The change in gene frequency in a population due to migration of gametes or individuals (ANIMAL MIGRATION) across population barriers. In contrast, in GENETIC DRIFT the cause of gene frequency changes are not a result of population or gamete movement.
The discipline studying genetic composition of populations and effects of factors such as GENETIC SELECTION, population size, MUTATION, migration, and GENETIC DRIFT on the frequencies of various GENOTYPES and PHENOTYPES using a variety of GENETIC TECHNIQUES.
Genotypic differences observed among individuals in a population.
The splitting of an ancestral species into daughter species that coexist in time (King, Dictionary of Genetics, 6th ed). Causal factors may include geographic isolation, HABITAT geometry, migration, REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION, random GENETIC DRIFT and MUTATION.
A variety of simple repeat sequences that are distributed throughout the GENOME. They are characterized by a short repeat unit of 2-8 basepairs that is repeated up to 100 times. They are also known as short tandem repeats (STRs).
The science dealing with the earth and its life, especially the description of land, sea, and air and the distribution of plant and animal life, including humanity and human industries with reference to the mutual relations of these elements. (From Webster, 3d ed)
The flow of BLOOD through or around an organ or region of the body.
A value equal to the total volume flow divided by the cross-sectional area of the vascular bed.
The genetic process of crossbreeding between genetically dissimilar parents to produce a hybrid.
Double-stranded DNA of MITOCHONDRIA. In eukaryotes, the mitochondrial GENOME is circular and codes for ribosomal RNAs, transfer RNAs, and about 10 proteins.
Periodic movements of animals in response to seasonal changes or reproductive instinct. Hormonal changes are the trigger in at least some animals. Most migrations are made for reasons of climatic change, feeding, or breeding.
Technique using an instrument system for making, processing, and displaying one or more measurements on individual cells obtained from a cell suspension. Cells are usually stained with one or more fluorescent dyes specific to cell components of interest, e.g., DNA, and fluorescence of each cell is measured as it rapidly transverses the excitation beam (laser or mercury arc lamp). Fluorescence provides a quantitative measure of various biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell, as well as a basis for cell sorting. Other measurable optical parameters include light absorption and light scattering, the latter being applicable to the measurement of cell size, shape, density, granularity, and stain uptake.
The biological objects that contain genetic information and that are involved in transmitting genetically encoded traits from one organism to another.
A field of study concerned with the principles and processes governing the geographic distributions of genealogical lineages, especially those within and among closely related species. (Avise, J.C., Phylogeography: The History and Formation of Species. Harvard University Press, 2000)
Mechanisms that prevent different populations from exchanging genes (GENE FLOW), resulting in or maintaining GENETIC SPECIATION. It can either prevent mating to take place or ensure that any offspring produced is either inviable or sterile, thereby preventing further REPRODUCTION.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
The fluctuation of the ALLELE FREQUENCY from one generation to the next.
The pattern of any process, or the interrelationship of phenomena, which affects growth or change within a population.
The detection of RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISMS by selective PCR amplification of restriction fragments derived from genomic DNA followed by electrophoretic analysis of the amplified restriction fragments.
The genetic constitution of individuals with respect to one member of a pair of allelic genes, or sets of genes that are closely linked and tend to be inherited together such as those of the MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX.
The fertilizing element of plants that contains the male GAMETOPHYTES.
The total genetic information possessed by the reproductive members of a POPULATION of sexually reproducing organisms.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of genetic processes or phenomena. They include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Gibraltar" is not a medical concept or condition, it's a geographical location, a British Overseas Territory and city located at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula in southern Europe. If you have more information or context about why you're looking for a medical definition for "Gibraltar," I would be happy to help further.
A functional system which includes the organisms of a natural community together with their environment. (McGraw Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
The process of cumulative change at the level of DNA; RNA; and PROTEINS, over successive generations.
In evolutionary theory, overlapping geographic distribution of diverging species. In sympatric GENETIC SPECIATION, genetic diversion occurs without geographic separation.
Differential and non-random reproduction of different genotypes, operating to alter the gene frequencies within a population.
The total process by which organisms produce offspring. (Stedman, 25th ed)
The process of cumulative change over successive generations through which organisms acquire their distinguishing morphological and physiological characteristics.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
The transfer of POLLEN grains (male gametes) to the plant ovule (female gamete).
I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Atlantic Ocean" is a geographical term referring to one of the world's five oceans, covering approximately 20% of the Earth's surface and separating the continents of Europe and Africa to the east from those of North and South America to the west. It doesn't have a direct medical definition, as it is not a medical term.
The geographical area of Africa comprising ALGERIA; EGYPT; LIBYA; MOROCCO; and TUNISIA. It includes also the vast deserts and oases of the Sahara. It is often referred to as North Africa, French-speaking Africa, or the Maghreb. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p856)
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
Rhythmic, intermittent propagation of a fluid through a BLOOD VESSEL or piping system, in contrast to constant, smooth propagation, which produces laminar flow.
An animal or plant species in danger of extinction. Causes can include human activity, changing climate, or change in predator/prey ratios.
The proportion of one particular in the total of all ALLELES for one genetic locus in a breeding POPULATION.
Slender-bodies diurnal insects having large, broad wings often strikingly colored and patterned.
Number of individuals in a population relative to space.
The various physical methods which include wind, insects, animals, tension, and water, by which a plant scatters its seeds away from the parent plant.
The mating of plants or non-human animals which are closely related genetically.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of plants.
Woody, usually tall, perennial higher plants (Angiosperms, Gymnosperms, and some Pterophyta) having usually a main stem and numerous branches.
A plant family of the order Lecythidales, subclass Dilleniidae, class Magnoliopsida.
A plant genus of the family FAGACEAE that is a source of TANNINS. Do not confuse with Holly (ILEX).
A phenotypically recognizable genetic trait which can be used to identify a genetic locus, a linkage group, or a recombination event.
Variant forms of the same gene, occupying the same locus on homologous CHROMOSOMES, and governing the variants in production of the same gene product.
A theorem in probability theory named for Thomas Bayes (1702-1761). In epidemiology, it is used to obtain the probability of disease in a group of people with some characteristic on the basis of the overall rate of that disease and of the likelihood of that characteristic in healthy and diseased individuals. The most familiar application is in clinical decision analysis where it is used for estimating the probability of a particular diagnosis given the appearance of some symptoms or test result.
A plant genus in the family PINACEAE, order Pinales, class Pinopsida, division Coniferophyta. They are evergreen trees mainly in temperate climates.
Specific regions that are mapped within a GENOME. Genetic loci are usually identified with a shorthand notation that indicates the chromosome number and the position of a specific band along the P or Q arm of the chromosome where they are found. For example the locus 6p21 is found within band 21 of the P-arm of CHROMOSOME 6. Many well known genetic loci are also known by common names that are associated with a genetic function or HEREDITARY DISEASE.
The human male sex chromosome, being the differential sex chromosome carried by half the male gametes and none of the female gametes in humans.
The encapsulated embryos of flowering plants. They are used as is or for animal feed because of the high content of concentrated nutrients like starches, proteins, and fats. Rapeseed, cottonseed, and sunflower seed are also produced for the oils (fats) they yield.
Central America is not a medical term, but a geographical region consisting of seven countries (Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama) that connect North America to South America, which may be relevant in medical contexts such as discussions of regional disease patterns, public health initiatives, or tropical medicine.
The regular and simultaneous occurrence in a single interbreeding population of two or more discontinuous genotypes. The concept includes differences in genotypes ranging in size from a single nucleotide site (POLYMORPHISM, SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE) to large nucleotide sequences visible at a chromosomal level.
Statistical interpretation and description of a population with reference to distribution, composition, or structure.
Large members of the FALCONIFORMES order of birds, family Accipitridae, most especially the genera Aquila, Haliaeetus, Harpia, and Circaetus. They are characterized by their powerful talons, which carry long, curved, pointed claws and by their opposable hindtoe.
A plant genus of the family OLEACEAE. Members contain secoiridoid glucosides.
Periodic movement of human settlement from one geographical location to another.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of CHLOROPLASTS.
A plant genus of the family RANUNCULACEAE that contains protoanemonin, anemonin, and ranunculin.
The MEDITERRANEAN SEA, the MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS, and the countries bordering on the sea collectively.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but there seems to be a misunderstanding as "South America" is not a medical term and cannot have a medical definition. It is a geographical term referring to the southern portion of the American continent, consisting of twelve independent countries and three territories of other nations.
Cultivated plants or agricultural produce such as grain, vegetables, or fruit. (From American Heritage Dictionary, 1982)
The process of leaving one's country to establish residence in a foreign country.
Systems of agriculture which adhere to nationally regulated standards that restrict the use of pesticides, non-organic fertilizers, genetic engineering, growth hormones, irradiation, antibiotics, and non-organic ANIMAL FEED.
*Medically unexceptional, the Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental body of water that separates Southern Europe from Northern Africa and the Middle East, infamous for historical epidemics like plague, which have significantly shaped human health history.*
I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Pacific Ocean" is a geographical term referring to the largest ocean in the world, covering an area of about 63,800,000 square miles (165,200,000 square kilometers), and it is not a medical term.
The branch of science concerned with the interrelationship of organisms and their ENVIRONMENT, especially as manifested by natural cycles and rhythms, community development and structure, interactions between different kinds of organisms, geographic distributions, and population alterations. (Webster's, 3d ed)
The geographical area of Africa comprising BENIN; BURKINA FASO; COTE D'IVOIRE; GAMBIA; GHANA; GUINEA; GUINEA-BISSAU; LIBERIA; MALI; MAURITANIA; NIGER; NIGERIA; SENEGAL; SIERRA LEONE; and TOGO.
The genetic constitution of the individual, comprising the ALLELES present at each GENETIC LOCUS.
Genealogy is the study of family history and descent, while heraldry refers to the practice of designing, displaying, and studying coats of arms, which often provide historical information about families or individuals.
The total number of individuals inhabiting a particular region or area.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but 'Europe' is a geographical continent and not a medical term; therefore, it doesn't have a medical definition.
The pygmy chimpanzee, a species of the genus Pan, family HOMINIDAE. Its common name is Bonobo, which was once considered a separate genus by some; others considered it a subspecies of PAN TROGLODYTES. Its range is confined to the forests of the central Zaire basin. Despite its name, it is often of equal size to P. troglodytes.
The geographical area of Africa comprising CAMEROON; CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC; CHAD; CONGO; EQUATORIAL GUINEA; GABON; and DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO.
A widely distributed order of perching BIRDS, including more than half of all bird species.
A plant genus of the family Phrymaceae. Members contain 6-geranylflavanones and mimulone.
Functions constructed from a statistical model and a set of observed data which give the probability of that data for various values of the unknown model parameters. Those parameter values that maximize the probability are the maximum likelihood estimates of the parameters.
A plant genus of the family ROSACEAE.
Geological formations consisting of underground enclosures with access from the surface.
The male sex chromosome, being the differential sex chromosome carried by half the male gametes and none of the female gametes in humans and in some other male-heterogametic species in which the homologue of the X chromosome has been retained.
A process by which animals in various forms and stages of development are physically distributed through time and space.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Ecuador" is a country in South America and not a medical term. The term you might be looking for is "ecdysone," which is a hormone found in arthropods that controls their molting process.
The mahogany plant family of the order Sapindales, subclass Rosidae, class Magnoliopsida.
A vertical distance measured from a known level on the surface of a planet or other celestial body.
The circulation of blood through the BLOOD VESSELS of the BRAIN.
The motion of air relative to the earth's surface.
Tracts of land completely surrounded by water.
A plant family of the order Campanulales, subclass Asteridae, class Magnoliopsida
Diminished or failed response of PLANTS to HERBICIDES.
Changes in biological features that help an organism cope with its ENVIRONMENT. These changes include physiological (ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL), phenotypic and genetic changes.
The circulation of blood through the CORONARY VESSELS of the HEART.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
A genus of BROWN ALGAE in the family Fucaceae. It is found in temperate, marine intertidal areas along rocky coasts and is a source of ALGINATES. Some species of Fucus are referred to as KELP.
The study of the deformation and flow of matter, usually liquids or fluids, and of the plastic flow of solids. The concept covers consistency, dilatancy, liquefaction, resistance to flow, shearing, thixotrophy, and VISCOSITY.
A plant species cultivated for the seed used as animal feed and as a source of canola cooking oil.
Cytochromes of the b group that have alpha-band absorption of 563-564 nm. They occur as subunits in MITOCHONDRIAL ELECTRON TRANSPORT COMPLEX III.
*Medical Definition:* 'Lizards' are not typically defined in the field of medicine, as they are a type of reptile and not a medical condition or healthcare-related concept; however, certain lizard species such as the Gila monster and beaded lizards possess venomous bites, which can lead to medical emergencies like envenomation requiring medical attention.
The non-genetic biological changes of an organism in response to challenges in its ENVIRONMENT.
A region, north-central Asia, largely in Russia. It extends from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean and from the Arctic Ocean to central Kazakhstan and the borders of China and Mongolia.
Sexual activities of animals.
A plant family of the order Lamiales. It is characterized by simple leaves in opposite pairs, cystoliths (enlarged cells containing crystals of calcium carbonate), and bilaterally symmetrical and bisexual flowers that are usually crowded together. The common name for Ruellia of wild petunia is easily confused with PETUNIA.
A plant genus of the family BRASSICACEAE. Member species are ornamentals grown for their numerous small white, yellow, pink, or purplish flowers.
A plant genus of the family POACEAE.
The external elements and conditions which surround, influence, and affect the life and development of an organism or population.
A republic in southern Africa, south of ANGOLA and west of BOTSWANA. Its capital is Windhoek.
The protection, preservation, restoration, and rational use of all resources in the total environment.
Nonrandom association of linked genes. This is the tendency of the alleles of two separate but already linked loci to be found together more frequently than would be expected by chance alone.
A genus of mosquitoes (CULICIDAE) that are known vectors of MALARIA.
A set of statistical methods used to group variables or observations into strongly inter-related subgroups. In epidemiology, it may be used to analyze a closely grouped series of events or cases of disease or other health-related phenomenon with well-defined distribution patterns in relation to time or place or both.
Mathematical procedure that transforms a number of possibly correlated variables into a smaller number of uncorrelated variables called principal components.
A plant genus of the family FABACEAE that contains julibroside (triterpenoid saponins).
The cactus plant family of the order Caryophyllales, subclass Caryophyllidae, class Magnoliopsida. Cacti are succulent perennial plants well adapted to dry regions.
PLANTS, or their progeny, whose GENOME has been altered by GENETIC ENGINEERING.
A class in the phylum MOLLUSCA comprised of SNAILS and slugs. The former have coiled external shells and the latter usually lack shells.
The region of southwest Asia and northeastern Africa usually considered as extending from Libya on the west to Afghanistan on the east. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988)
The largest of the continents. It was known to the Romans more specifically as what we know today as Asia Minor. The name comes from at least two possible sources: from the Assyrian asu (to rise) or from the Sanskrit usa (dawn), both with reference to its being the land of the rising sun, i.e., eastern as opposed to Europe, to the west. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p82 & Room, Brewer's Dictionary of Names, 1992, p34)
Deliberate breeding of two different individuals that results in offspring that carry part of the genetic material of each parent. The parent organisms must be genetically compatible and may be from different varieties or closely related species.
The continuous visual field seen by a subject through space and time.
A plant genus of the family FAGACEAE.
The period of history before 500 of the common era.
A plant genus in the family PINACEAE, order Pinales, class Pinopsida, division Coniferophyta. Balm of Gilead is a common name more often referring to POPULUS and sometimes to COMMIPHORA.

Speciation and gene flow between snails of opposite chirality. (1/998)

Left-right asymmetry in snails is intriguing because individuals of opposite chirality are either unable to mate or can only mate with difficulty, so could be reproductively isolated from each other. We have therefore investigated chiral evolution in the Japanese land snail genus Euhadra to understand whether changes in chirality have promoted speciation. In particular, we aimed to understand the effect of the maternal inheritance of chirality on reproductive isolation and gene flow. We found that the mitochondrial DNA phylogeny of Euhadra is consistent with a single, relatively ancient evolution of sinistral species and suggests either recent "single-gene speciation" or gene flow between chiral morphs that are unable to mate. To clarify the conditions under which new chiral morphs might evolve and whether single-gene speciation can occur, we developed a mathematical model that is relevant to any maternal-effect gene. The model shows that reproductive character displacement can promote the evolution of new chiral morphs, tending to counteract the positive frequency-dependent selection that would otherwise drive the more common chiral morph to fixation. This therefore suggests a general mechanism as to how chiral variation arises in snails. In populations that contain both chiral morphs, two different situations are then possible. In the first, gene flow is substantial between morphs even without interchiral mating, because of the maternal inheritance of chirality. In the second, reproductive isolation is possible but unstable, and will also lead to gene flow if intrachiral matings occasionally produce offspring with the opposite chirality. Together, the results imply that speciation by chiral reversal is only meaningful in the context of a complex biogeographical process, and so must usually involve other factors. In order to understand the roles of reproductive character displacement and gene flow in the chiral evolution of Euhadra, it will be necessary to investigate populations in which both chiral morphs coexist.  (+info)

Macrogeographic population structure of the tsetse fly, Glossina pallidipes (Diptera: Glossinidae). (2/998)

Tsetse flies are confined to sub-Saharan Africa where they occupy discontinuous habitats. In anticipation of area-wide control programmes, estimates of gene flow among tsetse populations are necessary. Genetic diversities were partitioned at eight microsatellite loci and five mitochondrial loci in 21 Glossina pallidipes Austin populations. At microsatellite loci, Nei's unbiased gene diversity averaged over loci was 0.659 and the total number of alleles was 214, only four of which were shared among all populations. The mean number of alleles per locus was 26.8. Random mating was observed within but not among populations (fixation index FST=0.18) and 81% of the genetic variance was within populations. Thirty-nine mitochondrial variants were detected. Mitochondrial diversities in populations varied from 0 to 0.85 and averaged 0.42, and FST=0.51. High levels of genetic differentiation were characteristic, extending even to subpopulations separated by tens and hundreds of kilometres, and indicating low rates of gene flow.  (+info)

Gene flow and hybridisation in a mixed oak forest (Quercus pyrenaica Willd. and Quercus petraea (Matts.) Liebl.) in central Spain. (3/998)

Oaks are long-standing models for the study of gene flow and hybridisation. Temperate (Quercus petraea) and sub-Mediterranean (Quercus pyrenaica) oaks coexist in central Spain, showing remarkable differences in population size and structure. Q. petraea has a scattered distribution in central Spain, where it is at one of the southernmost limits of its range, and forms low-density stands; in contrast, Q. pyrenaica is widespread in the region. We selected a mixed population of the two species ( approximately 13 ha, 176 adults and 96 saplings) to compare the patterns of gene flow within each species and the extent of introgression between them. Using five nuclear microsatellite markers, we performed a parentage analysis and found considerable immigration from outside the stand ( approximately 38% for Q. petraea and approximately 34% for Q. pyrenaica), and estimated average seed-dispersal distances of 42 and 14 m for Q. petraea and Q. pyrenaica, respectively. Introgression between species was also estimated using our microsatellite battery. First, we developed a multivariate discriminant approach and, second, we compared our results with a widely used clustering method (STRUCTURE). Both analyses were consistent with a low level of introgression between Q. petraea and Q. pyrenaica. Indeed, only 15 adult trees, approximately 8.5%, were identified as putative hybrids when both methods of analysis were combined. Hybrids may be most common in contact zones due merely to physical proximity.  (+info)

Effect of gene flow on spatial genetic structure in the riparian canopy tree Cercidiphyllum japonicum revealed by microsatellite analysis. (4/998)

Few studies have analyzed pollen and seed movements at local scale, and genetic differentiation among populations covering the geographic distribution range of a species. We carried out such a study on Cercidiphyllum japonicum; a dioecious broad-leaved tree of cool-temperate riparian forest in Japan. We made direct measurement of pollen and seed movements in a site, genetic structure at the local scale, and genetic differentiation between populations covering the Japanese Archipelago. Parentage analysis of seedlings within a 20-ha study site indicated that at least 28.8% of seedlings were fertilized by pollen from trees outside the study site. The average pollination distance within the study site was 129 m, with a maximum of 666 m. The genotypes of 30% of seedlings were incompatible with those of the nearest female tree, and the maximum seed dispersal distance within the study site was over 300 m. Thus, long-distance gene dispersal is common in this species. The correlation between genetic relatedness and spatial distance among adult trees within the population was not significant, indicating an absence of fine-scale genetic structure perhaps caused by high levels of pollen flow and overlapping seed shadows. Six populations sampled throughout the distribution of C. japonicum in Japan showed significant isolation-by-distance but low levels of genetic differentiation (F(ST) = 0.043), also indicating long-distance gene flow in C. japonicum. Long-distance gene flow had a strong influence on the genetic structure at different spatial scales, and contributes to the maintenance of genetic diversity in C. japonicum.  (+info)

Evidence for a one-allele assortative mating locus. (5/998)

Theoretical models have shown that speciation with gene flow can occur readily via a "one-allele mechanism," where the spread of the same allele within both of two diverging species reduces their subsequent hybridization. Here we present direct genetic evidence for such an allele in Drosophila pseudoobscura. Alleles conferring high or low assortative mating in D. pseudoobscura produce the same effects when inserted into D. persimilis. This observation suggests that the type of genetic variation that is most conducive to controversial modes of speciation with gene flow, such as reinforcement or sympatric speciation, is present in nature.  (+info)

Genetic structure of Anopheles gambiae populations on islands in northwestern Lake Victoria, Uganda. (6/998)

BACKGROUND: Alternative means of malaria control are urgently needed. Evaluating the effectiveness of measures that involve genetic manipulation of vector populations will be facilitated by identifying small, genetically isolated vector populations. The study was designed to use variation in microsatellite markers to look at genetic structure across four Lake Victoria islands and two surrounding mainland populations and for evidence of any restriction to free gene flow. METHODS: Four Islands (from 20-50 km apart) and two surrounding mainland populations (96 km apart) were studied. Samples of indoor resting adult mosquitoes, collected over two consecutive years, were genotyped at microsatellite loci distributed broadly throughout the genome and analysed for genetic structure, effective migration (Nem) and effective population size (Ne). RESULTS: Ne estimates showed island populations to consist of smaller demes compared to the mainland ones. Most populations were significantly differentiated geographically, and from one year to the other. Average geographic pair-wise FST ranged from 0.014-0.105 and several pairs of populations had Ne m < 3. The loci showed broad heterogeneity at capturing or estimating population differences. CONCLUSION: These island populations are significantly genetically differentiated. Differences reoccurred over the study period, between the two mainland populations and between each other. This appears to be the product of their separation by water, dynamics of small populations and local adaptation. With further characterisation these islands could become possible sites for applying measures evaluating effectiveness of control by genetic manipulation.  (+info)

Phylogeographic history and gene flow among giant Galapagos tortoises on southern Isabela Island. (7/998)

Volcanic islands represent excellent models with which to study the effect of vicariance on colonization and dispersal, particularly when the evolution of genetic diversity mirrors the sequence of geological events that led to island formation. Phylogeographic inference, however, can be particularly challenging for recent dispersal events within islands, where the antagonistic effects of land bridge formation and vicariance can affect movements of organisms with limited dispersal ability. We investigated levels of genetic divergence and recovered signatures of dispersal events for 631 Galapagos giant tortoises across the volcanoes of Sierra Negra and Cerro Azul on the island of Isabela. These volcanoes are among the most recent formations in the Galapagos (<0.7 million years), and previous studies based on genetic and morphological data could not recover a consistent pattern of lineage sorting. We integrated nested clade analysis of mitochondrial DNA control region sequences, to infer historical patterns of colonization, and a novel Bayesian multilocus genotyping method for recovering evidence of recent migration across volcanoes using eleven microsatellite loci. These genetic studies illuminate taxonomic distinctions as well as provide guidance to possible repatriation programs aimed at countering the rapid population declines of these spectacular animals.  (+info)

Effective seed dispersal across a fragmented landscape. (8/998)

The role of seed dispersal in maintaining genetic connectivity among forest fragments has largely been ignored because gene flow by pollen is expected to predominate. By using genealogical reconstruction, we investigated gene flow after establishment of seeds in a wind-pollinated, wind-dispersed tree. Our data show that seed dispersal is the main vector of gene flow among remnants and that long-distance dispersal is common across a chronically fragmented landscape. The relative importance of seed-mediated gene flow may have been underemphasized in other fragmented systems, and diagnosing the response of forest trees to current anthropogenic disturbances requires the assessment of phenomena after establishment.  (+info)

Gene flow, also known as genetic migration or gene admixture, refers to the transfer of genetic variation from one population to another. It occurs when individuals reproduce and exchange genes with members of other populations through processes such as migration and interbreeding. This can result in an alteration of the genetic composition of both populations, increasing genetic diversity and reducing the differences between them. Gene flow is an important mechanism in evolutionary biology and population genetics, contributing to the distribution and frequency of alleles (versions of a gene) within and across populations.

Population Genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with the genetic composition of populations and how this composition changes over time. It involves the study of the frequency and distribution of genes and genetic variations in populations, as well as the evolutionary forces that contribute to these patterns, such as mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection.

Population genetics can provide insights into a wide range of topics, including the history and relationships between populations, the genetic basis of diseases and other traits, and the potential impacts of environmental changes on genetic diversity. This field is important for understanding evolutionary processes at the population level and has applications in areas such as conservation biology, medical genetics, and forensic science.

Genetic variation refers to the differences in DNA sequences among individuals and populations. These variations can result from mutations, genetic recombination, or gene flow between populations. Genetic variation is essential for evolution by providing the raw material upon which natural selection acts. It can occur within a single gene, between different genes, or at larger scales, such as differences in the number of chromosomes or entire sets of chromosomes. The study of genetic variation is crucial in understanding the genetic basis of diseases and traits, as well as the evolutionary history and relationships among species.

Genetic speciation is not a widely used term in the scientific literature, but it generally refers to the process by which new species arise due to genetic differences and reproductive isolation. This process can occur through various mechanisms such as mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, natural selection, or chromosomal changes that lead to the accumulation of genetic differences between populations. Over time, these genetic differences can result in the development of reproductive barriers that prevent interbreeding between the populations, leading to the formation of new species.

In other words, genetic speciation is a type of speciation that involves the evolution of genetic differences that ultimately lead to the formation of new species. It is an essential concept in the field of evolutionary biology and genetics, as it explains how biodiversity arises over time.

Microsatellite repeats, also known as short tandem repeats (STRs), are repetitive DNA sequences made up of units of 1-6 base pairs that are repeated in a head-to-tail manner. These repeats are spread throughout the human genome and are highly polymorphic, meaning they can have different numbers of repeat units in different individuals.

Microsatellites are useful as genetic markers because of their high degree of variability. They are commonly used in forensic science to identify individuals, in genealogy to trace ancestry, and in medical research to study genetic diseases and disorders. Mutations in microsatellite repeats have been associated with various neurological conditions, including Huntington's disease and fragile X syndrome.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "geography" is not a term that has a medical definition. Geography is a field of study that deals with the location and distribution of physical and cultural features on Earth's surface, as well as how humans interact with and affect those features. It is not a concept that is typically used in a medical context. If you have any questions related to medicine or healthcare, I would be happy to try to help answer them for you!

Regional blood flow (RBF) refers to the rate at which blood flows through a specific region or organ in the body, typically expressed in milliliters per minute per 100 grams of tissue (ml/min/100g). It is an essential physiological parameter that reflects the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to tissues while removing waste products. RBF can be affected by various factors such as metabolic demands, neural regulation, hormonal influences, and changes in blood pressure or vascular resistance. Measuring RBF is crucial for understanding organ function, diagnosing diseases, and evaluating the effectiveness of treatments.

Blood flow velocity is the speed at which blood travels through a specific part of the vascular system. It is typically measured in units of distance per time, such as centimeters per second (cm/s) or meters per second (m/s). Blood flow velocity can be affected by various factors, including cardiac output, vessel diameter, and viscosity of the blood. Measuring blood flow velocity is important in diagnosing and monitoring various medical conditions, such as heart disease, stroke, and peripheral vascular disease.

Genetic hybridization is a biological process that involves the crossing of two individuals from different populations or species, which can lead to the creation of offspring with new combinations of genetic material. This occurs when the gametes (sex cells) from each parent combine during fertilization, resulting in a zygote with a unique genetic makeup.

In genetics, hybridization can also refer to the process of introducing new genetic material into an organism through various means, such as genetic engineering or selective breeding. This type of hybridization is often used in agriculture and biotechnology to create crops or animals with desirable traits, such as increased disease resistance or higher yields.

It's important to note that the term "hybrid" can refer to both crosses between different populations within a single species (intraspecific hybrids) and crosses between different species (interspecific hybrids). The latter is often more challenging, as significant genetic differences between the two parental species can lead to various reproductive barriers, making it difficult for the hybrid offspring to produce viable offspring of their own.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is the genetic material present in the mitochondria, which are specialized structures within cells that generate energy. Unlike nuclear DNA, which is present in the cell nucleus and inherited from both parents, mtDNA is inherited solely from the mother.

MtDNA is a circular molecule that contains 37 genes, including 13 genes that encode for proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation, a process that generates energy in the form of ATP. The remaining genes encode for rRNAs and tRNAs, which are necessary for protein synthesis within the mitochondria.

Mutations in mtDNA can lead to a variety of genetic disorders, including mitochondrial diseases, which can affect any organ system in the body. These mutations can also be used in forensic science to identify individuals and establish biological relationships.

Animal migration is a seasonal movement of animals from one place to another, typically over long distances, to find food, reproduce, or escape harsh conditions. This phenomenon is observed in various species, including birds, mammals, fish, and insects. The routes and destinations of these migrations are often genetically programmed and can be quite complex. Animal migration has important ecological consequences and is influenced by factors such as climate change, habitat loss, and human activities.

Flow cytometry is a medical and research technique used to measure physical and chemical characteristics of cells or particles, one cell at a time, as they flow in a fluid stream through a beam of light. The properties measured include:

* Cell size (light scatter)
* Cell internal complexity (granularity, also light scatter)
* Presence or absence of specific proteins or other molecules on the cell surface or inside the cell (using fluorescent antibodies or other fluorescent probes)

The technique is widely used in cell counting, cell sorting, protein engineering, biomarker discovery and monitoring disease progression, particularly in hematology, immunology, and cancer research.

Genetic structures refer to the organization and composition of genetic material, primarily DNA, that contain the information necessary for the development and function of an organism. This includes the chromosomes, genes, and regulatory elements that make up the genome.

Chromosomes are thread-like structures located in the nucleus of a cell that consist of DNA coiled around histone proteins. They come in pairs, with most species having a specific number of chromosomes in each set (diploid).

Genes are segments of DNA that code for specific proteins or RNA molecules, and they are the basic units of heredity. They can be located on chromosomes and can vary in length and complexity.

Regulatory elements are non-coding sequences of DNA that control the expression of genes by regulating when, where, and to what extent a gene is turned on or off. These elements can include promoters, enhancers, silencers, and insulators.

Overall, genetic structures provide the blueprint for an organism's traits and characteristics, and understanding their organization and function is crucial in fields such as genetics, genomics, and molecular biology.

Phylogeography is not a medical term, but rather a subfield of biogeography and phylogenetics that investigates the spatial distribution of genealogical lineages and the historical processes that have shaped them. It uses genetic data to infer the geographic origins, dispersal routes, and demographic history of organisms, including pathogens and vectors that can affect human health.

In medical and public health contexts, phylogeography is often used to study the spread of infectious diseases, such as HIV/AIDS, influenza, or tuberculosis, by analyzing the genetic diversity and geographic distribution of pathogen isolates. This information can help researchers understand how diseases emerge, evolve, and move across populations and landscapes, which can inform disease surveillance, control, and prevention strategies.

Reproductive isolation is a concept in reproductive biology and evolutionary biology that refers to the mechanisms that prevent interbreeding between two populations of organisms, leading to their genetic separation and potential speciation. These mechanisms can be prezygotic (preventing the formation of a viable zygote) or postzygotic (preventing the successful development of offspring). Prezygotic isolation includes temporal isolation (different mating times), behavioral isolation (different courtship behaviors), mechanical isolation (physical incompatibility between gametes), and gametic isolation (inviable or non-functional gametes when crossed). Postzygotic isolation includes hybrid inviability (hybrid offspring die early) and hybrid sterility (hybrid offspring are unable to reproduce). Reproductive isolation is crucial for the formation of new species and the maintenance of biodiversity.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution that causes changes in the frequency of alleles (versions of a gene) in a population due to random sampling. It occurs when the sample size is small, and therefore the genetic variation may not reflect the population's genetic diversity as a whole. This can lead to the loss of certain alleles and an increase in others, even if those alleles are not necessarily advantageous or disadvantageous. Genetic drift can be a significant factor in shaping the genetic composition of small, isolated populations and can result in the fixation (complete loss or gain) of particular alleles over time.

Population dynamics, in the context of public health and epidemiology, refers to the study of the changes in size and structure of a population over time, as well as the factors that contribute to those changes. This can include birth rates, death rates, migration patterns, aging, and other demographic characteristics. Understanding population dynamics is crucial for planning and implementing public health interventions, such as vaccination programs or disease prevention strategies, as they allow researchers and policymakers to identify vulnerable populations, predict future health trends, and evaluate the impact of public health initiatives.

Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) analysis is a molecular biology technique used for DNA fingerprinting, genetic mapping, and population genetics studies. It is based on the selective amplification of restriction fragments from a total digest of genomic DNA, followed by separation and detection of the resulting fragments using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.

In AFLP analysis, genomic DNA is first digested with two different restriction enzymes, one that cuts frequently (e.g., EcoRI) and another that cuts less frequently (e.g., MseI). The resulting fragments are then ligated to adapter sequences that provide recognition sites for PCR amplification.

Selective amplification of the restriction fragments is achieved by using primers that anneal to the adapter sequences and contain additional selective nucleotides at their 3' ends. This allows for the amplification of a subset of the total number of restriction fragments, resulting in a pattern of bands that is specific to the DNA sample being analyzed.

The amplified fragments are then separated by size using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and visualized by staining with a fluorescent dye. The resulting banding pattern can be used for various applications, including identification of genetic differences between individuals, detection of genomic alterations in cancer cells, and analysis of population structure and diversity.

Overall, AFLP analysis is a powerful tool for the study of complex genomes and has been widely used in various fields of biology, including plant and animal breeding, forensic science, and medical research.

A haplotype is a group of genes or DNA sequences that are inherited together from a single parent. It refers to a combination of alleles (variant forms of a gene) that are located on the same chromosome and are usually transmitted as a unit. Haplotypes can be useful in tracing genetic ancestry, understanding the genetic basis of diseases, and developing personalized medical treatments.

In population genetics, haplotypes are often used to study patterns of genetic variation within and between populations. By comparing haplotype frequencies across populations, researchers can infer historical events such as migrations, population expansions, and bottlenecks. Additionally, haplotypes can provide information about the evolutionary history of genes and genomic regions.

In clinical genetics, haplotypes can be used to identify genetic risk factors for diseases or to predict an individual's response to certain medications. For example, specific haplotypes in the HLA gene region have been associated with increased susceptibility to certain autoimmune diseases, while other haplotypes in the CYP450 gene family can affect how individuals metabolize drugs.

Overall, haplotypes provide a powerful tool for understanding the genetic basis of complex traits and diseases, as well as for developing personalized medical treatments based on an individual's genetic makeup.

Pollen, in a medical context, refers to the fine powder-like substance produced by the male reproductive organ of seed plants. It contains microscopic grains known as pollen grains, which are transported by various means such as wind, water, or insects to the female reproductive organ of the same or another plant species for fertilization.

Pollen can cause allergic reactions in some individuals, particularly during the spring and summer months when plants release large amounts of pollen into the air. These allergies, also known as hay fever or seasonal allergic rhinitis, can result in symptoms such as sneezing, runny nose, congestion, itchy eyes, and coughing.

It is important to note that while all pollen has the potential to cause allergic reactions, certain types of plants, such as ragweed, grasses, and trees, are more likely to trigger symptoms in sensitive individuals.

A gene pool refers to the total sum of genes contained within a population of interbreeding individuals of a species. It includes all the variations of genes, or alleles, that exist in that population. The concept of a gene pool is important in understanding genetic diversity and how traits are passed down from one generation to the next.

The size and diversity of a gene pool can have significant implications for the long-term survival and adaptability of a species. A larger and more diverse gene pool can provide a species with greater resistance to diseases, environmental changes, and other threats, as there is a wider variety of traits and genetic combinations available. On the other hand, a smaller or less diverse gene pool may make a species more susceptible to genetic disorders, reduced fitness, and extinction.

Geneticists and population biologists often study gene pools to understand the evolutionary history and dynamics of populations, as well as to inform conservation efforts for endangered species.

Genetic models are theoretical frameworks used in genetics to describe and explain the inheritance patterns and genetic architecture of traits, diseases, or phenomena. These models are based on mathematical equations and statistical methods that incorporate information about gene frequencies, modes of inheritance, and the effects of environmental factors. They can be used to predict the probability of certain genetic outcomes, to understand the genetic basis of complex traits, and to inform medical management and treatment decisions.

There are several types of genetic models, including:

1. Mendelian models: These models describe the inheritance patterns of simple genetic traits that follow Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment. Examples include autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked inheritance.
2. Complex trait models: These models describe the inheritance patterns of complex traits that are influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors. Examples include heart disease, diabetes, and cancer.
3. Population genetics models: These models describe the distribution and frequency of genetic variants within populations over time. They can be used to study evolutionary processes, such as natural selection and genetic drift.
4. Quantitative genetics models: These models describe the relationship between genetic variation and phenotypic variation in continuous traits, such as height or IQ. They can be used to estimate heritability and to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that contribute to trait variation.
5. Statistical genetics models: These models use statistical methods to analyze genetic data and infer the presence of genetic associations or linkage. They can be used to identify genetic risk factors for diseases or traits.

Overall, genetic models are essential tools in genetics research and medical genetics, as they allow researchers to make predictions about genetic outcomes, test hypotheses about the genetic basis of traits and diseases, and develop strategies for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.

I'm not aware of any medical definition for the term "Gibraltar." In general, Gibraltar is a British Overseas Territory located at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula. It is known for its iconic Rock of Gibraltar, a large limestone promontory. If you're referring to a different context or a specific medical term that uses "Gibraltar," please provide more information so I can give a more accurate response.

An "ecosystem" is not a term that has a specific medical definition, as it is a concept that is more commonly used in the fields of ecology and environmental science. However, I can provide you with the general ecological definition of an ecosystem:

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms interacting with each other and their non-living environment, including both biotic factors (plants, animals, microorganisms) and abiotic factors (climate, soil, water, and air). These interactions create a complex network of relationships that form the foundation of ecological processes, such as energy flow, nutrient cycling, and population dynamics.

While there is no direct medical definition for an ecosystem, understanding the principles of ecosystems can have important implications for human health. For example, healthy ecosystems can provide clean air and water, regulate climate, support food production, and offer opportunities for recreation and relaxation, all of which contribute to overall well-being. Conversely, degraded ecosystems can lead to increased exposure to environmental hazards, reduced access to natural resources, and heightened risks of infectious diseases. Therefore, maintaining the health and integrity of ecosystems is crucial for promoting human health and preventing disease.

Molecular evolution is the process of change in the DNA sequence or protein structure over time, driven by mechanisms such as mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and natural selection. It refers to the evolutionary study of changes in DNA, RNA, and proteins, and how these changes accumulate and lead to new species and diversity of life. Molecular evolution can be used to understand the history and relationships among different organisms, as well as the functional consequences of genetic changes.

Sympatry is a term used in biology and ecology, including in the study of human health and disease, to describe the situation where two or more species or populations coexist in the same geographical area and often interact with each other. In medical contexts, sympatry may refer to the co-occurrence of two or more diseases or pathogens within a particular population or geographic region.

For example, in epidemiology, sympatric distribution of infectious diseases can occur when multiple pathogens are transmitted by the same vector or host species, leading to overlapping distributions and potential interactions between the diseases. This can have implications for disease surveillance, control, and prevention efforts.

It is important to note that sympatry should not be confused with symbiosis, which refers to a close and often long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms, typically involving mutual benefits or cooperation.

Genetic selection, also known as natural selection, is a fundamental mechanism of evolution. It refers to the process by which certain heritable traits become more or less common in a population over successive generations due to differential reproduction of organisms with those traits.

In genetic selection, traits that increase an individual's fitness (its ability to survive and reproduce) are more likely to be passed on to the next generation, while traits that decrease fitness are less likely to be passed on. This results in a gradual change in the distribution of traits within a population over time, leading to adaptation to the environment and potentially speciation.

Genetic selection can occur through various mechanisms, including viability selection (differential survival), fecundity selection (differences in reproductive success), and sexual selection (choices made by individuals during mating). The process of genetic selection is driven by environmental pressures, such as predation, competition for resources, and changes in the availability of food or habitat.

Reproduction, in the context of biology and medicine, refers to the process by which organisms produce offspring. It is a complex process that involves the creation, development, and growth of new individuals from parent organisms. In sexual reproduction, this process typically involves the combination of genetic material from two parents through the fusion of gametes (sex cells) such as sperm and egg cells. This results in the formation of a zygote, which then develops into a new individual with a unique genetic makeup.

In contrast, asexual reproduction does not involve the fusion of gametes and can occur through various mechanisms such as budding, fragmentation, or parthenogenesis. Asexual reproduction results in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent organism.

Reproduction is a fundamental process that ensures the survival and continuation of species over time. It is also an area of active research in fields such as reproductive medicine, where scientists and clinicians work to understand and address issues related to human fertility, contraception, and genetic disorders.

Biological evolution is the change in the genetic composition of populations of organisms over time, from one generation to the next. It is a process that results in descendants differing genetically from their ancestors. Biological evolution can be driven by several mechanisms, including natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation. These processes can lead to changes in the frequency of alleles (variants of a gene) within populations, resulting in the development of new species and the extinction of others over long periods of time. Biological evolution provides a unifying explanation for the diversity of life on Earth and is supported by extensive evidence from many different fields of science, including genetics, paleontology, comparative anatomy, and biogeography.

Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.

For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "pollination" is not a term typically used in medical definitions. Pollination is a process in biology, specifically in botany, that refers to the transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organ (anther) of a flower to the female reproductive organ (stigma) of the same or another flower, leading to fertilization and the production of fruits and seeds.

If you have any medical terms or concepts in mind, please provide them so I can offer an accurate definition or explanation.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Atlantic Ocean" is a geographical term referring to one of the five oceans on Earth. It doesn't have a medical definition. The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest ocean, covering approximately 20% of the Earth's surface. It stretches from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean (or, alternatively, to the Antarctica region) in the south, and is bounded by the Americas to the west and Europe and Africa to the east.

Northern Africa is a geographical region that broadly consists of the countries of the African Transverse, which are Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, and Western Sahara. Sometimes, it may also include Sudan, South Sudan, and Mauritania. This region is characterized by its proximity to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlas Mountains, as well as its unique cultural and historical heritage. Northern Africa has a diverse climate, with a hot, dry desert climate in the interior and a milder, wetter climate along the coasts. The major languages spoken in this region include Arabic, Berber, and French.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

Pulsatile flow is a type of fluid flow that occurs in a rhythmic, wave-like pattern, typically seen in the cardiovascular system. It refers to the periodic variation in the volume or velocity of a fluid (such as blood) that is caused by the regular beating of the heart. In pulsatile flow, there are periods of high flow followed by periods of low or no flow, which creates a distinct pattern on a graph or tracing. This type of flow is important for maintaining proper function and health in organs and tissues throughout the body.

An endangered species is a species of animal, plant, or other organism that is at risk of becoming extinct because its population is declining or threatened by changing environmental or demographic factors. This term is defined and used in the context of conservation biology and wildlife management to identify species that need protection and preservation efforts.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) maintains a "Red List" of species, categorizing them based on their extinction risk. The categories include "Critically Endangered," "Endangered," "Vulnerable," and "Near Threatened." A species is considered endangered if it meets certain criteria indicating that it faces a very high risk of extinction in the wild.

The primary causes for species to become endangered include habitat loss, fragmentation, degradation, pollution, climate change, overexploitation, and introduction of invasive species. Conservation efforts often focus on protecting habitats, managing threats, and implementing recovery programs to help endangered species recover their populations and reduce the risk of extinction.

Gene frequency, also known as allele frequency, is a measure in population genetics that reflects the proportion of a particular gene or allele (variant of a gene) in a given population. It is calculated as the number of copies of a specific allele divided by the total number of all alleles at that genetic locus in the population.

For example, if we consider a gene with two possible alleles, A and a, the gene frequency of allele A (denoted as p) can be calculated as follows:

p = (number of copies of allele A) / (total number of all alleles at that locus)

Similarly, the gene frequency of allele a (denoted as q) would be:

q = (number of copies of allele a) / (total number of all alleles at that locus)

Since there are only two possible alleles for this gene in this example, p + q = 1. These frequencies can help researchers understand genetic diversity and evolutionary processes within populations.

"Butterflies" is not a medical term, but rather a colloquial or informal term that is often used to describe a feeling of nervousness or excitement in the stomach. It is thought to be due to the release of adrenaline and the increased heart rate and breathing that can occur when someone is anxious or excited. The sensation may be caused by the contraction of the muscles in the stomach, which can feel like fluttering or flips. This feeling is not a medical condition and does not typically require treatment, but if it is severe or persistent, it may be helpful to speak with a healthcare provider to address any underlying anxiety or stress.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "population density" is actually a term used in population geography and epidemiology, rather than medical terminology. It refers to the number of people living in a specific area or region, usually measured as the number of people per square mile or square kilometer.

However, understanding population density can be important in public health and medicine because it can influence various factors related to health outcomes and healthcare delivery, such as:

1. Disease transmission rates: Higher population densities can facilitate the spread of infectious diseases, particularly those that are transmitted through close contact between individuals.
2. Access to healthcare services: Areas with lower population density might have fewer healthcare resources and providers available, making it more challenging for residents to access necessary medical care.
3. Health disparities: Population density can contribute to health inequities, as urban areas often have better access to healthcare, education, and economic opportunities than rural areas, leading to differences in health outcomes between these populations.
4. Environmental factors: Higher population densities might lead to increased pollution, noise, and other environmental hazards that can negatively impact health.

Therefore, while "population density" is not a medical definition per se, it remains an essential concept for understanding various public health and healthcare issues.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Seed Dispersal" is not a term typically used in medical definitions. It is a concept from botany and ecology, referring to the various methods by which plants distribute their seeds away from the parent plant. This can occur through mechanisms such as wind, water, or animal dispersal. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I'd be happy to help with those instead!

Inbreeding, in a medical context, refers to the practice of mating closely related individuals within a given family or breeding population. This leads to an increased proportion of homozygous genes, meaning that the same alleles (versions of a gene) are inherited from both parents. As a result, recessive traits and disorders become more likely to be expressed because the necessary dominant allele may be absent.

In human medicine, consanguinity is the term often used instead of inbreeding, and it refers to relationships between individuals who share a common ancestor. Consanguinity increases the risk of certain genetic disorders due to the increased likelihood of sharing harmful recessive genes. The closer the relationship, the higher the risk.

In animal breeding, inbreeding can lead to reduced fertility, lower birth weights, higher infant mortality, and a decreased lifespan. It is crucial to maintain genetic diversity within populations to ensure their overall health and vigor.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the genetic material present in the cells of all living organisms, including plants. In plants, DNA is located in the nucleus of a cell, as well as in chloroplasts and mitochondria. Plant DNA contains the instructions for the development, growth, and function of the plant, and is passed down from one generation to the next through the process of reproduction.

The structure of DNA is a double helix, formed by two strands of nucleotides that are linked together by hydrogen bonds. Each nucleotide contains a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming the rungs of the ladder that make up the double helix.

The genetic information in DNA is encoded in the sequence of these nitrogenous bases. Large sequences of bases form genes, which provide the instructions for the production of proteins. The process of gene expression involves transcribing the DNA sequence into a complementary RNA molecule, which is then translated into a protein.

Plant DNA is similar to animal DNA in many ways, but there are also some differences. For example, plant DNA contains a higher proportion of repetitive sequences and transposable elements, which are mobile genetic elements that can move around the genome and cause mutations. Additionally, plant cells have cell walls and chloroplasts, which are not present in animal cells, and these structures contain their own DNA.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "trees" is not a medical term. It is a common term used in various fields, including biology, ecology, and dendrology, to refer to a woody perennial plant with a single stem or trunk that supports branches and leaves in most species.

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, please provide more context so I can offer an accurate and helpful response.

I apologize for any confusion, but "Lecythidaceae" is not a medical term. It is a taxonomic category in botany, referring to a family of flowering plants known as the Brazil nut family. This family includes several genera of trees that are native to tropical regions of the Americas and Africa. The seeds of some species in this family, such as the Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa), are edible and economically important.

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health sciences, I would be happy to help!

"Quercus" is not a medical term. It is the genus name for oak trees in the plant kingdom, specifically within the family Fagaceae. Some people may confuse it with "Quercetin," which is a type of flavonoid antioxidant commonly found in many plants, including oak trees. Quercetin has been studied for its potential health benefits, such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, but it is not specific to oak trees.

Genetic markers are specific segments of DNA that are used in genetic mapping and genotyping to identify specific genetic locations, diseases, or traits. They can be composed of short tandem repeats (STRs), single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), or variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs). These markers are useful in various fields such as genetic research, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and breeding programs. They can help to track inheritance patterns, identify genetic predispositions to diseases, and solve crimes by linking biological evidence to suspects or victims.

An allele is a variant form of a gene that is located at a specific position on a specific chromosome. Alleles are alternative forms of the same gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same locus or position on homologous chromosomes.

Each person typically inherits two copies of each gene, one from each parent. If the two alleles are identical, a person is said to be homozygous for that trait. If the alleles are different, the person is heterozygous.

For example, the ABO blood group system has three alleles, A, B, and O, which determine a person's blood type. If a person inherits two A alleles, they will have type A blood; if they inherit one A and one B allele, they will have type AB blood; if they inherit two B alleles, they will have type B blood; and if they inherit two O alleles, they will have type O blood.

Alleles can also influence traits such as eye color, hair color, height, and other physical characteristics. Some alleles are dominant, meaning that only one copy of the allele is needed to express the trait, while others are recessive, meaning that two copies of the allele are needed to express the trait.

Bayes' theorem, also known as Bayes' rule or Bayes' formula, is a fundamental principle in the field of statistics and probability theory. It describes how to update the probability of a hypothesis based on new evidence or data. The theorem is named after Reverend Thomas Bayes, who first formulated it in the 18th century.

In mathematical terms, Bayes' theorem states that the posterior probability of a hypothesis (H) given some observed evidence (E) is proportional to the product of the prior probability of the hypothesis (P(H)) and the likelihood of observing the evidence given the hypothesis (P(E|H)):

Posterior Probability = P(H|E) = [P(E|H) x P(H)] / P(E)

Where:

* P(H|E): The posterior probability of the hypothesis H after observing evidence E. This is the probability we want to calculate.
* P(E|H): The likelihood of observing evidence E given that the hypothesis H is true.
* P(H): The prior probability of the hypothesis H before observing any evidence.
* P(E): The marginal likelihood or probability of observing evidence E, regardless of whether the hypothesis H is true or not. This value can be calculated as the sum of the products of the likelihood and prior probability for all possible hypotheses: P(E) = Σ[P(E|Hi) x P(Hi)]

Bayes' theorem has many applications in various fields, including medicine, where it can be used to update the probability of a disease diagnosis based on test results or other clinical findings. It is also widely used in machine learning and artificial intelligence algorithms for probabilistic reasoning and decision making under uncertainty.

I apologize for any confusion, but "Pinus" is not a medical term. It is the genus name for a group of plants commonly known as pine trees, which belong to the family Pinaceae in the kingdom Plantae. These evergreen coniferous resinous trees are widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere, with some species also found in the Southern Hemisphere.

If you have any medical terms or concepts that you would like me to define or explain, please feel free to ask!

A genetic locus (plural: loci) is a specific location on a chromosome where a particular gene or DNA sequence is found. It is the precise position where a specific genetic element, such as a gene or marker, is located on a chromsomere. This location is defined in terms of its relationship to other genetic markers and features on the same chromosome. Genetic loci can be used in linkage and association studies to identify the inheritance patterns and potential relationships between genes and various traits or diseases.

Human Y chromosomes are one of the two sex-determining chromosomes in humans (the other being the X chromosome). They are found in the 23rd pair of human chromosomes and are significantly smaller than the X chromosome.

The Y chromosome is passed down from father to son through the paternal line, and it plays a crucial role in male sex determination. The SRY gene (sex-determining region Y) on the Y chromosome initiates the development of male sexual characteristics during embryonic development.

In addition to the SRY gene, the human Y chromosome contains several other genes that are essential for sperm production and male fertility. However, the Y chromosome has a much lower gene density compared to other chromosomes, with only about 80 protein-coding genes, making it one of the most gene-poor chromosomes in the human genome.

Because of its small size and low gene density, the Y chromosome is particularly susceptible to genetic mutations and deletions, which can lead to various genetic disorders and male infertility. Nonetheless, the Y chromosome remains a critical component of human genetics and evolution, providing valuable insights into sex determination, inheritance patterns, and human diversity.

In medical terms, "seeds" are often referred to as a small amount of a substance, such as a radioactive material or drug, that is inserted into a tissue or placed inside a capsule for the purpose of treating a medical condition. This can include procedures like brachytherapy, where seeds containing radioactive materials are used in the treatment of cancer to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Similarly, in some forms of drug delivery, seeds containing medication can be used to gradually release the drug into the body over an extended period of time.

It's important to note that "seeds" have different meanings and applications depending on the medical context. In other cases, "seeds" may simply refer to small particles or structures found in the body, such as those present in the eye's retina.

Central America is a geographical region that connects North America and South America. It is made up of seven countries: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. The eastern coast of Central America is bordered by the Caribbean Sea, while the western coast is bordered by the Pacific Ocean.

The region is characterized by its diverse geography, which includes lowland rainforests, volcanic mountain ranges, and coastal plains. It is also home to a wide range of plant and animal species, many of which are found nowhere else in the world.

Culturally, Central America is a melting pot of indigenous, African, and European influences. The region has a rich history of Mayan civilization, as well as Spanish colonialism. Today, the countries of Central America have diverse economies, with agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism being major industries.

Genetic polymorphism refers to the occurrence of multiple forms (called alleles) of a particular gene within a population. These variations in the DNA sequence do not generally affect the function or survival of the organism, but they can contribute to differences in traits among individuals. Genetic polymorphisms can be caused by single nucleotide changes (SNPs), insertions or deletions of DNA segments, or other types of genetic rearrangements. They are important for understanding genetic diversity and evolution, as well as for identifying genetic factors that may contribute to disease susceptibility in humans.

Demography is the statistical study of populations, particularly in terms of size, distribution, and characteristics such as age, race, gender, and occupation. In medical contexts, demography is often used to analyze health-related data and trends within specific populations. This can include studying the prevalence of certain diseases or conditions, identifying disparities in healthcare access and outcomes, and evaluating the effectiveness of public health interventions. Demographic data can also be used to inform policy decisions and allocate resources to address population health needs.

I am not aware of a medical definition for the term "Eagles." It is possible that you may be referring to a condition called "aquilegia," which is a genus of flowering plants commonly known as columbines. There is also no widely recognized medical condition or pathology named after the bird species known as eagles. If you have more context or information about where you encountered this term, I'd be happy to help you further!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Fraxinus" is not a medical term. It is the genus name for ash trees in the plant kingdom. If you have any questions about medical terminology or concepts, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you!

I'm happy to help! However, it looks like there might be a bit of confusion in your question. "Human migration" is not a medical term per se, but rather a sociological or anthropological concept that refers to the large-scale movement of human populations from one area to another.

That being said, human migration can certainly have significant impacts on health and healthcare systems, both for the migrating populations themselves and for the communities they move into. For example, migrants may face language barriers, discrimination, or other challenges that affect their access to care, while also potentially bringing new diseases or health risks into a community.

In summary, while "human migration" is not a medical definition in and of itself, it is an important concept to consider in the context of public health and healthcare delivery.

Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) refers to the genetic material present in the chloroplasts, which are organelles found in the cells of photosynthetic organisms such as plants, algae, and some bacteria. Chloroplasts are responsible for capturing sunlight energy and converting it into chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis.

Chloroplast DNA is circular and contains a small number of genes compared to the nuclear genome. It encodes for some of the essential components required for chloroplast function, including proteins involved in photosynthesis, transcription, and translation. The majority of chloroplast proteins are encoded by the nuclear genome and are imported into the chloroplast after being synthesized in the cytoplasm.

Chloroplast DNA is inherited maternally in most plants, meaning that it is passed down from the maternal parent to their offspring through the egg cell. This mode of inheritance has been used in plant breeding and genetic engineering to introduce desirable traits into crops.

"Ranunculus" is a term that refers to a genus of flowering plants, and it does not have a specific medical definition. However, some species within the Ranunculus genus are known to contain toxic compounds that can cause symptoms such as skin irritation, gastrointestinal distress, and in severe cases, organ damage if ingested.

The most well-known medically relevant species is likely "buttercups" (Ranunculus spp.), which can cause contact dermatitis and blistering of the skin upon contact. Ingesting large quantities of buttercups can lead to gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.

It's worth noting that while some Ranunculus species have medicinal uses, they should only be used under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional due to their potential toxicity.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Mediterranean Region" is not a term with a specific medical definition. The Mediterranean Region typically refers to the geographical area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, including countries in Southern Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia. However, in a medical context, it might refer to the study of diseases or health characteristics typical of certain populations in this region. For example, the "Mediterranean diet" is a popular term in nutrition and medicine, referring to the traditional eating habits in Mediterranean countries, which are associated with numerous health benefits. If you're looking for medical information related to a specific aspect of the Mediterranean Region or its population, please provide more context so I can give you a more accurate response.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "South America" is not a medical term. It is a geographical term that refers to the southern portion of the Americas, which is a continent in the Western Hemisphere. South America is generally defined as including the countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela, as well as the overseas departments and territories of French Guiana (France), and the Falkland Islands (UK).

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to help answer them for you.

Agricultural crops refer to plants that are grown and harvested for the purpose of human or animal consumption, fiber production, or other uses such as biofuels. These crops can include grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and legumes, among others. They are typically cultivated using various farming practices, including traditional row cropping, companion planting, permaculture, and organic farming methods. The choice of crop and farming method depends on factors such as the local climate, soil conditions, and market demand. Proper management of agricultural crops is essential for ensuring food security, promoting sustainable agriculture, and protecting the environment.

Emigration is the process of leaving one's country of origin or habitual residence to settle in another country. It involves giving up the rights and privileges associated with citizenship in the country of origin and acquiring new rights and responsibilities as a citizen or resident of the destination country. Emigrants are people who choose to leave their native land to live elsewhere, often driven by factors such as economic opportunities, political instability, or conflict.

Immigration, on the other hand, is the process of entering and settling in a new country with the intention of becoming a permanent resident or citizen. Immigrants are individuals who come from another country to live in a new place, often seeking better job opportunities, education, or quality of life. They must comply with the immigration laws and regulations of the host country and may be required to undergo medical examinations, background checks, and other screening processes before being granted permission to enter and reside in the country.

In summary, emigration refers to leaving one's home country, while immigration refers to entering and settling in a new country.

I'm happy to help! However, I must clarify that "organic agriculture" is not a medical term but rather a term used in the context of farming and food production. According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), "organic agriculture" is defined as:

A production system that is managed to respond to site-specific conditions by integrating cultural, biological, and mechanical practices that foster cycling of resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity. Synthetic fertilizers, sewage sludge, irradiation, and genetic engineering may not be used.

This definition emphasizes the importance of using natural and sustainable methods to grow crops and raise animals without relying on synthetic chemicals or genetically modified organisms (GMOs). The goal is to promote a healthy and diverse ecosystem while producing food that is safe and nutritious for consumers.

While "organic agriculture" may not be a medical term, there are potential health benefits associated with consuming organic foods, such as lower exposure to pesticide residues and antibiotic-resistant bacteria. However, more research is needed to fully understand the health impacts of organic versus conventionally grown foods.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Mediterranean Sea" is a geographical term referring to the body of water located between Europe and Africa, and it is not a medical term. It is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar in the west and to the Red Sea through the Suez Canal in the east. The Mediterranean Sea is known for its unique climate and biodiversity. If you have any questions related to medical or health topics, I would be happy to try to help with those!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Pacific Ocean" is a geographical term referring to the largest single body of saltwater on Earth, extending from the Arctic in the north to the Antarctic in the south. It covers an area of about 63,800,000 square miles (165,200,000 square kilometers).

If you're looking for a medical term or definition, I'd be happy to help with that as well. Could you please provide more context?

Ecology is not a medical term, but rather a term used in the field of biology. It refers to the study of the relationships between living organisms and their environment. This includes how organisms interact with each other and with their physical surroundings, such as climate, soil, and water. Ecologists may study the distribution and abundance of species, the flow of energy through an ecosystem, and the effects of human activities on the environment. While ecology is not a medical field, understanding ecological principles can be important for addressing public health issues related to the environment, such as pollution, climate change, and infectious diseases.

"Western Africa" is a geographical region that consists of several countries located in the western part of the African continent. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo.

The region is characterized by a diverse range of cultures, languages, and ethnic groups, as well as a variety of landscapes, including coastal areas, savannas, and deserts. Western Africa has a rich history, with many ancient kingdoms and empires having existed in the region, such as the Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, and Songhai Empire.

In medical contexts, "Western Africa" may be used to describe the epidemiology, distribution, or characteristics of various health conditions or diseases that are prevalent in this geographical region. For example, certain infectious diseases such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, and Ebola virus disease are more common in Western Africa than in other parts of the world. Therefore, medical researchers and practitioners may use the term "Western Africa" to refer to the specific health challenges and needs of the populations living in this region.

Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.

It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.

Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but it seems there might be a misunderstanding in your question. Genealogy and heraldry are two distinct subjects, each with its own definition. I will provide you with their separate definitions:

1. Genealogy - This is the study of family history, lineages, and descent. It involves researching ancestral origins, relationships, and historical records to construct a family tree or pedigree. Genealogists use various resources like birth, marriage, and death certificates; census records; church records; and DNA testing to trace the connections between individuals and families over generations.

2. Heraldry - This is the study of armorial bearings, also known as coats of arms. Heraldry involves the design, description, and use of these symbols, which were historically used by nobility, knights, and other privileged classes to identify themselves in battle, on seals, and in civic life. The heraldic elements often include shields, helmets, crests, mottoes, and other insignia that convey information about the bearer's ancestry, rank, occupation, or achievements.

While genealogy and heraldry can sometimes intersect (e.g., when studying the historical records of noble families with coats of arms), they are not inherently related as subjects within the medical field.

In the context of public health and epidemiology, a population refers to a group of individuals who share common characteristics or are defined by specific boundaries and parameters. These parameters can include geographical location, age range, sex, race, ethnicity, exposure to certain risk factors, or shared health status.

The health status and trends of a population are often studied through surveillance and research to understand the determinants of health, disease patterns, and health disparities within the group. This information is then used to inform public health policies, interventions, and programs aimed at improving the overall health and well-being of the population.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Europe" is a geographical and political designation, rather than a medical one. It refers to the continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Europe is made up of approximately 50 countries, depending on how one defines a "country."

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I'd be happy to help answer them!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Pan paniscus" is actually the scientific name for a species of primate, specifically the Bonobo or "Pygmy Chimpanzee." Here is the medical/scientific definition:

Pan paniscus, also known as the Bonobo or Pygmy Chimpanzee, is one of the two extant species in the genus Pan, the other being Pan troglodytes (the Common Chimpanzee). Bonobos are native to the Democratic Republic of Congo in Central Africa. They are smaller than Common Chimpanzees and have a more gracile build, darker coat, and distinctive hair parting down the middle of their head.

Bonobos share approximately 98.7% of their DNA with humans, making them our closest living relatives alongside Common Chimpanzees. They are highly social animals, living in complex fission-fusion communities with fluid membership. Bonobos exhibit unique behaviors such as sexual interactions to reduce tension and promote social bonding, which sets them apart from other primates, including Common Chimpanzees.

If you have any questions about veterinary medicine or animal health, please feel free to ask!

Central Africa is a geographical region that broadly includes the countries that lie near the equator and are found in the interior of the African continent. The United Nations defines Central Africa as consisting of the following countries: Angola, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Rwanda, and Sao Tome and Principe.

The region is characterized by diverse cultures, languages, and landscapes, ranging from dense rainforests to vast savannas. Central Africa is home to many important rivers, including the Congo River, which is the second longest river in Africa and the deepest river in the world. The region also contains numerous national parks and wildlife reserves that protect a diverse array of plant and animal species, including several endangered species such as mountain gorillas, chimpanzees, and forest elephants.

Central Africa faces many challenges, including political instability, poverty, and environmental degradation. The region has been plagued by conflicts and civil wars, which have resulted in significant loss of life, displacement of people, and destruction of infrastructure. Climate change and deforestation are also major concerns, as they threaten the region's biodiversity and contribute to global warming.

In terms of healthcare, Central Africa faces many challenges, including a high burden of infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, and Ebola. Access to healthcare is limited in many areas, particularly in rural communities, and there is a shortage of healthcare workers and medical facilities. In addition, the region has been affected by conflicts and humanitarian crises, which have further strained healthcare systems and made it difficult to provide adequate care to those in need.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Passeriformes" is not a medical term. It is a taxonomic category in biology, specifically an order of birds that includes over half of all bird species. Passeriformes are often referred to as perching birds or songbirds because many of them have specialized feet for perching on branches and a wide variety of vocalization capabilities. Examples of Passeriformes include sparrows, finches, robins, and crows.

"Mimulus" is a term used in the context of botany, rather than medicine. It refers to a genus of plants commonly known as "monkey flowers," which belong to the Phrymaceae family. These plants are native to North and South America and are known for their vibrant, tubular flowers that attract pollinators such as hummingbirds and bees.

While "Mimulus" is not a medical term, some species of this plant have been used in traditional medicine by indigenous peoples. For example, Mimulus guttatus (the common monkey flower) has been used in Native American medicine for treating respiratory issues, skin irritations, and gastrointestinal problems. However, it's important to note that the use of these plants as medicinal remedies should not be considered a substitute for seeking advice from a licensed healthcare professional or following evidence-based medical treatments.

"Likelihood functions" is a statistical concept that is used in medical research and other fields to estimate the probability of obtaining a given set of data, given a set of assumptions or parameters. In other words, it is a function that describes how likely it is to observe a particular outcome or result, based on a set of model parameters.

More formally, if we have a statistical model that depends on a set of parameters θ, and we observe some data x, then the likelihood function is defined as:

L(θ | x) = P(x | θ)

This means that the likelihood function describes the probability of observing the data x, given a particular value of the parameter vector θ. By convention, the likelihood function is often expressed as a function of the parameters, rather than the data, so we might instead write:

L(θ) = P(x | θ)

The likelihood function can be used to estimate the values of the model parameters that are most consistent with the observed data. This is typically done by finding the value of θ that maximizes the likelihood function, which is known as the maximum likelihood estimator (MLE). The MLE has many desirable statistical properties, including consistency, efficiency, and asymptotic normality.

In medical research, likelihood functions are often used in the context of Bayesian analysis, where they are combined with prior distributions over the model parameters to obtain posterior distributions that reflect both the observed data and prior knowledge or assumptions about the parameter values. This approach is particularly useful when there is uncertainty or ambiguity about the true value of the parameters, as it allows researchers to incorporate this uncertainty into their analyses in a principled way.

"Sorbus" is a term used in botanical nomenclature, not in medical definitions. It refers to a genus of trees and shrubs in the rose family (Rosaceae), which includes plants like rowans, whitebeams, and serviceberries. These plants have various medicinal uses, with their fruits, barks, and leaves containing compounds that have been used in traditional medicine to treat conditions such as diarrhea, fever, and skin irritations. However, it is essential to note that the medical application of these plants should be based on scientific research and under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as some parts of these plants may also contain toxic compounds.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question as "caves" are not a medical term. A cave is a natural underground space that is large enough for a person to enter and can form in a variety of ways, such as the dissolution of limestone by acidic groundwater or the collapse of a volcanic tube. If you have any questions about geology or speleology (the study of caves), I would be happy to try to help answer those!

The Y chromosome is one of the two sex-determining chromosomes in humans and many other animals, along with the X chromosome. The Y chromosome contains the genetic information that helps to determine an individual's sex as male. It is significantly smaller than the X chromosome and contains fewer genes.

The Y chromosome is present in males, who inherit it from their father. Females, on the other hand, have two X chromosomes, one inherited from each parent. The Y chromosome includes a gene called SRY (sex-determining region Y), which initiates the development of male sexual characteristics during embryonic development.

It is worth noting that the Y chromosome has a relatively high rate of genetic mutation and degeneration compared to other chromosomes, leading to concerns about its long-term viability in human evolution. However, current evidence suggests that the Y chromosome has been stable for at least the past 25 million years.

I'm not a medical professional, but I can tell you that the term "animal distribution" is not typically used in medical definitions. It is more commonly used in ecology and wildlife biology to refer to the pattern or manner in which animals are spatially arranged or distributed in their environment. If you have any concerns related to health or medicine, it would be best to consult a healthcare professional for accurate information.

I apologize for any confusion, but "Ecuador" is not a medical term or concept. It is the name of a country located in South America, officially known as the "República del Ecuador." If you have any questions related to medicine or health, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you!

I apologize for any confusion, but "Meliaceae" is not a medical term. It is a taxonomic category in botany, referring to the Mahogany family of plants, which includes around 50 genera and over 1,300 species of trees and shrubs. Some of these plants have medicinal properties, but "Meliaceae" itself does not have a medical definition.

Altitude is the height above a given level, especially mean sea level. In medical terms, altitude often refers to high altitude, which is generally considered to be 1500 meters (about 5000 feet) or more above sea level. At high altitudes, the air pressure is lower and there is less oxygen available, which can lead to altitude sickness in some people. Symptoms of altitude sickness can include headache, dizziness, shortness of breath, and fatigue. It's important for people who are traveling to high altitudes to allow themselves time to adjust to the lower oxygen levels and to watch for signs of altitude sickness.

Cerebrovascular circulation refers to the network of blood vessels that supply oxygenated blood and nutrients to the brain tissue, and remove waste products. It includes the internal carotid arteries, vertebral arteries, circle of Willis, and the intracranial arteries that branch off from them.

The internal carotid arteries and vertebral arteries merge to form the circle of Willis, a polygonal network of vessels located at the base of the brain. The anterior cerebral artery, middle cerebral artery, posterior cerebral artery, and communicating arteries are the major vessels that branch off from the circle of Willis and supply blood to different regions of the brain.

Interruptions or abnormalities in the cerebrovascular circulation can lead to various neurological conditions such as stroke, transient ischemic attack (TIA), and vascular dementia.

In medical terms, "wind" is not a widely used or recognized term. It might be used informally to describe symptoms such as abdominal bloating, rumbling, or the sensation of gas moving within the intestines. However, these sensations are more accurately described as related to bowel function and gas in the digestive tract. If you're experiencing persistent or severe symptoms that you're describing as "wind," it would be best to consult with a healthcare professional for a proper evaluation.

I am not aware of a standard medical definition for the term "islands." In general, an island is a landmass that is surrounded by water. In a medical context, it might be used to describe isolated areas or structures within the body, such as islands of Langerhans in the pancreas which are clusters of cells that produce hormones like insulin. However, I would need more specific context to provide an accurate definition related to medicine.

Campanulaceae is a family of flowering plants, also known as the bellflower family. It includes a wide variety of herbaceous plants, shrubs, and small trees, with over 2000 species distributed worldwide. The family is characterized by bilaterally symmetrical flowers, typically with fused petals forming a bell or funnel shape, hence the common name "bellflower."

The individual flowers of Campanulaceae often have distinct nectar guides and are arranged in various inflorescences such as racemes, panicles, or cymes. The leaves are typically simple and alternate, with entire or lobed margins.

Some notable genera within Campanulaceae include:

* Campanula (bellflowers)
* Lobelia (lobelias)
* Platycodon (balloon flowers)
* Trachelium (throatworts)

The family is of significant horticultural importance, with many species and cultivars widely used as ornamental plants in gardens and landscapes. Additionally, some members of Campanulaceae have medicinal uses, such as Lobelia inflata, which has been used historically to treat respiratory ailments.

Herbicide resistance is a genetically acquired trait in weeds that allows them to survive and reproduce following exposure to doses of herbicides that would normally kill or inhibit the growth of susceptible plants. It is a result of natural selection where weed populations with genetic variability are exposed to herbicides, leading to the survival and reproduction of individuals with resistance traits. Over time, this can lead to an increase in the proportion of resistant individuals within the population, making it harder to control weeds using that particular herbicide or group of herbicides.

Biological adaptation is the process by which a organism becomes better suited to its environment over generations as a result of natural selection. It involves changes in an organism's structure, metabolism, or behavior that increase its fitness, or reproductive success, in a given environment. These changes are often genetic and passed down from one generation to the next through the process of inheritance.

Examples of biological adaptation include the development of camouflage in animals, the ability of plants to photosynthesize, and the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. Biological adaptation is an important concept in the field of evolutionary biology and helps to explain the diversity of life on Earth.

Coronary circulation refers to the circulation of blood in the coronary vessels, which supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle (myocardium) and drain deoxygenated blood from it. The coronary circulation system includes two main coronary arteries - the left main coronary artery and the right coronary artery - that branch off from the aorta just above the aortic valve. These arteries further divide into smaller branches, which supply blood to different regions of the heart muscle.

The left main coronary artery divides into two branches: the left anterior descending (LAD) artery and the left circumflex (LCx) artery. The LAD supplies blood to the front and sides of the heart, while the LCx supplies blood to the back and sides of the heart. The right coronary artery supplies blood to the lower part of the heart, including the right ventricle and the bottom portion of the left ventricle.

The veins that drain the heart muscle include the great cardiac vein, the middle cardiac vein, and the small cardiac vein, which merge to form the coronary sinus. The coronary sinus empties into the right atrium, allowing deoxygenated blood to enter the right side of the heart and be pumped to the lungs for oxygenation.

Coronary circulation is essential for maintaining the health and function of the heart muscle, as it provides the necessary oxygen and nutrients required for proper contraction and relaxation of the myocardium. Any disruption or blockage in the coronary circulation system can lead to serious consequences, such as angina, heart attack, or even death.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

"Fucus" is a genus of brown seaweed that commonly goes by the name "bladderwrack." It's often found in cooler waters in the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in the Baltic Sea and the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

In a medical or pharmacological context, "fucus" is sometimes used to refer specifically to the extracts or compounds derived from this seaweed. These extracts contain various substances, such as iodine, fucoidan, fucoxanthin, and alginic acid, which have been studied for their potential health benefits.

For example, fucoidan has been investigated for its anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, and antitumor properties, while fucoxanthin has shown promise in weight loss studies due to its potential to increase metabolism. However, more research is needed to confirm these effects and establish recommended dosages and safety guidelines.

It's important to note that while some natural health products may contain fucus extracts, they should not be used as a substitute for medical treatment or professional advice. Always consult with a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement regimen.

Rheology is not a term that is specific to medicine, but rather it is a term used in the field of physics to describe the flow and deformation of matter. It specifically refers to the study of how materials flow or deform under various stresses or strains. This concept can be applied to various medical fields such as studying the flow properties of blood (hematology), understanding the movement of tissues and organs during surgical procedures, or analyzing the mechanical behavior of biological materials like bones and cartilages.

'Brassica rapa' is the scientific name for a species of plant that includes various types of vegetables such as turnips, Chinese cabbages, and bok choy. It is a member of the Brassicaceae family, also known as the mustard or cabbage family. The plants in this species are characterized by their broad leaves and branching stem, and they are native to Europe and Central Asia.

Turnips, which are one of the most common vegetables in this species, are cool-season root crops that are grown for their enlarged taproot. They have a white or yellowish flesh that is crisp and tender with a sweet, slightly bitter flavor. Turnips can be eaten raw or cooked and are often used in soups, stews, and casseroles.

Chinese cabbages, also known as Napa cabbages, are another type of vegetable in the 'Brassica rapa' species. They have elongated, pale green leaves that form a compact head, and they are often used in Asian cuisine. Chinese cabbages have a mild flavor and can be eaten raw or cooked.

Bok choy, also known as pak choi, is another type of vegetable in the 'Brassica rapa' species. It has dark green leaves and white stems, and it is often used in stir-fries and soups. Bok choy has a mild flavor and a crisp texture.

Overall, 'Brassica rapa' is an important species of plant that includes many nutritious and delicious vegetables that are popular around the world.

Cytochromes b are a group of electron transport proteins that contain a heme c group, which is the prosthetic group responsible for their redox activity. They play a crucial role in the electron transport chain (ETC) located in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotic cells and in the plasma membrane of prokaryotic cells.

The cytochromes b are part of Complex III, also known as the cytochrome bc1 complex or ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase, in the ETC. In this complex, they function as electron carriers between ubiquinone (Q) and cytochrome c, participating in the process of oxidative phosphorylation to generate ATP.

There are multiple isoforms of cytochromes b found in various organisms, with different numbers of subunits and structures. However, they all share a common function as essential components of the electron transport chain, facilitating the transfer of electrons during cellular respiration and energy production.

I apologize for any confusion, but "lizards" is not a term used in medical definition. Lizards are a group of scaled reptiles constituting the order Squamata, characterized by having skin covered with overlapping scales, external ears, and movable eyelids. They are found worldwide in a variety of habitats, ranging from desert to tropical environments. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health concerns, I'd be happy to help!

Physiological adaptation refers to the changes or modifications that occur in an organism's biological functions or structures as a result of environmental pressures or changes. These adaptations enable the organism to survive and reproduce more successfully in its environment. They can be short-term, such as the constriction of blood vessels in response to cold temperatures, or long-term, such as the evolution of longer limbs in animals that live in open environments.

In the context of human physiology, examples of physiological adaptation include:

1. Acclimatization: The process by which the body adjusts to changes in environmental conditions, such as altitude or temperature. For example, when a person moves to a high-altitude location, their body may produce more red blood cells to compensate for the lower oxygen levels, leading to improved oxygen delivery to tissues.

2. Exercise adaptation: Regular physical activity can lead to various physiological adaptations, such as increased muscle strength and endurance, enhanced cardiovascular function, and improved insulin sensitivity.

3. Hormonal adaptation: The body can adjust hormone levels in response to changes in the environment or internal conditions. For instance, during prolonged fasting, the body releases stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline to help maintain energy levels and prevent muscle wasting.

4. Sensory adaptation: Our senses can adapt to different stimuli over time. For example, when we enter a dark room after being in bright sunlight, it takes some time for our eyes to adjust to the new light level. This process is known as dark adaptation.

5. Aging-related adaptations: As we age, various physiological changes occur that help us adapt to the changing environment and maintain homeostasis. These include changes in body composition, immune function, and cognitive abilities.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Siberia" is not a medical term. It's a geographical region in Russia, known for its harsh, cold climate and vast wilderness. If you have any questions about medical terms or concepts, I'd be happy to help answer those!

Sexual behavior in animals refers to a variety of behaviors related to reproduction and mating that occur between members of the same species. These behaviors can include courtship displays, mating rituals, and various physical acts. The specific forms of sexual behavior displayed by a given species are influenced by a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors.

In some animals, sexual behavior is closely tied to reproductive cycles and may only occur during certain times of the year or under specific conditions. In other species, sexual behavior may be more frequent and less closely tied to reproduction, serving instead as a means of social bonding or communication.

It's important to note that while humans are animals, the term "sexual behavior" is often used in a more specific sense to refer to sexual activities between human beings. The study of sexual behavior in animals is an important area of research within the field of animal behavior and can provide insights into the evolutionary origins of human sexual behavior as well as the underlying mechanisms that drive it.

Acanthaceae is a family of flowering plants that includes around 2,500 species distributed across 220-400 genera. These plants are primarily found in tropical and subtropical regions, with some extending into temperate zones. The family is characterized by the presence of stiff, spiny bracts, which are often colorful and modified to attract pollinators.

The plants in Acanthaceae can vary widely in form, from herbaceous annuals and perennials to shrubs and trees. They have simple or opposite leaves that may be entire or lobed. The flowers are typically bisexual, with a two-lipped calyx and corolla, and four stamens.

Some well-known members of Acanthaceae include the garden plants Shrimp Plant (Justicia brandegeeana) and Whorled Tubelet (Lepidagathis formosa), as well as the medicinal plant Indian Snakeroot (Rauvolfia serpentina).

In a medical context, some species of Acanthaceae have been used in traditional medicine for various purposes, such as treating skin conditions, fevers, and gastrointestinal disorders. However, it is important to note that the use of these plants should be done with caution and under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional, as they can also contain toxic compounds.

"Arabis" is a term that is not typically used in medical contexts. It is a genus of flowering plants in the mustard family (Brassicaceae), also known as rock cress. These plants are native to Europe, Asia, and Africa, and some species are cultivated as ornamental plants due to their showy flowers.

There is no widely recognized medical definition associated with the term "Arabis." If you have any specific concerns about this term or if it was used in a medical context, I would recommend consulting with a healthcare professional for clarification.

'Agrostis' is a genus of plants, commonly known as bentgrasses. These grasses are native to many parts of the world and are often used in lawns, golf courses, and other landscaped areas due to their fine texture and ability to tolerate close mowing. They are also an important food source for many species of wildlife.

In a medical context, 'Agrostis' is not commonly used as it is not a substance or process that directly relates to human health or disease. However, like all plants, bentgrasses do contain various compounds that may have potential medicinal properties. For example, some species of Agrostis have been found to contain antioxidant compounds that could potentially have health benefits. However, more research is needed to confirm these effects and determine their safety and effectiveness as treatments for any specific medical conditions.

The term "environment" in a medical context generally refers to the external conditions and surroundings that can have an impact on living organisms, including humans. This includes both physical factors such as air quality, water supply, soil composition, temperature, and radiation, as well as biological factors such as the presence of microorganisms, plants, and animals.

In public health and epidemiology, the term "environmental exposure" is often used to describe the contact between an individual and a potentially harmful environmental agent, such as air pollution or contaminated water. These exposures can have significant impacts on human health, contributing to a range of diseases and disorders, including respiratory illnesses, cancer, neurological disorders, and reproductive problems.

Efforts to protect and improve the environment are therefore critical for promoting human health and preventing disease. This includes measures to reduce pollution, conserve natural resources, promote sustainable development, and mitigate the impacts of climate change.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Namibia" is not a medical term. It is the name of a country located in southern Africa, bordered by Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east, South Africa to the south and southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to help answer them for you.

The conservation of natural resources refers to the responsible use and management of natural resources, such as water, soil, minerals, forests, and wildlife, in a way that preserves their availability for future generations. This may involve measures such as reducing waste and pollution, promoting sustainable practices, protecting habitats and ecosystems, and engaging in careful planning and decision-making to ensure the long-term sustainability of these resources. The goal of conservation is to balance the needs of the present with the needs of the future, so that current and future generations can continue to benefit from the many goods and services that natural resources provide.

Linkage disequilibrium (LD) is a term used in genetics that refers to the non-random association of alleles at different loci (genetic locations) on a chromosome. This means that certain combinations of genetic variants, or alleles, at different loci occur more frequently together in a population than would be expected by chance.

Linkage disequilibrium can arise due to various factors such as genetic drift, selection, mutation, and population structure. It is often used in the context of genetic mapping studies to identify regions of the genome that are associated with particular traits or diseases. High levels of LD in a region of the genome suggest that the loci within that region are in linkage, meaning they tend to be inherited together.

The degree of LD between two loci can be measured using various statistical methods, such as D' and r-squared. These measures provide information about the strength and direction of the association between alleles at different loci, which can help researchers identify causal genetic variants underlying complex traits or diseases.

'Anopheles' is a genus of mosquitoes that are known for their role in transmitting malaria parasites to humans. These mosquitoes have a distinctive resting posture, with their abdomens raised and heads down, and they typically feed on human hosts at night. Only female Anopheles mosquitoes transmit the malaria parasite, as they require blood meals to lay eggs.

There are over 400 species of Anopheles mosquitoes worldwide, but only about 30-40 of these are considered significant vectors of human malaria. The distribution and behavior of these mosquitoes can vary widely depending on the specific species and geographic location.

Preventing and controlling the spread of malaria involves a variety of strategies, including the use of insecticide-treated bed nets, indoor residual spraying, antimalarial drugs, and vaccines. Public health efforts to reduce the burden of malaria have made significant progress in recent decades, but the disease remains a major global health challenge, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa.

Cluster analysis is a statistical method used to group similar objects or data points together based on their characteristics or features. In medical and healthcare research, cluster analysis can be used to identify patterns or relationships within complex datasets, such as patient records or genetic information. This technique can help researchers to classify patients into distinct subgroups based on their symptoms, diagnoses, or other variables, which can inform more personalized treatment plans or public health interventions.

Cluster analysis involves several steps, including:

1. Data preparation: The researcher must first collect and clean the data, ensuring that it is complete and free from errors. This may involve removing outlier values or missing data points.
2. Distance measurement: Next, the researcher must determine how to measure the distance between each pair of data points. Common methods include Euclidean distance (the straight-line distance between two points) or Manhattan distance (the distance between two points along a grid).
3. Clustering algorithm: The researcher then applies a clustering algorithm, which groups similar data points together based on their distances from one another. Common algorithms include hierarchical clustering (which creates a tree-like structure of clusters) or k-means clustering (which assigns each data point to the nearest centroid).
4. Validation: Finally, the researcher must validate the results of the cluster analysis by evaluating the stability and robustness of the clusters. This may involve re-running the analysis with different distance measures or clustering algorithms, or comparing the results to external criteria.

Cluster analysis is a powerful tool for identifying patterns and relationships within complex datasets, but it requires careful consideration of the data preparation, distance measurement, and validation steps to ensure accurate and meaningful results.

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is not a medical term, but a statistical technique that is used in various fields including bioinformatics and medicine. It is a method used to identify patterns in high-dimensional data by reducing the dimensionality of the data while retaining most of the variation in the dataset.

In medical or biological research, PCA may be used to analyze large datasets such as gene expression data or medical imaging data. By applying PCA, researchers can identify the principal components, which are linear combinations of the original variables that explain the maximum amount of variance in the data. These principal components can then be used for further analysis, visualization, and interpretation of the data.

PCA is a widely used technique in data analysis and has applications in various fields such as genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and medical imaging. It helps researchers to identify patterns and relationships in complex datasets, which can lead to new insights and discoveries in medical research.

'Albizia' is not a medical term, but a botanical name that refers to a genus of trees and shrubs commonly known as mimosa, silk tree or shy tree. Some species of albizia contain compounds with potential medicinal properties, such as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anxiolytic effects. However, more research is needed before these claims can be confirmed and the use of albizia for medicinal purposes should only be done under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Cactaceae is the scientific name for the family of plants that includes cacti. Cacti are a type of succulent plant that are adapted to arid environments, with features such as thick stems and the ability to store water. They are native to the Americas, ranging from Canada to Argentina, with the greatest diversity found in Mexico. Many cacti have spines or are covered in glochids, small hair-like structures that can be very sharp and barbed. Cacti come in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and colors, and some species produce flowers and fruit. Some common examples of cacti include the saguaro, prickly pear, and santa rita.

Genetically modified plants (GMPs) are plants that have had their DNA altered through genetic engineering techniques to exhibit desired traits. These modifications can be made to enhance certain characteristics such as increased resistance to pests, improved tolerance to environmental stresses like drought or salinity, or enhanced nutritional content. The process often involves introducing genes from other organisms, such as bacteria or viruses, into the plant's genome. Examples of GMPs include Bt cotton, which has a gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis that makes it resistant to certain pests, and golden rice, which is engineered to contain higher levels of beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A. It's important to note that genetically modified plants are subject to rigorous testing and regulation to ensure their safety for human consumption and environmental impact before they are approved for commercial use.

Gastropoda is not a medical term, but a taxonomic category in biology. It refers to a large and diverse class of mollusks, commonly known as snails and slugs. These animals are characterized by a single, spiral-shaped shell that they carry on their backs (in the case of snails) or an internal shell (in the case of some slugs).

While Gastropoda is not a medical term per se, it's worth noting that certain species of gastropods can have medical relevance. For instance, some types of marine snails produce toxins that can be harmful or even fatal to humans if ingested. Additionally, some species of slugs and snails can serve as intermediate hosts for parasites that can infect humans, such as rat lungworms (Angiostrongylus cantonensis), which can cause a form of meningitis known as eosinophilic meningoencephalitis.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Middle East" is not a medical term. It is a geographical region that includes countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey, Egypt, and others. If you have any questions related to medicine or health, I would be happy to try to help answer those!

I apologize for any confusion, but "Asia" is not a medical term. It is the largest continent in the world, comprising about 30% of the Earth's total land area and containing around 60% of the world's current human population. It is divided into several regions, including Northern Asia (Siberia), Eastern Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Taiwan), Southern Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives), Southeastern Asia (Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Brunei), and Western Asia (Middle East).

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I'd be happy to help.

"Genetic crosses" refer to the breeding of individuals with different genetic characteristics to produce offspring with specific combinations of traits. This process is commonly used in genetics research to study the inheritance patterns and function of specific genes.

There are several types of genetic crosses, including:

1. Monohybrid cross: A cross between two individuals that differ in the expression of a single gene or trait.
2. Dihybrid cross: A cross between two individuals that differ in the expression of two genes or traits.
3. Backcross: A cross between an individual from a hybrid population and one of its parental lines.
4. Testcross: A cross between an individual with unknown genotype and a homozygous recessive individual.
5. Reciprocal cross: A cross in which the male and female parents are reversed to determine if there is any effect of sex on the expression of the trait.

These genetic crosses help researchers to understand the mode of inheritance, linkage, recombination, and other genetic phenomena.

Optic flow is not a medical term per se, but rather a term used in the field of visual perception and neuroscience. It refers to the pattern of motion of objects in the visual field that occurs as an observer moves through the environment. This pattern of motion is important for the perception of self-motion and the estimation of egocentric distance (the distance of objects in the environment relative to the observer). Optic flow has been studied in relation to various clinical populations, such as individuals with vestibular disorders or visual impairments, who may have difficulty processing optic flow information.

'Fagus' is the genus name for beech trees in the family Fagaceae. It includes several species of deciduous trees that are native to the Northern Hemisphere, primarily in North America and Europe. The most common species is the European beech (Fagus sylvatica) and the American beech (Fagus grandifolia).

While 'Fagus' is a valid term in botany, it does not have a medical definition as it is not a term used to describe a medical condition or treatment.

I'm not a medical professional, but the term "History, Ancient" is not a medical term per se. However, in a broader context, it could refer to the study of ancient medical practices, theories, and beliefs that existed in civilizations prior to the Middle Ages or Classical Antiquity. This might include the examination of ancient texts, artifacts, and archaeological evidence to understand how illnesses were treated and viewed in these historical periods. It forms an essential part of the evolution of medical knowledge and practices over time.

"Abies" is a genus of evergreen trees that are commonly known as firs. They belong to the family Pinaceae and are native to the northern hemisphere, primarily in North America, Europe, and Asia. These trees are characterized by their needle-like leaves, which are flat and shiny, and their conical-shaped crowns.

Firs have been used for various purposes throughout history, including timber production, Christmas tree farming, and ornamental landscaping. Some species of firs also have medicinal properties, such as the use of Abies balsamea (balsam fir) in traditional medicine to treat respiratory ailments and skin conditions. However, it's important to note that the medical use of firs should be done under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as improper use can lead to adverse effects.

... because there is little to no gene flow to provide recombination of the gene pools. Barriers to gene flow need not always be ... The population is so strongly isolated that lack of gene flow has led to high rates of inbreeding. The level of gene flow among ... Urban facilitation of gene flow connects populations, reduces isolation, and increases gene flow into an area which would ... doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(98)00066-4. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gene flow. Co-Extra research on gene flow mitigation ...
gene flow])... They do not see how niche construction either generates or sorts genetic variation independently of these other ... 2012). "Genes, culture and agriculture: an example of human niche construction" (PDF). Current Anthropology. 53 (4): 434-470. ... This interaction is known as gene-culture coevolution. There is now little doubt that human cultural niche construction has co- ... Analyses of the human genome have identified many hundreds of genes subject to recent selection, and human cultural activities ...
... and assisted gene flow. Gene flow (migration) is the introduction of new individuals (and genes) into a target population. ... Too much gene flow may lead to genetic swamping through extensive hybridization. Genetic rescue can occur through multiple ... "Gene flow". evolution.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2018-05-15. "Genetic drift". evolution.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2018-05-15. " ... who studied the effect of immigration among populations linked by gene flow. More recently, genetic rescue has been defined by ...
"Gene flow". Understanding Evolution. University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2015-01-08. Gould 1980, p. 24 Bejder, Lars; ... It defines evolution as the change in allelic frequencies within a population caused by genetic drift, gene flow between sub ... Genes are the pieces of DNA that carry this information, and they influence the properties of an organism. Genes determine an ... But genes are denizens of geological time: genes are forever. Others view selection working on many levels, not just at a ...
Gene flow: Gene flow is the transfer of genetic material from the gene pool of one population to another. In a population, ... If a speciation event occurs and one gene ends up in two different species the genes are now orthologous. If a gene is ... gene flow, non-random mating, and natural selection. Mutation: Mutation is a change in the DNA sequence inside a gene or a ... how large are the effects of each gene, how interdependent are the effects of different genes, what do the genes do, and what ...
Gene flow, often by migration, is the movement of genetic material (for example by pollen in the wind, or the migration of a ... as a new gene is introduced to the gene pool. However, the persistence of this gene is dependent of drift and selection (see ... "Gene flow". Mechanisms: the processes of evolution. evolution.berkeley.edu. 15 March 2021. Tigano, Anna; Friesen, Vicki L. ( ... The genetic diversity was increased in A. gambiae by mutation and in A. coluzziin by gene flow. When humans initially started ...
Over the space of eight years, culminating in 2008, that seed flow has been decentralised out to sub-groups, Local Seed ... "Banana Diversity". Geneflow. Rome: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute: 50. 2004. ISBN 9789290436447. Retrieved 20 ... "Solomon Islands network returns local crops to village farmers" (PDF). Geneflow. Rome: International Plant Genetic Resources ... Fanton, Michel (2002). "A Fair Feast of Taro Diversity". Geneflow. Rome: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (CGIAR ...
Gene flow in lichens. Am. J. Bot. 75: 1135-139. Bowler, P. and J. Marsh. 2004. Niebla. 'Lichen Flora of the Greater Sonoran ...
Gene flow in lichens. Am. J. Bot. 75:1135-139. DePriest, P. T. 1994. Variation in the Cladonia chlorophaea complex II: ...
Gene flow in lichens. Am. J. Bot. 75: 1135-139. Tuckerman, E. 1882. Synopsis of the North American Lichens: Part I, Parmeliacei ... the hyphae and crystalline deposits within the medulla then seem to flow out through the cracks like a stuffed animal toy ...
Soucy, Shannon M.; Huang, Jinling; Gogarten, Johann Peter (17 July 2015). "Horizontal gene transfer: building the web of life ... "Sweet Potato Vine: How to Grow These Gorgeous Flowing Vines". Epic Gardening. 12 June 2017. Retrieved 15 October 2021. "Growing ... Geneflow 2009. Bioversity International. ISBN 9789290438137. "Sweet Potato". Consultative Group on International Agricultural ... with genes actively expressed by the plants. The T-DNA transgenes were not observed in closely related wild relatives of the ...
What about gene flow between populations? Occasionally cultigens escape from cultivation into the wild where they breed with ... The genetic material of a cultigen may become part of the gene pool of a population where, over time, it may be largely or ...
Gene flow among lineages is low. Limestone rat Laginha Pinto Correia, D. (2016). "Leopoldamys neilli". IUCN Red List of ...
"Mechanisms of gene flow in archaea". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 15 (8): 492-501. doi:10.1038/nrmicro.2017.41. ISSN 1740-1534 ... Horizontal gene transfer is a result of this, where bacterial genes can be transferred amongst same-generation species in a ... This activates transcription of genes in the competence pathway. CSF is a five amino acid oligopeptide and is exported via the ... The expression of srfA will bypass the need for transcription of DNA for only upstream genes. This means that transcription is ...
Flow cytometry Cell counting Gulati, Gene; Song, Jinming; Dulau Florea, Alina; Gong, Jerald (2013). "Purpose and Criteria for ... Early flow cytometry devices shot beams of light at cells in specific wavelengths and measured the resulting absorbance, ... The sample is diluted and passed into a flow cell, which uses hydrodynamic focusing to isolate single cells for accurate ... In these cases, other techniques such as immunophenotyping by flow cytometry or special staining can be used to definitively ...
Whittemore, A. T.; Schaal, B. A. (1991-03-15). "Interspecific gene flow in sympatric oaks". Proceedings of the National Academy ...
Plant Genetic Resources: New Rules for International Exchange De Vicente, C. (editor) (2005). Issues on gene flow and germplasm ... In addition, researchers are looking at crop wild relatives (CWRs) that could expand gene pools of crop species and provide ... animal breeding lines maintained in animal breeding programs or gene banks. Germplasm collections can range from collections of ... has been a staple for human civilizations and plant breeding has allowed more genetic diversity and a more diverse gene pool. ...
Gene flow is high between wild populations. The plant is one of the commercially important sources of rosewood oil. The tree is ...
Hybrid Fusion protein Gene pool Gene flow Introgression Nucleic acid hybridization Mouse models of breast cancer metastasis " ... "Recent long-distance transgene flow into wild populations conforms to historical patterns of gene flow in cotton (Gossypium ... Kristin L. Mercer; Joel D. Wainwright (January 2008). "Gene flow from transgenic maize to landraces in Mexico: An analysis". ... Arias, D. M.; Rieseberg, L. H. (November 1994). "Gene flow between cultivated and wild sunflowers". Theoretical and Applied ...
Queens in particular travel long distances in dispersal flights; this increases gene flow within the species. When traveling ... Bumblebee colonies that exhibit little variety in their gene pool, as a result of inbreeding, tend to have a higher occurrence ... up-regulated effector genes that defend the host. Bombus hortorum are frequent pollinators of many crops, including sunflowers ...
... no gene flow), and on the other extreme is sympatry, in which the ranges overlap completely (maximal gene flow). The varying ... He stated that gene flow is the inevitable result of sympatry, which is known to squelch genetic differentiation between ... It is thus is a refinement of sympatric speciation, with a behavioral, rather than geographical barrier to the flow of genes ... In this case, divergence is facilitated by the absence of gene flow. Parapatric speciation is the evolution of geographically ...
... the direction of gene flow or the amount of gene flow. For datasets with a large number of taxa it may be difficult to compute ... in addition to altering gene products if inserted into a gene, also alter promoter activity for genes if inserted upstream of ... Pinho C, Hey J (2010). "Divergence with Gene Flow: Models and Data". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 41 ( ... April 2011). McVean G (ed.). "The history of African gene flow into Southern Europeans, Levantines, and Jews". PLOS Genetics. 7 ...
Gene flow was observed to be asymmetric (from crop to weed), due to a preferential flow of pollen from high-density populations ... Wilson, H.; Manhart, J. (1993). "Crop/weed gene flow: Chenopodium quinoa Willd. and C. berlandieri Moq". Theoretical and ... Jenczewski, Eric; Ronfort, Joëlle; Chèvre, Anne-Marie (2003). "Crop-to-wild gene flow, introgression and possible fitness ...
DQ2 to gene flow from northwest Morocco. A30-B18 origin's do not fit well into a some contrasting neighbor-joining analysis ( ... and Albania shows levels of B18-DR3 indicating gene flow from the West from the Italian peninsula to the eastern Ionian coast. ... A multigene haplotype is a set of inherited alleles covering several genes, or gene-alleles. Long haplotypes, like A30::DQ2, ... Müller CR, Ehninger G, Goldmann SF (January 2003). "Gene and haplotype frequencies for the loci hLA-A, hLA-B, and hLA-DR based ...
The effects of gene flow on reinforcement. Evolution 51:1764-1772. Servedio, M.R. 2000. Reinforcement and the genetics of ... Servedio, Maria R.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (1997). "The Effects of Gene Flow on Reinforcement". Evolution. 51 (6): 1764-1772. doi: ...
Gene flow is variable among coral species. According to the biogeography of coral species, gene flow cannot be counted on as a ... Thus, corals are unable to mutate their HSPs and other climate change preventative genes to combat the increase in temperature ... ISBN 0-87893-243-7. Eric M, Engstrom; Izhaki, Anat; Bowman, John L (July 2004). "Promoter Bashing, microRNAs, and Knox Genes. ... These two classifications arose from differentiation in gene expressions in their branch tips and bases that arose through ...
Man in 't Veld, W.A. (2007). "Gene flow analysis demonstrates that Phytophthora fragariae var. rubi constitutes a distinct ...
The populations occur in North, Central, and South Florida, and can be separated by hundreds of miles; gene flow between them ...
But gene flow did not go one way. The fact that some of the ancestors of modern humans in Europe migrated back into Africa ... According to the authors of the study, the observed excess of genetic similarity is best explained by recent gene flow from ... Moreover, a combination of gene flow from Eurasia back into Africa and higher rates of genetic drift among East Asians compared ... Neanderthals were suggested as one possible origin of this gene. But later studies did not find this gene in the Neanderthal ...
... and gene flow between bordering populations as evidence of ongoing introgression. However, this gene flow is only made possible ... Rieseberg, Loren Henry (1991). Phylogenetic consequences of cytoplasmic gene flow in plants. Evolutionary Trends in Plants. ... An increase in the gene pool through viable hybrids can facilitate new phenotypes and the colonisation of novel habitats. The ...
... because there is little to no gene flow to provide recombination of the gene pools. Barriers to gene flow need not always be ... The population is so strongly isolated that lack of gene flow has led to high rates of inbreeding. The level of gene flow among ... Urban facilitation of gene flow connects populations, reduces isolation, and increases gene flow into an area which would ... doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(98)00066-4. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gene flow. Co-Extra research on gene flow mitigation ...
... especially when genes flow among groups most affected by warming, according to a new study. ... The traffic of genes among populations may help living things better adapt to climate change, ... "We generally found that there were benefits from gene flow, but gene flow from other warm-edge areas was most beneficial," ... The traffic of genes among populations may help living things better adapt to climate change, especially when genes flow among ...
As an additional factor contributing to gene flow, we present data on seed saving and sharing among farmers that live in the ... modeled rates of pollen-mediated gene flow showed extensive mixing of germplasm between fields and farms and iv) as a result, ... We present a pollen flow model for maize (Zea mays), a major staple crop in Africa. We use spatial properties of fields (size, ... pollen flow), and by socially mediated intervention (seed recycling and sharing). ...
Adaptation and gene flow in Dead Sea Sparrows. By Tali Magory Cohen,2020-10-13T10:21:53+00:004 Nov 2019,gene flow, Genetics, ... By Alice Cibois,2022-07-13T11:39:17+00:0018 Jul 2022,avian biology, cryptic, diversity, DNA barcoding, flight, gene flow, ... By Justyna Kubacka,2023-07-26T12:48:29+00:0031 Jul 2023,birds of conservation concern, gene flow, genetic diversity, Genetics, ... By Cheryl Dykstra,2023-04-16T19:28:07+00:0024 Apr 2023,avian biology, DNA sequencing, fieldwork, gene flow, Genetics, ...
... a case study on minimizing vertical gene flow - Volume 3 Issue 3 ... Gene flow at landscape level. In Lutman P, ed, Gene Flow and ... Employing a composite gene-flow index to numerically quantify a crops potential for gene flow: an Irish perspective. ... Downey R (1999) Gene flow and rape - the Canadian experience. In Lutman P, ed, Gene Flow and Agriculture: Relevance for ... Gene flow in genetically modified herbicide tolerant oilseed rape (Brassica napus) in the UK. In Lutman P, ed, Gene Flow and ...
A team of scientists from Uppsala University and Princeton University now reports how gene flow between two species of Darwins ... recent studies show that gene flow between closely related species is more common than previously thought. ... Despite the traditional view that species do not exchange genes by hybridisation, ... Despite the traditional view that species do not exchange genes by hybridisation, recent studies show that gene flow between ...
Explore the role of E-selectin in EPC adhesion and the potential of gene silencing for EPC recruitment. ... Discover the power of siRNA in suppressing gene expression in mammalian cells. ... Gene silencing of E-selectin block recruitment of endothelial progenitor cell to vascular endothelium under flow () ... Gene silencing of E-selectin block recruitment of endothelial progenitor cell to vascular endothelium under flow. Journal of ...
... enhanced the flow of genes from wild, weedy rice to the genetically altered, herbicide resistant, cultivated population, with ... data suggest that differential phenological responses to rising atmospheric CO2 could result in enhanced flow of novel genes ... these changes have not been quantified in terms of floral outcrossing rates or gene transfer. Could differential phenological ... weedy relatives increase the spread of novel genes, potentially altering evolutionary fitness? Here we show that increasing CO2 ...
Scientists Test Gene Flow Potential of GM Camelina to Related Species. June 26, 2013 ... The results imply that there is low likelihood to develop pollen-mediated gene flow from GE camelina to related species studied ...
Still, despite gene flow between species, we found that genetic variants associated with the cultivated trichome morphology ... Still, despite gene flow between species, we found that genetic variants associated with the cultivated trichome morphology ... Here, we explored the phenotypic and genomic effects of interspecific gene flow following the widespread cultivation of Mentha ... Here, we explored the phenotypic and genomic effects of interspecific gene flow following the widespread cultivation of Mentha ...
Pollen-mediated gene flow at a distance could allow the spread of rare herbicide-resistant alleles and favor the evolution of ... multiple herbicide-resistant biotypes through the accumulation of different resistant genes in an individual weed or weed ... and seed-mediated gene flow, respectively.. *Gene flow via vegetative propagule has rarely been addressed, but could be an ... Pollen-Mediated Gene Flow and Transfer of Herbicide-Resistant Alleles January 22, 2019 Amit Jhala - Extension Weed Management ...
Data from: Prelude to a panzootic: gene flow and immunogenetic variation in northern little brown myotis vulnerable to bat ... We used genotypes at 11 microsatellite loci to reveal the genetic structure of, and directional gene flow among, populations to ... 2018). Data from: Prelude to a panzootic: gene flow and immunogenetic variation in northern little brown myotis vulnerable to ... Our major histocompatibility complex (MHC) data suggest potential selection by WNS on the MHC, but gene duplication limited the ...
... with presumably little gene flow among them. Gene flow on a population level is the exchange of genetic information among ... Therefore, giraffe are ideal study organisms to investigate the level of gene flow in recently diverged species with adjacent ... new genetic methods are identifying an increasing number of species that show signs of introgressive hybridization or gene flow ... with presumably little gene flow among them. Gene flow on a population level is the exchange of genetic information among ...
gene flow. * In gene flow. …introduction of genetic material (by interbreeding) from one population of a species to another, ... The introduction of new alleles through gene flow increases variability within the population and makes possible new ... thereby changing the composition of the gene pool of the receiving population. ...
GENE FLOW - Refers to the exchange of heritable traits in a population of organisms. Lack or low gene flow is considered ... detrimental because it does not yield a great amount of variability (gene pool) from which the population can use to overcome ...
... by Myrmecological News Blog · 26 July 2023. ... focus on hybridisation and gene flow in five keystone wood ant species belonging to the Formica rufa group in Finland and other ... "Semipermeable species boundaries create opportunities for gene flow and adaptive potential", Satokangas et al.* ... Despite hybridisation, F. rufa, F. aquilonia, F. lugubris, and F. pratensis maintain distinct gene pools in Finland. The study ...
Ecological impacts of hybridization and gene flow.. The importance of genetic diversity (mutation, gene flow, drift, ... It also provides a useful focal point for studying the mechanisms of microevolution such as gene flow, genetic drift, and ... Hybridization and the reproductive pathways mediating gene flow between native Malus coronaria and domestic apple, Malus ... gene flow, adaptation, genetic diversity) affect the ecological function of populations (reproduction, growth, persistence, ...
to elaborate, I dont think this flow necessarily came from Ethiopia, but i think some gene-flow from NAf to Near East in the ... The Caucasus is a semipermeable barrier to gene flow. The scientists at the David Reich Lab are a clever bunch. But theyre not ... Now, the Caucasus isnt a barrier to gene flow because its difficult to cross, and, indeed, many human populations have ... For instance, they fail to understand that the Caucasus is a semipermeable barrier that has effectively stymied human gene flow ...
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Colloquium: Murphy on the flow of genes across changing landscapes. Admin 6 March 2020 BEER Clublandscape geneticsMelanie ... Her seminar will be titled From genes to landscapes - distribution and connectivity of species in a changing world ...
Esophageal mucosal blood flow : A central role for calcitonin gene-related peptide. In: Surgery. 1994 ; Vol. 116, No. 2. pp. ... Esophageal mucosal blood flow : A central role for calcitonin gene-related peptide. / McKie, L. D.; Dunkin, B. J.; Pennanen, M ... Esophageal mucosal blood flow: A central role for calcitonin gene-related peptide. Surgery. 1994;116(2):409-418. ... Dive into the research topics of Esophageal mucosal blood flow: A central role for calcitonin gene-related peptide. Together ...
Genes and their enzymes that confer tolerance to glyphosate herbicide. *Genes and their enzymes that confer tolerance to ... Vertical Gene Flow. *Organisms (Animals). *Soil Functions. *Plant Health. *Crop Management Practices ... Crop plants are made virus-resistant through coat protein gene-mediated protection ...
Indeed, palaeogenetic studies (Allentoft et al., 2015; Haak et al., 2015) have already shown that gene flow from Yamnaya steppe ... Haplogroups shared between steppe populations and Ulug Depe were evidenced, suggesting gene flow between Southern Central Asia ... Maybe first direct hints of Yamnaya-related gene flow into South Central Asia ...
Flow cytometry is a widely used technique in the development and testing of cell and gene therapy products, which have the ... Guidance on the application of flow cytometry for the cell and gene therapy community The quality of a medicine is critical to ... Guidance on the application of flow cytometry for the cell and gene therapy community ... Written by experts in the flow cytometry community for the flow cytometry community, the BP believes the text will be helpful ...
Eugene Perma Solaris Poudre 6 Free Flowing Bleaching Powder 15.87 oz Oligo Calura Hair Powder Pump Volume 0.32 Oz. ... Eugene Perma Solaris Air Libre Poudr6 Free Flowing Bleaching Powder is a bleach lightener for open-air highlights and lifts up ... Eugene Perma Solaris Air Libre Poudr6 Free Flowing Bleaching Powder is a bleach lightener for open-air highlights and lifts up ... Eugene Perma Solaris Poudre 6 Free Flowing Bleaching Powder 15.87 oz. Eugene Perma Solaris Poudre 6 Free Flowing Bleaching ...
Zheng XM, Ge S (2010) Ecological divergence in the presence of gene flow in two closely related Oryza species (Oryza rufipogon ... Wild papaya shows evidence of gene flow from domesticated Maradol papaya in Mexico Article 27 March 2023 ... confers short-day promotion of flowering and controls FT-like gene expression independently of Hd1. Genes Dev 18:926-936 ... Shang JJ, Tao Y, Chen XW et al (2009) Identification of a new rice blast resistance gene, Pid3, by genomewide comparison of ...
... consecutively included patients during the first peak of the COVID-19 epidemic in Brazil and analyzed the expressions of genes ... Gene expression analyses and flow cytometry yielded consistent results. ... Gene expression. 2ΔΔCq (SD). P value*. TNF-α. 11.1 × 105 (38.4 × 105). 15.8 × 102 (51.4 × 102). 10.5 × 103 (38.1 × 103). 598.46 ... Genetic polymorphisms of the IL6 and NOD2 genes are risk factors for inflammatory reactions in leprosy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 11: ...
Tracing the signature of African-to-Neandertal gene flow A new study of African genetic variation yields a more accurate ... I wonder if this is only the first shoe, and there is another left to drop? These guys know as well as I do the gene trees are ... There must be an oldest branch point in the genealogy of any single gene. Heres a question: how many individuals do you have ... As my students have heard me say many, many times, gene trees are not species trees. The different genetic loci within a ...
  • The reagent is designed for Flow Cytometry analysis of human blood cells using 10 μL reagent / 100 μL of whole blood or 1e6 cells in a suspension. (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • Eosinophils in airway fluid were quantitated by flow cytometry. (cdc.gov)
  • Flow cytometry of Fanconi anemia cells cultured with nitrogen mustard and other clastogens demonstrates an arrest in G2/M. (medscape.com)
  • We make use of high-resolution, high-throughput flow cytometry, advanced imaging techniques, gene expression data as well as crosslinking data from population based registries. (lu.se)
  • assessed by immunohistochemistry or flow cytometry, by using a handful of phenotypic markers. (lu.se)
  • GEP analyses were performed on highly purified, flow-cytometry sorted tumor-cells from eight subgroups of BCLs. (lu.se)
  • In this study, highly purified, flow-cytometry sorted, classified in relation to normal B-cell differentiation [1]. (lu.se)
  • Finally, we provide protocols for analyzing these cells through flow cytometry and immunocytochemistry. (lu.se)
  • If the rate of gene flow is high enough, then two populations will have equivalent allele frequencies and therefore can be considered a single effective population. (wikipedia.org)
  • Gene flow is an important mechanism for transferring genetic diversity among populations. (wikipedia.org)
  • Migrants change the distribution of genetic diversity among populations, by modifying allele frequencies (the proportion of members carrying a particular variant of a gene). (wikipedia.org)
  • There are a number of factors that affect the rate of gene flow between different populations. (wikipedia.org)
  • Gene flow is expected to be lower in species that have low dispersal or mobility, that occur in fragmented habitats, where there is long distances between populations, and when there are small population sizes. (wikipedia.org)
  • For example, many island populations have low rates of gene flow due to geographic isolation and small population sizes. (wikipedia.org)
  • The level of gene flow among populations can be estimated by observing the dispersal of individuals and recording their reproductive success. (wikipedia.org)
  • The more genetically differentiated two populations are, the lower the estimate of gene flow, because gene flow has a homogenizing effect. (wikipedia.org)
  • When gene flow is blocked by physical barriers, this results in Allopatric speciation or a geographical isolation that does not allow populations of the same species to exchange genetic material. (wikipedia.org)
  • In some cases, they can be artificial, man-made barriers, such as the Great Wall of China, which has hindered the gene flow of native plant populations. (wikipedia.org)
  • The traffic of genes among populations may help living things better adapt to climate change, especially when genes flow among groups most affected by warming, according to a new study. (sciencedaily.com)
  • In extreme cases where we might consider augmenting genetic resources available to imperiled populations, it might be best to obtain these genes from populations inhabiting similar kinds of habitats," Strauss said. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Gene flow" describes the movement of genetic traits within and among populations, as individual animals or plants breed. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Sexton noted that hybrids of monkeyflowers from two warm-edge populations did better than either of their parents, perhaps because the populations had been using different genes to adapt to warm environments. (sciencedaily.com)
  • We used genotypes at 11 microsatellite loci to reveal the genetic structure of, and directional gene flow among, populations to predict the likely future spread of the pathogen in the northwest and to estimate effective population size (Ne). (datadryad.org)
  • I'm also curious to understand how interactions between loci (i.e., gene networks) influence divergence between populations and species. (myrmecologicalnews.org)
  • The importance of genetic diversity (mutation, gene flow, drift, heritability) to adaptive evolution is widely recognized, but it is less clear whether and how it affects ecological function and viability of populations. (uoguelph.ca)
  • Now, the Caucasus isn't a barrier to gene flow because it's difficult to cross, and, indeed, many human populations have managed to cross it since the Upper Palaeolithic. (blogspot.com)
  • Often, when two populations diverge from each other, their gene genealogies will show similar patterns of divergence. (johnhawks.net)
  • An analysis of both Y-chromosomes and mtDNA, and autosomes in Siddis and the adjoining Indian tribal populations has helped in tracing the direction of gene flow between the African descendent and Indians. (thehindu.com)
  • Thus, we investigated patterns of gene flow and genomic signatures of local adaptation in populations of the copepod Eurytemora affinis spanning natural salinity and temperature gradients in the Baltic and North Seas. (authorea.com)
  • Based on whole-genome sequencing of 11 populations, we found population genomic signatures of selection associated with salinity and temperature gradients in both seas, indicating local adaptation, with 'ion transmembrane transport' as the most enriched gene ontology category under selection. (authorea.com)
  • We found clear population structure between the Baltic and North Seas, along with signals of admixture between populations, consistent with the presence of gene flow both within and between the seas. (authorea.com)
  • Our results suggest that gene flow of beneficial alleles from across the environmental gradients could provide the genetic substrate for populations to adapt to future climate change. (authorea.com)
  • As a result, modern populations might differ for the amount of archaic genes incorporated in their gene pool, which are eventually expressed and may result in phenotypic differences affecting, for example, the immune response [ 8 ], or lipid catabolism [ 9 ]. (biorxiv.org)
  • Distinguishing gene flow between malaria parasite populations. (cdc.gov)
  • Pollen-mediated gene flow at a distance could allow the spread of rare herbicide-resistant alleles and favor the evolution of multiple herbicide-resistant biotypes through the accumulation of different resistant genes in an individual weed or weed population. (unl.edu)
  • The speaker will discuss examples of common waterhemp, Palmer amaranth, and giant ragweed to demonstrate the role of gene flow in transfer of herbicide-resistant alleles. (unl.edu)
  • The introduction of new alleles through gene flow increases variability within the population and makes possible new combinations of traits. (britannica.com)
  • Gene flow, or introgression, refers to alleles from one species entering a different (and usually closely related) species through migration and hybridization. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Gene flow is a key factor that could either promote or hinder local adaptation, with either beneficial or maladapted alleles immigrating from elsewhere. (authorea.com)
  • It is pretty likely that if we sample a dozen Neandertals across a subset of their range, that we will miss the deepest divergence in the genealogy of a single gene. (johnhawks.net)
  • We review models that address the crucial distinction between the gene divergence, the parameter that is typically recovered in molecular phylogeographic studies, and the population divergence, which is in most cases the parameter of interest and will almost always postdate the gene divergence. (bioone.org)
  • Divergence time, population size, time of gene flow, distance of outgroup and number of loci were examined in a sensitivity analysis. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The D-statistic, as a method to detect gene flow, is robust against a wide range of genetic distances (divergence times) but it is sensitive to population size. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Among the earliest methods to detect gene flow are a homoplasy-based analysis that finds taxa that are intermediate between putative parent species [ 9 ], and a gene tree comparison that identifies locus divergence younger than the species' divergence [ 10 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The variance in the number of substitutions (among loci for a given species or among species for a given gene) resulting from the stochastic nature of DNA change is generally smaller than the variance due to substitutions along allelic lines whose coalescence times vary due to genetic drift in the ancestral population. (bioone.org)
  • The sensitivity of the D-statistic is also affected by the direction of gene flow, size and number of loci. (biomedcentral.com)
  • iii) modeled rates of pollen-mediated gene flow showed extensive mixing of germplasm between fields and farms and iv) as a result, segregation of GM and non-GM varieties is not likely to be an option in these systems. (nature.com)
  • The results imply that there is low likelihood to develop pollen-mediated gene flow from GE camelina to related species studied. (isaaa.org)
  • Pollen-mediated gene flow from glyphosate-resistant common waterhemp (Amaranthus rudis Sauer): consequences for dispersal of resistance genes. (unl.edu)
  • In some cases dispersal resulting in gene flow may also result in the addition of novel genetic variants under positive selection to the gene pool of a species or population (adaptive introgression. (wikipedia.org)
  • The second was that genes from the center of the range that did not help plants adapt would dilute any adaptive genes, negating their benefit. (sciencedaily.com)
  • In the recent study "Semipermeable species boundaries create opportunities for gene flow and adaptive potential" , Satokangas et al. (myrmecologicalnews.org)
  • The geographic proximity of the islands suggests the possibility for successful dispersal, but this is countered by the permanence of the marine barriers and extreme intervening currents that are expected to hinder gene flow. (leibniz-lib.de)
  • These findings suggest that historical geological and oceanographic conditions heavily influenced dispersal pathways and gene flow, which in turn drove species formation and shaped species boundaries. (leibniz-lib.de)
  • Other cases may result from new mutations in the gene . (medlineplus.gov)
  • X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA), or Bruton agammaglobulinemia, is an inherited immunodeficiency disease caused by mutations in the gene coding for Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK). (medscape.com)
  • Despite the traditional view that species do not exchange genes by hybridisation, recent studies show that gene flow between closely related species is more common than previously thought. (phys.org)
  • focus on hybridisation and gene flow in five keystone wood ant species belonging to the Formica rufa group in Finland and other parts of Europe. (myrmecologicalnews.org)
  • Despite hybridisation, F. rufa , F. aquilonia , F. lugubris , and F. pratensis maintain distinct gene pools in Finland. (myrmecologicalnews.org)
  • Lack or low gene flow is considered detrimental because it does not yield a great amount of variability (gene pool) from which the population can use to overcome changing environmental conditions. (mojavedesert.net)
  • Treponema pallidum genome sequencing from six continents reveals variability in vaccine candidate genes and dominance of Nichols clade strains in Madagascar. (cdc.gov)
  • That is, to what extent hybrids, with their combination of gene variants from both species, can successfully compete for food and territory. (phys.org)
  • Still, despite gene flow between species, we found that genetic variants associated with the cultivated trichome morphology continue to segregate. (lu.se)
  • To characterize identified variants and genes functionally, we rely on a broad repertoire of functional genomics methods , including CRISPR-Cas9, synthetic oligonucleotide libraries, and massively parallel reporter assays (MPRA). (lu.se)
  • Through the comparison of single nucleotide polymorphisms, we identify gene flow of FAME from Neandertals into modern humans. (lu.se)
  • Lung tissue gene expression was assessed using whole-genome mRNA microarrays. (cdc.gov)
  • There were 3954 correlations and a total of 15 correlations for differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) and differentially expressed genes (DEGs) from proteomics and transcriptomics. (hindawi.com)
  • Some of the additional genes involved in Brugada syndrome provide instructions for making proteins that ensure the correct location or function of sodium channels in heart muscle cells. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Proteins produced by other genes involved in the condition form or help regulate ion channels that transport calcium or potassium into or out of heart muscle cells. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Below is a non-exhaustive list of in-house infrastructures that are categorized into three overarching themes: bio-imaging, proteins, genes & cells and other resources. (lu.se)
  • A surprising finding was that the observed gene flow was substantial on most autosomal chromosomes but negligible on the Z chromosome, one of the sex chromosomes," says Fan Han, Uppsala University, who analysed these data as part of her Ph.D. thesis. (phys.org)
  • This explain why genes on the Z chromosome cannot flow from the medium ground finch to the cactus finch via these hybrid females, whereas genes in other parts of the genome can, because parents of the hybrid contribute equally. (phys.org)
  • The BTK gene defect has been mapped to the long arm of the X chromosome at band Xq21.3 to Xq22, spanning 37.5kb with 19 exons forming 659 amino acids to complete the BTK cytosolic tyrosine kinase. (medscape.com)
  • Prenatal Fanconi anemia diagnosis can be accomplished by demonstration of chromosome breaks in cells obtained in utero from chorionic villus biopsy, amniocentesis, or cord blood (by cordocentesis) or by identification of Fanconi anemia gene mutations in DNA extracted from fetal cells. (medscape.com)
  • correction of chromosome breakage or of impaired growth by a specific vector indicates that the cells have a mutation in that gene. (medscape.com)
  • Mutations in these genes disrupt the flow of ions, impairing the heart's normal rhythm. (medlineplus.gov)
  • For this reason, gene flow has been thought to constrain speciation and prevent range expansion by combining the gene pools of the groups, thus preventing the development of differences in genetic variation that would have led to differentiation and adaptation. (wikipedia.org)
  • Gene expression and subcellular localization analyses reveal that FAME is a membrane-bound protein enriched in the kidneys. (lu.se)
  • In addition to infrastructures for bioimaging, protein and genes & cells, we also provide other resources e.g., databases, networks and specialized labs. (lu.se)
  • This direct method is only suitable for some types of organisms, more often indirect methods are used that infer gene flow by comparing allele frequencies among population samples. (wikipedia.org)
  • Using a graph-based model of gene flow to estimate migration events from ancestry-specific allele frequencies 37 , we find evidence for migration events in the distant past. (nature.com)
  • As the researchers observed the growing monkeyflowers, they were able to test two contrasting predictions about how gene flow should affect plants at the edge of the range. (sciencedaily.com)
  • To answer these questions, the researchers measured how the mixing of genes from different elevations affected the plants' ability to live at the warm edge of their range, through traits such as time for seedlings to emerge, time to flowering and overall reproductive success. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Researchers have identified two genes that may contribute to Raynaud phenomenon, a condition where blood vessels in the extremities constrict and limit blood flow. (medscape.com)
  • The researchers identified two genes that are likely involved with Raynaud. (medscape.com)
  • Below you can see some examples of the infrastructure for research on genes and cells, available for researchers at Lund University. (lu.se)
  • GENE FLOW - Refers to the exchange of heritable traits in a population of organisms. (mojavedesert.net)
  • This interplay between local adaptation and gene flow has not been fully explored in passive dispersers, such as plankton. (authorea.com)
  • When gene flow occurs via migration the deleterious effects of inbreeding can be ameliorated. (wikipedia.org)
  • Maize gene flow occurs through cultivator determined seed selection and mixing as well as through pollen transfer between individual plants and fields. (nature.com)
  • Gene flow occurs between all sexually compatible plants of maize types, i.e. in land races, commercial hybrids and eventual wild relatives 4 . (nature.com)
  • Expression changes in a core set of genes occurs independent of IgE in a mouse model of chemical-induced airway eosinophilia. (cdc.gov)
  • Vertical gene flow from transgenic oilseed rape to non-GM counterparts may also have an impact on farming and supply chain management, depending on labelling thresholds for the adventitious presence of GM material in non-GM products. (cambridge.org)
  • Crucial practical measures that can reduce vertical gene flow include (1) isolating seed production of Brassica napus , (2) the use of certified seed, (3) isolating fields of GM oilseed rape, (4) harvesting at the correct crop development stage with properly adjusted combine settings, (5) ensuring maximum germination of shed seeds after harvest, (6) controlling volunteers in subsequent crops, and (7) keeping on-farm records. (cambridge.org)
  • Here, we explored the phenotypic and genomic effects of interspecific gene flow following the widespread cultivation of Mentha spicata (spearmint), M. longifolia, and M. suaveolens. (lu.se)
  • A collaboration between KAUST and several UK institutes has revealed that surface currents are important pathways for gene flow in the Red Sea, a finding which will help guide marine management programs. (earthscape.org)
  • There is overwhelming evidence of gene flow from Indians to the Siddi population. (thehindu.com)
  • Beckie , H , Warwick , S , Nair , H , Séguin-Swartz G ( 2003 ) Gene flow in commercial fields of herbicide-resistant canola ( Brassica napus ). (cambridge.org)
  • Once herbicide-resistant weeds evolve, they can be spread by pollen and/or seed movement, known as pollen- and seed-mediated gene flow, respectively. (unl.edu)
  • We evaluated the sensitivity of the D-statistic, a parsimony-like method widely used to detect gene flow between closely related species. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Genetic analyses reveal female-mediated gene flow from north to south. (bou.org.uk)
  • This ancient flow of genes to present-day humans has physiological relevance today, for example affecting how our immune system reacts to infections. (nobelprize.org)
  • The main tool used in transcriptomics is total RNA sequencing, which is a powerful tool for analyzing gene expression changes in response to various environmental stresses [ 27 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • The study has for the first time traced the Siddi's African ancestry to the Bantu-speaking population in the sub-Saharan region, and established that the gene admixture happened only over the past eight generations - about 200 years ago. (thehindu.com)
  • We wondered whether this evolutionary change could be explained by gene flow between the two species. (phys.org)
  • Traditional phylogenetic analyses that assume a bifurcating tree fails to model complicated evolutionary processes such as incomplete lineage sorting (ILS), gene flow, and horizontal gene transfer [ 1 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Maternal and paternal genes are present but failure of maternal imprinting causes only the paternal genome to be expressed. (medscape.com)
  • In the last decade, diagnostic and prognostic evaluation has been facilitated by global gene expression profiling (GEP), provid- ing a new powerful means for the classification, prediction of survival, and response to treatment of lym- phomas. (lu.se)
  • Still, the seasonal habitats of different species of birds have not been completely mapped but this would be of great interest to get a more thorough picture of the global gene flow. (lu.se)
  • Short interfering RNA (siRNA) is a powerful technique that can suppress gene expression in a variety of cells including mammalian cells. (scirp.org)
  • P values were adjusted with a multivariate linear regression model and represent the influence of leprosy on the gene expression levels. (ajtmh.org)
  • Analysis of lung gene expression reveals a role for Cl- channels in diisocyanate induced airway eosinophilia in a mouse model of asthma pathology. (cdc.gov)
  • Transcription factors (TFs) are critical for B-cell differentiation, affecting gene expression both by repres- sion and transcriptional activation. (lu.se)
  • The identified transcription factors influence both the global and specific gene expression of the BCLs and have possible implications for diagnosis and treat- ment. (lu.se)
  • Transcriptomics focuses on gene transcription and regulation of transcription in cells [ 25 , 26 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • Conclusions: Although hybridization, allopolyploidization, and human selection during cultivation can increase species richness (e.g., by forming hybrid taxa), we showed that unless reproductive barriers are strong, these processes can also result in mixing of genes between species and the potential loss of natural biodiversity. (lu.se)
  • The quantity of ionic current flowing through K+ channels depends upon the interplay between two separate time-dependent processes: activation and inactivation gating. (mycareerpeer.com)
  • Analysis of gene flow must take ILS into account, because both processes generate gene trees that are incongruent with the species tree. (biomedcentral.com)
  • For instance, they fail to understand that the Caucasus is a semipermeable barrier that has effectively stymied human gene flow between Eastern Europe and West Asia through the ages. (blogspot.com)
  • This has made it possible for them to migrate and live at different habitats depending on season and in this way also to effectively spread genes. (lu.se)
  • The main gene finding, ADRA2A , "points to a receptor on the cells that regulate the tone of these blood vessels," she continued. (medscape.com)
  • When gene flow is impeded, there can be an increase in inbreeding, measured by the inbreeding coefficient (F) within a population. (wikipedia.org)
  • The population is so strongly isolated that lack of gene flow has led to high rates of inbreeding. (wikipedia.org)
  • Gene flow can be measured by using the effective population size ( N e {\displaystyle N_{e}} ) and the net migration rate per generation (m). (wikipedia.org)
  • The first prediction was that any mixing of genes from a wider population would help plants adapt to warming conditions. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Furthermore, the hybrid females successfully bred with common cactus finch males and thereby transferred genes from the medium ground finch to the common cactus finch population. (phys.org)
  • introduction of genetic material (by interbreeding) from one population of a species to another, thereby changing the composition of the gene pool of the receiving population. (britannica.com)
  • When we look within a single population, gene genealogies are likewise diverse. (johnhawks.net)
  • This can result in discordance between the genealogy of that locus (gene tree) and population split history (species tree). (biomedcentral.com)
  • Gene flow in agricultural crops is important for risk assessment of genetically modified (GM) crops, particularly in countries with a large informal agricultural sector of subsistence cultivation. (nature.com)
  • We demonstrated for the first time that gene silencing of endothelial E-selectin using siRNA transfection in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) causes inhibition of EPC adhesion under flow conditions. (scirp.org)
  • This gene provides instructions for making a sodium channel, which normally transports positively charged sodium atoms (ions) into heart muscle cells. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Mutations in the SCN5A gene alter the structure or function of the channel, which reduces the flow of sodium ions into cells. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Physical barriers to gene flow are usually, but not always, natural. (wikipedia.org)
  • At the strategic session 'Hidden champions in the 'Technet markets" NTI in Russia: reality, challenges, prospects', Eugene discussed with colleagues how to overcome barriers to the development of small and medium-sized technology companies. (kamaflow.com)
  • while these statistics are difficult to implement to practical questions in biology due to lack of knowledge of when the gene flow happened, they can be used to compare datasets with identical or similar demographic background. (biomedcentral.com)
  • This condition is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means one copy of the altered gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the disorder. (medlineplus.gov)
  • We conclude that the overall genetic composition of maize, in this and similar agricultural contexts, will be strongly influenced both by self-organised ecological factors (pollen flow), and by socially mediated intervention (seed recycling and sharing). (nature.com)
  • Ecological impacts of hybridization and gene flow. (uoguelph.ca)
  • Gene flow via vegetative propagule has rarely been addressed, but could be an important avenue for certain weed species. (unl.edu)
  • In addition, important genes related to osmoregulation, such as ion transport and carbonic anhydrase, were also detected in the correlation analysis for same trend DEPs_DEGs. (hindawi.com)
  • Our experiments have shown the importance of E-selectin in EPC adhesion to HUVECs and the potential utility of gene silencing of E-selectin in EPC recruitment. (scirp.org)
  • Reproductive biology differs markedly among weed species, as does the potential for gene flow. (unl.edu)
  • Our major histocompatibility complex (MHC) data suggest potential selection by WNS on the MHC, but gene duplication limited the immunogenetic analyses. (datadryad.org)
  • It also provides a useful focal point for studying the mechanisms of microevolution such as gene flow, genetic drift, and selection. (uoguelph.ca)
  • In a secondary analysis, the team also used health records from the Queen Mary University of London Genes & Health Study, which contains health information on individuals of South Asian ancestry. (medscape.com)
  • Importantly, Pääbo also found that gene transfer had occurred from these now extinct hominins to Homo sapiens following the migration out of Africa around 70,000 years ago. (nobelprize.org)
  • This is consistent with the fact that the main confounding factor in gene flow detection is incomplete lineage sorting by diluting the signal. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We provide evidence of a substantial gene flow, in particular from the medium ground finch to the common cactus finch," explains Sangeet Lamichhaney, one of the shared first authors and currently Associate Professor at Kent State University. (phys.org)