GB virus B
GB virus C
Saguinus
Flaviviridae
GB virus A
Leontopithecus
Hepatitis, Viral, Human
Polyproteins
Callithrix
Hepacivirus
Molecular Sequence Data
Vaccinia virus
Coxsackievirus Infections
Viral Nonstructural Proteins
Virus Replication
Chrysanthemum
Carlavirus
Enterovirus B, Human
Requirements for de novo initiation of RNA synthesis by recombinant flaviviral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases. (1/29)
RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRps) that initiate RNA synthesis by a de novo mechanism should specifically recognize the template initiation nucleotide, T1, and the substrate initiation nucleotide, the NTPi. The RdRps from hepatitis C virus (HCV), bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), and GB virus-B all can initiate RNA synthesis by a de novo mechanism. We used RNAs and GTP analogs, respectively, to examine the use of the T1 nucleotide and the initiation nucleotide (NTPi) during de novo initiation of RNA synthesis. The effects of the metal ions Mg(2+) and Mn(2+) on initiation were also analyzed. All three viral RdRps require correct base pairing between the T1 and NTPi for efficient RNA synthesis. However, each RdRp had some distinct tolerances for modifications in the T1 and NTPi. For example, the HCV RdRp preferred an NTPi lacking one or more phosphates regardless of whether Mn(2+) was present or absent, while the BVDV RdRp efficiently used GDP and GMP for initiation of RNA synthesis only in the presence of Mn(2+). These and other results indicate that although the three RdRps share a common mechanism of de novo initiation, each has distinct preferences. (+info)Replication and IRES-dependent translation are both affected by core coding sequences in subgenomic GB virus B replicons. (2/29)
The yield of G418-resistant Huh7 cell clones bearing subgenomic dicistronic GB virus B (GBV-B) is significantly affected by the insertion of a portion of the viral core gene between the GBV-B 5' untranslated region and the exogenous neomycin phosphotransferase selector gene (A. De Tomassi, M. Pizzuti, R. Graziani, A. Sbardellati, S. Altamura, G. Paonessa, and C. Traboni, J. Virol. 76:7736-7746, 2002). In this report, we have dissected this phenomenon, examining the effects of the insertion of core sequences of different lengths on GBV-B IRES-dependent translation and RNA replication by using experimental approaches aimed at analyzing these two aspects independently. The results achieved indicate that an enhancement of translation efficiency does occur and that it correlates with the length of the inserted core sequences. Interestingly, the insertion of these sequences also has a direct similar effect on the efficiency of replication of the GBV-B replicon. These results suggest that in GBV-B replicon RNA and potentially in the complete viral genome, the core coding sequences not only are part of the IRES but also take part in the replication process, independently of the presence of the corresponding whole protein. (+info)Comparison of tamarins and marmosets as hosts for GBV-B infections and the effect of immunosuppression on duration of viremia. (3/29)
GBV-B virus is a close relative to hepatitis C virus (HCV) that causes hepatitis in tamarins, and thus, is an attractive surrogate model for HCV. In this study, we demonstrate that the host range of GBV-B extends to the common marmoset with an infection profile similar to that observed for tamarins. Marmoset hepatocytes were susceptible to in vitro infection with GBV-B. Virus was efficiently secreted into the medium, and approximately 25% of hepatocytes were positive for NS3 staining. In an attempt to induce persistent infections, tamarins were immunosuppressed with FK506 and inoculated with GBV-B. Although no chronic infections were induced, the duration of viremia was increased in most animals. In one animal, the duration of viremia was extended to 46 weeks, but viral clearance occurred 18 weeks after stopping FK506 therapy. The greater availability of marmosets in comparison to tamarins will greatly facilitate future research efforts with this model. (+info)Chronic hepatitis associated with GB virus B persistence in a tamarin after intrahepatic inoculation of synthetic viral RNA. (4/29)
Progress in understanding the pathogenesis of hepatitis C virus (HCV) has been slowed by the absence of tractable small animal models. Whereas GB virus B (GBV-B, an unclassified flavivirus) shares a phylogenetic relationship and several biologic attributes with HCV, including hepatotropism, it is not known to cause persistent infection, a hallmark of HCV. Here, we document persistent GBV-B infection in one of two healthy tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) inoculated intrahepatically with infectious synthetic RNA. High-titer viremia (108 to 109 genome equivalents per ml) and transiently elevated serum alanine transaminase activities were present from weeks 4 to 12 postinoculation in both animals. However, whereas GBV-B was eliminated from one animal by 20 weeks, the second animal remained viremic (103 to 107 genome equivalents per ml) for >2 years, with alanine transaminase levels becoming elevated again before spontaneous resolution of the infection. A liver biopsy taken late in the course of infection demonstrated hepatitis with periportal mononuclear infiltrates, hepatocellular microvesicular changes, cytoplasmic lipid droplets, and disordered mitochondrial ultrastructure, findings remarkably similar to chronic hepatitis C. GBV-B-infected hepatocytes contained numerous small vesicular membranous structures resembling those associated with expression of HCV nonstructural proteins, and sequencing of GBV-B RNA demonstrated a rate of molecular evolution comparable to that of HCV. We conclude that GBV-B is capable of establishing persistent infections in healthy tamarins, a feature that substantially enhances its value as a model for HCV. Mitochondrial structural changes and altered lipid metabolism leading to steatosis are conserved features of the pathogenesis of chronic hepatitis caused by these genetically distinct flaviviruses. (+info)Enzymatic activities of the GB virus-B RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. (5/29)
The GB virus-B (GBV-B) nonstructural protein 5B (NS5B) encodes an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) with greater than 50% sequence similarity to the hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS5B. Recombinant GBV-B NS5B was reported to possess RdRp activity (W. Zhong et al., 2000, J. Viral Hepat. 7, 335-342). In this study, the GBV-B RdRp was examined more thoroughly for different RNA synthesis activities, including primer-extension, de novo initiation, template switch, terminal nucleotide addition, and template specificity. The results can be compared with previous characterizations of the HCV RdRp. The two RdRps share similarities in terms of metal ion and template preference, the abilities to add nontemplated nucleotides, perform both de novo initiation and extension from a primer, and switch templates. However, several differences in RNA synthesis between the GBV-B and HCV RdRps were observed, including (i) optimal temperatures for activity, (ii) ranges of Mn(2+) concentration tolerated for activity, and (iii) cation requirements for de novo RNA synthesis and terminal transferase activity. To assess whether the recombinant GBV-B RdRp may represent a relevant surrogate system for testing HCV antiviral agents, two compounds demonstrated to be active at nanomolar concentrations against HCV NS5B were tested on the GBV RdRp. A chain terminating nucleotide analog could prevent RNA synthesis, while a nonnucleoside HCV inhibitor was unable to affect RNA synthesis by the GBV RdRp. (+info)Hep3B human hepatoma cells support replication of the wild-type and a 5'-end deletion mutant GB virus B replicon. (6/29)
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) and GB virus B (GBV-B) replicons have been reported to replicate only in Huh7 cells. Here we demonstrate that subpopulations of another human hepatoma cell line, Hep3B, are permissive for the GBV-B replicon, showing different levels of enhancement of replication from those of the unselected parental cell population. Adaptive mutations are not required for replication of the GBV-B replicon in these cells, as already demonstrated for Huh7 cells. Nonetheless, we identified a mutant replicon in one of the selected cell lines, which, although lacking the 5' end proximal stem-loop, is able to replicate in Hep3B cells as well as in Huh7 cells. This mutant indeed shows a higher replication efficiency than does wild-type replicon, especially in the Hep3B cell clone from which it was originally recovered. This indicates that the stem-loop Ia is not necessary for replication of the GBV-B replicon in human cells, unlike what occurs with HCV, and that its absence can even provide a selective advantage. (+info)Development of a GB virus B marmoset model and its validation with a novel series of hepatitis C virus NS3 protease inhibitors. (7/29)
GB virus B (GBV-B), a flavivirus closely related to HCV, has previously been shown to infect and replicate to high titers in tamarins (Saguinus sp.). This study describes the use of GBV-B infection and replication in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) for the successful development and validation of a surrogate animal model for hepatitis C virus (HCV). Infection of marmosets with GBV-B produced a viremia that peaked at 10(8) to 10(9) genome copies/ml for a period of 40 to 60 days followed by viral clearance at 60 to 80 days postinfection. Passage of the initial tamarin-derived GBV-B in marmosets produced an infectious stock that gave a more reproducible and consistent infection in the marmoset. Titration of the virus stocks in vivo indicated that they contained 1 infectious unit for every 1,000 genome copies. Cultures of primary marmoset hepatocytes were also successfully infected with GBV-B, with high levels of virus detected in supernatants and cells for up to 14 days postinfection. Treatment of GBV-B-infected hepatocyte cultures with a novel class of HCV protease inhibitor (pyrrolidine 5,5 trans-lactams) reduced viral levels by more than 2 logs. Treatment of GBV-B-infected marmosets with one such inhibitor resulted in a 3-log drop in serum viral titer over 4 days of therapy. These studies provide the first demonstration of the in vivo efficacy of a small-molecule inhibitor for HCV in an animal model and illustrate the utility of GBV-B as a surrogate animal model system for HCV. (+info)Characterization of GB virus B polyprotein processing reveals the existence of a novel 13-kDa protein with partial homology to hepatitis C virus p7 protein. (8/29)
Although responsible for a major health problem worldwide, hepatitis C virus is difficult to study because of the absence of fully permissive cell cultures or experimental animal models other than the chimpanzee. GB virus B (GBV-B), a closely related hepatotropic virus that infects small New World primates and replicates efficiently in primary hepatocyte cultures, is an attractive surrogate model system. However, little is known about processing of the GBV-B polyprotein. Because an understanding of these events is critical to further development of model GBV-B systems, we characterized signal peptidase processing of the polyprotein segment containing the putative structural proteins. We identified the exact N termini of the mature GBV-B envelope proteins, E1 and E2, and the first nonstructural protein, NS2, by direct amino acid sequencing. Interestingly, these studies document the existence of a previously unrecognized 13-kDa protein (p13) located between E2 and NS2 within the polyprotein. We compared the sequence of the p13 protein to that of hepatitis C virus p7, a small membrane-spanning protein with a similar location in the polyprotein and recently identified ion channel activity. The C-terminal half of p13 shows clear homology with p7, suggesting a common function, but the substantially larger size of p13, with 4 rather than 2 predicted transmembrane segments, indicates a different structural organization and/or additional functions. The identification of p13 in the GBV-B polyprotein provides strong support for the hypothesis that ion channel-forming proteins are essential for the life cycle of flaviviruses, possibly playing a role in virion morphogenesis and/or virus entry into cells. (+info)GB virus B (GBV-B) is not a widely accepted or used term in the medical community. It was initially identified as a possible new virus in the 1960s, during an investigation into hepatitis outbreaks among laboratory workers handling chimpanzee serum and feces. However, further research could not confirm its existence as a separate virus.
The name "GB virus B" comes from the initials of the person (G. Barker) who provided the original serum sample where the virus was first detected, and "B" to differentiate it from another related virus called GB virus A (GBV-A).
Currently, GBV-B is not considered a distinct human pathogen or a significant cause of any known diseases. It is not included in the list of human viruses by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) and is not recognized as a medical condition by major health organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
GB virus C (GBV-C), also known as hepatitis G virus (HGV) or human pegivirus (HPgV), is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus that belongs to the Flaviviridae family. It was initially identified in 1995 and is closely related to hepatitis C virus (HCV). However, unlike HCV, GBV-C is not associated with any significant liver disease and does not cause hepatitis.
GBV-C infection is usually asymptomatic and often resolves on its own without treatment. It is primarily transmitted through blood and bodily fluids, such as through sharing needles or during sexual contact. Vertical transmission from mother to child can also occur, although it is less common than with HCV.
While GBV-C infection is generally benign, there is some evidence to suggest that it may have immunomodulatory effects and could potentially impact the course of other viral infections, such as HIV. However, more research is needed to fully understand the clinical significance of GBV-C infection.
"Saguinus" is a genus of small, New World monkeys that are commonly known as tamarins. They are native to the forests of Central and South America. Tamarins have a slender body with long limbs, a specialized claw-like nail on their second digit of the foot, and a distinct coat coloration that varies between species. They primarily feed on fruits, insects, and exudates from trees. Tamarins are also known for their social structure, typically living in family groups consisting of a mated pair and their offspring.
Flaviviridae infections refer to a group of diseases caused by viruses that belong to the Flaviviridae family. This family includes several important human pathogens, such as dengue virus, yellow fever virus, West Nile virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, and Zika virus.
These viruses are primarily transmitted to humans through the bites of infected mosquitoes or ticks. The symptoms of Flaviviridae infections can vary depending on the specific virus, but they often include fever, headache, muscle and joint pain, rash, and fatigue. In severe cases, these infections can lead to serious complications such as hemorrhagic fever, encephalitis, or neuropathy.
Prevention measures for Flaviviridae infections include avoiding mosquito and tick bites, using insect repellent, wearing protective clothing, and getting vaccinated if vaccines are available for the specific virus. Treatment is generally supportive and may include fluid replacement, pain relief, and management of complications. There are no specific antiviral treatments available for most Flaviviridae infections.
Flaviviridae is a family of viruses that includes many important human pathogens. According to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), Flaviviridae is divided into four genera: Flavivirus, Hepacivirus, Pegivirus, and Pestivirus. These viruses are enveloped and have a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome.
1. Flavivirus genus includes several medically important viruses, such as dengue virus, yellow fever virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, West Nile virus, Zika virus, and tick-borne encephalitis virus. These viruses are primarily transmitted by arthropod vectors (mosquitoes or ticks) and can cause a wide range of symptoms, from mild febrile illness to severe hemorrhagic fever and neuroinvasive disease.
2. Hepacivirus genus contains hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is a major causative agent of viral hepatitis and liver diseases, such as cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. HCV is primarily transmitted through percutaneous exposure to infected blood or blood products, sexual contact, and mother-to-child transmission during childbirth.
3. Pegivirus genus includes pegiviruses (formerly known as GB viruses) that are associated with persistent infection in humans and other animals. While pegiviruses can cause acute illness, they are mostly linked to asymptomatic or mild infections.
4. Pestivirus genus contains several animal pathogens, such as bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), Classical swine fever virus (CSFV), and border disease virus (BDV). These viruses can cause significant economic losses in the livestock industry due to reproductive failure, growth retardation, and immunosuppression.
In summary, Flaviviridae is a family of enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses that includes several important human and animal pathogens. The family is divided into four genera: Flavivirus, Hepacivirus, Pegivirus, and Pestivirus.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "GB virus A" is not a widely recognized or established medical term in the field of virology or medicine. It appears that "GB virus A" might be a reference to a specific strain of a virus discovered in a primate host, but there is limited information available about it.
To provide some context, there are GB viruses (GBV), named after the initials of the scientist who first identified them, G. Broderick. GB viruses were initially found in various non-human primates and later discovered in humans as well. There are four known strains: GB virus A, B, C, and D.
GB virus A (GBV-A) is a picornavirus that was first identified in a species of monkey called the *Cynomolgus macaque*. It has not been conclusively associated with any human disease. However, it shares some genetic similarities with hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is a significant human pathogen. GBV-A is primarily used as a model in research to study HCV replication and related processes.
Please consult reliable scientific resources or literature for more detailed and accurate information about GB virus A, as the knowledge and understanding of these viruses continue to evolve.
"Leontopithecus" is not a medical term, but a taxonomic genus name in the field of zoology. It refers to a group of small New World monkeys known as lion tamarins, which are native to the Atlantic coastal forests of Brazil. These primates are characterized by their thick manes that resemble those of lions, hence their common name.
The medical community may be interested in Leontopithecus species due to their potential use in biomedical research or conservation efforts. However, it is not a term commonly used in medical practice or literature.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Viral Hepatitis, Animal" is not a standard medical classification or definition. Hepatitis refers to inflammation of the liver, and viral hepatitis refers to inflammation caused by a virus. The term "animal" in this context doesn't provide a clear meaning.
However, it's worth noting that some animals can contract viral hepatitis, similar to humans. For instance, there are hepatitis A, B, and C-like viruses that have been identified in various animal species. These are typically not transmissible to humans.
If you're referring to a specific medical condition or context, could you please provide more details? I'd be happy to help further with more information.
Viral hepatitis in humans refers to inflammation of the liver caused by infection with viruses that primarily target the liver. There are five main types of human viral hepatitis, designated as Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E virus (HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV, and HEV). These viruses can cause a range of illnesses, from acute self-limiting hepatitis to chronic hepatitis, which can lead to cirrhosis and liver cancer.
1. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is typically spread through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water. It usually results in an acute self-limiting infection, but rarely can cause chronic hepatitis in individuals with weakened immune systems.
2. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood, semen, and other bodily fluids. It can lead to both acute and chronic hepatitis, which may result in cirrhosis and liver cancer if left untreated.
3. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is predominantly spread through exposure to infected blood, such as through sharing needles or receiving contaminated blood transfusions. Chronic hepatitis C is common, and it can lead to serious liver complications like cirrhosis and liver cancer if not treated.
4. Hepatitis D virus (HDV) is an incomplete virus that requires the presence of HBV for its replication. HDV infection occurs only in individuals already infected with HBV, leading to more severe liver disease compared to HBV monoinfection.
5. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water. It usually results in an acute self-limiting infection but can cause chronic hepatitis in pregnant women and individuals with weakened immune systems.
Prevention measures include vaccination for HAV and HBV, safe sex practices, avoiding sharing needles, and ensuring proper hygiene and sanitation to prevent fecal-oral transmission.
A polyprotein is a long, continuous chain of amino acids that are produced through the translation of a single mRNA (messenger RNA) molecule. This occurs in some viruses, including retroviruses like HIV, where the viral genome contains instructions for the production of one or more polyproteins.
After the polyprotein is synthesized, it is cleaved into smaller, functional proteins by virus-encoded proteases. These individual proteins then assemble to form new virus particles. The concept of polyproteins is important in understanding viral replication and may provide targets for antiviral therapy.
Callithrix is a genus of New World monkeys, also known as marmosets. They are small, active primates found in the forests of South and Central America. The term "Callithrix" itself is derived from the Greek words "kallis" meaning beautiful and "thrix" meaning hair, referring to their thick, vibrantly colored fur.
Marmosets in the genus Callithrix are characterized by their slender bodies, long, bushy tails, and specialized dental structures that allow them to gouge tree bark to extract sap and exudates, which form a significant part of their diet. They also consume fruits, insects, and small vertebrates.
Some well-known species in this genus include the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), the white-headed marmoset (Callithrix geoffroyi), and the buffy-tufted-ear marmoset (Callithrix aurita). Marmosets are popular subjects of research due to their small size, short gestation period, and ease of breeding in captivity.
A viral RNA (ribonucleic acid) is the genetic material found in certain types of viruses, as opposed to viruses that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). These viruses are known as RNA viruses. The RNA can be single-stranded or double-stranded and can exist as several different forms, such as positive-sense, negative-sense, or ambisense RNA. Upon infecting a host cell, the viral RNA uses the host's cellular machinery to translate the genetic information into proteins, leading to the production of new virus particles and the continuation of the viral life cycle. Examples of human diseases caused by RNA viruses include influenza, COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), hepatitis C, and polio.
Hepacivirus is a genus of viruses in the family Flaviviridae. The most well-known member of this genus is Hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is a major cause of liver disease worldwide. HCV infection can lead to chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer.
Hepaciviruses are enveloped viruses with a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome. They have a small icosahedral capsid and infect a variety of hosts, including humans, non-human primates, horses, and birds. The virus enters the host cell by binding to specific receptors on the cell surface and is then internalized through endocytosis.
HCV has a high degree of genetic diversity and is classified into seven major genotypes and numerous subtypes based on differences in its RNA sequence. This genetic variability can affect the virus's ability to evade the host immune response, making treatment more challenging.
In addition to HCV, other hepaciviruses have been identified in various animal species, including equine hepacivirus (EHCV), rodent hepacivirus (RHV), and bat hepacivirus (BtHepCV). These viruses are being studied to better understand the biology of hepaciviruses and their potential impact on human health.
Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.
Vaccinia virus is a large, complex DNA virus that belongs to the Poxviridae family. It is the virus used in the production of the smallpox vaccine. The vaccinia virus is not identical to the variola virus, which causes smallpox, but it is closely related and provides cross-protection against smallpox infection.
The vaccinia virus has a unique replication cycle that occurs entirely in the cytoplasm of infected cells, rather than in the nucleus like many other DNA viruses. This allows the virus to evade host cell defenses and efficiently produce new virions. The virus causes the formation of pocks or lesions on the skin, which contain large numbers of virus particles that can be transmitted to others through close contact.
Vaccinia virus has also been used as a vector for the delivery of genes encoding therapeutic proteins, vaccines against other infectious diseases, and cancer therapies. However, the use of vaccinia virus as a vector is limited by its potential to cause adverse reactions in some individuals, particularly those with weakened immune systems or certain skin conditions.
A viral genome is the genetic material (DNA or RNA) that is present in a virus. It contains all the genetic information that a virus needs to replicate itself and infect its host. The size and complexity of viral genomes can vary greatly, ranging from a few thousand bases to hundreds of thousands of bases. Some viruses have linear genomes, while others have circular genomes. The genome of a virus also contains the information necessary for the virus to hijack the host cell's machinery and use it to produce new copies of the virus. Understanding the genetic makeup of viruses is important for developing vaccines and antiviral treatments.
Coxsackievirus infections are a type of viral illness caused by Coxsackie A and B viruses, which belong to the family Picornaviridae. These viruses can cause a wide range of symptoms, depending on the specific strain and the age and overall health of the infected individual.
The most common types of Coxsackievirus infections are hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) and herpangina. HFMD is characterized by fever, sore throat, and a rash that typically appears on the hands, feet, and mouth. Herpangina is similar but is usually marked by painful sores in the back of the mouth or throat.
Other possible symptoms of Coxsackievirus infections include:
* Fever
* Headache
* Muscle aches
* Fatigue
* Nausea and vomiting
* Abdominal pain
In some cases, Coxsackievirus infections can lead to more serious complications, such as meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord), myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle), or pleurodynia (also known as "devil's grip," a painful inflammation of the chest and abdominal muscles).
Coxsackievirus infections are typically spread through close contact with an infected person, such as through respiratory droplets or by touching contaminated surfaces. The viruses can also be spread through fecal-oral transmission.
There is no specific treatment for Coxsackievirus infections, and most people recover on their own within a week or two. However, severe cases may require hospitalization and supportive care, such as fluids and pain relief. Prevention measures include good hygiene practices, such as washing hands frequently and avoiding close contact with sick individuals.
Viral nonstructural proteins (NS) are viral proteins that are not part of the virion structure. They play various roles in the viral life cycle, such as replication of the viral genome, transcription, translation regulation, and modulation of the host cell environment to favor virus replication. These proteins are often produced in large quantities during infection and can manipulate or disrupt various cellular pathways to benefit the virus. They may also be involved in evasion of the host's immune response. The specific functions of viral nonstructural proteins vary depending on the type of virus.
Virus replication is the process by which a virus produces copies or reproduces itself inside a host cell. This involves several steps:
1. Attachment: The virus attaches to a specific receptor on the surface of the host cell.
2. Penetration: The viral genetic material enters the host cell, either by invagination of the cell membrane or endocytosis.
3. Uncoating: The viral genetic material is released from its protective coat (capsid) inside the host cell.
4. Replication: The viral genetic material uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
5. Assembly: The newly synthesized viral components are assembled into new virus particles.
6. Release: The newly formed viruses are released from the host cell, often through lysis (breaking) of the cell membrane or by budding off the cell membrane.
The specific mechanisms and details of virus replication can vary depending on the type of virus. Some viruses, such as DNA viruses, use the host cell's DNA polymerase to replicate their genetic material, while others, such as RNA viruses, use their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase enzymes. Understanding the process of virus replication is important for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.
I am not a doctor, but I can provide some information about chrysanthemums. Chrysanthemums are flowering plants that belong to the genus Chrysanthemum in the family Asteraceae. They are native to Asia and northeastern Europe and are particularly significant in East Asian cultures.
Chrysanthemums have been cultivated for centuries for their beautiful flowers, which come in a variety of colors including white, yellow, red, and purple. In some countries, chrysanthemums are considered symbolic of death and are used in funerals or on graves, while in others they represent life, joy, and longevity.
While chrysanthemums do not have a direct medical definition, some parts of the plant have been used in traditional medicine in various cultures. For example, chrysanthemum flowers are sometimes used to make teas that are believed to help with headaches, fever, and inflammation. However, it is important to note that the effectiveness of these remedies has not been scientifically proven, and chrysanthemums can cause allergic reactions or other adverse effects in some people. Therefore, it is always recommended to consult with a healthcare professional before using any herbal remedies.
Carlavirus is a genus of viruses in the family Betaflexiviridae, order Tymovirales. These viruses have single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genomes and are transmitted by insects or mechanically through sap. They infect a wide range of plant hosts, causing various symptoms such as mosaic, stunting, and necrosis. The genus contains over 50 species, including important pathogens like potato virus Y and apple stem grooving virus.
Enterovirus B, Human (HEVB) is a type of enterovirus that infects humans. Enteroviruses are small viruses that belong to the Picornaviridae family and are named after the Greek word "pico" meaning small. They are further classified into several species, including Human Enterovirus B (HEV-B).
HEVB includes several serotypes, such as Coxsackievirus A9, A16, and B types, and Echoviruses. These viruses are typically transmitted through the fecal-oral route or respiratory droplets and can cause a range of illnesses, from mild symptoms like fever, rash, and sore throat to more severe diseases such as meningitis, myocarditis, and paralysis.
HEVB infections are common worldwide, and people of all ages can be affected. However, young children and individuals with weakened immune systems are at higher risk for severe illness. Prevention measures include good hygiene practices, such as washing hands frequently and avoiding close contact with sick individuals. There is no specific treatment for HEVB infections, and most cases resolve on their own within a few days to a week. However, hospitalization may be necessary for severe cases.
RNA viruses are a type of virus that contain ribonucleic acid (RNA) as their genetic material, as opposed to deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). RNA viruses replicate by using an enzyme called RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to transcribe and replicate their RNA genome.
There are several different groups of RNA viruses, including:
1. Negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome that is complementary to the mRNA and must undergo transcription to produce mRNA before translation can occur. Examples include influenza virus, measles virus, and rabies virus.
2. Positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome that can serve as mRNA and can be directly translated into protein after entry into the host cell. Examples include poliovirus, rhinoviruses, and coronaviruses.
3. Double-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome consisting of double-stranded RNA and use a complex replication strategy involving both transcription and reverse transcription. Examples include rotaviruses and reoviruses.
RNA viruses are known to cause a wide range of human diseases, ranging from the common cold to more severe illnesses such as hepatitis C, polio, and COVID-19. Due to their high mutation rates and ability to adapt quickly to new environments, RNA viruses can be difficult to control and treat with antiviral drugs or vaccines.
Viral proteins are the proteins that are encoded by the viral genome and are essential for the viral life cycle. These proteins can be structural or non-structural and play various roles in the virus's replication, infection, and assembly process. Structural proteins make up the physical structure of the virus, including the capsid (the protein shell that surrounds the viral genome) and any envelope proteins (that may be present on enveloped viruses). Non-structural proteins are involved in the replication of the viral genome and modulation of the host cell environment to favor viral replication. Overall, a thorough understanding of viral proteins is crucial for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.
Hepatitis viruses refer to a group of viral agents that primarily target the liver, causing inflammation and damage to hepatocytes (liver cells). This results in various clinical manifestations, ranging from an acute infection to a chronic, persistent infection. There are five main types of hepatitis viruses, named Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E virus, each with distinct genetic material, modes of transmission, and disease severity.
1. Hepatitis A Virus (HAV): This is a single-stranded RNA virus that is primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often via contaminated food or water. Infected individuals may experience symptoms such as jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, and loss of appetite. While most people recover completely within a few months, severe complications can occur in rare cases. A vaccine is available to prevent HAV infection.
2. Hepatitis B Virus (HBV): This is a double-stranded DNA virus that is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood or bodily fluids, such as during sexual contact, sharing needles, or from mother to child during childbirth. HBV can cause both acute and chronic hepatitis, which may lead to severe liver complications like cirrhosis and liver cancer if left untreated. A vaccine is available to prevent HBV infection.
3. Hepatitis C Virus (HCV): This is a single-stranded RNA virus that is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood, often through sharing needles or during medical procedures using contaminated equipment. Like HBV, HCV can cause both acute and chronic hepatitis, which may lead to severe liver complications if left untreated. No vaccine is currently available for HCV; however, antiviral treatments can cure the infection in many cases.
4. Hepatitis D Virus (HDV): This is a defective RNA virus that requires the presence of HBV to replicate and cause infection. HDV is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood or bodily fluids, similar to HBV. Co-infection with both HBV and HDV can result in more severe liver disease compared to HBV infection alone. Antiviral treatments are available for HDV; however, a vaccine is not.
5. Hepatitis E Virus (HEV): This is a single-stranded RNA virus that primarily causes acute hepatitis and is usually transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water. In most cases, HEV infection resolves on its own without treatment. However, in pregnant women and individuals with weakened immune systems, HEV can cause severe liver complications. No vaccine is currently available for HEV in the United States; however, a vaccine has been approved in some countries.
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A Comprehensive Immunization Strategy to Eliminate Transmission of Hepatitis B Virus Infection in the United States:...
Introduction: GB virus C (GBV-C) or hepatitis G pathogen (HGV) can - Research of The MDM2-p53 pathway
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http://apps.who.int/gb/ebwha/pdf files/WHA68/ A68 27-en.pdf?ua=1
GB virus type C E2 protein inhibits human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Gag assembly by downregulating human ADP-ribosylation...
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) in GB pig herds: Farm characteristics associated with heterogeneity...
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Infection10
- This will not interrupt your work and you can just peek into the popup notification to have an overview of the virus infection in your country. (ilovefreesoftware.com)
- In case, you've been looking for a simple tool or utility that can get you the latest Corona Virus infection results for your country then you can simply use the script mentioned here. (ilovefreesoftware.com)
- Also, on a side note, keep yourself safe from Corona Virus infection by following simple safety measures as issued by the health ministry or similar organizations of your country. (ilovefreesoftware.com)
- Hepatitis B vaccination is the most effective measure to prevent hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection and its consequences, including cirrhosis of the liver, liver cancer, liver failure, and death. (cdc.gov)
- In settings in which a high proportion of adults have risks for HBV infection (e.g., sexually transmitted disease/human immunodeficiency virus testing and treatment facilities, drug-abuse treatment and prevention settings, health-care settings targeting services to IDUs, health-care settings targeting services to MSM, and correctional facilities), ACIP recommends universal hepatitis B vaccination for all unvaccinated adults. (cdc.gov)
- Conclusion: Our results indicate that there is no correlation between GVC- infection rate and other liver-infecting viruses such as HB&CV. (qscience.com)
- The signs of a computer worm may differ from the symptoms of a computer virus infection, although the two share many nasty side effects. (f-secure.com)
- citation needed] Through seed, infection occurs when the seeds are scattered in soil containing the virus-free fungus. (wikipedia.org)
- Although guidelines have been established for prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) for adults with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, they have not been available for children (1). (cdc.gov)
- Terms and Abbreviations Used in This Publication Acute hepatitis C Newly acquired symptomatic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. (cdc.gov)
Flaviviridae8
- GB virus C (GBV-C), formerly known as hepatitis G virus (HGV) and also known as human pegivirus - HPgV is a virus in the family Flaviviridae and a member of the Pegivirus, is known to infect humans, but is not known to cause human disease. (wikipedia.org)
- GBV-C is a member of the family Flaviviridae and is phylogenetically related to hepatitis C virus, but replicates primarily in lymphocytes, and poorly, if at all, in hepatocytes. (wikipedia.org)
- The GB viruses have been tentatively assigned to a fourth genus within the Flaviviridae named "Pegivirus", but this has yet to be formally endorsed by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. (wikipedia.org)
- A species of virus (tentatively placed in the genus HEPACIVIRUS) in the family FLAVIVIRIDAE, that was recovered from a tamarin monkey, but may have been of human origin. (rush.edu)
- In 1995, two new members of the family Flaviviridae, named GBV-A and GBV-B, were identified in tamarins that developed hepatitis following inoculation with the 11th GB passage. (ox.ac.uk)
- The other GB viruses have however not been assigned to a genus within the family Flaviviridae. (ox.ac.uk)
- Especie de virus de la familia FLAVIVIRIDAE, identificado al menos en seis especies de monos del Nuevo Mundo. (bvsalud.org)
- A species of virus in the family FLAVIVIRIDAE, that have been identified in at least six species of New World monkeys. (bvsalud.org)
Malware9
- Macs have a reputation for being less susceptible to viruses and malware, but this does not mean they're immune to today's scams, adware, and other cyber threats. (kaspersky.com)
- Much like computer viruses, worms are a kind of malware short for malicious soft-ware. (f-secure.com)
- Much like other malware, such as computer viruses and trojans , computer worms may be hidden in email attachments. (f-secure.com)
- The term computer virus is often used as a synonym for all kinds of malicious soft-ware, although viruses are in fact a specific type of malware. (f-secure.com)
- Regardless of the type of suspicious activity you may notice on your computer, make sure to run a thorough virus scan to make sure that your device is not infected with malware. (f-secure.com)
- Run it when you are concerned that your device has been exposed to malware or a virus, or if you want to scan your device without being connected to the Internet. (microsoft.com)
- The software should be effective at detecting and removing viruses, Trojans, spyware, and other malware. (easeus.com)
- Providing comprehensive, multi-layered protection for your PC, Mac, smartphone, and tablet, Norton 360 Deluxe from Norton by Symantec is an all-in-one security solution that helps defend against malware, ransomware, viruses, and other online threats. (easeus.com)
- An anti-virus is vital for keeping out malware, but in addition you should have multiple layers of protection to reinforce your defenses. (f-secure.com)
Genome5
- Both GBV-C virus and HCV have similar genome, but they replicate in different cell types. (qscience.com)
- It also exhaustively introduces the concrete mechanism of invading GC cells and the viral genome composition of adenovirus and herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). (frontiersin.org)
- Each semi-artificial dataset allows to test one or several limitations that could prevent virus detection or a correct virus identification from HTS data ( i.e. low viral concentration, new viral species, non-complete genome). (datadryad.org)
- CMV shares many attributes with other herpes viruses, including genome, virion structure, and the ability to cause latent and persistent infections. (medscape.com)
- CMV has the largest genome of the herpes viruses. (medscape.com)
Viral1
- Viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) are a group of febrile illnesses caused by RNA viruses from several viral families. (medscape.com)
Infects3
- GBV-A and GBV-B are probably tamarin viruses, while GBV-C infects humans. (wikipedia.org)
- Much like a virus that infects people, a computer virus needs a host to attach itself to. (f-secure.com)
- Neither virus infects humans, and a number of GBV-A variants were identified in wild New World monkeys that were captured. (ox.ac.uk)
Humans2
Pegivirus1
- g, GB or G). We also propose renaming 'GB' viruses within the tentative genus Pegivirus to reflect their host origin. (ox.ac.uk)
Genus1
- Melon necrotic spot virus (MNSV) is a virus that belongs to the genus Gammacarmovirus (splitted from formerly Carmovirus) of the family Tombusviridae. (wikipedia.org)
Herpes1
- The other family members include herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1 or HHV-1) and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2 or HHV-2), varicella zoster virus (VZV), human herpes virus (HHV)-6, HHV-7, and HHV-8. (medscape.com)
Identified in 19951
- Hepatitis G virus and GB virus C (GBV-C) are RNA viruses that were independently identified in 1995, and were subsequently found to be two isolates of the same virus. (wikipedia.org)
Infectious3
- GB Virus C (and indeed, GBV-A and GBV-B) is named after the surgeon, G. Barker, who fell ill in 1966 with a non-A non-B hepatitis which at the time was thought to have been caused by a new, infectious hepatic virus. (wikipedia.org)
- Hepatitis B is a disease caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV), which is transmitted through percutaneous (i.e., puncture through the skin) or mucosal (i.e., direct contact with mucous membranes) exposure to infectious blood or body fluids. (cdc.gov)
- These highly infectious viruses lead to a potentially lethal disease syndrome characterized by fever, malaise, vomiting, mucosal and gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding, edema, and hypotension. (medscape.com)
Filovirus1
- Arbovirus, arenavirus, and filovirus are viruses that are spread from animals to people and, with some viruses, from people to people. (msdmanuals.com)
West Africa1
- The Ebola virus disease outbreak in West Africa has been unprecedented in many ways. (who.int)
Outbreak2
- In this Corona Virus outbreak, it's important to stay abreast of its live impact on people. (ilovefreesoftware.com)
- A real life account of the deadly Nipah virus outbreak in Kerala, and the courageous fight put on by several individuals which helped to contain the epidemic. (moviesverse.dad)
Proteins1
- E2 envelope proteins of GB trojan Adenosine IC50 C plays function in trojan entry in to the cytosol, genotyping (10), the perfect goals for vaccine advancement, and a marker to diagnose GBV-C attacks (11), and besides, the concomitance between E2 proteins and gp41 proteins of HIV-1 impacts proteins folding and whether it forms a non energetic complicated with gp41-FP. (mdm2-inhibitors.com)
Influenza6
- Rota PA, Wallis TR, Harmon MW, Rota JS, Kendal AP, Nerome K. Cocirculation of two distinct evolutionary lineages of influenza type B virus since 1983. (cdc.gov)
- Multiple genotypes of influenza B virus circulated between 1979 and 2003. (cdc.gov)
- The evolutionary dynamics of human influenza B virus. (cdc.gov)
- Influenza Other Respir Viruses. (cdc.gov)
- Hospitalizations associated with influenza and respiratory syncytial virus in the United States, 1993-2008. (cdc.gov)
- Population-based surveillance for hospitalizations associated with respiratory syncytial virus, influenza virus, and parainfluenza viruses among young children. (cdc.gov)
Flavivirus3
- The flavivirus GB virus C (GBV-C, also designated hepatitis G virus) was identified in a search for hepatitis viruses, but no disease is currently known to be associated with it. (nih.gov)
- Introduction: GB virus C (GBV-C) or hepatitis G pathogen (HGV) can be an enveloped, RNA positive-stranded flavivirus-like particle. (mdm2-inhibitors.com)
- Launch In 1995 and 1996, different isolates from the same brand-new enveloped, RNA positive-stranded flavivirus-like contaminants using Adenosine IC50 a Adenosine IC50 genomic size around 9.3 Kb, had been isolated by two indie research groupings, which named GB pathogen C (GBV-C) and hepatitis G pathogen (HGV), respectively. (mdm2-inhibitors.com)
Descriptor1
- GB virus B" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicine's controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) . (rush.edu)
Protein4
- GB-C virus does not appear to encode a C (core or nucleocapsid) protein like, for instance, hepatitis C virus. (wikipedia.org)
- The physicochemical characterization of the peptide sequences E2 (39-53) and E2 (32-59) corresponding to the structural protein E2 of the GB virus C was done by studying their interaction with model membranes. (url.edu)
- GB virus type C (GBV-C) glycoprotein E2 protein disrupts HIV-1 assembly and release by inhibiting Gag plasma membrane targeting, however the mechanism by which the GBV-C E2 inhibits Gag trafficking remains unclear. (oncotarget.com)
- The virus attaches to the external surface of the zoospores of Olipidium bornovanus using the MNSV coat protein for attachment. (wikipedia.org)
Threats2
- This is because the built-in security of Windows in S mode automatically prevents viruses and other threats from running on your device. (microsoft.com)
- Virus & threat protection in Windows Security helps you scan for threats on your device. (microsoft.com)
Human6
- We investigated the relation between coinfection with GBV-C and the long-term outcome in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). (nih.gov)
- Background: A new immerging nonpathogenic single stranded human RNA virus known as GBV-C/HGV was discovered in 1995. (qscience.com)
- Subsequently, a related human virus was identified [named GBV-C or hepatitis G virus (HGV)], and recently a more distantly related virus (named GBV-D) was discovered in bats. (ox.ac.uk)
- Realnames email includes 10 GB of storage, incredible tech support from real human experts, and the best spam and virus protection available. (hover.com)
- HIV Human immunodeficiency virus. (cdc.gov)
- Background Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 ( HTLV-1 ) is a retrovirus that causes severe diseases , such as aggressive cancer or progressive neurological disease . (bvsalud.org)
Ebola1
- The image below depicts palatal petechiae and hemorrhage in a patient with Ebola virus disease (EVD). (medscape.com)
Type1
- The animal involved depends on the type of virus. (msdmanuals.com)
Defend1
- combines the pleasure elements of rhythm and action to give the player a thrill, defend against virus attacks, and separate phases with a vaccine attack, so that the player can truly enjoy the rhythm and play without the stress of hitting all the notes. (steampowered.com)
Clinical3
- Although GBV-C was initially thought to be associated with chronic hepatitis, extensive investigation failed to identify any association between this virus and any clinical illness. (wikipedia.org)
- This review integrates most experimental studies and clinical trials of various oncolytic viruses (OVs) in the diagnosis and treatment of GC. (frontiersin.org)
- The relative severity of the clinical presentation may vary depending on the virus in question, amount, and route of exposure. (medscape.com)
Affinity1
- Hemorrhagic fever viruses have an affinity for the vascular system, leading initially to signs such as flushing, conjunctival injection, and petechial hemorrhages, usually associated with fever and myalgias. (medscape.com)
Lethal1
- The country is the latest to report cases of the highly contagious and lethal virus in pigs , which has wiped out tens of millions of the animals across Asia. (nature.com)
Immune1
- Research is active into the virus' effects on the immune system in patients coinfected with GBV-C and HIV. (wikipedia.org)
Protection14
- If you're running Windows in S mode it's streamlined for tighter security, so the Virus & threat protection area has fewer options than those described here. (microsoft.com)
- You can also run different types of scans, see the results of your previous virus and threat scans, and get the latest protection offered by Microsoft Defender Antivirus. (microsoft.com)
- If you are using third-party antivirus software, you'll be able to use its virus and threat protection options here. (microsoft.com)
- Use Virus & threat protection settings when you want to customize your level of protection, send sample files to Microsoft, exclude trusted files and folders from repeated scanning, or temporarily turn off your protection. (microsoft.com)
- Enhanced Spam and Virus protection check. (aol.com)
- Keep reading and choose the best virus protection for your PC. (easeus.com)
- In the age of the internet, it's more important than ever to have good virus protection software on your computer. (easeus.com)
- A good virus protection software can help to protect your data and keep your computer safe from attack. (easeus.com)
- Some virus protection programs are free, while others require a subscription. (easeus.com)
- However, even the best free virus protection software is not always 100% effective. (easeus.com)
- In this article, we have listed several proofed virus protection choices. (easeus.com)
- There is no point in paying for a virus protection program if it doesn't offer good value for money. (easeus.com)
- According to these four aspects, we list five virus protection options for you. (easeus.com)
- That's why we're happy to offer free trials of our virus protection software, no strings attached for 14 days. (webroot.com)
Respiratory2
- Background: The between-and within-herd variability of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) antibodies were investigated in a cross-sectional study of 103 British pig herds conducted 2003-2004. (birmingham.ac.uk)
- Observations of infections with and illness due to parainfluenza, mumps and respiratory syncytial viruses and Mycoplasma pneumoniae. (cdc.gov)
Detection2
- Conventional laboratory confirmation of suspected cases of measles and rubella is based on the detection of virus-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) in a single serum sample collected soon after the onset of symptoms ( 2 ). (cdc.gov)
- Microsoft scanned this file for viruses by using the most current virus-detection software that was available on the date that the file was posted. (microsoft.com)
Persistent1
- This is the method by which the beetles spread the virus in a persistent manner. (wikipedia.org)
Malicious1
- The user needs to execute a virus-infected program before the virus can do harm to the infected computer by injecting its own malicious code. (f-secure.com)
Mortality1
- You will find evidences on reducing HCV-related liver morbidity associated with GB computer virus C (GBV-C) and inhibitory effect of GB computer virus C on HCV/HIV viremia, survival, a lower mortality rate, slower disease development in sufferers with coinfection and in addition, GBV-C could play function being a predictor for medical center acquired infections (7, 8). (mdm2-inhibitors.com)
Suspicious1
- Concerned that you may have done something to introduce a suspicious file or virus to your device? (microsoft.com)
Family2
- For burial, the authorities would form a gender-sensitive team and engage the relevant family for counselling to comply with the standard operating procedures to avoid the risk of spread of the virus. (dawn.com)
- Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a double-stranded DNA virus and is a member of the Herpesviridae family. (medscape.com)
Anti-Virus2
- I am running Zonealarm Pro paid version for my firewall and Avg free version is my main anti-virus but I also run SuperAntiSypware daily. (geekstogo.com)
- The suite includes a firewall, anti-virus, anti-spyware, and anti-phishing tools, as well as a host of other features. (easeus.com)
Removal1
- With the Premium Plan you get deluxe features including 24/7 Tech Support, Expert Virus Check & Removal, and much more. (kaspersky.com)
Phylogenetic1
- Genotype 5 appears to be basal in the phylogenetic tree, suggesting an African origin for this virus. (wikipedia.org)
File1
- a prime example would be a virus that is named after a legitimate file and perhaps sweetgirls_gb dialer is such a case. (auditmypc.com)
Computer6
- sweetgirls_gb-uninstall.exe - Here is the scoop on sweetgirls_gb dialer as it pertains to computer network security. (auditmypc.com)
- Finding a program called sweetgirls_gb-uninstall.exe running on your computer is usually a sign that you may have a dialer program called 'sweetgirls_gb' installed on your computer. (auditmypc.com)
- Let's become a computer vaccine 'CCAV' to fight computer viruses and aim for A+! (steampowered.com)
- This computer virus could transmit parentally through different routes (1, 4) and is common in some parts of the world such as Iran (5). (mdm2-inhibitors.com)
- Because of the way it operates, a computer virus differs from a computer worm in some ways. (f-secure.com)
- Both computer worms and viruses can have multiple goals, including stealing information, installing spyware, destroying files and taking down whole networks. (f-secure.com)
Harm1
- Delaying further investigation of sweetgirls_gb-uninstall.exe may cause serious harm to your system and will likely cause a number of problems, such as slow performance, loss of data or leaking private information to websites. (auditmypc.com)
Host1
- Once the fungus invades the plant roots it transmits the virus to the host plants. (wikipedia.org)
Transmission2
Group1
- Enteroviruses are a group of viruses. (msdmanuals.com)