Infection with human herpesvirus 4 (HERPESVIRUS 4, HUMAN); which may facilitate the development of various lymphoproliferative disorders. These include BURKITT LYMPHOMA (African type), INFECTIOUS MONONUCLEOSIS, and oral hairy leukoplakia (LEUKOPLAKIA, HAIRY).
The type species of LYMPHOCRYPTOVIRUS, subfamily GAMMAHERPESVIRINAE, infecting B-cells in humans. It is thought to be the causative agent of INFECTIOUS MONONUCLEOSIS and is strongly associated with oral hairy leukoplakia (LEUKOPLAKIA, HAIRY;), BURKITT LYMPHOMA; and other malignancies.
Nuclear antigens encoded by VIRAL GENES found in HUMAN HERPESVIRUS 4. At least six nuclear antigens have been identified.
A common, acute infection usually caused by the Epstein-Barr virus (HERPESVIRUS 4, HUMAN). There is an increase in mononuclear white blood cells and other atypical lymphocytes, generalized lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly, and occasionally hepatomegaly with hepatitis.
Proteins associated with the inner surface of the lipid bilayer of the viral envelope. These proteins have been implicated in control of viral transcription and may possibly serve as the "glue" that binds the nucleocapsid to the appropriate membrane site during viral budding from the host cell.
Tumors or cancer of the NASOPHARYNX.
A form of undifferentiated malignant LYMPHOMA usually found in central Africa, but also reported in other parts of the world. It is commonly manifested as a large osteolytic lesion in the jaw or as an abdominal mass. B-cell antigens are expressed on the immature cells that make up the tumor in virtually all cases of Burkitt lymphoma. The Epstein-Barr virus (HERPESVIRUS 4, HUMAN) has been isolated from Burkitt lymphoma cases in Africa and it is implicated as the causative agent in these cases; however, most non-African cases are EBV-negative.
Virus diseases caused by the HERPESVIRIDAE.
A malignant disease characterized by progressive enlargement of the lymph nodes, spleen, and general lymphoid tissue. In the classical variant, giant usually multinucleate Hodgkin's and REED-STERNBERG CELLS are present; in the nodular lymphocyte predominant variant, lymphocytic and histiocytic cells are seen.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
In the interphase nucleus, a condensed mass of chromatin representing an inactivated X chromosome. Each X CHROMOSOME, in excess of one, forms sex chromatin (Barr body) in the mammalian nucleus. (from King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
Immunoglobulins produced in response to VIRAL ANTIGENS.
Lymphoid cells concerned with humoral immunity. They are short-lived cells resembling bursa-derived lymphocytes of birds in their production of immunoglobulin upon appropriate stimulation.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
Substances elaborated by viruses that have antigenic activity.
Eukaryotic cell line obtained in a quiescent or stationary phase which undergoes conversion to a state of unregulated growth in culture, resembling an in vitro tumor. It occurs spontaneously or through interaction with viruses, oncogenes, radiation, or drugs/chemicals.
Disorders characterized by proliferation of lymphoid tissue, general or unspecified.
Viruses whose genetic material is RNA.
The type species of ORTHOPOXVIRUS, related to COWPOX VIRUS, but whose true origin is unknown. It has been used as a live vaccine against SMALLPOX. It is also used as a vector for inserting foreign DNA into animals. Rabbitpox virus is a subspecies of VACCINIA VIRUS.
The process of intracellular viral multiplication, consisting of the synthesis of PROTEINS; NUCLEIC ACIDS; and sometimes LIPIDS, and their assembly into a new infectious particle.
A general term for diseases produced by viruses.
Specific molecular components of the cell capable of recognizing and interacting with a virus, and which, after binding it, are capable of generating some signal that initiates the chain of events leading to the biological response.
Process of growing viruses in live animals, plants, or cultured cells.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS with the surface proteins hemagglutinin 1 and neuraminidase 1. The H1N1 subtype was responsible for the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918.
The expelling of virus particles from the body. Important routes include the respiratory tract, genital tract, and intestinal tract. Virus shedding is an important means of vertical transmission (INFECTIOUS DISEASE TRANSMISSION, VERTICAL).
The type species of MORBILLIVIRUS and the cause of the highly infectious human disease MEASLES, which affects mostly children.
Virus diseases caused by the ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE.
A group of viruses in the PNEUMOVIRUS genus causing respiratory infections in various mammals. Humans and cattle are most affected but infections in goats and sheep have also been reported.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 5 and neuraminidase 1. The H5N1 subtype, frequently referred to as the bird flu virus, is endemic in wild birds and very contagious among both domestic (POULTRY) and wild birds. It does not usually infect humans, but some cases have been reported.
Viruses parasitic on plants higher than bacteria.
The type species of ALPHAVIRUS normally transmitted to birds by CULEX mosquitoes in Egypt, South Africa, India, Malaya, the Philippines, and Australia. It may be associated with fever in humans. Serotypes (differing by less than 17% in nucleotide sequence) include Babanki, Kyzylagach, and Ockelbo viruses.
Viruses whose nucleic acid is DNA.
Pneumovirus infections caused by the RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUSES. Humans and cattle are most affected but infections in goats and sheep have been reported.
A species of POLYOMAVIRUS originally isolated from Rhesus monkey kidney tissue. It produces malignancy in human and newborn hamster kidney cell cultures.
A species of FLAVIVIRUS, one of the Japanese encephalitis virus group (ENCEPHALITIS VIRUSES, JAPANESE). It can infect birds and mammals. In humans, it is seen most frequently in Africa, Asia, and Europe presenting as a silent infection or undifferentiated fever (WEST NILE FEVER). The virus appeared in North America for the first time in 1999. It is transmitted mainly by CULEX spp mosquitoes which feed primarily on birds, but it can also be carried by the Asian Tiger mosquito, AEDES albopictus, which feeds mainly on mammals.
The assembly of VIRAL STRUCTURAL PROTEINS and nucleic acid (VIRAL DNA or VIRAL RNA) to form a VIRUS PARTICLE.
Ribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Viruses which lack a complete genome so that they cannot completely replicate or cannot form a protein coat. Some are host-dependent defectives, meaning they can replicate only in cell systems which provide the particular genetic function which they lack. Others, called SATELLITE VIRUSES, are able to replicate only when their genetic defect is complemented by a helper virus.
The type species of LYSSAVIRUS causing rabies in humans and other animals. Transmission is mostly by animal bites through saliva. The virus is neurotropic multiplying in neurons and myotubes of vertebrates.
Agents used in the prophylaxis or therapy of VIRUS DISEASES. Some of the ways they may act include preventing viral replication by inhibiting viral DNA polymerase; binding to specific cell-surface receptors and inhibiting viral penetration or uncoating; inhibiting viral protein synthesis; or blocking late stages of virus assembly.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 3 and neuraminidase 2. The H3N2 subtype was responsible for the Hong Kong flu pandemic of 1968.
The type species of the genus ORTHOHEPADNAVIRUS which causes human HEPATITIS B and is also apparently a causal agent in human HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA. The Dane particle is an intact hepatitis virion, named after its discoverer. Non-infectious spherical and tubular particles are also seen in the serum.
Proteins found in any species of virus.
Infections produced by oncogenic viruses. The infections caused by DNA viruses are less numerous but more diverse than those caused by the RNA oncogenic viruses.
An acute viral infection in humans involving the respiratory tract. It is marked by inflammation of the NASAL MUCOSA; the PHARYNX; and conjunctiva, and by headache and severe, often generalized, myalgia.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by HEPATITIS C VIRUS, a single-stranded RNA virus. Its incubation period is 30-90 days. Hepatitis C is transmitted primarily by contaminated blood parenterally, and is often associated with transfusion and intravenous drug abuse. However, in a significant number of cases, the source of hepatitis C infection is unknown.
A CELL LINE derived from the kidney of the African green (vervet) monkey, (CERCOPITHECUS AETHIOPS) used primarily in virus replication studies and plaque assays.
The type species of VESICULOVIRUS causing a disease symptomatically similar to FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE in cattle, horses, and pigs. It may be transmitted to other species including humans, where it causes influenza-like symptoms.
A family of RNA viruses causing INFLUENZA and other diseases. There are five recognized genera: INFLUENZAVIRUS A; INFLUENZAVIRUS B; INFLUENZAVIRUS C; ISAVIRUS; and THOGOTOVIRUS.
The mechanism by which latent viruses, such as genetically transmitted tumor viruses (PROVIRUSES) or PROPHAGES of lysogenic bacteria, are induced to replicate and then released as infectious viruses. It may be effected by various endogenous and exogenous stimuli, including B-cell LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES, glucocorticoid hormones, halogenated pyrimidines, IONIZING RADIATION, ultraviolet light, and superinfecting viruses.
A species of CERCOPITHECUS containing three subspecies: C. tantalus, C. pygerythrus, and C. sabeus. They are found in the forests and savannah of Africa. The African green monkey (C. pygerythrus) is the natural host of SIMIAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS and is used in AIDS research.
DNA virus infections refer to diseases caused by viruses that incorporate double-stranded or single-stranded DNA as their genetic material, replicating within host cell nucleus or cytoplasm, and including various families such as Herpesviridae, Adenoviridae, Papillomaviridae, and Parvoviridae.
Species of the genus LENTIVIRUS, subgenus primate immunodeficiency viruses (IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUSES, PRIMATE), that induces acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in monkeys and apes (SAIDS). The genetic organization of SIV is virtually identical to HIV.
The functional hereditary units of VIRUSES.
Membrane glycoproteins from influenza viruses which are involved in hemagglutination, virus attachment, and envelope fusion. Fourteen distinct subtypes of HA glycoproteins and nine of NA glycoproteins have been identified from INFLUENZA A VIRUS; no subtypes have been identified for Influenza B or Influenza C viruses.
A species of RESPIROVIRUS also called hemadsorption virus 2 (HA2), which causes laryngotracheitis in humans, especially children.
The measurement of infection-blocking titer of ANTISERA by testing a series of dilutions for a given virus-antiserum interaction end-point, which is generally the dilution at which tissue cultures inoculated with the serum-virus mixtures demonstrate cytopathology (CPE) or the dilution at which 50% of test animals injected with serum-virus mixtures show infectivity (ID50) or die (LD50).
The ability of a pathogenic virus to lie dormant within a cell (latent infection). In eukaryotes, subsequent activation and viral replication is thought to be caused by extracellular stimulation of cellular transcription factors. Latency in bacteriophage is maintained by the expression of virally encoded repressors.
A genus of FLAVIVIRIDAE causing parenterally-transmitted HEPATITIS C which is associated with transfusions and drug abuse. Hepatitis C virus is the type species.
RNA virus infections refer to diseases caused by viruses that have RNA as their genetic material, which includes a wide range of pathogens affecting humans, animals, and plants, manifesting in various clinical symptoms and potentially leading to significant morbidity and mortality.
Method for measuring viral infectivity and multiplication in CULTURED CELLS. Clear lysed areas or plaques develop as the VIRAL PARTICLES are released from the infected cells during incubation. With some VIRUSES, the cells are killed by a cytopathic effect; with others, the infected cells are not killed but can be detected by their hemadsorptive ability. Sometimes the plaque cells contain VIRAL ANTIGENS which can be measured by IMMUNOFLUORESCENCE.
A species in the genus HEPATOVIRUS containing one serotype and two strains: HUMAN HEPATITIS A VIRUS and Simian hepatitis A virus causing hepatitis in humans (HEPATITIS A) and primates, respectively.
The type species of RUBULAVIRUS that causes an acute infectious disease in humans, affecting mainly children. Transmission occurs by droplet infection.
The type species of RESPIROVIRUS in the subfamily PARAMYXOVIRINAE. It is the murine version of HUMAN PARAINFLUENZA VIRUS 1, distinguished by host range.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by a member of the ORTHOHEPADNAVIRUS genus, HEPATITIS B VIRUS. It is primarily transmitted by parenteral exposure, such as transfusion of contaminated blood or blood products, but can also be transmitted via sexual or intimate personal contact.
The infective system of a virus, composed of the viral genome, a protein core, and a protein coat called a capsid, which may be naked or enclosed in a lipoprotein envelope called the peplos.
An acute febrile disease transmitted by the bite of AEDES mosquitoes infected with DENGUE VIRUS. It is self-limiting and characterized by fever, myalgia, headache, and rash. SEVERE DENGUE is a more virulent form of dengue.
Includes the spectrum of human immunodeficiency virus infections that range from asymptomatic seropositivity, thru AIDS-related complex (ARC), to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
Radiographic visualization of the body between the thorax and the pelvis, i.e., within the peritoneal cavity.
Viruses that produce tumors.
The binding of virus particles to receptors on the host cell surface. For enveloped viruses, the virion ligand is usually a surface glycoprotein as is the cellular receptor. For non-enveloped viruses, the virus CAPSID serves as the ligand.
A species of ALPHAVIRUS isolated in central, eastern, and southern Africa.
Abnormal number or structure of the SEX CHROMOSOMES. Some sex chromosome aberrations are associated with SEX CHROMOSOME DISORDERS and SEX CHROMOSOME DISORDERS OF SEX DEVELOPMENT.
Infections with viruses of the genus RESPIROVIRUS, family PARAMYXOVIRIDAE. Host cell infection occurs by adsorption, via HEMAGGLUTININ, to the cell surface.
The type species of PNEUMOVIRUS and an important cause of lower respiratory disease in infants and young children. It frequently presents with bronchitis and bronchopneumonia and is further characterized by fever, cough, dyspnea, wheezing, and pallor.
A species of ALPHAVIRUS causing an acute dengue-like fever.
A mosquito-borne viral illness caused by the WEST NILE VIRUS, a FLAVIVIRUS and endemic to regions of Africa, Asia, and Europe. Common clinical features include HEADACHE; FEVER; maculopapular rash; gastrointestinal symptoms; and lymphadenopathy. MENINGITIS; ENCEPHALITIS; and MYELITIS may also occur. The disease may occasionally be fatal or leave survivors with residual neurologic deficits. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1996, Ch26, p13; Lancet 1998 Sep 5;352(9130):767-71)
Any of the processes by which cytoplasmic factors influence the differential control of gene action in viruses.
A genus of the family HERPESVIRIDAE, subfamily ALPHAHERPESVIRINAE, consisting of herpes simplex-like viruses. The type species is HERPESVIRUS 1, HUMAN.
A species of POLYOMAVIRUS apparently infecting over 90% of children but not clearly associated with any clinical illness in childhood. The virus remains latent in the body throughout life and can be reactivated under certain circumstances.
Visible morphologic changes in cells infected with viruses. It includes shutdown of cellular RNA and protein synthesis, cell fusion, release of lysosomal enzymes, changes in cell membrane permeability, diffuse changes in intracellular structures, presence of viral inclusion bodies, and chromosomal aberrations. It excludes malignant transformation, which is CELL TRANSFORMATION, VIRAL. Viral cytopathogenic effects provide a valuable method for identifying and classifying the infecting viruses.
A species of ORTHOPOXVIRUS that is the etiologic agent of COWPOX. It is closely related to but antigenically different from VACCINIA VIRUS.
Viruses which produce a mottled appearance of the leaves of plants.
The quantity of measurable virus in a body fluid. Change in viral load, measured in plasma, is sometimes used as a SURROGATE MARKER in disease progression.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
Viruses whose taxonomic relationships have not been established.
A species of POLYOMAVIRUS, originally isolated from the brain of a patient with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. The patient's initials J.C. gave the virus its name. Infection is not accompanied by any apparent illness but serious demyelinating disease can appear later, probably following reactivation of latent virus.
The type species of the genus INFLUENZAVIRUS A that causes influenza and other diseases in humans and animals. Antigenic variation occurs frequently between strains, allowing classification into subtypes and variants. Transmission is usually by aerosol (human and most non-aquatic hosts) or waterborne (ducks). Infected birds shed the virus in their saliva, nasal secretions, and feces.
The interactions between a host and a pathogen, usually resulting in disease.
The type species of ORBIVIRUS causing a serious disease in sheep, especially lambs. It may also infect wild ruminants and other domestic animals.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Group of alpharetroviruses (ALPHARETROVIRUS) producing sarcomata and other tumors in chickens and other fowl and also in pigeons, ducks, and RATS.
The type species of TOBAMOVIRUS which causes mosaic disease of tobacco. Transmission occurs by mechanical inoculation.
The type species of ALPHARETROVIRUS producing latent or manifest lymphoid leukosis in fowl.
The type species of ARENAVIRUS, part of the Old World Arenaviruses (ARENAVIRUSES, OLD WORLD), producing a silent infection in house and laboratory mice. In humans, infection with LCMV can be inapparent, or can present with an influenza-like illness, a benign aseptic meningitis, or a severe meningoencephalomyelitis. The virus can also infect monkeys, dogs, field mice, guinea pigs, and hamsters, the latter an epidemiologically important host.
A subfamily in the family MURIDAE, comprising the hamsters. Four of the more common genera are Cricetus, CRICETULUS; MESOCRICETUS; and PHODOPUS.
A species of ARENAVIRUS, part of the Old World Arenaviruses (ARENAVIRUSES, OLD WORLD), and the etiologic agent of LASSA FEVER. LASSA VIRUS is a common infective agent in humans in West Africa. Its natural host is the multimammate mouse Mastomys natalensis.
The presence of viruses in the blood.
The outer protein protective shell of a virus, which protects the viral nucleic acid.
Genetic mechanisms that allow GENES to be expressed at a similar level irrespective of their GENE DOSAGE. This term is usually used in discussing genes that lie on the SEX CHROMOSOMES. Because the sex chromosomes are only partially homologous, there is a different copy number, i.e., dosage, of these genes in males vs. females. In DROSOPHILA, dosage compensation is accomplished by hypertranscription of genes located on the X CHROMOSOME. In mammals, dosage compensation of X chromosome genes is accomplished by random X CHROMOSOME INACTIVATION of one of the two X chromosomes in the female.
The type species of SIMPLEXVIRUS causing most forms of non-genital herpes simplex in humans. Primary infection occurs mainly in infants and young children and then the virus becomes latent in the dorsal root ganglion. It then is periodically reactivated throughout life causing mostly benign conditions.
The type species of LEPORIPOXVIRUS causing infectious myxomatosis, a severe generalized disease, in rabbits. Tumors are not always present.
The type species of the FLAVIVIRUS genus. Principal vector transmission to humans is by AEDES spp. mosquitoes.
Biological properties, processes, and activities of VIRUSES.
Those hepatitis B antigens found on the surface of the Dane particle and on the 20 nm spherical and tubular particles. Several subspecificities of the surface antigen are known. These were formerly called the Australia antigen.
A strain of Murine leukemia virus (LEUKEMIA VIRUS, MURINE) arising during the propagation of S37 mouse sarcoma, and causing lymphoid leukemia in mice. It also infects rats and newborn hamsters. It is apparently transmitted to embryos in utero and to newborns through mother's milk.
A species of the genus FLAVIVIRUS which causes an acute febrile and sometimes hemorrhagic disease in man. Dengue is mosquito-borne and four serotypes are known.
A collection of single-stranded RNA viruses scattered across the Bunyaviridae, Flaviviridae, and Togaviridae families whose common property is the ability to induce encephalitic conditions in infected hosts.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
Insertion of viral DNA into host-cell DNA. This includes integration of phage DNA into bacterial DNA; (LYSOGENY); to form a PROPHAGE or integration of retroviral DNA into cellular DNA to form a PROVIRUS.
"Ducks" is not a recognized medical term or condition in human health; it may refer to various anatomical structures in animals, such as the ducks of the heart valves, but it does not have a standalone medical definition.
Serologic tests in which a known quantity of antigen is added to the serum prior to the addition of a red cell suspension. Reaction result is expressed as the smallest amount of antigen which causes complete inhibition of hemagglutination.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
The type species in the genus NOROVIRUS, first isolated in 1968 from the stools of school children in Norwalk, Ohio, who were suffering from GASTROENTERITIS. The virions are non-enveloped spherical particles containing a single protein. Multiple strains are named after the places where outbreaks have occurred.
An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of alpha-2,3, alpha-2,6-, and alpha-2,8-glycosidic linkages (at a decreasing rate, respectively) of terminal sialic residues in oligosaccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, colominic acid, and synthetic substrate. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992)
Any of the viruses that cause inflammation of the liver. They include both DNA and RNA viruses as well viruses from humans and animals.
Sudden increase in the incidence of a disease. The concept includes EPIDEMICS and PANDEMICS.
A species of RESPIROVIRUS frequently isolated from small children with pharyngitis, bronchitis, and pneumonia.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Inactivation of viruses by non-immune related techniques. They include extremes of pH, HEAT treatment, ultraviolet radiation, IONIZING RADIATION; DESICCATION; ANTISEPTICS; DISINFECTANTS; organic solvents, and DETERGENTS.
A positive-stranded RNA virus species in the genus HEPEVIRUS, causing enterically-transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis (HEPATITIS E).
A species of ORTHOPOXVIRUS causing infections in humans. No infections have been reported since 1977 and the virus is now believed to be virtually extinct.
A species of ARTERIVIRUS causing reproductive and respiratory disease in pigs. The European strain is called Lelystad virus. Airborne transmission is common.
Proteins found mainly in icosahedral DNA and RNA viruses. They consist of proteins directly associated with the nucleic acid inside the NUCLEOCAPSID.
The human female sex chromosome, being the differential sex chromosome carried by half the male gametes and all female gametes in humans.
The type species of VARICELLOVIRUS causing CHICKENPOX (varicella) and HERPES ZOSTER (shingles) in humans.
DNA molecules capable of autonomous replication within a host cell and into which other DNA sequences can be inserted and thus amplified. Many are derived from PLASMIDS; BACTERIOPHAGES; or VIRUSES. They are used for transporting foreign genes into recipient cells. Genetic vectors possess a functional replicator site and contain GENETIC MARKERS to facilitate their selective recognition.
A species of GAMMARETROVIRUS causing leukemia, lymphosarcoma, immune deficiency, or other degenerative diseases in cats. Several cellular oncogenes confer on FeLV the ability to induce sarcomas (see also SARCOMA VIRUSES, FELINE).
EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES based on the detection through serological testing of characteristic change in the serum level of specific ANTIBODIES. Latent subclinical infections and carrier states can thus be detected in addition to clinically overt cases.
Specific hemagglutinin subtypes encoded by VIRUSES.
The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. The pathogenic capacity of an organism is determined by its VIRULENCE FACTORS.
Infections with viruses of the family PARAMYXOVIRIDAE. This includes MORBILLIVIRUS INFECTIONS; RESPIROVIRUS INFECTIONS; PNEUMOVIRUS INFECTIONS; HENIPAVIRUS INFECTIONS; AVULAVIRUS INFECTIONS; and RUBULAVIRUS INFECTIONS.
Proteins that form the CAPSID of VIRUSES.
A subgroup of the genus FLAVIVIRUS that causes encephalitis and hemorrhagic fevers and is found in eastern and western Europe and the former Soviet Union. It is transmitted by TICKS and there is an associated milk-borne transmission from viremic cattle, goats, and sheep.
Human immunodeficiency virus. A non-taxonomic and historical term referring to any of two species, specifically HIV-1 and/or HIV-2. Prior to 1986, this was called human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus (HTLV-III/LAV). From 1986-1990, it was an official species called HIV. Since 1991, HIV was no longer considered an official species name; the two species were designated HIV-1 and HIV-2.
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
A critical subpopulation of regulatory T-lymphocytes involved in MHC Class I-restricted interactions. They include both cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and CD8+ suppressor T-lymphocytes.
Viral proteins that are components of the mature assembled VIRUS PARTICLES. They may include nucleocapsid core proteins (gag proteins), enzymes packaged within the virus particle (pol proteins), and membrane components (env proteins). These do not include the proteins encoded in the VIRAL GENOME that are produced in infected cells but which are not packaged in the mature virus particle,i.e. the so called non-structural proteins (VIRAL NONSTRUCTURAL PROTEINS).
A genus in the family FILOVIRIDAE consisting of several distinct species of Ebolavirus, each containing separate strains. These viruses cause outbreaks of a contagious, hemorrhagic disease (HEMORRHAGIC FEVER, EBOLA) in humans, usually with high mortality.
The type species of LENTIVIRUS and the etiologic agent of AIDS. It is characterized by its cytopathic effect and affinity for the T4-lymphocyte.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans that is caused by HEPATITIS C VIRUS lasting six months or more. Chronic hepatitis C can lead to LIVER CIRRHOSIS.

Effective control of Epstein-Barr virus-related hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis with immunochemotherapy. Histiocyte Society. (1/1457)

The familial form of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a lethal disorder. Although the prognosis for Epstein-Barr virus-associated HLH (EBV-HLH) remains uncertain, numerous reports indicate that it can also be fatal in a substantial proportion of cases. We therefore assessed the potential of immunochemotherapy with a core combination of steroids and etoposide to control EBV-HLH in 17 infants and children who met stringent diagnostic criteria for this reactive disorder of the mononuclear phagocyte system. Treatment of life-threatening emergencies was left to the discretion of participating investigators and typically included either intravenous Ig or cyclosporin A (CSA). Five patients (29%) entered complete remission during the induction phase (1 to 2 months), whereas 10 others (57%) required additional treatment to achieve this status. In 2 cases, immunochemotherapy was ineffective, prompting allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Severe but reversible myelosuppression was a common finding; adverse late sequelae were limited to epileptic activity in one child and chronic EBV infection in 2 others. Fourteen of the 17 patients treated with immunochemotherapy have maintained their complete responses for 4+ to 39+ months (median, 15+ months), suggesting a low probability of disease recurrence. These results provide a new perspective on EBV-HLH, showing effective control (and perhaps cure) of the majority of EBV-HLH cases without bone marrow transplantation, using steroids and etoposide, with or without immunomodulatory agents.  (+info)

Cytokine mRNA profiles in Epstein-Barr virus-associated post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders. (2/1457)

Cytokine mRNA patterns were analyzed in 11 post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) specimens using qualitative reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). In each case, a pattern of IL2-, IFN gamma-, IL4+, IL10+ was seen. A similar pattern was observed in a spleen sample from 1 patient with contemporaneous PTLD elsewhere. Semiquantitative RT-PCR for cytokine message was performed using RNA from bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) specimens obtained from 2 patients with pulmonary PTLD. In both cases, IL4 message predominated. Reduction of message coincided with resolution of the tumors. The pattern differed from that seen in 1 patient with acute pulmonary rejection, in which RT-PCR of BAL cells showed predominance of IL6 and IFN gamma. We conclude that at least some PTLDs exist within a T-helper cell type 2 (Th2)-like cytokine microenvironment. The presence of a similar mRNA pattern in an extratumoral specimen at the time of PTLD suggests that it may reflect a systemic phenomenon. Disappearance of this pattern following PTLD resolution indicates its dynamic nature and is consistent with the hypothesis that specific cytokines contribute to the development of PTLDs.  (+info)

B cell lymphoproliferative disorders following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: risk factors, treatment and outcome. (3/1457)

Twenty-six cases of B cell lymphoproliferative disorder (BLPD) were identified among 2395 patients following hematopoietic stem cell transplants (HSCT) for which an overall incidence of BLPD was 1.2%. The true incidence was probably higher, since 9/26 of the diagnoses were made at autopsy. No BLPD was observed following autologous HSCT, so risk factor analyses were confined to the 1542 allogeneic HSCT. Factors assessed were HLA-mismatching (> or = 1 antigen), T cell depletion (TCD), presence of acute GvHD (grades II-IV), donor type (related vs unrelated), age of recipient and donor, and underlying disease. Factors found to be statistically significant included patients transplanted for immune deficiency and CML, donor age > or = 18 years, TCD, and HLA-mismatching, with recipients of combined TCD and HLA-mismatched grafts having the highest incidence. Factors found to be statistically significant in a multiple regression analysis were TCD, donor age and immune deficiency, although 7/8 of the patients with immunodeficiencies and BLPD received a TCD graft from a haploidentical parent. The overall mortality was 92% (24/26). One patient had a spontaneous remission, but subsequently died >1 year later of chronic GVHD. Thirteen patients received therapy for BLPD. Three patients received lymphocyte infusions without response. The only patients with responses and longterm survival received alpha interferon (alphaIFN). Of seven patients treated with alphaIFN there were four responses (one partial and three complete). These data demonstrate that alphaIFN can be an effective agent against BLPD following HSCT, if a timely diagnosis is made.  (+info)

Human immunodeficiency virus-associated Hodgkin's disease derives from post-germinal center B cells. (4/1457)

Human immunodeficiency virus-associated Hodgkin's disease (HIV-HD) displays several peculiarities when compared with HD of the general population. These include overrepresentation of clinically aggressive histologic types and frequent infection of Reed-Sternberg (RS) cells by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). Recently, we have reported that the histogenesis of HD of the general population may be assessed by monitoring the expression pattern of BCL-6, a transcription factor expressed in germinal center (GC) B cells, and of CD138/syndecan-1 (syn-1), a proteoglycan associated with post-GC, terminal B-cell differentiation. In this study, we have applied these two markers to the study of HIV-HD histogenesis and correlated their expression status to the virologic features of this disease. We have found that RS cells of all histologic categories of HIV-HD consistently display the BCL-6(-)/syn-1(+) phenotype and thus reflect post-GC B cells. Although BCL-6(-)/syn-1(+) RS cells of HIV-HD express CD40, they are not surrounded by CD40 ligand-positive (CD40L+) reactive T lymphocytes, which, in HD of the general population, are thought to regulate the disease phenotype through CD40/CD40L interactions. Conversely, RS cells of virtually all HIV-HD express the EBV-encoded latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1), which, being functionally homologous to CD40, may contribute, at least in part, to the modulation of the HIV-HD phenotype.  (+info)

Restricted low-level human antibody responses against Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-encoded latent membrane protein 1 in a subgroup of patients with EBV-associated diseases. (5/1457)

Human antibody responses to latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) in patients with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-related disease syndromes were analyzed in detail. Only by immunoblot analysis with purified recombinant LMP1 and by IFA on recombinant LMP1-expressing insect cells could human antibodies directed against LMP1 be detected. Low serum levels of LMP1-directed antibodies could be detected in 3 of 8 EBV-positive Hodgkin's disease patients, 3 of 40 nasopharyngeal carcinoma patients, 2 of 23 Burkitt's lymphoma patients, and 1 of 27 non-Burkitt's lymphoma patients. No LMP1-directed antibodies could be detected in healthy EBV carriers, infectious mononucleosis patients, or patients with chronic EBV disease. All sera contained significant levels of EBV antibodies directed against the immunodominant EBV proteins and peptides. From this study, it can be concluded that LMP1 is a protein with a very low immunogenicity for the humoral immune response in humans.  (+info)

Characterization of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-infected natural killer (NK) cell proliferation in patients with severe mosquito allergy; establishment of an IL-2-dependent NK-like cell line. (6/1457)

The clinical evidence of a relationship between severe hypersensitivity to mosquito bite (HMB) and clonal expansion of EBV-infected NK cells has been accumulated. In order to clarify the mechanism of EBV-induced NK cell proliferation and its relationship with high incidence of leukaemias or lymphomas in HMB patients, we studied clonally expanded NK cells from three HMB patients and succeeded in establishing an EBV-infected NK-like cell line designated KAI3. Immunoblotting and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analyses revealed that KAI3 cells as well as infected NK cells exhibited an EBV latent infection type II, where EBV gene expression was limited to EBNA 1 and LMP1. As KAI3 was established by culture with IL-2, IL-2 responsiveness of peripheral blood NK cells from patients was examined. The results represented markedly augmented IL-2-induced IL-2R alpha expression in NK cells. This characteristic property may contribute to the persistent expansion of infected NK cells. However, KAI3 cells as well as the NK cells from patients were not protected from apoptosis induced by either an anti-Fas antibody or NK-sensitive K562 cells. Preserved sensitivity to apoptosis might explain the relatively regulated NK cell numbers in the peripheral blood of the patients. To our knowledge, KAI3 is the first reported NK-like cell line established from patients of severe chronic active EBV infection (SCAEBV) before the onset of leukaemias or lymphomas. KAI3 cells will contribute to the study of EBV persistency in the NK cell environment and its relationship with high incidence of leukaemias or lymphomas in HMB patients.  (+info)

Epstein-Barr virus-associated B cell lymphoproliferative disease after non-myeloablative allogeneic stem cell transplantation. (7/1457)

There is a growing interest in the evaluation of non-myeloablative conditioning therapy for allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Such regimens are expected to produce less toxicity while allowing both engraftment and a graft-versus-disease effect from the large number of donor-derived immunocompetent T lymphocytes given with the stem cells. Heavy immunosuppression used in recipients may have unexpected consequences. We describe the occurrence of a fatal Epstein-Barr virus-associated B cell lymphoproliferative disease (BLPD) early after such a non-myeloablated allogeneic peripheral blood stem cell transplant in a heavily pretreated patient.  (+info)

Analysis of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) receptor CD21 on peripheral B lymphocytes of long-term EBV- adults. (8/1457)

Primary infections with EBV are rarely observed after the age of 20. Some individuals even remain seronegative all their lives. Previously, a lack of EBV receptors on B cells of persistently EBV- adults was described as a reason for long-term EBV-seronegativity. The present study examined the CD21 receptor status of 20 repeatedly EBV- healthy adults and 32 EBV+ volunteers by means of flow cytometry. CD21 molecules on the surface of CD19+ B cells were quantified using anti-IgG-coated microbeads. The percentage of CD19+/CD21+ B lymphocytes was slightly lower in the peripheral blood of EBV- donors, but the CD21 antibody binding capacity on CD19+ B cells showed no significant differences between EBV- and EBV+ adults. In vitro studies showed an equally good EBV transformability of peripheral B lymphocytes of EBV- and EBV+ donors. Since HLA-DR was recently described as a co-receptor for EBV infection of B cells, we also determined HLA-DRB1 alleles in the EBV- group. We found a significant negative association of EBV-seronegativity with HLA-DR13 in comparison with 111 healthy blood donors. In summary, a biologically significant lack of the EBV receptor CD21 on peripheral B lymphocytes of persistently EBV- adults was excluded as a reason for long-term EBV-seronegativity.  (+info)

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infections, also known as infectious mononucleosis or "mono," is a viral infection that most commonly affects adolescents and young adults. The virus is transmitted through saliva and other bodily fluids, and can cause a variety of symptoms including fever, sore throat, swollen lymph nodes, fatigue, and skin rash.

EBV is a member of the herpesvirus family and establishes lifelong latency in infected individuals. After the initial infection, the virus remains dormant in the body and can reactivate later in life, causing symptoms such as fatigue and swollen lymph nodes. In some cases, EBV infection has been associated with the development of certain types of cancer, such as Burkitt's lymphoma and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

The diagnosis of EBV infections is typically made based on a combination of clinical symptoms and laboratory tests, such as blood tests that detect the presence of EBV antibodies or viral DNA. Treatment is generally supportive and aimed at alleviating symptoms, as there is no specific antiviral therapy for EBV infections.

Medical Definition of "Herpesvirus 4, Human" (Epstein-Barr Virus)

"Herpesvirus 4, Human," also known as Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), is a member of the Herpesviridae family and is one of the most common human viruses. It is primarily transmitted through saliva and is often referred to as the "kissing disease."

EBV is the causative agent of infectious mononucleosis (IM), also known as glandular fever, which is characterized by symptoms such as fatigue, sore throat, fever, and swollen lymph nodes. The virus can also cause other diseases, including certain types of cancer, such as Burkitt's lymphoma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

Once a person becomes infected with EBV, the virus remains in the body for the rest of their life, residing in certain white blood cells called B lymphocytes. In most people, the virus remains dormant and does not cause any further symptoms. However, in some individuals, the virus may reactivate, leading to recurrent or persistent symptoms.

EBV infection is diagnosed through various tests, including blood tests that detect antibodies against the virus or direct detection of the virus itself through polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays. There is no cure for EBV infection, and treatment is generally supportive, focusing on relieving symptoms and managing complications. Prevention measures include practicing good hygiene, avoiding close contact with infected individuals, and not sharing personal items such as toothbrushes or drinking glasses.

Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigens (EBV NA) are proteins found inside the nucleus of cells that have been infected with the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). EBV is a type of herpesvirus that is best known as the cause of infectious mononucleosis (also known as "mono" or "the kissing disease").

There are two main types of EBV NA: EBNA-1 and EBNA-2. These proteins play a role in the replication and survival of the virus within infected cells. They can be detected using laboratory tests, such as immunofluorescence assays or Western blotting, to help diagnose EBV infection or detect the presence of EBV-associated diseases, such as certain types of lymphoma and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

EBNA-1 is essential for the maintenance and replication of the EBV genome within infected cells, while EBNA-2 activates viral gene expression and modulates the host cell's immune response to promote virus survival. Both proteins are considered potential targets for the development of antiviral therapies and vaccines against EBV infection.

Infectious Mononucleosis, also known as "mono" or the "kissing disease," is a common infectious illness caused by the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). It primarily affects adolescents and young adults. The medical definition of Infectious Mononucleosis includes the following signs and symptoms:

1. Infection: Infectious Mononucleosis is an infection that spreads through saliva, hence the nickname "kissing disease." It can also be transmitted through sharing food, drinks, or personal items such as toothbrushes or utensils with an infected person.
2. Incubation period: The incubation period for Infectious Mononucleosis is typically 4-6 weeks after exposure to the virus.
3. Symptoms: Common symptoms of Infectious Mononucleosis include fever, sore throat (often severe and may resemble strep throat), fatigue, swollen lymph nodes (particularly in the neck and armpits), and skin rash (in some cases).
4. Diagnosis: The diagnosis of Infectious Mononucleosis is typically made based on a combination of clinical symptoms, physical examination findings, and laboratory test results. A complete blood count (CBC) may reveal an increased number of white blood cells, particularly atypical lymphocytes. Additionally, the Paul-Bunnell or Monospot test can detect heterophile antibodies, which are present in about 85% of cases after the first week of illness.
5. Treatment: There is no specific antiviral treatment for Infectious Mononucleosis. Management typically involves supportive care, such as rest, hydration, and pain relief for symptoms like sore throat and fever.
6. Complications: Although most cases of Infectious Mononucleosis resolve without significant complications, some individuals may experience complications such as splenomegaly (enlarged spleen), hepatitis, or neurological issues. Rarely, the virus can cause more severe complications like myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle) or hemolytic anemia (destruction of red blood cells).
7. Prevention: Preventing Infectious Mononucleosis is difficult since it is primarily spread through respiratory droplets and saliva. However, practicing good hygiene, such as covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing and avoiding sharing personal items like utensils or drinking glasses, can help reduce the risk of transmission.

Viral matrix proteins are structural proteins that play a crucial role in the morphogenesis and life cycle of many viruses. They are often located between the viral envelope and the viral genome, serving as a scaffold for virus assembly and budding. These proteins also interact with other viral components, such as the viral genome, capsid proteins, and envelope proteins, to form an infectious virion. Additionally, matrix proteins can have regulatory functions, influencing viral transcription, replication, and host cell responses. The specific functions of viral matrix proteins vary among different virus families.

Nasopharyngeal neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the nasopharynx, which is the upper part of the pharynx (throat) behind the nose. These growths can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).

Malignant nasopharyngeal neoplasms are often referred to as nasopharyngeal carcinoma or cancer. There are different types of nasopharyngeal carcinomas, including keratinizing squamous cell carcinoma, non-keratinizing carcinoma, and basaloid squamous cell carcinoma.

The risk factors for developing nasopharyngeal neoplasms include exposure to the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), consumption of certain foods, smoking, and genetic factors. Symptoms may include a lump in the neck, nosebleeds, hearing loss, ringing in the ears, and difficulty swallowing or speaking. Treatment options depend on the type, size, and stage of the neoplasm and may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these treatments.

Burkitt lymphoma is a type of aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), which is a cancer that originates in the lymphatic system. It is named after Denis Parsons Burkitt, an Irish surgeon who first described this form of cancer in African children in the 1950s.

Burkitt lymphoma is characterized by the rapid growth and spread of abnormal B-lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell), which can affect various organs and tissues, including the lymph nodes, spleen, liver, gastrointestinal tract, and central nervous system.

There are three main types of Burkitt lymphoma: endemic, sporadic, and immunodeficiency-associated. The endemic form is most common in equatorial Africa and is strongly associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. The sporadic form occurs worldwide but is rare, accounting for less than 1% of all NHL cases in the United States. Immunodeficiency-associated Burkitt lymphoma is seen in individuals with weakened immune systems due to HIV/AIDS or immunosuppressive therapy after organ transplantation.

Burkitt lymphoma typically presents as a rapidly growing mass, often involving the jaw, facial bones, or abdominal organs. Symptoms may include swollen lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and fatigue. Diagnosis is made through a biopsy of the affected tissue, followed by immunohistochemical staining and genetic analysis to confirm the presence of characteristic chromosomal translocations involving the MYC oncogene.

Treatment for Burkitt lymphoma typically involves intensive chemotherapy regimens, often combined with targeted therapy or immunotherapy. The prognosis is generally good when treated aggressively and promptly, with a high cure rate in children and young adults. However, the prognosis may be poorer in older patients or those with advanced-stage disease at diagnosis.

Herpesviridae infections refer to diseases caused by the Herpesviridae family of double-stranded DNA viruses, which include herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), human herpesvirus 7 (HHV-7), and human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8). These viruses can cause a variety of clinical manifestations, ranging from mild skin lesions to severe systemic diseases.

After the initial infection, these viruses typically become latent in various tissues and may reactivate later in life, causing recurrent symptoms. The clinical presentation of Herpesviridae infections depends on the specific virus and the immune status of the host. Common manifestations include oral or genital ulcers (HSV-1 and HSV-2), chickenpox and shingles (VZV), mononucleosis (CMV), roseola (HHV-6), and Kaposi's sarcoma (HHV-8).

Preventive measures include avoiding close contact with infected individuals during the active phase of the infection, practicing safe sex, and avoiding sharing personal items that may come into contact with infectious lesions. Antiviral medications are available to treat Herpesviridae infections and reduce the severity and duration of symptoms.

Hodgkin disease, also known as Hodgkin lymphoma, is a type of cancer that originates in the white blood cells called lymphocytes. It typically affects the lymphatic system, which is a network of vessels and glands spread throughout the body. The disease is characterized by the presence of a specific type of abnormal cell, known as a Reed-Sternberg cell, within the affected lymph nodes.

The symptoms of Hodgkin disease may include painless swelling of the lymph nodes in the neck, armpits, or groin; fever; night sweats; weight loss; and fatigue. The exact cause of Hodgkin disease is unknown, but it is thought to involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and infectious factors.

Hodgkin disease is typically treated with a combination of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and/or immunotherapy, depending on the stage and extent of the disease. With appropriate treatment, the prognosis for Hodgkin disease is generally very good, with a high cure rate. However, long-term side effects of treatment may include an increased risk of secondary cancers and other health problems.

Viral DNA refers to the genetic material present in viruses that consist of DNA as their core component. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is one of the two types of nucleic acids that are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information in living organisms. Viruses are infectious agents much smaller than bacteria that can only replicate inside the cells of other organisms, called hosts.

Viral DNA can be double-stranded (dsDNA) or single-stranded (ssDNA), depending on the type of virus. Double-stranded DNA viruses have a genome made up of two complementary strands of DNA, while single-stranded DNA viruses contain only one strand of DNA.

Examples of dsDNA viruses include Adenoviruses, Herpesviruses, and Poxviruses, while ssDNA viruses include Parvoviruses and Circoviruses. Viral DNA plays a crucial role in the replication cycle of the virus, encoding for various proteins necessary for its multiplication and survival within the host cell.

Sex chromatin, also known as the Barr body, is an inactive X chromosome found in the nucleus of female cells. In females, one of the two X chromosomes is randomly inactivated during embryonic development to ensure that the dosage of X-linked genes is equivalent between males (who have one X chromosome) and females (who have two X chromosomes). The inactive X chromosome condenses and forms a compact structure called a sex chromatin body or Barr body, which can be observed during microscopic examination of cell nuclei. This phenomenon is known as X-inactivation and helps to prevent an overexpression of X-linked genes that could lead to developmental abnormalities.

Antibodies, viral are proteins produced by the immune system in response to an infection with a virus. These antibodies are capable of recognizing and binding to specific antigens on the surface of the virus, which helps to neutralize or destroy the virus and prevent its replication. Once produced, these antibodies can provide immunity against future infections with the same virus.

Viral antibodies are typically composed of four polypeptide chains - two heavy chains and two light chains - that are held together by disulfide bonds. The binding site for the antigen is located at the tip of the Y-shaped structure, formed by the variable regions of the heavy and light chains.

There are five classes of antibodies in humans: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each class has a different function and is distributed differently throughout the body. For example, IgG is the most common type of antibody found in the bloodstream and provides long-term immunity against viruses, while IgA is found primarily in mucous membranes and helps to protect against respiratory and gastrointestinal infections.

In addition to their role in the immune response, viral antibodies can also be used as diagnostic tools to detect the presence of a specific virus in a patient's blood or other bodily fluids.

B-lymphocytes, also known as B-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune system's response to infection. They are responsible for producing antibodies, which are proteins that help to neutralize or destroy pathogens such as bacteria and viruses.

When a B-lymphocyte encounters a pathogen, it becomes activated and begins to divide and differentiate into plasma cells, which produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies specific to the antigens on the surface of the pathogen. These antibodies bind to the pathogen, marking it for destruction by other immune cells such as neutrophils and macrophages.

B-lymphocytes also have a role in presenting antigens to T-lymphocytes, another type of white blood cell involved in the immune response. This helps to stimulate the activation and proliferation of T-lymphocytes, which can then go on to destroy infected cells or help to coordinate the overall immune response.

Overall, B-lymphocytes are an essential part of the adaptive immune system, providing long-lasting immunity to previously encountered pathogens and helping to protect against future infections.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

An antigen is any substance that can stimulate an immune response, particularly the production of antibodies. Viral antigens are antigens that are found on or produced by viruses. They can be proteins, glycoproteins, or carbohydrates present on the surface or inside the viral particle.

Viral antigens play a crucial role in the immune system's recognition and response to viral infections. When a virus infects a host cell, it may display its antigens on the surface of the infected cell. This allows the immune system to recognize and target the infected cells for destruction, thereby limiting the spread of the virus.

Viral antigens are also important targets for vaccines. Vaccines typically work by introducing a harmless form of a viral antigen to the body, which then stimulates the production of antibodies and memory T-cells that can recognize and respond quickly and effectively to future infections with the actual virus.

It's worth noting that different types of viruses have different antigens, and these antigens can vary between strains of the same virus. This is why there are often different vaccines available for different viral diseases, and why flu vaccines need to be updated every year to account for changes in the circulating influenza virus strains.

A "cell line, transformed" is a type of cell culture that has undergone a stable genetic alteration, which confers the ability to grow indefinitely in vitro, outside of the organism from which it was derived. These cells have typically been immortalized through exposure to chemical or viral carcinogens, or by introducing specific oncogenes that disrupt normal cell growth regulation pathways.

Transformed cell lines are widely used in scientific research because they offer a consistent and renewable source of biological material for experimentation. They can be used to study various aspects of cell biology, including signal transduction, gene expression, drug discovery, and toxicity testing. However, it is important to note that transformed cells may not always behave identically to their normal counterparts, and results obtained using these cells should be validated in more physiologically relevant systems when possible.

Lymphoproliferative disorders (LPDs) are a group of diseases characterized by the excessive proliferation of lymphoid cells, which are crucial components of the immune system. These disorders can arise from both B-cells and T-cells, leading to various clinical manifestations ranging from benign to malignant conditions.

LPDs can be broadly classified into reactive and neoplastic categories:

1. Reactive Lymphoproliferative Disorders: These are typically triggered by infections, autoimmune diseases, or immunodeficiency states. They involve an exaggerated response of the immune system leading to the excessive proliferation of lymphoid cells. Examples include:
* Infectious mononucleosis (IM) caused by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)
* Lymph node enlargement due to various infections or autoimmune disorders
* Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD), which occurs in the context of immunosuppression following organ transplantation
2. Neoplastic Lymphoproliferative Disorders: These are malignant conditions characterized by uncontrolled growth and accumulation of abnormal lymphoid cells, leading to the formation of tumors. They can be further classified into Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). Examples include:
* Hodgkin lymphoma (HL): Classical HL and nodular lymphocyte-predominant HL
* Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL): Various subtypes, such as diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, follicular lymphoma, mantle cell lymphoma, and Burkitt lymphoma

It is important to note that the distinction between reactive and neoplastic LPDs can sometimes be challenging, requiring careful clinical, histopathological, immunophenotypic, and molecular evaluations. Proper diagnosis and classification of LPDs are crucial for determining appropriate treatment strategies and predicting patient outcomes.

RNA viruses are a type of virus that contain ribonucleic acid (RNA) as their genetic material, as opposed to deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). RNA viruses replicate by using an enzyme called RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to transcribe and replicate their RNA genome.

There are several different groups of RNA viruses, including:

1. Negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome that is complementary to the mRNA and must undergo transcription to produce mRNA before translation can occur. Examples include influenza virus, measles virus, and rabies virus.
2. Positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome that can serve as mRNA and can be directly translated into protein after entry into the host cell. Examples include poliovirus, rhinoviruses, and coronaviruses.
3. Double-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome consisting of double-stranded RNA and use a complex replication strategy involving both transcription and reverse transcription. Examples include rotaviruses and reoviruses.

RNA viruses are known to cause a wide range of human diseases, ranging from the common cold to more severe illnesses such as hepatitis C, polio, and COVID-19. Due to their high mutation rates and ability to adapt quickly to new environments, RNA viruses can be difficult to control and treat with antiviral drugs or vaccines.

Vaccinia virus is a large, complex DNA virus that belongs to the Poxviridae family. It is the virus used in the production of the smallpox vaccine. The vaccinia virus is not identical to the variola virus, which causes smallpox, but it is closely related and provides cross-protection against smallpox infection.

The vaccinia virus has a unique replication cycle that occurs entirely in the cytoplasm of infected cells, rather than in the nucleus like many other DNA viruses. This allows the virus to evade host cell defenses and efficiently produce new virions. The virus causes the formation of pocks or lesions on the skin, which contain large numbers of virus particles that can be transmitted to others through close contact.

Vaccinia virus has also been used as a vector for the delivery of genes encoding therapeutic proteins, vaccines against other infectious diseases, and cancer therapies. However, the use of vaccinia virus as a vector is limited by its potential to cause adverse reactions in some individuals, particularly those with weakened immune systems or certain skin conditions.

Virus replication is the process by which a virus produces copies or reproduces itself inside a host cell. This involves several steps:

1. Attachment: The virus attaches to a specific receptor on the surface of the host cell.
2. Penetration: The viral genetic material enters the host cell, either by invagination of the cell membrane or endocytosis.
3. Uncoating: The viral genetic material is released from its protective coat (capsid) inside the host cell.
4. Replication: The viral genetic material uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
5. Assembly: The newly synthesized viral components are assembled into new virus particles.
6. Release: The newly formed viruses are released from the host cell, often through lysis (breaking) of the cell membrane or by budding off the cell membrane.

The specific mechanisms and details of virus replication can vary depending on the type of virus. Some viruses, such as DNA viruses, use the host cell's DNA polymerase to replicate their genetic material, while others, such as RNA viruses, use their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase enzymes. Understanding the process of virus replication is important for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Viral diseases are illnesses caused by the infection and replication of viruses in host organisms. These infectious agents are obligate parasites, meaning they rely on the cells of other living organisms to survive and reproduce. Viruses can infect various types of hosts, including animals, plants, and microorganisms, causing a wide range of diseases with varying symptoms and severity.

Once a virus enters a host cell, it takes over the cell's machinery to produce new viral particles, often leading to cell damage or death. The immune system recognizes the viral components as foreign and mounts an immune response to eliminate the infection. This response can result in inflammation, fever, and other symptoms associated with viral diseases.

Examples of well-known viral diseases include:

1. Influenza (flu) - caused by influenza A, B, or C viruses
2. Common cold - usually caused by rhinoviruses or coronaviruses
3. HIV/AIDS - caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
4. Measles - caused by measles morbillivirus
5. Hepatitis B and C - caused by hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), respectively
6. Herpes simplex - caused by herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) or type 2 (HSV-2)
7. Chickenpox and shingles - both caused by varicella-zoster virus (VZV)
8. Rabies - caused by rabies lyssavirus
9. Ebola - caused by ebolaviruses
10. COVID-19 - caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)

Prevention and treatment strategies for viral diseases may include vaccination, antiviral medications, and supportive care to manage symptoms while the immune system fights off the infection.

Virus receptors are specific molecules (commonly proteins) on the surface of host cells that viruses bind to in order to enter and infect those cells. This interaction between the virus and its receptor is a critical step in the infection process. Different types of viruses have different receptor requirements, and identifying these receptors can provide important insights into the biology of the virus and potential targets for antiviral therapies.

Virus cultivation, also known as virus isolation or viral culture, is a laboratory method used to propagate and detect viruses by introducing them to host cells and allowing them to replicate. This process helps in identifying the specific virus causing an infection and studying its characteristics, such as morphology, growth pattern, and sensitivity to antiviral agents.

The steps involved in virus cultivation typically include:

1. Collection of a clinical sample (e.g., throat swab, blood, sputum) from the patient.
2. Preparation of the sample by centrifugation or filtration to remove cellular debris and other contaminants.
3. Inoculation of the prepared sample into susceptible host cells, which can be primary cell cultures, continuous cell lines, or embryonated eggs, depending on the type of virus.
4. Incubation of the inoculated cells under appropriate conditions to allow viral replication.
5. Observation for cytopathic effects (CPE), which are changes in the host cells caused by viral replication, such as cell rounding, shrinkage, or lysis.
6. Confirmation of viral presence through additional tests, like immunofluorescence assays, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or electron microscopy.

Virus cultivation is a valuable tool in diagnostic virology, vaccine development, and research on viral pathogenesis and host-virus interactions. However, it requires specialized equipment, trained personnel, and biosafety measures due to the potential infectivity of the viruses being cultured.

'Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype' is a specific subtype of the influenza A virus that causes flu in humans and animals. It contains certain proteins called hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) on its surface, with this subtype specifically having H1 and N1 antigens. The H1N1 strain is well-known for causing the 2009 swine flu pandemic, which was a global outbreak of flu that resulted in significant morbidity and mortality. This subtype can also cause seasonal flu, although the severity and symptoms may vary. It is important to note that influenza viruses are constantly changing, and new strains or subtypes can emerge over time, requiring regular updates to vaccines to protect against them.

Virus shedding refers to the release of virus particles by an infected individual, who can then transmit the virus to others through various means such as respiratory droplets, fecal matter, or bodily fluids. This occurs when the virus replicates inside the host's cells and is released into the surrounding environment, where it can infect other individuals. The duration of virus shedding varies depending on the specific virus and the individual's immune response. It's important to note that some individuals may shed viruses even before they show symptoms, making infection control measures such as hand hygiene, mask-wearing, and social distancing crucial in preventing the spread of infectious diseases.

Measles virus is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus belonging to the genus Morbillivirus in the family Paramyxoviridae. It is the causative agent of measles, a highly contagious infectious disease characterized by fever, cough, runny nose, and a red, blotchy rash. The virus primarily infects the respiratory tract and then spreads throughout the body via the bloodstream.

The genome of the measles virus is approximately 16 kilobases in length and encodes for eight proteins: nucleocapsid (N), phosphoprotein (P), matrix protein (M), fusion protein (F), hemagglutinin (H), large protein (L), and two non-structural proteins, V and C. The H protein is responsible for binding to the host cell receptor CD150 (SLAM) and mediating viral entry, while the F protein facilitates fusion of the viral and host cell membranes.

Measles virus is transmitted through respiratory droplets and direct contact with infected individuals. The virus can remain airborne for up to two hours in a closed space, making it highly contagious. Measles is preventable through vaccination, which has led to significant reductions in the incidence of the disease worldwide.

Orthomyxoviridae is a family of viruses that includes influenza A, B, and C viruses, which can cause respiratory infections in humans. Orthomyxoviridae infections are typically characterized by symptoms such as fever, cough, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, muscle or body aches, headaches, and fatigue.

Influenza A and B viruses can cause seasonal epidemics of respiratory illness that occur mainly during the winter months in temperate climates. Influenza A viruses can also cause pandemics, which are global outbreaks of disease that occur when a new strain of the virus emerges to which there is little or no immunity in the human population.

Influenza C viruses are less common and typically cause milder illness than influenza A and B viruses. They do not cause epidemics and are not usually included in seasonal flu vaccines.

Orthomyxoviridae infections can be prevented through vaccination, good respiratory hygiene (such as covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing), hand washing, and avoiding close contact with sick individuals. Antiviral medications may be prescribed to treat influenza A and B infections, particularly for people at high risk of complications, such as older adults, young children, pregnant women, and people with certain underlying medical conditions.

Respiratory Syncytial Viruses (RSV) are a common type of virus that cause respiratory infections, particularly in young children and older adults. They are responsible for inflammation and narrowing of the small airways in the lungs, leading to breathing difficulties and other symptoms associated with bronchiolitis and pneumonia.

The term "syncytial" refers to the ability of these viruses to cause infected cells to merge and form large multinucleated cells called syncytia, which is a characteristic feature of RSV infections. The virus spreads through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes, and it can also survive on surfaces for several hours, making transmission easy.

RSV infections are most common during the winter months and can cause mild to severe symptoms depending on factors such as age, overall health, and underlying medical conditions. While RSV is typically associated with respiratory illnesses in children, it can also cause significant disease in older adults and immunocompromised individuals. Currently, there is no vaccine available for RSV, but antiviral medications and supportive care are used to manage severe infections.

"Influenza A Virus, H5N1 Subtype" is a specific subtype of the Influenza A virus that is often found in avian species (birds) and can occasionally infect humans. The "H5N1" refers to the specific proteins (hemagglutinin and neuraminidase) found on the surface of the virus. This subtype has caused serious infections in humans, with high mortality rates, especially in cases where people have had close contact with infected birds. It does not commonly spread from person to person, but there is concern that it could mutate and adapt to efficiently transmit between humans, which would potentially cause a pandemic.

A plant virus is not defined in medical terms, as viruses are typically considered within the context of living organisms and plants are not classified as such. However, I can provide a general virology definition for you:

Plant viruses are small infectious agents that consist of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat. They infect various plant species, causing a wide range of symptoms and diseases, which can result in significant economic losses in agriculture and horticulture. Plant viruses lack the ability to replicate outside a host cell, and they rely on the host's metabolic machinery for their reproduction. They can be transmitted through various means, such as insect vectors, seeds, or mechanical contact.

Sindbis virus is an alphavirus that belongs to the Togaviridae family. It's named after the location where it was first isolated, in Sindbis, Egypt, in 1952. This virus is primarily transmitted by mosquitoes and can infect a wide range of animals, including birds and humans. In humans, Sindbis virus infection often causes a mild flu-like illness characterized by fever, rash, and joint pain. However, some people may develop more severe symptoms, such as neurological disorders, although this is relatively rare. There is no specific treatment for Sindbis virus infection, and management typically involves supportive care to alleviate symptoms.

DNA viruses are a type of virus that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) as their genetic material. These viruses replicate by using the host cell's machinery to synthesize new viral components, which are then assembled into new viruses and released from the host cell.

DNA viruses can be further classified based on the structure of their genomes and the way they replicate. For example, double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses have a genome made up of two strands of DNA, while single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses have a genome made up of a single strand of DNA.

Examples of DNA viruses include herpes simplex virus, varicella-zoster virus, human papillomavirus, and adenoviruses. Some DNA viruses are associated with specific diseases, such as cancer (e.g., human papillomavirus) or neurological disorders (e.g., herpes simplex virus).

It's important to note that while DNA viruses contain DNA as their genetic material, RNA viruses contain RNA (ribonucleic acid) as their genetic material. Both DNA and RNA viruses can cause a wide range of diseases in humans, animals, and plants.

Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) infections refer to the clinical illnesses caused by the Respiratory Syncytial Virus. RSV is a highly contagious virus that spreads through respiratory droplets, contact with infected surfaces, or direct contact with infected people. It primarily infects the respiratory tract, causing inflammation and damage to the cells lining the airways.

RSV infections can lead to a range of respiratory illnesses, from mild, cold-like symptoms to more severe conditions such as bronchiolitis (inflammation of the small airways in the lungs) and pneumonia (infection of the lung tissue). The severity of the infection tends to depend on factors like age, overall health status, and presence of underlying medical conditions.

In infants and young children, RSV is a leading cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia, often resulting in hospitalization. In older adults, people with weakened immune systems, and those with chronic heart or lung conditions, RSV infections can also be severe and potentially life-threatening.

Symptoms of RSV infection may include runny nose, cough, sneezing, fever, wheezing, and difficulty breathing. Treatment typically focuses on managing symptoms and providing supportive care, although hospitalization and more aggressive interventions may be necessary in severe cases or for high-risk individuals. Preventive measures such as hand hygiene, wearing masks, and avoiding close contact with infected individuals can help reduce the spread of RSV.

Simian Virus 40 (SV40) is a polyomavirus that is found in both monkeys and humans. It is a DNA virus that has been extensively studied in laboratory settings due to its ability to transform cells and cause tumors in animals. In fact, SV40 was discovered as a contaminant of poliovirus vaccines that were prepared using rhesus monkey kidney cells in the 1950s and 1960s.

SV40 is not typically associated with human disease, but there has been some concern that exposure to the virus through contaminated vaccines or other means could increase the risk of certain types of cancer, such as mesothelioma and brain tumors. However, most studies have failed to find a consistent link between SV40 infection and cancer in humans.

The medical community generally agrees that SV40 is not a significant public health threat, but researchers continue to study the virus to better understand its biology and potential impact on human health.

West Nile Virus (WNV) is an Flavivirus, which is a type of virus that is spread by mosquitoes. It was first discovered in the West Nile district of Uganda in 1937 and has since been found in many countries throughout the world. WNV can cause a mild to severe illness known as West Nile fever.

Most people who become infected with WNV do not develop any symptoms, but some may experience fever, headache, body aches, joint pain, vomiting, diarrhea, or a rash. In rare cases, the virus can cause serious neurological illnesses such as encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) or meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord). These severe forms of the disease can be fatal, especially in older adults and people with weakened immune systems.

WNV is primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes, but it can also be spread through blood transfusions, organ transplants, or from mother to baby during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding. There is no specific treatment for WNV, and most people recover on their own with rest and supportive care. However, hospitalization may be necessary in severe cases. Prevention measures include avoiding mosquito bites by using insect repellent, wearing long sleeves and pants, and staying indoors during peak mosquito activity hours.

Virus assembly, also known as virion assembly, is the final stage in the virus life cycle where individual viral components come together to form a complete viral particle or virion. This process typically involves the self-assembly of viral capsid proteins around the viral genome (DNA or RNA) and, in enveloped viruses, the acquisition of a lipid bilayer membrane containing viral glycoproteins. The specific mechanisms and regulation of virus assembly vary among different viral families, but it is often directed by interactions between viral structural proteins and genomic nucleic acid.

A viral RNA (ribonucleic acid) is the genetic material found in certain types of viruses, as opposed to viruses that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). These viruses are known as RNA viruses. The RNA can be single-stranded or double-stranded and can exist as several different forms, such as positive-sense, negative-sense, or ambisense RNA. Upon infecting a host cell, the viral RNA uses the host's cellular machinery to translate the genetic information into proteins, leading to the production of new virus particles and the continuation of the viral life cycle. Examples of human diseases caused by RNA viruses include influenza, COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), hepatitis C, and polio.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Defective viruses are viruses that have lost the ability to complete a full replication cycle and produce progeny virions independently. These viruses require the assistance of a helper virus, which provides the necessary functions for replication. Defective viruses can arise due to mutations, deletions, or other genetic changes that result in the loss of essential genes. They are often non-infectious and cannot cause disease on their own, but they may interfere with the replication of the helper virus and modulate the course of infection. Defective viruses can be found in various types of viruses, including retroviruses, bacteriophages, and DNA viruses.

Rabies is a viral disease that affects the nervous system of mammals, including humans. It's caused by the rabies virus (RV), which belongs to the family Rhabdoviridae and genus Lyssavirus. The virus has a bullet-shaped appearance under an electron microscope and is encased in a lipid envelope.

The rabies virus primarily spreads through the saliva of infected animals, usually via bites. Once inside the body, it travels along nerve fibers to the brain, where it multiplies rapidly and causes inflammation (encephalitis). The infection can lead to symptoms such as anxiety, confusion, hallucinations, seizures, paralysis, coma, and ultimately death if left untreated.

Rabies is almost always fatal once symptoms appear, but prompt post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), which includes vaccination and sometimes rabies immunoglobulin, can prevent the disease from developing when administered after an exposure to a potentially rabid animal. Pre-exposure vaccination is also recommended for individuals at high risk of exposure, such as veterinarians and travelers visiting rabies-endemic areas.

Antiviral agents are a class of medications that are designed to treat infections caused by viruses. Unlike antibiotics, which target bacteria, antiviral agents interfere with the replication and infection mechanisms of viruses, either by inhibiting their ability to replicate or by modulating the host's immune response to the virus.

Antiviral agents are used to treat a variety of viral infections, including influenza, herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, hepatitis B and C, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections.

These medications can be administered orally, intravenously, or topically, depending on the type of viral infection being treated. Some antiviral agents are also used for prophylaxis, or prevention, of certain viral infections.

It is important to note that antiviral agents are not effective against all types of viruses and may have significant side effects. Therefore, it is essential to consult with a healthcare professional before starting any antiviral therapy.

"Influenza A Virus, H3N2 Subtype" is a specific subtype of the influenza A virus that causes respiratory illness and is known to circulate in humans and animals, including birds and pigs. The "H3N2" refers to the two proteins on the surface of the virus: hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). In this subtype, the H protein is of the H3 variety and the N protein is of the N2 variety. This subtype has been responsible for several influenza epidemics and pandemics in humans, including the 1968 Hong Kong flu pandemic. It is one of the influenza viruses that are monitored closely by public health authorities due to its potential to cause significant illness and death, particularly in high-risk populations such as older adults, young children, and people with certain underlying medical conditions.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a DNA virus that belongs to the Hepadnaviridae family and causes the infectious disease known as hepatitis B. This virus primarily targets the liver, where it can lead to inflammation and damage of the liver tissue. The infection can range from acute to chronic, with chronic hepatitis B increasing the risk of developing serious liver complications such as cirrhosis and liver cancer.

The Hepatitis B virus has a complex life cycle, involving both nuclear and cytoplasmic phases. It enters hepatocytes (liver cells) via binding to specific receptors and is taken up by endocytosis. The viral DNA is released into the nucleus, where it is converted into a covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) form, which serves as the template for viral transcription.

HBV transcribes several RNAs, including pregenomic RNA (pgRNA), which is used as a template for reverse transcription during virion assembly. The pgRNA is encapsidated into core particles along with the viral polymerase and undergoes reverse transcription to generate new viral DNA. This process occurs within the cytoplasm of the hepatocyte, resulting in the formation of immature virions containing partially double-stranded DNA.

These immature virions are then enveloped by host cell membranes containing HBV envelope proteins (known as surface antigens) to form mature virions that can be secreted from the hepatocyte and infect other cells. The virus can also integrate into the host genome, which may contribute to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic cases.

Hepatitis B is primarily transmitted through exposure to infected blood or bodily fluids containing the virus, such as through sexual contact, sharing needles, or from mother to child during childbirth. Prevention strategies include vaccination, safe sex practices, and avoiding needle-sharing behaviors. Treatment for hepatitis B typically involves antiviral medications that can help suppress viral replication and reduce the risk of liver damage.

Viral proteins are the proteins that are encoded by the viral genome and are essential for the viral life cycle. These proteins can be structural or non-structural and play various roles in the virus's replication, infection, and assembly process. Structural proteins make up the physical structure of the virus, including the capsid (the protein shell that surrounds the viral genome) and any envelope proteins (that may be present on enveloped viruses). Non-structural proteins are involved in the replication of the viral genome and modulation of the host cell environment to favor viral replication. Overall, a thorough understanding of viral proteins is crucial for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

A tumor virus infection is a condition in which a person's cells become cancerous or transformed due to the integration and disruption of normal cellular functions by a viral pathogen. These viruses are also known as oncoviruses, and they can cause tumors or cancer by altering the host cell's genetic material, promoting uncontrolled cell growth and division, evading immune surveillance, and inhibiting apoptosis (programmed cell death).

Examples of tumor viruses include:

1. DNA tumor viruses: These are double-stranded DNA viruses that can cause cancer in humans. Examples include human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV).
2. RNA tumor viruses: Also known as retroviruses, these single-stranded RNA viruses can cause cancer in humans. Examples include human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

Tumor virus infections are responsible for approximately 15-20% of all cancer cases worldwide, making them a significant public health concern. Prevention strategies, such as vaccination against HPV and HBV, have been shown to reduce the incidence of associated cancers.

Influenza, also known as the flu, is a highly contagious viral infection that attacks the respiratory system of humans. It is caused by influenza viruses A, B, or C and is characterized by the sudden onset of fever, chills, headache, muscle pain, sore throat, cough, runny nose, and fatigue. Influenza can lead to complications such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and ear infections, and can be particularly dangerous for young children, older adults, pregnant women, and people with weakened immune systems or chronic medical conditions. The virus is spread through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks, and can also survive on surfaces for a period of time. Influenza viruses are constantly changing, which makes it necessary to get vaccinated annually to protect against the most recent and prevalent strains.

Hepatitis C is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). It's primarily spread through contact with contaminated blood, often through sharing needles or other equipment to inject drugs. For some people, hepatitis C is a short-term illness but for most — about 75-85% — it becomes a long-term, chronic infection that can lead to serious health problems like liver damage, liver failure, and even liver cancer. The virus can infect and inflame the liver, causing symptoms like jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), abdominal pain, fatigue, and dark urine. Many people with hepatitis C don't have any symptoms, so they might not know they have the infection until they experience complications. There are effective treatments available for hepatitis C, including antiviral medications that can cure the infection in most people. Regular testing is important to diagnose and treat hepatitis C early, before it causes serious health problems.

Vero cells are a line of cultured kidney epithelial cells that were isolated from an African green monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops) in the 1960s. They are named after the location where they were initially developed, the Vervet Research Institute in Japan.

Vero cells have the ability to divide indefinitely under certain laboratory conditions and are often used in scientific research, including virology, as a host cell for viruses to replicate. This allows researchers to study the characteristics of various viruses, such as their growth patterns and interactions with host cells. Vero cells are also used in the production of some vaccines, including those for rabies, polio, and Japanese encephalitis.

It is important to note that while Vero cells have been widely used in research and vaccine production, they can still have variations between different cell lines due to factors like passage number or culture conditions. Therefore, it's essential to specify the exact source and condition of Vero cells when reporting experimental results.

Vesicular stomatitis Indiana virus (VSIV) is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus that belongs to the family Rhabdoviridae and genus Vesiculovirus. It is the causative agent of vesicular stomatitis (VS), a viral disease that primarily affects horses and cattle, but can also infect other species including swine, sheep, goats, and humans.

The virus is transmitted through direct contact with infected animals or their saliva, as well as through insect vectors such as black flies and sandflies. The incubation period for VS ranges from 2 to 8 days, after which infected animals develop fever, lethargy, and vesicular lesions in the mouth, nose, and feet. These lesions can be painful and may cause difficulty eating or walking.

In humans, VSIV infection is typically asymptomatic or causes mild flu-like symptoms such as fever, muscle aches, and headache. Occasionally, individuals may develop vesicular lesions on their skin or mucous membranes, particularly if they have had contact with infected animals.

Diagnosis of VSIV infection is typically made through virus isolation from lesion exudates or blood, as well as through serological testing. Treatment is generally supportive and aimed at relieving symptoms, as there are no specific antiviral therapies available for VS. Prevention measures include vaccination of susceptible animals, vector control, and biosecurity measures to prevent the spread of infection between animals.

Orthomyxoviridae is a family of viruses that includes influenza A, B, and C viruses, which are the causative agents of flu in humans and animals. These viruses are enveloped, meaning they have a lipid membrane derived from the host cell, and have a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA genome. The genome is segmented, meaning it consists of several separate pieces of RNA, which allows for genetic reassortment or "shuffling" when two different strains infect the same cell, leading to the emergence of new strains.

The viral envelope contains two major glycoproteins: hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). The HA protein is responsible for binding to host cells and facilitating entry into the cell, while NA helps release newly formed virus particles from infected cells by cleaving sialic acid residues on the host cell surface.

Orthomyxoviruses are known to cause respiratory infections in humans and animals, with influenza A viruses being the most virulent and capable of causing pandemics. Influenza B viruses typically cause less severe illness and are primarily found in humans, while influenza C viruses generally cause mild upper respiratory symptoms and are also mainly restricted to humans.

Viral activation, also known as viral reactivation or virus reactivation, refers to the process in which a latent or dormant virus becomes active and starts to replicate within a host cell. This can occur when the immune system is weakened or compromised, allowing the virus to evade the body's natural defenses and cause disease.

In some cases, viral activation can be triggered by certain environmental factors, such as stress, exposure to UV light, or infection with another virus. Once activated, the virus can cause symptoms similar to those seen during the initial infection, or it may lead to new symptoms depending on the specific virus and the host's immune response.

Examples of viruses that can remain dormant in the body and be reactivated include herpes simplex virus (HSV), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). It is important to note that not all viruses can be reactivated, and some may remain dormant in the body indefinitely without causing any harm.

'Cercopithecus aethiops' is the scientific name for the monkey species more commonly known as the green monkey. It belongs to the family Cercopithecidae and is native to western Africa. The green monkey is omnivorous, with a diet that includes fruits, nuts, seeds, insects, and small vertebrates. They are known for their distinctive greenish-brown fur and long tail. Green monkeys are also important animal models in biomedical research due to their susceptibility to certain diseases, such as SIV (simian immunodeficiency virus), which is closely related to HIV.

DNA virus infections refer to diseases or conditions caused by the invasion and replication of DNA viruses in a host organism. DNA viruses are a type of virus that uses DNA as their genetic material. They can cause a variety of diseases, ranging from relatively mild illnesses to severe or life-threatening conditions.

Some examples of DNA viruses include herpes simplex virus (HSV), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and adenoviruses. These viruses can cause a range of diseases, including cold sores, genital herpes, chickenpox, shingles, cervical cancer, liver cancer, and respiratory infections.

DNA virus infections typically occur when the virus enters the body through a break in the skin or mucous membranes, such as those found in the eyes, nose, mouth, or genitals. Once inside the body, the virus infects cells and uses their machinery to replicate itself, often causing damage to the host cells in the process.

The symptoms of DNA virus infections can vary widely depending on the specific virus and the severity of the infection. Treatment may include antiviral medications, which can help to reduce the severity and duration of symptoms, as well as prevent the spread of the virus to others. In some cases, vaccines may be available to prevent DNA virus infections.

Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) is a retrovirus that primarily infects African non-human primates and is the direct ancestor of Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 2 (HIV-2). It is similar to HIV in its structure, replication strategy, and ability to cause an immunodeficiency disease in its host. SIV infection in its natural hosts is typically asymptomatic and non-lethal, but it can cause AIDS-like symptoms in other primate species. Research on SIV in its natural hosts has provided valuable insights into the mechanisms of HIV pathogenesis and potential strategies for prevention and treatment of AIDS.

Viral genes refer to the genetic material present in viruses that contains the information necessary for their replication and the production of viral proteins. In DNA viruses, the genetic material is composed of double-stranded or single-stranded DNA, while in RNA viruses, it is composed of single-stranded or double-stranded RNA.

Viral genes can be classified into three categories: early, late, and structural. Early genes encode proteins involved in the replication of the viral genome, modulation of host cell processes, and regulation of viral gene expression. Late genes encode structural proteins that make up the viral capsid or envelope. Some viruses also have structural genes that are expressed throughout their replication cycle.

Understanding the genetic makeup of viruses is crucial for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines. By targeting specific viral genes, researchers can develop drugs that inhibit viral replication and reduce the severity of viral infections. Additionally, knowledge of viral gene sequences can inform the development of vaccines that stimulate an immune response to specific viral proteins.

Hemagglutinin (HA) glycoproteins are surface proteins found on influenza viruses. They play a crucial role in the virus's ability to infect and spread within host organisms.

The HAs are responsible for binding to sialic acid receptors on the host cell's surface, allowing the virus to attach and enter the cell. After endocytosis, the viral and endosomal membranes fuse, releasing the viral genome into the host cell's cytoplasm.

There are several subtypes of hemagglutinin (H1-H18) identified so far, with H1, H2, and H3 being common in human infections. The significant antigenic differences among these subtypes make them important targets for the development of influenza vaccines. However, due to their high mutation rate, new vaccine formulations are often required to match the circulating virus strains.

In summary, hemagglutinin glycoproteins on influenza viruses are essential for host cell recognition and entry, making them important targets for diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of influenza infections.

Parainfluenza Virus 1, Human (HPIV-1) is a type of respiratory virus that belongs to the family Paramyxoviridae and genus Respirovirus. It is one of the four serotypes of human parainfluenza viruses (HPIVs), which are important causes of acute respiratory infections in children, immunocompromised individuals, and the elderly.

HPIV-1 primarily infects the upper respiratory tract, causing symptoms such as cough, runny nose, sore throat, and fever. However, it can also cause lower respiratory tract infections, including bronchitis, bronchiolitis, and pneumonia, particularly in young children and infants.

HPIV-1 is transmitted through respiratory droplets or direct contact with infected individuals. The incubation period for HPIV-1 infection ranges from 2 to 7 days, after which symptoms can last for up to 10 days. There is no specific antiviral treatment available for HPIV-1 infections, and management typically involves supportive care such as hydration, fever reduction, and respiratory support if necessary.

Prevention measures include good hand hygiene, avoiding close contact with infected individuals, and practicing cough etiquette. Vaccines are not currently available for HPIV-1 infections, but research is ongoing to develop effective vaccines against these viruses.

Neutralization tests are a type of laboratory assay used in microbiology and immunology to measure the ability of a substance, such as an antibody or antitoxin, to neutralize the activity of a toxin or infectious agent. In these tests, the substance to be tested is mixed with a known quantity of the toxin or infectious agent, and the mixture is then incubated under controlled conditions. After incubation, the mixture is tested for residual toxicity or infectivity using a variety of methods, such as cell culture assays, animal models, or biochemical assays.

The neutralization titer is then calculated based on the highest dilution of the test substance that completely neutralizes the toxin or infectious agent. Neutralization tests are commonly used in the diagnosis and evaluation of immune responses to vaccines, as well as in the detection and quantification of toxins and other harmful substances.

Examples of neutralization tests include the serum neutralization test for measles antibodies, the plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) for dengue virus antibodies, and the cytotoxicity neutralization assay for botulinum neurotoxins.

Virus latency, also known as viral latency, refers to a state of infection in which a virus remains dormant or inactive within a host cell for a period of time. During this phase, the virus does not replicate or cause any noticeable symptoms. However, under certain conditions such as stress, illness, or a weakened immune system, the virus can become reactivated and begin to produce new viruses, potentially leading to disease.

One well-known example of a virus that exhibits latency is the varicella-zoster virus (VZV), which causes chickenpox in children. After a person recovers from chickenpox, the virus remains dormant in the nervous system for years or even decades. In some cases, the virus can reactivate later in life, causing shingles, a painful rash that typically occurs on one side of the body.

Virus latency is an important concept in virology and infectious disease research, as it has implications for understanding the persistence of viral infections, developing treatments and vaccines, and predicting the risk of disease recurrence.

Hepacivirus is a genus of viruses in the family Flaviviridae. The most well-known member of this genus is Hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is a major cause of liver disease worldwide. HCV infection can lead to chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer.

Hepaciviruses are enveloped viruses with a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome. They have a small icosahedral capsid and infect a variety of hosts, including humans, non-human primates, horses, and birds. The virus enters the host cell by binding to specific receptors on the cell surface and is then internalized through endocytosis.

HCV has a high degree of genetic diversity and is classified into seven major genotypes and numerous subtypes based on differences in its RNA sequence. This genetic variability can affect the virus's ability to evade the host immune response, making treatment more challenging.

In addition to HCV, other hepaciviruses have been identified in various animal species, including equine hepacivirus (EHCV), rodent hepacivirus (RHV), and bat hepacivirus (BtHepCV). These viruses are being studied to better understand the biology of hepaciviruses and their potential impact on human health.

RNA virus infections refer to diseases or conditions caused by the invasion and replication of RNA (Ribonucleic acid) viruses in host cells. These viruses use RNA as their genetic material, which is different from DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) viruses. Upon entering a host cell, the RNA virus releases its genetic material, which then uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components and replicate. This process can lead to various outcomes, depending on the specific virus and the host's immune response:

1. Asymptomatic infection: Some RNA virus infections may not cause any noticeable symptoms and may only be discovered through diagnostic testing.
2. Acute infection: Many RNA viruses cause acute infections, characterized by the rapid onset of symptoms that typically last for a short period (days to weeks). Examples include the common cold (caused by rhinoviruses), influenza (caused by orthomyxoviruses), and some gastrointestinal infections (caused by noroviruses or rotaviruses).
3. Chronic infection: A few RNA viruses can establish chronic infections, where the virus persists in the host for an extended period, sometimes leading to long-term health complications. Examples include HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), HCV (Hepatitis C Virus), and HTLV-1 (Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1).
4. Latent infection: Some RNA viruses, like herpesviruses, can establish latency in the host, where they remain dormant for extended periods but can reactivate under certain conditions, causing recurrent symptoms or diseases.
5. Oncogenic potential: Certain RNA viruses have oncogenic properties and can contribute to the development of cancer. For example, retroviruses like HTLV-1 can cause leukemia and lymphoma by integrating their genetic material into the host cell's DNA and altering gene expression.

Treatment for RNA virus infections varies depending on the specific virus and the severity of the infection. Antiviral medications, immunotherapy, and supportive care are common treatment strategies. Vaccines are also available to prevent some RNA virus infections, such as measles, mumps, rubella, influenza, and hepatitis A and B.

A viral plaque assay is a laboratory technique used to measure the infectivity and concentration of viruses in a sample. This method involves infecting a monolayer of cells (usually in a petri dish or multi-well plate) with a known volume of a virus-containing sample, followed by overlaying the cells with a nutrient-agar medium to restrict viral spread and enable individual plaques to form.

After an incubation period that allows for viral replication and cell death, the cells are stained, and clear areas or "plaques" become visible in the monolayer. Each plaque represents a localized region of infected and lysed cells, caused by the progeny of a single infectious virus particle. The number of plaques is then counted, and the viral titer (infectious units per milliliter or PFU/mL) is calculated based on the dilution factor and volume of the original inoculum.

Viral plaque assays are essential for determining viral titers, assessing virus-host interactions, evaluating antiviral agents, and studying viral pathogenesis.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is the causative agent of hepatitis A, a viral infection that causes inflammation of the liver. It is a small, non-enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Picornaviridae family and Hepatovirus genus. The virus primarily spreads through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water, or close contact with an infected person. After entering the body, HAV infects hepatocytes in the liver, leading to liver damage and associated symptoms such as jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, and nausea. The immune system eventually clears the infection, providing lifelong immunity against future HAV infections. Preventive measures include vaccination and practicing good hygiene to prevent transmission.

The Mumps virus is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus that belongs to the Paramyxoviridae family and Rubulavirus genus. It is the causative agent of mumps, an acute infectious disease characterized by painful swelling of the salivary glands, particularly the parotid glands.

The Mumps virus has a spherical or pleomorphic shape with a diameter of approximately 150-250 nanometers. It is surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane derived from the host cell, which contains viral glycoproteins that facilitate attachment and entry into host cells.

The M protein, located beneath the envelope, plays a crucial role in virus assembly and budding. The genome of the Mumps virus consists of eight genes encoding nine proteins, including two major structural proteins (nucleocapsid protein and matrix protein) and several non-structural proteins involved in viral replication and pathogenesis.

Transmission of the Mumps virus occurs through respiratory droplets or direct contact with infected saliva. After infection, the incubation period ranges from 12 to 25 days, followed by a prodromal phase characterized by fever, headache, malaise, and muscle pain. The characteristic swelling of the parotid glands usually appears 1-3 days after the onset of symptoms.

Complications of mumps can include meningitis, encephalitis, orchitis, oophoritis, pancreatitis, and deafness. Prevention relies on vaccination with the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine, which is highly effective in preventing mumps and its complications.

Sendai virus, also known as murine parainfluenza virus or pneumonia virus of mice, is a species of paramyxovirus that primarily infects rodents. It is an enveloped, negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus with a nonsegmented genome. The virus is named after the city of Sendai in Japan where it was first isolated in 1952.

Sendai virus is highly contagious and can cause respiratory illness in mice, rats, and other small rodents. It replicates in the respiratory epithelium, leading to inflammation and necrosis of the airways. The virus can also suppress the host's immune response, making infected animals more susceptible to secondary bacterial infections.

In laboratory settings, Sendai virus is sometimes used as a tool for studying viral pathogenesis, immunology, and gene therapy. It has been used as a vector for delivering genes into mammalian cells, including human cells, due to its ability to efficiently infect and transduce a wide range of cell types.

It's important to note that Sendai virus is not known to infect humans or cause disease in humans, and it is not considered a significant public health concern.

Hepatitis B is a viral infection that attacks the liver and can cause both acute and chronic disease. The virus is transmitted through contact with infected blood, semen, and other bodily fluids. It can also be passed from an infected mother to her baby at birth.

Acute hepatitis B infection lasts for a few weeks to several months and often causes no symptoms. However, some people may experience mild to severe flu-like symptoms, yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice), dark urine, and fatigue. Most adults with acute hepatitis B recover completely and develop lifelong immunity to the virus.

Chronic hepatitis B infection can lead to serious liver damage, including cirrhosis and liver cancer. People with chronic hepatitis B may experience long-term symptoms such as fatigue, joint pain, and depression. They are also at risk for developing liver failure and liver cancer.

Prevention measures include vaccination, safe sex practices, avoiding sharing needles or other drug injection equipment, and covering wounds and skin rashes. There is no specific treatment for acute hepatitis B, but chronic hepatitis B can be treated with antiviral medications to slow the progression of liver damage.

A virion is the complete, infectious form of a virus outside its host cell. It consists of the viral genome (DNA or RNA) enclosed within a protein coat called the capsid, which is often surrounded by a lipid membrane called the envelope. The envelope may contain viral proteins and glycoproteins that aid in attachment to and entry into host cells during infection. The term "virion" emphasizes the infectious nature of the virus particle, as opposed to non-infectious components like individual capsid proteins or naked viral genome.

Dengue is a mosquito-borne viral infection that is primarily transmitted by the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus species of mosquitoes. It is caused by one of four closely related dengue viruses (DENV 1, DENV 2, DENV 3, or DENV 4). The infection can cause a wide range of symptoms, ranging from mild fever and headache to severe flu-like illness, which is often characterized by the sudden onset of high fever, severe headache, muscle and joint pain, nausea, vomiting, and skin rash. In some cases, dengue can progress to more severe forms, such as dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome, which can be life-threatening if not treated promptly and appropriately.

Dengue is prevalent in many tropical and subtropical regions around the world, particularly in urban and semi-urban areas with poor sanitation and inadequate mosquito control. There is no specific treatment for dengue, and prevention efforts focus on reducing mosquito populations and avoiding mosquito bites. Vaccines are available in some countries to prevent dengue infection, but they are not widely used due to limitations in their effectiveness and safety.

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection is a viral illness that progressively attacks and weakens the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to other infections and diseases. The virus primarily infects CD4+ T cells, a type of white blood cell essential for fighting off infections. Over time, as the number of these immune cells declines, the body becomes increasingly vulnerable to opportunistic infections and cancers.

HIV infection has three stages:

1. Acute HIV infection: This is the initial stage that occurs within 2-4 weeks after exposure to the virus. During this period, individuals may experience flu-like symptoms such as fever, fatigue, rash, swollen glands, and muscle aches. The virus replicates rapidly, and the viral load in the body is very high.
2. Chronic HIV infection (Clinical latency): This stage follows the acute infection and can last several years if left untreated. Although individuals may not show any symptoms during this phase, the virus continues to replicate at low levels, and the immune system gradually weakens. The viral load remains relatively stable, but the number of CD4+ T cells declines over time.
3. AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome): This is the most advanced stage of HIV infection, characterized by a severely damaged immune system and numerous opportunistic infections or cancers. At this stage, the CD4+ T cell count drops below 200 cells/mm3 of blood.

It's important to note that with proper antiretroviral therapy (ART), individuals with HIV infection can effectively manage the virus, maintain a healthy immune system, and significantly reduce the risk of transmission to others. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial for improving long-term health outcomes and reducing the spread of HIV.

Abdominal radiography, also known as a KUB (kidneys, ureters, bladder) X-ray, is a medical imaging technique used to examine the abdominal cavity. It involves using ionizing radiation to produce images of the internal structures of the abdomen, including the bones, organs, and soft tissues.

The procedure typically involves the patient lying down on a table while a specialized X-ray machine captures images of the abdomen from different angles. The images produced can help doctors diagnose and monitor a variety of conditions, such as kidney stones, intestinal obstructions, and abnormalities in the spine or other bones.

Abdominal radiography is a quick, painless, and non-invasive procedure that requires little preparation on the part of the patient. However, it does involve exposure to radiation, so it is typically only used when necessary and when other imaging techniques are not appropriate.

Oncogenic viruses are a type of viruses that have the ability to cause cancer in host cells. They do this by integrating their genetic material into the DNA of the infected host cell, which can lead to the disruption of normal cellular functions and the activation of oncogenes (genes that have the potential to cause cancer). This can result in uncontrolled cell growth and division, ultimately leading to the formation of tumors. Examples of oncogenic viruses include human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1). It is important to note that only a small proportion of viral infections lead to cancer, and the majority of cancers are not caused by viruses.

A viral attachment, in the context of virology, refers to the initial step in the infection process of a host cell by a virus. This involves the binding or adsorption of the viral particle to specific receptors on the surface of the host cell. The viral attachment proteins, often located on the viral envelope or capsid, recognize and interact with these receptors, leading to a close association between the virus and the host cell. This interaction is highly specific, as different viruses may target various cell types based on their unique receptor-binding preferences. Following attachment, the virus can enter the host cell and initiate the replication cycle, ultimately leading to the production of new viral particles and potential disease manifestations.

Semliki Forest Virus (SFV) is an alphavirus in the Togaviridae family, which is primarily transmitted to vertebrates through mosquito vectors. The virus was initially isolated from mosquitoes in the Semliki Forest of Uganda and has since been found in various parts of Africa and Asia. SFV infection in humans can cause a mild febrile illness characterized by fever, headache, muscle pain, and rash. However, it is more commonly known for causing severe disease in animals, particularly non-human primates and cattle, where it can lead to encephalitis or hemorrhagic fever. SFV has also been used as a model organism in laboratory studies of virus replication and pathogenesis.

Sex chromosome aberrations refer to structural and numerical abnormalities in the sex chromosomes, which are typically represented as X and Y chromosomes in humans. These aberrations can result in variations in the number of sex chromosomes, such as Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY), Turner syndrome (45,X), and Jacobs/XYY syndrome (47,XYY). They can also include structural changes, such as deletions, duplications, or translocations of sex chromosome material.

Sex chromosome aberrations may lead to a range of phenotypic effects, including differences in physical characteristics, cognitive development, fertility, and susceptibility to certain health conditions. The manifestation and severity of these impacts can vary widely depending on the specific type and extent of the aberration, as well as individual genetic factors and environmental influences.

It is important to note that while sex chromosome aberrations may pose challenges and require medical management, they do not inherently define or limit a person's potential, identity, or worth. Comprehensive care, support, and education can help individuals with sex chromosome aberrations lead fulfilling lives and reach their full potential.

Respiroviruses are a genus of viruses in the family *Paramyxoviridae* that includes several important human pathogens, such as parainfluenza virus (PIV) types 1, 2, and 3, and human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV). These viruses are primarily transmitted through respiratory droplets and direct contact with infected individuals.

Respirovirus infections mainly affect the respiratory tract and can cause a range of symptoms, from mild upper respiratory tract illness to severe lower respiratory tract infections. The severity of the disease depends on various factors, including the age and overall health status of the infected individual.

Parainfluenza viruses are a common cause of acute respiratory infections in children, particularly in those under five years old. They can lead to croup, bronchitis, pneumonia, and other respiratory tract complications. In adults, PIV infections are usually less severe but can still cause upper respiratory symptoms, such as the common cold.

Human respiratory syncytial virus is another important respirovirus that primarily affects young children, causing bronchiolitis and pneumonia. Reinfection with HRSV can occur throughout life, although subsequent infections are typically less severe than the initial infection. In older adults and individuals with compromised immune systems, HRSV infections can lead to serious complications, including pneumonia and exacerbation of chronic lung diseases.

Prevention strategies for respirovirus infections include good personal hygiene practices, such as frequent handwashing and covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing. Vaccines are not available for most respiroviruses; however, research is ongoing to develop effective vaccines against these viruses, particularly HRSV.

Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) is a highly contagious virus that causes infections in the respiratory system. In humans, it primarily affects the nose, throat, lungs, and bronchioles (the airways leading to the lungs). It is a major cause of lower respiratory tract infections and bronchiolitis (inflammation of the small airways in the lung) in young children, but can also infect older children and adults.

Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus (hRSV) belongs to the family Pneumoviridae and is an enveloped, single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus. The viral envelope contains two glycoproteins: the G protein, which facilitates attachment to host cells, and the F protein, which mediates fusion of the viral and host cell membranes.

Infection with hRSV typically occurs through direct contact with respiratory droplets from an infected person or contaminated surfaces. The incubation period ranges from 2 to 8 days, after which symptoms such as runny nose, cough, sneezing, fever, and wheezing may appear. In severe cases, particularly in infants, young children, older adults, and individuals with weakened immune systems, hRSV can cause pneumonia or bronchiolitis, leading to hospitalization and, in rare cases, death.

Currently, there is no approved vaccine for hRSV; however, passive immunization with palivizumab, a monoclonal antibody, is available for high-risk infants to prevent severe lower respiratory tract disease caused by hRSV. Supportive care and prevention of complications are the mainstays of treatment for hRSV infections.

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is an alphavirus from the Togaviridae family that is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes, primarily Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. The name "Chikungunya" is derived from a Makonde word meaning "to become contorted," which describes the stooped posture developed as a result of severe arthralgia (joint pain) that is a primary symptom of infection with this virus.

CHIKV infection typically causes a febrile illness, characterized by an abrupt onset of high fever, severe joint pain, muscle pain, headache, nausea, fatigue, and rash. While the symptoms are usually self-limiting and resolve within 10 days, some individuals may experience persistent or recurring joint pain for several months or even years after the initial infection.

There is no specific antiviral treatment available for Chikungunya virus infection, and management primarily focuses on relieving symptoms with rest, fluids, and over-the-counter pain relievers such as acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Prevention measures include avoiding mosquito bites through the use of insect repellent, wearing long sleeves and pants, staying in air-conditioned or screened rooms, and eliminating standing water where mosquitoes breed.

Chikungunya virus is found primarily in Africa, Asia, and the Indian subcontinent, but it has also caused outbreaks in Europe and the Americas due to the spread of its vectors, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. The virus can cause large-scale epidemics, with millions of cases reported during outbreaks. There is currently no approved vaccine for Chikungunya virus infection.

West Nile Fever is defined as a viral infection primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes. The virus responsible for this febrile illness, known as West Nile Virus (WNV), is maintained in nature between mosquito vectors and avian hosts. Although most individuals infected with WNV are asymptomatic, some may develop a mild, flu-like illness characterized by fever, headache, fatigue, body aches, skin rash, and swollen lymph glands. A minority of infected individuals, particularly the elderly and immunocompromised, may progress to severe neurological symptoms such as encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord), or acute flaccid paralysis (sudden weakness in the limbs). The diagnosis is confirmed through laboratory tests, such as serological assays or nucleic acid amplification techniques. Treatment primarily focuses on supportive care, as there are no specific antiviral therapies available for West Nile Fever. Preventive measures include personal protection against mosquito bites and vector control strategies to reduce mosquito populations.

Gene expression regulation, viral, refers to the processes that control the production of viral gene products, such as proteins and nucleic acids, during the viral life cycle. This can involve both viral and host cell factors that regulate transcription, RNA processing, translation, and post-translational modifications of viral genes.

Viral gene expression regulation is critical for the virus to replicate and produce progeny virions. Different types of viruses have evolved diverse mechanisms to regulate their gene expression, including the use of promoters, enhancers, transcription factors, RNA silencing, and epigenetic modifications. Understanding these regulatory processes can provide insights into viral pathogenesis and help in the development of antiviral therapies.

Simplexvirus is a genus of viruses in the family Herpesviridae, subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae. This genus contains two species: Human alphaherpesvirus 1 (also known as HSV-1 or herpes simplex virus type 1) and Human alphaherpesvirus 2 (also known as HSV-2 or herpes simplex virus type 2). These viruses are responsible for causing various medical conditions, most commonly oral and genital herpes. They are characterized by their ability to establish lifelong latency in the nervous system and reactivate periodically to cause recurrent symptoms.

BK virus, also known as BK polyomavirus, is a type of virus that belongs to the Polyomaviridae family. It is named after the initials of a patient in whom the virus was first isolated. The BK virus is a common infection in humans and is typically acquired during childhood. After the initial infection, the virus remains dormant in the body, often found in the urinary tract and kidneys.

In immunocompetent individuals, the virus usually does not cause any significant problems. However, in people with weakened immune systems, such as those who have undergone organ transplantation or have HIV/AIDS, BK virus can lead to severe complications. One of the most common manifestations of BK virus infection in immunocompromised individuals is hemorrhagic cystitis, a condition characterized by inflammation and bleeding in the bladder. In transplant recipients, BK virus can also cause nephropathy, leading to kidney damage or even failure.

There is no specific treatment for BK virus infection, but antiviral medications may be used to help control the virus's replication in some cases. Maintaining a strong immune system and monitoring viral load through regular testing are essential strategies for managing BK virus infections in immunocompromised individuals.

A Cytopathic Effect (CPE) is a visible change in the cell or group of cells due to infection by a pathogen, such as a virus. When the cytopathic effect is caused specifically by a viral infection, it is referred to as a "Viral Cytopathic Effect" (VCPE).

The VCPE can include various changes in the cell's morphology, size, and structure, such as rounding, shrinkage, multinucleation, inclusion bodies, and formation of syncytia (multinucleated giant cells). These changes are often used to identify and characterize viruses in laboratory settings.

The VCPE is typically observed under a microscope after the virus has infected cell cultures, and it can help researchers determine the type of virus, the degree of infection, and the effectiveness of antiviral treatments. The severity and timing of the VCPE can vary depending on the specific virus and the type of cells that are infected.

Cowpox virus is a species of the Orthopoxvirus genus, which belongs to the Poxviridae family. It is a double-stranded DNA virus that primarily infects cows and occasionally other animals such as cats, dogs, and humans. The virus causes a mild disease in its natural host, cattle, characterized by the development of pustular lesions on the udder or teats.

In humans, cowpox virus infection can cause a localized skin infection, typically following contact with an infected animal or contaminated fomites. The infection is usually self-limiting and resolves within 1-2 weeks without specific treatment. However, in rare cases, the virus may spread to other parts of the body and cause more severe symptoms.

Historically, cowpox virus has played a significant role in medical research as it was used by Edward Jenner in 1796 to develop the first successful vaccine against smallpox. The similarity between the two viruses allowed for cross-protection, providing immunity to smallpox without exposing individuals to the more deadly disease. Smallpox has since been eradicated globally, and vaccination with cowpox virus is no longer necessary. However, understanding the biology of cowpox virus remains important due to its potential use as a model organism for studying poxvirus infections and developing countermeasures against related viruses.

Mosaic viruses are a group of plant viruses that can cause mottled or mosaic patterns of discoloration on leaves, which is why they're named as such. These viruses infect a wide range of plants, including important crops like tobacco, tomatoes, and cucumbers. The infection can lead to various symptoms such as stunted growth, leaf deformation, reduced yield, or even plant death.

Mosaic viruses are typically spread by insects, such as aphids, that feed on the sap of infected plants and then transmit the virus to healthy plants. They can also be spread through contaminated seeds, tools, or contact with infected plant material. Once inside a plant, these viruses hijack the plant's cellular machinery to replicate themselves, causing damage to the host plant in the process.

It is important to note that mosaic viruses are not related to human or animal health; they only affect plants.

Viral load refers to the amount or quantity of virus (like HIV, Hepatitis C, SARS-CoV-2) present in an individual's blood or bodily fluids. It is often expressed as the number of virus copies per milliliter of blood or fluid. Monitoring viral load is important in managing and treating certain viral infections, as a higher viral load may indicate increased infectivity, disease progression, or response to treatment.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Viruses, Unclassified" is not a recognized medical or scientific category. Generally, viruses are classified based on various characteristics such as genome structure, mode of replication, host range, and symptoms they cause. The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) is the organization responsible for the formal classification of viruses.

If you have any specific questions about certain unclassified viral entities or phenomena, I'd be happy to help if I can! Please provide more context so I can give a more accurate and helpful response.

The JC (John Cunningham) virus, also known as human polyomavirus 2 (HPyV-2), is a type of double-stranded DNA virus that belongs to the Polyomaviridae family. It is named after the initials of the patient in whom it was first identified.

JC virus is a ubiquitous virus, meaning that it is commonly found in the general population worldwide. Most people get infected with JC virus during childhood and do not experience any symptoms. After the initial infection, the virus remains dormant in the kidneys and other organs of the body.

However, in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or who have undergone organ transplantation, JC virus can reactivate and cause a serious brain infection called progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). PML is a rare but often fatal disease that affects the white matter of the brain, causing cognitive decline, weakness, and paralysis.

There is currently no cure for PML, and treatment is focused on managing the underlying immune deficiency and controlling the symptoms of the disease.

Influenza A virus is defined as a negative-sense, single-stranded, segmented RNA virus belonging to the family Orthomyxoviridae. It is responsible for causing epidemic and pandemic influenza in humans and is also known to infect various animal species, such as birds, pigs, horses, and seals. The viral surface proteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA), are the primary targets for antiviral drugs and vaccines. There are 18 different HA subtypes and 11 known NA subtypes, which contribute to the diversity and antigenic drift of Influenza A viruses. The zoonotic nature of this virus allows for genetic reassortment between human and animal strains, leading to the emergence of novel variants with pandemic potential.

Host-pathogen interactions refer to the complex and dynamic relationship between a living organism (the host) and a disease-causing agent (the pathogen). This interaction can involve various molecular, cellular, and physiological processes that occur between the two entities. The outcome of this interaction can determine whether the host will develop an infection or not, as well as the severity and duration of the illness.

During host-pathogen interactions, the pathogen may release virulence factors that allow it to evade the host's immune system, colonize tissues, and obtain nutrients for its survival and replication. The host, in turn, may mount an immune response to recognize and eliminate the pathogen, which can involve various mechanisms such as inflammation, phagocytosis, and the production of antimicrobial agents.

Understanding the intricacies of host-pathogen interactions is crucial for developing effective strategies to prevent and treat infectious diseases. This knowledge can help identify new targets for therapeutic interventions, inform vaccine design, and guide public health policies to control the spread of infectious agents.

Bluetongue virus (BTV) is an infectious agent that causes Bluetongue disease, a non-contagious viral disease affecting sheep and other ruminants. It is a member of the Orbivirus genus within the Reoviridae family. The virus is transmitted by biting midges of the Culicoides species and can infect various animals such as sheep, cattle, goats, and wild ruminants.

The virus has a double-stranded RNA genome and consists of ten segments that encode seven structural and four non-structural proteins. The clinical signs of Bluetongue disease in sheep include fever, salivation, swelling of the head and neck, nasal discharge, and respiratory distress, which can be severe or fatal. In contrast, cattle usually show milder symptoms or are asymptomatic, although they can serve as reservoirs for the virus.

Bluetongue virus is an important veterinary pathogen that has a significant economic impact on the global sheep industry. The disease is prevalent in many parts of the world, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions, but has also spread to temperate areas due to climate change and the movement of infected animals. Prevention and control measures include vaccination, insect control, and restricting the movement of infected animals.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Avian sarcoma viruses (ASVs) are a group of retroviruses that primarily infect birds and cause various types of tumors, particularly sarcomas. These viruses contain an oncogene, which is a gene that has the ability to transform normal cells into cancerous ones. The oncogene in ASVs is often derived from cellular genes called proto-oncogenes, which are normally involved in regulating cell growth and division.

ASVs can be divided into two main types: non-defective and defective. Non-defective ASVs contain a complete set of viral genes that allow them to replicate independently, while defective ASVs lack some of the necessary viral genes and require assistance from other viruses to replicate.

One well-known example of an avian sarcoma virus is the Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), which was first discovered in chickens by Peyton Rous in 1910. RSV causes a highly malignant form of sarcoma in chickens and has been extensively studied as a model system for cancer research. The oncogene in RSV is called v-src, which is derived from the normal cellular gene c-src.

Avian sarcoma viruses have contributed significantly to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying cancer development and have provided valuable insights into the role of oncogenes in tumorigenesis.

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is not typically considered in the context of medical definitions, as it's primarily known for its impact on plants rather than humans or animals. However, I will provide the botanical definition for your interest.

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that infects a wide range of plants, including tobacco, tomatoes, cucumbers, and many ornamental plants. The virus is named after its initial discovery in tobacco plants, which exhibit symptoms such as mosaic patterns of light and dark green on the leaves, leaf curling, and stunted growth. TMV is highly contagious and can be spread through mechanical means, such as touching infected plants or using contaminated tools. It's also one of the most well-studied viruses due to its impact on agriculture and its historical significance in early virology research.

Avian leukosis virus (ALV) is a type of retrovirus that primarily affects chickens and other birds. It is responsible for a group of diseases known as avian leukosis, which includes various types of tumors and immunosuppressive conditions. The virus is transmitted horizontally through the shedder's dander, feathers, and vertical transmission through infected eggs.

There are several subgroups of ALV (A, B, C, D, E, and J), each with different host ranges and pathogenicity. Some strains can cause rapid death in young chickens, while others may take years to develop clinical signs. The most common form of the disease is neoplastic, characterized by the development of various types of tumors such as lymphomas, myelomas, and sarcomas.

Avian leukosis virus infection can have significant economic impacts on the poultry industry due to decreased growth rates, increased mortality, and condemnation of infected birds at processing. Control measures include eradication programs, biosecurity practices, vaccination, and breeding for genetic resistance.

Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) is an Old World arenavirus that primarily infects rodents, particularly the house mouse (Mus musculus). The virus is harbored in these mice without causing any apparent disease, but they can shed the virus in their urine, droppings, and saliva.

Humans can contract LCMV through close contact with infected rodents or their excreta, inhalation of aerosolized virus, or ingestion of contaminated food or water. In humans, LCMV infection can cause a mild to severe illness called lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM), which primarily affects the meninges (the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord) and, less frequently, the brain and spinal cord itself.

The incubation period for LCMV infection is typically 1-2 weeks, after which symptoms may appear. Initial symptoms include fever, malaise, headache, muscle aches, and nausea. In some cases, the illness may progress to involve the meninges (meningitis), resulting in neck stiffness, light sensitivity, and altered mental status. In rare instances, LCMV infection can lead to encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) or myelitis (inflammation of the spinal cord), causing more severe neurological symptoms such as seizures, paralysis, or long-term neurological damage.

Most individuals who contract LCMV recover completely within a few weeks to months; however, immunocompromised individuals are at risk for developing severe and potentially fatal complications from the infection. Pregnant women infected with LCMV may also face an increased risk of miscarriage or fetal abnormalities.

Prevention measures include avoiding contact with rodents, especially house mice, and their excreta, maintaining good hygiene, and using appropriate personal protective equipment when handling potentially contaminated materials. There is no specific treatment for LCMV infection; management typically involves supportive care to alleviate symptoms and address complications as they arise.

Cricetinae is a subfamily of rodents that includes hamsters, gerbils, and relatives. These small mammals are characterized by having short limbs, compact bodies, and cheek pouches for storing food. They are native to various parts of the world, particularly in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Some species are popular pets due to their small size, easy care, and friendly nature. In a medical context, understanding the biology and behavior of Cricetinae species can be important for individuals who keep them as pets or for researchers studying their physiology.

Lassa virus is an arenavirus that causes Lassa fever, a type of hemorrhagic fever. It is primarily transmitted to humans through contact with infected rodents or their urine and droppings. The virus can also be spread through person-to-person transmission via direct contact with the blood, urine, feces, or other bodily fluids of an infected person.

The virus was first discovered in 1969 in the town of Lassa in Nigeria, hence its name. It is endemic to West Africa and is a significant public health concern in countries such as Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, and Nigeria. The symptoms of Lassa fever can range from mild to severe and may include fever, sore throat, muscle pain, chest pain, and vomiting. In severe cases, the virus can cause bleeding, organ failure, and death.

Prevention measures for Lassa fever include avoiding contact with rodents, storing food in rodent-proof containers, and practicing good hygiene. There is no vaccine available to prevent Lassa fever, but ribavirin, an antiviral drug, has been shown to be effective in treating the disease if administered early in the course of illness.

Viremia is a medical term that refers to the presence of viruses in the bloodstream. It occurs when a virus successfully infects a host and replicates within the body's cells, releasing new viral particles into the blood. This condition can lead to various clinical manifestations depending on the specific virus involved and the immune response of the infected individual. Some viral infections result in asymptomatic viremia, while others can cause severe illness or even life-threatening conditions. The detection of viremia is crucial for diagnosing certain viral infections and monitoring disease progression or treatment effectiveness.

A capsid is the protein shell that encloses and protects the genetic material of a virus. It is composed of multiple copies of one or more proteins that are arranged in a specific structure, which can vary in shape and symmetry depending on the type of virus. The capsid plays a crucial role in the viral life cycle, including protecting the viral genome from host cell defenses, mediating attachment to and entry into host cells, and assisting with the assembly of new virus particles during replication.

Genetic dosage compensation is a process that evens out the effects of genes on an organism's phenotype (observable traits), even when there are differences in the number of copies of those genes present. This is especially important in cases where sex chromosomes are involved, as males and females often have different numbers of sex chromosomes.

In many species, including humans, females have two X chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y chromosome. To compensate for the difference in dosage, one of the female's X chromosomes is randomly inactivated during early embryonic development, resulting in each cell having only one active X chromosome, regardless of sex. This process ensures that both males and females have similar levels of gene expression from their X chromosomes and helps to prevent an imbalance in gene dosage between the sexes.

Defects in dosage compensation can lead to various genetic disorders, such as Turner syndrome (where a female has only one X chromosome) or Klinefelter syndrome (where a male has two or more X chromosomes). These conditions can result in developmental abnormalities and health issues due to the imbalance in gene dosage.

Medical Definition of "Herpesvirus 1, Human" (also known as Human Herpesvirus 1 or HHV-1):

Herpesvirus 1, Human is a type of herpesvirus that primarily causes infection in humans. It is also commonly referred to as human herpesvirus 1 (HHV-1) or oral herpes. This virus is highly contagious and can be transmitted through direct contact with infected saliva, skin, or mucous membranes.

After initial infection, the virus typically remains dormant in the body's nerve cells and may reactivate later, causing recurrent symptoms. The most common manifestation of HHV-1 infection is oral herpes, characterized by cold sores or fever blisters around the mouth and lips. In some cases, HHV-1 can also cause other conditions such as encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) and keratitis (inflammation of the eye's cornea).

There is no cure for HHV-1 infection, but antiviral medications can help manage symptoms and reduce the severity and frequency of recurrent outbreaks.

Myxoma virus (MYXV) is a member of the Poxviridae family, specifically in the Leporipoxvirus genus. It is a double-stranded DNA virus that naturally infects European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and causes a fatal disease called myxomatosis. The virus is transmitted through insect vectors such as mosquitoes and fleas, and it replicates in the cytoplasm of infected cells.

Myxoma virus has been studied extensively as a model organism for viral pathogenesis and host-pathogen interactions. It has also been explored as a potential oncolytic virus for cancer therapy due to its ability to selectively infect and kill certain types of cancer cells while leaving normal cells unharmed. However, it is important to note that the use of Myxoma virus in humans is still experimental and requires further research and development before it can be considered safe and effective for therapeutic purposes.

Yellow fever virus (YFV) is an single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Flaviviridae family, genus Flavivirus. It is primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes, most commonly Aedes and Haemagogus species. The virus is named for the jaundice that can occur in some patients, giving their skin and eyes a yellowish color.

Yellow fever is endemic in tropical regions of Africa and South America, with outbreaks occurring when large numbers of people are infected. After an incubation period of 3 to 6 days, symptoms typically begin with fever, chills, headache, back pain, and muscle aches. In more severe cases, the infection can progress to cause bleeding, organ failure, and death.

Prevention measures include vaccination, mosquito control, and personal protective measures such as wearing long sleeves and using insect repellent in areas where yellow fever is endemic or outbreaks are occurring.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Virus Physiological Phenomena" is not a widely recognized or established medical term or concept. It seems to be a combination of two concepts: "virus" and "physiological phenomena."

1. A virus is a small infectious agent that replicates inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses can cause many different types of illnesses, from the common cold to more serious diseases like HIV/AIDS or hepatitis.

2. Physiological phenomena refer to the functions and activities of living organisms and their parts, including cells, tissues, and organs.

If you're looking for information about how viruses affect physiological processes in the body, I would be happy to help provide some general information on that topic! However, it would be best to consult a specific medical text or expert for more detailed or specialized knowledge.

Hepatitis B Surface Antigens (HBsAg) are proteins found on the surface of the Hepatitis B virus. They are present in the blood of individuals infected with the Hepatitis B virus and are used as a marker for the presence of a current Hepatitis B infection. The detection of HBsAg in the blood indicates that an individual is infectious and can transmit the virus to others. It is typically used in diagnostic tests to detect and diagnose Hepatitis B infections, monitor treatment response, and assess the risk of transmission.

The Moloney murine leukemia virus (Mo-MLV) is a type of retrovirus, specifically a gammaretrovirus, that is commonly found in mice. It was first discovered and isolated by John Moloney in 1960. Mo-MLV is known to cause various types of cancerous conditions, particularly leukemia, in susceptible mouse strains.

Mo-MLV has a single-stranded RNA genome that is reverse transcribed into double-stranded DNA upon infection of the host cell. This viral DNA then integrates into the host's genome and utilizes the host's cellular machinery to produce new virus particles. The Mo-MLV genome encodes for several viral proteins, including gag (group-specific antigen), pol (polymerase), and env (envelope) proteins, which are essential for the replication cycle of the virus.

Mo-MLV is widely used in laboratory research as a model retrovirus to study various aspects of viral replication, gene therapy, and oncogenesis. It has also been engineered as a vector for gene delivery applications due to its ability to efficiently integrate into the host genome and deliver large DNA sequences. However, it is important to note that Mo-MLV and other retroviruses have the potential to cause insertional mutagenesis, which can lead to unintended genetic alterations and adverse effects in some cases.

Dengue virus (DENV) is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus that belongs to the genus Flavivirus in the family Flaviviridae. It is primarily transmitted to humans through the bites of infected female mosquitoes, mainly Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus.

The DENV genome contains approximately 11,000 nucleotides and encodes three structural proteins (capsid, pre-membrane/membrane, and envelope) and seven non-structural proteins (NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, and NS5). There are four distinct serotypes of DENV (DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3, and DENV-4), each of which can cause dengue fever, a mosquito-borne viral disease.

Infection with one serotype provides lifelong immunity against that particular serotype but only temporary and partial protection against the other three serotypes. Subsequent infections with different serotypes can increase the risk of developing severe dengue, such as dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome, due to antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) and original antigenic sin phenomena.

DENV is a significant public health concern in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, with an estimated 390 million annual infections and approximately 100-400 million clinical cases. Preventive measures include vector control strategies to reduce mosquito populations and the development of effective vaccines against all four serotypes.

Encephalitis viruses are a group of viruses that can cause encephalitis, which is an inflammation of the brain. Some of the most common encephalitis viruses include:

1. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1 and 2: These viruses are best known for causing cold sores and genital herpes, but they can also cause encephalitis, particularly in newborns and individuals with weakened immune systems.
2. Varicella-zoster virus (VZV): This virus causes chickenpox and shingles, and it can also lead to encephalitis, especially in people who have had chickenpox.
3. Enteroviruses: These viruses are often responsible for summertime meningitis outbreaks and can occasionally cause encephalitis.
4. Arboviruses: These viruses are transmitted through the bites of infected mosquitoes, ticks, or other insects. Examples include West Nile virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, and Western equine encephalitis virus.
5. Rabies virus: This virus is transmitted through the bite of an infected animal and can cause encephalitis in its later stages.
6. Measles virus: Although rare in developed countries due to vaccination, measles can still cause encephalitis as a complication of the infection.
7. Mumps virus: Like measles, mumps is preventable through vaccination, but it can also lead to encephalitis as a rare complication.
8. Cytomegalovirus (CMV): This virus is a member of the herpesvirus family and can cause encephalitis in people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or organ transplant recipients.
9. La Crosse virus: This arbovirus is primarily transmitted through the bites of infected eastern treehole mosquitoes and mainly affects children.
10. Powassan virus: Another arbovirus, Powassan virus is transmitted through the bites of infected black-legged ticks (also known as deer ticks) and can cause severe encephalitis.

It's important to note that many of these viruses are preventable through vaccination or by avoiding exposure to infected animals or mosquitoes. If you suspect you may have been exposed to one of these viruses, consult a healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and treatment.

An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a type of analytical biochemistry assay used to detect and quantify the presence of a substance, typically a protein or peptide, in a liquid sample. It takes its name from the enzyme-linked antibodies used in the assay.

In an ELISA, the sample is added to a well containing a surface that has been treated to capture the target substance. If the target substance is present in the sample, it will bind to the surface. Next, an enzyme-linked antibody specific to the target substance is added. This antibody will bind to the captured target substance if it is present. After washing away any unbound material, a substrate for the enzyme is added. If the enzyme is present due to its linkage to the antibody, it will catalyze a reaction that produces a detectable signal, such as a color change or fluorescence. The intensity of this signal is proportional to the amount of target substance present in the sample, allowing for quantification.

ELISAs are widely used in research and clinical settings to detect and measure various substances, including hormones, viruses, and bacteria. They offer high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility, making them a reliable choice for many applications.

Virus integration, in the context of molecular biology and virology, refers to the insertion of viral genetic material into the host cell's genome. This process is most commonly associated with retroviruses, such as HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), which have an enzyme called reverse transcriptase that converts their RNA genome into DNA. This DNA can then integrate into the host's chromosomal DNA, becoming a permanent part of the host's genetic material.

This integration is a crucial step in the retroviral life cycle, allowing the virus to persist within the host cell and evade detection by the immune system. It also means that the viral genome can be passed on to daughter cells when the host cell divides.

However, it's important to note that not all viruses integrate their genetic material into the host's genome. Some viruses, like influenza, exist as separate entities within the host cell and do not become part of the host's DNA.

"Ducks" is not a medical term. It is a common name used to refer to a group of birds that belong to the family Anatidae, which also includes swans and geese. Some ducks are hunted for their meat, feathers, or down, but they do not have any specific medical relevance. If you have any questions about a specific medical term or concept, I would be happy to help if you could provide more information!

Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) tests are a type of serological assay used in medical laboratories to detect and measure the amount of antibodies present in a patient's serum. These tests are commonly used to diagnose viral infections, such as influenza or HIV, by identifying the presence of antibodies that bind to specific viral antigens and prevent hemagglutination (the agglutination or clumping together of red blood cells).

In an HI test, a small amount of the patient's serum is mixed with a known quantity of the viral antigen, which has been treated to attach to red blood cells. If the patient's serum contains antibodies that bind to the viral antigen, they will prevent the antigen from attaching to the red blood cells and inhibit hemagglutination. The degree of hemagglutination inhibition can be measured and used to estimate the amount of antibody present in the patient's serum.

HI tests are relatively simple and inexpensive to perform, but they have some limitations. For example, they may not detect early-stage infections before the body has had a chance to produce antibodies, and they may not be able to distinguish between different strains of the same virus. Nonetheless, HI tests remain an important tool for diagnosing viral infections and monitoring immune responses to vaccination or infection.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Per the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Norovirus is a highly contagious virus that often causes vomiting and diarrhea. It is a common cause of gastroenteritis, which is an inflammation of the stomach and intestines. This infection is often referred to as the "stomach flu," although it is not related to the influenza virus.

Norovirus spreads easily from person to person, through contaminated food or water, or by touching contaminated surfaces. Symptoms usually develop 12 to 48 hours after exposure and include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, fever, and headache.

The Norwalk virus is named after Norwalk, Ohio, where an outbreak of the illness occurred in 1968. It was first identified during an investigation into an outbreak of gastroenteritis among school children. The virus was later renamed norovirus in 2002 to reflect its broader range of hosts and clinical manifestations.

It's important to note that while Norwalk virus is a common cause of viral gastroenteritis, there are many other viruses, bacteria, and parasites that can also cause similar symptoms. If you suspect you have norovirus or any other foodborne illness, it's important to seek medical attention and avoid preparing food for others until your symptoms have resolved.

Neuraminidase is an enzyme that occurs on the surface of influenza viruses. It plays a crucial role in the life cycle of the virus by helping it to infect host cells and to spread from cell to cell within the body. Neuraminidase works by cleaving sialic acid residues from glycoproteins, allowing the virus to detach from infected cells and to move through mucus and other bodily fluids. This enzyme is a major target of antiviral drugs used to treat influenza, such as oseltamivir (Tamiflu) and zanamivir (Relenza). Inhibiting the activity of neuraminidase can help to prevent the spread of the virus within the body and reduce the severity of symptoms.

Hepatitis viruses refer to a group of viral agents that primarily target the liver, causing inflammation and damage to hepatocytes (liver cells). This results in various clinical manifestations, ranging from an acute infection to a chronic, persistent infection. There are five main types of hepatitis viruses, named Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E virus, each with distinct genetic material, modes of transmission, and disease severity.

1. Hepatitis A Virus (HAV): This is a single-stranded RNA virus that is primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often via contaminated food or water. Infected individuals may experience symptoms such as jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, and loss of appetite. While most people recover completely within a few months, severe complications can occur in rare cases. A vaccine is available to prevent HAV infection.
2. Hepatitis B Virus (HBV): This is a double-stranded DNA virus that is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood or bodily fluids, such as during sexual contact, sharing needles, or from mother to child during childbirth. HBV can cause both acute and chronic hepatitis, which may lead to severe liver complications like cirrhosis and liver cancer if left untreated. A vaccine is available to prevent HBV infection.
3. Hepatitis C Virus (HCV): This is a single-stranded RNA virus that is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood, often through sharing needles or during medical procedures using contaminated equipment. Like HBV, HCV can cause both acute and chronic hepatitis, which may lead to severe liver complications if left untreated. No vaccine is currently available for HCV; however, antiviral treatments can cure the infection in many cases.
4. Hepatitis D Virus (HDV): This is a defective RNA virus that requires the presence of HBV to replicate and cause infection. HDV is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood or bodily fluids, similar to HBV. Co-infection with both HBV and HDV can result in more severe liver disease compared to HBV infection alone. Antiviral treatments are available for HDV; however, a vaccine is not.
5. Hepatitis E Virus (HEV): This is a single-stranded RNA virus that primarily causes acute hepatitis and is usually transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water. In most cases, HEV infection resolves on its own without treatment. However, in pregnant women and individuals with weakened immune systems, HEV can cause severe liver complications. No vaccine is currently available for HEV in the United States; however, a vaccine has been approved in some countries.

A disease outbreak is defined as the occurrence of cases of a disease in excess of what would normally be expected in a given time and place. It may affect a small and localized group or a large number of people spread over a wide area, even internationally. An outbreak may be caused by a new agent, a change in the agent's virulence or host susceptibility, or an increase in the size or density of the host population.

Outbreaks can have significant public health and economic impacts, and require prompt investigation and control measures to prevent further spread of the disease. The investigation typically involves identifying the source of the outbreak, determining the mode of transmission, and implementing measures to interrupt the chain of infection. This may include vaccination, isolation or quarantine, and education of the public about the risks and prevention strategies.

Examples of disease outbreaks include foodborne illnesses linked to contaminated food or water, respiratory infections spread through coughing and sneezing, and mosquito-borne diseases such as Zika virus and West Nile virus. Outbreaks can also occur in healthcare settings, such as hospitals and nursing homes, where vulnerable populations may be at increased risk of infection.

Parainfluenza Virus 3, Human (HPIV-3) is an enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the family Paramyxoviridae and genus Respirovirus. It is one of the four serotypes of human parainfluenza viruses (HPIVs), which are important causes of acute respiratory tract infections in infants, young children, and immunocompromised individuals.

HPIV-3 primarily infects the upper and lower respiratory tract, causing a wide range of clinical manifestations, from mild to severe respiratory illnesses. The incubation period for HPIV-3 infection is typically 3-7 days. In infants and young children, HPIV-3 can cause croup (laryngotracheobronchitis), bronchiolitis, and pneumonia, while in adults, it usually results in mild upper respiratory tract infections, such as the common cold.

The virus is transmitted through direct contact with infected respiratory secretions or contaminated surfaces, and infection can occur throughout the year but tends to peak during fall and winter months. Currently, there are no approved vaccines for HPIV-3; treatment is primarily supportive and focuses on managing symptoms and complications.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Virus inactivation is the process of reducing or eliminating the infectivity of a virus, making it no longer capable of replicating and causing infection. This can be achieved through various physical or chemical methods such as heat, radiation, chemicals (like disinfectants), or enzymes that damage the viral genome or disrupt the viral particle's structure.

It is important to note that virus inactivation does not necessarily mean complete destruction of the viral particles; it only implies that they are no longer infectious. The effectiveness of virus inactivation depends on factors such as the type and concentration of the virus, the inactivation method used, and the duration of exposure to the inactivating agent.

Virus inactivation is crucial in various settings, including healthcare, laboratory research, water treatment, food processing, and waste disposal, to prevent the spread of viral infections and ensure safety.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus that belongs to the family Hepeviridae and genus Orthohepevirus. It primarily infects the liver, causing acute hepatitis in humans. The virus is transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated water or food sources. Ingestion of raw or undercooked pork or deer meat can also lead to HEV infection.

HEV infection typically results in self-limiting acute hepatitis, characterized by symptoms such as jaundice, fatigue, loss of appetite, abdominal pain, and dark urine. In some cases, particularly among pregnant women and individuals with weakened immune systems, HEV infection can lead to severe complications, including fulminant hepatic failure and death.

There are four main genotypes of HEV that infect humans: genotype 1 and 2 are primarily found in developing countries and are transmitted through contaminated water; genotype 3 and 4 are found worldwide and can be transmitted through both zoonotic and human-to-human routes.

Prevention measures include improving sanitation, access to clean water, and food safety practices. Currently, there is no specific antiviral treatment for HEV infection, but supportive care can help manage symptoms. A vaccine against HEV is available in China and has shown efficacy in preventing the disease.

Variola virus is the causative agent of smallpox, a highly contagious and deadly disease that was eradicated in 1980 due to a successful global vaccination campaign led by the World Health Organization (WHO). The virus belongs to the family Poxviridae and genus Orthopoxvirus. It is a large, enveloped, double-stranded DNA virus with a complex structure that includes a lipoprotein membrane and an outer protein layer called the lateral body.

The Variola virus has two main clinical forms: variola major and variola minor. Variola major is more severe and deadly, with a mortality rate of up to 30%, while variola minor is less severe and has a lower mortality rate. The virus is transmitted through direct contact with infected individuals or contaminated objects, such as clothing or bedding.

Smallpox was once a major public health threat worldwide, causing millions of deaths and severe illnesses. However, since its eradication, Variola virus has been kept in secure laboratories for research purposes only. The virus is considered a potential bioterrorism agent, and efforts are being made to develop new vaccines and antiviral treatments to protect against possible future outbreaks.

Porcine Respiratory and Reproductive Syndrome Virus (PRRSV) is an enveloped, positive-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Arteriviridae family. It is the causative agent of Porcine Respiratory and Reproductive Syndrome (PRRS), also known as "blue ear disease" or "porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome."

The virus primarily affects pigs, causing a wide range of clinical signs including respiratory distress in young animals and reproductive failure in pregnant sows. The infection can lead to late-term abortions, stillbirths, premature deliveries, and weak or mummified fetuses. In growing pigs, PRRSV can cause pneumonia, which is often accompanied by secondary bacterial infections.

PRRSV has a tropism for cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage, and it replicates within these cells, leading to the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the development of the clinical signs associated with the disease. The virus is highly infectious and can spread rapidly in susceptible pig populations, making it a significant concern for the swine industry worldwide.

It's important to note that PRRSV has two distinct genotypes: Type 1 (European) and Type 2 (North American). Both types have a high degree of genetic diversity, which can make controlling the virus challenging. Vaccination is available for PRRSV, but it may not provide complete protection against all strains of the virus, and it may not prevent infection or shedding. Therefore, biosecurity measures, such as strict sanitation and animal movement controls, are critical to preventing the spread of this virus in pig populations.

Viral core proteins are the structural proteins that make up the viral capsid or protein shell, enclosing and protecting the viral genome. These proteins play a crucial role in the assembly of the virion, assist in the infection process by helping to deliver the viral genome into the host cell, and may also have functions in regulating viral replication. The specific composition and structure of viral core proteins vary among different types of viruses.

A chromosome is a thread-like structure that contains genetic material, made up of DNA and proteins, in the nucleus of a cell. In humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes, in each cell of the body, with the exception of the sperm and egg cells which contain only 23 chromosomes.

The X chromosome is one of the two sex-determining chromosomes in humans. Females typically have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY). The X chromosome contains hundreds of genes that are responsible for various functions in the body, including some related to sexual development and reproduction.

Humans inherit one X chromosome from their mother and either an X or a Y chromosome from their father. In females, one of the two X chromosomes is randomly inactivated during embryonic development, resulting in each cell having only one active X chromosome. This process, known as X-inactivation, helps to ensure that females have roughly equal levels of gene expression from the X chromosome, despite having two copies.

Abnormalities in the number or structure of the X chromosome can lead to various genetic disorders, such as Turner syndrome (X0), Klinefelter syndrome (XXY), and fragile X syndrome (an X-linked disorder caused by a mutation in the FMR1 gene).

Also known as Varicella-zoster virus (VZV), Herpesvirus 3, Human is a species-specific alphaherpesvirus that causes two distinct diseases: chickenpox (varicella) during primary infection and herpes zoster (shingles) upon reactivation of latent infection.

Chickenpox is typically a self-limiting disease characterized by a generalized, pruritic vesicular rash, fever, and malaise. After resolution of the primary infection, VZV remains latent in the sensory ganglia and can reactivate later in life to cause herpes zoster, which is characterized by a unilateral, dermatomal vesicular rash and pain.

Herpesvirus 3, Human is highly contagious and spreads through respiratory droplets or direct contact with the chickenpox rash. Vaccination is available to prevent primary infection and reduce the risk of complications associated with chickenpox and herpes zoster.

A genetic vector is a vehicle, often a plasmid or a virus, that is used to introduce foreign DNA into a host cell as part of genetic engineering or gene therapy techniques. The vector contains the desired gene or genes, along with regulatory elements such as promoters and enhancers, which are needed for the expression of the gene in the target cells.

The choice of vector depends on several factors, including the size of the DNA to be inserted, the type of cell to be targeted, and the efficiency of uptake and expression required. Commonly used vectors include plasmids, adenoviruses, retroviruses, and lentiviruses.

Plasmids are small circular DNA molecules that can replicate independently in bacteria. They are often used as cloning vectors to amplify and manipulate DNA fragments. Adenoviruses are double-stranded DNA viruses that infect a wide range of host cells, including human cells. They are commonly used as gene therapy vectors because they can efficiently transfer genes into both dividing and non-dividing cells.

Retroviruses and lentiviruses are RNA viruses that integrate their genetic material into the host cell's genome. This allows for stable expression of the transgene over time. Lentiviruses, a subclass of retroviruses, have the advantage of being able to infect non-dividing cells, making them useful for gene therapy applications in post-mitotic tissues such as neurons and muscle cells.

Overall, genetic vectors play a crucial role in modern molecular biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study gene function, develop new therapies, and modify organisms for various purposes.

Feline Leukemia Virus (FeLV) is a retrovirus that primarily infects cats, causing a variety of diseases and disorders. It is the causative agent of feline leukemia, a name given to a syndrome characterized by a variety of symptoms such as lymphoma (cancer of the lymphatic system), anemia, immunosuppression, and reproductive disorders. FeLV is typically transmitted through close contact with infected cats, such as through saliva, nasal secretions, urine, and milk. It can also be spread through shared litter boxes and feeding dishes.

FeLV infects cells of the immune system, leading to a weakened immune response and making the cat more susceptible to other infections. The virus can also integrate its genetic material into the host's DNA, potentially causing cancerous changes in infected cells. FeLV is a significant health concern for cats, particularly those that are exposed to outdoor environments or come into contact with other cats. Vaccination and regular veterinary care can help protect cats from this virus.

Seroepidemiologic studies are a type of epidemiological study that measures the presence and levels of antibodies in a population's blood serum to investigate the prevalence, distribution, and transmission of infectious diseases. These studies help to identify patterns of infection and immunity within a population, which can inform public health policies and interventions.

Seroepidemiologic studies typically involve collecting blood samples from a representative sample of individuals in a population and testing them for the presence of antibodies against specific pathogens. The results are then analyzed to estimate the prevalence of infection and immunity within the population, as well as any factors associated with increased or decreased risk of infection.

These studies can provide valuable insights into the spread of infectious diseases, including emerging and re-emerging infections, and help to monitor the effectiveness of vaccination programs. Additionally, seroepidemiologic studies can also be used to investigate the transmission dynamics of infectious agents, such as identifying sources of infection or tracking the spread of antibiotic resistance.

Hemagglutinins are glycoprotein spikes found on the surface of influenza viruses. They play a crucial role in the viral infection process by binding to sialic acid receptors on host cells, primarily in the respiratory tract. After attachment, hemagglutinins mediate the fusion of the viral and host cell membranes, allowing the viral genome to enter the host cell and initiate replication.

There are 18 different subtypes of hemagglutinin (H1-H18) identified in influenza A viruses, which naturally infect various animal species, including birds, pigs, and humans. The specificity of hemagglutinins for particular sialic acid receptors can influence host range and tissue tropism, contributing to the zoonotic potential of certain influenza A virus subtypes.

Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assays are commonly used in virology and epidemiology to measure the antibody response to influenza viruses and determine vaccine effectiveness. In these assays, hemagglutinins bind to red blood cells coated with sialic acid receptors, forming a diffuse mat of cells that can be observed visually. The addition of specific antisera containing antibodies against the hemagglutinin prevents this binding and results in the formation of discrete buttons of red blood cells, indicating a positive HI titer and the presence of neutralizing antibodies.

Virulence, in the context of medicine and microbiology, refers to the degree or severity of damage or harm that a pathogen (like a bacterium, virus, fungus, or parasite) can cause to its host. It is often associated with the ability of the pathogen to invade and damage host tissues, evade or suppress the host's immune response, replicate within the host, and spread between hosts.

Virulence factors are the specific components or mechanisms that contribute to a pathogen's virulence, such as toxins, enzymes, adhesins, and capsules. These factors enable the pathogen to establish an infection, cause tissue damage, and facilitate its transmission between hosts. The overall virulence of a pathogen can be influenced by various factors, including host susceptibility, environmental conditions, and the specific strain or species of the pathogen.

Paramyxoviridae is a family of viruses that includes several important pathogens causing respiratory infections in humans and animals. According to the medical perspective, Paramyxoviridae infections refer to the diseases caused by these viruses.

Some notable human paramyxovirus infections include:

1. Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Infection: RSV is a common cause of respiratory tract infections, particularly in young children and older adults. It can lead to bronchiolitis and pneumonia, especially in infants and patients with compromised immune systems.
2. Measles (Rubeola): Measles is a highly contagious viral disease characterized by fever, cough, coryza (runny nose), conjunctivitis, and a maculopapular rash. It can lead to severe complications such as pneumonia, encephalitis, and even death, particularly in malnourished children and individuals with weakened immune systems.
3. Parainfluenza Virus Infection: Parainfluenza viruses are responsible for upper and lower respiratory tract infections, including croup, bronchitis, and pneumonia. They mainly affect young children but can also infect adults, causing mild to severe illnesses.
4. Mumps: Mumps is a contagious viral infection that primarily affects the salivary glands, causing painful swelling. It can lead to complications such as meningitis, encephalitis, deafness, and orchitis (inflammation of the testicles) in rare cases.
5. Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV) Infection: HMPV is a respiratory virus that can cause upper and lower respiratory tract infections, similar to RSV and parainfluenza viruses. It mainly affects young children and older adults, leading to bronchitis, pneumonia, and exacerbations of chronic lung diseases.

Prevention strategies for Paramyxoviridae infections include vaccination programs, practicing good personal hygiene, and implementing infection control measures in healthcare settings.

Capsid proteins are the structural proteins that make up the capsid, which is the protective shell of a virus. The capsid encloses the viral genome and helps to protect it from degradation and detection by the host's immune system. Capsid proteins are typically arranged in a symmetrical pattern and can self-assemble into the capsid structure when exposed to the viral genome.

The specific arrangement and composition of capsid proteins vary between different types of viruses, and they play important roles in the virus's life cycle, including recognition and binding to host cells, entry into the cell, and release of the viral genome into the host cytoplasm. Capsid proteins can also serve as targets for antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) viruses are a group of related viruses that are primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of infected ticks. The main strains of TBE viruses include:

1. European tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV-Eu): This strain is found mainly in Europe and causes the majority of human cases of TBE. It is transmitted by the tick species Ixodes ricinus.
2. Siberian tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV-Sib): This strain is prevalent in Russia, Mongolia, and China, and is transmitted by the tick species Ixodes persulcatus.
3. Far Eastern tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV-FE): Also known as Russian spring-summer encephalitis (RSSE) virus, this strain is found in Russia, China, and Japan, and is transmitted by the tick species Ixodes persulcatus.
4. Louping ill virus (LIV): This strain is primarily found in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Portugal, and Spain, and is transmitted by the tick species Ixodes ricinus. It mainly affects sheep but can also infect humans.
5. Turkish sheep encephalitis virus (TSEV): This strain is found in Turkey and Greece and is primarily associated with ovine encephalitis, although it can occasionally cause human disease.
6. Negishi virus (NGS): This strain has been identified in Japan and Russia, but its role in human disease remains unclear.

TBE viruses are members of the Flaviviridae family and are closely related to other mosquito-borne flaviviruses such as West Nile virus, dengue virus, and Zika virus. The incubation period for TBE is usually 7-14 days after a tick bite, but it can range from 2 to 28 days. Symptoms of TBE include fever, headache, muscle pain, fatigue, and vomiting, followed by neurological symptoms such as meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord) or encephalitis (inflammation of the brain). Severe cases can lead to long-term complications or even death. No specific antiviral treatment is available for TBE, and management typically involves supportive care. Prevention measures include avoiding tick-infested areas, using insect repellents, wearing protective clothing, and promptly removing attached ticks. Vaccination is also recommended for individuals at high risk of exposure to TBE viruses.

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a species of lentivirus (a subgroup of retrovirus) that causes HIV infection and over time, HIV infection can lead to AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome). This virus attacks the immune system, specifically the CD4 cells, also known as T cells, which are a type of white blood cell that helps coordinate the body's immune response. As HIV destroys these cells, the body becomes more vulnerable to other infections and diseases. It is primarily spread through bodily fluids like blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk.

It's important to note that while there is no cure for HIV, with proper medical care, HIV can be controlled. Treatment for HIV is called antiretroviral therapy (ART). If taken as prescribed, this medicine reduces the amount of HIV in the body to a very low level, which keeps the immune system working and prevents illness. This treatment also greatly reduces the risk of transmission.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

CD8-positive T-lymphocytes, also known as CD8+ T cells or cytotoxic T cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the adaptive immune system. They are named after the CD8 molecule found on their surface, which is a protein involved in cell signaling and recognition.

CD8+ T cells are primarily responsible for identifying and destroying virus-infected cells or cancerous cells. When activated, they release cytotoxic granules that contain enzymes capable of inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death) in the target cells. They also produce cytokines such as interferon-gamma, which can help coordinate the immune response and activate other immune cells.

CD8+ T cells are generated in the thymus gland and are a type of T cell, which is a lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity. They recognize and respond to specific antigens presented on the surface of infected or cancerous cells in conjunction with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules.

Overall, CD8+ T cells are an essential component of the immune system's defense against viral infections and cancer.

Viral structural proteins are the protein components that make up the viral particle or capsid, providing structure and stability to the virus. These proteins are encoded by the viral genome and are involved in the assembly of new virus particles during the replication cycle. They can be classified into different types based on their location and function, such as capsid proteins, matrix proteins, and envelope proteins. Capsid proteins form the protein shell that encapsulates the viral genome, while matrix proteins are located between the capsid and the envelope, and envelope proteins are embedded in the lipid bilayer membrane that surrounds some viruses.

Ebolavirus is a genus of viruses in the family Filoviridae, order Mononegavirales. It is named after the Ebola River in the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire), where the virus was first identified in 1976. There are six species of Ebolavirus, four of which are known to cause disease in humans: Zaire ebolavirus, Sudan ebolavirus, Bundibugyo ebolavirus, and Tai Forest ebolavirus (formerly Cote d'Ivoire ebolavirus). The fifth species, Reston ebolavirus, is known to cause disease in non-human primates and pigs, but not in humans. The sixth and most recently identified species, Bombali ebolavirus, has not been associated with any human or animal diseases.

Ebolaviruses are enveloped, negative-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses that cause a severe and often fatal hemorrhagic fever in humans and non-human primates. The virus is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population through human-to-human transmission. Fruit bats of the Pteropodidae family are considered to be the natural host of Ebolavirus.

The symptoms of Ebolavirus disease (EVD) typically include fever, severe headache, muscle pain, weakness, fatigue, and sore throat, followed by vomiting, diarrhea, rash, impaired kidney and liver function, and in some cases, both internal and external bleeding. The case fatality rate of EVD is variable but has been historically high, ranging from 25% to 90% in past outbreaks depending on the species and the quality of medical care. There are no licensed specific treatments or vaccines available for EVD, although several promising candidates are currently under development.

HIV-1 (Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1) is a species of the retrovirus genus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). It is primarily transmitted through sexual contact, exposure to infected blood or blood products, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. HIV-1 infects vital cells in the human immune system, such as CD4+ T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells, leading to a decline in their numbers and weakening of the immune response over time. This results in the individual becoming susceptible to various opportunistic infections and cancers that ultimately cause death if left untreated. HIV-1 is the most prevalent form of HIV worldwide and has been identified as the causative agent of the global AIDS pandemic.

Chronic Hepatitis C is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV) that lasts for more than six months. This long-term infection can lead to scarring of the liver (cirrhosis), which can cause serious health problems, such as liver failure or liver cancer, in some individuals. The infection is usually asymptomatic until complications arise, but it can be detected through blood tests that identify antibodies to the virus or viral RNA. Chronic hepatitis C is typically managed with antiviral therapy, which can help clear the virus from the body and reduce the risk of liver damage.

There are several forms of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. These include asymptomatic infections, the primary infection, ... Chronic active EBV infection Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases Hodgkin's disease Acute kidney injury ... Fleisher, G.; Bolognese, R. (1983). "Persistent Epstein-Barr virus infection and pregnancy". Journal of Infectious Diseases. ... Bennett, NJ (12 October 2008). "Mononucleosis and Epstein-Barr Virus Infection". eMedicine. Retrieved 2008-10-05. Pannone, ...
Medicine portal Viruses portal Epstein-Barr virus infection Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases James ... The Epstein-Barr virus was named after M.A. Epstein, and Yvonne Barr, who discovered the virus together with Bert Achong. In ... Media related to Epstein-Barr virus at Wikimedia Commons Data related to Epstein-Barr virus at Wikispecies (Articles with short ... Epstein-Barr virus-positive Hodgkin lymphoma, and primary effusion lymphoma. The Epstein-Barr virus has been implicated in ...
Non-LPD that have significant percentages of cases associated with EBV infection (see Epstein-Barr virus infection) include the ... Epstein-Barr virus, Epstein-Barr virus-associated diseases, Lymphocytic disorders, Infectious causes of cancer, Lymphoma, ... Sawada A, Inoue M, Kawa K (April 2017). "How we treat chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection". International Journal of ... Houldcroft CJ, Kellam P (March 2015). "Host genetics of Epstein-Barr virus infection, latency and disease". Reviews in Medical ...
Münz C (2014). "Dendritic cells during Epstein Barr virus infection". Frontiers in Microbiology. 5: 308. doi:10.3389/fmicb. ... CMV and VZV infections were severe as well in few patients. The virus infection was treated by high-dose of intravenous ... severe fever thrombocytopenia syndrome virus, influenza virus, dengue virus (DNV) and Zika virus than control mice, which ... November 2010). "Lambda interferon is the predominant interferon induced by influenza A virus infection in vivo". Journal of ...
... chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection is a very rare and often fatal complication of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection ... "Adult patient with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated lymphoproliferative disorder: chronic active EBV infection or de novo ... "Differences between T cell-type and natural killer cell-type chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection". The Journal of ... "Clinical analysis and follow-up study of chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection in 53 pediatric cases" (PDF). Chinese ...
Simulating Epstein Barr Virus Infection with C-ImmSim. Bioinformatics, 23: 1371-1377 (2007) doi: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btm044 ... Besides, an antigen can represent a bacterium, a virus or an allergen or a tumour cell. The high degree of complexity of the ... The latest version of C-ImmSim allows for the simulation of SARS-CoV-2 infection . The porting was possible thank to the aid of ... C-ImmSim has been recently customised to simulate the HIV-1 infection. Moreover, it can simulate the immunotherapy to generic ...
... after suffering from Epstein Barr virus (EBV) infection. He caught the virus after sharing water bottles with his fellow boxing ...
Most cases are associated with Epstein-Barr virus infection. Lymphoepithelioma-like carcinomas are carcinomas that arise ... Epstein-Barr virus-associated diseases). ...
Sawada A, Inoue M, Kawa K (April 2017). "How we treat chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection". International Journal of ... Asada H (March 2007). "Hypersensitivity to mosquito bites: a unique pathogenic mechanism linking Epstein-Barr virus infection, ... Equine encephalitis viruses, such as Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, and Venezuelan ... Epstein-Barr virus-negative lymphoid malignancy, or another predisposing condition such as eosinophilic cellulitis or chronic ...
Epstein Barr virus: viral infection that causes infectious monocleosis. Condition is associated with lymphadenopathy, ... Other TORCH infections that can cause this rash include cytomegalovirus, herpes virus, and toxoplasma. Blood disorders, such as ... Herpes virus: viral TORCH infection associated with painful vesicular lesions and meningitis. Syphilis: bacterial TORCH ... The condition can occur following infection of an unborn baby with rubella, cytomegalovirus, toxoplasmosis, or coxsackie virus ...
... the Epstein-Barr virus can immortalise B lymphocytes by infection). Artificial expression of key proteins required for ... Henle W, Henle G (1980). "Epidemiologic aspects of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated diseases". Annals of the New York ...
Since infection with this virus is rarely seen in IVBCL, this form of IVL is not typically regarded as one of the Epstein-Barr ... are typically infected with the Epstein-Barr virus suggesting that these lymphomas are examples of the Epstein-Barr virus- ... Houldcroft CJ, Kellam P (March 2015). "Host genetics of Epstein-Barr virus infection, latency and disease". Reviews in Medical ... Melchers RC, Willemze R, Jansen PM, Daniëls LA, Vermeer MH, Quint KD (June 2019). "A rare case of cutaneous Epstein-Barr virus- ...
Fleisher, Gary; Schwartz, Janet; Lennette, Evelynne (December 1980). "Primary Epstein-Barr virus infection in association with ...
"Dysregulated Epstein-Barr virus infection in the multiple sclerosis brain". Journal of Experimental Medicine. 204 (12): 2899- ... Some interactions between the Epstein-Barr virus and the HERVs could be the trigger of the MS microglia reactions. Supporting ... BBB infection: It has also been pointed out that some infectious agents with positive correlation to MS, specially Chlamydia ... Recent research as of 2019 point to one of the HERV-W viruses (pHEV-W), and specifically one of the proteins of the viral ...
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is associated with nasopharyngeal cancer. Nasopharyngeal cancer occurs endemically in some ... Other risk factors include the Epstein-Barr virus, betel quid, radiation exposure, and certain workplace exposures. About 90% ... Distinct host genome methylation and expression patterns, produced even when the virus is not integrated into the host genome. ... Squamous cell cancers of the tonsils are more strongly associated with human papillomavirus infection than are cancers of other ...
July 2009). "Epstein-Barr virus infection is not a characteristic feature of multiple sclerosis brain". Brain. 132 (Pt 12): ... "Dysregulated Epstein-Barr virus infection in the multiple sclerosis brain". Journal of Experimental Medicine. 204 (12): 2899- ... Epstein-Barr virus could be involved, but is not likely. Involvement of the deep gray matter (DGM), suggested by magnetic ... June 2009). "Epstein-Barr virus is associated with grey matter atrophy in multiple sclerosis". Journal of Neurology, ...
Peptic ulcers are most commonly caused by a bacterial Helicobacter pylori infection. Epstein-Barr virus infection is another ... ISBN 978-0-7020-3085-7. Yau, Tung On; Tang, Ceen-Ming; Yu, Jun (2014-06-07). "Epigenetic dysregulation in Epstein-Barr virus- ... "Integrative Identification of Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Mutations and Epigenetic Alterations in Gastric Cancer". ... Inflammation of the stomach by infection from any cause is called gastritis, and when including other parts of the ...
"An Animal Model for Acute and Persistent Epstein-Barr Virus Infection". Science. 276 (5321): 2030-2033. doi:10.1126/science. ... commonly known as Epstein-Barr virus, at 65%. The structural proteins are highly conserved, while genes expressed during Human ... genetic validation for an Epstein-Barr virus animal model". J. Virol. 76 (1): 421-6. doi:10.1128/jvi.76.1.421-426.2002. PMC ... Macacine gammaherpesvirus 4 infection in rhesus monkeys resembles Human gammaherpesvirus 4 infection in humans in several ...
Fujita S, Buziba N, Kumatori A, Senba M, Yamaguchi A, Toriyama K (May 2004). "Early stage of Epstein-Barr virus lytic infection ... Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is found in nearly all patients. Chronic malaria is believed to reduce resistance to EBV, ... with the infection of B cell lymphocytes with the EBV and in these cases is considered to be one form of the Epstein-Barr virus ... Vockerodt M, Yap LF, Shannon-Lowe C, Curley H, Wei W, Vrzalikova K, Murray PG (January 2015). "The Epstein-Barr virus and the ...
Infections with Parvovirus B19, mycoplasma, cytomegalovirus, coxsackie B4 virus, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), Chlamydophila ... "Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis associated with primary Epstein-Barr virus infection". JAAD Case Reports. 1 (1): 9- ... Viral infections have also been observed to be associated with the development of SJS, SJS/TEN, and TEN in the absence of a ... Skin infections, which may lead to sepsis, are potentially lethal complications of AGEP; preventative methods and rapid ...
Haahr, Sven; Höllsberg, Per (2006). "Multiple sclerosis is linked to Epstein-Barr virus infection". Reviews in Medical Virology ... "BK Virus, JC Virus and Simian Virus 40 Infection in Humans, and Association with Human Tumors". Polyomaviruses and Human ... Natelson, BH; Ye, N; Moul, DE; Jenkins, FJ; Oren, DA; Tapp, WN; Cheng, YC (1994). "High titers of anti-Epstein-Barr virus DNA ... James, Judith A; Harley, John B; Scofield, R Hal (2006). "Epstein-Barr virus and systemic lupus erythematosus". Current Opinion ...
Primary CNS lymphoma is highly associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection (> 90%) in immunodeficient patients (such as ... Doug became ill with salmonella poisoning after his birthday and later developed a staph infection from the shunt in his neck ... of all cases of lymphomas in HIV infections (other types are Burkitt's lymphomas and immunoblastic lymphomas). ...
Infection with Epstein-Barr virus results in the overexpression of this gene. Multiple alternatively spliced variants, encoding ... "fgr proto-oncogene mRNA induced in B lymphocytes by Epstein-Barr virus infection". Nature. 319 (6050): 238-40. Bibcode: ... Patel M, Faulkner L, Katz DR, Brickell PM (1991). "The c-fgr proto-oncogene: expression in Epstein-Barr-virus-infected B ... Patel M, Leevers SJ, Brickell PM (Feb 1990). "Regulation of c-fgr proto-oncogene expression in Epstein-Barr virus infected B- ...
Primary CNS lymphoma is highly associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection (> 90%) in immunodeficient patients (such as ... Epstein-Barr virus-associated diseases, Non-Hodgkin lymphoma, Brain tumor, HIV/AIDS). ... there is rarely an association with EBV infection or other DNA viruses. In the immunocompetent population, PCNSLs typically ... PCNSLs represent around 20% of all cases of lymphomas in HIV infections. (Other types are Burkitt's lymphomas and immunoblastic ...
May 1998). "Calcification in the basal ganglia with chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection". Neurology. 50 (5): 1485-8. ... The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) should be examined to exclude bacteria, viruses and parasites. The Ellsworth Howard test (a 10-20 ...
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) establishes a lifelong latent infection in B lymphocytes. Viral LMP2A mRNA is frequently detected in ... Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) latent membrane protein 2 (LMP2) are two viral proteins of the Epstein-Barr virus. LMP2A/LMP2B are ... Lynch, D.T.; Zimmerman, J.S.; Rowe, D.T. (2002). "Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane protein 2B (LMP2B) co-localizes with LMP2A ... Caldwell, R; Brown, R; Longnecker, R (2000). "Epstein-Barr Virus LMP2A-Induced B-Cell Survival in Two Unique Classes of EμLMP2A ...
The viral influence is associated with infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). The Epstein-Barr virus is one of the most ... Barr virus (EBV), unknown factors that result in rare familial clusters, and heavy alcohol consumption. Epstein- Barr virus ... the tumor is most strongly associated with Epstein-Barr virus infection of the cancerous cells. Undifferentiated nasopharyngeal ... Very rarely does Epstein-Barr virus lead to cancer, which suggests a variety of influencing factors. Other likely causes ...
Pegtel DM, Middeldorp J, Thorley-Lawson DA (November 2004). "Epstein-Barr Virus Infection in Ex Vivo Tonsil Epithelial Cell ... Dientamoeba fragilis Entamoeba histolytica Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Epstein-Barr virus Group A streptococcal infection ... A subclinical infection-sometimes called a preinfection or inapparent infection-is an infection by a pathogen that causes few ... viruses. While HPAI viruses have a very high mortality rate for chickens, LPAI viruses are very mild and produce few, if any ...
Chronic Active Epstein-Barr Virus Infection' in a General Medical Practice". Journal of the American Medical Association. 257 ( ...
"Pim kinases are upregulated during Epstein-Barr virus infection and enhance EBNA2 activity". Virology. 333 (2): 201-6. doi: ... PIM2 or Proviral Integrations of Moloney virus 2 is serine/threonine kinase that has roles in cell growth, proliferation, ... "Proviral Integration Site for Moloney Murine Leukemia Virus (PIM) Kinases Promote Human T Helper 1 Cell Differentiation". The ...
Infections with the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, human immunodeficiency virus (i.e. HIV ... Epstein-Barr virus-positive mucocutaneous ulcer (EBVMCU) was first described as a lymphoproliferative disorder in which Epstein ... The B-cells in these lesions are often but not always infected with the Epstein-Barr virus. DLBCL-CI occurring in cases of ... Rezk SA, Zhao X, Weiss LM (June 2018). "Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoid proliferations, a 2018 update". Human Pathology ...
There are several forms of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. These include asymptomatic infections, the primary infection, ... Chronic active EBV infection Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases Hodgkins disease Acute kidney injury ... Fleisher, G.; Bolognese, R. (1983). "Persistent Epstein-Barr virus infection and pregnancy". Journal of Infectious Diseases. ... Bennett, NJ (12 October 2008). "Mononucleosis and Epstein-Barr Virus Infection". eMedicine. Retrieved 2008-10-05. Pannone, ...
Symptoms of an EBV infection include swollen lymph nodes, fever, rash, sore throat, malaise, and a swollen liver and/or spleen. ... The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a common cause of mononucleosis (viral pharyngitis). ... The cause of an Epstein-Barr virus infection or mono is the infection of circulating B cells by EBV and the bodys response to ... The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a member of the herpes virus family (human herpesvirus 4). EBV is found worldwide and is a ...
The most common manifestation of primary infection with this organism is acute infectious mononucleosis, a self-limited ... Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), or human herpesvirus 4, is a gammaherpesvirus that infects more than 95% of the worlds population. ... Pediatric Mononucleosis and Epstein-Barr Virus Infection) and Pediatric Mononucleosis and Epstein-Barr Virus Infection What to ... may develop fatal primary Epstein-Barr virus infection due to a defect in the immune response to Epstein-Barr virus (poor anti- ...
Epstein-Barr virus infection, and neoplasia (typically known by the acronym XMEN) is a disorder that affects the immune system ... Learn more about the gene associated with X-linked immunodeficiency with magnesium defect, Epstein-Barr virus infection, and ... X-linked immunodeficiency with magnesium defect, Epstein-Barr virus infection, and neoplasia (typically known by the acronym ... Genetic Testing Registry: X-linked immunodeficiency with magnesium defect, Epstein-Barr virus infection and neoplasia ...
Keywords: Epstein-Barr virus, Burkitts lymphoma, viral factors, latent infection, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, Herpesviridae, ... Epstein-Barr Virus Infections and Vaccine Advances. Author(s): *Scientific Research Department, Armed Forces Radiobiology ... Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is associated with a spectrum of fatal diseases including Burkitts lymphoma (BL) and ... Epstein-Barr Virus Infections and Vaccine Advances, Vaccines for Latent Viral Infections (2015) 1: 71. https://doi.org/10.2174/ ...
Epstein-Barr Virus Infections. *. I. George Miller Jr, MD. John F. Enders Professor of Pediatrics (Infectious Disease) and ... Researchers interested in Epstein-Barr Virus Infections ...
Infections (Infectious Disease) - Drugs In Development, 2021 Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections (Infectious Disease) - Drugs ... Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections - Drug Profiles. Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections - Dormant Projects. Epstein-Barr ... Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections - Overview. Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections - Therapeutics Development. Epstein- ... Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections - Pipeline by Lion TCR Pte Ltd, 2021. Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections - Pipeline by ...
Massive pericardial effusion due to chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection successfully treated with PD-1 blockade: A case ... Rationale: Chronic active Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection (CAEBV) is a rare but life-threatening EBV-positive ... Epstein-Barr Virus Infections* / drug therapy * Epstein-Barr Virus Infections* / therapy * Female ...
Epstein-Barr virus infection is common in inflamed gastrointestinal mucosa. Dig Dis Sci. 2012;57:1887-1898. [PubMed] [DOI] [ ... Epstein-Barr virus infection and posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder. Am J Transplant. 2013;13 Suppl 3:41-54; quiz 54. ... Yanai H, Shimizu N, Nagasaki S, Mitani N, Okita K. Epstein-Barr virus infection of the colon with inflammatory bowel disease. ... Human cytomegalovirus and Epstein-Barr virus infection in inflammatory bowel disease: Need for mucosal viral load measurement. ...
Epstein-Barr Virus microRNA Expression and Function in Persistent Infection and Oncogenesis. Qiu, Jin. ... Abstract: Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infects more than 95% of the adult world population. For most people this is not a problem ... Ultimately the virus is able to persist in a latent state in memory B cells such that it is invisible to the immune system and ... In this system, EBV is able to initiate distinct ... read morelatency programs to trick B cells into accepting the virus. ...
Investigational Drugs with Clinical Trials for: Epstein-Barr Virus Infections. ⮩ Send this page by email. ✉ Email this page to ...
The results confirmed the diagnosis of hemophagocytic syndrome related to EB (Epstein-Barr) virus infection. Conclusion: Early ... The results confirmed the diagnosis of hemophagocytic syndrome related to EB (Epstein-Barr) virus infection. Conclusion: Early ... lating to Adult Epstein-Barr Virus Infection and a Literature Review. Case Reports in Clinical Medicine, 5, 511-517. http://dx. ... An infection, especially a viral infection, can not only be the pathogeny of acquired HS, but can also coexist with primary HS ...
Adalat Cc and Epstein-barr Virus Infection. This page shows results related to Adalat Cc and Epstein-barr Virus Infection from ...
This disease is caused by Epstein-Barr virus. The disease is transmitted through direct oral contact, it is also known as ... It is a benign infection characterized by swollen lymph... ... Chronic Mononucleosis/Infection with the Epstein-Barr Virus ( ... This disease is caused by Epstein-Barr virus. The disease is transmitted through direct oral contact, it is also known as ... epstein barr virus, herbal remedies, kissing disease, symptoms ... It is a benign infection characterized by swollen lymph nodes, ...
... associated with Epstein-Barr virus infections†; efficacy appears to be variable. Related/similar drugs. prednisone, ... varicella-zoster virus (VZV), Epstein-Barr virus, herpes virus simiae (B virus), and cytomegalovirus (CMV). Less active against ... Epstein-Barr Virus Infections and Disorders. Treatment of uncomplicated or complicated infectious mononucleosis, chronic ... Mucocutaneous, Ocular, and Systemic Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) Infections. Treatment of Mucocutaneous HSV Infections. Oral† ...
... so I want to share some information with you about one of the main infections that can cause fatigue, Epstein Barr Virus, also ... Mono - Epstein Barr Virus "The Kissing Disease". A lot of patients come to me with the primary concern of fatigue, ...
... present the case of a child developing widespread vesicle-bullous lesions during an acute and symptomatic Epstein-Barr Virus ... infection. Antibody serology, biopsy and direct immunofluorescence allowed the diagnosis of a paraviral ... Paraviral bullous eruption in a 7-year-old child during acute Epstein Barr Virus infection: a case report ...
... might result from an immunopathological response toward an active Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection brought into the central ... Based on this model, a relationship should exist between the local immune milieu and EBV infection status in the MS brain. To ... as well as more widespread EBV infection in the meningeal samples. Multivariate analysis grouped genes expressed in meningeal ... in brain samples from 9 of 11 MS patients with expression patterns suggestive of in situ activation of latent infection and, ...
Neurologic complications due to acute Epstein-Barr virus infection include acute encephalitis, meningitis, acute cerebellar ... Epstein-Barr virus may be the antecedent infection, and diagnosis is based on a reactive Epstein-Barr virus IgM serology (32). ... Epstein-Barr virus antibodies have been seen in the CSF of Epstein-Barr virus encephalitis (23). Quantitative CSF polymerase ... Epstein-Barr virus is a human herpes virus, also known as human herpesvirus 4. The virus is unique in that it infects B ...
Epstein-Barr virus, a B-lymphotropic herpesvirus, is the cause of infectious mononucleosis, has strong aetiologic links with ... Early T Cell Recognition of B Cells following Epstein-Barr Virus Infection was published in publications on April 20, 2016. ( ... Early T Cell Recognition of B Cells following Epstein-Barr Virus Infection. Identifying Potential Targets for Prophylactic ... Epstein-Barr virus, a B-lymphotropic herpesvirus, is the cause of infectious mononucleosis, has strong aetiologic links with ...
Diagnosis of Epstein-Barr virus infections in the clinical laboratory. / Thiele, Geoffrey M.; Okano, Motohiko. In: Clinical ... Diagnosis of Epstein-Barr virus infections in the clinical laboratory. In: Clinical Microbiology Newsletter. 1993 ; Vol. 15, No ... title = "Diagnosis of Epstein-Barr virus infections in the clinical laboratory",. author = "Thiele, {Geoffrey M.} and Motohiko ... Thiele GM, Okano M. Diagnosis of Epstein-Barr virus infections in the clinical laboratory. Clinical Microbiology Newsletter. ...
Dive into the research topics of Diagnosis of Epstein-Barr virus infections in the clinical laboratory. Together they form a ... Diagnosis of Epstein-Barr virus infections in the clinical laboratory. Geoffrey M. Thiele, Motohiko Okano ...
Exposure to Epstein-Barr virus infection is associated with mild systemic lupus erythematosus disease Infections may act as ... we determine the relationship between disease manifestations of SLE patients and the titers of five Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) ...
Early Virological and Immunological Events in Asymptomatic Epstein-Barr Virus Infection in African Children ... Early Virological and Immunological Events in Asymptomatic Epstein-Barr Virus Infection in African Children ... Rijal Group , Antibodies and Vaccines targeting Influenza virus * Screaton & Mongkolsapaya Group , Antibody Responses to ...
Drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms during primary Epstein-Barr virus infection」の研究トピックを掘り下げます。これらがまとまってユニークな ... We report a drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms case of primary Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, in which ... N2 - We report a drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms case of primary Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, in ... AB - We report a drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms case of primary Epstein-Barr
EBV infection has been implicated in a range of haematological malignancies and autoimmune diseases. Delayed primary EBV ... Our findings could help to inform vaccine study designs in efforts to prevent IM and late complications of EBV infection, such ... Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous gamma-herpesvirus with which ~ 95% of the healthy population is infected. ... infection increases the risk of subsequent complications. Contemporaneous seroepidemiological data is needed to establish best ...
Epstein-Barr virus infection: Epstein-Barr virus infection may increase stomach cancer risk, although it is not clear how or ... Helicobacter pylori (H pylori) infection: H pylori is one of the major risk factors for stomach cancer. It can cause stomach ...
Latent Epstein- Barr virus (EBV) genomes are found in the ... ... Keywords: Lymphoma, Epstein- Barr virus infection, ELISA, PCR ... Detection of Epstein- Barr virus infection in lymphoma: ELISA and PCR method ... Background: Latent Epstein- Barr virus (EBV) genomes are found in the malignant cells of approximately one-third of Hodgkins ...
Infection with the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is very common. EBV is a type of herpesvirus Overview of Herpesvirus Infections ... The virus Overview of Viral Infections A virus is composed of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protein coat. It ... Eight different herpesviruses infect people: Three herpesviruses- herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, and ... A viral infection can lead to a spectrum of symptoms from... read more is spread through kissing. ...
The Association between Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) Past Infection with the Risk of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC). Authors. ... The association of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) with oral cancer has been widely reported in the past. However, previous studies ... The use of IgM antibody against EBV confirms current infection in patients, whereas IgG antibody would predict past infection ... The presence of EBV VCA IgG in both OSCC and control suggest that past EBV infection does not play a significant role as a risk ...
  • Abstract: Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infects more than 95% of the adult world population. (tufts.edu)
  • The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a member of the herpes virus family (human herpesvirus 4). (medicinenet.com)
  • Global Markets Direct's latest Pharmaceutical and Healthcare disease pipeline guide Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections - Drugs In Development, 2021, provides an overview of the Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections (Infectious Disease) pipeline landscape.Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) or human herpes virus 4 virus is a member of the Herpesviridae family. (marketresearch.com)
  • Epstein-Barr virus is a ubiquitous herpes virus that causes infectious mononucleosis. (medlink.com)
  • 14.9% (95% CI: 12.4-17.4%) for human herpes virus 8 infection. (nature.com)
  • We conducted a meta-analysis among PLWHA in China to describe the prevalence of major cancer risk factors including tobacco smoking, alcohol consumption, overweight and obesity, and cancer-related viral infections such as hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), human papillomavirus (HPV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and human herpes virus 8 (HHV8). (nature.com)
  • Later in 1964, UK researcher Antony Epstein and his colleagues Yvonne Barr and Burt Achong collaborated with Denis Burkitt and looked at the Burkitt lymphoma cells from tumor specimens shipped from Uganda. (medscape.com)
  • Persons with infectious mononucleosis may be able to spread the infection to others for a period of weeks. (wikipedia.org)
  • Infectious mononucleosis is caused when a person is first exposed to the virus during or after adolescence. (wikipedia.org)
  • Infectious mononucleosis is a clinical syndrome caused mostly by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), or human herpesvirus 4 (HHV-4), which is a γ-herpesvirus. (medscape.com)
  • The most common manifestation of primary infection with EBV is acute infectious mononucleosis, which is a self-limiting clinical syndrome that most frequently affects adolescents and young adults. (medscape.com)
  • This finding allowed enhanced diagnostic accuracy of infectious mononucleosis, even if the exact virus had not been isolated. (medscape.com)
  • The search for the etiologic agent of infectious mononucleosis was unsuccessful for many years, partly because researchers did not appreciate that most primary infections are asymptomatic and that most adults are seropositive. (medscape.com)
  • Infectious mononucleosis due to Epstein-Barr virus is one of the most common causes of prolonged illness in adolescents and young adults in Western societies. (medlink.com)
  • Epstein-Barr virus, a B-lymphotropic herpesvirus, is the cause of infectious mononucleosis, has strong aetiologic links with several malignancies and has been implicated in certain autoimmune diseases. (martinfitzpatrick.com)
  • EBV is the commonest causative agent of Infectious Mononucleosis (IM), a triad of pharyngitis, lymphadenopathy and fever in the context of acute EBV infection [ 2 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We therefore set out to update and establish current EBV seroprevalence across the UK, establish the potential effect of any change in the pattern of UK EBV seroprevalence on prevalence of hospital admissions with Infectious Mononucleosis (IM), and examine predictors of late EBV infection (IM) in a large primary care cohort. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Epstein-Barr virus causes a number of diseases, including infectious mononucleosis. (merckmanuals.com)
  • Sixty children with EBV infections admitted from January 2019 to January 2022 were selected, including 29 cases of infectious mononucleosis (IM group) and 31 cases of chronic active EBV infections (CAEBV group). (bvsalud.org)
  • Infectious mononucleosis owing to primary Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection sometimes causes hepatitis, which is usually self-limiting with mildly elevated transaminases, but can rarely develop into severe hepatitis with jaundice. (researchgate.net)
  • A prospective clinical study of Epstein-Barr virus and host interactions during acute infectious mononucleosis. (cdc.gov)
  • This group includes patients who had a viral infection associated with neurologic symptoms, such as Guillain-Barré syndrome, infectious mononucleosis, or atypical viral pneumonia. (medscape.com)
  • Thiele, GM & Okano, M 1993, ' Diagnosis of Epstein-Barr virus infections in the clinical laboratory ', Clinical Microbiology Newsletter , vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 41-46. (nebraska.edu)
  • Researchers in Hong Kong report that testing patient blood for DNA from Epstein-Barr virus during treatment for nasopharyngeal carcinoma effectively predicts clinical outcome. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Neurologic complications due to acute Epstein-Barr virus infection include acute encephalitis, cerebellar ataxia, cranial nerve palsies, and Guillain-Barré syndrome. (medlink.com)
  • 02 ). Meningitis and encephalitis are the most common complications of acute Epstein-Barr virus infection, with encephalitis being less frequent than meningitis. (medlink.com)
  • Herpes simplex virus encephalitis (HSVE) is associated with significant morbidity and mortality, even with appropriate antiviral therapy. (researchgate.net)
  • This chapter discusses viral factors that EBV produces whose interactions with host may determine infection, reactivation, immune evasion and disease progression, and further reviews vaccine formulations tested to date. (benthamscience.com)
  • After identifying an association between maternal Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) reactivation and acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), the authors analyzed a nested case-control study within Finnish and Icelandic maternity cohorts with 7 million years of follow-up to confirm EBV's role in ALL. (drcalapai.com)
  • Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) establishes life-long infection in Bcells, characterized by periods of latency and reactivation. (cdc.gov)
  • While VCA-Immunoglobulin (Ig) G antibodies indicate past EBVexposure, VCA-IgA antibodies may reflect reactivation of latent infection. (cdc.gov)
  • A positive "mono spot" test is useful in confirming the diagnosis but a negative result does not rule out primary EBV infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • The results confirmed the diagnosis of hemophagocytic syndrome related to EB (Epstein-Barr) virus infection. (scirp.org)
  • The diagnosis of HS includes a spectrum of inherited or acquired defects in cytotoxic lymphocyte function, often with uncontrolled infections. (scirp.org)
  • We report a drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms case of primary Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, in which the diagnosis was first confirmed by lymphocyte transformation tests (LTT). (elsevierpure.com)
  • Part of the same virus family that causes herpes and mono, cytomegalovirus can switch between active and quiet periods. (webmd.com)
  • People also can develop GBS after having the flu or other infections (such as cytomegalovirus and Epstein Barr virus). (cdc.gov)
  • Chronic active Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection (CAEBV) is a rare but life-threatening EBV-positive lymphoproliferative disorder. (nih.gov)
  • However, EBV has been linked to several refractory diseases such as EBV-associated hemophagocytic syndrome(EBV-AHS) and chronic active EBV infection (CAEBV). (researchgate.net)
  • A late event in a very few carriers of this virus is the emergence of Burkitt's lymphoma and nasopharyngeal carcinoma, two rare cancers. (wikipedia.org)
  • In 1964, Epstein described the first human tumor virus when he found virus particles in a Burkitt lymphoma cell line. (medscape.com)
  • The EBV infection itself usually does not cause any other symptoms in males with XMEN, and affected individuals may not come to medical attention until they develop lymphoma. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Uncontrolled EBV infection increases the likelihood of developing lymphoma. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is associated with a spectrum of fatal diseases including Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) and nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). (benthamscience.com)
  • EBV infection is also implicated in a range of haematological malignancies (Burkitt's lymphoma, gastric lymphoma, and Non-Hodgkin lymphoma), and has been strongly associated with autoimmune diseases such as Multiple Sclerosis (MS). (biomedcentral.com)
  • Latent Epstein- Barr virus (EBV) genomes are found in the malignant cells of approximately one-third of Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL) cases. (ac.ir)
  • Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous gamma-herpesvirus with which ~ 95% of the healthy population is infected. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Overview of Herpesvirus Infections Some common viral infections are caused by herpesviruses. (merckmanuals.com)
  • In the past biennium, working groups have concluded that there is sufficient evidence to classify infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1), human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV-1), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and the Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus 8 as carcinogenic to humans (IARC 0RQRJUDSKV, Vol. 67 and 70). (who.int)
  • Overview of Herpesvirus Infections Some common viral infections are caused by a group of viruses called herpesviruses. (msdmanuals.com)
  • EBV is transmitted from person to person and then infects human B cells, which in turn spread the infection throughout the entire reticuloendothelial system (RES, or the liver , spleen, and peripheral lymph nodes ). (medicinenet.com)
  • EBV is a very common virus that infects more than 90 percent of the general population and in most cases goes unnoticed. (medlineplus.gov)
  • EBV primarily infects people during infant or adolescent ages and establishes latent infection. (benthamscience.com)
  • The incubation period, or the time from infection to appearance of symptoms, ranges from 2 to 6 weeks with 4 weeks being the most common. (wikipedia.org)
  • The disease is sometimes subclinical (meaning there are no symptoms in the infected individual), and the virus has been transmitted rarely by blood transfusion and/or organ transplants. (medicinenet.com)
  • however, there is evidence that some people may still spread the virus to others for many months even after symptoms are gone. (medicinenet.com)
  • The incubation period (time period between initial infection and development of symptoms) for EBV is unusually long. (medicinenet.com)
  • What are the symptoms of Epstein-Barr virus? (medicinenet.com)
  • Many EBV infections are diagnosed simply by the symptoms. (medicinenet.com)
  • Symptoms of EBV infections include fatigue, fever, and inflamed throat, swollen lymph nodes in the neck, enlarged spleen, swollen liver and rash. (marketresearch.com)
  • Neurologic symptoms can be seen with infectious and postinfectious complications of Epstein-Barr virus infection. (medlink.com)
  • A viral infection can lead to a spectrum of symptoms from. (merckmanuals.com)
  • Most EBV infections cause no symptoms. (merckmanuals.com)
  • In most children younger than 5 years, the infection causes no symptoms. (merckmanuals.com)
  • The usual time between infection and the appearance of symptoms is thought to be 30 to 50 days. (merckmanuals.com)
  • But since they can indicate a more serious health condition - like oral cancer or a sexually transmitted infection ( STI ) - it's important to understand your specific symptoms. (greatist.com)
  • The cause of an Epstein-Barr virus infection or mono is the infection of circulating B cells by EBV and the body's response to the presence of the virus. (medicinenet.com)
  • A lot of patients come to me with the primary concern of fatigue, so I want to share some information with you about one of the main infections that can cause fatigue, Epstein Barr Virus, also known as Mono or the kissing disease. (youngwellnesscenter.com)
  • it is spread by intimate contact between asymptomatic EBV-infected persons who shed the virus and susceptible persons. (medscape.com)
  • Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is usually maintained in an asymptomatic and latent form by the host immune system, and primarily by EBV-specific cytotoxic T cells (CTLs). (researchgate.net)
  • Young children and young adults have a predilection for symptomatic infections, with severity ranging from mild to fulminant life-threatening complications. (medlink.com)
  • Delayed primary EBV infection increases the risk of subsequent complications. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Our findings could help to inform vaccine study designs in efforts to prevent IM and late complications of EBV infection, such as Multiple Sclerosis. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Other results that strongly suggest a primary infection are a high or rising level of anti-VCA IgG and no antibody to EBNA after at least four weeks of illness. (medicinenet.com)
  • The graph below demonstrates the antibody response to Epstein-Barr virus. (medscape.com)
  • Antibody response to Epstein-Barr virus. (medscape.com)
  • The use of IgM antibody against EBV confirms current infection in patients, whereas IgG antibody would predict past infection throughout patients' lifetime. (core.ac.uk)
  • Among children ages 6-19 years who participated in NHANES between 2003 and 2004 and had stored serum samples available, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) antibody testing was conducted. (cdc.gov)
  • Global Markets Direct's Pharmaceutical and Healthcare latest pipeline guide Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections - Drugs In Development, 2021, provides comprehensive information on the therapeutics under development for Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections (Infectious Disease), complete with analysis by stage of development, drug target, mechanism of action (MoA), route of administration (RoA) and molecule type. (marketresearch.com)
  • The guide covers the descriptive pharmacological action of the therapeutics, its complete research and development history and latest news and press releases.The Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections (Infectious Disease) pipeline guide also reviews of key players involved in therapeutic development for Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections and features dormant and discontinued projects. (marketresearch.com)
  • Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections (Infectious Disease) pipeline guide helps in identifying and tracking emerging players in the market and their portfolios, enhances decision making capabilities and helps to create effective counter strategies to gain competitive advantage. (marketresearch.com)
  • The pipeline guide provides a snapshot of the global therapeutic landscape of Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections (Infectious Disease). (marketresearch.com)
  • The pipeline guide reviews pipeline therapeutics for Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections (Infectious Disease) by companies and universities/research institutes based on information derived from company and industry-specific sources. (marketresearch.com)
  • The pipeline guide reviews key companies involved in Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections (Infectious Disease) therapeutics and enlists all their major and minor projects. (marketresearch.com)
  • The pipeline guide evaluates Epstein-Barr Virus (HHV-4) Infections (Infectious Disease) therapeutics based on mechanism of action (MoA), drug target, route of administration (RoA) and molecule type. (marketresearch.com)
  • Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is known to be a causative agent of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH). (researchgate.net)
  • Epstein-Barr Virus, H. Pylori, Lyme Disease, parasites or infections could be the real problem. (thyroidlovingcare.com)
  • EBV genes were detected in brain samples from 9 of 11 MS patients with expression patterns suggestive of in situ activation of latent infection and, less frequently, entry into the lytic cycle. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Scientists are discovering that parasites and untreated infections, including candida, Epstein-Barr virus , and Lyme disease , can be contributors or even the initiators of thyroid disease. (thyroidlovingcare.com)
  • and 3) Epstein-Barr virus-associated non-lymphoproliferative diseases such as some cases of the immune disorders of multiple sclerosis and systemic lupus erythematosis and the childhood disorders of Alice in Wonderland Syndrome and acute cerebellar ataxia. (wikipedia.org)
  • It is debated whether multiple sclerosis (MS) might result from an immunopathological response toward an active Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection brought into the central nervous system (CNS) by immigrating B cells. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Studies also show a high seropositivity of Epstein-Barr virus among patients with multiple sclerosis. (medlink.com)
  • The role of Epstein-Barr virus infection in multiple sclerosis is an area of intense research, but a causal relationship has not been definitively demonstrated. (medlink.com)
  • EBV also establishes a lifelong dormant infection in some cells of the body's immune system. (wikipedia.org)
  • Reactivated and post-latent virus may pass the placental barrier in (also seropositive) pregnant women via macrophages and therefore can infect the fetus. (wikipedia.org)
  • Also re-infection of prior seropositive individuals may occur. (wikipedia.org)
  • X-linked immunodeficiency with magnesium defect, Epstein-Barr virus infection, and neoplasia (typically known by the acronym XMEN) is a disorder that affects the immune system in males. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Ultimately the virus is able to persist in a latent state in memory B cells such that it is invisible to the immune system and also harmless. (tufts.edu)
  • Alternative to varicella-zoster immune globulin (VZIG) for postexposure prophylaxis of VZV infection † in HSCT recipients. (drugs.com)
  • Based on this model, a relationship should exist between the local immune milieu and EBV infection status in the MS brain. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Enhanced PCR-based methods were used to investigate expression of 75 immune-related genes and 6 EBV genes associated with latent and lytic infection. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In short, the lyme bacteria looks like thyroid tissue to the body's immune system, and as the immune system works all out over time to eradicate the infection, it also begins to attack the thyroid. (thyroidlovingcare.com)
  • Fortunately, some research shows that once the infection is removed, the immune system calms down and slows or stops attacking the thyroid. (thyroidlovingcare.com)
  • Build up your body and your immunity with a healthy diet, stress reduction, and fewer toxins in your life, and your natural immune response will be stronger and better able to fight off infection. (thyroidlovingcare.com)
  • Eating well and getting plenty of rest will help your body fight the infection, but see your doctor if you're pregnant or have HIV or a weakened immune system since CMV can be particularly serious for you. (webmd.com)
  • Occupational and environmental exposures in relation to immune responsiveness to Epstein-Barr virus in a population-based sample. (cdc.gov)
  • It is one of the most common human viruses to cause cancer in humans and is associated with a wide range of human cancers originating from epithelial cells, lymphocytes and mesenchymal cells. (marketresearch.com)
  • Infection with cancer-causing types of human papillomavirus (HPV), especially HPV type 16 , is a risk factor for oropharyngeal cancers that involve the tonsils or the base of the tongue ( 10 - 12 ). (cancer.gov)
  • In the United States, the incidence of oropharyngeal cancers caused by HPV infection is increasing, while the incidence of oropharyngeal cancers related to other causes is falling ( 10 ). (cancer.gov)
  • About three-quarters of all oropharyngeal cancers are caused by chronic HPV infection ( 13 , 14 ). (cancer.gov)
  • Association of SH2 domain-containing protein 1A, immunoglobulins and T lymphocyte subsets with Epstein- Barr virus infections. (bvsalud.org)
  • We aimed to analyze the levels and associations of SH2 domain -containing protein 1A (SH2D1A), immunoglobulins and T lymphocyte (TL) subsets in children with Epstein-Barr virus ( EBV ) infections . (bvsalud.org)
  • Although long-term prophylaxis not routinely recommended for prevention of recurrent VZV infections in HSCT recipients, such prophylaxis may be considered in those with severe, long-term immunodeficiency. (drugs.com)
  • Is Epstein-Barr virus contagious? (medicinenet.com)
  • Yes, the Epstein-Barr virus is contagious and easily passed from person to person mainly by mouth secretions. (medicinenet.com)
  • These clusters of red, fluid-filled bumps are caused by the herpes simplex virus and are highly contagious. (greatist.com)
  • EBV is the first human virus confirmed to be an oncovirus and may give rise to various lymphoproliferative malignancies in immunocompromised hosts. (medscape.com)
  • In 1965, the newly discovered first human oncovirus was named Epstein-Barr virus. (medscape.com)
  • Multicentre case-control studies clearly demonstrated a cervical cancer risk associated with infection with a variety of human papillomaviruses (HPV) other than types 16 and 18. (who.int)
  • EBV infection has been implicated in a range of haematological malignancies and autoimmune diseases. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Not transmitted from person to person except rarely by transfusion, and for West Nile virus by organ transplant, breastmilk or transplacentally [530, 1047]. (cdc.gov)
  • In both instances, infections are organ transplant-associated LCMV infections. (cdc.gov)
  • Through multiple clusters of organ transplant-transmitted LCMV infections diagnostic methods, we identifi ed LCMV infection in all have been identifi ed in the United States, affecting 10 organ persons, including in at least 1 sample from the donor and recipients, 9 of whom died ( 13 , 14 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated B-cell lymphoproliferation is a life-threatening complication after hematopoietic stem cell or solid organ transplantation resulting from outgrowth of EBV-infected B cells that would normally be controlled by EBV-cytotoxic T cells. (nih.gov)
  • It is very effective in throat infection, fight against infections, inflammation, enhances immunity and overcomes general weakness. (naturalayurvedictreatment.com)
  • Usually, the infection begins with a general feeling of illness (malaise) and low grade fever followed by sore throat and/or swollen lymph nodes. (merckmanuals.com)
  • See your doctor for a rapid strep test or a throat culture, which can find infections that the fast test sometimes misses. (webmd.com)
  • Chronic active Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is a severe systemic disease associated with high rates of mortality and morbidity. (researchgate.net)
  • A 2012 Australian study examining both cancerous and healthy prostate tissue found an association between infection with HPV and EBV and an increased risk of prostate cancer. (cancerquest.org)
  • The following discussion will concentrate on neurologic manifestations of Epstein-Barr virus infection. (medlink.com)
  • Normally, after initial infection, EBV remains in the body for the rest of a person's life. (medlineplus.gov)
  • To clarify the pathogenesis of severe hepatitis by primary EBV infection. (researchgate.net)
  • Serological markers and nucleic acid testing for hepatitis B (HBV) and C (HCV) viruses were negative. (who.int)
  • It is one of the most common viruses among humans. (medlink.com)
  • Infection in immunocompetent humans PCR (RT-PCR) and sequencing indicated LCMV most commonly results in nonspecifi c febrile illness, infection. (cdc.gov)
  • Drug of choice for treatment of neonatal HSV infections, including mucocutaneous infections, infections involving skin, eyes, and mouth, and disseminated or CNS infections. (drugs.com)
  • The study, presented at the American Association for Cancer Research Molecular Diagnostics in Cancer Therapeutic Development meeting held here September 22-25, highlights the strong link between the virus and this cancer, which is common in Southern China and also develops in Chinese immigrants It further suggests that genetic levels of EBV should be assessed before and during treatment, not just after therapy, as it is now. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Importantly, such EBNA2-specific CD8+ T cells recognised B cells within the first day post-infection, prior to CD8+ T cells against well-characterised latent target antigens such as EBNA3B or LMP2, and effectively inhibited outgrowth of EBV-transformed B cell lines. (martinfitzpatrick.com)
  • We infer that "first wave" antigens of the growth-transforming infection, especially EBNA2, constitute potential CD8+ T cell immunogens for inclusion in prophylactic EBV vaccine design. (martinfitzpatrick.com)
  • Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection , 48 (1), 109-112. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Eight different herpesviruses infect people: Three herpesviruses- herpes simplex virus type 1, herpes simplex virus type 2, and varicella-zoster. (merckmanuals.com)
  • Epstein-Barr Virus microRNA Expression and Function in Persistent Infection and Oncogenesis. (tufts.edu)
  • In all, these studies on expression profiles and molecular functions of EBV miRNAs provide significant insights into the role of EBV in persistent infection and oncogenesis. (tufts.edu)
  • Because males with XMEN do not have enough functional T cells, they have frequent infections, such as ear infections, sinus infections, and pneumonia. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Higher incidence of BL and NPC seen in developing world demands an effective vaccine to prevent infection and disease onset. (benthamscience.com)
  • This disease is caused by Epstein-Barr virus. (naturalayurvedictreatment.com)
  • That means it's vital for thyroid healing to determine if you have an underlying infection, like lyme disease, and to treat it properly. (thyroidlovingcare.com)
  • If you suspect you may have an underlying chronic lyme disease infection, you will first need to get tested. (thyroidlovingcare.com)
  • You can start with this free lyme disease quiz which helps predict the likelihood of an infection. (thyroidlovingcare.com)
  • In February 2011, the Centers for Disease Control of a 396-bp fragment of the large segment of the virus from and Prevention (CDC, Atlanta, GA, USA) was notifi ed all 5 persons were identical. (cdc.gov)
  • This yeast infection is common in people with HIV , but you're also at risk for it if you have diabetes or a disease of the esophagus, take certain steroids , take antibiotics, or use steroid inhalers for asthma. (webmd.com)
  • Normally these cells recognize foreign invaders, such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi, and are then turned on (activated) to attack these invaders in order to prevent infection and illness. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Impaired production of CD4+ T cells resulting from abnormal magnesium transport likely accounts for the deficiency of this type of T cell in people with XMEN, contributing to the decreased ability to prevent infection and illness. (medlineplus.gov)
  • There are no known associations between active EBV infection and problems during pregnancy, such as miscarriages or birth defects. (wikipedia.org)
  • In rare cases, people with active EBV infections may not have detectable EBV-specific antibodies. (medicinenet.com)
  • Specifically, the magnesium transporter produced from the MAGT1 gene is active in CD8+ T cells, which are especially important in controlling viral infections such as the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). (medlineplus.gov)
  • Recent studies suggest that the clonal expansion of EBV-infected T or natural killer cells plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of chronic active EBV infection. (researchgate.net)