Use of electric potential or currents to elicit biological responses.
Application of electric current in treatment without the generation of perceptible heat. It includes electric stimulation of nerves or muscles, passage of current into the body, or use of interrupted current of low intensity to raise the threshold of the skin to pain.
Electronic hearing devices typically used for patients with normal outer and middle ear function, but defective inner ear function. In the COCHLEA, the hair cells (HAIR CELLS, VESTIBULAR) may be absent or damaged but there are residual nerve fibers. The device electrically stimulates the COCHLEAR NERVE to create sound sensation.
Order of mammals whose members are adapted for flight. It includes bats, flying foxes, and fruit bats.
The cochlear part of the 8th cranial nerve (VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR NERVE). The cochlear nerve fibers originate from neurons of the SPIRAL GANGLION and project peripherally to cochlear hair cells and centrally to the cochlear nuclei (COCHLEAR NUCLEUS) of the BRAIN STEM. They mediate the sense of hearing.
Artificial device such as an externally-worn camera attached to a stimulator on the RETINA, OPTIC NERVE, or VISUAL CORTEX, intended to restore or amplify vision.
Use of sound to elicit a response in the nervous system.
NEURAL PATHWAYS and connections within the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, beginning at the hair cells of the ORGAN OF CORTI, continuing along the eighth cranial nerve, and terminating at the AUDITORY CORTEX.
In about 250 species of electric fishes, modified muscle fibers forming disklike multinucleate plates arranged in stacks like batteries in series and embedded in a gelatinous matrix. A large torpedo ray may have half a million plates. Muscles in different parts of the body may be modified, i.e., the trunk and tail in the electric eel, the hyobranchial apparatus in the electric ray, and extrinsic eye muscles in the stargazers. Powerful electric organs emit pulses in brief bursts several times a second. They serve to stun prey and ward off predators. A large torpedo ray can produce of shock of more than 200 volts, capable of stunning a human. (Storer et al., General Zoology, 6th ed, p672)
Surgical insertion of an electronic hearing device (COCHLEAR IMPLANTS) with electrodes to the COCHLEAR NERVE in the inner ear to create sound sensation in patients with residual nerve fibers.
The region of the cerebral cortex that receives the auditory radiation from the MEDIAL GENICULATE BODY.
A general term for the complete loss of the ability to hear from both ears.
The posterior pair of the quadrigeminal bodies which contain centers for auditory function.
A dimension of auditory sensation varying with cycles per second of the sound stimulus.
The audibility limit of discriminating sound intensity and pitch.
The ability or act of sensing and transducing ACOUSTIC STIMULATION to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. It is also called audition.
Surgically placed electric conductors through which ELECTRIC STIMULATION is delivered to or electrical activity is recorded from a specific point inside the body.
The science pertaining to the interrelationship of psychologic phenomena and the individual's response to the physical properties of sound.
The capacity of the NERVOUS SYSTEM to change its reactivity as the result of successive activations.
The part of the inner ear (LABYRINTH) that is concerned with hearing. It forms the anterior part of the labyrinth, as a snail-like structure that is situated almost horizontally anterior to the VESTIBULAR LABYRINTH.
Abrupt changes in the membrane potential that sweep along the CELL MEMBRANE of excitable cells in response to excitation stimuli.
The process whereby an utterance is decoded into a representation in terms of linguistic units (sequences of phonetic segments which combine to form lexical and grammatical morphemes).
Electric conductors through which electric currents enter or leave a medium, whether it be an electrolytic solution, solid, molten mass, gas, or vacuum.
The domestic cat, Felis catus, of the carnivore family FELIDAE, comprising over 30 different breeds. The domestic cat is descended primarily from the wild cat of Africa and extreme southwestern Asia. Though probably present in towns in Palestine as long ago as 7000 years, actual domestication occurred in Egypt about 4000 years ago. (From Walker's Mammals of the World, 6th ed, p801)
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Fields representing the joint interplay of electric and magnetic forces.
The study of the generation and behavior of electrical charges in living organisms particularly the nervous system and the effects of electricity on living organisms.
The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the NERVOUS SYSTEM.
The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.
An order of neotropical electric fish found chiefly in the waters of South America. They continually emit weak electric discharges, which they use in object location and communication. A most popular species of research interest is the electric eel, ELECTROPHORUS electricus.
Injuries caused by electric currents. The concept excludes electric burns (BURNS, ELECTRIC), but includes accidental electrocution and electric shock.
The increase in a measurable parameter of a PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESS, including cellular, microbial, and plant; immunological, cardiovascular, respiratory, reproductive, urinary, digestive, neural, musculoskeletal, ocular, and skin physiological processes; or METABOLIC PROCESS, including enzymatic and other pharmacological processes, by a drug or other chemical.
Therapy for MOVEMENT DISORDERS, especially PARKINSON DISEASE, that applies electricity via stereotactic implantation of ELECTRODES in specific areas of the BRAIN such as the THALAMUS. The electrodes are attached to a neurostimulator placed subcutaneously.
Act of eliciting a response from a person or organism through physical contact.
A technique that involves the use of electrical coils on the head to generate a brief magnetic field which reaches the CEREBRAL CORTEX. It is coupled with ELECTROMYOGRAPHY response detection to assess cortical excitability by the threshold required to induce MOTOR EVOKED POTENTIALS. This method is also used for BRAIN MAPPING, to study NEUROPHYSIOLOGY, and as a substitute for ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY for treating DEPRESSION. Induction of SEIZURES limits its clinical usage.
An arrangement of wires distributing electricity.
The ability of a substrate to allow the passage of ELECTRONS.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
A technique in which electric pulses of intensity in kilovolts per centimeter and of microsecond-to-millisecond duration cause a temporary loss of the semipermeability of CELL MEMBRANES, thus leading to ion leakage, escape of metabolites, and increased uptake by cells of drugs, molecular probes, and DNA.
Devices that control the supply of electric current for running electrical equipment.
A genus of the Torpedinidae family consisting of several species. Members of this family have powerful electric organs and are commonly called electric rays.
The resistance to the flow of either alternating or direct electrical current.
A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes.
Burns produced by contact with electric current or from a sudden discharge of electricity.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
A treatment modality that uses pulsed electrical currents to permeabilize cell membranes (ELECTROPORATION) and thereby enhance the uptake of chemotherapeutic agents, vaccines, or genes into the body's cells.
The use of specifically placed small electrodes to deliver electrical impulses across the SKIN to relieve PAIN. It is used less frequently to produce ANESTHESIA.
A genus of fish, in the family GYMNOTIFORMES, capable of producing an electric shock that immobilizes fish and other prey. The species Electrophorus electricus is also known as the electric eel, though it is not a true eel.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
The voltage differences across a membrane. For cellular membranes they are computed by subtracting the voltage measured outside the membrane from the voltage measured inside the membrane. They result from differences of inside versus outside concentration of potassium, sodium, chloride, and other ions across cells' or ORGANELLES membranes. For excitable cells, the resting membrane potentials range between -30 and -100 millivolts. Physical, chemical, or electrical stimuli can make a membrane potential more negative (hyperpolarization), or less negative (depolarization).
The study of chemical changes resulting from electrical action and electrical activity resulting from chemical changes.
A process leading to shortening and/or development of tension in muscle tissue. Muscle contraction occurs by a sliding filament mechanism whereby actin filaments slide inward among the myosin filaments.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
Investigative technique commonly used during ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY in which a series of bright light flashes or visual patterns are used to elicit brain activity.
Communication between animals involving the giving off by one individual of some chemical or physical signal, that, on being received by another, influences its behavior.
The introduction of a phosphoryl group into a compound through the formation of an ester bond between the compound and a phosphorus moiety.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
Electrical responses recorded from nerve, muscle, SENSORY RECEPTOR, or area of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM following stimulation. They range from less than a microvolt to several microvolts. The evoked potential can be auditory (EVOKED POTENTIALS, AUDITORY), somatosensory (EVOKED POTENTIALS, SOMATOSENSORY), visual (EVOKED POTENTIALS, VISUAL), or motor (EVOKED POTENTIALS, MOTOR), or other modalities that have been reported.
The lipid- and protein-containing, selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Conversion of an inactive form of an enzyme to one possessing metabolic activity. It includes 1, activation by ions (activators); 2, activation by cofactors (coenzymes); and 3, conversion of an enzyme precursor (proenzyme or zymogen) to an active enzyme.
The 10th cranial nerve. The vagus is a mixed nerve which contains somatic afferents (from skin in back of the ear and the external auditory meatus), visceral afferents (from the pharynx, larynx, thorax, and abdomen), parasympathetic efferents (to the thorax and abdomen), and efferents to striated muscle (of the larynx and pharynx).
Nerve structures through which impulses are conducted from a peripheral part toward a nerve center.
Electrodes with an extremely small tip, used in a voltage clamp or other apparatus to stimulate or record bioelectric potentials of single cells intracellularly or extracellularly. (Dorland, 28th ed)
The electrical response evoked in a muscle or motor nerve by electrical or magnetic stimulation. Common methods of stimulation are by transcranial electrical and TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION. It is often used for monitoring during neurosurgery.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
The communication from a NEURON to a target (neuron, muscle, or secretory cell) across a SYNAPSE. In chemical synaptic transmission, the presynaptic neuron releases a NEUROTRANSMITTER that diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to specific synaptic receptors, activating them. The activated receptors modulate specific ion channels and/or second-messenger systems in the postsynaptic cell. In electrical synaptic transmission, electrical signals are communicated as an ionic current flow across ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
The property of nonisotropic media, such as crystals, whereby a single incident beam of light traverses the medium as two beams, each plane-polarized, the planes being at right angles to each other. (Cline et al., Dictionary of Visual Science, 4th ed)
Recording of the changes in electric potential of muscle by means of surface or needle electrodes.
The study of PHYSICAL PHENOMENA and PHYSICAL PROCESSES as applied to living things.
A common name used for the genus Cavia. The most common species is Cavia porcellus which is the domesticated guinea pig used for pets and biomedical research.
Area of the FRONTAL LOBE concerned with primary motor control located in the dorsal PRECENTRAL GYRUS immediately anterior to the central sulcus. It is comprised of three areas: the primary motor cortex located on the anterior paracentral lobule on the medial surface of the brain; the premotor cortex located anterior to the primary motor cortex; and the supplementary motor area located on the midline surface of the hemisphere anterior to the primary motor cortex.
Morphologic alteration of small B LYMPHOCYTES or T LYMPHOCYTES in culture into large blast-like cells able to synthesize DNA and RNA and to divide mitotically. It is induced by INTERLEUKINS; MITOGENS such as PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS, and by specific ANTIGENS. It may also occur in vivo as in GRAFT REJECTION.
An adenine nucleotide containing one phosphate group which is esterified to both the 3'- and 5'-positions of the sugar moiety. It is a second messenger and a key intracellular regulator, functioning as a mediator of activity for a number of hormones, including epinephrine, glucagon, and ACTH.
An alkaloid, originally from Atropa belladonna, but found in other plants, mainly SOLANACEAE. Hyoscyamine is the 3(S)-endo isomer of atropine.
An involuntary movement or exercise of function in a part, excited in response to a stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to the brain or spinal cord.
Neurons which conduct NERVE IMPULSES to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and is a widespread central and autonomic neurotransmitter. Norepinephrine is the principal transmitter of most postganglionic sympathetic fibers and of the diffuse projection system in the brain arising from the locus ceruleus. It is also found in plants and is used pharmacologically as a sympathomimetic.
A neurotransmitter found at neuromuscular junctions, autonomic ganglia, parasympathetic effector junctions, a subset of sympathetic effector junctions, and at many sites in the central nervous system.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
Isopropyl analog of EPINEPHRINE; beta-sympathomimetic that acts on the heart, bronchi, skeletal muscle, alimentary tract, etc. It is used mainly as bronchodilator and heart stimulant.
The study of MAGNETIC PHENOMENA.
Units that convert some other form of energy into electrical energy.
Contractile tissue that produces movement in animals.
The function of opposing or restraining the excitation of neurons or their target excitable cells.
The electric response evoked in the CEREBRAL CORTEX by stimulation along AFFERENT PATHWAYS from PERIPHERAL NERVES to CEREBRUM.
The domestic dog, Canis familiaris, comprising about 400 breeds, of the carnivore family CANIDAE. They are worldwide in distribution and live in association with people. (Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th ed, p1065)
The thoracolumbar division of the autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic preganglionic fibers originate in neurons of the intermediolateral column of the spinal cord and project to the paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia, which in turn project to target organs. The sympathetic nervous system mediates the body's response to stressful situations, i.e., the fight or flight reactions. It often acts reciprocally to the parasympathetic system.
A subtype of striated muscle, attached by TENDONS to the SKELETON. Skeletal muscles are innervated and their movement can be consciously controlled. They are also called voluntary muscles.
Induction of a stress reaction in experimental subjects by means of an electrical shock; applies to either convulsive or non-convulsive states.
Cell surface proteins that bind acetylcholine with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells. Cholinergic receptors are divided into two major classes, muscarinic and nicotinic, based originally on their affinity for nicotine and muscarine. Each group is further subdivided based on pharmacology, location, mode of action, and/or molecular biology.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Lens-shaped structure on the inner aspect of the INTERNAL CAPSULE. The SUBTHALAMIC NUCLEUS and pathways traversing this region are concerned with the integration of somatic motor function.
Characteristics of ELECTRICITY and magnetism such as charged particles and the properties and behavior of charged particles, and other phenomena related to or associated with electromagnetism.
A cylindrical column of tissue that lies within the vertebral canal. It is composed of WHITE MATTER and GRAY MATTER.
The time from the onset of a stimulus until a response is observed.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. This also includes animals with a long history of closed colony breeding.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of the neurological system, processes or phenomena; includes the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
Compounds or agents that combine with an enzyme in such a manner as to prevent the normal substrate-enzyme combination and the catalytic reaction.
Specialized junctions at which a neuron communicates with a target cell. At classical synapses, a neuron's presynaptic terminal releases a chemical transmitter stored in synaptic vesicles which diffuses across a narrow synaptic cleft and activates receptors on the postsynaptic membrane of the target cell. The target may be a dendrite, cell body, or axon of another neuron, or a specialized region of a muscle or secretory cell. Neurons may also communicate via direct electrical coupling with ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES. Several other non-synaptic chemical or electric signal transmitting processes occur via extracellular mediated interactions.
Neurons which activate MUSCLE CELLS.
Stimulation of the brain, which is self-administered. The stimulation may result in negative or positive reinforcement.
Specialized afferent neurons capable of transducing sensory stimuli into NERVE IMPULSES to be transmitted to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. Sometimes sensory receptors for external stimuli are called exteroceptors; for internal stimuli are called interoceptors and proprioceptors.
The process in which specialized SENSORY RECEPTOR CELLS transduce peripheral stimuli (physical or chemical) into NERVE IMPULSES which are then transmitted to the various sensory centers in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
The common name for all members of the Rajidae family. Skates and rays are members of the same order (Rajiformes). Skates have weak electric organs.
A slowly hydrolyzed CHOLINERGIC AGONIST that acts at both MUSCARINIC RECEPTORS and NICOTINIC RECEPTORS.
An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter.
The craniosacral division of the autonomic nervous system. The cell bodies of the parasympathetic preganglionic fibers are in brain stem nuclei and in the sacral spinal cord. They synapse in cranial autonomic ganglia or in terminal ganglia near target organs. The parasympathetic nervous system generally acts to conserve resources and restore homeostasis, often with effects reciprocal to the sympathetic nervous system.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
A statistical technique that isolates and assesses the contributions of categorical independent variables to variation in the mean of a continuous dependent variable.
An element in the alkali group of metals with an atomic symbol K, atomic number 19, and atomic weight 39.10. It is the chief cation in the intracellular fluid of muscle and other cells. Potassium ion is a strong electrolyte that plays a significant role in the regulation of fluid volume and maintenance of the WATER-ELECTROLYTE BALANCE.
A group of cold-blooded, aquatic vertebrates having gills, fins, a cartilaginous or bony endoskeleton, and elongated bodies covered with scales.
The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.
An electrochemical process in which macromolecules or colloidal particles with a net electric charge migrate in a solution under the influence of an electric current.
Lymphocytes responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Two types have been identified - cytotoxic (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and helper T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, HELPER-INDUCER). They are formed when lymphocytes circulate through the THYMUS GLAND and differentiate to thymocytes. When exposed to an antigen, they divide rapidly and produce large numbers of new T cells sensitized to that antigen.
Neural tracts connecting one part of the nervous system with another.
The fission of a CELL. It includes CYTOKINESIS, when the CYTOPLASM of a cell is divided, and CELL NUCLEUS DIVISION.
Unstriated and unstriped muscle, one of the muscles of the internal organs, blood vessels, hair follicles, etc. Contractile elements are elongated, usually spindle-shaped cells with centrally located nuclei. Smooth muscle fibers are bound together into sheets or bundles by reticular fibers and frequently elastic nets are also abundant. (From Stedman, 25th ed)
The physical characteristics and processes of biological systems.
An serine-threonine protein kinase that requires the presence of physiological concentrations of CALCIUM and membrane PHOSPHOLIPIDS. The additional presence of DIACYLGLYCEROLS markedly increases its sensitivity to both calcium and phospholipids. The sensitivity of the enzyme can also be increased by PHORBOL ESTERS and it is believed that protein kinase C is the receptor protein of tumor-promoting phorbol esters.
Computer-based representation of physical systems and phenomena such as chemical processes.

Inhibitory innervation of cat sphincter of Oddi. (1/19053)

1 Electrical stimulation with trains of 0.1-0.2 ms pulses of the cat isolated sphincter of Oddi inhibited the spontaneous contractile activity and lowered base-line tension considerably. A contraction usually followed the period of stimulation. 2 These inhibitory effects were prevented by tetrodotoxin 0.1-0.5 mug/ml but were not reduced by hexamethonilm, morphine, or blockade of alpha- or beta-adrenoreceptors of cholinoceptors with phenoxy-benzamine propranolol or atropine, respectively. 3 Adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine-5'-diphosphate (ADP) inhibited the spontaneous sphincter activity and caused relaxation thus mimicking the effects of the C-terminal octapeptide of cholecystokinin (C8-CCK), isoprenaline and prostaglandin E1 and E2. 4 ATP alone (greater than 100 mug/ml) or ATP (greater than 10 mug/ml) plus dipyridamole (1 mug/ml), relaxed the sphincter to the same degrees as did the field stimulation. 5 In sphincter maximally contracted by acetylcholine, the effect of stimulation was more marked than that recorded in uncontracted preparations. 6 The present findings suggest that the sphincter of Oddi receives inhibitory nerves that are neither cholinergic nor adrenergic.  (+info)

Further evidence that prostaglandins inhibit the release of noradrenaline from adrenergic nerve terminals by restriction of availability of calcium. (2/19053)

1 Guinea-pig vasa deferentia were continuously superfused after labelling the transmitter stores with [3H](-)-noradrenaline. Release of [3H]-(-)-noradrenaline was induced by transmural nerve stimulation. 2 Prostglandin E2 (14 nM) drastically reduced the release of [3H]-(-)-noradrenaline, while tetraethylammonium (2 mM), rubidium (6 mM), phenoxybenzamine (3 muM) each in the presence or absence of Uptake 1 or 2 blockade, and prolonged pulse duration (from 0.5 to 2.0 ms) all significantly increased the release of [3H]-(-)-noradrenaline per nerve impulse. 3 The inhibitory effect of prostaglandin E2 on evoked release of [3H]-(-)-noradrenaline was significantly reduced by tetraethylammonium, rubidium and prolonged pulse duration, whilst it was actually enhanced by phenoxybenzamine. This indicates that increased release of noradrenaline per nerve impulse does not per se counteract the inhibitory effect of prostaglandin E2. 4 It is concluded that tetraethylammonium, rubidium and prolonged pulse duration counteracted the inhibitory effect of prostaglandin E2 on T3H]-(-)-noradrenaline release by promoting calcium influx during the nerve action potential. The results are consistent with, and add more weight to the view that prostaglandins inhibit the release of noradrenaline by restriction of calcium availability.  (+info)

Automatic activity in depolarized guinea pig ventricular myocardium. Characteristics and mechanisms. (3/19053)

Membrane potential was changed uniformly in segments, 0.7-1.0 mm long, of guinea pig papillary muscles excised from the right ventricle by using extracellular polarizing current pulses applied across two electrically insulated cf preparations superfused with Tyrode's solution at maximum diastolic membrane potentials ranging from-35.2+/-7.5 (threshold) to +4.0+/-9.2 mV. The average maximum dV/dt of RAD ranged from 17.1 to 18.0 V/sec within a membrane potential range of -40 to +20 mV. Raising extracellular Ca2+ concentration [Ca2+]0 from 1.8 to 6.8 mM, or application of isoproterenol (10(-6)g/ml) enhanced the rate of RAD, but lowering [Ca2+]0 to 0.4 mM or exposure to MnCl2 (6 mM) abolished RAD. RAD were enhanced by lowering extracellular K+ concentration [K+]0 from 5.4 to 1.5 mM. RAD were suppressed in 40% of fibers by raising [K+]0 to 15.4 mM, and in all fibers by raising [K+]0 to 40.4 mM. This suppression was due to increased [K+]0 and not to K-induced depolarization because it persisted when membrane potential was held by means of a conditioning hyperpolarizing puled gradually after maximum repolarization. These observations suggest that the development of RAD in depolarized myocardium is associated with a time-dependent decrease in outward current (probably K current) and with increase in the background inward current, presumably flowing through the slow cha-nel carrying Ca or Na ions, or both.  (+info)

Reduction in baroreflex cardiovascular responses due to venous infusion in the rabbit. (4/19053)

We studied reflex bradycardia and depression of mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) during left aortic nerve (LAN) stimulation before and after volume infusion in the anesthetized rabbit. Step increases in mean right atrial pressure (MRAP) to 10 mm Hg did not result in a significant change in heart rate or MAP. After volume loading, responses to LAN stimulation were not as great and the degree of attenuation was propoetional to the level of increased MRAP. A change in responsiveness was observed after elevation of MRAP by only 1 mm Hg, corresponding to less than a 10% increase in average calculated blood volume. after an increase in MRAP of 10 mm Hg, peak responses were attenuated by 44% (heart rate) and 52% (MAP), and the initial slopes (rate of change) were reduced by 46% (heart rate) and 66% (MAP). Comparison of the responses after infusion with blood and dextran solutions indicated that hemodilution was an unlikely explanation for the attenuation of the reflex responses. Total arterial baroreceptor denervation (ABD) abolished the volume-related attenuation was still present following bilateral aortic nerve section or vagotomy. It thus appears that the carotid sinus responds to changes inblood volume and influences the reflex cardiovascular responses to afferent stimulation of the LAN. On the other hand, cardiopulmonary receptors subserved by vagal afferents do not appear to be involved.  (+info)

The effect of cardiac contraction on collateral resistance in the canine heart. (5/19053)

We determined whether the coronary collateral vessels develop an increased resistance to blood flow during systole as does the cognate vascular bed. Collateral resistance was estimated by measuring retrograde flow rate from a distal branch of the left anterior descending coronary artery while the main left coronary artery was perfused at a constant pressure. Retrograde flow rate was measured before and during vagal arrest. We found that in 10 dogs the prolonged diastole experienced when the heart was stopped caused no significant change in the retrograde flow rate, which indicated that systole has little effect on the collateral resistance. However, when left ventricular end-diastolic pressure was altered by changing afterload or contractility, a direct relationship between end-diastolic pressure and collateral resistance was noted.  (+info)

Effect of electrotonic potentials on pacemaker activity of canine Purkinje fibers in relation to parasystole. (6/19053)

Isolated false tendons excised form dog hearts were mounted in a three-chamber tissue bath. Isotonic sucrose solution was perfused in the central chamber to provide a region of depressed conductivity between the fiber segments in chambers 1 and 3, which were perfused with Tyrode's solution. The electrotonic influence of spontaneous or driven responses evoked in chamber 3 during the first half of the spontaneous cycle of a chamber 1 peacemaker delayed the next spontaneous discharge. This effect changed to acceleration when the chamber 3 segment fired during the second half of the spontaneous cycle. We found that subthreshold depolarizing current pulses 50-300 msec applied across the sucrose gap caused similar degrees of delay or acceleration. Furthermore, hyperpolarizing currents caused the reverse pattern. The results indicate that the discharge pattern of a parasystolic focus may be altered by the electrotonic influence of activity in the surrounding tissue. The significance of these findings is considered in relation to the mechanism of production of parasystolic rhythms.  (+info)

Evaluation of the force-frequency relationship as a descriptor of the inotropic state of canine left ventricular myocardium. (7/19053)

The short-term force-frequency characteristics of canine left ventricular myocardium were examined in both isolated and intact preparations by briefly pertubing the frequency of contraction with early extrasystoles. The maximum rate of rise of isometric tension (Fmas) of the isolated trabeculae carneae was potentiated by the introduction of extrasystoles. The ratio of Fmas of potentiated to control beats (force-frequency ratio) was not altered significantly by a change in muscle length. However, exposure of the trabeculae to isoproterenol (10(-7)M) significantly changed the force-frequency ratio obtained in response to a constant frequency perturbation. Similar experiments were performed on chronically instrumented conscious dogs. Left ventricular minor axis diameter was measured with implanted pulse-transit ultrasonic dimension transducers, and intracavitary pressure was measured with a high fidelity micromanometer. Atrial pacing was performed so that the end-diastolic diameters of the beats preceding and following the extrasystole could be made identical. Large increases in the maximum rate of rise of pressure (Pmas) were seen in the contraction after the extrasystole. The ratio of Pmax of the potentiated beat to that of the control beat was not changed by a 9% increase in the end-diastolic diameter, produced by saline infusion. Conversely, isoproterenol significantly altered this relationship in the same manner as in the isolated muscle. Thus, either in vitro or in situ, left ventricular myocardium exhibits large functional changes in response to brief perturbations in rate. The isoproterenol and length data indicate that the force-frequency ratio reflects frequency-dependent changes in the inotropic state, independent of changes in length.  (+info)

Developmental synaptic changes increase the range of integrative capabilities of an identified excitatory neocortical connection. (8/19053)

Excitatory synaptic transmission between pyramidal cells and fast-spiking (FS) interneurons of layer V of the motor cortex was investigated in acute slices by using paired recordings at 30 degrees C combined with morphological analysis. The presynaptic and postsynaptic properties at these identified central synapses were compared between 3- and 5-week-old rats. At these two postnatal developmental stages, unitary EPSCs were mediated by the activation of AMPA receptors with fast kinetics at a holding potential of -72 mV. The amplitude distribution analysis of the EPSCs indicates that, at both stages, pyramidal-FS connections consisted of multiple functional release sites. The apparent quantal size obtained by decreasing the external calcium ([Ca2+]e) varied from 11 to 29 pA near resting membrane potential. In young rats, pairs of presynaptic action potentials elicited unitary synaptic responses that displayed paired-pulse depression at all tested frequencies. In older animals, inputs from different pyramidal cells onto the same FS interneuron had different paired-pulse response characteristics and, at most of these connections, a switch from depression to facilitation occurred when decreasing the rate of presynaptic stimulation. The balance between facilitation and depression endows pyramidal-FS connections from 5-week-old animals with wide integrative capabilities and confers unique functional properties to each synapse.  (+info)

Electric stimulation, also known as electrical nerve stimulation or neuromuscular electrical stimulation, is a therapeutic treatment that uses low-voltage electrical currents to stimulate nerves and muscles. It is often used to help manage pain, promote healing, and improve muscle strength and mobility. The electrical impulses can be delivered through electrodes placed on the skin or directly implanted into the body.

In a medical context, electric stimulation may be used for various purposes such as:

1. Pain management: Electric stimulation can help to block pain signals from reaching the brain and promote the release of endorphins, which are natural painkillers produced by the body.
2. Muscle rehabilitation: Electric stimulation can help to strengthen muscles that have become weak due to injury, illness, or surgery. It can also help to prevent muscle atrophy and improve range of motion.
3. Wound healing: Electric stimulation can promote tissue growth and help to speed up the healing process in wounds, ulcers, and other types of injuries.
4. Urinary incontinence: Electric stimulation can be used to strengthen the muscles that control urination and reduce symptoms of urinary incontinence.
5. Migraine prevention: Electric stimulation can be used as a preventive treatment for migraines by applying electrical impulses to specific nerves in the head and neck.

It is important to note that electric stimulation should only be administered under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional, as improper use can cause harm or discomfort.

Electric stimulation therapy, also known as neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) or electromyostimulation, is a therapeutic treatment that uses electrical impulses to stimulate muscles and nerves. The electrical signals are delivered through electrodes placed on the skin near the target muscle group or nerve.

The therapy can be used for various purposes, including:

1. Pain management: Electric stimulation can help reduce pain by stimulating the release of endorphins, which are natural painkillers produced by the body. It can also help block the transmission of pain signals to the brain.
2. Muscle rehabilitation: NMES can be used to prevent muscle atrophy and maintain muscle tone in individuals who are unable to move their muscles due to injury or illness, such as spinal cord injuries or stroke.
3. Improving circulation: Electric stimulation can help improve blood flow and reduce swelling by contracting the muscles and promoting the movement of fluids in the body.
4. Wound healing: NMES can be used to promote wound healing by increasing blood flow, reducing swelling, and improving muscle function around the wound site.
5. Muscle strengthening: Electric stimulation can be used to strengthen muscles by causing them to contract and relax repeatedly, which can help improve muscle strength and endurance.

It is important to note that electric stimulation therapy should only be administered under the guidance of a trained healthcare professional, as improper use can cause harm or discomfort.

Cochlear implants are medical devices that are surgically implanted in the inner ear to help restore hearing in individuals with severe to profound hearing loss. These devices bypass the damaged hair cells in the inner ear and directly stimulate the auditory nerve, allowing the brain to interpret sound signals. Cochlear implants consist of two main components: an external processor that picks up and analyzes sounds from the environment, and an internal receiver/stimulator that receives the processed information and sends electrical impulses to the auditory nerve. The resulting patterns of electrical activity are then perceived as sound by the brain. Cochlear implants can significantly improve communication abilities, language development, and overall quality of life for individuals with profound hearing loss.

Chiroptera is the scientific order that includes all bat species. Bats are the only mammals capable of sustained flight, and they are distributed worldwide with the exception of extremely cold environments. They vary greatly in size, from the bumblebee bat, which weighs less than a penny, to the giant golden-crowned flying fox, which has a wingspan of up to 6 feet.

Bats play a crucial role in many ecosystems as pollinators and seed dispersers for plants, and they also help control insect populations. Some bat species are nocturnal and use echolocation to navigate and find food, while others are diurnal and rely on their vision. Their diet mainly consists of insects, fruits, nectar, and pollen, although a few species feed on blood or small vertebrates.

Unfortunately, many bat populations face significant threats due to habitat loss, disease, and wind turbine collisions, leading to declining numbers and increased conservation efforts.

The cochlear nerve, also known as the auditory nerve, is the sensory nerve that transmits sound signals from the inner ear to the brain. It consists of two parts: the outer spiral ganglion and the inner vestibular portion. The spiral ganglion contains the cell bodies of the bipolar neurons that receive input from hair cells in the cochlea, which is the snail-shaped organ in the inner ear responsible for hearing. These neurons then send their axons to form the cochlear nerve, which travels through the internal auditory meatus and synapses with neurons in the cochlear nuclei located in the brainstem.

Damage to the cochlear nerve can result in hearing loss or deafness, depending on the severity of the injury. Common causes of cochlear nerve damage include acoustic trauma, such as exposure to loud noises, viral infections, meningitis, and tumors affecting the nerve or surrounding structures. In some cases, cochlear nerve damage may be treated with hearing aids, cochlear implants, or other assistive devices to help restore or improve hearing function.

A visual prosthesis, also known as a retinal implant or bionic eye, is a medical device that aims to restore some functional vision in individuals who have severe visual impairment or blindness due to certain eye conditions such as retinitis pigmentosa or age-related macular degeneration.

The prosthesis works by electrically stimulating the remaining viable nerve cells in the retina, which then transmit the signals to the brain via the optic nerve. The device typically consists of a camera that captures visual information, a processor that converts the images into electrical signals, and an electrode array that is implanted onto the surface of the retina.

The electrical stimulation of the retinal cells creates patterns of light in the individual's visual field, allowing them to perceive shapes, edges, and movements. While the level of visual acuity achieved with current visual prostheses is still limited, they can significantly improve the quality of life for some individuals by enabling them to perform tasks such as recognizing objects, navigating their environment, and identifying facial expressions.

Acoustic stimulation refers to the use of sound waves or vibrations to elicit a response in an individual, typically for the purpose of assessing or treating hearing, balance, or neurological disorders. In a medical context, acoustic stimulation may involve presenting pure tones, speech sounds, or other types of auditory signals through headphones, speakers, or specialized devices such as bone conduction transducers.

The response to acoustic stimulation can be measured using various techniques, including electrophysiological tests like auditory brainstem responses (ABRs) or otoacoustic emissions (OAEs), behavioral observations, or functional imaging methods like fMRI. Acoustic stimulation is also used in therapeutic settings, such as auditory training programs for hearing impairment or vestibular rehabilitation for balance disorders.

It's important to note that acoustic stimulation should be administered under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional to ensure safety and effectiveness.

Auditory pathways refer to the series of structures and nerves in the body that are involved in processing sound and transmitting it to the brain for interpretation. The process begins when sound waves enter the ear and cause vibrations in the eardrum, which then move the bones in the middle ear. These movements stimulate hair cells in the cochlea, a spiral-shaped structure in the inner ear, causing them to release neurotransmitters that activate auditory nerve fibers.

The auditory nerve carries these signals to the brainstem, where they are relayed through several additional structures before reaching the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe of the brain. Here, the signals are processed and interpreted as sounds, allowing us to hear and understand speech, music, and other environmental noises.

Damage or dysfunction at any point along the auditory pathway can lead to hearing loss or impairment.

An Electric organ is a specialized electric tissue found in some groups of fish, most notably in the electric eels and electric rays. It consists of modified muscle or nerve cells called electrocytes, which are capable of generating and transmitting electrical signals. These organs are used for various purposes such as navigation, communication, and hunting. In electric eels, for example, the electric organ can generate powerful electric shocks to stun prey or defend against predators.

Cochlear implantation is a surgical procedure in which a device called a cochlear implant is inserted into the inner ear (cochlea) of a person with severe to profound hearing loss. The implant consists of an external component, which includes a microphone, processor, and transmitter, and an internal component, which includes a receiver and electrode array.

The microphone picks up sounds from the environment and sends them to the processor, which analyzes and converts the sounds into electrical signals. These signals are then transmitted to the receiver, which stimulates the electrode array in the cochlea. The electrodes directly stimulate the auditory nerve fibers, bypassing the damaged hair cells in the inner ear that are responsible for normal hearing.

The brain interprets these electrical signals as sound, allowing the person to perceive and understand speech and other sounds. Cochlear implantation is typically recommended for people who do not benefit from traditional hearing aids and can significantly improve communication, quality of life, and social integration for those with severe to profound hearing loss.

The auditory cortex is the region of the brain that is responsible for processing and analyzing sounds, including speech. It is located in the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex, specifically within the Heschl's gyrus and the surrounding areas. The auditory cortex receives input from the auditory nerve, which carries sound information from the inner ear to the brain.

The auditory cortex is divided into several subregions that are responsible for different aspects of sound processing, such as pitch, volume, and location. These regions work together to help us recognize and interpret sounds in our environment, allowing us to communicate with others and respond appropriately to our surroundings. Damage to the auditory cortex can result in hearing loss or difficulty understanding speech.

Deafness is a hearing loss that is so severe that it results in significant difficulty in understanding or comprehending speech, even when using hearing aids. It can be congenital (present at birth) or acquired later in life due to various causes such as disease, injury, infection, exposure to loud noises, or aging. Deafness can range from mild to profound and may affect one ear (unilateral) or both ears (bilateral). In some cases, deafness may be accompanied by tinnitus, which is the perception of ringing or other sounds in the ears.

Deaf individuals often use American Sign Language (ASL) or other forms of sign language to communicate. Some people with less severe hearing loss may benefit from hearing aids, cochlear implants, or other assistive listening devices. Deafness can have significant social, educational, and vocational implications, and early intervention and appropriate support services are critical for optimal development and outcomes.

The inferior colliculi are a pair of rounded eminences located in the midbrain, specifically in the tectum of the mesencephalon. They play a crucial role in auditory processing and integration. The inferior colliculi receive inputs from various sources, including the cochlear nuclei, superior olivary complex, and cortical areas. They then send their outputs to the medial geniculate body, which is a part of the thalamus that relays auditory information to the auditory cortex.

In summary, the inferior colliculi are important structures in the auditory pathway that help process and integrate auditory information before it reaches the cerebral cortex for further analysis and perception.

Pitch perception is the ability to identify and discriminate different frequencies or musical notes. It is the way our auditory system interprets and organizes sounds based on their highness or lowness, which is determined by the frequency of the sound waves. A higher pitch corresponds to a higher frequency, while a lower pitch corresponds to a lower frequency. Pitch perception is an important aspect of hearing and is crucial for understanding speech, enjoying music, and localizing sounds in our environment. It involves complex processing in the inner ear and auditory nervous system.

The auditory threshold is the minimum sound intensity or loudness level that a person can detect 50% of the time, for a given tone frequency. It is typically measured in decibels (dB) and represents the quietest sound that a person can hear. The auditory threshold can be affected by various factors such as age, exposure to noise, and certain medical conditions. Hearing tests, such as pure-tone audiometry, are used to measure an individual's auditory thresholds for different frequencies.

Hearing is the ability to perceive sounds by detecting vibrations in the air or other mediums and translating them into nerve impulses that are sent to the brain for interpretation. In medical terms, hearing is defined as the sense of sound perception, which is mediated by the ear and interpreted by the brain. It involves a complex series of processes, including the conduction of sound waves through the outer ear to the eardrum, the vibration of the middle ear bones, and the movement of fluid in the inner ear, which stimulates hair cells to send electrical signals to the auditory nerve and ultimately to the brain. Hearing allows us to communicate with others, appreciate music and sounds, and detect danger or important events in our environment.

Implanted electrodes are medical devices that are surgically placed inside the body to interface directly with nerves, neurons, or other electrically excitable tissue for various therapeutic purposes. These electrodes can be used to stimulate or record electrical activity from specific areas of the body, depending on their design and application.

There are several types of implanted electrodes, including:

1. Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) electrodes: These are placed deep within the brain to treat movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, and dystonia. DBS electrodes deliver electrical impulses that modulate abnormal neural activity in targeted brain regions.
2. Spinal Cord Stimulation (SCS) electrodes: These are implanted along the spinal cord to treat chronic pain syndromes. SCS electrodes emit low-level electrical pulses that interfere with pain signals traveling to the brain, providing relief for patients.
3. Cochlear Implant electrodes: These are surgically inserted into the cochlea of the inner ear to restore hearing in individuals with severe to profound hearing loss. The electrodes stimulate the auditory nerve directly, bypassing damaged hair cells within the cochlea.
4. Retinal Implant electrodes: These are implanted in the retina to treat certain forms of blindness caused by degenerative eye diseases like retinitis pigmentosa. The electrodes convert visual information from a camera into electrical signals, which stimulate remaining retinal cells and transmit the information to the brain via the optic nerve.
5. Sacral Nerve Stimulation (SNS) electrodes: These are placed near the sacral nerves in the lower back to treat urinary or fecal incontinence and overactive bladder syndrome. SNS electrodes deliver electrical impulses that regulate the function of the affected muscles and nerves.
6. Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS) electrodes: These are wrapped around the vagus nerve in the neck to treat epilepsy and depression. VNS electrodes provide intermittent electrical stimulation to the vagus nerve, which has connections to various regions of the brain involved in these conditions.

Overall, implanted electrodes serve as a crucial component in many neuromodulation therapies, offering an effective treatment option for numerous neurological and sensory disorders.

Psychoacoustics is a branch of psychophysics that deals with the study of the psychological and physiological responses to sound. It involves understanding how people perceive, interpret, and react to different sounds, including speech, music, and environmental noises. This field combines knowledge from various areas such as psychology, acoustics, physics, and engineering to investigate the relationship between physical sound characteristics and human perception. Research in psychoacoustics has applications in fields like hearing aid design, noise control, music perception, and communication systems.

Neuronal plasticity, also known as neuroplasticity or neural plasticity, refers to the ability of the brain and nervous system to change and adapt as a result of experience, learning, injury, or disease. This can involve changes in the structure, organization, and function of neurons (nerve cells) and their connections (synapses) in the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Neuronal plasticity can take many forms, including:

* Synaptic plasticity: Changes in the strength or efficiency of synaptic connections between neurons. This can involve the formation, elimination, or modification of synapses.
* Neural circuit plasticity: Changes in the organization and connectivity of neural circuits, which are networks of interconnected neurons that process information.
* Structural plasticity: Changes in the physical structure of neurons, such as the growth or retraction of dendrites (branches that receive input from other neurons) or axons (projections that transmit signals to other neurons).
* Functional plasticity: Changes in the physiological properties of neurons, such as their excitability, responsiveness, or sensitivity to stimuli.

Neuronal plasticity is a fundamental property of the nervous system and plays a crucial role in many aspects of brain function, including learning, memory, perception, and cognition. It also contributes to the brain's ability to recover from injury or disease, such as stroke or traumatic brain injury.

The cochlea is a part of the inner ear that is responsible for hearing. It is a spiral-shaped structure that looks like a snail shell and is filled with fluid. The cochlea contains hair cells, which are specialized sensory cells that convert sound vibrations into electrical signals that are sent to the brain.

The cochlea has three main parts: the vestibular canal, the tympanic canal, and the cochlear duct. Sound waves enter the inner ear and cause the fluid in the cochlea to move, which in turn causes the hair cells to bend. This bending motion stimulates the hair cells to generate electrical signals that are sent to the brain via the auditory nerve.

The brain then interprets these signals as sound, allowing us to hear and understand speech, music, and other sounds in our environment. Damage to the hair cells or other structures in the cochlea can lead to hearing loss or deafness.

An action potential is a brief electrical signal that travels along the membrane of a nerve cell (neuron) or muscle cell. It is initiated by a rapid, localized change in the permeability of the cell membrane to specific ions, such as sodium and potassium, resulting in a rapid influx of sodium ions and a subsequent efflux of potassium ions. This ion movement causes a brief reversal of the electrical potential across the membrane, which is known as depolarization. The action potential then propagates along the cell membrane as a wave, allowing the electrical signal to be transmitted over long distances within the body. Action potentials play a crucial role in the communication and functioning of the nervous system and muscle tissue.

Speech perception is the process by which the brain interprets and understands spoken language. It involves recognizing and discriminating speech sounds (phonemes), organizing them into words, and attaching meaning to those words in order to comprehend spoken language. This process requires the integration of auditory information with prior knowledge and context. Factors such as hearing ability, cognitive function, and language experience can all impact speech perception.

An electrode is a medical device that can conduct electrical currents and is used to transmit or receive electrical signals, often in the context of medical procedures or treatments. In a medical setting, electrodes may be used for a variety of purposes, such as:

1. Recording electrical activity in the body: Electrodes can be attached to the skin or inserted into body tissues to measure electrical signals produced by the heart, brain, muscles, or nerves. This information can be used to diagnose medical conditions, monitor the effectiveness of treatments, or guide medical procedures.
2. Stimulating nerve or muscle activity: Electrodes can be used to deliver electrical impulses to nerves or muscles, which can help to restore function or alleviate symptoms in people with certain medical conditions. For example, electrodes may be used to stimulate the nerves that control bladder function in people with spinal cord injuries, or to stimulate muscles in people with muscle weakness or paralysis.
3. Administering treatments: Electrodes can also be used to deliver therapeutic treatments, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) for depression or deep brain stimulation (DBS) for movement disorders like Parkinson's disease. In these procedures, electrodes are implanted in specific areas of the brain and connected to a device that generates electrical impulses, which can help to regulate abnormal brain activity and improve symptoms.

Overall, electrodes play an important role in many medical procedures and treatments, allowing healthcare professionals to diagnose and treat a wide range of conditions that affect the body's electrical systems.

"Cat" is a common name that refers to various species of small carnivorous mammals that belong to the family Felidae. The domestic cat, also known as Felis catus or Felis silvestris catus, is a popular pet and companion animal. It is a subspecies of the wildcat, which is found in Europe, Africa, and Asia.

Domestic cats are often kept as pets because of their companionship, playful behavior, and ability to hunt vermin. They are also valued for their ability to provide emotional support and therapy to people. Cats are obligate carnivores, which means that they require a diet that consists mainly of meat to meet their nutritional needs.

Cats are known for their agility, sharp senses, and predatory instincts. They have retractable claws, which they use for hunting and self-defense. Cats also have a keen sense of smell, hearing, and vision, which allow them to detect prey and navigate their environment.

In medical terms, cats can be hosts to various parasites and diseases that can affect humans and other animals. Some common feline diseases include rabies, feline leukemia virus (FeLV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), and toxoplasmosis. It is important for cat owners to keep their pets healthy and up-to-date on vaccinations and preventative treatments to protect both the cats and their human companions.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Electromagnetic fields (EMFs) are invisible forces that result from the interaction between electrically charged objects. They are created by natural phenomena, such as the Earth's magnetic field, as well as by human-made sources, such as power lines, electrical appliances, and wireless communication devices.

EMFs are characterized by their frequency and strength, which determine their potential biological effects. Low-frequency EMFs, such as those produced by power lines and household appliances, have frequencies in the range of 0 to 300 Hz. High-frequency EMFs, such as those produced by wireless communication devices like cell phones and Wi-Fi routers, have frequencies in the range of 100 kHz to 300 GHz.

Exposure to EMFs has been linked to a variety of health effects, including increased risk of cancer, reproductive problems, neurological disorders, and oxidative stress. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential health risks associated with exposure to EMFs and to establish safe exposure limits.

Electrophysiology is a branch of medicine that deals with the electrical activities of the body, particularly the heart. In a medical context, electrophysiology studies (EPS) are performed to assess abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias) and to evaluate the effectiveness of certain treatments, such as medication or pacemakers.

During an EPS, electrode catheters are inserted into the heart through blood vessels in the groin or neck. These catheters can record the electrical activity of the heart and stimulate it to help identify the source of the arrhythmia. The information gathered during the study can help doctors determine the best course of treatment for each patient.

In addition to cardiac electrophysiology, there are also other subspecialties within electrophysiology, such as neuromuscular electrophysiology, which deals with the electrical activity of the nervous system and muscles.

Neurons, also known as nerve cells or neurocytes, are specialized cells that constitute the basic unit of the nervous system. They are responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information and signals within the body. Neurons have three main parts: the dendrites, the cell body (soma), and the axon. The dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors, while the axon transmits these signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands. The junction between two neurons is called a synapse, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit the signal across the gap (synaptic cleft) to the next neuron. Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure depending on their function and location within the nervous system.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Rabbits" is a common name used to refer to the Lagomorpha species, particularly members of the family Leporidae. They are small mammals known for their long ears, strong legs, and quick reproduction.

However, if you're referring to "rabbits" in a medical context, there is a term called "rabbit syndrome," which is a rare movement disorder characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements of the fingers, resembling those of a rabbit chewing. It is also known as "finger-chewing chorea." This condition is usually associated with certain medications, particularly antipsychotics, and typically resolves when the medication is stopped or adjusted.

Gymnotiformes is not a medical term, but a taxonomic category in biology. It refers to a order of ray-finned fishes also known as knifefish or Neotropical eels. These fish are characterized by their elongated, eel-like bodies and the ability to generate electric fields for navigation and communication. They are primarily found in freshwater environments of Central and South America.

Electric injuries refer to damage to the body caused by exposure to electrical energy. This can occur when a person comes into contact with an electrical source, such as a power line or outlet, and the electrical current passes through the body. The severity of the injury depends on various factors, including the voltage and amperage of the electrical current, the duration of exposure, and the path the current takes through the body.

Electric injuries can cause a range of symptoms and complications, including burns, cardiac arrest, muscle damage, nerve damage, and fractures or dislocations (if the victim is thrown by the electrical shock). In some cases, electric injuries can be fatal. Treatment typically involves supportive care to stabilize the patient's vital signs, as well as specific interventions to address any complications that may have arisen as a result of the injury. Prevention measures include following safety guidelines when working with electricity and being aware of potential electrical hazards in one's environment.

A chemical stimulation in a medical context refers to the process of activating or enhancing physiological or psychological responses in the body using chemical substances. These chemicals can interact with receptors on cells to trigger specific reactions, such as neurotransmitters and hormones that transmit signals within the nervous system and endocrine system.

Examples of chemical stimulation include the use of medications, drugs, or supplements that affect mood, alertness, pain perception, or other bodily functions. For instance, caffeine can chemically stimulate the central nervous system to increase alertness and decrease feelings of fatigue. Similarly, certain painkillers can chemically stimulate opioid receptors in the brain to reduce the perception of pain.

It's important to note that while chemical stimulation can have therapeutic benefits, it can also have adverse effects if used improperly or in excessive amounts. Therefore, it's essential to follow proper dosing instructions and consult with a healthcare provider before using any chemical substances for stimulation purposes.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a surgical procedure that involves the implantation of a medical device called a neurostimulator, which sends electrical impulses to specific targets in the brain. The impulses help to regulate abnormal brain activity, and can be used to treat a variety of neurological conditions, including Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, dystonia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder.

During the procedure, electrodes are implanted into the brain and connected to the neurostimulator, which is typically implanted in the chest. The neurostimulator can be programmed to deliver electrical impulses at varying frequencies, amplitudes, and pulse widths, depending on the specific needs of the patient.

DBS is generally considered a safe and effective treatment option for many patients with neurological conditions, although it does carry some risks, such as infection, bleeding, and hardware complications. It is typically reserved for patients who have not responded well to other forms of treatment, or who experience significant side effects from medication.

Physical stimulation, in a medical context, refers to the application of external forces or agents to the body or its tissues to elicit a response. This can include various forms of touch, pressure, temperature, vibration, or electrical currents. The purpose of physical stimulation may be therapeutic, as in the case of massage or physical therapy, or diagnostic, as in the use of reflex tests. It is also used in research settings to study physiological responses and mechanisms.

In a broader sense, physical stimulation can also refer to the body's exposure to physical activity or exercise, which can have numerous health benefits, including improving cardiovascular function, increasing muscle strength and flexibility, and reducing the risk of chronic diseases.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive form of brain stimulation where a magnetic field is generated via an electromagnetic coil placed on the scalp. This magnetic field induces an electric current in the underlying brain tissue, which can lead to neuronal activation or inhibition, depending on the frequency and intensity of the stimulation. TMS has been used as a therapeutic intervention for various neurological and psychiatric conditions, such as depression, migraine, and tinnitus, among others. It is also used in research settings to investigate brain function and connectivity.

I believe you are asking for a medical explanation or interpretation of "electric wiring." However, the term "electric wiring" is not typically used in a medical context. It refers to the system of wires and components that distribute electricity throughout a building or device. If you're looking for a medical term related to nerves or nervous system, perhaps you meant something like "neuronal circuitry" or "nerve impulse transmission."

Neuronal circuitry refers to the complex network of interconnected neurons in the brain and nervous system that transmit signals and enable various functions. Nerve impulse transmission is the process by which electrical signals are transmitted along the length of a nerve cell, allowing communication between different parts of the body.

Electric conductivity, also known as electrical conductance, is a measure of a material's ability to allow the flow of electric current through it. It is usually measured in units of Siemens per meter (S/m) or ohm-meters (Ω-m).

In medical terms, electric conductivity can refer to the body's ability to conduct electrical signals, which is important for various physiological processes such as nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction. Abnormalities in electrical conductivity can be associated with various medical conditions, including neurological disorders and heart diseases.

For example, in electrocardiography (ECG), the electric conductivity of the heart is measured to assess its electrical activity and identify any abnormalities that may indicate heart disease. Similarly, in electromyography (EMG), the electric conductivity of muscles is measured to diagnose neuromuscular disorders.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Electroporation is a medical procedure that involves the use of electrical fields to create temporary pores or openings in the cell membrane, allowing for the efficient uptake of molecules, drugs, or genetic material into the cell. This technique can be used for various purposes, including delivering genes in gene therapy, introducing drugs for cancer treatment, or transforming cells in laboratory research. The electrical pulses are carefully controlled to ensure that they are strong enough to create pores in the membrane without causing permanent damage to the cell. After the electrical field is removed, the pores typically close and the cell membrane returns to its normal state.

Electric power supplies are devices that convert electrical energy from a source into a form suitable for powering various types of equipment or devices. They can include a wide range of products such as batteries, generators, transformers, and rectifiers. The main function of an electric power supply is to maintain a stable voltage and current to the load, despite variations in the input voltage or changes in the load's electrical characteristics.

In medical terminology, electric power supplies are used in various medical devices such as diagnostic equipment, therapeutic machines, and monitoring systems. They provide a reliable source of power to these devices, ensuring their proper functioning and enabling accurate measurements and treatments. In some cases, medical power supplies may also include features such as uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems or emergency power-off functions to ensure patient safety in the event of a power failure or other electrical issues.

I believe you may be mistaken when referring to "torpedo" in the context of medicine. The term "torpedo" is not typically used as a medical definition. Instead, it is a term that has various meanings in different fields such as physics, military, and anatomy (in relation to electric fishes).

However, if you are referring to the use of "torpedo" in the context of neuromuscular disorders, it may refer to a type of treatment called "neuromuscular electrical stimulation" or NMES. In this case, the term "torpedo" is used metaphorically to describe the electrical impulse that is delivered to the muscle to cause a contraction. This can be used as a therapeutic intervention for various neuromuscular conditions such as muscle weakness or paralysis.

If you have any further questions, please let me know and I will do my best to assist you!

Electric impedance is a measure of opposition to the flow of alternating current (AC) in an electrical circuit or component, caused by both resistance (ohmic) and reactance (capacitive and inductive). It is expressed as a complex number, with the real part representing resistance and the imaginary part representing reactance. The unit of electric impedance is the ohm (Ω).

In the context of medical devices, electric impedance may be used to measure various physiological parameters, such as tissue conductivity or fluid composition. For example, bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) uses electrical impedance to estimate body composition, including fat mass and lean muscle mass. Similarly, electrical impedance tomography (EIT) is a medical imaging technique that uses electric impedance to create images of internal organs and tissues.

Calcium is an essential mineral that is vital for various physiological processes in the human body. The medical definition of calcium is as follows:

Calcium (Ca2+) is a crucial cation and the most abundant mineral in the human body, with approximately 99% of it found in bones and teeth. It plays a vital role in maintaining structural integrity, nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, hormonal secretion, blood coagulation, and enzyme activation.

Calcium homeostasis is tightly regulated through the interplay of several hormones, including parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, and vitamin D. Dietary calcium intake, absorption, and excretion are also critical factors in maintaining optimal calcium levels in the body.

Hypocalcemia refers to low serum calcium levels, while hypercalcemia indicates high serum calcium levels. Both conditions can have detrimental effects on various organ systems and require medical intervention to correct.

Electric burns are injuries to the skin and underlying tissues caused by exposure to electrical current. The damage can be both internal and external, and it depends on the voltage, amperage, type of current (alternating or direct), duration of exposure, and the pathway the current takes through the body.

Electric burns can cause extensive tissue damage, including deep burns, nerve damage, muscle damage, and fractures. They may also result in cardiac arrest, irregular heart rhythms, and respiratory failure. In some cases, electric burns may not appear severe on the surface of the skin, but they can still cause significant internal injuries.

Treatment for electric burns typically involves wound care, pain management, and monitoring for complications such as infection or organ damage. In severe cases, surgery may be necessary to remove damaged tissue and repair injured muscles, nerves, and blood vessels.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Electrochemotherapy is a medical treatment that combines the use of certain drugs with electrical pulses to increase the permeability of cell membranes, allowing for enhanced uptake of the drugs into cells. This approach is often used in the treatment of cancer, particularly in cases where the tumor is localized and not responsive to other forms of therapy.

The drugs most commonly used in electrochemotherapy are cytotoxic agents, such as bleomycin or cisplatin, which can effectively kill cancer cells when delivered in high concentrations. However, these drugs typically have poor membrane permeability, making it difficult to achieve therapeutic levels inside the cells.

To overcome this challenge, electrochemotherapy applies short, intense electrical pulses to the tumor site, creating temporary pores in the cell membranes. This allows for increased drug uptake and improved distribution of the cytotoxic agents within the cancer cells. The electrical pulses also have a direct effect on the cancer cells, further contributing to their destruction.

The benefits of electrochemotherapy include its ability to treat tumors with minimal invasiveness, reduced side effects compared to traditional chemotherapy, and potential synergy between the electrical pulses and cytotoxic drugs for improved treatment outcomes. Electrochemotherapy is often used in palliative care or as an adjunct to other cancer treatments, such as surgery, radiation therapy, or immunotherapy.

Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS) is a non-invasive method of pain relief that involves the use of low-voltage electrical currents. A TENS device, which is usually small and portable, delivers these currents through electrodes that are placed on the skin near the site of pain. The electrical impulses stimulate nerve fibers, which can help to block the transmission of pain signals to the brain, thereby reducing the perception of pain.

TENS is thought to work through a number of different mechanisms, including the gate control theory of pain and the release of endorphins, which are natural painkillers produced by the body. It is generally considered safe, with few side effects, and can be used in conjunction with other forms of pain management.

TENS is often used to treat chronic pain conditions such as arthritis, fibromyalgia, and lower back pain, as well as acute pain from injuries or surgery. However, its effectiveness varies from person to person, and it may not work for everyone. It is important to consult with a healthcare provider before using TENS, particularly if you have any underlying medical conditions or are taking medication that could interact with the electrical currents.

'Electrophorus' is a scientific term that refers to a genus of electric fishes found in the Amazon River basin in South America. The name is most commonly associated with one species in particular, Electrophorus electricus, which is more popularly known as the electric eel. Despite its common name, the electric eel is not a true eel but rather a knifefish, related to catfishes and carps.

The term 'Electrophorus' comes from the Greek words "electron," meaning amber or electron (with a nod to its electrical properties), and "pherein," meaning to carry or bear. This name is fitting for the electric eel, as it has the remarkable ability to generate strong electric fields that it uses for hunting, navigation, and defense.

Electric eels possess specialized electric organs in their body, which are made up of electrocytes - cells that function like tiny batteries when stimulated. By stacking thousands of these electrocytes together, the electric eel can produce powerful electrical discharges reaching up to 600 volts and 1 ampere of current, enough to stun or even kill prey and deter potential predators.

In summary, 'Electrophorus' is a medical definition for a genus of electric fishes, with the most well-known species being the electric eel (Electrophorus electricus). These unique creatures have the ability to generate strong electric fields using specialized electric organs, which they use for hunting, navigation, and defense.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Membrane potential is the electrical potential difference across a cell membrane, typically for excitable cells such as nerve and muscle cells. It is the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a cell, created by the selective permeability of the cell membrane to different ions. The resting membrane potential of a typical animal cell is around -70 mV, with the interior being negative relative to the exterior. This potential is generated and maintained by the active transport of ions across the membrane, primarily through the action of the sodium-potassium pump. Membrane potentials play a crucial role in many physiological processes, including the transmission of nerve impulses and the contraction of muscle cells.

Electrochemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the interconversion of electrical energy and chemical energy. It involves the study of chemical processes that cause electrons to move, resulting in the transfer of electrical charge, and the reverse processes by which electrical energy can be used to drive chemical reactions. This field encompasses various phenomena such as the generation of electricity from chemical sources (as in batteries), the electrolysis of substances, and corrosion. Electrochemical reactions are fundamental to many technologies, including energy storage and conversion, environmental protection, and medical diagnostics.

Muscle contraction is the physiological process in which muscle fibers shorten and generate force, leading to movement or stability of a body part. This process involves the sliding filament theory where thick and thin filaments within the sarcomeres (the functional units of muscles) slide past each other, facilitated by the interaction between myosin heads and actin filaments. The energy required for this action is provided by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Muscle contractions can be voluntary or involuntary, and they play a crucial role in various bodily functions such as locomotion, circulation, respiration, and posture maintenance.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

Photic stimulation is a medical term that refers to the exposure of the eyes to light, specifically repetitive pulses of light, which is used as a method in various research and clinical settings. In neuroscience, it's often used in studies related to vision, circadian rhythms, and brain function.

In a clinical context, photic stimulation is sometimes used in the diagnosis of certain medical conditions such as seizure disorders (like epilepsy). By observing the response of the brain to this light stimulus, doctors can gain valuable insights into the functioning of the brain and the presence of any neurological disorders.

However, it's important to note that photic stimulation should be conducted under the supervision of a trained healthcare professional, as improper use can potentially trigger seizures in individuals who are susceptible to them.

Animal communication is the transmission of information from one animal to another. This can occur through a variety of means, including visual, auditory, tactile, and chemical signals. For example, animals may use body postures, facial expressions, vocalizations, touch, or the release of chemicals (such as pheromones) to convey messages to conspecifics.

Animal communication can serve a variety of functions, including coordinating group activities, warning others of danger, signaling reproductive status, and establishing social hierarchies. In some cases, animal communication may also involve the use of sophisticated cognitive abilities, such as the ability to understand and interpret complex signals or to learn and remember the meanings of different signals.

It is important to note that while animals are capable of communicating with one another, this does not necessarily mean that they have language in the same sense that humans do. Language typically involves a system of arbitrary symbols that are used to convey meaning, and it is not clear to what extent animals are able to use such symbolic systems. However, many animals are certainly able to communicate effectively using their own species-specific signals and behaviors.

Phosphorylation is the process of adding a phosphate group (a molecule consisting of one phosphorus atom and four oxygen atoms) to a protein or other organic molecule, which is usually done by enzymes called kinases. This post-translational modification can change the function, localization, or activity of the target molecule, playing a crucial role in various cellular processes such as signal transduction, metabolism, and regulation of gene expression. Phosphorylation is reversible, and the removal of the phosphate group is facilitated by enzymes called phosphatases.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

Evoked potentials (EPs) are medical tests that measure the electrical activity in the brain or spinal cord in response to specific sensory stimuli, such as sight, sound, or touch. These tests are often used to help diagnose and monitor conditions that affect the nervous system, such as multiple sclerosis, brainstem tumors, and spinal cord injuries.

There are several types of EPs, including:

1. Visual Evoked Potentials (VEPs): These are used to assess the function of the visual pathway from the eyes to the back of the brain. A patient is typically asked to look at a patterned image or flashing light while electrodes placed on the scalp record the electrical responses.
2. Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials (BAEPs): These are used to evaluate the function of the auditory nerve and brainstem. Clicking sounds are presented to one or both ears, and electrodes placed on the scalp measure the response.
3. Somatosensory Evoked Potentials (SSEPs): These are used to assess the function of the peripheral nerves and spinal cord. Small electrical shocks are applied to a nerve at the wrist or ankle, and electrodes placed on the scalp record the response as it travels up the spinal cord to the brain.
4. Motor Evoked Potentials (MEPs): These are used to assess the function of the motor pathways in the brain and spinal cord. A magnetic or electrical stimulus is applied to the brain or spinal cord, and electrodes placed on a muscle measure the response as it travels down the motor pathway.

EPs can help identify abnormalities in the nervous system that may not be apparent through other diagnostic tests, such as imaging studies or clinical examinations. They are generally safe, non-invasive procedures with few risks or side effects.

A cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a thin semi-permeable phospholipid bilayer that surrounds all cells in animals, plants, and microorganisms. It functions as a barrier to control the movement of substances in and out of the cell, allowing necessary molecules such as nutrients, oxygen, and signaling molecules to enter while keeping out harmful substances and waste products. The cell membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids, which have hydrophilic (water-loving) heads and hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails. This unique structure allows the membrane to be flexible and fluid, yet selectively permeable. Additionally, various proteins are embedded in the membrane that serve as channels, pumps, receptors, and enzymes, contributing to the cell's overall functionality and communication with its environment.

Enzyme activation refers to the process by which an enzyme becomes biologically active and capable of carrying out its specific chemical or biological reaction. This is often achieved through various post-translational modifications, such as proteolytic cleavage, phosphorylation, or addition of cofactors or prosthetic groups to the enzyme molecule. These modifications can change the conformation or structure of the enzyme, exposing or creating a binding site for the substrate and allowing the enzymatic reaction to occur.

For example, in the case of proteolytic cleavage, an inactive precursor enzyme, known as a zymogen, is cleaved into its active form by a specific protease. This is seen in enzymes such as trypsin and chymotrypsin, which are initially produced in the pancreas as inactive precursors called trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen, respectively. Once they reach the small intestine, they are activated by enteropeptidase, a protease that cleaves a specific peptide bond, releasing the active enzyme.

Phosphorylation is another common mechanism of enzyme activation, where a phosphate group is added to a specific serine, threonine, or tyrosine residue on the enzyme by a protein kinase. This modification can alter the conformation of the enzyme and create a binding site for the substrate, allowing the enzymatic reaction to occur.

Enzyme activation is a crucial process in many biological pathways, as it allows for precise control over when and where specific reactions take place. It also provides a mechanism for regulating enzyme activity in response to various signals and stimuli, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, or changes in the intracellular environment.

The vagus nerve, also known as the 10th cranial nerve (CN X), is the longest of the cranial nerves and extends from the brainstem to the abdomen. It has both sensory and motor functions and plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions such as heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, speech, and sweating, among others.

The vagus nerve is responsible for carrying sensory information from the internal organs to the brain, and it also sends motor signals from the brain to the muscles of the throat and voice box, as well as to the heart, lungs, and digestive tract. The vagus nerve helps regulate the body's involuntary responses, such as controlling heart rate and blood pressure, promoting relaxation, and reducing inflammation.

Dysfunction in the vagus nerve can lead to various medical conditions, including gastroparesis, chronic pain, and autonomic nervous system disorders. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is a therapeutic intervention that involves delivering electrical impulses to the vagus nerve to treat conditions such as epilepsy, depression, and migraine headaches.

Afferent pathways, also known as sensory pathways, refer to the neural connections that transmit sensory information from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system (CNS), specifically to the brain and spinal cord. These pathways are responsible for carrying various types of sensory information, such as touch, temperature, pain, pressure, vibration, hearing, vision, and taste, to the CNS for processing and interpretation.

The afferent pathways begin with sensory receptors located throughout the body, which detect changes in the environment and convert them into electrical signals. These signals are then transmitted via afferent neurons, also known as sensory neurons, to the spinal cord or brainstem. Within the CNS, the information is further processed and integrated with other neural inputs before being relayed to higher cognitive centers for conscious awareness and response.

Understanding the anatomy and physiology of afferent pathways is essential for diagnosing and treating various neurological conditions that affect sensory function, such as neuropathies, spinal cord injuries, and brain disorders.

A microelectrode is a small electrode with dimensions ranging from several micrometers to a few tens of micrometers in diameter. They are used in various biomedical applications, such as neurophysiological studies, neuromodulation, and brain-computer interfaces. In these applications, microelectrodes serve to record electrical activity from individual or small groups of neurons or deliver electrical stimuli to specific neural structures with high spatial resolution.

Microelectrodes can be fabricated using various materials, including metals (e.g., tungsten, stainless steel, platinum), metal alloys, carbon fibers, and semiconductor materials like silicon. The design of microelectrodes may vary depending on the specific application, with some common types being sharpened metal wires, glass-insulated metal microwires, and silicon-based probes with multiple recording sites.

The development and use of microelectrodes have significantly contributed to our understanding of neural function in health and disease, enabling researchers and clinicians to investigate the underlying mechanisms of neurological disorders and develop novel therapies for conditions such as Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and hearing loss.

Evoked potentials, motor, are a category of tests used in clinical neurophysiology to measure the electrical activity generated by the nervous system in response to a stimulus that specifically activates the motor pathways. These tests can help assess the integrity and function of the motor neurons, which are responsible for controlling voluntary muscle movements.

During a motor evoked potentials test, electrodes are placed on the scalp or directly on the surface of the brain or spinal cord. A stimulus is then applied to the motor cortex or peripheral nerves, causing the muscles to contract. The resulting electrical signals are recorded and analyzed to evaluate the conduction velocity, amplitude, and latency of the motor responses.

Motor evoked potentials tests can be useful in diagnosing various neurological conditions, such as multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injuries, and motor neuron diseases. They can also help monitor the progression of these conditions and assess the effectiveness of treatments.

Biological models, also known as physiological models or organismal models, are simplified representations of biological systems, processes, or mechanisms that are used to understand and explain the underlying principles and relationships. These models can be theoretical (conceptual or mathematical) or physical (such as anatomical models, cell cultures, or animal models). They are widely used in biomedical research to study various phenomena, including disease pathophysiology, drug action, and therapeutic interventions.

Examples of biological models include:

1. Mathematical models: These use mathematical equations and formulas to describe complex biological systems or processes, such as population dynamics, metabolic pathways, or gene regulation networks. They can help predict the behavior of these systems under different conditions and test hypotheses about their underlying mechanisms.
2. Cell cultures: These are collections of cells grown in a controlled environment, typically in a laboratory dish or flask. They can be used to study cellular processes, such as signal transduction, gene expression, or metabolism, and to test the effects of drugs or other treatments on these processes.
3. Animal models: These are living organisms, usually vertebrates like mice, rats, or non-human primates, that are used to study various aspects of human biology and disease. They can provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of diseases, the mechanisms of drug action, and the safety and efficacy of new therapies.
4. Anatomical models: These are physical representations of biological structures or systems, such as plastic models of organs or tissues, that can be used for educational purposes or to plan surgical procedures. They can also serve as a basis for developing more sophisticated models, such as computer simulations or 3D-printed replicas.

Overall, biological models play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of biology and medicine, helping to identify new targets for therapeutic intervention, develop novel drugs and treatments, and improve human health.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

Synaptic transmission is the process by which a neuron communicates with another cell, such as another neuron or a muscle cell, across a junction called a synapse. It involves the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic terminal of the neuron, which then cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell, leading to changes in the electrical or chemical properties of the target cell. This process is critical for the transmission of signals within the nervous system and for controlling various physiological functions in the body.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

Birefringence is a property of certain materials, such as crystals and some plastics, to split a beam of light into two separate beams with different polarization states and refractive indices when the light passes through the material. This phenomenon arises due to the anisotropic structure of these materials, where their physical properties vary depending on the direction of measurement.

When a unpolarized or partially polarized light beam enters a birefringent material, it gets separated into two orthogonally polarized beams called the ordinary and extraordinary rays. These rays propagate through the material at different speeds due to their distinct refractive indices, resulting in a phase delay between them. Upon exiting the material, the recombination of these two beams can produce various optical effects, such as double refraction or interference patterns, depending on the thickness and orientation of the birefringent material and the polarization state of the incident light.

Birefringence has numerous applications in optics, including waveplates, polarizing filters, stress analysis, and microscopy techniques like phase contrast and differential interference contrast imaging.

Electromyography (EMG) is a medical diagnostic procedure that measures the electrical activity of skeletal muscles during contraction and at rest. It involves inserting a thin needle electrode into the muscle to record the electrical signals generated by the muscle fibers. These signals are then displayed on an oscilloscope and may be heard through a speaker.

EMG can help diagnose various neuromuscular disorders, such as muscle weakness, numbness, or pain, and can distinguish between muscle and nerve disorders. It is often used in conjunction with other diagnostic tests, such as nerve conduction studies, to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the nervous system.

EMG is typically performed by a neurologist or a physiatrist, and the procedure may cause some discomfort or pain, although this is usually minimal. The results of an EMG can help guide treatment decisions and monitor the progression of neuromuscular conditions over time.

Biophysics is a interdisciplinary field that combines the principles and methods of physics with those of biology to study biological systems and phenomena. It involves the use of physical theories, models, and techniques to understand and explain the properties, functions, and behaviors of living organisms and their constituents, such as cells, proteins, and DNA.

Biophysics can be applied to various areas of biology, including molecular biology, cell biology, neuroscience, and physiology. It can help elucidate the mechanisms of biological processes at the molecular and cellular levels, such as protein folding, ion transport, enzyme kinetics, gene expression, and signal transduction. Biophysical methods can also be used to develop diagnostic and therapeutic tools for medical applications, such as medical imaging, drug delivery, and gene therapy.

Examples of biophysical techniques include X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, electron microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and computational modeling. These methods allow researchers to probe the structure, dynamics, and interactions of biological molecules and systems with high precision and resolution, providing insights into their functions and behaviors.

I must clarify that the term "Guinea Pigs" is not typically used in medical definitions. However, in colloquial or informal language, it may refer to people who are used as the first to try out a new medical treatment or drug. This is known as being a "test subject" or "in a clinical trial."

In the field of scientific research, particularly in studies involving animals, guinea pigs are small rodents that are often used as experimental subjects due to their size, cost-effectiveness, and ease of handling. They are not actually pigs from Guinea, despite their name's origins being unclear. However, they do not exactly fit the description of being used in human medical experiments.

The motor cortex is a region in the frontal lobe of the brain that is responsible for controlling voluntary movements. It is involved in planning, initiating, and executing movements of the limbs, body, and face. The motor cortex contains neurons called Betz cells, which have large cell bodies and are responsible for transmitting signals to the spinal cord to activate muscles. Damage to the motor cortex can result in various movement disorders such as hemiplegia or paralysis on one side of the body.

Lymphocyte activation is the process by which B-cells and T-cells (types of lymphocytes) become activated to perform effector functions in an immune response. This process involves the recognition of specific antigens presented on the surface of antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells or macrophages.

The activation of B-cells leads to their differentiation into plasma cells that produce antibodies, while the activation of T-cells results in the production of cytotoxic T-cells (CD8+ T-cells) that can directly kill infected cells or helper T-cells (CD4+ T-cells) that assist other immune cells.

Lymphocyte activation involves a series of intracellular signaling events, including the binding of co-stimulatory molecules and the release of cytokines, which ultimately result in the expression of genes involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, and effector functions. The activation process is tightly regulated to prevent excessive or inappropriate immune responses that can lead to autoimmunity or chronic inflammation.

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is a key secondary messenger in many biological processes, including the regulation of metabolism, gene expression, and cellular excitability. It is synthesized from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the enzyme adenylyl cyclase and is degraded by the enzyme phosphodiesterase.

In the body, cAMP plays a crucial role in mediating the effects of hormones and neurotransmitters on target cells. For example, when a hormone binds to its receptor on the surface of a cell, it can activate a G protein, which in turn activates adenylyl cyclase to produce cAMP. The increased levels of cAMP then activate various effector proteins, such as protein kinases, which go on to regulate various cellular processes.

Overall, the regulation of cAMP levels is critical for maintaining proper cellular function and homeostasis, and abnormalities in cAMP signaling have been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Atropine is an anticholinergic drug that blocks the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the central and peripheral nervous system. It is derived from the belladonna alkaloids, which are found in plants such as deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), Jimson weed (Datura stramonium), and Duboisia spp.

In clinical medicine, atropine is used to reduce secretions, increase heart rate, and dilate the pupils. It is often used before surgery to dry up secretions in the mouth, throat, and lungs, and to reduce salivation during the procedure. Atropine is also used to treat certain types of nerve agent and pesticide poisoning, as well as to manage bradycardia (slow heart rate) and hypotension (low blood pressure) caused by beta-blockers or calcium channel blockers.

Atropine can have several side effects, including dry mouth, blurred vision, dizziness, confusion, and difficulty urinating. In high doses, it can cause delirium, hallucinations, and seizures. Atropine should be used with caution in patients with glaucoma, prostatic hypertrophy, or other conditions that may be exacerbated by its anticholinergic effects.

A reflex is an automatic, involuntary and rapid response to a stimulus that occurs without conscious intention. In the context of physiology and neurology, it's a basic mechanism that involves the transmission of nerve impulses between neurons, resulting in a muscle contraction or glandular secretion.

Reflexes are important for maintaining homeostasis, protecting the body from harm, and coordinating movements. They can be tested clinically to assess the integrity of the nervous system, such as the knee-j jerk reflex, which tests the function of the L3-L4 spinal nerve roots and the sensitivity of the stretch reflex arc.

Afferent neurons, also known as sensory neurons, are a type of nerve cell that conducts impulses or signals from peripheral receptors towards the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord. These neurons are responsible for transmitting sensory information such as touch, temperature, pain, sound, and light to the CNS for processing and interpretation. Afferent neurons have specialized receptor endings that detect changes in the environment and convert them into electrical signals, which are then transmitted to the CNS via synapses with other neurons. Once the signals reach the CNS, they are processed and integrated with other information to produce a response or reaction to the stimulus.

Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, is a neurotransmitter and a hormone that is primarily produced in the adrenal glands and is released into the bloodstream in response to stress or physical activity. It plays a crucial role in the "fight-or-flight" response by preparing the body for action through increasing heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and glucose availability.

As a neurotransmitter, norepinephrine is involved in regulating various functions of the nervous system, including attention, perception, motivation, and arousal. It also plays a role in modulating pain perception and responding to stressful or emotional situations.

In medical settings, norepinephrine is used as a vasopressor medication to treat hypotension (low blood pressure) that can occur during septic shock, anesthesia, or other critical illnesses. It works by constricting blood vessels and increasing heart rate, which helps to improve blood pressure and perfusion of vital organs.

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter, a type of chemical messenger that transmits signals across a chemical synapse from one neuron (nerve cell) to another "target" neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell. It is involved in both peripheral and central nervous system functions.

In the peripheral nervous system, acetylcholine acts as a neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction, where it transmits signals from motor neurons to activate muscles. Acetylcholine also acts as a neurotransmitter in the autonomic nervous system, where it is involved in both the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

In the central nervous system, acetylcholine plays a role in learning, memory, attention, and arousal. Disruptions in cholinergic neurotransmission have been implicated in several neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and myasthenia gravis.

Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl-CoA by the enzyme choline acetyltransferase and is stored in vesicles at the presynaptic terminal of the neuron. When a nerve impulse arrives, the vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane, releasing acetylcholine into the synapse. The acetylcholine then binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, triggering a response in the target cell. Acetylcholine is subsequently degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which terminates its action and allows for signal transduction to be repeated.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

Isoproterenol is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called beta-adrenergic agonists. Medically, it is defined as a synthetic catecholamine with both alpha and beta adrenergic receptor stimulating properties. It is primarily used as a bronchodilator to treat conditions such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) by relaxing the smooth muscles in the airways, thereby improving breathing.

Isoproterenol can also be used in the treatment of bradycardia (abnormally slow heart rate), cardiac arrest, and heart blocks by increasing the heart rate and contractility. However, due to its non-selective beta-agonist activity, it may cause various side effects such as tremors, palpitations, and increased blood pressure. Its use is now limited due to the availability of more selective and safer medications.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "magnetics" is not a term that is commonly used in medical definitions. It is a term more frequently used in physics and engineering to refer to things related to magnets or magnetic fields. If you have any questions about medical terminology or concepts, I would be happy to try to help with those!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "power plants" is not a term used in medical definitions. It is a term commonly used to refer to industrial facilities that generate and distribute power, typically in the form of electricity. If you have any questions related to medicine or health, I would be happy to try to help answer those!

A muscle is a soft tissue in our body that contracts to produce force and motion. It is composed mainly of specialized cells called muscle fibers, which are bound together by connective tissue. There are three types of muscles: skeletal (voluntary), smooth (involuntary), and cardiac. Skeletal muscles attach to bones and help in movement, while smooth muscles are found within the walls of organs and blood vessels, helping with functions like digestion and circulation. Cardiac muscle is the specific type that makes up the heart, allowing it to pump blood throughout the body.

Neural inhibition is a process in the nervous system that decreases or prevents the activity of neurons (nerve cells) in order to regulate and control communication within the nervous system. It is a fundamental mechanism that allows for the balance of excitation and inhibition necessary for normal neural function. Inhibitory neurotransmitters, such as GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) and glycine, are released from the presynaptic neuron and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, reducing its likelihood of firing an action potential. This results in a decrease in neural activity and can have various effects depending on the specific neurons and brain regions involved. Neural inhibition is crucial for many functions including motor control, sensory processing, attention, memory, and emotional regulation.

Somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) are electrical signals generated in the brain and spinal cord in response to the stimulation of peripheral nerves. These responses are recorded and measured to assess the functioning of the somatosensory system, which is responsible for processing sensations such as touch, temperature, vibration, and proprioception (the sense of the position and movement of body parts).

SEPs are typically elicited by applying electrical stimuli to peripheral nerves in the arms or legs. The resulting neural responses are then recorded using electrodes placed on the scalp or other locations on the body. These recordings can provide valuable information about the integrity and function of the nervous system, and are often used in clinical settings to diagnose and monitor conditions such as nerve damage, spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis, and other neurological disorders.

SEPs can be further categorized based on the specific type of stimulus used and the location of the recording electrodes. For example, short-latency SEPs (SLSEPs) are those that occur within the first 50 milliseconds after stimulation, and are typically recorded from the scalp over the primary sensory cortex. These responses reflect the earliest stages of sensory processing and can be used to assess the integrity of the peripheral nerves and the ascending sensory pathways in the spinal cord.

In contrast, long-latency SEPs (LLSEPs) occur after 50 milliseconds and are typically recorded from more posterior regions of the scalp over the parietal cortex. These responses reflect later stages of sensory processing and can be used to assess higher-level cognitive functions such as attention, memory, and perception.

Overall, SEPs provide a valuable tool for clinicians and researchers seeking to understand the functioning of the somatosensory system and diagnose or monitor neurological disorders.

I believe there might be a misunderstanding in your question. "Dogs" is not a medical term or condition. It is the common name for a domesticated carnivore of the family Canidae, specifically the genus Canis, which includes wolves, foxes, and other extant and extinct species of mammals. Dogs are often kept as pets and companions, and they have been bred in a wide variety of forms and sizes for different purposes, such as hunting, herding, guarding, assisting police and military forces, and providing companionship and emotional support.

If you meant to ask about a specific medical condition or term related to dogs, please provide more context so I can give you an accurate answer.

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is a part of the autonomic nervous system that operates largely below the level of consciousness, and it functions to produce appropriate physiological responses to perceived danger. It's often associated with the "fight or flight" response. The SNS uses nerve impulses to stimulate target organs, causing them to speed up (e.g., increased heart rate), prepare for action, or otherwise respond to stressful situations.

The sympathetic nervous system is activated due to stressful emotional or physical situations and it prepares the body for immediate actions. It dilates the pupils, increases heart rate and blood pressure, accelerates breathing, and slows down digestion. The primary neurotransmitter involved in this system is norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline).

Skeletal muscle, also known as striated or voluntary muscle, is a type of muscle that is attached to bones by tendons or aponeuroses and functions to produce movements and support the posture of the body. It is composed of long, multinucleated fibers that are arranged in parallel bundles and are characterized by alternating light and dark bands, giving them a striped appearance under a microscope. Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, meaning that it is consciously activated through signals from the nervous system. It is responsible for activities such as walking, running, jumping, and lifting objects.

Electroshock, also known as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), is a medical procedure in which electric currents are passed through the brain to treat certain mental health conditions. It is primarily used to treat severe forms of depression that have not responded to other treatments, and it may also be used to treat bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.

During an ECT procedure, electrodes are placed on the patient's head, and a carefully controlled electric current is passed through the brain, intentionally triggering a seizure. The patient is under general anesthesia and given muscle relaxants to prevent physical injury from the seizure.

ECT is typically administered in a series of treatments, usually two or three times a week for several weeks. While the exact mechanism of action is not fully understood, ECT is thought to affect brain chemistry and help regulate mood and other symptoms. It is generally considered a safe and effective treatment option for certain mental health conditions when other treatments have failed. However, it can have side effects, including short-term memory loss and confusion, and it may not be appropriate for everyone.

Cholinergic receptors are a type of receptor in the body that are activated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Acetylcholine is a chemical that nerve cells use to communicate with each other and with muscles. There are two main types of cholinergic receptors: muscarinic and nicotinic.

Muscarinic receptors are found in the heart, smooth muscle, glands, and the central nervous system. They are activated by muscarine, a type of alkaloid found in certain mushrooms. When muscarinic receptors are activated, they can cause changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and other bodily functions.

Nicotinic receptors are found in the nervous system and at the junction between nerves and muscles (the neuromuscular junction). They are activated by nicotine, a type of alkaloid found in tobacco plants. When nicotinic receptors are activated, they can cause the release of neurotransmitters and the contraction of muscles.

Cholinergic receptors play an important role in many physiological processes, including learning, memory, and movement. They are also targets for drugs used to treat a variety of medical conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and myasthenia gravis (a disorder that causes muscle weakness).

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

The subthalamic nucleus (STN) is a small, lens-shaped structure located in the basal ganglia of the brain. It plays a crucial role in motor control and has been identified as a key target for deep brain stimulation surgery in the treatment of Parkinson's disease and other movement disorders.

The STN is involved in the regulation of movement, balance, and posture, and helps to filter and coordinate signals that are sent from the cerebral cortex to the thalamus and then on to the motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord. In Parkinson's disease, abnormal activity in the STN can contribute to symptoms such as tremors, rigidity, and difficulty initiating movements.

Deep brain stimulation of the STN involves implanting electrodes into the nucleus and delivering electrical impulses that help to regulate its activity. This can lead to significant improvements in motor function and quality of life for some people with Parkinson's disease.

Electromagnetic phenomena refer to the interactions and effects that occur due to the combination of electrically charged particles and magnetic fields. These phenomena are described by the principles of electromagnetism, a branch of physics that deals with the fundamental forces between charged particles and their interaction with electromagnetic fields.

Electromagnetic phenomena can be observed in various forms, including:

1. Electric fields: The force that exists between charged particles at rest or in motion. Positive charges create an electric field that points away from them, while negative charges create an electric field that points towards them.
2. Magnetic fields: The force that exists around moving charges or current-carrying wires. Magnets and moving charges produce magnetic fields that exert forces on other moving charges or current-carrying wires.
3. Electromagnetic waves: Self-propagating disturbances in electric and magnetic fields, which can travel through space at the speed of light. Examples include visible light, radio waves, microwaves, and X-rays.
4. Electromagnetic induction: The process by which a changing magnetic field generates an electromotive force (EMF) in a conductor, leading to the flow of electric current.
5. Faraday's law of induction: A fundamental principle that relates the rate of change of magnetic flux through a closed loop to the induced EMF in the loop.
6. Lenz's law: A consequence of conservation of energy, which states that the direction of an induced current is such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux causing it.
7. Electromagnetic radiation: The emission and absorption of electromagnetic waves by charged particles undergoing acceleration or deceleration.
8. Maxwell's equations: A set of four fundamental equations that describe how electric and magnetic fields interact, giving rise to electromagnetic phenomena.

In a medical context, electromagnetic phenomena can be harnessed for various diagnostic and therapeutic applications, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), electrocardiography (ECG), electromyography (EMG), and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS).

The spinal cord is a major part of the nervous system, extending from the brainstem and continuing down to the lower back. It is a slender, tubular bundle of nerve fibers (axons) and support cells (glial cells) that carries signals between the brain and the rest of the body. The spinal cord primarily serves as a conduit for motor information, which travels from the brain to the muscles, and sensory information, which travels from the body to the brain. It also contains neurons that can independently process and respond to information within the spinal cord without direct input from the brain.

The spinal cord is protected by the bony vertebral column (spine) and is divided into 31 segments: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal. Each segment corresponds to a specific region of the body and gives rise to pairs of spinal nerves that exit through the intervertebral foramina at each level.

The spinal cord is responsible for several vital functions, including:

1. Reflexes: Simple reflex actions, such as the withdrawal reflex when touching a hot surface, are mediated by the spinal cord without involving the brain.
2. Muscle control: The spinal cord carries motor signals from the brain to the muscles, enabling voluntary movement and muscle tone regulation.
3. Sensory perception: The spinal cord transmits sensory information, such as touch, temperature, pain, and vibration, from the body to the brain for processing and awareness.
4. Autonomic functions: The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system originate in the thoracolumbar and sacral regions of the spinal cord, respectively, controlling involuntary physiological responses like heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, and respiration.

Damage to the spinal cord can result in various degrees of paralysis or loss of sensation below the level of injury, depending on the severity and location of the damage.

Reaction time, in the context of medicine and physiology, refers to the time period between the presentation of a stimulus and the subsequent initiation of a response. This complex process involves the central nervous system, particularly the brain, which perceives the stimulus, processes it, and then sends signals to the appropriate muscles or glands to react.

There are different types of reaction times, including simple reaction time (responding to a single, expected stimulus) and choice reaction time (choosing an appropriate response from multiple possibilities). These measures can be used in clinical settings to assess various aspects of neurological function, such as cognitive processing speed, motor control, and alertness.

However, it is important to note that reaction times can be influenced by several factors, including age, fatigue, attention, and the use of certain medications or substances.

"Inbred strains of rats" are genetically identical rodents that have been produced through many generations of brother-sister mating. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the genes at any particular locus in the genome are identical in all members of the strain.

Inbred strains of rats are widely used in biomedical research because they provide a consistent and reproducible genetic background for studying various biological phenomena, including the effects of drugs, environmental factors, and genetic mutations on health and disease. Additionally, inbred strains can be used to create genetically modified models of human diseases by introducing specific mutations into their genomes.

Some commonly used inbred strains of rats include the Wistar Kyoto (WKY), Sprague-Dawley (SD), and Fischer 344 (F344) rat strains. Each strain has its own unique genetic characteristics, making them suitable for different types of research.

'Gene expression regulation' refers to the processes that control whether, when, and where a particular gene is expressed, meaning the production of a specific protein or functional RNA encoded by that gene. This complex mechanism can be influenced by various factors such as transcription factors, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, non-coding RNAs, and post-transcriptional modifications, among others. Proper regulation of gene expression is crucial for normal cellular function, development, and maintaining homeostasis in living organisms. Dysregulation of gene expression can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

Neurological models are simplified representations or simulations of various aspects of the nervous system, including its structure, function, and processes. These models can be theoretical, computational, or physical and are used to understand, explain, and predict neurological phenomena. They may focus on specific neurological diseases, disorders, or functions, such as memory, learning, or movement. The goal of these models is to provide insights into the complex workings of the nervous system that cannot be easily observed or understood through direct examination alone.

Enzyme inhibitors are substances that bind to an enzyme and decrease its activity, preventing it from catalyzing a chemical reaction in the body. They can work by several mechanisms, including blocking the active site where the substrate binds, or binding to another site on the enzyme to change its shape and prevent substrate binding. Enzyme inhibitors are often used as drugs to treat various medical conditions, such as high blood pressure, abnormal heart rhythms, and bacterial infections. They can also be found naturally in some foods and plants, and can be used in research to understand enzyme function and regulation.

A synapse is a structure in the nervous system that allows for the transmission of signals from one neuron (nerve cell) to another. It is the point where the axon terminal of one neuron meets the dendrite or cell body of another, and it is here that neurotransmitters are released and received. The synapse includes both the presynaptic and postsynaptic elements, as well as the cleft between them.

At the presynaptic side, an action potential travels down the axon and triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft through exocytosis. These neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic side, which can either excite or inhibit the receiving neuron. The strength of the signal between two neurons is determined by the number and efficiency of these synapses.

Synapses play a crucial role in the functioning of the nervous system, allowing for the integration and processing of information from various sources. They are also dynamic structures that can undergo changes in response to experience or injury, which has important implications for learning, memory, and recovery from neurological disorders.

Motor neurons are specialized nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord that play a crucial role in controlling voluntary muscle movements. They transmit electrical signals from the brain to the muscles, enabling us to perform actions such as walking, talking, and swallowing. There are two types of motor neurons: upper motor neurons, which originate in the brain's motor cortex and travel down to the brainstem and spinal cord; and lower motor neurons, which extend from the brainstem and spinal cord to the muscles. Damage or degeneration of these motor neurons can lead to various neurological disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA).

'Self-stimulation' is more commonly known as "autoeroticism" or "masturbation." It refers to the act of stimulating one's own genitals for sexual pleasure, which can lead to orgasm. This behavior is considered a normal part of human sexuality and is a safe way to explore one's body and sexual responses. Self-stimulation can also be used as a means of relieving sexual tension and promoting relaxation. It is important to note that self-stimulation should always be a consensual, private activity and not performed in public or against the will of another individual.

Sensory receptor cells are specialized structures that convert physical stimuli from our environment into electrical signals, which are then transmitted to the brain for interpretation. These receptors can be found in various tissues throughout the body and are responsible for detecting sensations such as touch, pressure, temperature, taste, and smell. They can be classified into two main types: exteroceptors, which respond to stimuli from the external environment, and interoceptors, which react to internal conditions within the body. Examples of sensory receptor cells include hair cells in the inner ear, photoreceptors in the eye, and taste buds on the tongue.

In medical terms, sensation refers to the ability to perceive and interpret various stimuli from our environment through specialized receptor cells located throughout the body. These receptors convert physical stimuli such as light, sound, temperature, pressure, and chemicals into electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain via nerves. The brain then interprets these signals, allowing us to experience sensations like sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell.

There are two main types of sensations: exteroceptive and interoceptive. Exteroceptive sensations involve stimuli from outside the body, such as light, sound, and touch. Interoceptive sensations, on the other hand, refer to the perception of internal bodily sensations, such as hunger, thirst, heartbeat, or emotions.

Disorders in sensation can result from damage to the nervous system, including peripheral nerves, spinal cord, or brain. Examples include numbness, tingling, pain, or loss of sensation in specific body parts, which can significantly impact a person's quality of life and ability to perform daily activities.

Carbachol is a cholinergic agonist, which means it stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system by mimicking the action of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that is involved in transmitting signals between nerves and muscles. Carbachol binds to both muscarinic and nicotinic receptors, but its effects are more pronounced on muscarinic receptors.

Carbachol is used in medical treatments to produce miosis (pupil constriction), lower intraocular pressure, and stimulate gastrointestinal motility. It can also be used as a diagnostic tool to test for certain conditions such as Hirschsprung's disease.

Like any medication, carbachol can have side effects, including sweating, salivation, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, bradycardia (slow heart rate), and bronchoconstriction (narrowing of the airways in the lungs). It should be used with caution and under the supervision of a healthcare professional.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is a high-energy molecule that stores and transports energy within cells. It is the main source of energy for most cellular processes, including muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and protein synthesis. ATP is composed of a base (adenine), a sugar (ribose), and three phosphate groups. The bonds between these phosphate groups contain a significant amount of energy, which can be released when the bond between the second and third phosphate group is broken, resulting in the formation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. This process is known as hydrolysis and can be catalyzed by various enzymes to drive a wide range of cellular functions. ATP can also be regenerated from ADP through various metabolic pathways, such as oxidative phosphorylation or substrate-level phosphorylation, allowing for the continuous supply of energy to cells.

The Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) is the part of the autonomic nervous system that primarily controls vegetative functions during rest, relaxation, and digestion. It is responsible for the body's "rest and digest" activities including decreasing heart rate, lowering blood pressure, increasing digestive activity, and stimulating sexual arousal. The PNS utilizes acetylcholine as its primary neurotransmitter and acts in opposition to the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS), which is responsible for the "fight or flight" response.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique used to compare the means of two or more groups and determine whether there are any significant differences between them. It is a way to analyze the variance in a dataset to determine whether the variability between groups is greater than the variability within groups, which can indicate that the groups are significantly different from one another.

ANOVA is based on the concept of partitioning the total variance in a dataset into two components: variance due to differences between group means (also known as "between-group variance") and variance due to differences within each group (also known as "within-group variance"). By comparing these two sources of variance, ANOVA can help researchers determine whether any observed differences between groups are statistically significant, or whether they could have occurred by chance.

ANOVA is a widely used technique in many areas of research, including biology, psychology, engineering, and business. It is often used to compare the means of two or more experimental groups, such as a treatment group and a control group, to determine whether the treatment had a significant effect. ANOVA can also be used to compare the means of different populations or subgroups within a population, to identify any differences that may exist between them.

Potassium is a essential mineral and an important electrolyte that is widely distributed in the human body. The majority of potassium in the body (approximately 98%) is found within cells, with the remaining 2% present in blood serum and other bodily fluids. Potassium plays a crucial role in various physiological processes, including:

1. Regulation of fluid balance and maintenance of normal blood pressure through its effects on vascular tone and sodium excretion.
2. Facilitation of nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction by participating in the generation and propagation of action potentials.
3. Protein synthesis, enzyme activation, and glycogen metabolism.
4. Regulation of acid-base balance through its role in buffering systems.

The normal serum potassium concentration ranges from 3.5 to 5.0 mEq/L (milliequivalents per liter) or mmol/L (millimoles per liter). Potassium levels outside this range can have significant clinical consequences, with both hypokalemia (low potassium levels) and hyperkalemia (high potassium levels) potentially leading to serious complications such as cardiac arrhythmias, muscle weakness, and respiratory failure.

Potassium is primarily obtained through the diet, with rich sources including fruits (e.g., bananas, oranges, and apricots), vegetables (e.g., leafy greens, potatoes, and tomatoes), legumes, nuts, dairy products, and meat. In cases of deficiency or increased needs, potassium supplements may be recommended under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

I believe there may be a misunderstanding in your question. The term "fishes" is not typically used in a medical context. "Fish" or "fishes" refers to any aquatic organism belonging to the taxonomic class Actinopterygii (bony fish), Chondrichthyes (sharks and rays), or Agnatha (jawless fish).

However, if you are referring to a condition related to fish or consuming fish, there is a medical issue called scombroid fish poisoning. It's a foodborne illness caused by eating spoiled or improperly stored fish from the Scombridae family, which includes tuna, mackerel, and bonito, among others. The bacteria present in these fish can produce histamine, which can cause symptoms like skin flushing, headache, diarrhea, and itchy rash. But again, this is not related to the term "fishes" itself but rather a condition associated with consuming certain types of fish.

Transfection is a term used in molecular biology that refers to the process of deliberately introducing foreign genetic material (DNA, RNA or artificial gene constructs) into cells. This is typically done using chemical or physical methods, such as lipofection or electroporation. Transfection is widely used in research and medical settings for various purposes, including studying gene function, producing proteins, developing gene therapies, and creating genetically modified organisms. It's important to note that transfection is different from transduction, which is the process of introducing genetic material into cells using viruses as vectors.

Electrophoresis is a laboratory technique used in the field of molecular biology and chemistry to separate charged particles, such as DNA, RNA, or proteins, based on their size and charge. This technique uses an electric field to drive the movement of these charged particles through a medium, such as gel or liquid.

In electrophoresis, the sample containing the particles to be separated is placed in a matrix, such as a gel or a capillary tube, and an electric current is applied. The particles in the sample have a net charge, either positive or negative, which causes them to move through the matrix towards the oppositely charged electrode.

The rate at which the particles move through the matrix depends on their size and charge. Larger particles move more slowly than smaller ones, and particles with a higher charge-to-mass ratio move faster than those with a lower charge-to-mass ratio. By comparing the distance that each particle travels in the matrix, researchers can identify and quantify the different components of a mixture.

Electrophoresis has many applications in molecular biology and medicine, including DNA sequencing, genetic fingerprinting, protein analysis, and diagnosis of genetic disorders.

T-lymphocytes, also known as T-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the adaptive immune system's response to infection. They are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland. There are several different types of T-cells, including CD4+ helper T-cells, CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells, and regulatory T-cells (Tregs).

CD4+ helper T-cells assist in activating other immune cells, such as B-lymphocytes and macrophages. They also produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response. CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells directly kill infected cells by releasing toxic substances. Regulatory T-cells help maintain immune tolerance and prevent autoimmune diseases by suppressing the activity of other immune cells.

T-lymphocytes are important in the immune response to viral infections, cancer, and other diseases. Dysfunction or depletion of T-cells can lead to immunodeficiency and increased susceptibility to infections. On the other hand, an overactive T-cell response can contribute to autoimmune diseases and chronic inflammation.

Neural pathways, also known as nerve tracts or fasciculi, refer to the highly organized and specialized routes through which nerve impulses travel within the nervous system. These pathways are formed by groups of neurons (nerve cells) that are connected in a series, creating a continuous communication network for electrical signals to transmit information between different regions of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.

Neural pathways can be classified into two main types: sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent). Sensory neural pathways carry sensory information from various receptors in the body (such as those for touch, temperature, pain, and vision) to the brain for processing. Motor neural pathways, on the other hand, transmit signals from the brain to the muscles and glands, controlling movements and other effector functions.

The formation of these neural pathways is crucial for normal nervous system function, as it enables efficient communication between different parts of the body and allows for complex behaviors, cognitive processes, and adaptive responses to internal and external stimuli.

Cell division is the process by which a single eukaryotic cell (a cell with a true nucleus) divides into two identical daughter cells. This complex process involves several stages, including replication of DNA, separation of chromosomes, and division of the cytoplasm. There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis is the type of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells. It is a fundamental process for growth, development, and tissue repair in multicellular organisms. The stages of mitosis include prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, followed by cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm.

Meiosis, on the other hand, is a type of cell division that occurs in the gonads (ovaries and testes) during the production of gametes (sex cells). Meiosis results in four genetically unique daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This process is essential for sexual reproduction and genetic diversity. The stages of meiosis include meiosis I and meiosis II, which are further divided into prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

In summary, cell division is the process by which a single cell divides into two daughter cells, either through mitosis or meiosis. This process is critical for growth, development, tissue repair, and sexual reproduction in multicellular organisms.

Smooth muscle, also known as involuntary muscle, is a type of muscle that is controlled by the autonomic nervous system and functions without conscious effort. These muscles are found in the walls of hollow organs such as the stomach, intestines, bladder, and blood vessels, as well as in the eyes, skin, and other areas of the body.

Smooth muscle fibers are shorter and narrower than skeletal muscle fibers and do not have striations or sarcomeres, which give skeletal muscle its striped appearance. Smooth muscle is controlled by the autonomic nervous system through the release of neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and norepinephrine, which bind to receptors on the smooth muscle cells and cause them to contract or relax.

Smooth muscle plays an important role in many physiological processes, including digestion, circulation, respiration, and elimination. It can also contribute to various medical conditions, such as hypertension, gastrointestinal disorders, and genitourinary dysfunction, when it becomes overactive or underactive.

Biophysical phenomena refer to the observable events and processes that occur in living organisms, which can be explained and studied using the principles and methods of physics. These phenomena can include a wide range of biological processes at various levels of organization, from molecular interactions to whole-organism behaviors. Examples of biophysical phenomena include the mechanics of muscle contraction, the electrical activity of neurons, the transport of molecules across cell membranes, and the optical properties of biological tissues. By applying physical theories and techniques to the study of living systems, biophysicists seek to better understand the fundamental principles that govern life and to develop new approaches for diagnosing and treating diseases.

Protein Kinase C (PKC) is a family of serine-threonine kinases that play crucial roles in various cellular signaling pathways. These enzymes are activated by second messengers such as diacylglycerol (DAG) and calcium ions (Ca2+), which result from the activation of cell surface receptors like G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs).

Once activated, PKC proteins phosphorylate downstream target proteins, thereby modulating their activities. This regulation is involved in numerous cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis, and membrane trafficking. There are at least 10 isoforms of PKC, classified into three subfamilies based on their second messenger requirements and structural features: conventional (cPKC; α, βI, βII, and γ), novel (nPKC; δ, ε, η, and θ), and atypical (aPKC; ζ and ι/λ). Dysregulation of PKC signaling has been implicated in several diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

A computer simulation is a process that involves creating a model of a real-world system or phenomenon on a computer and then using that model to run experiments and make predictions about how the system will behave under different conditions. In the medical field, computer simulations are used for a variety of purposes, including:

1. Training and education: Computer simulations can be used to create realistic virtual environments where medical students and professionals can practice their skills and learn new procedures without risk to actual patients. For example, surgeons may use simulation software to practice complex surgical techniques before performing them on real patients.
2. Research and development: Computer simulations can help medical researchers study the behavior of biological systems at a level of detail that would be difficult or impossible to achieve through experimental methods alone. By creating detailed models of cells, tissues, organs, or even entire organisms, researchers can use simulation software to explore how these systems function and how they respond to different stimuli.
3. Drug discovery and development: Computer simulations are an essential tool in modern drug discovery and development. By modeling the behavior of drugs at a molecular level, researchers can predict how they will interact with their targets in the body and identify potential side effects or toxicities. This information can help guide the design of new drugs and reduce the need for expensive and time-consuming clinical trials.
4. Personalized medicine: Computer simulations can be used to create personalized models of individual patients based on their unique genetic, physiological, and environmental characteristics. These models can then be used to predict how a patient will respond to different treatments and identify the most effective therapy for their specific condition.

Overall, computer simulations are a powerful tool in modern medicine, enabling researchers and clinicians to study complex systems and make predictions about how they will behave under a wide range of conditions. By providing insights into the behavior of biological systems at a level of detail that would be difficult or impossible to achieve through experimental methods alone, computer simulations are helping to advance our understanding of human health and disease.

... is a pacemaker-like device with electrical connections to the surface of the stomach. The device ... Gastric electrical stimulation, also known as implantable gastric stimulation, is the use of specific devices to provide ... Levinthal, DJ; Bielefeldt, K (January 2017). "Systematic review and meta-analysis: Gastric electrical stimulation for ... Chiu, JD; Soffer, E (January 2015). "Gastric electrical stimulation for obesity". Current Gastroenterology Reports. 17 (1): 424 ...
... above 1 kHz can be beyond the range of amplification possible via acoustic stimulation. Electric stimulation (CI), on the other ... Electric acoustic stimulation (EAS) is the use of a hearing aid and a cochlear implant technology together in the same ear. EAS ... Electric stimulation of the auditory system via cochlear implant is a commonly used technique for individuals with a severe to ... Gstoettner W., Helbig S., Maier N., Kiefer J., Radeloff A., Adunka O. (2006). Ipsilateral Electric Acoustic Stimulation of the ...
... (EMS), also known as neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) or electromyostimulation, is the ... Electroacupuncture Functional electrical stimulation Microcurrent electrical neuromuscular stimulator Transcutaneous electrical ... This is distinct from transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), in which an electric current is used for pain therapy ... Electrical muscle stimulation can be used as a training, therapeutic, or cosmetic tool. In medicine, EMS is used for ...
... (EBS), also referred to as focal brain stimulation (FBS), is a form of electrotherapy used as a ... Deep transcranial magnetic stimulation (Deep TMS) Responsive nerve stimulation (RNS) Strong electric currents may cause a ... Low field magnetic stimulation (LFMS) Functional electrical stimulation (FES) Magnetic seizure therapy (MST) Vagus nerve ... Electrical brain stimulation was first used in the first half of the 19th century by pioneering researchers such as Luigi ...
... (TES) is a therapy developed for use in patients with a variety of eye diseases. The ... Perin C, Viganò B, Piscitelli D, Matteo BM, Meroni R, Cerri CG (2020). "Non-invasive current stimulation in vision recovery: a ...
"Functional electrical stimulation device and system, and use thereof", issued 2014-09-29 [3], "Electrical stimulation system ... An electrical stimulation can artificially elicit this action potential by changing the electric potential across a nerve cell ... Functional electrical stimulation (FES) is a technique that uses low-energy electrical pulses to artificially generate body ... "Simulation of the three-dimensional electrical field in the course of functional electrical stimulation". Artificial Organs. 26 ...
... is a form of anti-reflux surgery, intended to assist in correcting a problem with the ... "Electrical Stimulation Therapy (EST) of the Lower Esophageal Sphincter (LES) Is Successful in Treating GERD - Final Results of ... EndoStim's proprietary technology uses functional electrical stimulation (a type of neuromodulation) to restore esophageal ... electrical stimulation therapy significantly and consistently increased LES pressure. An open-label trial conducted in Chile ...
... (TENS or TNS) is the use of electric current produced by a device to stimulate the ...
... is a neuromuscular stimulation treatment for idiopathic scoliosis. It is also known as ... It is a non-invasive scoliosis treatment that utilizes electrical muscle stimulation, which is also known as neurostimulation ... Eckerson, LF; Axelgaard, J (1984). "Lateral electrical surface stimulation as an alternative to bracing in the treatment of ... Axelgaard, J; Brown, JC (1983). "Lateral electrical surface stimulation for the treatment of progressive idiopathic scoliosis ...
... is a non-invasive brain stimulation technique and a form of transcranial electrical stimulation (tES). Terney et al from ... Transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS) Transcranial pulsed current stimulation (tPCS) tRNS stimulation differs from tDCS ... 2019). "Effects of Short-Term Random Noise Electrical Stimulation on Dissociated Pyramidal Neurons from the Cerebral Cortex". ... Paulus, Walter (1 October 2011). "Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES - tDCS; tRNS, tACS) methods". Neuropsychol Rehabil. ...
Urinary incontinence Fecal incontinence Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) Electrical muscle stimulation ... Sacral nerve stimulation, also termed sacral neuromodulation, is a type of medical electrical stimulation therapy. It typically ... TENS (transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation) was patented and first used in 1974 for pain relief. TENS is non-invasive; ... By penetrating the skin, sacral nerve stimulation aims to give a direct and localized electric current to specific nerves in ...
Cortical stimulation mapping Cranial electrotherapy stimulation Electrical brain stimulation Electroconvulsive therapy Low ... Aetna (2013-10-11). "Clinical Policy Bulletin: Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and Cranial Electrical Stimulation". Number ... current stimulation Transcranial direct-current stimulation Transcranial random noise stimulation Vagus nerve stimulation NICE ... TMS stimulates cortical tissue without the pain sensations produced in transcranial electrical stimulation. TMS can be used ...
In transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), an electric coil is held above the region of interest on the scalp that uses ... Sham stimulation emits a brief current but then remains off for the remainder of the stimulation time. With sham stimulation, ... There are three different types of stimulation: anodal, cathodal, and sham. The anodal stimulation is positive (V+) stimulation ... Liu Y, Gu N, Cao X, Zhu Y, Wang J, Smith RC, Li C (February 2021). "Effects of transcranial electrical stimulation on working ...
Alongside the manual stimulation, electric stimulation (2 to 5 Hz) was also given to four of the ten needles. The treatment ... Smith PS; Dinse HR; Kalisch T; Johnson M; Walker-Batson D (December 2009). "Effects of repetitive electrical stimulation to ... Sensory Stimulation uses rapid stimulation of nerves in a section of skin to drive neuronal changes in the participant. The ... explored the impact of frequency of stimulation on sensory stimulation techniques to induce plastic changes. The study ...
"Deep Brain Stimulation for Movement Disorders". University of Pittsburgh. Young RF, Brechner T (1986). "Electrical stimulation ... Orgasmic ecstasy was reported with the electrical stimulation of the brain with depth electrodes in the left hippocampus at 3mA ... Video: Deep brain stimulation to treat Parkinson's disease Video: Deep brain stimulation therapy for Parkinson's disease The ... open-loop VS closed-loop stimulation, meaning a constant stimulation or an A.I. monitoring delivery system and (3) calibration ...
They demonstrated that electrical stimulation of peripheral nerves suppresses the perception of pain. A period of semi- ... Occipital nerve stimulation (ONS), also called peripheral nerve stimulation (PNS) of the occipital nerves, is used to treat ... painful direct muscle stimulation, lead movement with loss of stimulation, lead fracture, battery failure, eventual need for ... Electrical impulses are sent through the lead and its position is adjusted until the patient reports a "pins-and-needles" ...
For this reason, electrical brain stimulation provides a tool for identifying the reward circuitry within the central nervous ... Brain Stimulation: Can Magnetic or Electrical Pulses Help You?: Targeting Misbehaving Brain Circuitry with Therapies like ECT, ... Electrical brain stimulation and intracranial drug injections produce robust reward sensation due to a relatively direct ... Olds J, Milner P (1954). "Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat ...
"Tas Cricket , Electrical Stimulation". www.tascricket.com.au. LCC Website v t e (Use dmy dates from July 2019, 1891 ...
"Gastric Electrical Stimulation". The Regents of The University of California. Archived from the original on 30 July 2019. ... Electrical implants are being used to relieve pain from rheumatoid arthritis. The electric implant is embedded in the neck of ... "Arthritis sufferers offered hope after electrical implants leave". The Independent. 23 December 2014. Retrieved 1 February 2019 ... patients with rheumatoid arthritics, the implant sends electrical signals to electrodes in the vagus nerve. The application of ...
"Electric Acoustic Stimulation". www.medel.com. Retrieved 2022-05-13. "Vibrant Soundbridge Middle Ear Implant". www.medel.com. ... In 2005, MED-EL released their first electric acoustic stimulation system (EAS). This new type of implant combines both ... "Who is a Candidate for an Electric-Acoustic Stimulation (EAS) Cochlear Implant?". AudiologyOnline. Retrieved 2022-05-13. " ... The Bonebridge bone conduction implant was the first implant on the market to offer direct drive stimulation of the bone ...
Electrical stimulation of partial limb regeneration in mammals. Becker RO, Spadaro JA. Bull N Y Acad Med. 1972 May;48(4):627-41 ... Mollon B, da Silva V, Busse JW, Einhorn TA, Bhandari M (November 2008). "Electrical stimulation for long-bone fracture-healing ... Kooistra BW, Jain A,1 and Hanson BP (April-June 2009). "Electrical stimulation: Nonunions". Indian J Orthop. 43 (2): 149-55. ... The Body Electric: Electromagnetism and the Foundation of Life is a 1985 book by Becker and Gary Selden in which Becker, an ...
Patterson, Michael; Kesner, Raymond (1981). Electrical Stimulation Research Techniques. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-547440-7. ... This coupling results in an electric body force in the bulk liquid, outside the electric double layer, that can generate ... These instabilities are caused by a coupling of electric fields and ionic conductivity gradients that results in an electric ... In such case, the moving structure acts as an electric motor. Practical fields of interest of EHD are the common air ioniser, ...
It is used as a treatment for gastroparesis.[citation needed] Soffer, Edy E (2012). "Gastric Electrical Stimulation for ...
Siegert, M.; Tan, A. (2019). "Electric stimulation of ammonotrophic methanogenesis". Frontiers in Energy Research. 7: 17. doi: ... At the same time, they unload the liberated electrons onto the anode, producing electrical current. This electrical current can ... Another, still unexplored, reaction mechanism involves anaerobic ammonium oxidation on anodes of bio-electrical systems. Such ...
Additionally, gastric electrical stimulation (GES; approved on a humanitarian device exemption) can be used as treatment. ... In specific cases where treatment of chronic nausea and vomiting proves resistant to drugs, implantable gastric stimulation may ... which act as a pacemaker since they transduce signals from motor neurons to produce an electrical rhythm in the smooth muscle ...
Mindes, Janet; Dubin, Mark J.; Altemus, Margaret (November 15, 2014). "Chapter 11 Cranial Electric Stimulation". In Knotkova, ... February 17, 2012 Electrical Stimulators Need High-Risk Rating, Says FDA Panel Staff, Sleep Review. June 11, 2014 FDA To ... Rigorous clinical trial evidence is lacking on the use of cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES) in acute depression. Thus, ... Kavirajan HC, Lueck K, Chuang K (2014). "Alternating current cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES) for depression". Cochrane ...
Low intensity electrical stimulation is believed to have originated in the studies of galvanic currents in humans and animals ... "Noninvasive Brain Stimulation with Low-Intensity Electrical Currents: Putative Mechanisms of Action for Direct and Alternating ... "Benefits and Harms of Cranial Electrical Stimulation for Chronic Painful Conditions, Depression, Anxiety, and Insomnia: A ... Transcranial direct-current stimulation Transcranial magnetic stimulation Electroconvulsive therapy Rosa, MA; Lisanby, SH ( ...
Since electrical stimulation itself sometimes seemed to quiet tremor during the procedure, Benabid reasoned this might be a ... As described in a 2010 interview with Benabid in the medical journal Lancet, electrical stimulation was used during surgery to ... International Functional Electrical Stimulation Society (IFESS). January 19, 2012. Retrieved March 1, 2014. Benabid, A.L. ( ... As technology advanced to allow such stimulation to be continuously applied for a long time, DBS became widely adopted in the ...
Rolston JD, Desai SA, Laxpati NG, Gross RE (October 2011). "Electrical stimulation for epilepsy: experimental approaches". ... Therefore, the main goal of neural decoding is to characterize how the electrical activity of neurons elicit activity and ... a neuron's electric potential fluctuates around its resting potential due to a constant influx and efflux of sodium and ... they may find what appears to be random electrical activity. These neurons are actually firing in response to the lower level ...
It is not clear if electrical stimulation is an effective treatment for pressure ulcers. In addition, the benefit of using ... Cochrane Wounds Group) (January 2020). "Electrical stimulation for treating pressure ulcers". The Cochrane Database of ... electrical stimulation). Reliable scientific evidence to support the use of many of these interventions, though, is lacking. ...
Gastric electrical stimulation is a pacemaker-like device with electrical connections to the surface of the stomach. The device ... Gastric electrical stimulation, also known as implantable gastric stimulation, is the use of specific devices to provide ... Levinthal, DJ; Bielefeldt, K (January 2017). "Systematic review and meta-analysis: Gastric electrical stimulation for ... Chiu, JD; Soffer, E (January 2015). "Gastric electrical stimulation for obesity". Current Gastroenterology Reports. 17 (1): 424 ...
Use this page to view details for the Local Coverage Determination for Transcutaneous Electrical Joint Stimulation Devices ( ... Transcutaneous electrical joint stimulation is administered by a noninvasive device that delivers electrical stimulation ... Devices that provide electrical stimulation have considerable variation in the parameters of the current, how the current is ... There is insufficient published clinical evidence to establish that treatment with Transcutaneous Electrical Joint Stimulation ...
... (FES) devices deliver small energy impulses to the muscles to improve movement. ... Functional electrical stimulation (FES) devices can improve the way your child walks. The devices deliver small energy impulses ...
... Four men who had been paralyzed for two years or more were ... In a new study, researchers treated four men with spinal cord injuries with a combination of mild electrical stimulation to the ... Edgerton has researched electrical stimulation for paralysis for decades, beginning with studies in animals. ... Edgerton and his colleagues think the electrical stimulation works by making nerves in the spinal cord more sensitive to ...
... Urology. 1998 Feb;51(2A Suppl):24-6. doi: 10.1016/s0090-4295( ... Objectives: To describe the rationale for the use of electrical stimulation (ES) for the treatment of urinary incontinence, and ... Results: The use of ES is aimed at altering LUT function by stimulation of the sacral autonomic or somatic nerves. Two types of ... ES have been used: chronic stimulation and acute maximal functional electrostimulation. The frequency used depends on the ...
Does Twice Daily Stimulation Enhance Alzheimers Mental Functions?. Electrical stimulation improves Alzheimers patients ... Functional Electrical Stimulation Improves Neuronal Regeneration Personalised Printable Document (PDF). Please complete this ... Functional Electrical Stimulation Improves Neuronal Regeneration: Study. Proliferation of endogenous neural precursor cells ... Yun Xiang and co-workers from Sun Yat-sen University in China observed the effects of functional electrical stimulation ...
Electric stimulation is becoming more accessible to people who feel like it can help them with mental tasks. But evidence for ... Findings suggest this form of electric stimulation - known as transcranial direct current stimulation, or tDCS - could make you ... Santarnecchi employs electrical stimulation in his research and sees it as a powerful tool for learning about the brain. But he ... People place electrodes over regions of the brain relevant to a given task, then activate the electric stimulation while ...
How stimulation treatment works. Functional electrical stimulation (FES) is a treatment that uses small electrical charges to ... Today experts are successfully providing functional electrical stimulation for spinal cord patients. ... that electrical stimulation was a viable option for helping people to walk again after traumatic spinal cord injuries. ...
Help your athletes reach peak performance with an efficient workout using the Compex neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES ... The neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) device of choice of professional athletes, coaches, and athletic trainers ... Improve Athletic Performance and Recovery with Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation (NMES) from Compex. ...
... News By By Steven ReinbergHealthDay Reporter ... "Transcranial magnetic stimulation is a very safe treatment," Manevitz said. Much is still not known about how effective it is ... During treatment, patients wear a cap lined with electrodes that send small electric charges to targeted areas of the brain. ... The researchers found that those who had received magnetic brain stimulation had a greater improvement in quality of life than ...
Transcutaneous neuromuscular electrical stimulation for oropharyngeal dysphagia in adults [IPG634] ... Transcutaneous neuromuscular electrical stimulation for oropharyngeal dysphagia in adults [IPG634]. CPG Date: Wednesday, ... APTA: Clinical Practice Guideline for the Use of Ankle-Foot Orthoses and Functional Electrical Stimulation Post-Stroke (CPG+) ... This guideline provides recommendations related to transcutaneous neuromuscular electrical stimulation for oropharyngeal ...
Übersetzungen für functional electrical stimulation im Online-Wörterbuch dict.cc (Deutschwörterbuch). ... functional , electrical , stimulation. functional electrical stimulation ,FES,. funktionelle Elektrostimulation {f}. ,FES,. ...
By delivering to the brain multiple electric fields at frequencies too high to … ... Noninvasive Deep Brain Stimulation via Temporally Interfering Electric Fields, Cell 169(6):1029-1041. (* equal contribution). ... By delivering to the brain multiple electric fields at frequencies too high to recruit neural firing, but which differ by a ... Hearing the light: neural and perceptual encoding of optogenetic stimulation in the central auditory pathway. Guo W, Hight AE, ...
Dictionary Definition: electrical stimulation. electrical stimulation. A mild electrical current applied to the nerves that ...
"Electric Stimulation" by people in Harvard Catalyst Profiles by year, and whether "Electric Stimulation" was a major or minor ... Using Electrical Stimulation of the Ulnar Nerve Trunk to Predict Postoperative Improvement in Hand Clumsiness in Patients With ... "Electric Stimulation" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicines controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical ... Neuromuscular electrical stimulation enhances the ability of serum extracellular vesicles to regenerate aged skeletal muscle ...
For selective stimulation of small fibers, the optimal stimulation waveform parameters are an important aspect together with ... For selective stimulation of small fibers, the optimal stimulation waveform parameters are an important aspect together with ... as it requires the characterization of the response of the small fibers to electrical stimulation. The perception thresholds ... as it requires the characterization of the response of the small fibers to electrical stimulation. The perception thresholds ...
H-wave stimulation is a form of electrical stimulation that differs from other forms of electrical stimulation, such as ... H-wave stimulation is a form of electrical stimulation that differs from other forms of electrical stimulation, such as ... transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), in terms of its wave form. H-wave stimulation has been used for the ... transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), in terms of its wave form. H-wave stimulation has been used for the ...
Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) currently is one of the most commonly used forms of electroanalgesia. ... What is transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS)?. What is included in a transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation ... What is percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (PENS)?. When is transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) indicated ... encoded search term (Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation) and Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation What to Read ...
Ehrensberger developed the electrical stimulation method that Garwood licensed from UB. To bring the technology to market, ... The electric stimulation then triggers a chemical reaction at the surface of implant which produces a surrounding ... The electric signal creates an antibacterial environment that stops infections before they become problematic. ...
... August 7, 2023. Erin Hunter, Assistant ... Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TENS) can significantly improve severe obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), according to an ... Domiciliary transcutaneous electrical stimulation in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea and limited adherence to continuous ... "The TESLA trial shows us the potential of a new therapeutic option, transcutaneous electrical stimulation, and it will be ...
electrical stimulation from Neuroscience News features breaking science news from research labs, scientists and colleges around ... "Tickling" the Brain with Electrical Stimulation Improves Memory. Low intensity electrical stimulation to specific brain areas ... How Electrical Stimulation Activates Neurons. A new study reveals frequency plays a key role in neural activation from ... Electrical Stimulation in Brain Bypasses Senses and Instructs Movement. University of Rochester researchers report low levels ...
Understanding Electrical Muscle Stimulation (EMS). Electrical Muscle Stimulation, often referred to as EMS, is a technique that ... Electrical Muscle Stimulation: How It Works and Why It May Help You Achieve Your Fitness Goals. By SilaFit. ... Electrical Muscle Stimulation (EMS) body suits have become a popular tool in the fitness industry over the past decade and for ... Electrical Muscle Stimulation (EMS) is one such technology that has gained popularity in recent years. But what exactly is EMS ...
Evoked potentials are the electrical signals generated by the nervous system in response to sensory stimuli. Auditory, visual, ... While SEPs can be elicited by mechanical stimulation, clinical studies use electrical stimulation of peripheral nerves, which ... Electrical Stimulation Parameters. Stimulus location. For recording median nerve SEPs, the nerve is stimulated at the wrist. ... Electrical stimulation and multichannel EMG recording for identification of functional neural tissue during cauda equina ...
Electrical Stimulation of Spinal Cord Lets Paralyzed Patients Walk and Ride Bikes ... Electric Moves. Mzees recovery comes thanks to an increasingly popular procedure known as epidural electrical stimulation, or ... Electrical Stimulation of Spinal Cord Lets Paralyzed Patients Walk and Ride Bikes. D-briefBy Roni DenglerOct 31, 2018 11:20 PM ... The precise electrical stimulation enabled study participants to take assisted steps on a treadmill within five days. The ...
... world with a publication in Nature Medicine in November outlining success in using electrical spinal cord stimulation to ... One theory proposes that by delivering precise electrical stimulation to nerves, it is possible to amplify the diminished ... News in Context: Early Positive Results of Electrical Spinal Stimulation for Parkinsons Patients ... News in Context: Early Positive Results of Electrical Spinal Stimulation for Parkinsons Patients ...
Copyright 2023 IEEE - All rights reserved. Use of this website signifies your agreement to the IEEE Terms and Conditions.. A not-for-profit organization, IEEE is the worlds largest technical professional organization dedicated to advancing technology for the benefit of humanity.. ...
Anal sphincter responses after perianal electrical stimulation.. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry 1982;45:770- ...
... possible to use epidural electrical stimulation for lumbar epidurals, we generally limit the use of electrical stimulation for ... The epidural electrical stimulation test was first described more than 20 years ago.4 During the test, an electrical current is ... Epidural Electrical Stimulation Test (Tsui test). · Johan Adapter. · Nerve Stimulator No Yes (Objective) Yes (Objective) ... How I Do It: Epidural Electrical Stimulation (Tsui Test) for Thoracic Epidural Catheter Confirmation May 1, 2021, 17:00 PM by ...
Its Time to Regulate the Use of Whole-body Electrical Stimulation. Title:. Its Time to Regulate the Use of Whole-body ... Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (ES) of human nerves and muscles has long been used as a nonpharmacological treatment for ... Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) which is a noninvasive treatment, is primarily used to reduce pain. One ... Re: Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation as adjunct to primary care management for tennis elbow: pragmatic randomised ...
  • The neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) device of choice of professional athletes, coaches, and athletic trainers worldwide, Compex delivers an efficient workout that reduces the risk of injury-and virtually no cardiovascular fatigue. (henryschein.com)
  • This guideline provides recommendations related to transcutaneous neuromuscular electrical stimulation for oropharyngeal dysphagia in adults. (apta.org)
  • Neuromuscular electrical stimulation enhances the ability of serum extracellular vesicles to regenerate aged skeletal muscle after injury. (harvard.edu)
  • The effect of phasic versus combined neuromuscular electrical stimulation using the StimaWELL 120MTRS system on multifidus muscle morphology and function in patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial protocol. (iasp-pain.org)
  • Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) is used to improve muscle strength clinically when rehabilitating various musculoskeletal disorders. (iasp-pain.org)
  • Background: Passive training of specific locomotor muscle groups by means of neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) might be better tolerated than whole body exercise in patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). (bmj.com)
  • We therefore propose that passive stimulation of locomotor muscle groups by neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) may provide an alternative approach for improving physical capacity in severely compromised patients with COPD who present with incapacitating dyspnoea. (bmj.com)
  • Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TENS) can significantly improve severe obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), according to an article by investigators from King's College London and Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust published in the journal eClinical Medicine . (pharmacytimes.com)
  • The TESLA trial shows us the potential of a new therapeutic option, transcutaneous electrical stimulation, and it will be interesting to see how the method can be used in clinical practice. (pharmacytimes.com)
  • Domiciliary transcutaneous electrical stimulation in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea and limited adherence to continuous positive airway pressure therapy: a single-centre, open-label, randomised, controlled phase III trial. (pharmacytimes.com)
  • Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (ES) of human nerves and muscles has long been used as a nonpharmacological treatment for pain relief [1] and/or as a rehabilitation modality to either preserve or restore skeletal muscle mass and function during and after a period of disuse due to injury, surgery or illness [2]. (bmj.com)
  • After the four weeks, the participants had a total eight weeks of transcutaneous electrical stimulation to the spinal cord, using an experimental device approved by the University of Washington. (icord.org)
  • The study has found that transcutaneous electrical stimulation of the spinal cord leads to rapid and sustained recovery of hand and arm function, even after complete paralysis. (icord.org)
  • Domiciliary transcutaneous electrical stimulation of the hypoglossal nerve could be used to reduce the severity of symptoms experienced by patients with obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA), according to the findings of recent study. (hospitalhealthcare.com)
  • Patients treated with transcutaneous electrical stimulation showed improvements in nocturnal breathing and a significant reduction of daytime exhaustion. (hospitalhealthcare.com)
  • The TESLA open-label phase 3 trial, which was published in eClinical Medicine and led by researchers from King's College London and Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, examined whether domiciliary transcutaneous electrical stimulation would control OSA and provide health benefits . (hospitalhealthcare.com)
  • Individuals were then randomised 1:1 to receive domiciliary transcutaneous electrical stimulation or usual care with ongoing CPAP therapy. (hospitalhealthcare.com)
  • A total of 56 participants were enrolled and randomly assigned to domiciliary transcutaneous electrical stimulation (29 participants, of which 27 completed the trial) or usual care (27 participants) and followed for a median of three months. (hospitalhealthcare.com)
  • The authors concluded that domiciliary transcutaneous electrical stimulation for patients with OSA without significant comorbidities is feasible, safe and reduces disease severity. (hospitalhealthcare.com)
  • Findings suggest this form of electric stimulation - known as transcranial direct current stimulation, or tDCS - could make you better at math , more creative and even boost memory . (kqed.org)
  • Transcranial direct current stimulation is one of several non-invasive approaches used to stimulate the brain, but it's unique in that brave do-it-yourself-ers are trying out tDCS at home. (kqed.org)
  • Transcranial direct current stimulation, or tDCS, is a non-invasive neural stimulation technique that passes a weak electrical current (equivalent to a nine-volt battery) through the brain, changing the ability of neurons to respond to stimuli. (ucla.edu)
  • Known as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) respectively, these two methods are currently being explored as potential treatments for substance use disorders, depression , and other mental health issues. (iflscience.com)
  • Such techniques are based on the neural modulation of brain activity, including the one known as The Transcranianial Direct Current Stimulation (TDCS). (bvsalud.org)
  • Edgerton and his colleagues think the electrical stimulation works by making nerves in the spinal cord more sensitive to receiving messages from the brain saying, "Hey, I want to move. (popsci.com)
  • The use of ES is aimed at altering LUT function by stimulation of the sacral autonomic or somatic nerves. (nih.gov)
  • While SEPs can be elicited by mechanical stimulation, clinical studies use electrical stimulation of peripheral nerves, which gives larger and more robust responses. (medscape.com)
  • Recordings of SEPs to stimulation of the ulnar nerves at the wrists are useful for intraoperative monitoring when the mid-cervical spinal cord or parts of the brachial plexus are at risk. (medscape.com)
  • Recording electrodes are placed on the scalp, over the spine, and over peripheral nerves proximal to the stimulation site. (medscape.com)
  • WUSTL researchers have developed a new, implantable and biodegradable device that delivers pulses of electrical activity to damaged peripheral nerves in rats, helping the animals to regrow nerves and improve nerve function. (neurosciencenews.com)
  • One theory proposes that by delivering precise electrical stimulation to nerves, it is possible to amplify the diminished signals traversing nerve fibers, thereby restoring effective communication. (michaeljfox.org)
  • So in the second study, Courtine and his team designed the electrical device to deliver transient bursts of stimulation specifically to the nerves that control leg muscles. (discovermagazine.com)
  • The electrical pulses stimulate the nerves in the area to block out pain signals sent to the brain. (lu.se)
  • Half will undergo a form of non-invasive transcranial electrical stimulation called IASIS that sends low-intensity pulses to the brain, combined with an EEG (electroencephalography) to monitor brain activity. (va.gov)
  • The results from the study may provide information that could lead to large-scale clinical use of low-intensity transcranial electrical stimulation. (va.gov)
  • Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) currently is one of the most commonly used forms of electroanalgesia. (medscape.com)
  • TENS (Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulator). (medscape.com)
  • The results of laboratory studies suggest that electrical stimulation delivered by a TENS unit reduces pain through nociceptive inhibition at the presynaptic level in the dorsal horn, thus limiting its central transmission. (medscape.com)
  • A transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) unit consists of 1 or more electrical-signal generators, a battery, and a set of electrodes. (medscape.com)
  • H-wave stimulation is a form of electrical stimulation that differs from other forms of electrical stimulation, such as transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), in terms of its wave form. (bcbsnd.com)
  • TENS titrates electrical currents, via electrodes that attach to the skin and can be adjusted based on skin sensation. (pharmacytimes.com)
  • TENS is a treatment performed by using a small device with electrodes that send low-voltage electrical pulses through the skin in the area where the pain is present. (lu.se)
  • The experimental treatment showed progress alongside other medicines and deep brain stimulation, a technique of introducing electricity that is applied to the brain instead of the spinal cord. (michaeljfox.org)
  • Prior studies have used deep brain stimulation (DBS) to treat chronic pain, but results have been inconsistent. (medrxiv.org)
  • Functional electrical stimulation (FES) devices can improve the way your child walks. (cookchildrens.org)
  • Two types of ES have been used: chronic stimulation and acute maximal functional electrostimulation. (nih.gov)
  • From the perspective of neural plasticity, Dr. Yun Xiang and co-workers from Sun Yat-sen University in China observed the effects of functional electrical stimulation treatment on endogenous neural precursor cell proliferation and expression of basic fibroblast growth factor and epidermal growth factor in the rat brain on the infarct side. (medindia.net)
  • The researchers found that functional electrical stimulation can promote endogenous neural precursor cell proliferation in the brains of acute cerebral infarction rats, enhance expression of basic fibroblast growth factor and epidermal growth factor, and improve the motor function of rats. (medindia.net)
  • Today experts are successfully providing functional electrical stimulation for spinal cord patients. (healthline.com)
  • Functional electrical stimulation (FES) is a treatment that uses small electrical charges to improve mobility for someone who has difficulties with walking caused by damage to the brain or spinal cord. (healthline.com)
  • Human anterior thalamic stimulation evoked cortical potentials align with intrinsic functional connectivity. (harvard.edu)
  • Effects of Noise Electrical Stimulation on Proprioception, Force Control, and Corticomuscular Functional Connectivity. (harvard.edu)
  • Is the Subject Area "Functional electrical stimulation" applicable to this article? (plos.org)
  • Here we have combined fMRI with electrical stimulation in a patient undergoing awake brain surgery, to separately probe the functional significance of the human homologs, i.e., area hMT and hMST, on motion perception. (jneurosci.org)
  • Researchers report epidural stimulation helped two people with quadriplegia to improve voluntary hand movements. (neurosciencenews.com)
  • Mzee's recovery comes thanks to an increasingly popular procedure known as epidural electrical stimulation , or EES, in which a surgically implanted device sends electricity down the spine. (discovermagazine.com)
  • Epidural electrical stimulation test (Tsui test). (asra.com)
  • The epidural electrical stimulation test was first described more than 20 years ago. (asra.com)
  • The epidural electrical stimulating test not only allows for objective assessment of the correct catheter placement in the epidural space but also confirmation of the vertebral level of the catheter tip. (asra.com)
  • Though it is possible to use epidural electrical stimulation for lumbar epidurals, we generally limit the use of electrical stimulation for thoracic epidural placement. (asra.com)
  • Nonetheless, in the pediatric population, an epidural catheter can be inserted from the caudal space and advanced in a cephalad direction within the epidural space to the desired vertebral level under direct guidance of the epidural stimulation test. (asra.com)
  • The epidural stimulation test provides valuable objective information that aids in the assessment of catheter placement. (asra.com)
  • In a new study, researchers treated four men with spinal cord injuries with a combination of mild electrical stimulation to the spine and intense physical therapy. (popsci.com)
  • Electrocortical stimulation therapy could end the misery of motion sickness, a new study reports. (neurosciencenews.com)
  • Patient David Mzee was able to walk again thanks to physical therapy and an electrical implant that stimulated his spinal cord. (discovermagazine.com)
  • B-D: Same procedure illustrating postoperative adjuvant therapy with direct current stimulation (B), capacitive coupling stimulation (C), or inductive coupling stimulation (D). In B, the electric generator is typically implanted subcutaneously. (medicalxpress.com)
  • There are three types of electrical stimulation therapy in use today: direct current stimulation, capacitive coupling stimulation, and inductive coupling stimulation (also known as pulsed electromagnetic field). (medicalxpress.com)
  • They found nearly a fivefold increase in the odds of successful bone fusion in animals and a greater than twofold increase in patients treated with electrical stimulation therapy. (medicalxpress.com)
  • With respect to the various types of stimulation therapy, the authors found that in animals the effects of direct current stimulation on spinal fusion were very beneficial, whereas the effects of inductive coupling stimulation were little different from no electrical stimulation at all. (medicalxpress.com)
  • Direct current stimulation requires implantation of a stimulation device, which is usually done at the time of spinal fusion surgery. (medicalxpress.com)
  • In humans, both direct current stimulation and inductive coupling stimulation were highly effective in aiding spinal fusion. (medicalxpress.com)
  • WEDNESDAY, March 26, 2014 (HealthDay News) -- By using magnetic brain stimulation on patients with fibromyalgia, French researchers say they were able to improve some of the patients' symptoms. (mentalhelp.net)
  • Specifically, the technique, called transcranial magnetic stimulation, raised quality of life and emotional and social well-being among patients suffering from the condition, the researchers found in a small study. (mentalhelp.net)
  • The researchers found that those who had received magnetic brain stimulation had a greater improvement in quality of life than those who received the shame stimulation. (mentalhelp.net)
  • After treatment, the average score of those receiving the brain stimulation dropped by about 10 points, while scores increased an average of two points for those who received the fake treatment, the researchers said. (mentalhelp.net)
  • Researchers have developed a new wireless brain stimulation device that could revolutionize the way neurological disorders are treated. (neurosciencenews.com)
  • Using electrical fields to simulate slow wave sleep, researchers enhance memory. (neurosciencenews.com)
  • Low intensity electrical stimulation to specific brain areas can help to improve short term verbal memory, researchers report. (neurosciencenews.com)
  • University of Rochester researchers report low levels of electrical stimulation delivered to areas of the brain responsible for movement can instruct an appropriate response, replacing signals for sensory processing. (neurosciencenews.com)
  • Researchers describe using low current electrical stimulation on specific areas of the brain to enhance distinct memories. (neurosciencenews.com)
  • A global team of researchers captured the attention of the scientific world with a publication in Nature Medicine in November outlining success in using electrical spinal cord stimulation to address gait and balance issues in a patient with Parkinson's disease (PD). (michaeljfox.org)
  • The researchers also timed the electrical stimulation to the patients' movements. (discovermagazine.com)
  • Researchers from The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of published data on the effect of electrical stimulation therapies on spinal fusion. (medicalxpress.com)
  • In this study, a team of five researchers from the University of Washington through the collaboration with University of California, Los Angeles, decided to investigate a novel approach involving transcutaneous electrical spinal cord stimulations. (icord.org)
  • The researchers reported that the stimulation was well tolerated by participants, and there were no significant adverse events. (icord.org)
  • UCLA researchers have found that people with schizophrenia were able to more accurately determine whether two auditory tones matched or differed, after receiving a type of electrical brain stimulation. (ucla.edu)
  • Electrical stimulation improves Alzheimer's patients' cognitive function and correlates with restored cortical plasticity. (medindia.net)
  • Andrew Meas, Dustin Shillcox, Kent Stephenson and Rob Summers in the University of Louisville lab where they get specialized training to work with electrical stimulation to move parts of their bodies below their spinal cord injuries. (popsci.com)
  • When the movie " First Steps "came out in 1985 medical experts scoffed at its message - that electrical stimulation was a viable option for helping people to walk again after traumatic spinal cord injuries. (healthline.com)
  • Although visual motion blindness was predominantly observed in the contralateral visual field, stimulation of hMST also affected the ipsilateral hemifield. (jneurosci.org)
  • 0.05) in the emergence and overall number of plants as well as fresh mass was observed after electromagnetic field stimulation. (bvsalud.org)
  • We examined whether chloride salts of metals in HM alloys can elicit responses or modify reactivity to methacholine (MCh) or responses to electric field stimulation (EFS) in guinea pig tracheal strips. (cdc.gov)
  • By delivering to the brain multiple electric fields at frequencies too high to recruit neural firing, but which differ by a frequency within the dynamic range of neural firing, we can electrically stimulate neurons throughout a region where interference between the multiple fields results in a prominent electric field envelope modulated at the difference frequency. (mit.edu)
  • We validated this temporal interference (TI) concept via modeling and physics experiments, and verified that neurons in the living mouse brain could follow the electric field envelope. (mit.edu)
  • We demonstrate the utility of TI stimulation by stimulating neurons in the hippocampus of living mice without recruiting neurons of the overlying cortex. (mit.edu)
  • Muscle Activation: The EMS device sends low-frequency electrical impulses to the electrodes, which then stimulate the motor neurons in your muscles. (selfgrowth.com)
  • One of the first and also the most compelling pieces of evidence for direct involvement of cortical signals in perception comes from electrical stimulation experiments addressing the middle temporal (MT) area and the medial superior temporal (MST) area: two neighboring extrastriate cortical areas of the monkey brain housing direction-sensitive neurons. (jneurosci.org)
  • Electrical Muscle Stimulation (EMS) is one such technology that has gained popularity in recent years. (selfgrowth.com)
  • In this comprehensive guide, we will delve into the world of Electrical Muscle Stimulation, exploring its origins, mechanisms, benefits, and how it can help you reach your fitness goals. (selfgrowth.com)
  • Electrical Muscle Stimulation, often referred to as EMS, is a technique that involves the use of electrical impulses to activate and contract muscles in a controlled manner. (selfgrowth.com)
  • According to the sites for stimulation, the existing flight control strategy for insects are classified as flight muscle stimulation, sensory organ stimulation, and neuron stimulation. (diwou.com)
  • In this study, we designed an experiment to characterize the effects of multiple pulse stimulation and proposed a computational model that considers electrostimulation of fibers and synaptic effects in a multiscale model. (frontiersin.org)
  • This stimulation causes the muscles to contract in response to the electrical signals. (selfgrowth.com)
  • It is key that the stimulation does not cause direct muscle contractions, but rather help the participant enhance control over their muscles, hence making the task feels easier. (icord.org)
  • The technique of neural electrical stimulation has the advantage of low power consumption, is the mainstream locomotion control strategy for insects with asynchronous flight muscles represented by honeybees. (diwou.com)
  • Conclusions: For severely disabled COPD patients with incapacitating dyspnoea, short term electrical stimulation of selected lower limb muscles involved in ambulation can improve muscle strength and endurance, whole body exercise tolerance, and breathlessness during activities of daily living. (bmj.com)
  • And some members of the U.S. ski jumping team competing in the Winter Olympics trained using electric stimulation headbands from the company Halo Neuroscience, which sells their headsets to the general public. (kqed.org)
  • Now, in one of two studies out today, Gregoire Courtine, a neuroscientist at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and Lausanne University Hospital in Switzerland, who led the new research, and colleagues report in the journal Nature Neuroscience that continuous stimulation can block a patient's perception of where their leg is in space. (discovermagazine.com)
  • the electrical stimulus artifact often overlaps with, and obscures, the trigeminal nerve SEPs. (medscape.com)
  • Use of electric potential or currents to elicit biological responses. (harvard.edu)
  • The device, called WAND, fine tunes treatments by stimulating and recording electrical currents in the brain at the same time. (neurosciencenews.com)
  • An increasing body of evidence from preclinical studies (in vitro 9-17 and in vivo animal trials 18-21 and studies of experimental wounds in healthy individuals 22,23 ) indicates that electrical currents promote wound healing. (nursingcenter.com)
  • Stimulating specific regions of the brain with weak electrical currents may help smokers give up tobacco, according to new research. (iflscience.com)
  • The needles can either be stimulated by hand or electrically with electric currents (also known as electroacupuncture). (lu.se)
  • For selective stimulation of small fibers, the optimal stimulation waveform parameters are an important aspect together with the study of electrode design. (frontiersin.org)
  • Intraepidermal electrical stimulation (IES) using a small concentric bipolar needle electrode that injects a current of a few mA to generate a focal electric field around the electrodes can selectively stimulate small fibers ( Inui and Kakigi, 2012 ). (frontiersin.org)
  • Different stimulation parameters (for example, duration, interstimulus interval, waveform, and electrode polarity) have been proposed to facilitate the selective stimulation of Aδ- and C-fibers. (frontiersin.org)
  • With capacitive coupling stimulation, two small electrode pads are placed on the skin over the region of desired bone fusion. (medicalxpress.com)
  • A byproduct of such methods is lowering the electrical impedance of the electrode to skin contact, as conductive ions permeate the stratum corneum, the primary resistive layer of the skin. (arxiv.org)
  • We developed a method for adapting iontophoresis to condition the electrode to skin contact, both for electrophysiological recording and electrical stimulation of body tissues. (arxiv.org)
  • This involves a single-use electrode patch stuck to the forehead, which sends small electrical pulses through the skin during sleep. (bvsalud.org)
  • In one experiment, for example, electric stimulation accelerated how quickly participants learned to spot concealed bombs or snipers in a military training simulation. (kqed.org)
  • The precise electrical stimulation enabled study participants to take assisted steps on a treadmill within five days. (discovermagazine.com)
  • To ensure improvement in motor function, stimulation intensity was adjusted based on feedback from the participants about which intensity made the task easiest. (icord.org)
  • The participants received anodal stimulation, cathodal stimulation or a placebo stimulation for 20 minutes. (ucla.edu)
  • The perception thresholds are generally characterized using single-pulse stimulation based on the strength-duration curve. (frontiersin.org)
  • Hypothesis Cingulate stimulation would increase patients' hot pain thresholds if non-stimulation 70-150 Hz activity encoded psychophysical pain responses. (medrxiv.org)
  • Their work is part of an effort to explore how low levels of continuous electrical current, delivered to the brain via electrodes placed on the scalp, could alter neural activity and improve a person's performance. (kqed.org)
  • H-wave stimulation is considered experimental/investigational and therefore, non-covered. (bcbsnd.com)
  • VA scientists are studying an experimental electrical stimulation technique, coupled with neuroimaging, to learn how mild traumatic brain injury interacts with PTSD in specific areas of the brain. (va.gov)
  • Capacitive and inductive coupling stimulation therapies are noninvasive. (medicalxpress.com)
  • Non-invasive temporal interference electrical stimulation of the human hippocampus. (harvard.edu)
  • Electric signals controll humans - the heart, the brain, the nerve action potential. (logoarena.com)
  • Other studies the team has planned for the future include developing a stimulation implant just for helping paralysis patients with movement. (popsci.com)
  • The electric stimulation then triggers a chemical reaction at the surface of implant which produces a surrounding microenvironment that promotes the killing of bacteria. (buffalo.edu)
  • The U.S. Food and Drug Administration on Friday proposed a ban on electrical stimulation devices (ESDs) that are used to curb individuals from engaging in self-injurious or aggressive behavior, saying they pose an 'unreasonable and substantial' risk to public health. (newsmax.com)
  • ESDs administer electrical shocks through electrodes attached to the skin to attempt to condition to stop individuals from harming themselves or being aggressive. (newsmax.com)
  • Conceptual illustrations of the 3 types of electrical stimulation therapies used in spinal fusion. (medicalxpress.com)
  • One of these therapies is electrical stimulation . (medicalxpress.com)
  • Cottrill and colleagues set out to pool the data from small studies on the effects of electrical stimulation therapies and to comprehensively assess these effects overall and in specific subgroups. (medicalxpress.com)
  • The authors performed a systematic review of all English-language articles describing the effects of electrical stimulation therapies on spinal bone fusion. (medicalxpress.com)
  • Damaged tissue and the epidermis surrounding it have different electrical charges (positive and negative, respectively), which causes the flow of an endogenous electrical current that stimulates natural healing processes. (nursingcenter.com)
  • Anal sphincter responses after perianal electrical stimulation. (bmj.com)
  • Because we stimulate the spinal cord as the brain would do naturally, the stimulation feels a lot more physiological," Courtine said. (discovermagazine.com)
  • The objective of this study was to demonstrate that it is possible to modulate these brain areas using transcranial magnetic stimulation to correct brain abnormalities and improve patients' symptoms, Guedj said. (mentalhelp.net)
  • Manevitz said he's piloting a study using transcranial magnetic stimulation to treat fibromyalgia in hopes of both relieving pain and improving patients' quality of life. (mentalhelp.net)
  • Transcranial magnetic stimulation is a very safe treatment," Manevitz said. (mentalhelp.net)
  • Manevitz said transcranial magnetic stimulation is not currently approved for treating fibromyalgia, so treatment would be "off-label. (mentalhelp.net)
  • Although the study found an association between transcranial magnetic stimulation and improved quality of life, it did not prove a cause-and-effect link. (mentalhelp.net)
  • A study of flex miniaturized coils for focal nerve magnetic stimulation. (harvard.edu)
  • Referred to as non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS), the treatment can be performed using electrodes that deliver a low-intensity current through the scalp or a metallic coil that sends magnetic pulses through the brain. (iflscience.com)
  • Stimulation of soy seeds using environmentally friendly magnetic and electric fields. (bvsalud.org)
  • Gastric electrical stimulation, also known as implantable gastric stimulation, is the use of specific devices to provide electrical stimulation to the stomach to try to bring about weight loss in those who are overweight or improve gastroparesis. (wikipedia.org)
  • Briefly, the technology involves a laparoscopically implantable neurostimulator with two electrodes implanted at the LES that provide programmed electrical stimuli to improve LES function. (sages.org)
  • The trio got on their feet again thanks to well-timed and precise electrical stimulation in the spinal cord combined with rehabilitation. (discovermagazine.com)
  • Once they figure this out, it will help them know which paralysis patients would benefit from spinal stimulation. (popsci.com)
  • Could Electrical Stimulation Help MS Patients Unable to Walk? (healthline.com)
  • During treatment, patients wear a cap lined with electrodes that send small electric charges to targeted areas of the brain. (mentalhelp.net)
  • Using Electrical Stimulation of the Ulnar Nerve Trunk to Predict Postoperative Improvement in Hand Clumsiness in Patients With Cervical Spondylotic Myelopathy. (harvard.edu)
  • These patients received continuous stimulation from the device when using the treatment. (discovermagazine.com)
  • Two patients also gained the ability to walk using crutches without the electrical stimulation. (discovermagazine.com)
  • Finally, patients were able to walk outside and ride an arm- and leg-powered bicycle using a personalized voice-activated watch to turn the electrical stimulation on and off. (discovermagazine.com)
  • Two patients had a higher pain threshold with stimulation than without, while the other two patients had no difference. (medrxiv.org)
  • We found that patients who responded to stimulation had specific time windows where high-frequency activity was associated with increased pain ratings. (medrxiv.org)
  • Purpose] This study was performed to investigate the effect of microcurrent electrical stimulation on the foot blood circulation and the degree of pain experienced by diabetes patients. (go.jp)
  • Conclusion] Based on the results of this study, we consider that microcurrent electric stimulation of the foot may be helpful for preventing the pain and diabetic ulcers by increasing the foot blood circulation in diabetes patients. (go.jp)
  • VAI was evaluated by programmed electrical stimulation in 48 patients. (lu.se)
  • 21 in the journal Cyborg and Bionic Systems , validated the effectiveness of unilateral optic lobe electrical stimulation for steering locomotion control of honeybees, and explored the motion control parameters with the highest successful rate. (diwou.com)
  • The newly published research optimized the pulse electrical signal parameters for steering flight control of honeybees based on unilateral optic lobe electrical stimulation. (diwou.com)
  • His research paper has fully confirmed the promising applicability of electrical stimulation applied to the unilateral optic lobe for steering control, and offers some reliable control parameters for an artificial flight regulation of honeybee, thus promoting the research of cyborg honeybee control strategy. (diwou.com)
  • Conclusion Stimulation of cingulate regions with increased pain-related neural activity was more effective at modulating pain perception than stimulating non-responsive areas. (medrxiv.org)
  • Personalized evaluation of neural activity biomarkers could help identify the best target for stimulation and predict its effectiveness in future studies evaluating DBS. (medrxiv.org)
  • For the new study, 38 people -- mostly women -- who suffered from persistent fibromyalgia pain for more than six months were randomly assigned to either 14 sessions of real brain stimulation or a fake stimulation given over 10 weeks. (mentalhelp.net)
  • A new study reveals frequency plays a key role in neural activation from electrical stimulation. (neurosciencenews.com)
  • David Mzee, 28, a patient in the study, learns to walk again thanks to electrical stimulation. (discovermagazine.com)
  • Present Study: Application of direct or alternating electrical current has been shown to induce and speed up the process of bone healing following spine fusion surgery. (medicalxpress.com)
  • The study authors explored the effective response behaviors of honeybee under electrical stimulation, as well as the influence of the duty cycle and frequency of the electrical signal on the successful rate of steering response. (diwou.com)
  • Another major challenge facing the development of cyborg honeybee is the confined load capacity, which limits the size and weight of the artificial stimulation module," said the study authors. (diwou.com)
  • Currently, vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is clinically applied for the treatment of epilepsy, depression, cluster headache and migraine, while its treatment of various dysfunctions after an ischemic stroke is still in the clinical research stage. (iasp-pain.org)
  • Controlled Intensity: The intensity and frequency of the electrical impulses can be adjusted to match your specific fitness level and goals. (selfgrowth.com)
  • 5-HIAA concentrations also increased during ICSS but these changes were not correlated with either ICSS rate or current intensity, suggesting that changes in serotonin metabolism were unlikely to subserve brain stimulation reward in the VTA. (nih.gov)
  • To describe the rationale for the use of electrical stimulation (ES) for the treatment of urinary incontinence, and to summarize the results of clinical studies assessing these techniques. (nih.gov)
  • H-wave stimulation has been used for the treatment of pain related to a variety of etiologies, such as diabetic neuropathy, muscle sprains, temporomandibular joint dysfunctions or reflex sympathetic dystrophy. (bcbsnd.com)
  • Electrical stimulation of the LES (LES-EST) has emerged as a new alternative for the treatment of GERD. (sages.org)
  • 1. Apply clinical practice recommendations related to the use of electrical stimulation in the treatment of pressure injuries. (nursingcenter.com)
  • Evoked potentials are the electrical signals generated by the nervous system in response to sensory stimuli. (medscape.com)
  • People place electrodes over regions of the brain relevant to a given task, then activate the electric stimulation while practicing that task. (kqed.org)
  • Santarnecchi employs electrical stimulation in his research and sees it as a powerful tool for learning about the brain. (kqed.org)
  • This way "we can have a synergy between the voluntary brain command and the stimulation," Courtine said. (discovermagazine.com)
  • In vivo microdialysis with HPLC-ED was used to measure dopamine (DA), 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), homovanillic acid (HVA) and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) in the nucleus accumbens of the rat, prior, during, and after 15-min periods of electrical brain stimulation at sites in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) that supported intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS). (nih.gov)
  • These results add to the growing body of evidence linking changes in extracellular DA in the mesolimbic DA system with both brain stimulation reward and the conditioned and unconditioned rewarding effects of biologically relevant stimuli. (nih.gov)
  • The effects of the computed internal electric field on the small fiber models were considered. (frontiersin.org)
  • The effects lasted at least three to six months beyond stimulation, indicating that the nervous system has adapted and facilitated long term recovery of function. (icord.org)
  • British Library EThOS: Current clinical management of low back pain and hypoalgesic effects of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation. (bl.uk)
  • The electrical stimuli on the skin preferentially activate low-threshold, myelinated nerve fibers. (medscape.com)
  • The LES Stimulation system (EndoStim, BV, The Hague, The Netherlands) was implanted using standard technique (Surg Endosc. (sages.org)
  • Electric Stimulation" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicine's controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) . (harvard.edu)
  • Inductive coupling stimulation involves the use of electromagnetic coils placed on the skin over the site of anticipated bone fusion. (medicalxpress.com)
  • Guo W, Hight AE, Chen JX, Klapoetke NC, Hancock KE, Shinn-Cunningham BG, Boyden ES, Lee DJ, Polley DB (2015) Hearing the light: neural and perceptual encoding of optogenetic stimulation in the central auditory pathway, Scientific Reports 5:10319. (mit.edu)
  • The stimulation sites typically used for clinical diagnostic SEP studies are the median nerve at the wrist, the common peroneal nerve at the knee, and the posterior tibial nerve at the ankle. (medscape.com)
  • Electrical stimulation of specific small fibers (Aδ- and C-fibers) is used in basic studies on nociception and neuropathic pain and to diagnose neuropathies. (frontiersin.org)