A whiplike motility appendage present on the surface cells. Prokaryote flagella are composed of a protein called FLAGELLIN. Bacteria can have a single flagellum, a tuft at one pole, or multiple flagella covering the entire surface. In eukaryotes, flagella are threadlike protoplasmic extensions used to propel flagellates and sperm. Flagella have the same basic structure as CILIA but are longer in proportion to the cell bearing them and present in much smaller numbers. (From King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
The posterior filiform portion of the spermatozoon (SPERMATOZOA) that provides sperm motility.
A protein with a molecular weight of 40,000 isolated from bacterial flagella. At appropriate pH and salt concentration, three flagellin monomers can spontaneously reaggregate to form structures which appear identical to intact flagella.
A genus GREEN ALGAE in the order VOLVOCIDA. It consists of solitary biflagellated organisms common in fresh water and damp soil.
A bundle of MICROTUBULES and MICROTUBULE-ASSOCIATED PROTEINS forming the core of each CILIUM or FLAGELLUM. In most eukaryotic cilia or flagella, an axoneme shaft has 20 microtubules arranged in nine doublets and two singlets.
A family of multisubunit cytoskeletal motor proteins that use the energy of ATP hydrolysis to power a variety of cellular functions. Dyneins fall into two major classes based upon structural and functional criteria.
A species of GREEN ALGAE. Delicate, hairlike appendages arise from the flagellar surface in these organisms.
The act, process, or result of passing from one place or position to another. It differs from LOCOMOTION in that locomotion is restricted to the passing of the whole body from one place to another, while movement encompasses both locomotion but also a change of the position of the whole body or any of its parts. Movement may be used with reference to humans, vertebrate and invertebrate animals, and microorganisms. Differentiate also from MOTOR ACTIVITY, movement associated with behavior.
Mature male germ cells derived from SPERMATIDS. As spermatids move toward the lumen of the SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES, they undergo extensive structural changes including the loss of cytoplasm, condensation of CHROMATIN into the SPERM HEAD, formation of the ACROSOME cap, the SPERM MIDPIECE and the SPERM TAIL that provides motility.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
Microscopy using an electron beam, instead of light, to visualize the sample, thereby allowing much greater magnification. The interactions of ELECTRONS with specimens are used to provide information about the fine structure of that specimen. In TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY the reactions of the electrons that are transmitted through the specimen are imaged. In SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY an electron beam falls at a non-normal angle on the specimen and the image is derived from the reactions occurring above the plane of the specimen.
Movement characteristics of SPERMATOZOA in a fresh specimen. It is measured as the percentage of sperms that are moving, and as the percentage of sperms with productive flagellar motion such as rapid, linear, and forward progression.
Somewhat flattened, globular echinoderms, having thin, brittle shells of calcareous plates. They are useful models for studying FERTILIZATION and EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT.
Populations of thin, motile processes found covering the surface of ciliates (CILIOPHORA) or the free surface of the cells making up ciliated EPITHELIUM. Each cilium arises from a basic granule in the superficial layer of CYTOPLASM. The movement of cilia propels ciliates through the liquid in which they live. The movement of cilia on a ciliated epithelium serves to propel a surface layer of mucus or fluid. (King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
A hemoflagellate subspecies of parasitic protozoa that causes nagana in domestic and game animals in Africa. It apparently does not infect humans. It is transmitted by bites of tsetse flies (Glossina).
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Proteins found in any species of protozoan.
Proteins that are involved in or cause CELL MOVEMENT such as the rotary structures (flagellar motor) or the structures whose movement is directed along cytoskeletal filaments (MYOSIN; KINESIN; and DYNEIN motor families).
Movement or the ability to move from one place or another. It can refer to humans, vertebrate or invertebrate animals, and microorganisms.
Constituent of 30S subunit prokaryotic ribosomes containing 1600 nucleotides and 21 proteins. 16S rRNA is involved in initiation of polypeptide synthesis.
Slender, cylindrical filaments found in the cytoskeleton of plant and animal cells. They are composed of the protein TUBULIN and are influenced by TUBULIN MODULATORS.
A species of gram-negative, halophilic bacteria, in the genus VIBRIO. It is considered part of normal marine flora and commonly associated with ear infections and superficial wounds exposed to contaminated water sources.
Any of the processes by which cytoplasmic or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in bacteria.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
DNA sequences encoding RIBOSOMAL RNA and the segments of DNA separating the individual ribosomal RNA genes, referred to as RIBOSOMAL SPACER DNA.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
The relative amounts of the PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in a nucleic acid.
A genus of gram-negative, curved and spiral-shaped bacteria found in stagnant, freshwater environments. These organisms are motile by bipolar tufts of flagella having a long wavelength and about one helical turn. Some species of Spirillum cause a form of RAT-BITE FEVER.
Physicochemical property of fimbriated (FIMBRIAE, BACTERIAL) and non-fimbriated bacteria of attaching to cells, tissue, and nonbiological surfaces. It is a factor in bacterial colonization and pathogenicity.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of bacteria.
Electron microscopy in which the ELECTRONS or their reaction products that pass down through the specimen are imaged below the plane of the specimen.
The functional hereditary units of BACTERIA.
Proteins found in any species of algae.
The movement of cells or organisms toward or away from a substance in response to its concentration gradient.
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that may be pathogenic for frogs, fish, and mammals, including man. In humans, cellulitis and diarrhea can result from infection with this organism.
Genes, found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, which are transcribed to produce the RNA which is incorporated into RIBOSOMES. Prokaryotic rRNA genes are usually found in OPERONS dispersed throughout the GENOME, whereas eukaryotic rRNA genes are clustered, multicistronic transcriptional units.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A tomographic technique for obtaining 3-dimensional images with transmission electron microscopy.
A serotype of Salmonella enterica that is a frequent agent of Salmonella gastroenteritis in humans. It also causes PARATYPHOID FEVER.
A genus of flexible, spiral rods found in hydrogen sulfide-containing mud, sewage, and polluted water. None of the species properly referred to in this genus are pathogenic.
The middle piece of the spermatozoon is a highly organized segment consisting of MITOCHONDRIA, the outer dense fibers and the core microtubular structure.
A microtubule subunit protein found in large quantities in mammalian brain. It has also been isolated from SPERM FLAGELLUM; CILIA; and other sources. Structurally, the protein is a dimer with a molecular weight of approximately 120,000 and a sedimentation coefficient of 5.8S. It binds to COLCHICINE; VINCRISTINE; and VINBLASTINE.
A genus of microorganisms of the order SPIROCHAETALES, many of which are pathogenic and parasitic for man and animals.
An order of slender, flexuous, helically coiled bacteria, with one or more complete turns in the helix.
The salinated water of OCEANS AND SEAS that provides habitat for marine organisms.
Male germ cells derived from the haploid secondary SPERMATOCYTES. Without further division, spermatids undergo structural changes and give rise to SPERMATOZOA.
Thin, hairlike appendages, 1 to 20 microns in length and often occurring in large numbers, present on the cells of gram-negative bacteria, particularly Enterobacteriaceae and Neisseria. Unlike flagella, they do not possess motility, but being protein (pilin) in nature, they possess antigenic and hemagglutinating properties. They are of medical importance because some fimbriae mediate the attachment of bacteria to cells via adhesins (ADHESINS, BACTERIAL). Bacterial fimbriae refer to common pili, to be distinguished from the preferred use of "pili", which is confined to sex pili (PILI, SEX).
Self-replicating, short, fibrous, rod-shaped organelles. Each centriole is a short cylinder containing nine pairs of peripheral microtubules, arranged so as to form the wall of the cylinder.
A species of bacteria found in the marine environment, sea foods, and the feces of patients with acute enteritis.
A species of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria that consist of slender vibroid cells.
Dyneins that are responsible for ciliary and flagellar beating.
Ribonucleic acid in bacteria having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
Microscopy in which the object is examined directly by an electron beam scanning the specimen point-by-point. The image is constructed by detecting the products of specimen interactions that are projected above the plane of the sample, such as backscattered electrons. Although SCANNING TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY also scans the specimen point by point with the electron beam, the image is constructed by detecting the electrons, or their interaction products that are transmitted through the sample plane, so that is a form of TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY.
One of the three domains of life (the others being BACTERIA and ARCHAEA), also called Eukarya. These are organisms whose cells are enclosed in membranes and possess a nucleus. They comprise almost all multicellular and many unicellular organisms, and are traditionally divided into groups (sometimes called kingdoms) including ANIMALS; PLANTS; FUNGI; and various algae and other taxa that were previously part of the old kingdom Protista.

Potent immunoregulatory effects of Salmonella typhi flagella on antigenic stimulation of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. (1/3084)

A key function of monocytes/macrophages (Mphi) is to present antigens to T cells. However, upon interaction with bacteria, Mphi lose their ability to effectively present soluble antigens. This functional loss was associated with alterations in the expression of adhesion molecules and CD14 and a reduction in the uptake of soluble antigen. Recently, we have demonstrated that Salmonella typhi flagella (STF) markedly decrease CD14 expression and are potent inducers of proinflammatory cytokine production by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (hPBMC). In order to determine whether S. typhi and soluble STF also alter the ability of Mphi to activate T cells to proliferate to antigens and mitogens, hPBMC were cultured in the presence of tetanus toxoid (TT) or phytohemagglutinin (PHA) and either killed whole-cell S. typhi or purified STF protein. Both whole-cell S. typhi and STF suppressed proliferation to PHA and TT. This decreased proliferation was not a result of increased Mphi production of nitric oxide, prostaglandin E2, or oxygen radicals or the release of interleukin-1beta, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-6, or interleukin-10 following exposure to STF. However, the ability to take up soluble antigen, as determined by fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled dextran uptake, was reduced in cells cultured with STF. Moreover, there was a dramatic reduction in the expression of CD54 on Mphi after exposure to STF. These results indicate that whole-cell S. typhi and STF have the ability to alter in vitro proliferation to soluble antigens and mitogens by affecting Mphi function.  (+info)

Components of the Salmonella flagellar export apparatus and classification of export substrates. (2/3084)

Until now, identification of components of the flagellar protein export apparatus has been indirect. We have now identified these components directly by establishing whether mutants defective in putative export components could translocate export substrates across the cytoplasmic membrane into the periplasmic space. Hook-type proteins could be exported to the periplasm of rod mutants, indicating that rod protein export does not have to precede hook-type protein export and therefore that both types of proteins belong to a single export class, the rod/hook-type class, which is distinct from the filament-type class. Hook-capping protein (FlgD) and hook protein (FlgE) required FlhA, FlhB, FliH, FliI, FliO, FliP, FliQ, and FliR for their export to the periplasm. In the case of flagellin as an export substrate, because of the phenomenon of hook-to-filament switching of export specificity, it was necessary to use temperature-sensitive mutants and establish whether flagellin could be exported to the cell exterior following a shift from the permissive to the restrictive temperature. Again, FlhA, FlhB, FliH, FliI, and FliO were required for its export. No suitable temperature-sensitive fliQ or fliR mutants were available. FliP appeared not to be required for flagellin export, but we suspect that the temperature-sensitive FliP protein continued to function at the restrictive temperature if incorporated at the permissive temperature. Thus, we conclude that these eight proteins are general components of the flagellar export pathway. FliJ was necessary for export of hook-type proteins (FlgD and FlgE); we were unable to test whether FliJ is needed for export of filament-type proteins. We suspect that FliJ may be a cytoplasmic chaperone for the hook-type proteins and possibly also for FliE and the rod proteins. FlgJ was not required for the export of the hook-type proteins; again, because of lack of a suitable temperature-sensitive mutant, we were unable to test whether it was required for export of filament-type proteins. Finally, it was established that there is an interaction between the processes of outer ring assembly and of penetration of the outer membrane by the rod and nascent hook, the latter process being of course necessary for passage of export substrates into the external medium. During the brief transition stage from completion of rod assembly and initiation of hook assembly, the L ring and perhaps the capping protein FlgD can be regarded as bona fide export components, with the L ring being in a formal sense the equivalent of the outer membrane secretin structure of type III virulence factor export systems.  (+info)

Peptidoglycan-hydrolyzing activity of the FlgJ protein, essential for flagellar rod formation in Salmonella typhimurium. (3/3084)

Because the rod structure of the flagellar basal body crosses the inner membrane, the periplasmic space, and the outer membrane, its formation must involve hydrolysis of the peptidoglycan layer. So far, more than 10 genes have been shown to be required for rod formation in Salmonella typhimurium. Some of them encode the component proteins of the rod structure, and most of the remaining genes are believed to encode proteins involved in the export process of the component proteins. Although FlgJ has also been known to be involved in rod formation, its exact role has not been understood. Recently, it was suggested that the C-terminal half of the FlgJ protein has homology to the active center of some muramidase enzymes from gram-positive bacteria. In this study, we showed that the purified FlgJ protein from S. typhimurium has a peptidoglycan-hydrolyzing activity and that this activity is localized in its C-terminal half. Through oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis, we constructed flgJ mutants with amino acid substitutions in the putative active center of the muramidase. The resulting mutants produced FlgJ proteins with reduced enzymatic activity and showed poor motility. These results indicate that the muramidase activity of FlgJ is essential for flagellar formation. Immunoblotting analysis with the fractionated cell extracts revealed that FlgJ is exported to the periplasmic space, where the peptidoglycan layer is localized. On the basis of these results, we conclude that FlgJ is the flagellum-specific muramidase which hydrolyzes the peptidoglycan layer to assemble the rod structure in the periplasmic space.  (+info)

Tn5-induced and spontaneous switching of Sinorhizobium meliloti to faster-swarming behavior. (4/3084)

Tn5 mutants of Sinorhizobium meliloti RMB7201 which swarmed 1.5 to 2. 5 times faster than the parental strain in semisolid agar, moist sand, and viscous liquid were identified. These faster-swarming (FS) mutants outgrew the wild type 30- to 40-fold within 2 days in mixed swarm colonies. The FS mutants survived and grew as well as or better than the wild type under all of the circumstances tested, except in a soil matrix subjected to air drying. Exopolysaccharide (EPS) synthesis was reduced in each of the FS mutants when they were grown on defined succinate-nitrate medium, but the extent of reduction was different for each. It appears that FS behavior likely results from a modest, general derepression of motility involving an increased proportion of motile and flagellated cells and an increased average number of flagella per cell and increased average flagellar length. Spontaneous FS variants of RMB7201 were obtained at a frequency of about 1 per 10,000 to 20,000 cells by either enrichment from the periphery of swarm colonies or screening of colonies for reduced EPS synthesis on succinate-nitrate plates. The spontaneous FS variants and Tn5 FS mutants were symbiotically effective and competitive in alfalfa nodulation. Reversion of FS variants to wild-type behavior was sporadic, indicating that reversion is affected by unidentified environmental factors. Based on phenotypic and molecular differences between individual FS variants and mutants, it appears that there may be multiple genetic configurations that result in FS behavior in RMB7201. The facile isolation of spontaneous FS variants of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa indicates that switching to FS behavior may be fairly common among bacterial species. The substantial growth advantage of FS mutants and variants wherever nutrient gradients exist suggests that switching to FS forms may be an important behavioral adaptation in natural environments.  (+info)

Domain organization of flagellar hook protein from Salmonella typhimurium. (5/3084)

Hook forms a universal joint, which mediates the torque of the flagellar motor to the outer helical filaments. Domain organization of hook protein from Salmonella typhimurium was investigated by exploring thermal denaturation properties of its proteolytic fragments. The most stable part of hook protein involves residues 148 to 355 and consists of two domains, as revealed by deconvolution analysis of the calorimetric melting profiles. Residues 72-147 and 356-370 form another domain, while the terminal regions of the molecule, residues 1-71 and 371-403, avoid a compact tertiary structure in the monomeric state. These folding domains were assigned to the morphological domains of hook subunits known from EM image reconstructions, revealing the overall folding of hook protein in its filamentous state.  (+info)

Cytoplasmic dynein heavy chain 1b is required for flagellar assembly in Chlamydomonas. (6/3084)

A second cytoplasmic dynein heavy chain (cDhc) has recently been identified in several organisms, and its expression pattern is consistent with a possible role in axoneme assembly. We have used a genetic approach to ask whether cDhc1b is involved in flagellar assembly in Chlamydomonas. Using a modified PCR protocol, we recovered two cDhc sequences distinct from the axonemal Dhc sequences identified previously. cDhc1a is closely related to the major cytoplasmic Dhc, whereas cDhc1b is closely related to the minor cDhc isoform identified in sea urchins, Caenorhabditis elegans, and Tetrahymena. The Chlamydomonas cDhc1b transcript is a low-abundance mRNA whose expression is enhanced by deflagellation. To determine its role in flagellar assembly, we screened a collection of stumpy flagellar (stf) mutants generated by insertional mutagenesis and identified two strains in which portions of the cDhc1b gene have been deleted. The two mutants assemble short flagellar stumps (<1-2 micrometer) filled with aberrant microtubules, raft-like particles, and other amorphous material. The results indicate that cDhc1b is involved in the transport of components required for flagellar assembly in Chlamydomonas.  (+info)

The polar flagellar motor of Vibrio cholerae is driven by an Na+ motive force. (7/3084)

Vibrio cholerae is a highly motile bacterium which possesses a single polar flagellum as a locomotion organelle. Motility is thought to be an important factor for the virulence of V. cholerae. The genome sequencing project of this organism is in progress, and the genes that are highly homologous to the essential genes of the Na+-driven polar flagellar motor of Vibrio alginolyticus were found in the genome database of V. cholerae. The energy source of its flagellar motor was investigated. We examined the Na+ dependence and the sensitivity to the Na+ motor-specific inhibitor of the motility of the V. cholerae strains and present the evidence that the polar flagellar motor of V. cholerae is driven by an Na+ motive force.  (+info)

Cloning, sequencing, and nucleolar targeting of the basal-body-binding nucleolar protein BN46/51. (8/3084)

BN46/51 is an acidic protein found in the granular component of the nucleolus of the amebo-flagellate Naegleria gruberi. When Naegleria amebae differentiate into swimming flagellates, BN46/51 is found associated with the basal body complex at the base of the flagella. In order to determine the factors responsible for targeting BN46/51 to a specific subnucleolar region, cDNAs coding for both subunits were isolated and sequenced. Two clones, JG4.1 and JG12.1 representing the 46 kDa and 51 kDa subunits, respectively, were investigated in detail. JG12.1 encoded a polypeptide of 263 amino acids with a predicted size of 30.1 kDa that co-migrated with the 51 kDa subunit of BN46/51 when expressed in yeast. JG4.1 encoded a polypeptide of 249 amino acids with a predicted size of 28.8 kDa that co-migrated with the 46 kDa subunit of BN46/51. JG4.1 was identical to JG12.1 except for the addition of an aspartic acid between positions 94 and 95 of the JG12.1 sequence and the absence of 45 amino acids beginning at position 113. The predicted amino acid sequences were not closely related to any previously reported. However, the sequences did have 26-31% identity to a group of FKPBs (FK506 binding proteins) but lacked the peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase domain of the FKBPs. Both subunits contained two KKE and three KKX repeats found in other nucleolar proteins and in some microtubule binding proteins. Using 'Far Western' blots of nucleolar proteins, BN46/51 bound to polypeptides of 44 kDa and 74 kDa. The 44 kDa component was identified as the Naegleria homologue of fibrillarin. BN46/51 bound specifically to the nucleoli of fixed mammalian cells, cells which lack a BN46/51 related polypeptide. When the JG4.1 and JG12.1 cDNAs were expressed in yeast, each subunit was independently targeted to the yeast nucleolus. We conclude that BN46/51 represents a unique nucleolar protein that can form specific complexes with fibrillarin and other nucleolar proteins. We suggest that the association of BN46/51 with the MTOC of basal bodies may reflect its role in connecting the nucleolus with the MTOC activity for the mitotic spindle. This would provide a mechanism for nucleolar segregation during the closed mitosis of Naegleria amebae.  (+info)

Flagella are long, thin, whip-like structures that some types of cells use to move themselves around. They are made up of a protein called tubulin and are surrounded by a membrane. In bacteria, flagella rotate like a propeller to push the cell through its environment. In eukaryotic cells (cells with a true nucleus), such as sperm cells or certain types of algae, flagella move in a wave-like motion to achieve locomotion. The ability to produce flagella is called flagellation.

The "sperm tail" is also known as the flagellum, which is a whip-like structure that enables the sperm to move or swim through fluid. The human sperm tail is made up of nine microtubule doublets and a central pair of microtubules, which are surrounded by a mitochondrial sheath that provides energy for its movement. This complex structure allows the sperm to navigate through the female reproductive tract in order to reach and fertilize an egg.

Flagellin is a protein that makes up the structural filament of the flagellum, which is a whip-like structure found on many bacteria that enables them to move. It is also known as a potent stimulator of the innate immune response and can be recognized by Toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5) in the host's immune system, triggering an inflammatory response. Flagellin is highly conserved among different bacterial species, making it a potential target for broad-spectrum vaccines and immunotherapies against bacterial infections.

Chlamydomonas is a genus of single-celled, green algae that are widely found in freshwater and marine environments. These microorganisms are characterized by their oval or spherical shape, and each cell contains a single, large chloroplast used for photosynthesis. They also have two flagella, which are hair-like structures that enable them to move through their aquatic habitats. Chlamydomonas species are often used in scientific research due to their simple cell structure and ease of cultivation in the lab.

An axoneme is the microtubular structure that forms the core of a cilium or flagellum in eukaryotic cells. It is composed of nine pairs of peripheral microtubules, known as doublets, surrounding two central single microtubules, forming a "9+2" arrangement. The axoneme is anchored to the cell membrane through a basal body and provides the structural framework for the movement of cilia and flagella. It is composed of tubulin proteins and accessory structures such as dynein arms, which are responsible for generating the force required for ciliary or flagellar movement.

Dyneins are a type of motor protein that play an essential role in the movement of cellular components and structures within eukaryotic cells. They are responsible for generating force and motion along microtubules, which are critical components of the cell's cytoskeleton. Dyneins are involved in various cellular processes, including intracellular transport, organelle positioning, and cell division.

There are several types of dyneins, but the two main categories are cytoplasmic dyneins and axonemal dyneins. Cytoplasmic dyneins are responsible for moving various cargoes, such as vesicles, organelles, and mRNA complexes, toward the minus-end of microtubules, which is usually located near the cell center. Axonemal dyneins, on the other hand, are found in cilia and flagella and are responsible for their movement by sliding adjacent microtubules past each other.

Dyneins consist of multiple subunits, including heavy chains, intermediate chains, light-intermediate chains, and light chains. The heavy chains contain the motor domain that binds to microtubules and hydrolyzes ATP to generate force. Dysfunction in dynein proteins has been linked to various human diseases, such as neurodevelopmental disorders, ciliopathies, and cancer.

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is a species of single-celled, freshwater green algae. It is commonly used as a model organism in scientific research due to its simple unicellular structure and the ease with which it can be genetically manipulated. C. reinhardtii has a single, large chloroplast that contains both photosynthetic pigments and a nucleomorph, a remnant of a secondary endosymbiotic event where another alga was engulfed by an ancestral eukaryote. This species is capable of both phototactic and photophobic responses, allowing it to move towards or away from light sources. Additionally, C. reinhardtii has two flagella for locomotion, making it a popular subject for ciliary and flagellar research. It undergoes closed mitosis within its single, diploid nucleus, which is surrounded by a cell wall composed of glycoproteins. The genome of C. reinhardtii has been fully sequenced, providing valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying photosynthesis, flagellar assembly, and other fundamental biological processes.

In the context of medicine and healthcare, "movement" refers to the act or process of changing physical location or position. It involves the contraction and relaxation of muscles, which allows for the joints to move and the body to be in motion. Movement can also refer to the ability of a patient to move a specific body part or limb, which is assessed during physical examinations. Additionally, "movement" can describe the progression or spread of a disease within the body.

Spermatozoa are the male reproductive cells, or gametes, that are produced in the testes. They are microscopic, flagellated (tail-equipped) cells that are highly specialized for fertilization. A spermatozoon consists of a head, neck, and tail. The head contains the genetic material within the nucleus, covered by a cap-like structure called the acrosome which contains enzymes to help the sperm penetrate the female's egg (ovum). The long, thin tail propels the sperm forward through fluid, such as semen, enabling its journey towards the egg for fertilization.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Electron microscopy (EM) is a type of microscopy that uses a beam of electrons to create an image of the sample being examined, resulting in much higher magnification and resolution than light microscopy. There are several types of electron microscopy, including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and reflection electron microscopy (REM).

In TEM, a beam of electrons is transmitted through a thin slice of the sample, and the electrons that pass through the sample are focused to form an image. This technique can provide detailed information about the internal structure of cells, viruses, and other biological specimens, as well as the composition and structure of materials at the atomic level.

In SEM, a beam of electrons is scanned across the surface of the sample, and the electrons that are scattered back from the surface are detected to create an image. This technique can provide information about the topography and composition of surfaces, as well as the structure of materials at the microscopic level.

REM is a variation of SEM in which the beam of electrons is reflected off the surface of the sample, rather than scattered back from it. This technique can provide information about the surface chemistry and composition of materials.

Electron microscopy has a wide range of applications in biology, medicine, and materials science, including the study of cellular structure and function, disease diagnosis, and the development of new materials and technologies.

Sperm motility is the ability of sperm to move actively and effectively through the female reproductive tract towards the egg for fertilization. It is typically measured as the percentage of moving sperm in a sample, and their progressiveness or velocity. Normal human sperm motility is generally defined as forward progression of at least 25 micrometers per second, with at least 50% of sperm showing progressive motility. Reduced sperm motility, also known as asthenozoospermia, can negatively impact fertility and reproductive outcomes.

I'm happy to help! However, it seems there might be a bit of confusion here. "Sea urchins" is a common name that refers to a type of marine invertebrate animal, typically characterized by their round, spiny shells. They belong to the class Echinoidea within the phylum Echinodermata.

Medically speaking, there isn't a specific definition for "sea urchins." However, if you come into contact with sea urchins while swimming or diving and accidentally step on them, their spines can puncture your skin and potentially cause an infection. In this case, medical attention may be necessary to remove the embedded spines and treat any resulting infection.

If you were referring to a specific medical term related to sea urchins, could you please clarify? I'm here to help!

Cilia are tiny, hair-like structures that protrude from the surface of many types of cells in the body. They are composed of a core bundle of microtubules surrounded by a protein matrix and are covered with a membrane. Cilia are involved in various cellular functions, including movement of fluid or mucus across the cell surface, detection of external stimuli, and regulation of signaling pathways.

There are two types of cilia: motile and non-motile. Motile cilia are able to move in a coordinated manner to propel fluids or particles across a surface, such as those found in the respiratory tract and reproductive organs. Non-motile cilia, also known as primary cilia, are present on most cells in the body and serve as sensory organelles that detect chemical and mechanical signals from the environment.

Defects in cilia structure or function can lead to a variety of diseases, collectively known as ciliopathies. These conditions can affect multiple organs and systems in the body, including the brain, kidneys, liver, and eyes. Examples of ciliopathies include polycystic kidney disease, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, and Meckel-Gruber syndrome.

Trypanosoma brucei brucei is a species of protozoan flagellate parasite that causes African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness in humans and Nagana in animals. This parasite is transmitted through the bite of an infected tsetse fly (Glossina spp.). The life cycle of T. b. brucei involves two main stages: the insect-dwelling procyclic trypomastigote stage and the mammalian-dwelling bloodstream trypomastigote stage.

The distinguishing feature of T. b. brucei is its ability to change its surface coat, which helps it evade the host's immune system. This allows the parasite to establish a long-term infection in the mammalian host. However, T. b. brucei is not infectious to humans; instead, two other subspecies, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, are responsible for human African trypanosomiasis.

In summary, Trypanosoma brucei brucei is a non-human-infective subspecies of the parasite that causes African trypanosomiasis in animals and serves as an essential model organism for understanding the biology and pathogenesis of related human-infective trypanosomes.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Protozoan Proteins" is not a specific medical or scientific term. Protozoa are single-celled eukaryotic organisms, and proteins are large biological molecules consisting of one or more chains of amino acid residues. Therefore, "Protozoan Proteins" generally refers to the various types of proteins found in protozoa.

However, if you're looking for information about proteins specific to certain protozoan parasites with medical relevance (such as Plasmodium falciparum, which causes malaria), I would be happy to help! Please provide more context or specify the particular protozoan of interest.

Molecular motor proteins are a type of protein that convert chemical energy into mechanical work at the molecular level. They play a crucial role in various cellular processes, such as cell division, muscle contraction, and intracellular transport. There are several types of molecular motor proteins, including myosin, kinesin, and dynein.

Myosin is responsible for muscle contraction and movement along actin filaments in the cytoplasm. Kinesin and dynein are involved in intracellular transport along microtubules, moving cargo such as vesicles, organelles, and mRNA to various destinations within the cell.

These motor proteins move in a stepwise fashion, with each step driven by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). The directionality and speed of movement are determined by the structure and regulation of the motor proteins, as well as the properties of the tracks along which they move.

Locomotion, in a medical context, refers to the ability to move independently and change location. It involves the coordinated movement of the muscles, bones, and nervous system that enables an individual to move from one place to another. This can include walking, running, jumping, or using assistive devices such as wheelchairs or crutches. Locomotion is a fundamental aspect of human mobility and is often assessed in medical evaluations to determine overall health and functioning.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a type of RNA that combines with proteins to form ribosomes, which are complex structures inside cells where protein synthesis occurs. The "16S" refers to the sedimentation coefficient of the rRNA molecule, which is a measure of its size and shape. In particular, 16S rRNA is a component of the smaller subunit of the prokaryotic ribosome (found in bacteria and archaea), and is often used as a molecular marker for identifying and classifying these organisms due to its relative stability and conservation among species. The sequence of 16S rRNA can be compared across different species to determine their evolutionary relationships and taxonomic positions.

Microtubules are hollow, cylindrical structures composed of tubulin proteins in the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells. They play crucial roles in various cellular processes such as maintaining cell shape, intracellular transport, and cell division (mitosis and meiosis). Microtubules are dynamic, undergoing continuous assembly and disassembly, which allows them to rapidly reorganize in response to cellular needs. They also form part of important cellular structures like centrioles, basal bodies, and cilia/flagella.

"Vibrio alginolyticus" is a gram-negative, comma-shaped, facultatively anaerobic bacterium that is commonly found in marine environments. It is a halophilic organism, meaning it requires a high salt concentration to grow. "Vibrio alginolyticus" can cause human infections, primarily through contact with seawater or consumption of raw or undercooked seafood. Infections may result in gastroenteritis, wound infections, and ear infections. Proper food handling, cooking, and hygiene practices can help prevent "Vibrio alginolyticus" infections.

Gene expression regulation in bacteria refers to the complex cellular processes that control the production of proteins from specific genes. This regulation allows bacteria to adapt to changing environmental conditions and ensure the appropriate amount of protein is produced at the right time.

Bacteria have a variety of mechanisms for regulating gene expression, including:

1. Operon structure: Many bacterial genes are organized into operons, which are clusters of genes that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule. The expression of these genes can be coordinately regulated by controlling the transcription of the entire operon.
2. Promoter regulation: Transcription is initiated at promoter regions upstream of the gene or operon. Bacteria have regulatory proteins called sigma factors that bind to the promoter and recruit RNA polymerase, the enzyme responsible for transcribing DNA into RNA. The binding of sigma factors can be influenced by environmental signals, allowing for regulation of transcription.
3. Attenuation: Some operons have regulatory regions called attenuators that control transcription termination. These regions contain hairpin structures that can form in the mRNA and cause transcription to stop prematurely. The formation of these hairpins is influenced by the concentration of specific metabolites, allowing for regulation of gene expression based on the availability of those metabolites.
4. Riboswitches: Some bacterial mRNAs contain regulatory elements called riboswitches that bind small molecules directly. When a small molecule binds to the riboswitch, it changes conformation and affects transcription or translation of the associated gene.
5. CRISPR-Cas systems: Bacteria use CRISPR-Cas systems for adaptive immunity against viruses and plasmids. These systems incorporate short sequences from foreign DNA into their own genome, which can then be used to recognize and cleave similar sequences in invading genetic elements.

Overall, gene expression regulation in bacteria is a complex process that allows them to respond quickly and efficiently to changing environmental conditions. Understanding these regulatory mechanisms can provide insights into bacterial physiology and help inform strategies for controlling bacterial growth and behavior.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) refers to the specific regions of DNA in a cell that contain the genes for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Ribosomes are complex structures composed of proteins and rRNA, which play a crucial role in protein synthesis by translating messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins.

In humans, there are four types of rRNA molecules: 18S, 5.8S, 28S, and 5S. These rRNAs are encoded by multiple copies of rDNA genes that are organized in clusters on specific chromosomes. In humans, the majority of rDNA genes are located on the short arms of acrocentric chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22.

Each cluster of rDNA genes contains both transcribed and non-transcribed spacer regions. The transcribed regions contain the genes for the four types of rRNA, while the non-transcribed spacers contain regulatory elements that control the transcription of the rRNA genes.

The number of rDNA copies varies between species and even within individuals of the same species. The copy number can also change during development and in response to environmental factors. Variations in rDNA copy number have been associated with various diseases, including cancer and neurological disorders.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

Base composition in genetics refers to the relative proportion of the four nucleotide bases (adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine) in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine, so the base composition is often expressed in terms of the ratio of adenine + thymine (A-T) to guanine + cytosine (G-C). This ratio can vary between species and even between different regions of the same genome. The base composition can provide important clues about the function, evolution, and structure of genetic material.

Spirillum is a genus of gram-negative, spiral-shaped bacteria. These bacteria are motile with flagella located at both ends of the organism, which gives them a corkscrew-like movement. Spirilla are typically found in aquatic environments and can cause disease in humans and animals, although they are less common than other bacterial pathogens. The most well-known species is Spirillum minus, which causes spirillosis, a rare disease characterized by fever, headache, and skin lesions. However, it's important to note that the study of Spirillum has contributed significantly to our understanding of bacterial motility and structure.

Bacterial adhesion is the initial and crucial step in the process of bacterial colonization, where bacteria attach themselves to a surface or tissue. This process involves specific interactions between bacterial adhesins (proteins, fimbriae, or pili) and host receptors (glycoproteins, glycolipids, or extracellular matrix components). The attachment can be either reversible or irreversible, depending on the strength of interaction. Bacterial adhesion is a significant factor in initiating biofilm formation, which can lead to various infectious diseases and medical device-associated infections.

Bacterial DNA refers to the genetic material found in bacteria. It is composed of a double-stranded helix containing four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) - that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. The sequence of these bases in the DNA molecule carries the genetic information necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of bacteria.

Bacterial DNA is circular in most bacterial species, although some have linear chromosomes. In addition to the main chromosome, many bacteria also contain small circular pieces of DNA called plasmids that can carry additional genes and provide resistance to antibiotics or other environmental stressors.

Unlike eukaryotic cells, which have their DNA enclosed within a nucleus, bacterial DNA is present in the cytoplasm of the cell, where it is in direct contact with the cell's metabolic machinery. This allows for rapid gene expression and regulation in response to changing environmental conditions.

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is a type of microscopy in which an electron beam is transmitted through a ultra-thin specimen, interacting with it as it passes through. An image is formed from the interaction of the electrons with the specimen; the image is then magnified and visualized on a fluorescent screen or recorded on an electronic detector (or photographic film in older models).

TEM can provide high-resolution, high-magnification images that can reveal the internal structure of specimens including cells, viruses, and even molecules. It is widely used in biological and materials science research to investigate the ultrastructure of cells, tissues and materials. In medicine, TEM is used for diagnostic purposes in fields such as virology and bacteriology.

It's important to note that preparing a sample for TEM is a complex process, requiring specialized techniques to create thin (50-100 nm) specimens. These include cutting ultrathin sections of embedded samples using an ultramicrotome, staining with heavy metal salts, and positive staining or negative staining methods.

A bacterial gene is a segment of DNA (or RNA in some viruses) that contains the genetic information necessary for the synthesis of a functional bacterial protein or RNA molecule. These genes are responsible for encoding various characteristics and functions of bacteria such as metabolism, reproduction, and resistance to antibiotics. They can be transmitted between bacteria through horizontal gene transfer mechanisms like conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Bacterial genes are often organized into operons, which are clusters of genes that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule.

It's important to note that the term "bacterial gene" is used to describe genetic elements found in bacteria, but not all genetic elements in bacteria are considered genes. For example, some DNA sequences may not encode functional products and are therefore not considered genes. Additionally, some bacterial genes may be plasmid-borne or phage-borne, rather than being located on the bacterial chromosome.

Algal proteins are a type of protein that are derived from algae, which are simple, plant-like organisms that live in water. These proteins can be extracted and isolated from the algae through various processing methods and can then be used as a source of nutrition for both humans and animals.

Algal proteins are considered to be a complete protein source because they contain all of the essential amino acids that the body cannot produce on its own. They are also rich in other nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. Some species of algae, such as spirulina and chlorella, have particularly high protein contents, making them a popular choice for use in dietary supplements and functional foods.

In addition to their nutritional benefits, algal proteins are also being studied for their potential therapeutic uses. For example, some research suggests that they may have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immune-boosting properties. However, more research is needed to confirm these potential health benefits and to determine the optimal dosages and methods of use.

Chemotaxis is a term used in biology and medicine to describe the movement of an organism or cell towards or away from a chemical stimulus. This process plays a crucial role in various biological phenomena, including immune responses, wound healing, and the development and progression of diseases such as cancer.

In chemotaxis, cells can detect and respond to changes in the concentration of specific chemicals, known as chemoattractants or chemorepellents, in their environment. These chemicals bind to receptors on the cell surface, triggering a series of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to changes in the cytoskeleton and directed movement of the cell towards or away from the chemical gradient.

For example, during an immune response, white blood cells called neutrophils use chemotaxis to migrate towards sites of infection or inflammation, where they can attack and destroy invading pathogens. Similarly, cancer cells can use chemotaxis to migrate towards blood vessels and metastasize to other parts of the body.

Understanding chemotaxis is important for developing new therapies and treatments for a variety of diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and inflammatory disorders.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

'Aeromonas hydrophila' is a gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is commonly found in fresh and brackish water environments. It is a facultative anaerobe, meaning it can grow in the presence or absence of oxygen. This bacterium is known to cause various types of infections in humans, including gastrointestinal illnesses, wound infections, and septicemia, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems.

The bacterium produces a range of virulence factors that contribute to its pathogenicity, such as exotoxins, hemolysins, and proteases. The symptoms of Aeromonas hydrophila infection can vary widely depending on the site of infection and the overall health of the individual. Treatment typically involves antibiotics, although the effectiveness of different antibiotics may vary depending on the strain of the bacterium. Proper hygiene and wound care are important measures to prevent infection with Aeromonas hydrophila.

rRNA (ribosomal RNA) is not a type of gene itself, but rather a crucial component that is transcribed from genes known as ribosomal DNA (rDNA). In cells, rRNA plays an essential role in protein synthesis by assembling with ribosomal proteins to form ribosomes. Ribosomes are complex structures where the translation of mRNA into proteins occurs. There are multiple types of rRNA molecules, including 5S, 5.8S, 18S, and 28S rRNAs in eukaryotic cells, each with specific functions during protein synthesis.

In summary, 'Genes, rRNA' would refer to the genetic regions (genes) that code for ribosomal RNA molecules, which are vital components of the protein synthesis machinery within cells.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Electron microscope tomography (EMT) is a 3D imaging technique used in electron microscopy. It involves collecting a series of images of a sample at different tilt angles, and then using computational algorithms to reconstruct the 3D structure of the sample from these images.

In EMT, a sample is prepared and placed in an electron microscope, where it is exposed to a beam of electrons. The electrons interact with the atoms in the sample, producing contrast that allows the features of the sample to be visualized. By tilting the sample and collecting images at multiple angles, a range of perspectives can be obtained, which are then used to create a 3D reconstruction of the sample.

EMT is a powerful tool for studying the ultrastructure of cells and tissues, as it allows researchers to visualize structures that may not be visible using other imaging techniques. It has been used to study a wide range of biological systems, including viruses, bacteria, organelles, and cells.

EMT is a complex technique that requires specialized equipment and expertise to perform. However, it can provide valuable insights into the structure and function of biological systems, making it an important tool in the field of biology and medicine.

"Salmonella enterica" serovar "Typhimurium" is a subspecies of the bacterial species Salmonella enterica, which is a gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium. It is a common cause of foodborne illness in humans and animals worldwide. The bacteria can be found in a variety of sources, including contaminated food and water, raw meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products.

The infection caused by Salmonella Typhimurium is typically self-limiting and results in gastroenteritis, which is characterized by symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever, and vomiting. However, in some cases, the infection can spread to other parts of the body and cause more severe illness, particularly in young children, older adults, and people with weakened immune systems.

Salmonella Typhimurium is a major public health concern due to its ability to cause outbreaks of foodborne illness, as well as its potential to develop antibiotic resistance. Proper food handling, preparation, and storage practices can help prevent the spread of Salmonella Typhimurium and other foodborne pathogens.

"Spirochaeta" is a genus of spirochete bacteria, characterized by their long, spiral-shaped bodies. These bacteria are gram-negative, meaning they do not retain crystal violet dye in the Gram staining method, and are typically motile, moving by means of endoflagella located within their outer membrane. Members of this genus are found in various environments, including freshwater, marine, and terrestrial habitats. Some species are free-living, while others are parasitic or symbiotic with animals. It is important to note that the medical significance of "Spirochaeta" species is limited compared to other spirochete genera like "Treponema," which includes the bacterium causing syphilis.

The sperm midpiece is a part of the sperm flagellum, which is the tail-like structure that enables sperm motility. The midpiece is located between the sperm head and the principal piece, which is the longest part of the flagellum.

The midpiece is characterized by the presence of mitochondria, which provide the energy required for sperm movement through a process called oxidative phosphorylation. The midpiece also contains a ring of nine outer dense fibers that surround the axoneme, which is the core structure of the flagellum. These fibers help to maintain the structural integrity and flexibility of the sperm tail.

Damage or abnormalities in the sperm midpiece can affect sperm motility and fertility.

Tubulin is a type of protein that forms microtubules, which are hollow cylindrical structures involved in the cell's cytoskeleton. These structures play important roles in various cellular processes, including maintaining cell shape, cell division, and intracellular transport. There are two main types of tubulin proteins: alpha-tubulin and beta-tubulin. They polymerize to form heterodimers, which then assemble into microtubules. The assembly and disassembly of microtubules are dynamic processes that are regulated by various factors, including GTP hydrolysis, motor proteins, and microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs). Tubulin is an essential component of the eukaryotic cell and has been a target for anti-cancer drugs such as taxanes and vinca alkaloids.

Treponema is a genus of spiral-shaped bacteria, also known as spirochetes. These bacteria are gram-negative and have unique motility provided by endoflagella, which are located in the periplasmic space, running lengthwise between the cell's outer membrane and inner membrane.

Treponema species are responsible for several important diseases in humans, including syphilis (Treponema pallidum), yaws (Treponema pertenue), pinta (Treponema carateum), and endemic syphilis or bejel (Treponema pallidum subspecies endemicum). These diseases are collectively known as treponematoses.

It is important to note that while these bacteria share some common characteristics, they differ in their clinical manifestations and geographical distributions. Proper diagnosis and treatment of treponemal infections require medical expertise and laboratory confirmation.

Spirochaetales is an order of bacteria that are characterized by their unique spiral or corkscrew shape. This shape allows them to move in a flexing, twisting motion, which can be quite rapid. They are gram-negative, meaning they do not retain crystal violet stain in the Gram staining method, and they have a unique structure with endoflagella (also known as axial filaments) located inside their outer membrane.

The Spirochaetales order includes several families and genera of bacteria, some of which are free-living, while others are parasitic or symbiotic. The parasitic spirochetes can cause various diseases in humans and animals. For example, Treponema pallidum is the causative agent of syphilis, a serious sexually transmitted infection. Another species, Borrelia burgdorferi, causes Lyme disease, which is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected black-legged ticks.

It's important to note that spirochetes are a diverse group with varying characteristics and pathogenic potential. While some species can cause significant harm, others are not associated with diseases and play essential roles in various ecosystems.

Seawater is not a medical term, but it is a type of water that covers more than 70% of the Earth's surface. Medically, seawater can be relevant in certain contexts, such as in discussions of marine biology, environmental health, or water safety. Seawater has a high salt content, with an average salinity of around 3.5%, which is much higher than that of freshwater. This makes it unsuitable for drinking or irrigation without desalination.

Exposure to seawater can also have medical implications, such as in cases of immersion injuries, marine envenomations, or waterborne illnesses. However, there is no single medical definition of seawater.

Spermatids are immature sperm cells that are produced during the process of spermatogenesis in the male testes. They are the product of the final stage of meiosis, where a diploid spermatocyte divides into four haploid spermatids. Each spermatid then undergoes a series of changes, including the development of a tail for motility and the condensation of its nucleus to form a head containing the genetic material. Once this process is complete, the spermatids are considered mature spermatozoa and are capable of fertilizing an egg.

Bacterial fimbriae are thin, hair-like protein appendages that extend from the surface of many types of bacteria. They are involved in the attachment of bacteria to surfaces, other cells, or extracellular structures. Fimbriae enable bacteria to adhere to host tissues and form biofilms, which contribute to bacterial pathogenicity and survival in various environments. These protein structures are composed of several thousand subunits of a specific protein called pilin. Some fimbriae can recognize and bind to specific receptors on host cells, initiating the process of infection and colonization.

Centrioles are small, cylindrical structures found in the centrosome of animal cells. They play a crucial role in organizing the microtubules that make up the cell's cytoskeleton and are also involved in the formation of the spindle apparatus during cell division. A typical centriole is made up of nine sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring-like fashion around a central hub or core.

Centrioles have two main functions:

1. Microtubule Organization: Centrioles serve as the primary site for microtubule nucleation and organization within the cell. They help to form the mitotic spindle during cell division, which is responsible for separating replicated chromosomes into two identical sets that are distributed equally between the two daughter cells.

2. Formation of Cilia and Flagella: In specialized cells, centrioles can also function as basal bodies for the formation of cilia and flagella. These hair-like structures protrude from the cell surface and play a role in cell movement and the movement of extracellular fluids over the cell surface.

It is important to note that plants and fungi do not have centrioles, and their cells use alternative mechanisms for microtubule organization and cell division.

"Vibrio parahaemolyticus" is a species of Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in brackish waters and marine environments. They can be found on the surface of shellfish such as oysters, shrimps, and crabs. These bacteria are facultative anaerobes, meaning they can grow in both the presence and absence of oxygen.

"Vibrio parahaemolyticus" is a significant cause of foodborne illness, particularly in regions where the consumption of raw or undercooked seafood is common. The bacterium produces two types of heat-labile enterotoxins known as thermostable direct hemolysin (TDH) and TDH-related hemolysin (TRH), which can cause watery diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, fever, and headache.

The illness caused by "Vibrio parahaemolyticus" is usually self-limiting and lasts for 2-5 days. However, in some cases, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems, the infection can be severe and may require hospitalization. Proper cooking and handling of seafood can help prevent "Vibrio parahaemolyticus" infections.

'Caulobacter crescentus' is a gram-negative, oligotrophic aquatic bacterium that is commonly found in freshwater environments. It is known for its distinctive curved or "crescent" shape and the presence of a holdfast structure at one end, which allows it to attach to surfaces. 'Caulobacter crescentus' has a complex life cycle involving two distinct cell types: swarmer cells, which are motile and can swim in search of new surfaces to colonize, and stalked cells, which are non-motile and have a long, thin stalk that extends from the holdfast end. This bacterium is often used as a model organism for studying cell differentiation, asymmetric cell division, and the regulation of gene expression in response to environmental signals.

Axonemal dyneins are motor proteins that are located in the axoneme of eukaryotic cilia and flagella. The axoneme is the internal structure of these cellular appendages, and it is composed of nine microtubule doublets arranged in a ring around two central single microtubules.

Dyneins are large protein complexes that use the energy from ATP hydrolysis to move along microtubules, generating force and motion. Axonemal dyneins are responsible for the sliding of the microtubule doublets relative to each other, which leads to the bending and movement of cilia and flagella.

There are several types of axonemal dyneins, classified based on their structure and function. The outer dynein arms are larger complexes that generate the power stroke for ciliary beating, while the inner dynein arms are smaller complexes involved in regulating the beat pattern and frequency.

Defects in axonemal dyneins can lead to a variety of genetic disorders known as ciliopathies, which affect the structure and function of cilia and flagella. These disorders can cause a range of symptoms, including respiratory problems, infertility, and developmental abnormalities.

Bacterial RNA refers to the genetic material present in bacteria that is composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Unlike higher organisms, bacteria contain a single circular chromosome made up of DNA, along with smaller circular pieces of DNA called plasmids. These bacterial genetic materials contain the information necessary for the growth and reproduction of the organism.

Bacterial RNA can be divided into three main categories: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). mRNA carries genetic information copied from DNA, which is then translated into proteins by the rRNA and tRNA molecules. rRNA is a structural component of the ribosome, where protein synthesis occurs, while tRNA acts as an adapter that brings amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

Bacterial RNA plays a crucial role in various cellular processes, including gene expression, protein synthesis, and regulation of metabolic pathways. Understanding the structure and function of bacterial RNA is essential for developing new antibiotics and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.

For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is a type of electron microscopy that uses a focused beam of electrons to scan the surface of a sample and produce a high-resolution image. In SEM, a beam of electrons is scanned across the surface of a specimen, and secondary electrons are emitted from the sample due to interactions between the electrons and the atoms in the sample. These secondary electrons are then detected by a detector and used to create an image of the sample's surface topography. SEM can provide detailed images of the surface of a wide range of materials, including metals, polymers, ceramics, and biological samples. It is commonly used in materials science, biology, and electronics for the examination and analysis of surfaces at the micro- and nanoscale.

Eukaryota is a domain that consists of organisms whose cells have a true nucleus and complex organelles. This domain includes animals, plants, fungi, and protists. The term "eukaryote" comes from the Greek words "eu," meaning true or good, and "karyon," meaning nut or kernel. In eukaryotic cells, the genetic material is housed within a membrane-bound nucleus, and the DNA is organized into chromosomes. This is in contrast to prokaryotic cells, which do not have a true nucleus and have their genetic material dispersed throughout the cytoplasm.

Eukaryotic cells are generally larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells. They have many different organelles, including mitochondria, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus, that perform specific functions to support the cell's metabolism and survival. Eukaryotic cells also have a cytoskeleton made up of microtubules, actin filaments, and intermediate filaments, which provide structure and shape to the cell and allow for movement of organelles and other cellular components.

Eukaryotes are diverse and can be found in many different environments, ranging from single-celled organisms that live in water or soil to multicellular organisms that live on land or in aquatic habitats. Some eukaryotes are unicellular, meaning they consist of a single cell, while others are multicellular, meaning they consist of many cells that work together to form tissues and organs.

In summary, Eukaryota is a domain of organisms whose cells have a true nucleus and complex organelles. This domain includes animals, plants, fungi, and protists, and the eukaryotic cells are generally larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells.

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... flagellum) from the Ozarks, Missouri (3 March 2021) Eastern coachwhip (Masticophis flagellum flagellum), ... Masticophis flagellum flagellum), Taney County, Missouri (11 April 2015) Eastern coachwhip (Masticophis flagellum flagellum), ... Masticophis flagellum flagellum) Florida (14 September 2015) Eastern coachwhip (Masticophis flagellum flagellum), St. Genevieve ... Masticophis flagellum cingulum Lowe & Woodin, 1954 - Sonoran coachwhip Masticophis flagellum flagellum (Shaw, 1802) - eastern ...
... , the silver whip, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Francis Walker in ... "Autographa flagellum (Walker [1858])". Moths of North Dakota. Retrieved November 16, 2020. v t e (Articles with short ... "931208.00 - 8916 - Autographa flagellum - (Walker, [1858])". North American Moth Photographers Group. Mississippi State ... Robinson, E. & Anweiler, G. G. "Species Details Autographa flagellum". University of Alberta Museums. E.H. Strickland ...
... is an Asian species of tropical forest rattan liana in the family Arecaceae, with a native range from Assam ... Calamus flagellum is a strong climber with stems in clusters forming The individual rattan stems form from a leafsheath up to ... The flagellum is attached here (this is a whiplike climbing organ bearing reflexed strong claws on the lower side). Partial ... 3: 333 POWO: Calamus flagellum Griff. ex Walp. (retrieved 6 February 2021) Roskov Y.; Kunze T.; Orrell T.; Abucay L.; ...
... is a species of fungus in the family Hericiaceae native to Europe, first described by Giovanni Antonio ... Hericium flagellum in Index Fungorum (Articles with short description, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles ... "Distribution and ecological traits of a rare and threatened fungus Hericium flagellum in Poland with the prediction of its ... "First record of Hericium flagellum (Basidiomycota) from the "Olbina" nature reserve in Wielkopolska Voivodship, Poland". Acta ...
... is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CFAP74 gene. GRCh38: Ensembl release 89 ... "Entrez Gene: Cilia and flagella associated protein 74". Retrieved 2018-05-27. v t e (Articles with short description, Short ...
... , commonly known as the Eastern coachwhip, is a subspecies of M. flagellum, a nonvenomous, ... ISBN 0-395-19977-8 (paperback). (Masticophis flagellum flagellum, pp. 181-182 + Plate 26 + Map 141.) Johnson, Richard W., et al ... M. flagellum adults and juveniles can be found in suburban neighborhoods where development encroaches on favorable habitats A ... Apicomplexa) from Masticophis flagellum and Coluber constrictor (Serpentes) in Arkansas, U.S.A." Transactions of the American ...
... (Latin for With Blood and Whip, We Worship the Dark) is the sixth full-length ... All music is composed by Maurice de Jong Adapted from the Per Flagellum Sanguemque, Tenebras Veneramus liner notes. Maurice de ... Per Flagellum Sanguemque, Tenebras Veneramus (booklet). Gnaw Their Tongues. Hagerstown, Maryland: Crucial Blast. 2011.{{cite AV ... Nunziata, Francesco (December 1, 2011). "Gnaw Their Tongues: Per Flagellum Sanguemque, Tenebras Veneramus" (in Italian). Onda ...
Michael Robert Silverman (born in 1943) and Melvin Simon are credited with the discovery that bacterial flagella are based in ... Silverman, M.; Simon, M. I. (1977). "Bacterial Flagella". Annual Review of Microbiology. 31: 397-419. doi:10.1146/annurev.mi. ...
For example, the E. coli moves by rotating its helical flagellum, Chlamydomonas flagella have a breaststroke kind of motion. ... For example, a hybrid biomicromotor based on a sperm cell can be driven by the flagellum of the sperm or by an attached ... Bacteria move due to rotation of hair-like filaments called flagella, which are anchored to a protein motor complex on the ... African trypanosome has a helical flagellum attached to the cell body with a planar wave passing through it. Swimming of these ...
Flagella, Genevieve. "A Fine Pointed Belonging" (PDF). Modern Fuel. "The most native BDSM thing ever': Dayna Danger's fetish ...
Lowndes, A. G. (1941). "Mechanics of a Flagellum". Nature. 148 (3746): 198. doi:10.1038/148198a0. S2CID 4080682. Lowndes, A. G ... 1936). "Flagella Movement". Nature. 138 (3483): 210-211. doi:10.1038/138210a0. S2CID 4014457. Lowndes, A. G. (21 August 2009 ...
It differs from cyanobacteria in its ability to move by flagella (like gram-negative flagella), though some members (e.g. ... Gastranaerophilales) lack flagella. Melainabacteria are not able to perform photosynthesis, but obtain energy by fermentation. ...
Ng, Tomasz (28 January 2014). "Maika returns to Melbourne". The Corner Flag. "Ella Mastrantonio becomes latest Melbourne ...
Zoospores bear two flagella; upon spore germination, the zoospore loses its flagella and becomes spherical. Neochloris was ... The basal bodies of the zoospore flagella in Neochloris are arranged directly opposite to each other, those of Ettlia are ...
They argued that the name "flagellum" should be restricted to prokaryotic organelles, such as bacterial flagella and ... For example, the early concept was the trivial homology of the flagella of flagellates and the pseudopodia of amoebae. The ... It is basically synonymous to flagella and cilia which are differing terms for similar molecular structures used on different ... Haimo LT, Rosenbaum JL (December 1981). "Cilia, flagella, and microtubules". J. Cell Biol. 91 (3 Pt 2): 125s-130s. doi:10.1083/ ...
Since the flagellum of human sperm has the same internal structure of a cilium, ciliary dysfunction can also be responsible for ... Eukaryotic flagella found on sperm cells and many protozoans have a similar structure to motile cilia that enables swimming ... Fisch, C; Dupuis-Williams, P (June 2011). "Ultrastructure of cilia and flagella - back to the future!". Biology of the Cell. ... Haimo LT, Rosenbaum JL (December 1981). "Cilia, flagella, and microtubules". The Journal of Cell Biology. 91 (3 Pt 2): 125s- ...
It has two flagella. The cell is in a cup-like lorica which has a stem that attaches to a surface. When the cell reproduces, by ...
Margulis, L (1980). "Undulipodia, flagella and cilia". Biosystems. 12 (1-2): 105-108. doi:10.1016/0303-2647(80)90041-6. PMID ...
Cells also lack flagella. Initially described as containing 14 chromosomes, it is now known that the nucleus contains 20 ...
Zoospores have two flagella. When reproducing with autospores, 2, 4, or 8 are formed within the mother cell and are released ...
Zoospores have two flagella. The genus Characium is similar to Characiopsis, a type of algae in the class Eustigmatophyceae. ...
The cells glide only on their posterior flagellum, which is mostly longer than the anterior flagellum. While gliding, the cell ... The flagella are naked, heterodynamic (= with different movement each), and arise very close to each other in a slightly acute ... The flapping motion of the anterior flagellum often causes motions of the cell body while gliding (such as rotating, jiggling ... The amoeboid state retains flagella and shows a bridge-like morphology, with several different adhesion sites. Each cell ...
Two flagella are present. Identification of species depends on the morphology of the scales. For many species, a positive ...
... s are distinguished from other bacterial phyla by the location of their flagella, called endoflagella which are ... Macnab RM (2003). "How bacteria assemble flagella". Annu Rev Microbiol. 57: 77-100. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090832 ... 2013 List of bacteria genera List of bacterial orders Bacteriology Borrelia Brevinema andersonii Flagellum Lyme disease ...
Methods in Cilia and Flagella. Academic Press. 2015-03-26. ISBN 978-0-12-802640-3. "Renata Basto , Semantic Scholar". www. ... is considered a reference in the field of centrosomes biology and has edited a book about methods to study cilia and flagella. ...
They reproduce via asexual reproduction, where the cell forms aplanospores or zoospores; the zoospores bear two flagella. ...
As it encysts, it loses its flagellum. The insides of the cyst are then forced into the host cell through the infection tube by ... Zoospores have 6-8 flagella. The cyst is sessile or it has a short stalk. The resting spores are spherical in shape and are 6-7 ... Zoospores are said to crawl like amoeba wielding their pseudopodia while the flagellum is towed behind it. Aphelidium ...
Euzophera flagella is a species of snout moth in the genus Euzophera. It was described by Julius Lederer in 1869 and is known ...
Archaeal flagellum. The archaeal flagellum is superficially similar to the bacterial (or eubacterial) flagellum; in the 1980s ... Eukaryotic flagellum. The eukaryotic flagellum is completely different from the prokaryote flagella in structure and assumedly ... Prokaryotes may have one or many flagella for locomotion, but these differ significantly from flagella in eukaryotes. Flagella ... A flagellum (plural, flagella) is a long, whip-like projection or appendage of a cell composed of microtubules (long, slender, ...
CFAP57 cilia and flagella associated protein 57 [Homo sapiens] CFAP57 cilia and flagella associated protein 57 [Homo sapiens]. ... cilia and flagella associated protein 57provided by HGNC. Primary source. HGNC:HGNC:26485 See related. Ensembl:ENSG00000243710 ... Loss-of-function mutations in CFAP57 cause multiple morphological abnormalities of the flagella in humans and mice. Ma A, et al ... cilia- and flagella-associated protein 57. Names. WD repeat-containing protein 65. ...
3 The archaeal flagellum. 4 Further research. 5 References. The eukaryotic flagellum. There are two competing groups of models ... Evolution of flagella. The evolution of flagella is of great interest to biologists because the three known varieties of ... The bacterial flagellum. An obvious approach to the evolutiuon of the bacterial flagellum is suggested by the fact that a ... The archaeal flagellum. The recently elucidated archaeal flagellum is analogous, not homologous, to the bacterial one. In ...
Cfap20 cilia and flagella associated protein 20 [Mus musculus] Cfap20 cilia and flagella associated protein 20 [Mus musculus]. ... cilia and flagella associated protein 20provided by MGI. Primary source. MGI:MGI:107428 See related. Ensembl:ENSMUSG00000031796 ... cilia- and flagella-associated protein 20. Names. UPF0468 protein C16orf80 homolog. gene trap locus 3 protein. ... NM_008187.2 → NP_032213.2 cilia- and flagella-associated protein 20. See identical proteins and their annotated locations for ...
Ann Flagella Ann Flagella is a self-described multitasker and problem-solver who is able to reduce expenses without ...
Synchronisation of eukaryotic flagella. Add to your list(s) Download to your calendar using vCal ... From unicellular organisms as small as a few microns to the largest vertebrates on earth we find groups of beating flagella or ... The remarkable similarity in the underlying molecular structure of flagella across the whole eukaryotic world leads naturally ... University of Cambridge , Talks.cam , Fluid Mechanics (DAMTP) , Synchronisation of eukaryotic flagella ...
View mouse Cfap70 Chr14:20444261-20502294 with: sequences, polymorphisms, proteins, references, function, expression
Hericium flagellum be4664. SYN: alpestre CZ: Korálovec jedlový PL: Soplówka jodłowa DE: Tannen-Stachelbart RU: Ежовик ...
The flagellum clutch mechanism may provide ideas useful for nanotech control of molecular motors. ... Scientists have long known what drives the flagellum to spin, but what causes the flagellum to stop spinning - temporarily or ... The flagellum is one of natures smallest and most powerful motors - ones like those produced by B. subtilis can rotate more ... EpsE is thought to "sit down," as Kearns describes it, on the flagellums rotor, a donut-shaped structure at the base of the ...
Last week Mary went to Microsoft to speak on Flagella (among other things) and not to brag, but Flagella was looking mighty ... Flagella is a flash game that not only addresses the concept of estimation but bundles in a mini-lesson on mutation as a bonus ... Flagella was Tiltfactors response to Microsoft and G4LIs task: To create games that can be introduced into schools that ... More to come on Flagella as it mutates before coming into the public eye. ...
IDs mascot - the flagellum or the ribosome?. William Dembski. February 19, 2007. Intelligent Design. Share. Facebook Twitter ... I vote for flagellum. My consern is that abandoning the flagellum will appear to be victory. As they clearly have not won the ... My consern is that abandoning the flagellum will appear to be victory. As they clearly have not won the flagellum debate, I ... For bacterial flagellum mascot paraphernalia, go here.. Comments. [...] George Church IMO is right. The ribosome should be our ...
SMatCH Seminar: Mechanosensitive Remodeling in Bacterial Flagella. Jasmine Nirody, University of Chicago February 21. 1:00 pm. ...
Characterization of Flagella Produced by Clinical Strains of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia Doroti de Oliveira-Garcia*†, Monique ... B) Structures resembling flagella seem to be protruding and interconnecting bacteria (arrowheads) or connecting bacteria to the ... Characterization of Flagella Produced by Clinical Strains of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. ...
In bacteria the flagella is made of one flagellin tread and it rotates. In eukaryotes it is made of 2 + 9 microtubili ...
... Fadel A. Samatey. from: Pili and Flagella: Current Research and Future Trends (Edited by: Ken Jarrell). ... with the exception of the spirochete flagellum that stays in the periplasmic space. The flagellum self-assembles to form a ... It is now well established that the flagellum is a complex multi-component organelle that spans from the cell membrane to ... The nature of the flagellum makes it suitable for structural studies using electron microscopy and three-dimensional image ...
The bacterial flagellum differs from the eukaryotic flagellum in several regards: (i) the bacterial flagellar filament, ca. 20 ... Neidhardt et al Physiology of the Bacterial Cell, second edition 1996 chapter 10- Flagella and motility. ... flagellum, meaning whip, is misleading) (iv) the motor can operate in either the counterclockwise (CCW) or clockwise (CW) ... nm in diameter, consists of subunits of just one protein, whereas the eukaryotic flagellum has a complex architecture and is ...
Cilia, flagella, and centrioles. Cilia and flagella are projections from the cell. They are made up of microtubules , as shown ... Cilia and flagella move because of the interactions of a set of microtubules inside. Collectively, these are called an "axoneme ... Cilia and flagella are organized from centrioles that move to the cell periphery. These are called "basal bodies" and are shown ... Like Cilia and Flagella, Centrioles are also made of microtubules. The difference is that they contain 9 sets of triplets and ...
Radial spoke proteins of Chlamydomonas flagella. J Cell Sci. 2006 Mar 15; 119(Pt 6):1165-74. ...
By treating the flagellum as a "discrete combinatorial object" he has shown only that it is unlikely that the parts flagellum ... However, if the flagellum contains within it a smaller functional set of components like the TTSS, then the flagellum itself ... Figure 1: The eubacterial flagellum. The flagellum is an ion-powered rotary motor, anchored in the membranes surrounding the ... to fit the specific purpose of the flagellum. The flagellum was said to be unevolvable since the entire complex system had to ...
Hydrodynamic interactions are key in thrust-generation of hairy flagella. S. S. Asadzadeh*, J. H. Walther, A. Andersen, T. ... Dive into the research topics of Hydrodynamic interactions are key in thrust-generation of hairy flagella. Together they form ...
Flagella are the little tails that some cells use to propel themselves. Sperm cells have flagella, but so do many single-celled ... Part of this book is devoted to describing the flagella. These flagella move at an incredible speed and consist of many ... FLAGELLA. Wisdom resteth in the heart of him that hath understanding:. but that which is in the midst of fools is made known.. ... Suggesting that flagella formed by chance with this "instinct" built into it is as absurd as positing a fishing boat forming ...
Straight flagella began to move by synchronous sliding all along the flagellum, thus forming principal bends. Flagella that ... Starting transients in sea urchin sperm flagella. S F Goldstein S F Goldstein ... Both live and tritonated flagella straightened at low pH. As the pH was increased, a series of principal bends formed near the ... S F Goldstein; Starting transients in sea urchin sperm flagella.. J Cell Biol 1 January 1979; 80 (1): 61-68. doi: https://doi. ...
Centriolar Behavior and Flagellum Formation in Cell Culture System of Testicular Cells of the Sea Urchin. Research Project ... 2. A flagellum was detected in the spermatogonia, the primary and secondary spermatocytes at eary prophase. In this stage, 2 ... Centriolar behavior and flagellum formation during maturation division of male germ cells were studied by using of cultured ... At the time of prometaphase, the flagellum was absorbed into the cytoplasm and a pair of centrioles was located at each pole of ...
Motile eukaryotic cells propel themselves in viscous fluids by passing waves of bending deformation down their flagella. An ... Optimal flagella therefore adopt the shape of a helix in three dimensions (smooth) and that of a sawtooth in two dimensions ( ... An infinitely long flagellum achieves a hydrodynamically optimal low-Reynolds number locomotion when the angle between its ... The optimal waveforms of finite-size flagella are shown to depend on a competition between rotational motions and bending costs ...
Radial spokes of Chlamydomonas flagella: genetic analysis of assembly and function. B Huang, B Huang ... B Huang, G Piperno, Z Ramanis, D J Luck; Radial spokes of Chlamydomonas flagella: genetic analysis of assembly and function.. J ... Analysis of the movement of Chlamydomonas flagella:" the function of the radial-spoke system is revealed by comparison of wild- ... Radial spokes of Chlamydomonas flagella: polypeptide composition and phosphorylation of stalk components. ...
The flagella connect to each other throughout their whole length and carry a peculiar seizing structure with a paddle-like apex ... Here we describe Vickermania, a new genus of fly midgut-dwelling parasites that bear two flagella in contrast to other ... Vickermania has an odd cell cycle, in which shortly after the division the uniflagellate cell starts growing a new flagellum ... The connection between the flagella ensures their coordinate movement until the separation of the daughter cells. We propose ...
Title: Bacterial flagella. Keywords: Bacterial flagella illustration figure drawing diagram image. This illustration is ...
Furthermore the flagellum of E. coli is only one variant of many, indicating that one Doesnt it make sense that flagella might ... If you are doubtful of any of this, you need only see a video of how a flagellum is formed in a bacteria. The formation of a ... Flagella and Philosophy. July 11, 2011. W. Brad Robinson Leave a comment ... Still, the flagellum is so mind-bogglingly complicated and yet robust in its implementation, that it has from time to time been ...
Flagella from E. coli O157 (H7), EPEC O127 (H6) and S. Typhimurium (P1 and P2 flagella) were shown to bind to purified ... Flagella from E. coli O157 (H7), EPEC O127 (H6) and S. Typhimurium (P1 and P2 flagella) were shown to bind to purified ... Flagella from E. coli O157 (H7), EPEC O127 (H6) and S. Typhimurium (P1 and P2 flagella) were shown to bind to purified ... Flagella from E. coli O157 (H7), EPEC O127 (H6) and S. Typhimurium (P1 and P2 flagella) were shown to bind to purified ...
  • Unlike bacteria, eukaryote flagella have an internal structure comprised of nine doublets of microtubules forming a cylinder around a central pair of microtubules. (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • While searching for genes involved in how bacteria stop moving around and settle into stationary communities called biofilms, scientists discovered a molecular clutch that disengages the powerful molecular motor that spins the flagellum that propels the bacteria. (foresight.org)
  • B) Structures resembling flagella seem to be protruding and interconnecting bacteria (arrowheads) or connecting bacteria to the plastic (arrows). (cdc.gov)
  • In bacteria the flagella is made of one flagellin tread and it rotates. (bspp.org.uk)
  • Therefore, electron microscopy has given many structural models of flagella from different species of Archaea and Bacteria. (caister.com)
  • Microorganisms such as bacteria and many eukaryotic cells propel themselves with hair-like structures known as flagella, which can exhibit a variety of structures and movement patterns. (scienceopen.com)
  • Most bacteria, including E. Coli bacteria, which cause food poisoning , move around by using flagella. (zorknot.com)
  • There are basically two kinds of flagella , the ones that bacteria have, and the ones that eukaryotic cells have. (zorknot.com)
  • Flagella are long, thin, whip-like appendages that some bacteria use for locomotion. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • For example, some bacteria have a single flagellum at one end (monotrichous), some have multiple flagella at one or both ends (lophotrichous or amphitrichous), some have flagella all over the cell surface (peritrichous), and some have no flagella at all (atrichous). (stemcelldaily.com)
  • Flagella stain is a simple and useful technique when the number and arrangement of flagella are critical for the identification of motile bacteria. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • Flagella stain is a simple and useful technique when the number and arrangement of flagella are critical to the identification of motile bacteria. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • These are bacteria that possess only one flagellum at one end of their cell wall. (atgventure.com)
  • These are bacteria that have multiple flagella that protrude from a single portion of their cell wall. (atgventure.com)
  • These are bacteria that have a flagellum each at opposite ends on their cell surface. (atgventure.com)
  • In amphitrichous bacteria, the two flagella cannot be active at a time. (atgventure.com)
  • Moreover, the presence of flagellum at opposite ends allows the bacteria possessing such to change course swiftly during movement. (atgventure.com)
  • These are bacteria that have flagella protruding from all part of their cell surface. (atgventure.com)
  • Thanks to this motor, bacteria have been able to move those organs known as "flagella" and thus swim in water. (com.kw)
  • 7) The presence of 'polar flagella' in bacteria affords a distinct change in the direction that usually takes place by the reciprocal alteration in the direction of rotation. (pharmacy180.com)
  • However, these structures do appear on the surface of the only Gram negative bacteria and are virtually distinct from the flagella. (pharmacy180.com)
  • Other shapes within the painting resemble biologic structures, including flagella, ribosomes, and genetic material found in bacteria. (cdc.gov)
  • These proteins include dynein, a molecular motor that can cause flagella to bend, and propel the cell relative to its environment or propel water or mucus relative to the cell. (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • Radial spoke proteins of Chlamydomonas flagella. (umassmed.edu)
  • "But," say non-creationists , "each protein that makes up the structure of a flagellum looks similar to proteins used in other, less complicated bacterial structures. (zorknot.com)
  • Furthermore the flagellum of E. coli is only one variant of many, indicating that one Doesn't it make sense that flagella might have come from mutations that put the proteins together in ways that were somewhat beneficial? (zorknot.com)
  • Eukaryotic flagella have far more proteins than motile cilia and share some of their motion and control mechanisms. (risingacademy.org)
  • Approximately 240 distinct proteins go into constructing the flagellum. (com.kw)
  • Scientists have determined that these proteins carry the signals to turn the motor on or off, form joints to facilitate movements at the atomic scale, and activate other proteins that connect the flagellum to the cell membrane. (com.kw)
  • The flagellin filament (flagella) is composed of thousands of individual flagellin proteins polymerized into 11 protofilaments, linked by non-covalent bonds, to form whip-like helical appendages hundreds of nanometers long and anchored at one end to a membrane-bound motor assembly. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In a multicellular organism, cilia or flagella can also extend out from stationary cells that are held in place as part of a tail goes into a layer of tissue. (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • Two of these microtubules join to form one doublet in the cilia or flagella This is shown in the middle panel. (cytochemistry.net)
  • Centrioles control the direction of cilia or flagella movement. (cytochemistry.net)
  • Pili and Flagella: Current Research and Future Trends (Edited by: Ken Jarrell). (caister.com)
  • What: "Archae flagella evolved from bacterial type IV pili while bacterial flagella evolved from type III secretion system. (metamia.com)
  • Fimbriae or Pili are hollow, non-helical, filamentous hair-like structures that are apparently thinner, shorter, and more numerous than flagella. (pharmacy180.com)
  • Euzophera flagella is a species of snout moth in the genus Euzophera. (wikipedia.org)
  • In some bacterial species, the flagella twine together helically outside the cell body to form a bundle large enough to be visible in a light microscope . (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • The first detailed characterization of this species pointed to the presence of two united flagella [ 18 ], a peculiar feature proposed to be diagnostic for the genus Herpetomonas . (biomedcentral.com)
  • Cilia and flagella, two extraordinary microscopic structures, are essential to many species, from single-celled to multicellular. (laboratoryhub.com)
  • Therefore, a special technique called flagella stain is used to visualize the presence and arrangement of flagella on different bacterial species. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • Cutting-edge and comprehensive, The Bacterial Flagellum: Methods and Protocols aims to provide valuable and vital research to aid in the investigation of the bacterial flagellum resulting from various bacterial species. (downduck.com)
  • and the number of flagella per cell also changes with the various bacterial species. (pharmacy180.com)
  • A flagellum (plural, flagella ) is a long, whip-like projection or appendage of a cell composed of microtubules (long, slender, protein tubes) and used in motility. (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • Since these parasites cannot attach to the midgut wall, they were forced to shorten the period of impaired motility when two separate flagella in dividing cells interfere with each other. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Bacterial flagella have many established roles beyond swimming motility. (ed.ac.uk)
  • Bacterial flagella are thin and delicate structures that extend from the cell membrane and enable motility and chemotaxis. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • Flagellum [Pl : Flagella] refers to a thread like structure that provides motility for certain bacte-ria and protozoa (one, few or many per cell) and for spermatazoa (one per cell). (pharmacy180.com)
  • 1) Flagella are fully responsible for the bacterial motility. (pharmacy180.com)
  • Ttll9-/- mice sperm flagella show shortening of doublet 7, reduction of doublet 5 polyglutamylation and a stall in beating. (scienceopen.com)
  • Starting transients in sea urchin sperm flagella. (rupress.org)
  • causes male infertility due to multiple morphological abnormalities of the sperm flagella. (bvsalud.org)
  • A previous study suggested that loss of CFAP47 function is involved in multiple morphological abnormalities of the sperm flagella (MMAF) in humans and mice . (bvsalud.org)
  • Bacterial flagella are helical filaments that rotate like screws. (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • Our novel approach is to define an energy which includes not only the work against the surrounding fluid, but also (1) the energy stored elastically in the bending of the flagellum, (2) the energy stored elastically in the internal sliding of the polymeric filaments which are responsible for the generation of the bending waves (microtubules), and (3) the viscous dissipation due to the presence of an internal fluid. (aip.org)
  • The 'flagella' are nothing but surface appendages invariably found in motile bacte-ria, and appear generally as filaments having diameter ranging between 12-20 nm and length between 6-8 μ m. (pharmacy180.com)
  • Computational modeling of monomer packing in flagellin filaments helped identify amino acids with proximity to neighboring flagella protofilaments. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In addition, with regard to potential adjuvant activity, all crosslinked flagella filaments were able to induce wild-type levels of epithelial NF-κB in a cell reporter system. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Flagellar filaments with disulfide-stabilized protofilaments introduce new possibilities for the application of flagella as a vaccine adjuvant. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Long, hair-like projections called flagella (plural: flagellum) protrude from the plasma membrane and are used to transport whole cells. (risingacademy.org)
  • In eukaryotic cells , flagella are active in movements involving feeding and sensation. (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • The flagellum self-assembles to form a helical propeller that enables prokaryotic cells to swim in its living environment. (caister.com)
  • In contrast, eukaryotic cells use flagella that resemble elastic rods and exhibit a beating motion: internally generated stresses give rise to a series of bends that propagate towards the tip. (scienceopen.com)
  • Flagella are the little tails that some cells use to propel themselves. (kjv-asia.com)
  • Sperm cells have flagella, but so do many single-celled organisms. (kjv-asia.com)
  • Centriolar behavior and flagellum formation during maturation division of male germ cells were studied by using of cultured testicular cells of the sea urchin, Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus. (nii.ac.jp)
  • Motile eukaryotic cells propel themselves in viscous fluids by passing waves of bending deformation down their flagella. (aip.org)
  • The connection between the flagella ensures their coordinate movement until the separation of the daughter cells. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Flagella stain is a wet mount technique that involves applying a mordant and a primary stain to the bacterial cells on a microscope slide. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • However, it requires an experienced laboratory scientist and careful handling of the bacterial cells, as the flagella are easily damaged or detached by agitation or environmental factors. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • The number of cilia on the cell surface is significantly greater (ciliated cells typically contain hundreds of cilia, whereas flagellated cells possess a single flagellum). (risingacademy.org)
  • Flagella in these cells are used mainly for locomotion. (atgventure.com)
  • All of the cells also have flagella with which they swim and keep themselves afloat. (lu.se)
  • A tiny but powerful engine that propels the bacterium Bacillus subtilis through liquids is disengaged from the corkscrew-like flagellum by a protein clutch, Indiana University Bloomington and Harvard University scientists have learned. (foresight.org)
  • The objective of flagella stain is to check whether a bacterium is motile or non-motile and to determine its flagellar pattern. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • If one single molecule in this fabulously complex structure were to disappear, or become defective, the flagellum would neither work nor be of any use to the bacterium. (com.kw)
  • Although this mechanism is poorly understood, one appealing hypothesis is that it results from hydrodynamic interactions between flagella. (cam.ac.uk)
  • We use the method of regularized Stokeslets and a three-dimensional preferred curvature model to simulate groups of undulating flagella, where flagellar waveforms are modulated via hydrodynamic coupling with other flagella and surfaces. (mdpi.com)
  • They are either nonmotile or motile by peritrichous flagella. (medscape.com)
  • The flagellum of eukaryotes usually moves with an "S" motion and is surrounded by cell membrane . (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • Prokaryotes may have one or many flagella for locomotion, but these differ significantly from flagella in eukaryotes. (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • The structural similarity of cilia and eukaryote flagella, and the substantial differences between flagella in eukaryotes and prokaryotes, is such that some authorities group cilia and eukaryote flagella together and consider cilium simply a special type of flagellum-one organized such that many flagella (cilia) may work in synchrony (Patterson 2000). (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • In Protozoa - a diverse group of single-celled, microscopic or near-microscopic protist eukaryotes that commonly show characteristics usually associated with animals-those organisms with flagella ( flagellates ) are generally placed in the phylum Zoomastigina (or Mastigophora), whereas those with cilia (ciliates) are placed in phylum Ciliophora. (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • These structures are quite unrelated to the flagella of eukaryotes . (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • In eukaryotes it is made of 2 + 9 microtubili surrounded by a membrane, and it wipes (pl. flagella). (bspp.org.uk)
  • An infinitely long flagellum achieves a hydrodynamically optimal low-Reynolds number locomotion when the angle between its local tangent and the swimming direction remains constant along its length. (aip.org)
  • Flagellum is used mainly for locomotion in prokaryotes as well as sensation, signal transduction, adhesion. (atgventure.com)
  • I would profer the human hand as a candidate for ID mascot, because, unlike the microscopic ribosome or flagellum, it is a readily visible structure that's also chock full of CSI. (uncommondescent.com)
  • Orthologous to human CFAP20 (cilia and flagella associated protein 20). (nih.gov)
  • One protein (flagellin), which bears no resemblance to tubulin or dynein, makes up the bacterial flagellum, a specialised component of the extracellular cell wall. (risingacademy.org)
  • Archaeal flagella is similar in all respect to bacterial flagella, it is also made up of protein sub-unit called flagellin except that it has a type-iv pilus-like structure. (atgventure.com)
  • The irreducible complexity of flagella is strong evidence for a creator, but it is not the angle that I took in my youth, years before Behe had written his book. (kjv-asia.com)
  • One of the interesting examples of irreducible complexity that Behe gives in his book is the bacterial flagellum. (com.kw)
  • Movement of a unicellular organisms by flagella can be relatively swift, whether it be Euglena with its emergent flagellum or a sperm cell with its flagellum. (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • From unicellular organisms as small as a few microns to the largest vertebrates on earth we find groups of beating flagella or cilia that exhibit striking spatio-temporal organization. (cam.ac.uk)
  • The argument runs something like this: "We and the organisms of Earth have to have been created by a God," say creationists, "because the bacterial flagella is so complicated that it could not possibly have been formed by chance, any more than a hurricane could blow through a ship yard and create an aircraft carrier. (zorknot.com)
  • The flagellum is an ion-powered rotary motor, anchored in the membranes surrounding the bacterial cell. (biblestudymanuals.net)
  • By staining the flagella, one can observe their presence or absence, as well as their number and location on the bacterial cell. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • 3) The apparent movement of the bacterial cell usually takes place by the critical rotation of the flagella either in the clockwise or anticlockwise direction along its long axis. (pharmacy180.com)
  • Pathogen-associated molecular patterns, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in bacterial cell walls and bacterial flagella, acts as ligands to trigger for downstream pathways that release inflammatory mediators such as TNF-alpha and interleukins (IL1B, IL2, IL6 and IL18). (cdc.gov)
  • It has been amply demonstrated and established that the meticulous growth of the flagella invariably takes place by the careful addition of the flagellin subunits at the distal end after being drifted through from the cytoplasm, obviously via the hollow core of the very flagellum. (pharmacy180.com)
  • Paired cysteine substitutions were made at amino acids predicted to form inter-monomer disulfide cross-links, and these substitutions were capable of forming flagella when transfected into a flagellin-negative strain of Salmonella enterica subspecies Typhimurium. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Loss-of-function mutations in CFAP57 cause multiple morphological abnormalities of the flagella in humans and mice. (nih.gov)
  • Ferooz, J & Letesson, J-J 2010, ' Morphological analysis of the sheathed flagellum of Brucella melitensis ', BMC Res Notes , VOL. 3. (unamur.be)
  • Eukaryote flagella are similar to cilia -another structure that extends out from the surface of cell and is used for movement-in that both are composed of nine pairs of microtubules (nine microtubule doublets) arranged around its circumference and one pair of microtubules (two microtubule siglets) running down the center, the 9 + 2 structure (Towle 1989). (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • Cilia and flagella move because of the interactions of a set of microtubules inside. (cytochemistry.net)
  • Like Cilia and Flagella, Centrioles are also made of microtubules. (cytochemistry.net)
  • However, unlike centrioles, cilia and flagella feature a centre pair of microtubules, leading to the term "9 + 2 axoneme" for the total structure. (risingacademy.org)
  • Radial spokes of Chlamydomonas flagella: genetic analysis of assembly and function. (rupress.org)
  • Here we describe Vickermania , a new genus of fly midgut-dwelling parasites that bear two flagella in contrast to other trypanosomatids, which are unambiguously uniflagellate. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In this study, the molecular basis of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium flagella binding to epithelial cell cultures was investigated. (ed.ac.uk)
  • Motor mutants of E. coli O157:H7 and S. Typhimurium caused reduced haemolysis compared to wild-type, indicating that membrane disruption was in part due to flagella rotation. (ed.ac.uk)
  • Flagella from E. coli O157 (H7), EPEC O127 (H6) and S. Typhimurium (P1 and P2 flagella) were shown to bind to purified intracellular components of the actin cytoskeleton and directly increase in vitro actin polymerization rates. (ed.ac.uk)
  • We propose that flagella interactions with host cell membranes and cytoskeletal components may help prime intimate attachment and invasion for E. coli O157:H7 and S. Typhimurium, respectively. (ed.ac.uk)
  • Cilia and flagella are organized from centrioles that move to the cell periphery. (cytochemistry.net)
  • In this stage, 2 centrioles including a basal body duplicate to form 2 paires of centrioles at the base of the flagellum. (nii.ac.jp)
  • At the time of prometaphase, the flagellum was absorbed into the cytoplasm and a pair of centrioles was located at each pole of the first and second division. (nii.ac.jp)
  • Flagella interactions with host cell surfaces were intimate and crossed cellular boundaries as demarcated by actin and membrane labelling. (ed.ac.uk)
  • For example, bacterial flagella are helically shaped and driven at their bases by a reversible rotary engine, which rotates the attached flagellum to give a motion similar to that of a corkscrew. (scienceopen.com)
  • The order Uropygi includes south tropical predator arachnids with large raptorial pedipalps, a long and multi-segmented pos-pygidium, and long flagellum. (bvsalud.org)
  • Flagella in archaebacteria are distinct from both of those types. (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • Although they beat in distinct ways, cilia and flagella are fundamentally identical. (risingacademy.org)
  • The flagellum is made up of three distinct parts: filament, hook and basal body. (atgventure.com)
  • Sperm have thin structures known as flagella whose motion must be regulated in order to reach the egg for fertilization. (mdpi.com)
  • The optimal waveforms of finite-size flagella are shown to depend on a competition between rotational motions and bending costs, and we observe a surprising bias toward half-integer wave numbers. (aip.org)
  • Flagella use a whip-like action to create movement of the whole cell, such as the movement of sperm in the reproductive tract. (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • Arbitrarily used terminology include cilium, which means an eyelash, and flagellum, which means a whip. (risingacademy.org)
  • Flagellum means whip in Latin. (atgventure.com)
  • The filament is the whip-like part of the flagella, while the hook as the name implies attach the filament to the basal body of the microorganism. (atgventure.com)
  • As evidence, they cite a number of specific examples, including the vertebrate blood clotting cascade, the eukaryotic cilium, and most notably, the eubacterial flagellum (Behe 1996a, Behe 2002). (biblestudymanuals.net)
  • A cilium transports water perpendicular to its axis and, as a result, perpendicular to the cell surface, whereas a flagellum moves water parallel to its axis. (risingacademy.org)
  • The dynein arms press on the neighbouring outer doublets, causing a sliding movement to happen between adjacent outer doublets, using ATP generated by mitochondria near the base of the cilium or flagellum as fuel. (risingacademy.org)
  • Scanning electron microscopy revealed flagella disappearing into cellular surfaces and transmission electron microscopy of S. Typhiumurium indicated host membrane deformation and disruption in proximity to flagella. (ed.ac.uk)
  • The remarkable similarity in the underlying molecular structure of flagella across the whole eukaryotic world leads naturally to the hypothesis that a similarly universal mechanism might be responsible for synchronization. (cam.ac.uk)
  • This flagellum clutch mechanism may provide ideas useful for nanotech control of molecular motors. (foresight.org)
  • This volume examines the structure and dynamics of the bacterial flagellum using bacterial genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, structural biology, biophysics, cell biology, and molecular dynamics simulation. (downduck.com)
  • Despite clear evidence of flagella-dependent adherence, the specificity of the ligands and mechanisms of binding are still debated. (ed.ac.uk)
  • A mordant is a substance that binds to the flagella and increases their diameter by coating them with layers of stain. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • Bacterial flagella are entirely outside the cell membrane (plasma membrane) and are normally visible only with the aid of an electron microscope . (newworldencyclopedia.org)
  • For instance, Helicobacter pylori , the causal agent of gastric ulcer moves toward the intestinal lining of human where it causes damage to the epithelium with the aid of its flagella. (atgventure.com)
  • It has been discovered that the flagellum moves by means of a very complicated "organic motor," and not by a simple vibratory mechanism as was earlier believed. (com.kw)
  • The evolution of flagella is of great interest to biologists because the three known varieties of flagella ( eukaryotic , bacterial , and archaebacterial) each represent an extremely sophisticated cellular structure that requires the interaction of many different and finely-tuned systems to function correctly. (fact-index.com)
  • EpsE is thought to "sit down," as Kearns describes it, on the flagellum's rotor, a donut-shaped structure at the base of the flagellum. (foresight.org)
  • Cilia and flagella have the same internal structure. (cytochemistry.net)
  • The flagella connect to each other throughout their whole length and carry a peculiar seizing structure with a paddle-like apex and two lateral extensions at their tip. (biomedcentral.com)
  • If you look at all the different components of the flagellum (pictured below) you can see that the structure is pretty complicated. (zorknot.com)
  • The complicated structure of the bacterial flagellum is sufficient all by itself to demolish the theory of evolution, since the flagellum has an irreducibly complex structure. (com.kw)
  • The mechanism used by bacterial flagella is substantially different. (risingacademy.org)
  • We find that collective motion of free-swimming flagella is an unstable phenomenon in long-term simulations unless there is an external mechanism to keep flagella near each other. (mdpi.com)