical genetics is the branch of medicine that involves the study of inherited conditions and diseases, as well as the way they are passed down through families. It combines elements of clinical evaluation, laboratory testing, and genetic counseling to help diagnose, manage, and prevent genetic disorders. Medical genetics also includes the study of genetic variation and its role in contributing to both rare and common diseases. Additionally, it encompasses the use of genetic information for pharmacological decision making (pharmacogenomics) and reproductive decision making (preimplantation genetic diagnosis, prenatal testing).

DNA primers are short single-stranded DNA molecules that serve as a starting point for DNA synthesis. They are typically used in laboratory techniques such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. The primer binds to a complementary sequence on the DNA template through base pairing, providing a free 3'-hydroxyl group for the DNA polymerase enzyme to add nucleotides and synthesize a new strand of DNA. This allows for specific and targeted amplification or analysis of a particular region of interest within a larger DNA molecule.

Kearns-Sayre Syndrome (KSS) is a rare, progressive genetic disorder that affects the function of the mitochondria, which are the energy-producing structures in cells. It is classified as a type of mitochondrial myopathy and is typically associated with symptoms that appear before the age of 20.

The medical definition of Kearns-Sayre Syndrome includes the following criteria:
1. Onset before 20 years of age
2. Progressive external ophthalmoplegia (PEO), which is characterized by weakness and paralysis of the eye muscles, leading to drooping eyelids (ptosis) and limited eye movement
3. Retinitis pigmentosa, a degenerative condition affecting the retina that can lead to vision loss
4. A cardiac conduction defect, such as heart block
5. Ragged red fibers on muscle biopsy
6. At least one major criteria or two minor criteria must be present:
* Major criteria include cerebellar ataxia (lack of coordination), deafness, or increased protein in the cerebrospinal fluid
* Minor criteria include pigmentary retinopathy, heart block, or a high level of creatine kinase in the blood.

Kearns-Sayre Syndrome is caused by a single large-scale deletion of genes in the mitochondrial DNA and is usually sporadic, meaning it occurs randomly and is not inherited from parents. The condition can be diagnosed through genetic testing, muscle biopsy, or other clinical tests. Treatment is focused on managing symptoms and may include physical therapy, surgery for ptosis, hearing aids, and pacemakers for heart block.

Wound healing is a complex and dynamic process that occurs after tissue injury, aiming to restore the integrity and functionality of the damaged tissue. It involves a series of overlapping phases: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling.

1. Hemostasis: This initial phase begins immediately after injury and involves the activation of the coagulation cascade to form a clot, which stabilizes the wound and prevents excessive blood loss.
2. Inflammation: Activated inflammatory cells, such as neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages, infiltrate the wound site to eliminate pathogens, remove debris, and release growth factors that promote healing. This phase typically lasts for 2-5 days post-injury.
3. Proliferation: In this phase, various cell types, including fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and keratinocytes, proliferate and migrate to the wound site to synthesize extracellular matrix (ECM) components, form new blood vessels (angiogenesis), and re-epithelialize the wounded area. This phase can last up to several weeks depending on the size and severity of the wound.
4. Remodeling: The final phase of wound healing involves the maturation and realignment of collagen fibers, leading to the restoration of tensile strength in the healed tissue. This process can continue for months to years after injury, although the tissue may never fully regain its original structure and function.

It is important to note that wound healing can be compromised by several factors, including age, nutrition, comorbidities (e.g., diabetes, vascular disease), and infection, which can result in delayed healing or non-healing chronic wounds.

In the context of healthcare, "crowding" refers to a situation where there are more patients seeking care than the available resources (such as space, staff, and equipment) can accommodate. This can lead to prolonged wait times, decreased quality of care, and increased risks for patients and healthcare workers. Crowding is often seen in emergency departments and can be caused by factors such as an influx of patients, lack of hospital beds, or inefficient patient flow.

Hominidae, also known as the "great apes," is a family of primates that includes humans (Homo sapiens), orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), gorillas (Gorilla gorilla and Gorilla beringei), bonobos (Pan paniscus), and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). This family is characterized by their upright walking ability, although not all members exhibit this trait. Hominidae species are known for their high intelligence, complex social structures, and expressive facial features. They share a common ancestor with the Old World monkeys, and fossil records suggest that this split occurred around 25 million years ago.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question as "Songbirds" is a common name given to a group of birds known for their vocal abilities, rather than a term used in medical definitions. Songbirds, also known as passerines, are a diverse group of more than 5,000 species of small to medium-sized birds. They belong to the order Passeriformes and include familiar birds such as sparrows, finches, robins, and warblers.

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or healthcare topics, please let me know and I would be happy to help!

A mitochondrial genome refers to the genetic material present in the mitochondria, which are small organelles found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells (cells with a true nucleus). The mitochondrial genome is typically circular and contains a relatively small number of genes compared to the nuclear genome.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) encodes essential components of the electron transport chain, which is vital for cellular respiration and energy production. MtDNA also contains genes that code for some mitochondrial tRNAs and rRNAs needed for protein synthesis within the mitochondria.

In humans, the mitochondrial genome is about 16.6 kilobases in length and consists of 37 genes: 2 ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes, 22 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes, and 13 protein-coding genes. The mitochondrial genome is inherited maternally, as sperm contribute very few or no mitochondria during fertilization. Mutations in the mitochondrial genome can lead to various genetic disorders, often affecting tissues with high energy demands, such as muscle and nerve cells.

The term "Theoretical Models" is used in various scientific fields, including medicine, to describe a representation of a complex system or phenomenon. It is a simplified framework that explains how different components of the system interact with each other and how they contribute to the overall behavior of the system. Theoretical models are often used in medical research to understand and predict the outcomes of diseases, treatments, or public health interventions.

A theoretical model can take many forms, such as mathematical equations, computer simulations, or conceptual diagrams. It is based on a set of assumptions and hypotheses about the underlying mechanisms that drive the system. By manipulating these variables and observing the effects on the model's output, researchers can test their assumptions and generate new insights into the system's behavior.

Theoretical models are useful for medical research because they allow scientists to explore complex systems in a controlled and systematic way. They can help identify key drivers of disease or treatment outcomes, inform the design of clinical trials, and guide the development of new interventions. However, it is important to recognize that theoretical models are simplifications of reality and may not capture all the nuances and complexities of real-world systems. Therefore, they should be used in conjunction with other forms of evidence, such as experimental data and observational studies, to inform medical decision-making.

A genetic database is a type of biomedical or health informatics database that stores and organizes genetic data, such as DNA sequences, gene maps, genotypes, haplotypes, and phenotype information. These databases can be used for various purposes, including research, clinical diagnosis, and personalized medicine.

There are different types of genetic databases, including:

1. Genomic databases: These databases store whole genome sequences, gene expression data, and other genomic information. Examples include the National Center for Biotechnology Information's (NCBI) GenBank, the European Nucleotide Archive (ENA), and the DNA Data Bank of Japan (DDBJ).
2. Gene databases: These databases contain information about specific genes, including their location, function, regulation, and evolution. Examples include the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database, the Universal Protein Resource (UniProt), and the Gene Ontology (GO) database.
3. Variant databases: These databases store information about genetic variants, such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), insertions/deletions (INDELs), and copy number variations (CNVs). Examples include the Database of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (dbSNP), the Catalogue of Somatic Mutations in Cancer (COSMIC), and the International HapMap Project.
4. Clinical databases: These databases contain genetic and clinical information about patients, such as their genotype, phenotype, family history, and response to treatments. Examples include the ClinVar database, the Pharmacogenomics Knowledgebase (PharmGKB), and the Genetic Testing Registry (GTR).
5. Population databases: These databases store genetic information about different populations, including their ancestry, demographics, and genetic diversity. Examples include the 1000 Genomes Project, the Human Genome Diversity Project (HGDP), and the Allele Frequency Net Database (AFND).

Genetic databases can be publicly accessible or restricted to authorized users, depending on their purpose and content. They play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of genetics and genomics, as well as improving healthcare and personalized medicine.

Earless seals, also known as true seals or Phocidae, are a family of marine mammals that lack external ears. They have a streamlined body adapted for fast swimming, and their hind limbs are modified into flippers, which they use to move through the water. Earless seals have small ear holes on the sides of their heads, but they do not have an outer ear flap like other mammals. Instead, their middle and inner ears are well-developed for hearing underwater. They are found in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, and there are 18 species of earless seals, including the harbor seal, gray seal, and leopard seal.

I'm happy to help, but I need to clarify that "workflow" is not a medical term per se. It is a term used in many fields, including healthcare, to describe a series of steps or tasks that are necessary to complete a process or task. In the context of healthcare, workflows often refer to the processes and procedures involved in delivering care to patients.

A medical definition of "workflow" might be:

The sequence of tasks or activities involved in providing clinical care to patients, including assessment, diagnosis, treatment planning, intervention, monitoring, and follow-up. Workflows may involve multiple healthcare providers, such as physicians, nurses, therapists, and other staff members, and may be supported by technology, such as electronic health records (EHRs) or other clinical information systems. Effective workflow design is critical to ensuring safe, timely, and efficient care delivery.

There is evidence from mitochondrial DNA that modern humans have passed through at least one genetic bottleneck, in which ... Early human migrations are the earliest migrations and expansions of archaic and modern humans across continents. They are ... Journey of Mankind - Genetic Map - Bradshaw Foundation Prehistoric Human Migration From Africa to World Video May 2015 ( ... "Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans". Journal of Human ...
... and this is thought to be due to bottlenecks during human migration, which are events that temporarily reduce population size. ... It can help scientists reconstruct and understand patterns of past human migration. In medicine, study of human genetic ... Long and Kittles find that rather than 85% of human genetic diversity existing in all human populations, about 100% of human ... Human genetic variation is the genetic differences in and among populations. There may be multiple variants of any given gene ...
... , Prehistoric migrations, Human evolution, Human mitochondrial genetics, Human genetic ... could have lost haplogroup M through random genetic drift resulting from a bottleneck (i.e. a founder effect). The group that ... For this reason, JCV has been used as a genetic marker for human evolution and migration. This method does not appear to be ... Aspect of history Genetic history of North Africa - North African genetic history Genetic history of the British Isles Genetic ...
Based on genetic studies, a human ancestor population bottleneck (from a possible 100,000 to 1000 individuals) occurred "around ... Staff (10 July 2019). "'Oldest remains' outside Africa reset human migration clock". Phys.org. Retrieved 10 July 2019. Harvati ... On 31 August 2023, researchers reported, based on genetic studies, that a human ancestor population bottleneck (from a possible ... as a tribe that comprised all species of early humans and pre-humans ancestral to humans back to after the chimpanzee-human ...
... genetic bottlenecking, and extirpation. Knowledge of the genetic structure and phenotypic limits of plant species gives insight ... The Earth has entered another period of rapid climate change as a consequence of human's emissions of greenhouse gases. Since ... The many unknowns about the limits of population migration, phenotypic plasticity, genetic capacity, species interaction, and ... Woodall, C.W.; Oswalt, C.M; Westfall, J.A.; Perry, C.H.; Nelson, M.D.; Finley, A.O. (2009). "An indicator of tree migration in ...
... leading to a genetic bottleneck in humans. A number of genetic studies have revealed that 50,000 years ago, the human ancestor ... DNA and human migrations Geography Predicts Human Genetic Diversity ScienceDaily (Mar. 17, 2005) - By analyzing the ... According to the genetic bottleneck theory, between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago, human populations sharply decreased to 3,000- ... The Toba eruption has been linked to a genetic bottleneck in human evolution about 70,000 years ago; it is hypothesized that ...
... leading to a possible genetic bottleneck in human populations. Glaciers are considered among the most sensitive indicators of a ... One of the most important ways animals can deal with climatic change is migration to warmer or colder regions. On a longer ... Humans' use of land impact how much sunlight the surface reflects and the concentration of dust. Cloud formation is not only ... This is the case for the conclusions that the Earth system is warming and that much of this warming is very likely due to human ...
This genetic isolation by distance theory involves concepts of gametic kinship chains, identity by descent, and migration ... One such study where genetic structure among human individuals is investigated is by Relethford and Brennan, (1982) where ... Significant morphological divergence was present that is highly consistent with trends of bottleneck and genetic structure ... Both dispersal variance and migration probabilities are variables in this model and both contribute to local genetic ...
However, studies have shown that the region which the early humans occupied was very lightly disturbed, and a bottleneck due to ... Several studies have suggested that Homo sapiens went through a genetic bottleneck during the Penultimate Glacial Period which ... This is thought to have occurred due to southward migration of the subtropical, and high pressure zone of the Mediterranean. ... "Resequencing Data Provide No Evidence for a Human Bottleneck in Africa during the Penultimate Glacial Period". Molecular ...
... and long-range migration events followed by extensive admixture and bottleneck events, have influenced the regional genetic ... Genetic genealogy, Genetic history of Africa, History of Africa, Modern human genetic history, Human population genetics). ... As the largest migration since the Out of Africa migration, migration from Sub-Saharan Africa toward the North Africa occurred ... As the largest migration since the Out of Africa migration, migration from Sub-Saharan Africa toward the North Africa occurred ...
... due to their genetic bottleneck. The majority of genetic findings to date concerning Ashkenazi Jews conclude that the male ... Like most DNA studies of human migration patterns, the earliest studies on Ashkenazi Jews focused on the Y-DNA and mtDNA ... Human geneticists have argued that genetic variations have been identified that show high frequencies among Ashkenazi Jews, but ... 2002). "Genetic structure of human populations". Science. 298 (5602): 2381-85. Bibcode:2002Sci...298.2381R. doi:10.1126/science ...
... followed by genetic drift. Other causes include gene flow from migrations, population bottlenecks and expansions, founder ... Li W, Cerise JE, Yang Y, Han H (August 2017). "Application of t-SNE to human genetic data". J Bioinform Comput Biol. 15 (4): ... Events like migrations and interactions between groups leave a genetic imprint on populations. Admixed populations will have ... Hellenthal G, Busby GB, Band G, Wilson JF, Capelli C, Falush D, Myers S (February 2014). "A genetic atlas of human admixture ...
Genetic sequence evidence thus allows inference and quantification of genetic relatedness between humans and other apes. The ... undergoing a population bottleneck), implies that modern populations should show the signatures of this migration pattern. ... Specifically, post-bottleneck populations (Europeans and Asians) should show lower overall genetic diversity and a more uniform ... The picture labeled "Human Chromosome 2 and its analogs in the apes" in the article Comparison of the Human and Great Ape ...
In another genetic study in 2019, published in the European Journal for Human Genetics Nature, it was found that the Nganasans ... 2013). "Genetic evidence of an East Asian origin and Paleolithic northward migration of Y-chromosome haplogroup N". PLOS ONE. 8 ... suggesting a bottleneck event. Haplogroup N originated in the northern part of China in 20,000-25,000 years BP and spread to ... The characteristic genetic marker of the Nganasans and most other Uralic-speakers is haplogroup N1c-Tat (Y-DNA). Other ...
... possibly the result of bottlenecks during human migration. These non-African populations acquired new genetic inputs from local ... "Genetic - Understanding Human Genetic Variation". Human Genetic Variation. National Institute of Health (NIH). Archived from ... "Genetic - Understanding Human Genetic Variation". Human Genetic Variation. National Institute of Health (NIH). Archived from ... Though humans vary in many traits (such as genetic predispositions and physical features), any two humans are at least 99% ...
Yang, Melinda A. (6 January 2022). "A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia". Human Population ... If true, this may "explain the apparent bottleneck in human populations that geneticists believe occurred between 50,000 and ... Appenzeller T (2012). "Human migrations: Eastern odyssey. Humans had spread across Asia by 50,000 years ago. Everything else ... Stix G (2008). "The Migration History of Humans: DNA Study Traces Human Origins Across the Continents". Scientific American. ...
The observations found that there has been human habitation on Nias island since 12,000 years ago through migration from Asia ... Archaeological findings of the stone tools found showed that humans lived in the cave over 12,000 years ago. The genetic ... This indicates that there was once a "bottle neck" population in the past history of Nias. Studies have also found that the ... New genetic research has found that the Nias people of North Sumatra came from the Austronesian peoples. The ancestors of the ...
... killing the majority of humans and creating a population bottleneck that affected the genetic inheritance of all humans today. ... in which case these earlier populations may have contributed genetic material to modern humans. This migration out of Africa is ... "Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans". Journal of Human ... Nonetheless, on 31 August 2023, researchers reported, based on genetic studies, that a human ancestor population bottleneck ( ...
2011). "Human Migration through Bottlenecks from Southeast Asia into East Asia during Last Glacial Maximum Revealed by Y ... HUGO Pan-Asian SNP Consortium, HUGO Pan-Asian SNP Consortium (2009). "Mapping Human Genetic Diversity in Asia". Science. 326 ( ... 1999). "Y-Chromosome Evidence for a Northward Migration of Modern Humans into Eastern Asia during the Last Ice Age". The ... December 1999). "Y-Chromosome Evidence for a Northward Migration of Modern Humans into Eastern Asia during the Last Ice Age". ...
March 2017). "Genetic trail for the early migrations of Aisin Gioro, the imperial house of the Qing dynasty". Journal of Human ... April 2015). "A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture". Genome Research. 25 (4 ... Human genetic history, Genetics by country, Modern human genetic history, Human population genetics, Genetic genealogy, Ancient ... March 2017). "Genetic trail for the early migrations of Aisin Gioro, the imperial house of the Qing dynasty". Journal of Human ...
1999). "Y-Chromosome Evidence for a Northward Migration of Modern Humans into Eastern Asia during the Last Ice Age". The ... Genetic genealogy Haplogroup Haplotype Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup Molecular phylogenetics Paragroup Subclade Y- ... doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0103772 Monika Karmin, Lauri Saag, Mário Vicente, et al., "A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome ... In human genetics, Haplogroup O-M268, also known as O1b (formerly Haplogroup O2), is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. Haplogroup ...
"MtDNA evidence for a genetic bottleneck in the early history of the Ashkenazi Jewish population". European Journal of Human ... A 2020 genetic study on Bronze Age and Iron Age southern Levantine (Canaanite) remains found evidence of large scale migration ... and exoduses of Jews Genetic history of Europe Genetic history of North Africa Genetic history of the Middle East Genetic ... this genetic bottleneck likely occurred some 600-800 years in the past, followed by rapid growth and genetic isolation (rate ...
... portal Biodiversity Genetic variance Center of diversity Genetic variation Genetic resources Human genetic variation Human ... Gene flow, often by migration, is the movement of genetic material (for example by pollen in the wind, or the migration of a ... A genetic bottleneck can occur when a population goes through a period of low number of individuals, resulting in a rapid ... Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species, it ranges widely from the ...
DNA Clovis culture Early human migrations Genetic history of Africa Genetic history of Europe Genetic history of Italy Genetic ... Other related explanations include the Bottleneck explanation which states that there were high frequencies of blood type A and ... Modern human genetic history, Genetic genealogy, Genetics by ethnicity, History of indigenous peoples of the Americas, History ... 2009) proposed migration into Beringia occurred between 40k and 30k cal years BP, with a pre-LGM migration into the Americas ...
Geneticists believe that a genetic bottleneck developed among the small, isolated, uncaptured groups. This produced the ... Nature and humans both caused crop failures every year. The corn crop was infested with army worms and failed repeatedly. The ... Scott O'Dell's Newbury Award-winning book Sing Down the Moon (1970) depicts the forced migration of the Navajos to Bosque ... "A Rare Genetic Disorder Is Stalking the Children of the Navajo Nation In POV's 'Sun Kissed,' Premiering Thursday, Oct. 18, 2012 ...
The extant species are closely related and thought to be descendants of birds that survived a genetic bottleneck caused by the ... Prior to the arrival of humans in New Zealand (about A.D. 1280), they had a widespread distribution across both the North and ... Like all New Zealand passerines, the New Zealand wrens are sedentary and are not thought to undertake any migrations. It is not ... Cooper, A.; Cooper, R.A. (1995). "The Oligocene bottleneck and New Zealand biota: genetic record of a past environmental crisis ...
Thus the genetic data suggests that, at least from the perspective of patrilineal ancestry, separate groups of modern humans ... such as selection bias and confounding phenomena like genetic drift, foundation and bottleneck effects cause large errors, ... There was migration from Norway to Orkney and Shetland in this period (and to a lesser extent to mainland Scotland and Ireland ... studies on Croats Genetic studies on Jews Genetic studies on Russians Genetic studies on Sami Genetic studies on Serbs Genetic ...
"MtDNA evidence for a genetic bottleneck in the early history of the Ashkenazi Jewish population". European Journal of Human ... The evidence from ancient DNA suggests that the Neolithic culture spread by human migration. Analysis of the mtDNA of Ötzi, the ... "ANALYSES OF GENETIC DATA WITHIN AN INTERDISCIPLINARY FRAMEWORK TO INVESTIGATE RECENT HUMAN EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY AND COMPLEX ... This high percentage points to a genetic bottleneck occurring around the years 800-1000 under which K1a1b1a was particularly ...
"Human genetic diversity in the Japanese Archipelago: dual structure and beyond". Genes & Genetic Systems. 90 (3): 147-152. doi: ... "positive genetic bottleneck" regarding the spread of haplogroup D from ancient "East Asian Highlanders" (related to modern day ... The authors concluded that this points to an inland migration through southern or central China towards Japan during the ... The genetic results suggest early admixture between different groups in Japan already during the Paleolithic, followed by ...
During summer migrations, a saiga's nose helps filter out dust kicked up by the herd and cools the animal's blood. In the ... Agricultural advancement and human settlements have been shrinking habitat areas of the saigas since the 20th century. ... A 2010 study revealed that a steep decline has occurred in the genetic variability of the saiga since the late Pleistocene- ... Holocene, probably due to a population bottleneck. The saiga stands 61-81 cm (24-32 in) at the shoulder, and weighs 26-69 kg ( ...
There is evidence from mitochondrial DNA that modern humans have passed through at least one genetic bottleneck, in which ... Early human migrations are the earliest migrations and expansions of archaic and modern humans across continents. They are ... Journey of Mankind - Genetic Map - Bradshaw Foundation Prehistoric Human Migration From Africa to World Video May 2015 ( ... "Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans". Journal of Human ...
Human genetic variation: the first 50 dimensions. Human genetic variation: 124+ clusters with the Galore approach. How Y-STR ... migration patterns and population bottlenecks.. Link ... Genetic diversity and every-day health in humans. *Major ... The integration of several human whole-genome sequences derived from several ethnic groups will assist in understanding genetic ... A timeline of human prehistory. The womb of nations: how West Eurasians came to be. Model-Based Clustering of World ...
to study the global migration of human influenza A(H3N2) virus (9). Our results support a global migration model (Figure 1; ... This limitation is because mutations on side branches experience genetic bottlenecks and are quickly lost, such as at the end ... Global Migration and Persistence Indicated by Migration Rates. Figure 1. Figure 1. Global migration patterns of highly ... Le MQ, Lam HM, Cuong VD, Lam TT, Halpin RA, Wentworth DE, Migration and persistence of human influenza A viruses, Vietnam, 2001 ...
The relatively isolated Sicilian population suggests a largely human-mediated migration pattern, while the warm climate in this ... Keywords: Spotted wing drosophila, SSR markers, Population structure, Gene flow, Bottleneck, Human trade Background ... Genetic variability in Italian populations of Drosophila suzukii Condividi "Genetic variability in Italian populations of ... To better understand migration patterns, gene flow and adaptation in invaded regions, we studied the genetic structure of D. ...
Toba and the "bottleneck". Human genetic studies have shown that over 70,000 years ago, our evolution experienced a "bottleneck ... After the eruption of the Toba volcano, great human migrations took place. The main migration from Africa took place 60,000- ... The eruption of the Toba volcano was linked to a genetic bottleneck in human evolution some 70,000 years ago, which may have ... The human bottleneck effect coincides with the estimated date of the eruption of the Toba volcano. Scientists are sure that the ...
The size of a population shrinks, resulting in less genetic diversity. The result of this bottleneck is still evident today in ... human intervention. The greater genetic diversity of Sumatran orangutans is most likely the result of the dynamic geology of ... Figure: sunda_map_migration. The land bridges between Sumatra, Java, Borneo and mainland Asia allowed orangutans from these ... Genetic information is stored in the form of DNA. The alphabet of the genetic code consists of the four letters A, G, C, and T ...
Half of the genetic lineages of human inhabitants of Madagascar come from 4500 miles […] ... Half of the genetic lineages of human inhabitants of Madagascar come from 4500 miles away in Borneo, while the other half ... Tiny mutations in these two forms of DNA can help scientists trace human migration and inheritance. ... because more genetic variation is found in them than is found in the islands of Polynesia. Bottlenecks in evolutionary ...
The genetic structure of human populations suggests four bottlenecks in our lineage. Stanley Ambrose has proposed that two ... Marta Lahr has attributed bottlenecks to migrations of small populations across geographic barriers, a phenomenon variously ... Population bottlenecks have occurred in the evolutionary history of many species, including humans. Present-day bottlenecks are ... Bottleneck 1.. When traced backward in time, all human lineages coalesce to an ancestral lineage that lived in Africa about 130 ...
... mutations in the KIT gene have contributed to the rise of a variety of white coloration patterns in animals and humans. ... However, we do have an idea of the genetic variability that could be expected after the genetic bottleneck at the Flood. ... Humans. In humans KIT resides on chromosome 4 (4q12). Loss-of-function mutations at this locus are associated with a condition ... Grichnik, J.M., Kit and melanocyte migration, Journal of Investigative Dermatology 126:945-947, 2006; www.nature.com/jid/ ...
With respect to the reduced genetic diversity, one idea is that it is the result of genetic drift following a bottleneck in a ... as far as recent human origins were concerned past gene flow via migration was a relatively academic concern. It was an ... They went through a population bottleneck which reduced genetic diversity sharply. Their genetic variance was a subset of that ... In the first episode, Roberts introduces the notion that genetic analysis suggests that all modern humans are descended from ...
A bottleneck population has less genetic variation and contains fewer breeding individuals. Less genetic variation means a ... According to the research, the border wall would also obstruct natural migration routes and cut off future range expansions ... Egan explained that this human-induced isolation "led to increased heart defects, low sperm counts and increased susceptibility ... First, the wall will divide up natural habitats which can result in a bottleneck population - a sharp decline in the numbers of ...
Cavalli-Sforza helped create the field of genetic geography and was one of the founders of cultural evolution, a theory that ... Originally published in 1994, The History and Geography of Human Genes is a 1,000-page tome of genetic information about human ... These migration patterns have since been confirmed by researchers using different combinations of genetic markers. "Different ... random chance turns out to be a major driving force in human history. Among the most important random events is the bottleneck ...
... bottleneck events, or alteration of migration patterns. Increased genetic diversity via elevated mutation rates may be more ... likely due to a lack of human disturbance, many have not. One of the greatest concerns is that continued environmental ... may markedly reduce genetic diversity. To date, no population genetic studies of Chernobyl organisms have included large-bodied ... But teasing out which genetic changes in the dogs are caused by radiation and which are caused by other factors - such as ...
... migrations and bottlenecks (dramatic reduction in population size) have resulted in altered frequencies of these variations. ... The new era in human genetic research has ushered with the advent of large-scale genotyping and next-generation sequencing ... Thus, they lack the ability to fully characterize the overall human genetic variation. ... Every population has its own genetic history and, hence, a distinct pattern of genetic variations (not population-specific ...
The temporal approach provides more power in cases of genetic recovery (via migration) from a bottleneck than in cases of ... coli in their gut microbiomes and may even serve as melting pots for novel genetic combinations potentially harmful to human ... Detecting past population bottlenecks using temporal genetic data MOLECULAR ECOLOGY Ramakrishnan, U., Hadly, E. A., Mountain, J ... Population genetic analyses based on summary statistics suggest that changes in genetic diversity and structure coincided with ...
Directory of Jewish Genetic Diseases A guide to the diseases included in most Jewish genetic screening. ... Even as the scientific data lend a poignant human dimension to the already well-known history of Jewish dispersal and survival ... There may then have followed a long period of "bottleneck," without significant population growth, in which mutations may have ... and migrations. On the mens side of the aisle, one of the most dramatic discoveries is that both Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi ...
... the relationships between demographic bottlenecks and ice ages; and the relationships between human migration and climatic ... Genomic data and human evolution Michael Blum. Understanding the patterns of genetic variation for human population is of ... Genetic data convey information about the demographic processes that occurred during the modern human colonization of the world ... Here, I will show that genomic approaches shed new light on two important aspects of human demography: ...
Out-of-Africa migration and Neolithic coexpansion of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with modern humans. Nat Genet. 2013;45(10):1176 ... High functional diversity in Mycobacterium tuberculosis driven by genetic drift and human demography. PLoS Biol. 2008;6(12): ... Like its human hosts, M. tuberculosis underwent several population bottlenecks during geographic spread (65). These events were ... have been made to determine the origin of human-adapted TB disease and follow its evolution with changing human migration and ...
An analysis of biobank data from the FinnGen project examines dosage effects of genetic variants on disease, andidentifies a ... Population bottleneck events, such as those that occurred in the history of the Finnish population, enrich some homozygous ... Genetic variation in human HBB is associated with Plasmodium falciparum transmission. Nat. Genet. 42, 328-331 (2010). ... Owing to large-scale migrations from Finland to Sweden in the 20th century, a substantial fraction of the genetic ancestry in ...
The present study demonstrates fine-scale spatial patterns of genetic variation and contemporary gene flow of red panda ( ... The observed low genetic diversity of the Himalayan red panda might be due to historical bottlenecks15. The observed loss of ... Paetkau, D., Slade, R., Burden, M. & Estoup, A. Genetic assignment methods for the direct, real-time estimation of migration ... Cohen, J. E. & Small, C. Hypsographic demography: The distribution of human population by altitude. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S. ...
Admixture between previously diverged populations yields patterns of genetic variation that can aid in understanding migrations ... Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, ... No indication of Khazar genetic ancestry among Ashkenazi Jews. M. Metspalu1,13,14, D. M. Behar2,1,14, Y. Baran3, S. Rosset4, N ... Population Structure and Genetic Diversity in a Population of 15,000 Patients from East Harlem, NY. G. Belbin1, D. Ruderfer2,3, ...
Due to habitat fragmentation and human activities, this small population experienced a severe genetic bottleneck, resulting in ... Migration patterns also play a role in genetic drift. When individuals move between populations, they introduce new genes into ... It occurs due to chance events, such as genetic bottlenecks or founder effects, which can significantly alter the genetic ... Impact on Genetic Variation: Genetic drift reduces the overall genetic variation within a population over generations. As ...
Human Evolutionary Genetics by Jobling, Mark; Tyler-Smith, Chris; Hollox, Edward; Hurles, Matthew; Kivisild, Toomas. Second ... Random Genetic drift *Bottlenecks D. Selection *Selection on variation *Balancing selection *Mutation and selection ... Migration and admixture Criteria for evaluation. *Exercises: Homework (10%) *Final exam: short answer / multiple choice ...
... and the southern migration explanation seems concocted simply to fit with the single origin theory. "Genetic diversity among ... So we can presume modern humans as a sub-group of the early AMH (probably as a result of bottlenecks). The even lower variation ... Human genetic variation: the first 50 dimensions. Human genetic variation: 124+ clusters with the Galore approach. How Y-STR ... But what about the observed low genetic diversity found in humans?. Genetic diversity among living modern humans is known to be ...
When this budding happens, there is a genetic bottleneck. and by checking DNA it is possible to calculate when exactly this ... Known for his research on early human migrations, which is currently challenging some long-held views of the peopling of the ... By relating these movements to ecological upheavals, what he gives us is the genetic history of modern humans correlated with ... A recent African origin of modern humans, although still disputed, is supported now by a majority of genetic studies. To ...
Effects of migration and selective harvest for the genetic status of the Scandinavian wolf population. A report to the Swedish ... Wolf-human interaction: a method and pilot study for experimental human approaches on wild, GPS-collared wolves. Master Thesis ... Rescue of a severely bottlenecked wolf (Canis lupus) population by a single immigrant. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 270: ... Two centuries of the Scandinavian wolf population: patterns of genetic variability and migration during an era of dramatic ...
Also, population stability tests indicated that all populations had experienced a severe historical bottleneck, no ... in addition to past historical events such as migration and demographic changes. ... We found that genetic differentiation is substantially higher in marginal populations than at the center of the range, and ... The resulting genetic variation is often unequally partitioned within species distribution range and especially large ...
Genetic diversity is important because it can ensure that certain groups of individuals, species or populations are able to ... indigenous populations with migratory distance from Africaand this is believed to be due to bottlenecks during human migration ... genetic diversity pdf. what are examples of genetic diversity. plant genetic diversity. genetic diversity in humans. genetic ... There is genetic diversity total number of genetic traits in the genetic makeup of a species. It differs from genetic variation ...
Most T2D risk alleles share a consistent pattern of decreasing frequencies along human migration into East Asia. Furthermore, ... What would a bottleneck like that look like? Id imagine one where the ability to be both obese and healthy in the long term ... To examine these patterns, we manually curated ethnic disease association data from 5,065 papers on human genetic studies ... Implications For Modern Human Evolution Which adaptations conferred the greatest fitness advantages?. If diet, metabolism and ...
The patterns they found produced what they call the highest-resolution map yet of human genetic variation.. They also reinforce ... Later populations grew and spread from this smaller genetic pool of founder ancestors -- a phenomenon known as a bottleneck.. ... "Diversity has been eroded through the migration process," Rosenberg said in a statement.. People of African descent are the ... WASHINGTON (Reuters) - Two big genetic studies confirm theories that modern humans evolved in Africa and then migrated through ...
  • The migrating modern human populations are known to have interbred with earlier local populations, so that contemporary human populations are descended in small part (below 10% contribution) from regional varieties of archaic humans. (wikipedia.org)
  • In particular, we analysed 15 previously characterised Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) markers to estimate genetic differentiation across the genome of 278 flies collected from nine populations. (123dok.org)
  • Moreover, migration was present across all populations, with the exception of the Sicilian one, confirming its isolation relative to the mainland. (123dok.org)
  • In particular, Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) and Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) markers have played an increasingly significant role in the study of genetic differentiation across species populations [15]. (123dok.org)
  • The population structure in Madagascar is a fascinating snapshot of human history and a testament to the remarkable abilities of early populations to undertake migrations across vast reaches of ocean. (mongabay.com)
  • The genomes of future populations will reflect the narrowing of genetic possibility for thousands of years. (jrank.org)
  • The genetic structure of human populations suggests four bottlenecks in our lineage. (jrank.org)
  • Marta Lahr has attributed bottlenecks to migrations of small populations across geographic barriers, a phenomenon variously referred to as the founder effect or colonization bottlenecks. (jrank.org)
  • All living humans outside of Africa can thus trace their ancestry to these colonizing populations. (jrank.org)
  • It posits very deep roots in a given region for distinct human populations. (discovermagazine.com)
  • What you need to do is vary the number of discrete populations and the rate of migration between the populations over time. (discovermagazine.com)
  • Some researchers have long claimed a more complex model than Out of Africa, but as long we relied in inferences from extant populations theses result were ignored or dismissed (notably, ancient DNA extraction is also unsettling our understanding of the very recent human past). (discovermagazine.com)
  • Luca was one of the first scientists to use genetic information to understand the relationships between different human populations at the level of the DNA," said Marcus Feldman , PhD, professor of biology at Stanford. (stanford.edu)
  • As technology became available to survey variations at the genetic level, Cavalli-Sforza began examining genetic changes on the Y chromosome in populations around the world. (stanford.edu)
  • Reviewing Cavalli-Sforza's 2000 book Genes, Peoples, and Languages in The New York Review of Books , Jared Diamond praised the Stanford researcher for "demolishing scientists' attempts to classify human populations into races in the same way that they classify birds and other species into races. (stanford.edu)
  • In an attempt to extend his genetic analysis of people, Cavalli-Sforza began the Human Genome Diversity Project to gather and store genetic samples from populations around the world. (stanford.edu)
  • Although Cavalli-Sforza and others saw the project as a way to safeguard DNA from dwindling populations and to learn about human history, others saw it differently. (stanford.edu)
  • In the end, the group collected samples from more than 50 populations that are now stored at the Center for the Study of Human Polymorphisms in Paris. (stanford.edu)
  • The abundance of wildlife populations within the CEZ was substantially reduced following the accident, and although some species appear to have recovered, likely due to a lack of human disturbance, many have not. (crev.info)
  • And this is what the field of population genetics explores - the genetic composition of populations, and the processes that influence it. (armeniangenome.am)
  • It has already revolutionized the field and has become an indispensable tool in addressing the questions on genetic history of human populations. (armeniangenome.am)
  • Armenians have a unique genetic heritage, which sets them apart from the neighboring populations. (armeniangenome.am)
  • Populations that have undergone recent bottlenecks are also characterized by an excess of mildly deleterious variants, which are derived from rare variants that stochastically increased in frequency after a bottleneck event 4 . (nature.com)
  • The present study demonstrates fine-scale spatial patterns of genetic variation and contemporary gene flow of red panda ( Ailurus fulgens ) populations with respect to landscape connectivity in Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL), India. (nature.com)
  • Genetic drift, a fundamental concept in animal biology, plays a crucial role in shaping the genetic composition of populations. (sigmachihq.org)
  • This isolated population has limited gene flow with other bird populations and experiences genetic drift as it evolves independently. (sigmachihq.org)
  • Effects on Small Populations: Genetic drift has a more pronounced impact on smaller populations compared to larger ones since chance events have relatively greater consequences in altering allele frequencies. (sigmachihq.org)
  • Potential for Rapid Change: Unlike natural selection, which typically acts slowly over long periods, genetic drift can cause rapid shifts in allele frequencies within populations. (sigmachihq.org)
  • In summary, genetic drift is an important evolutionary force that can shape the genetic composition of animal populations. (sigmachihq.org)
  • It can greatly influence the genetic makeup of animal populations and has important implications for animal breeding and genetics. (sigmachihq.org)
  • Understanding the factors that affect genetic drift is crucial for managing genetic diversity and maintaining healthy populations. (sigmachihq.org)
  • Small populations are more susceptible to genetic drift. (sigmachihq.org)
  • The metapopulation framework would predict the same because frequency and magnitude of genetic exchange would follow the likelihood of 2 populations to meet, which declines with geographical distance from the early AMH epicenter in Africa. (blogspot.com)
  • The interpretation of genetic evidence regarding modern human origins depends, among other things, on assessments of the structure and the variation of ancient populations. (blogspot.com)
  • We find that the early modern group has more shape variation than any other group in our sample, which covers 1.8 million years, and that they are morphologically similar to recent modern humans of diverse geographically dispersed populations but not to archaic groups. (blogspot.com)
  • Rather than a single out-of-Africa dispersal scenario, we suggest that early modern humans were already divided into different populations in Pleistocene Africa, after which there followed a complex migration pattern. (blogspot.com)
  • Genetic processes shape the modern-day distribution of genetic variation within and between populations and can provide important insights into the underlying mechanisms of evolution. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Here, we apply non-coding microsatellite markers to evaluate the sporadic peripheral and continuous populations of cembra pine ( Pinus cembra L.), a long-lived conifer species that inhabits the subalpine treeline ecotone in the western Alps to investigate how the genetic processes contribute to the modern-day spatial distribution. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We found that genetic differentiation is substantially higher in marginal populations than at the center of the range, and marginal stands are characterized by geographic and genetic isolation due to spatial segregation and restricted gene flow. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Also, population stability tests indicated that all populations had experienced a severe historical bottleneck, no heterozygosity excess was detected, suggesting that more recently population sizes have remained relatively stable. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Modern-day marginal populations, at the edge of the species' range, could maintain stable sizes over long periods without inbreeding depression and preserve high amounts of genetic variation. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Amounts and distributions of genetic variation among populations and across species' ranges are results of complex interplay of gene flow, genetic drift and natural selection [ 1 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Genetic variation is often unequally partitioned across a species' natural range and can differ between populations at the geographical center and margins of the range [ 1 , 3 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Genetic differentiation develops slowly as substantial differences in genetic variation, such as changes in allele frequencies, gradually accumulate among populations or geographical regions. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Fragmentation segregates a continuously distributed population into smaller, spatially isolated habitats, leading to differences in the genetic architecture within and between the resulting populations [ 8 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Genetic diversity is important because it can ensure that certain groups of individuals, species or populations are able to adapt to certain environmental factors . (mormonwoman.org)
  • Genetic diversity serves as a way for populations to adapt to changing environments . (mormonwoman.org)
  • Genetic diversity is a variety of genetic traits (expressed or recessive) within a species (i.e. between individuals and populations of the same species). (mormonwoman.org)
  • Human genetic diversity declines of indigenous populations with migratory distance from Africa and this is believed to be due to bottlenecks during human migration, which are events that temporarily reduce population size. (mormonwoman.org)
  • 2012) Type 2 Diabetes Risk Alleles Demonstrate Extreme Directional Differentiation among Human Populations, Compared to Other Diseases. (blogspot.com)
  • Type 2 diabetes (T2D) demonstrated extreme directional differentiation of risk allele frequencies across human populations, compared with null distributions of European-frequency matched control genomic alleles and risk alleles for other diseases. (blogspot.com)
  • Furthermore, we show that these patterns contribute to disparities in predicted genetic risk across 1,397 HapMap individuals, T2D genetic risk being consistently higher for individuals in the African populations and lower in the Asian populations, irrespective of the ethnicity considered in the initial discovery of risk alleles. (blogspot.com)
  • Human populations from Africa are the most genetically diverse of all because their ancestors were the source for all other groups that migrated out of Africa to populate the rest of the world. (genestogenomes.org)
  • Pedersen and colleagues show that the Greenlandic Inuit population has recently undergone a prolonged bottleneck of around 20,000 years, making it one of the historically smallest and most isolated human populations. (genestogenomes.org)
  • The study found that Greenlandic Inuit have fewer genetic variants overall than other human populations tested so far, but the variants they do carry occur at higher frequencies. (genestogenomes.org)
  • We found that Malanis have lost some genetic variability compared with the present-day cosmopolitan caste populations and highly mobile pastoral cultures of India. (bioone.org)
  • Furthermore, in several populations of Asia we found evidence for relatively recent genetic admixture events, which could have obscured the signatures of the earliest processes. (biorxiv.org)
  • Think of the effect of excessive hunting on animal populations  Founder effect: a few individuals from a population get separated from the rest Genetic drift is:  More significant in small populations and RANDOMLY causes allele frequencies to change  Can reduce variation in a population  Can cause unfavorable alleles to become fixed D. Selection: environment or humans select for favorable alleles which are then passed on. (studylib.net)
  • Population bottlenecks followed by re-expansions have been common throughout history of many populations. (blogspot.com)
  • where x i represents the derived allele frequency, to compare the number of mutations in different populations, and detail its functional dependence on the strength of selection and the intensity of the population bottleneck. (blogspot.com)
  • History of our own species provides plenty of examples of sub-populations that went through population bottlenecks followed by re-expansions. (blogspot.com)
  • Take the migration period, for example, a time in European history that certainly witnesses a lot of genetic exchange between various European populations, but no fundamental genetic shift. (emilkirkegaard.com)
  • The genetic ratio of these three archaic populations can be quantified through DNA testing in every person who has European roots. (emilkirkegaard.com)
  • Cutting off the jaguar's range has enormous consequences, she adds, because all populations are connected through migration and breeding. (thestkittsnevisobserver.com)
  • Genetic drift is more pronounced in smaller populations where chance events can have a greater impact. (darwinism-watch.com)
  • The recent African origin paradigm suggests that the anatomically modern humans outside of Africa descend from a population of Homo sapiens migrating from East Africa roughly 70-50,000 years ago and spreading along the southern coast of Asia and to Oceania by about 50,000 years ago. (wikipedia.org)
  • Key sites for this early migration out of Africa are Riwat in Pakistan (~2 Ma? (wikipedia.org)
  • Other archaic human species are assumed to have spread throughout Africa by this time, although the fossil record is sparse. (wikipedia.org)
  • We found evidence of local persistence of the virus in Southeast Asia and Africa, which is rare for human influenza A viruses. (cdc.gov)
  • Half of the genetic lineages of human inhabitants of Madagascar come from 4500 miles away in Borneo, while the other half derive from East Africa, according to a study published in May by a UK team. (mongabay.com)
  • The new findings, published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, show that the human inhabitants of Madagascar are similarly unique - amazingly, half of their genetic lineages derive from settlers from the region of Borneo, with the other half from East Africa. (mongabay.com)
  • Even though the Africa coast is only one-twentieth of the distance to Indonesia, it appears that migrations from Africa may have been more limited, as less of the diversity seen in the source population has survived in Madagascar. (mongabay.com)
  • When traced backward in time, all human lineages coalesce to an ancestral lineage that lived in Africa about 130 thousand years ago. (jrank.org)
  • A severe bottleneck around 70,000 years ago may have reduced the effective population size in Africa to only 5,000 females. (jrank.org)
  • Unless you accept some sort of hominin population structure in Africa which were maintained by distinctive migrations out of Africa then the 'replacement' model can be discarded (since the classic replacement model did not posit ancient African population structure being of any relevance outside of Africa you'd have to salvage it with a modification in light of new results). (discovermagazine.com)
  • In South Africa, she visits Pinnacle Point, to see the cave in which very early humans lived. (discovermagazine.com)
  • Their genetic variance was a subset of that of Africans (with some admixture from other human lineages outside of Africa, as it now happens). (discovermagazine.com)
  • To reconcile this observation with our proposed metapopulation model within Africa, it is necessary to assume that genetic diversity of early AMH(and maybe even earlier fossil groups of Homo) must have been relatively low as well. (blogspot.com)
  • Our conclusions bear implications for the inference of ancient human demography from genetic models and emphasize the importance of focusing research on those early modern humans, in particular, in Africa. (blogspot.com)
  • In his book " The real Eve: modern man's journey out of Africa " Stephen Oppenheimer proposed a single successful migration along the east coast of Arabia ca 80KYA. (blogspot.com)
  • The researchers based their explanation for the enormous excess of rare genetic variants in the present- day population on the Out-of-Africa model of the human diaspora to other parts of the world. (washington.edu)
  • During the Out of Africa migration of some early humans into Europe and beyond some 50,000 years past, a population bottleneck occurred: The number of humans plummeted, and the shrinking remnant became more genetically similar. (washington.edu)
  • The Out of Africa bottleneck led to inefficient purging of the less-harmful mutations. (washington.edu)
  • However, it is unclear whether early modern humans left Africa through a single, major process, dispersing simultaneously over Asia and Europe, or in two main waves, first through the Arab peninsula into Southern Asia and Oceania, and later through a Northern route crossing the Levant. (biorxiv.org)
  • Regardless of whether there was a single major expansion or two, several DNA studies clearly showed that genetic diversity tends to decrease [ 21 , 22 ] and linkage disequilibrium to increase [ 23 , 24 ] at increasing distances from Africa. (biorxiv.org)
  • A technical study that however gives an interesting glimpse on the complex but generally reductive genetic effect of bottlenecks such as the Out-of-Africa migration of humankind is out in PLoS Genetics. (blogspot.com)
  • Human genetic and phenotypic diversity declines with distance from Africa, as predicted by a serial founder effect in which successive population bottlenecks during range expansion progressively reduce diversity, underpinning support for an African origin of modern humans. (historyofinformation.com)
  • He has found a simple but striking pattern in some 500 languages spoken throughout the world: a language area uses fewer phonemes the farther that early humans had to travel from Africa to reach it. (historyofinformation.com)
  • Some of the click-using languages of Africa have more than 100 phonemes, whereas Hawaiian, toward the far end of the human migration route out of Africa, has only 13. (historyofinformation.com)
  • Although MV sequence data from Africa have been greatly expanded since characterization of the first endemic strains was reported ( 8 , 10 , 17 , 19 ), essential genetic baseline information is still missing from many countries ( 20 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Human genetic studies have shown that over 70,000 years ago, our evolution experienced a "bottleneck" effect - a significant reduction in the genetic diversity of a species. (dinoanimals.com)
  • Even within orangutans, diversity is higher among the smaller Sumatran population, which consists of less than 7,000* individuals than it is among humans! (orangutan.org)
  • A population bottleneck is a significant reduction in the size of a population that causes the extinction of many genetic lineages within that population, thus decreasing genetic diversity. (jrank.org)
  • Endangered species that do not become extinct may expand their numbers later on, but with a limited amount of genetic diversity with which to adapt to changing conditions. (jrank.org)
  • There is though the pattern of greater African genetic diversity. (discovermagazine.com)
  • The most plausible explanation would naturally be the one outlined above in the 2009 documentary: non-Africans are the descendants by and large of a small number of Africans who left ~100,000 years B.P. They went through a population bottleneck which reduced genetic diversity sharply. (discovermagazine.com)
  • With respect to the reduced genetic diversity, one idea is that it is the result of genetic drift following a bottleneck in a small African population. (discovermagazine.com)
  • Just as evolutionary biologists predicted, Florida panthers experienced a reduction in genetic diversity and an increase in homozygosity. (earth.com)
  • One of the greatest concerns is that continued environmental pollution, including radiation and heavy metal poisoning, may raise or lower genetic species diversity depending on directional selection , bottleneck events, or alteration of migration patterns. (crev.info)
  • Increased genetic diversity via elevated mutation rates may be more likely in highly mutagenetic environments , such as that of Chernobyl, or other radioactive places on Earth. (crev.info)
  • Conversely , a reduction in the mating population from the initial effects of the disaster, including high doses of radiation and fires, may markedly reduce genetic diversity. (crev.info)
  • As a consequence, now we have an opportunity to get deep insights into the demographic events that have shaped current patterns of human genetic diversity. (armeniangenome.am)
  • Consequently, endangered species or captive breeding programs often face challenges related to preserving genetic diversity due to their restricted gene pools. (sigmachihq.org)
  • But what about the observed low genetic diversity found in humans? (blogspot.com)
  • Genetic diversity among living modern humans is known to be very low when compared with extant apes (32, 33). (blogspot.com)
  • Despite several molecular studies investigating the genetic diversity and differentiation of European Alpine mountain forests, the climatic and demographic constrains which influence the genetic processes are often unknown. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Geographic and environmental factors may also contribute to these processes and further influence species' modern-day patterns of genetic diversity [ 2 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In addition to having to deal with environmental conditions, their genetic diversity makes them able to withstand emerging diseases and epidemics. (mormonwoman.org)
  • What defines genetic diversity? (mormonwoman.org)
  • How to explain genetic diversity with an example? (mormonwoman.org)
  • Genetic diversity is defined as genetic variation within a species . (mormonwoman.org)
  • What are examples of genetic diversity in humans? (mormonwoman.org)
  • What is one advantage of genetic diversity within a species? (mormonwoman.org)
  • This is known as genetic diversity. (mormonwoman.org)
  • What is genetic and species diversity? (mormonwoman.org)
  • Human genetic diversity is far less than that of many other species, including our closest evolutionary relative, the chimpanzee. (mormonwoman.org)
  • How does genetic diversity occur? (mormonwoman.org)
  • Why do humans have little genetic diversity? (mormonwoman.org)
  • How does genetic diversity affect the environment? (mormonwoman.org)
  • In a field experiment, we found no evidence of a positive effect of genetic diversity on shoot production, but the diversity increased community stability overtime . (mormonwoman.org)
  • How does genetic diversity help agriculture? (mormonwoman.org)
  • Genetic diversity allows the cultivation of plants and animals breeders to adapt to changing variables . (mormonwoman.org)
  • Plant breeders use genetic diversity to create improved varieties of crops with traits such as yield, pest resistance and environmental stress. (mormonwoman.org)
  • How important is genetic diversity in conservation planning? (mormonwoman.org)
  • The larger a population, the more genetically diverse it should be, and a migrant population will be less diverse than its source since its genetic diversity is a subset of the larger source population. (genestogenomes.org)
  • Genetic drift and limited gene flow leading to reduced genetic diversity were important in determining the present genetic structure of the highly endogamous Malana village. (bioone.org)
  • The spectrum of human diversity that exists today is vastly different than what it was only 200 to 400 generations ago," said Joshua Akey, associate professor of genome sciences at the University of Washington in Seattle. (washington.edu)
  • If a small population becomes isolated, it lacks genetic diversity and eventually dies off. (thestkittsnevisobserver.com)
  • These variations can arise from genetic mutations, genetic recombination during reproduction, or other sources of genetic diversity. (darwinism-watch.com)
  • We investigated the genetic diversity of measles virus (MV) in Nigeria (2004-2005) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) (2002-2006). (cdc.gov)
  • Longitudinal analysis of MV strain diversity in Nigeria suggested that only a few of the previously described 1997-1998 variants had continued to circulate, but this finding was concomitant with a rapid restoration of genetic diversity, probably caused by low vaccination coverage and high birth rates. (cdc.gov)
  • In contrast, the relatively low genetic diversity of MV in DRC and the genotype replacement in Kinshasa reflect a notable improvement in local measles control. (cdc.gov)
  • A comparison of the genetic diversity of MV strains showed notable differences in epidemiologic patterns in both countries that can be only partially explained by differences in vaccination practices. (cdc.gov)
  • However, unlike the privations suffered by those eastward travellers, the data suggests the early Malagasy population survived the voyage well, because more genetic variation is found in them than is found in the islands of Polynesia. (mongabay.com)
  • Bottlenecks' in evolutionary history, where the population is dramatically reduced in number, are a common cause of reduced genetic variation. (mongabay.com)
  • But, the data can just as well be explained by species-wide selection which culled genetic variation. (discovermagazine.com)
  • A bottleneck population has less genetic variation and contains fewer breeding individuals. (earth.com)
  • Less genetic variation means a population is not as likely to survive changes in the environment such as climate change. (earth.com)
  • From that, he devised the first of his many maps depicting human variation across the globe. (stanford.edu)
  • Thus, they lack the ability to fully characterize the overall human genetic variation. (armeniangenome.am)
  • Understanding the patterns of genetic variation for human population is of fundamental interest to anthropological sciences. (ixxi.fr)
  • The survivors will go on to reproduce and pass down their genes, but due to the limited number of breeding pairs left, there is now a smaller pool of genetic variation within the population. (sigmachihq.org)
  • Impact on Genetic Variation: Genetic drift reduces the overall genetic variation within a population over generations. (sigmachihq.org)
  • Because we lack genetic data from the time when the first anatomically modern humans appeared, between 200,000 and 60,000 years ago, instead we exploit the phenotype of neurocranial geometry to compare the variation in early modern human fossils with that in other groups of fossil Homo and recent modern humans. (blogspot.com)
  • The resulting genetic variation is often unequally partitioned within species' distribution range and especially large differences can manifest at the range limit, where population fragmentation and isolation play a crucial role in species survival. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Mutations, changes in gene sequences in DNA are one of the sources of genetic variation. (mormonwoman.org)
  • Finally, genetic variation may be the result of sexual reproduction, leading to the emergence of new gene combinations. (mormonwoman.org)
  • A study by Pedersen and colleagues published in the February issue of GENETICS examines variation in whole exome sequences of 18 Greenlandic Inuit individuals, showing the power this unique population could have for identifying rare genetic variants linked to diseases. (genestogenomes.org)
  • The patterns of genetic variation in any group of organisms, including humans, are closely tied to its size and history. (genestogenomes.org)
  • To explore this idea, the authors estimated how much of the genetic variation in the Greenlandic population is likely to alter protein function, including potential loss-of-function alleles and variants that alter the amino acid sequence of a protein. (genestogenomes.org)
  • The Effect of an Extreme and Prolonged Population Bottleneck on Patterns of Deleterious Variation: Insights from the Greenlandic Inuit. (genestogenomes.org)
  • Joshua Akey in UW Genome Sciences studies human evolutionary history and its impact on genetic variation among people. (washington.edu)
  • Caused by:  Natural selection  Genetic drift  Gene flow Only natural selection causes adaptive evolution I. Genetic Variation and Evolution In order for evolution to occur, there must be genetic variation in a population A. Where does genetic variation come from? (studylib.net)
  • Some mutations result in pleiotropy, although this is variable depending on genetic background, type of mutation, and location of the mutation. (creation.com)
  • Previously, creationist studies have pointed out the importance of evaluating genetic data to determine the types of mutations which have likely occurred throughout history. (creation.com)
  • For humans, a maximum of 10 alleles could have made it through unless Noah's sons carried mutations. (creation.com)
  • Homozygosity increases the expression of disease-causing genetic mutations. (earth.com)
  • Dr. Egan explained that this human-induced isolation "led to increased heart defects, low sperm counts and increased susceptibility to infection consistent with increased expression of deleterious mutations. (earth.com)
  • There may then have followed a long period of "bottleneck," without significant population growth, in which mutations may have manifested themselves in the form of genetic disorders. (myjewishlearning.com)
  • Inspection of specific genes related to AJ genetic disorders identified known disease mutations as well as dozens of additional risk alleles. (blogspot.com)
  • Genetic disorders result from new or inherited gene mutations . (amboss.com)
  • A study dating the age of more than 1 million single-letter variations in the human DNA code reveals that most of these mutations are of recent origin, evolutionarily speaking. (washington.edu)
  • Over 86 percent of the harmful protein-coding mutations of this type arose in humans just during the past 5,000 to 10,000 years. (washington.edu)
  • Also, although there were only two humans, Eve may have carried alleles in her egg cells that differed from those in her body. (creation.com)
  • This restricted movement may lead to genetic consequences including disruption of gene flow, inflation of inbreeding and loss of rare alleles supporting local adaptation and genetic fitness 6 , 7 . (nature.com)
  • On the other hand, AJ showed more population-specific allele sharing, higher load of deleterious alleles, and a smaller overall projected number of variants, potentially due to the recent bottleneck. (blogspot.com)
  • While natural selection favors traits that increase fitness, genetic drift can lead to the fixation of neutral or even deleterious alleles purely by chance. (sigmachihq.org)
  • While previous studies have examined population differentiation of alleles at specific SNPs, global ethnic patterns of ensembles of disease risk alleles across human diseases are unexamined. (blogspot.com)
  • To examine these patterns, we manually curated ethnic disease association data from 5,065 papers on human genetic studies representing 1,495 diseases, recording the precise risk alleles and their measured population frequencies and estimated effect sizes. (blogspot.com)
  • Most T2D risk alleles share a consistent pattern of decreasing frequencies along human migration into East Asia. (blogspot.com)
  • The Hardy Weinberg equilibrium Population: a group of actively interbreeding members of a species Gene pool: all of the alleles present in a population The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele frequencies in a population will remain unaltered from generation to generation IF the following criteria are met:  Extremely large population  No mutation  No selection  No gene flow (migration)  Mating is random 2. (studylib.net)
  • The number of dominant or additive deleterious alleles per haploid genome is expected to be slightly increased following the bottleneck and re-expansion. (blogspot.com)
  • Although Europeans are used for reference this bottleneck and the corresponding accumulation of deleterious alleles is the same for all non-Africans. (blogspot.com)
  • Genetic Drift: Genetic drift refers to the random fluctuations in the frequencies of alleles (alternative forms of genes) within a population. (darwinism-watch.com)
  • Biblically we don't have enough information to know the genetic variability that existed at creation. (creation.com)
  • However, we do have an idea of the genetic variability that could be expected after the genetic bottleneck at the Flood. (creation.com)
  • Our data on neighbors and variability is unsupportive of the strict forms of a single-origin model but does not conflict with another approach, the model of ''isolation by distance,'' which predicts that genetic and phenotypic dissimilarity increases with geographic distance (24, 29-31). (blogspot.com)
  • their level of genetic variability also is low when compared with living apes (34, 35). (blogspot.com)
  • Moreover, our analyses indicate that climatic variability has played a major role in shaping differentiation, in addition to past historical events such as migration and demographic changes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Variability of the amount of genetic information within individuals of a population and between them species, collection or community. (mormonwoman.org)
  • 1) "In accordance with historical records, recent studies showed that AJ are genetically homogeneous with mixed European and Middle-Eastern ancestry and that the AJ population had undergone a severe bottleneck around 800ya followed by an extremely rapid expansion. (blogspot.com)
  • The widespread use of genome-wide association studies has enabled the identification of a large number of disease associated genetic variants. (ixxi.fr)
  • As a result, the Finnish population is characterized by higher rates of DNA stretches with a common origin 6 , 7 carrying particular sets of genetic variants. (nature.com)
  • For common genetic variants, early genome-wide association studies (GWASs) found that additive models captured most genotype-phenotype associations, including those with non-additive (also called dominance) effects 17 . (nature.com)
  • A number of common genetic variants have been associated with diabetes risk. (blogspot.com)
  • Nevertheless, the increased frequency of certain rare variants compared to other groups could prove a boon for disease association mapping by increasing the statistical power to detect links between gene variants and human diseases. (genestogenomes.org)
  • While each specific mutation is rare, the findings suggest that the human population acquired an abundance of these single-nucleotide genetic variants in a relatively short time. (washington.edu)
  • He is one of several leaders of a multi-institutional effort among evolutionary geneticists to date the first appearance of a multitude of single nucleotide variants in the human population. (washington.edu)
  • Understanding the genetic origins and background of functional, disease causing, genetic variants would aid genetic mapping efforts in the Province. (ox.ac.uk)
  • She visits the site of the Omo remains in Ethiopia, which are the earliest known anatomically modern humans, and visits the San people of Namibia to demonstrate the hunter-gatherer lifestyle. (discovermagazine.com)
  • Anatomically modern humans (AMH), defined by a lightly built skeleton, a large brain, reduced face and prominent chin, first appear in the East African fossil record around 200,000 years ago [ 1 , 2 ]. (biorxiv.org)
  • Analysis of identical-by-descent segments, which are abundant in AJ and highly informative on recent history, confirmed a recent severe bottleneck of merely ≈300-400 individuals. (blogspot.com)
  • Other genes affecting coloration are involved in pigment production or development (i.e. regulating the development and migration of pigment cells during embryogenesis). (creation.com)
  • Every population has its own genetic history and, hence, a distinct pattern of genetic variations (not population-specific genes! (armeniangenome.am)
  • Human genetics is the study of the human genome and the transmission of genes from one generation to the next. (amboss.com)
  • To date, human genome sequences have been reported for individuals with ancestry in three distinct geographical regions: a Yoruba African, two individuals of northwest European origin, and a person from China1, 2, 3, 4. (blogspot.com)
  • The integration of several human whole-genome sequences derived from several ethnic groups will assist in understanding genetic ancestry, migration patterns and population bottlenecks. (blogspot.com)
  • Despite this 140,000-fold difference in current population size, analysis of the orangutan genome yields a surprising discovery: orangutans are much more genetically diverse than humans. (orangutan.org)
  • If you compare the genome sequences of two randomly chosen orangutans, you will find twice as many differences than if you compare the genome sequences of two randomly chosen humans [4]. (orangutan.org)
  • Our past has left footprints in our genome in the form of genetic variations (or differences in DNA sequences between individuals). (armeniangenome.am)
  • However, the two genetic systems represent only a small portion of the entire genome. (armeniangenome.am)
  • This has resulted in rapid access to thousands and millions of genetic variations across the genome. (armeniangenome.am)
  • The Armenian Genome Project will grant us an opportunity to create a genetic map of historical Armenia and form a comprehensive picture of our past, hinting us on better ways to improve our future. (armeniangenome.am)
  • The human genome consists of 23 pairs of chromosomes ( 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes ). (amboss.com)
  • Here, we leverage dense genome-wide SNP data on 1,807 NL individuals to reveal fine-scale genetic structure in NL that is clustered around coastal communities and correlated with Christian denomination. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Early human migrations are the earliest migrations and expansions of archaic and modern humans across continents. (wikipedia.org)
  • According to the research, the border wall would also obstruct natural migration routes and cut off future range expansions driven by climate change. (earth.com)
  • Population-genetic comparison of the AJ genomes to 26 Flemish genomes sequenced using the same technology revealed increased heterozygosity and less allele sharing in AJ, in accordance with the AJ admixed nature and partial Middle-Eastern origin. (blogspot.com)
  • Demographic events, such as population expansion, migrations and bottlenecks (dramatic reduction in population size) have resulted in altered frequencies of these variations. (armeniangenome.am)
  • Genetic data convey information about the demographic processes that occurred during the modern human colonization of the world. (ixxi.fr)
  • Understanding genetic drift is essential for comprehending the mechanisms underlying animal breeding and genetics. (sigmachihq.org)
  • Genetic drift has been shown to influence patterns of inheritance, leading to potential loss or fixation of certain traits within a population. (sigmachihq.org)
  • By studying genetic drift and its impacts on animal biology, researchers gain valuable insights into evolutionary processes, adaptation, and ultimately how species persist over generations. (sigmachihq.org)
  • This article aims to delve deeper into the concept of genetic drift within animal biology while highlighting its relevance in animal breeding and genetics research. (sigmachihq.org)
  • What is Genetic Drift? (sigmachihq.org)
  • Genetic drift is a fundamental concept in animal biology that refers to the random fluctuations in allele frequencies within a population over time. (sigmachihq.org)
  • Understanding the implications of genetic drift is crucial for animal breeding and genetics research. (sigmachihq.org)
  • Influence on Evolutionary Processes: In conjunction with natural selection, genetic drift plays a significant role in driving evolutionary changes. (sigmachihq.org)
  • Moving forward to the subsequent section on "Factors Affecting Genetic Drift," we will delve deeper into the various factors that influence this phenomenon. (sigmachihq.org)
  • In addition to natural selection, there are three other important mechanisms of evolution: genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation. (darwinism-watch.com)
  • The relatively isolated Sicilian population suggests a largely human-mediated migration pattern, while the warm climate in this region allows the production of soft fruit, and the associated D. suzukii reproductive season occurring much earlier than on the rest of the peninsula. (123dok.org)
  • The striking mix suggests that there was substantial migration of people from southeast Asia about 2000-1500 years ago - a mirror image of the migrations from that region into the Pacific, to Micronesia and Polynesia, that had occurred about 1000 years earlier. (mongabay.com)
  • In the first episode, Roberts introduces the notion that genetic analysis suggests that all modern humans are descended from Africans. (discovermagazine.com)
  • Recent work suggests that a similar founder effect may operate on human culture and language. (historyofinformation.com)
  • Population bottlenecks, extinction events, interbreeding, introgressions, admixtures, evolutionary cul-de-sacs and migrations combine to serve us with a most confusing map. (ukpets.co.uk)
  • Differentiation of human genetic lineages within a population through time, and the effects of environmental and colonization bottlenecks (founder events) on survival of human lineages. (jrank.org)
  • Particularly high genetic differentiation can manifest at the margins of a species' range, where population fragmentation and isolation are more likely to influence genetic processes [ 6 , 7 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We date a substantial population size bottleneck approximately 10-15 generations ago in NL, associated with increased haplotype sharing and autozygosity. (ox.ac.uk)
  • This colonization bottleneck occurred during a period of milder climate about 50,000 years ago, and also coincides with the appearance of advanced stone tool technologies. (jrank.org)
  • A handful of studies have reported unusually high genetic mutation rates in barn swallows and fruit flies in the vicinity of the reactor, which is now entombed in a steel and concrete sarcophagus. (crev.info)
  • His blend of anthropology and genetics led to a new field he called genetic geography, in which he followed the spread of genetic variations to track how humans populated the world. (stanford.edu)
  • Jews of Mumbai can trace their descent back to five women, while Jewish communities in Dagestan and Georgia trace three-fifths of their genetic variations to one woman in each region. (myjewishlearning.com)
  • Skin color, hair color, dimples, freckles and blood type are examples of genetic variations that can occur in the human population. (mormonwoman.org)
  • Genetic variations underpin their ability to evolve and the flexibility to adapt. (mormonwoman.org)
  • The set of non-African Y chromosomes found in the Malagasy was much more similar to the set of lineages found in Borneo than in any other population, which demonstrates striking agreement between the genetic and linguistic evidence. (mongabay.com)
  • Each human cell contains 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes (corresponding in structure and genetic information, i.e., 23 chromosomes are inherited from each parent). (amboss.com)
  • This initial migration was followed by other archaic humans including H. heidelbergensis, which lived around 500,000 years ago and was the likely ancestor of Denisovans and Neanderthals as well as modern humans. (wikipedia.org)
  • This difference cannot possibly be accounted for by the effects of hybridization with archaic human forms in Australo-Melanesia. (biorxiv.org)
  • There is a general consensus that, while dispersing from there, they largely replaced preexisting archaic human forms [ 3 ]. (biorxiv.org)
  • Modern humans spread across Europe about 40,000 years ago. (wikipedia.org)
  • The shortest connections between early AMH are either with other specimens of this group or recent modern humans, for instance, Omo 2 [recently dated to ~195 ka (1)] and LH 18, two of the earliest east African candidates for the emergence of modern human morphology (18), and the Levantine Qafzeh 6 connect with recent Australian aboriginals (cf. ref. 19). (blogspot.com)
  • Investigations on patrilineal genetic legacy of Armenians have already shown that the majority of the Y-chromosomal lineages date back to the Neolithic (about 11,000-7,000 y.a). (armeniangenome.am)
  • They use a specific genetic haplogroup (X2a) to argue that the Hopewell Indians, like the Nephites, are "from Semitic (Caucasian/Jewish) lineages" (538). (interpreterfoundation.org)
  • We can trace our ancestry leveraging data of multiple genetic markers. (armeniangenome.am)
  • Whilst its historical isolation, and increased prevalence of certain monogenic disorders are well appreciated, details of the fine-scale genetic structure and ancestry of the population are lacking. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Cavalli-Sforza was among the first to use genetics to track human migration patterns. (stanford.edu)
  • Although he began his genetics career studying microbiology, he quickly became interested in human genetics. (stanford.edu)
  • The field of genetics has been offering up sensational new observations about the historical record of Jewish origins, exile, and migrations. (myjewishlearning.com)
  • Why is genetics important to humans? (mormonwoman.org)
  • Furthermore, it can also contribute to the formation of distinct subpopulations with unique genetic characteristics. (sigmachihq.org)
  • The founder population of Newfoundland and Labrador (NL) is a unique genetic resource, in part due to its geographic and cultural isolation, where historical records describe a migration of European settlers, primarily from Ireland and England, to NL in the 18th and 19th centuries. (ox.ac.uk)
  • He posted a chart from a 2008 paper which outlines various models of human origins, and their relationship to molecular data at the time. (discovermagazine.com)
  • Of the currently competing models of modern human origins, some are inconsistent with these findings. (blogspot.com)
  • Furthermore, if until recently, our inferences on prehistoric events solely relied on modern genetic data, today, we can also incorporate direct evidence from the past. (armeniangenome.am)
  • The differences in migration dynamics between avian and human influenza viruses might help with the design of region-specific surveillance efforts and the selection of vaccine candidates. (cdc.gov)
  • Despite, or more probably 'because of' the vast and growing volume of data from archaeological, archaeozoological, ethnological, genetic, chromosomal and mitochondrial studies, we do not have a definitive answer as to when or how the divergence occurred. (ukpets.co.uk)
  • In consequence, there is an enrichment of 36 specific Mendelian genetic diseases such as congenital nephrotic syndrome, Finnish type (CNF) 8 in certain areas of Finland today that show mostly recessive inheritance. (nature.com)
  • He found that people from the same population are as genetically diverse as people from two different groups, essentially showing that at the genetic level, there is no such thing as race. (stanford.edu)
  • How genetically diverse are humans? (mormonwoman.org)
  • We also inferred the split between the ancestral Middle-Eastern population and contemporary Europeans to be as recent as ≈11,000±500ya, suggesting the genetic origin of modern-day Europeans is predominantly Neolithic, and much later than the first dated Homo sapiens migration into Europe. (blogspot.com)
  • The genetic answer is clear: 80 per cent of modern Europeans descend from the old hunter-gatherer gene types, and only 20 per cent from Near Eastern farmers. (india-forum.com)
  • A lot of focus is on the invasions by the Anatolian farmers and the Indo-Europeans (Aryans), battle axe people, how genetic distances work, and so on. (emilkirkegaard.com)
  • You have to go back almost 5,000 years into the past to find the last major migration movement that altered the DNA of all Europeans. (emilkirkegaard.com)
  • Understanding genetic factors and genetic disorders is important learn more about promoting health and preventing disease . (mormonwoman.org)
  • The earliest humans developed out of australopithecine ancestors about 3 million years ago, most likely in the area of the Kenyan Rift Valley, where the oldest known stone tools have been found. (wikipedia.org)
  • This migration has been proposed as being related to the operation of the Saharan pump, around 1.9 million years ago. (wikipedia.org)
  • Expansion (bottleneck release) occurred during the last interglacial (130 to 71 thousand years ago), when warm climates and higher rainfall returned. (jrank.org)
  • Moreover, a recent study has indicated a strong matrilineal genetic continuity between Armenians and ancient inhabitants who lived in the region at least eight thousand years ago. (armeniangenome.am)
  • The National Geographic source cited by Hocking and Meldrum uses evidence from 24,000 and 17,000 years ago to show a genetic connection between western Eurasian and Native American peoples, not the 2,600 and circa 4,000 or so years ago required for the migration of Book of Mormon peoples. (interpreterfoundation.org)
  • The DNA of people who came from the Eastern European steppes 5,000 years ago is still one of the three dominant genetic components on the continent today. (emilkirkegaard.com)
  • For the first time, we have been able to assign every genetic lineage in the Malagasy population to a likely geographic origin with a high degree of confidence. (mongabay.com)
  • The genetic information that confers the advantageous traits is transmitted from one generation to the next. (darwinism-watch.com)
  • Invasion dynamics can be studied using molecular markers that can discriminate and characterise the genetic relationships between source and derived pop-ulations, migration flows and population expansion pat-terns [12-14]. (123dok.org)
  • These migration patterns have since been confirmed by researchers using different combinations of genetic markers. (stanford.edu)
  • Over the past three decades, uniparentally inherited markers, such as the mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosome, have been widely used to reconstruct matrilineal (transmitted through maternal line) and patrilineal genetic histories, respectively. (armeniangenome.am)
  • To place this discovery in the context of the prehistory and ancient history of people, humans have been around for roughly 100,000 years. (washington.edu)
  • An understanding of the global migration dynamics of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus is helpful for surveillance and disease prevention. (cdc.gov)
  • Understanding the migration dynamics of HPAI (H5N1) viruses is thus essential for surveillance and prevention of these infections in birds and humans and for policy decisions on vaccine development and/or implementation. (cdc.gov)
  • It occurs due to chance events, such as genetic bottlenecks or founder effects, which can significantly alter the genetic makeup of a population. (sigmachihq.org)
  • So it's a story of the first human migrating into Europe, Neanderthals, their mixing with regular Homo Sapiens Sapiens, the Denisovans, isolate groups like the Basque and Sardinians. (emilkirkegaard.com)
  • Also extensively studied have been the migration mechanisms of avian influenza A(H5N1) virus ( 13 - 15 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Finally, they use recent scientific discoveries related to the genetic makeup of Native Americans to vindicate President Gordon B. Hinckley, who in 2002 urged patience and caution on the matter of what DNA might say about Book of Mormon historicity (555). (interpreterfoundation.org)
  • This differential reproductive success gradually alters the genetic makeup of the population, leading to the evolution of new species over extended periods of time. (darwinism-watch.com)