The action of a drug in promoting or enhancing the effectiveness of another drug.
Any tests that demonstrate the relative efficacy of different chemotherapeutic agents against specific microorganisms (i.e., bacteria, fungi, viruses).
A complex of closely related aminoglycosides obtained from MICROMONOSPORA purpurea and related species. They are broad-spectrum antibiotics, but may cause ear and kidney damage. They act to inhibit PROTEIN BIOSYNTHESIS.
Substances that reduce the growth or reproduction of BACTERIA.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
Phenomena and pharmaceutics of compounds that inhibit the function of agonists (DRUG AGONISM) and inverse agonists (DRUG INVERSE AGONISM) for a specific receptor. On their own, antagonists produce no effect by themselves to a receptor, and are said to have neither intrinsic activity nor efficacy.
Glycosylated compounds in which there is an amino substituent on the glycoside. Some of them are clinically important ANTIBIOTICS.
An endocellulase with specificity for the hydrolysis of 1,4-beta-glucosidic linkages in CELLULOSE, lichenin, and cereal beta-glucans.
A drug used in the treatment of angina pectoris, heart failure, conduction defects, and myocardial infarction. It is a partial agonist at beta adrenergic receptors and acts as a coronary vasodilator and cardiotonic agent.
Single preparations containing two or more active agents, for the purpose of their concurrent administration as a fixed dose mixture.
An exocellulase with specificity for the hydrolysis of 1,4-beta-D-glucosidic linkages in CELLULOSE and cellotetraose. It catalyzes the hydrolysis of terminal non-reducing ends of beta-D-glucosides with release of CELLOBIOSE.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
A mitosporic fungal genus frequently found in soil and on wood. It is sometimes used for controlling pathogenic fungi. Its teleomorph is HYPOCREA.
The action of a drug that may affect the activity, metabolism, or toxicity of another drug.
Therapy with two or more separate preparations given for a combined effect.
Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process.
Cells grown in vitro from neoplastic tissue. If they can be established as a TUMOR CELL LINE, they can be propagated in cell culture indefinitely.
DNA sequences which are recognized (directly or indirectly) and bound by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase during the initiation of transcription. Highly conserved sequences within the promoter include the Pribnow box in bacteria and the TATA BOX in eukaryotes.
An antibiotic produced by the soil actinomycete Streptomyces griseus. It acts by inhibiting the initiation and elongation processes during protein synthesis.
Antibiotic complex produced by Streptomyces kanamyceticus from Japanese soil. Comprises 3 components: kanamycin A, the major component, and kanamycins B and C, the minor components.
Proteins which bind to DNA. The family includes proteins which bind to both double- and single-stranded DNA and also includes specific DNA binding proteins in serum which can be used as markers for malignant diseases.
A species of gram-positive, coccoid bacteria commonly isolated from clinical specimens and the human intestinal tract. Most strains are nonhemolytic.
An aminoglycoside, broad-spectrum antibiotic produced by Streptomyces tenebrarius. It is effective against gram-negative bacteria, especially the PSEUDOMONAS species. It is a 10% component of the antibiotic complex, NEBRAMYCIN, produced by the same species.
The span of viability of a cell characterized by the capacity to perform certain functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, some form of responsiveness, and adaptability.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
A polysaccharide with glucose units linked as in CELLOBIOSE. It is the chief constituent of plant fibers, cotton being the purest natural form of the substance. As a raw material, it forms the basis for many derivatives used in chromatography, ion exchange materials, explosives manufacturing, and pharmaceutical preparations.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Substances that inhibit or prevent the proliferation of NEOPLASMS.
An antiviral derivative of THYMIDINE used mainly in the treatment of primary keratoconjunctivitis and recurrent epithelial keratitis due to HERPES SIMPLEX virus. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p557)
A group of antibiotics that contain 6-aminopenicillanic acid with a side chain attached to the 6-amino group. The penicillin nucleus is the chief structural requirement for biological activity. The side-chain structure determines many of the antibacterial and pharmacological characteristics. (Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 8th ed, p1065)
A group of peptides characterized by length of 1-2 dozen residues with a high proportion of them being non-proteinogenic, notably alpha-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib) and isovaline, and have a C-terminal amino alcohol and N terminal alkyl group. They are found in FUNGI and some are ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS. They form channels or pores in target organisms. The term is a contraction of peptide-Aib-alcohol.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
A cell line derived from cultured tumor cells.
The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.
Thiomalates are medicinal compounds, such as dimethylamine thiomalate, that contain a thiomalic acid structure and are used in the treatment of conditions like rheumatoid arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis due to their anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties.
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
Broad-spectrum semisynthetic penicillin derivative used parenterally. It is susceptible to gastric juice and penicillinase and may damage platelet function.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
Nonsusceptibility of an organism to the action of penicillins.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
Semi-synthetic derivative of penicillin that functions as an orally active broad-spectrum antibiotic.
An organothiophosphorus insecticide that has been used to control pig mange.
A resinous substance obtained from beehives that is used traditionally as an antimicrobial. It is a heterogeneous mixture of many substances.
An organothiophosphorus cholinesterase inhibitor that is used as a systemic and contact insecticide.
One of the mechanisms by which CELL DEATH occurs (compare with NECROSIS and AUTOPHAGOCYTOSIS). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA; (DNA FRAGMENTATION); at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth.
The use of two or more chemicals simultaneously or sequentially in the drug therapy of neoplasms. The drugs need not be in the same dosage form.
The dose amount of poisonous or toxic substance or dose of ionizing radiation required to kill 50% of the tested population.
Substances that destroy fungi by suppressing their ability to grow or reproduce. They differ from FUNGICIDES, INDUSTRIAL because they defend against fungi present in human or animal tissues.
Basic lipopeptide antibiotic group obtained from Bacillus polymyxa. They affect the cell membrane by detergent action and may cause neuromuscular and kidney damage. At least eleven different members of the polymyxin group have been identified, each designated by a letter.
A bacteriostatic antibacterial agent that interferes with folic acid synthesis in susceptible bacteria. Its broad spectrum of activity has been limited by the development of resistance. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p208)
Processes that stimulate the GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION of a gene or set of genes.
The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.
A group of anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that show up as pink (negative) when treated by the Gram-staining method.
Serum glycoprotein produced by activated MACROPHAGES and other mammalian MONONUCLEAR LEUKOCYTES. It has necrotizing activity against tumor cell lines and increases ability to reject tumor transplants. Also known as TNF-alpha, it is only 30% homologous to TNF-beta (LYMPHOTOXIN), but they share TNF RECEPTORS.
An inorganic and water-soluble platinum complex. After undergoing hydrolysis, it reacts with DNA to produce both intra and interstrand crosslinks. These crosslinks appear to impair replication and transcription of DNA. The cytotoxicity of cisplatin correlates with cellular arrest in the G2 phase of the cell cycle.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
An antibiotic produced by Streptomyces fradiae.
One of the three domains of life (the others being Eukarya and ARCHAEA), also called Eubacteria. They are unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms which generally possess rigid cell walls, multiply by cell division, and exhibit three principal forms: round or coccal, rodlike or bacillary, and spiral or spirochetal. Bacteria can be classified by their response to OXYGEN: aerobic, anaerobic, or facultatively anaerobic; by the mode by which they obtain their energy: chemotrophy (via chemical reaction) or PHOTOTROPHY (via light reaction); for chemotrophs by their source of chemical energy: CHEMOLITHOTROPHY (from inorganic compounds) or chemoorganotrophy (from organic compounds); and by their source for CARBON; NITROGEN; etc.; HETEROTROPHY (from organic sources) or AUTOTROPHY (from CARBON DIOXIDE). They can also be classified by whether or not they stain (based on the structure of their CELL WALLS) with CRYSTAL VIOLET dye: gram-negative or gram-positive.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Triazole antifungal agent that is used to treat oropharyngeal CANDIDIASIS and cryptococcal MENINGITIS in AIDS.
A semisynthetic ampicillin-derived acylureido penicillin.
The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.
A species of gram-positive bacteria which may be pathogenic for certain insects. It is used for the biological control of the Gypsy moth.

Toxicological findings in a fatal ingestion of methamphetamine. (1/11876)

This paper presents the case history of a fatality caused by the complications brought about by the presence of methamphetamine and ethanol. Drug concentrations are reported from samples obtained approximately 15 min after the subject was last observed to be chewing what was then believed to be gum, 3 h after the initial toxic symptoms were displayed, 6, 11, and 22 h later. The subjects conditions deteriorated over the course of this time, and he was declared dead 33 h after the initial display of toxic symptoms. The toxicological findings and concentration levels of the reported biological specimens concurred with the expected findings in a case of methamphetamine toxicity.  (+info)

Expression of both P1 and P2 purine receptor genes by human articular chondrocytes and profile of ligand-mediated prostaglandin E2 release. (2/11876)

OBJECTIVE: To assess the expression and function of purine receptors in articular chondrocytes. METHODS: Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was used to screen human chondrocyte RNA for expression of P1 and P2 purine receptor subtypes. Purine-stimulated prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) release from chondrocytes, untreated or treated with recombinant human interleukin-1alpha (rHuIL-1alpha), was assessed by radioimmunoassay. RESULTS: RT-PCR demonstrated that human articular chondrocytes transcribe messenger RNA for the P1 receptor subtypes A2a and A2b and the P2 receptor subtype P2Y2, but not for the P1 receptor subtypes A1 and A3. The P1 receptor agonists adenosine and 5'-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine did not change PGE2 release from chondrocytes. The P2Y2 agonists ATP and UTP stimulated a small release of PGE2 that was potentiated after pretreatment with rHuIL-1alpha. PGE2 release in response to ATP and UTP cotreatment was not additive, but release in response to coaddition of ATP and bradykinin (BK) or UTP and BK was additive, consistent with ATP and UTP competition for the same receptor site. The potentiation of PGE2 release in response to ATP and UTP after rHuIL-1alpha pretreatment was mimicked by phorbol myristate acetate. CONCLUSION: Human chondrocytes express both P1 and P2 purine receptor subtypes. The function of the P1 receptor subtype is not yet known, but stimulation of the P2Y2 receptor increases IL-1-mediated PGE2 release.  (+info)

Estrogen enhancement of anti-double-stranded DNA antibody and immunoglobulin G production in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. (3/11876)

OBJECTIVE: To study the in vitro effect of estrogen on IgG anti-double-stranded DNA (anti-dsDNA) antibody and total IgG production in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), in order to elucidate its regulatory role in SLE. METHODS: PBMC from SLE patients and normal donors were cultured with 17beta-estradiol (E2). IgG anti-dsDNA antibodies, total IgG, and cytokine activity in the culture supernatants were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS: E2 enhanced production of IgG anti-dsDNA antibodies as well as total IgG in PBMC from SLE patients. Anti-dsDNA production in patients with inactive disease was less responsive to E2 than that in patients with active disease. E2 also enhanced total IgG, but not anti-dsDNA, production in the PBMC of normal donors. Antibody production was increased by E2 to a lesser extent in patients' B cells than in their PBMC. Anti-interleukin-10 (anti-IL-10) antibodies partially blocked the E2-induced increase in antibody production in patients' PBMC, but anti-IL-10 had no effect on B cells. E2 increased IL-10 production by patients' monocytes. Exogenous IL-10 acted additively with E2 in increasing antibody production in patients' B cells. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that E2 may polyclonally increase the production of IgG, including IgG anti-dsDNA, in SLE patients' PBMC by enhancing B cell activity and by promoting IL-10 production in monocytes. These findings support the involvement of E2 in the pathogenesis of SLE.  (+info)

Synergistic protective effects of antioxidant and nitric oxide synthase inhibitor in transient focal ischemia. (4/11876)

Both nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitors and free radical scavengers have been shown to protect brain tissue in ischemia-reperfusion injury. Nitric oxide and superoxide anion act via distinct mechanisms and react together to form the highly deleterious peroxynitrite. Therefore the authors examined the effects and the interaction between the NOS inhibitor, NG nitro-L-arginine (LNA) and the antioxidant/superoxide scavenger, di-tert-butyl-hydroxybenzoic acid (DtBHB) in the rat submitted to 2 hours of middle cerebral artery occlusion. Posttreatment was initiated 4 hours after the onset of ischemia and infarct volume was measured at 48 hours. The dose-related effect of LNA resulted in a bell-shaped curve: 15, 56, 65, and 33% reduction of total infarct for 0.03, 0.1, 0.3, and 1 mg/kg (intravenously [IV]) respectively and 11% increase in infarct volume for 3 mg/kg (IV). Whereas DtBHB (20 mg/kg; intraperitoneally [IP]) was ineffective, the dose of 60 mg/kg produced 65% protection in infarct volume. The combination of a subthreshold dose of LNA (0.03 mg/kg; IV) and DtBHB (20 mg/kg; IP) resulted in significant reduction (49%) in infarct volume. These results show that LNA and DtBHB act synergistically to provide a consistent neuroprotection against ischemic injury when administered 4 hours after ischemia. This suggests that nitric oxide and free radicals are involved and interact in synergy in ischemia-reperfusion injury.  (+info)

Spinal antinociceptive synergism between morphine and clonidine persists in mice made acutely or chronically tolerant to morphine. (5/11876)

Morphine (Mor) tolerance has been attributed to a reduction of opioid-adrenergic antinociceptive synergy at the spinal level. The present experiments tested the interaction of intrathecally (i.t.) administered Mor-clonidine (Clon) combinations in mice made acutely or chronically tolerant to Mor. ICR mice were pretreated with Mor either acutely (40 nmol i.t., 8 h; 100 mg/kg s.c., 4 h) or chronically (3 mg/kg s.c. every 6 h days 1 and 2; 5 mg/kg s.c. every 6 h days 3 and 4). Antinociception was detected via the hot water (52.5 degrees C) tail-flick test. After the tail-flick latencies returned to baseline levels, dose-response curves were generated to Mor, Clon, and Mor-Clon combinations in tolerant and control mice. Development of tolerance was confirmed by significant rightward shifts of the Mor dose-response curves in tolerant mice compared with controls. Isobolographic analysis was conducted; the experimental combined ED50 values were compared statistically against their respective theoretical additive ED50 values. In all Mor-pretreated groups, the combination of Mor and Clon resulted in significant leftward shifts in the dose-response curves compared with those of each agonist administered separately. In all tolerant and control groups, the combination of Mor and Clon produced an ED50 value significantly less than the corresponding theoretical additive ED50 value. Mor and Clon synergized in Mor-tolerant as well as in control mice. Spinally administered adrenergic/opioid synergistic combinations may be effective therapeutic strategies to manage pain in patients apparently tolerant to the analgesic effects of Mor.  (+info)

Angiotensin receptor subtype 1 mediates angiotensin II enhancement of isoproterenol-induced cyclic AMP production in preglomerular microvascular smooth muscle cells. (6/11876)

In a previous study, we found that angiotensin (Ang) II enhances beta-adrenoceptor-induced cAMP production in cultured preglomerular microvascular smooth muscle cells (PMVSMCs) obtained from spontaneously hypertensive rats. The purpose of the present investigation was to identify the Ang receptor subtypes that mediate this effect. In our first study, we compared the ability of Ang II, Ang III, Ang (3-8), and Ang (1-7) to increase cAMP production in isoproterenol (1 microM)-treated PMVSMCs. Each peptide was tested at 0.1, 1, 10, 100, and 1000 nM. Both Ang II and Ang III increased intracellular (EC50s, 1 and 11 nM, respectively) and extracellular (EC50s, 2 and 14 nM, respectively) cAMP levels in a concentration-dependent fashion. In contrast, Ang (3-8) and Ang (1-7) did not enhance either intracellular or extracellular cAMP levels at any concentration tested. In our second study, we examined the ability of L 158809 [a selective Ang receptor subtype 1 (AT1) receptor antagonist] to inhibit Ang II (100 nM) and Ang III (100 nM) enhancement of isoproterenol (1 microM)-induced cAMP production in PMVSMCs. L 158809 (10 nM) abolished or nearly abolished (p <.001) Ang II and Ang III enhancement of isoproterenol-induced intracellular and extracellular cAMP levels. In contrast, PD 123319 (300 nM; a selective AT2 receptor antagonist) did not significantly alter Ang II enhancement of isoproterenol-induced intracellular or extracellular cAMP levels. We conclude that AT1 receptors, but not AT2, Ang (3-8), nor Ang (1-7) receptors mediate Ang II and Ang III enhancement of beta-adrenoceptor-induced cAMP production in cultured PMVSMCs.  (+info)

1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 enhances the susceptibility of breast cancer cells to doxorubicin-induced oxidative damage. (7/11876)

1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3), the hormonal form of vitamin D, has anticancer activity in vivo and in vitro. Doxorubicin exerts its cytotoxic effect on tumor cells mainly by two mechanisms: (a) generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS); and (b) inhibition of topoisomerase II. We studied the combined cytotoxic action of 1,25(OH)2D3 and doxorubicin on MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Pretreatement with 1,25(OH)2D3 resulted in enhanced cytotoxicity of doxorubicin. The average enhancing effect after a 72-h pretreatment with 1,25(OH)2D3 (10 nM) followed by a 24-h treatment with 1 microg/ml doxorubicin was 74+/-9% (mean +/- SE). Under these experimental conditions, 1,25(OH)2D3 on its own did not affect cell number or viability. 1,25(OH)2D3 also enhanced the cytotoxic activity of another ROS generating quinone, menadione, but did not affect cytotoxicity induced by the topoisomerase inhibitor etoposide. The antioxidant N-acetylcysteine slightly reduced the cytotoxic activity of doxorubicin but had a marked protective effect against the combined action of 1,25(OH)2D3 and doxorubicin. These results indicate that ROS are involved in the interaction between 1,25(OH)2D3 and doxorubicin. 1,25(OH)2D3 also increased doxorubicin cytotoxicity in primary cultures of rat cardiomyocytes. Treatment of MCF-7 cells with 1,25(OH)2D3 alone markedly reduced the activity, protein, and mRNA levels of the cytoplasmic antioxidant enzyme Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, which indicated that the hormone inhibits its biosynthesis. This reduction in the antioxidant capacity of the cells could account for the synergistic interaction between 1,25(OH)2D3 and doxorubicin and may also suggest increased efficacy of 1,25(OH)2D3 or its analogues in combination with other ROS-generating anticancer therapeutic modalities.  (+info)

SDZ PSC 833, the cyclosporine A analogue and multidrug resistance modulator, activates ceramide synthesis and increases vinblastine sensitivity in drug-sensitive and drug-resistant cancer cells. (8/11876)

Resistance to chemotherapy is the major cause of cancer treatment failure. Insight into the mechanism of action of agents that modulate multidrug resistance (MDR) is instrumental for the design of more effective treatment modalities. Here we show, using KB-V-1 MDR human epidermoid carcinoma cells and [3H]palmitic acid as metabolic tracer, that the MDR modulator SDZ PSC 833 (PSC 833) activates ceramide synthesis. In a short time course experiment, ceramide was generated as early as 15 min (40% increase) after the addition of PSC 833 (5.0 microM), and by 3 h, [3H]ceramide was >3-fold that of control cells. A 24-h dose-response experiment showed that at 1.0 and 10 microM PSC 833, ceramide levels were 2.5- and 13.6-fold higher, respectively, than in untreated cells. Concomitant with the increase in cellular ceramide was a progressive decrease in cell survival, suggesting that ceramide elicited a cytotoxic response. Analysis of DNA in cells treated with PSC 833 showed oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation, characteristic of apoptosis. The inclusion of fumonisin B1, a ceramide synthase inhibitor, blocked PSC 833-induced ceramide generation. Assessment of ceramide mass by TLC lipid charring confirmed that PSC 833 markedly enhanced ceramide synthesis, not only in KB-V-1 cells but also in wild-type KB-3-1 cells. The capacity of PSC 833 to reverse drug resistance was demonstrated with vinblastine. Whereas each agent at a concentration of 1.0 microM reduced cell survival by approximately 20%, when PSC 833 and vinblastine were coadministered, cell viability fell to zero. In parallel experiments measuring ceramide metabolism, it was shown that the PSC 833/vinblastine combination synergistically increased cellular ceramide levels. Vinblastine toxicity, also intensified by PSC 833 in wild-type KB-3-1 cells, was as well accompanied by enhanced ceramide formation. These data demonstrate that PSC 833 has mechanisms of action in addition to P-glycoprotein chemotherapy efflux pumping.  (+info)

Drug synergism is a pharmacological concept that refers to the interaction between two or more drugs, where the combined effect of the drugs is greater than the sum of their individual effects. This means that when these drugs are administered together, they produce an enhanced therapeutic response compared to when they are given separately.

Drug synergism can occur through various mechanisms, such as:

1. Pharmacodynamic synergism - When two or more drugs interact with the same target site in the body and enhance each other's effects.
2. Pharmacokinetic synergism - When one drug affects the metabolism, absorption, distribution, or excretion of another drug, leading to an increased concentration of the second drug in the body and enhanced therapeutic effect.
3. Physiochemical synergism - When two drugs interact physically, such as when one drug enhances the solubility or permeability of another drug, leading to improved absorption and bioavailability.

It is important to note that while drug synergism can result in enhanced therapeutic effects, it can also increase the risk of adverse reactions and toxicity. Therefore, healthcare providers must carefully consider the potential benefits and risks when prescribing combinations of drugs with known or potential synergistic effects.

Microbial sensitivity tests, also known as antibiotic susceptibility tests (ASTs) or bacterial susceptibility tests, are laboratory procedures used to determine the effectiveness of various antimicrobial agents against specific microorganisms isolated from a patient's infection. These tests help healthcare providers identify which antibiotics will be most effective in treating an infection and which ones should be avoided due to resistance. The results of these tests can guide appropriate antibiotic therapy, minimize the potential for antibiotic resistance, improve clinical outcomes, and reduce unnecessary side effects or toxicity from ineffective antimicrobials.

There are several methods for performing microbial sensitivity tests, including:

1. Disk diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer test): A standardized paper disk containing a predetermined amount of an antibiotic is placed on an agar plate that has been inoculated with the isolated microorganism. After incubation, the zone of inhibition around the disk is measured to determine the susceptibility or resistance of the organism to that particular antibiotic.
2. Broth dilution method: A series of tubes or wells containing decreasing concentrations of an antimicrobial agent are inoculated with a standardized microbial suspension. After incubation, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is determined by observing the lowest concentration of the antibiotic that prevents visible growth of the organism.
3. Automated systems: These use sophisticated technology to perform both disk diffusion and broth dilution methods automatically, providing rapid and accurate results for a wide range of microorganisms and antimicrobial agents.

The interpretation of microbial sensitivity test results should be done cautiously, considering factors such as the site of infection, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the antibiotic, potential toxicity, and local resistance patterns. Regular monitoring of susceptibility patterns and ongoing antimicrobial stewardship programs are essential to ensure optimal use of these tests and to minimize the development of antibiotic resistance.

Gentamicin is an antibiotic that belongs to the class of aminoglycosides. It is used to treat various types of bacterial infections, including:

* Gram-negative bacterial infections, such as those caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Proteus mirabilis
* Certain Gram-positive bacterial infections, such as those caused by Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes

Gentamicin works by binding to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, which inhibits protein synthesis and ultimately leads to bacterial cell death. It is typically given via injection (intramuscularly or intravenously) and is often used in combination with other antibiotics to treat serious infections.

Like all aminoglycosides, gentamicin can cause kidney damage and hearing loss, especially when used for long periods of time or at high doses. Therefore, monitoring of drug levels and renal function is recommended during treatment.

Anti-bacterial agents, also known as antibiotics, are a type of medication used to treat infections caused by bacteria. These agents work by either killing the bacteria or inhibiting their growth and reproduction. There are several different classes of anti-bacterial agents, including penicillins, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, and tetracyclines, among others. Each class of antibiotic has a specific mechanism of action and is used to treat certain types of bacterial infections. It's important to note that anti-bacterial agents are not effective against viral infections, such as the common cold or flu. Misuse and overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, which is a significant global health concern.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

Drug antagonism is a type of interaction between two or more drugs, where one drug (known as the antagonist) reduces or blocks the effects of another drug (known as the agonist). This can occur through various mechanisms, such as binding to the same receptor site as the agonist and preventing it from activating the receptor, or by increasing the metabolism or excretion of the agonist.

Drug antagonism is often used in medical treatment to counteract the negative effects of certain drugs. For example, naloxone is an opioid antagonist that can be used to reverse the respiratory depression caused by opioid overdose. Similarly, flumazenil is a benzodiazepine antagonist that can be used to reverse the sedative effects of benzodiazepines in cases of overdose or adverse reactions.

However, drug antagonism can also lead to unintended consequences, such as when one medication reduces the effectiveness of another medication that a patient is taking for a different condition. Therefore, it is important for healthcare providers to be aware of potential drug interactions and to carefully monitor their patients' responses to medications.

Aminoglycosides are a class of antibiotics that are derived from bacteria and are used to treat various types of infections caused by gram-negative and some gram-positive bacteria. These antibiotics work by binding to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, which inhibits protein synthesis and ultimately leads to bacterial cell death.

Some examples of aminoglycosides include gentamicin, tobramycin, neomycin, and streptomycin. These antibiotics are often used in combination with other antibiotics to treat severe infections, such as sepsis, pneumonia, and urinary tract infections.

Aminoglycosides can have serious side effects, including kidney damage and hearing loss, so they are typically reserved for use in serious infections that cannot be treated with other antibiotics. They are also used topically to treat skin infections and prevent wound infections after surgery.

It's important to note that aminoglycosides should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional, as improper use can lead to antibiotic resistance and further health complications.

Cellulase is a type of enzyme that breaks down cellulose, which is a complex carbohydrate and the main structural component of plant cell walls. Cellulases are produced by certain bacteria, fungi, and protozoans, and are used in various industrial applications such as biofuel production, food processing, and textile manufacturing. In the human body, there are no known physiological roles for cellulases, as humans do not produce these enzymes and cannot digest cellulose.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Oxyfedrine" does not appear to be a valid or recognized medication or substance in modern medicine. It's possible that there may be a spelling error or it could be an outdated or obsolete term. Please provide more context or check the spelling so I can give you a more accurate and helpful response.

A drug combination refers to the use of two or more drugs in combination for the treatment of a single medical condition or disease. The rationale behind using drug combinations is to achieve a therapeutic effect that is superior to that obtained with any single agent alone, through various mechanisms such as:

* Complementary modes of action: When different drugs target different aspects of the disease process, their combined effects may be greater than either drug used alone.
* Synergistic interactions: In some cases, the combination of two or more drugs can result in a greater-than-additive effect, where the total response is greater than the sum of the individual responses to each drug.
* Antagonism of adverse effects: Sometimes, the use of one drug can mitigate the side effects of another, allowing for higher doses or longer durations of therapy.

Examples of drug combinations include:

* Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for HIV infection, which typically involves a combination of three or more antiretroviral drugs to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
* Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where combinations of cytotoxic agents are used to target different stages of the cell cycle and increase the likelihood of tumor cell death.
* Fixed-dose combination products, such as those used in the treatment of hypertension or type 2 diabetes, which combine two or more active ingredients into a single formulation for ease of administration and improved adherence to therapy.

However, it's important to note that drug combinations can also increase the risk of adverse effects, drug-drug interactions, and medication errors. Therefore, careful consideration should be given to the selection of appropriate drugs, dosing regimens, and monitoring parameters when using drug combinations in clinical practice.

Cellulose 1,4-beta-Cellobiosidase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of cellulose, a complex carbohydrate and the main structural component of plant cell walls, into simpler sugars. Specifically, this enzyme breaks down cellulose by cleaving the 1,4-beta-glycosidic bonds between the cellobiose units that make up the cellulose polymer, releasing individual cellobiose molecules (disaccharides consisting of two glucose molecules). This enzyme is also known as cellobiohydrolase or beta-1,4-D-glucan cellobiohydrolase. It plays a crucial role in the natural breakdown of plant material and is widely used in various industrial applications, such as biofuel production and pulp and paper manufacturing.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

Trichoderma is a genus of fungi that are commonly found in soil, decaying wood, and other organic matter. While there are many different species of Trichoderma, some of them have been studied for their potential use in various medical and industrial applications. For example, certain Trichoderma species have been shown to have antimicrobial properties and can be used to control plant diseases. Other species are being investigated for their ability to produce enzymes and other compounds that may have industrial or medicinal uses.

However, it's important to note that not all Trichoderma species are beneficial, and some of them can cause infections in humans, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. These infections can be difficult to diagnose and treat, as they often involve multiple organ systems and may require aggressive antifungal therapy.

In summary, Trichoderma is a genus of fungi that can have both beneficial and harmful effects on human health, depending on the specific species involved and the context in which they are encountered.

A drug interaction is the effect of combining two or more drugs, or a drug and another substance (such as food or alcohol), which can alter the effectiveness or side effects of one or both of the substances. These interactions can be categorized as follows:

1. Pharmacodynamic interactions: These occur when two or more drugs act on the same target organ or receptor, leading to an additive, synergistic, or antagonistic effect. For example, taking a sedative and an antihistamine together can result in increased drowsiness due to their combined depressant effects on the central nervous system.
2. Pharmacokinetic interactions: These occur when one drug affects the absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion of another drug. For example, taking certain antibiotics with grapefruit juice can increase the concentration of the antibiotic in the bloodstream, leading to potential toxicity.
3. Food-drug interactions: Some drugs may interact with specific foods, affecting their absorption, metabolism, or excretion. An example is the interaction between warfarin (a blood thinner) and green leafy vegetables, which can increase the risk of bleeding due to enhanced vitamin K absorption from the vegetables.
4. Drug-herb interactions: Some herbal supplements may interact with medications, leading to altered drug levels or increased side effects. For instance, St. John's Wort can decrease the effectiveness of certain antidepressants and oral contraceptives by inducing their metabolism.
5. Drug-alcohol interactions: Alcohol can interact with various medications, causing additive sedative effects, impaired judgment, or increased risk of liver damage. For example, combining alcohol with benzodiazepines or opioids can lead to dangerous levels of sedation and respiratory depression.

It is essential for healthcare providers and patients to be aware of potential drug interactions to minimize adverse effects and optimize treatment outcomes.

Combination drug therapy is a treatment approach that involves the use of multiple medications with different mechanisms of action to achieve better therapeutic outcomes. This approach is often used in the management of complex medical conditions such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, and cardiovascular diseases. The goal of combination drug therapy is to improve efficacy, reduce the risk of drug resistance, decrease the likelihood of adverse effects, and enhance the overall quality of life for patients.

In combining drugs, healthcare providers aim to target various pathways involved in the disease process, which may help to:

1. Increase the effectiveness of treatment by attacking the disease from multiple angles.
2. Decrease the dosage of individual medications, reducing the risk and severity of side effects.
3. Slow down or prevent the development of drug resistance, a common problem in chronic diseases like HIV/AIDS and cancer.
4. Improve patient compliance by simplifying dosing schedules and reducing pill burden.

Examples of combination drug therapy include:

1. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV treatment, which typically involves three or more drugs from different classes to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
2. Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where multiple cytotoxic agents are used to target various stages of the cell cycle and reduce the likelihood of tumor cells developing resistance.
3. Cardiovascular disease management, which may involve combining medications such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, beta-blockers, diuretics, and statins to control blood pressure, heart rate, fluid balance, and cholesterol levels.
4. Treatment of tuberculosis, which often involves a combination of several antibiotics to target different aspects of the bacterial life cycle and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

When prescribing combination drug therapy, healthcare providers must carefully consider factors such as potential drug interactions, dosing schedules, adverse effects, and contraindications to ensure safe and effective treatment. Regular monitoring of patients is essential to assess treatment response, manage side effects, and adjust the treatment plan as needed.

Transcription factors are proteins that play a crucial role in regulating gene expression by controlling the transcription of DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA). They function by binding to specific DNA sequences, known as response elements, located in the promoter region or enhancer regions of target genes. This binding can either activate or repress the initiation of transcription, depending on the properties and interactions of the particular transcription factor. Transcription factors often act as part of a complex network of regulatory proteins that determine the precise spatiotemporal patterns of gene expression during development, differentiation, and homeostasis in an organism.

'Tumor cells, cultured' refers to the process of removing cancerous cells from a tumor and growing them in controlled laboratory conditions. This is typically done by isolating the tumor cells from a patient's tissue sample, then placing them in a nutrient-rich environment that promotes their growth and multiplication.

The resulting cultured tumor cells can be used for various research purposes, including the study of cancer biology, drug development, and toxicity testing. They provide a valuable tool for researchers to better understand the behavior and characteristics of cancer cells outside of the human body, which can lead to the development of more effective cancer treatments.

It is important to note that cultured tumor cells may not always behave exactly the same way as they do in the human body, so findings from cell culture studies must be validated through further research, such as animal models or clinical trials.

Promoter regions in genetics refer to specific DNA sequences located near the transcription start site of a gene. They serve as binding sites for RNA polymerase and various transcription factors that regulate the initiation of gene transcription. These regulatory elements help control the rate of transcription and, therefore, the level of gene expression. Promoter regions can be composed of different types of sequences, such as the TATA box and CAAT box, and their organization and composition can vary between different genes and species.

Streptomycin is an antibiotic drug derived from the actinobacterium Streptomyces griseus. It belongs to the class of aminoglycosides and works by binding to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, thereby inhibiting protein synthesis and leading to bacterial death.

Streptomycin is primarily used to treat a variety of infections caused by gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, including tuberculosis, brucellosis, plague, tularemia, and certain types of bacterial endocarditis. It is also used as part of combination therapy for the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB).

Like other aminoglycosides, streptomycin has a narrow therapeutic index and can cause ototoxicity (hearing loss) and nephrotoxicity (kidney damage) with prolonged use or high doses. Therefore, its use is typically limited to cases where other antibiotics are ineffective or contraindicated.

It's important to note that the use of streptomycin requires careful monitoring of drug levels and kidney function, as well as regular audiometric testing to detect any potential hearing loss.

Kanamycin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic that is derived from the bacterium Streptomyces kanamyceticus. It works by binding to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, thereby inhibiting protein synthesis and leading to bacterial cell death. Kanamycin is primarily used to treat serious infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella pneumoniae. It is also used in veterinary medicine to prevent bacterial infections in animals.

Like other aminoglycosides, kanamycin can cause ototoxicity (hearing loss) and nephrotoxicity (kidney damage) with prolonged use or high doses. Therefore, it is important to monitor patients closely for signs of toxicity and adjust the dose accordingly. Kanamycin is not commonly used as a first-line antibiotic due to its potential side effects and the availability of safer alternatives. However, it remains an important option for treating multidrug-resistant bacterial infections.

DNA-binding proteins are a type of protein that have the ability to bind to DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the genetic material of organisms. These proteins play crucial roles in various biological processes, such as regulation of gene expression, DNA replication, repair and recombination.

The binding of DNA-binding proteins to specific DNA sequences is mediated by non-covalent interactions, including electrostatic, hydrogen bonding, and van der Waals forces. The specificity of binding is determined by the recognition of particular nucleotide sequences or structural features of the DNA molecule.

DNA-binding proteins can be classified into several categories based on their structure and function, such as transcription factors, histones, and restriction enzymes. Transcription factors are a major class of DNA-binding proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences in the promoter region of genes and recruiting other proteins to modulate transcription. Histones are DNA-binding proteins that package DNA into nucleosomes, the basic unit of chromatin structure. Restriction enzymes are DNA-binding proteins that recognize and cleave specific DNA sequences, and are widely used in molecular biology research and biotechnology applications.

Enterococcus faecalis is a species of gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic bacteria that are part of the normal gut microbiota in humans and animals. It is a type of enterococci that can cause a variety of infections, including urinary tract infections, bacteremia, endocarditis, and meningitis, particularly in hospitalized patients or those with compromised immune systems.

E. faecalis is known for its ability to survive in a wide range of environments and resist various antibiotics, making it difficult to treat infections caused by this organism. It can also form biofilms, which further increase its resistance to antimicrobial agents and host immune responses. Accurate identification and appropriate treatment of E. faecalis infections are essential to prevent complications and ensure positive patient outcomes.

Tobramycin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic used to treat various types of bacterial infections. According to the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) terminology of the National Library of Medicine (NLM), the medical definition of Tobramycin is:

"A semi-synthetic modification of the aminoglycoside antibiotic, NEOMYCIN, that retains its antimicrobial activity but has less nephrotoxic and neurotoxic side effects. Tobramycin is used in the treatment of serious gram-negative infections, especially Pseudomonas infections in patients with cystic fibrosis."

Tobramycin works by binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit of bacterial cells, inhibiting protein synthesis and ultimately leading to bacterial cell death. It is commonly used to treat severe infections caused by susceptible strains of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Serratia marcescens, and Enterobacter species.

Tobramycin is available in various formulations, such as injectable solutions, ophthalmic ointments, and inhaled powder for nebulization. The choice of formulation depends on the type and location of the infection being treated. As with any antibiotic, it's essential to use Tobramycin appropriately and under medical supervision to minimize the risk of antibiotic resistance and potential side effects.

Cell survival refers to the ability of a cell to continue living and functioning normally, despite being exposed to potentially harmful conditions or treatments. This can include exposure to toxins, radiation, chemotherapeutic drugs, or other stressors that can damage cells or interfere with their normal processes.

In scientific research, measures of cell survival are often used to evaluate the effectiveness of various therapies or treatments. For example, researchers may expose cells to a particular drug or treatment and then measure the percentage of cells that survive to assess its potential therapeutic value. Similarly, in toxicology studies, measures of cell survival can help to determine the safety of various chemicals or substances.

It's important to note that cell survival is not the same as cell proliferation, which refers to the ability of cells to divide and multiply. While some treatments may promote cell survival, they may also inhibit cell proliferation, making them useful for treating diseases such as cancer. Conversely, other treatments may be designed to specifically target and kill cancer cells, even if it means sacrificing some healthy cells in the process.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate that is the main structural component of the cell walls of green plants, many algae, and some fungi. It is a polysaccharide consisting of long chains of beta-glucose molecules linked together by beta-1,4 glycosidic bonds. Cellulose is insoluble in water and most organic solvents, and it is resistant to digestion by humans and non-ruminant animals due to the lack of cellulase enzymes in their digestive systems. However, ruminants such as cows and sheep can digest cellulose with the help of microbes in their rumen that produce cellulase.

Cellulose has many industrial applications, including the production of paper, textiles, and building materials. It is also used as a source of dietary fiber in human food and animal feed. Cellulose-based materials are being explored for use in biomedical applications such as tissue engineering and drug delivery due to their biocompatibility and mechanical properties.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Antineoplastic agents are a class of drugs used to treat malignant neoplasms or cancer. These agents work by inhibiting the growth and proliferation of cancer cells, either by killing them or preventing their division and replication. Antineoplastic agents can be classified based on their mechanism of action, such as alkylating agents, antimetabolites, topoisomerase inhibitors, mitotic inhibitors, and targeted therapy agents.

Alkylating agents work by adding alkyl groups to DNA, which can cause cross-linking of DNA strands and ultimately lead to cell death. Antimetabolites interfere with the metabolic processes necessary for DNA synthesis and replication, while topoisomerase inhibitors prevent the relaxation of supercoiled DNA during replication. Mitotic inhibitors disrupt the normal functioning of the mitotic spindle, which is essential for cell division. Targeted therapy agents are designed to target specific molecular abnormalities in cancer cells, such as mutated oncogenes or dysregulated signaling pathways.

It's important to note that antineoplastic agents can also affect normal cells and tissues, leading to various side effects such as nausea, vomiting, hair loss, and myelosuppression (suppression of bone marrow function). Therefore, the use of these drugs requires careful monitoring and management of their potential adverse effects.

Trifluridine is an antiviral medication that is primarily used to treat herpetic keratitis, which is a viral infection of the eye caused by the herpes simplex virus. It works by interfering with the replication of the virus's DNA, thereby preventing it from multiplying and causing further damage to the eye.

Trifluridine is available as an ophthalmic solution (eye drops) and is typically applied directly to the affected eye every 2 hours while awake, for a total of 9 doses per day. The treatment period usually lasts for up to 14 days or until the symptoms have resolved.

It's important to note that trifluridine is not used to treat other forms of herpes simplex infections, such as cold sores or genital herpes, and should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional.

Penicillins are a group of antibiotics derived from the Penicillium fungus. They are widely used to treat various bacterial infections due to their bactericidal activity, which means they kill bacteria by interfering with the synthesis of their cell walls. The first penicillin, benzylpenicillin (also known as penicillin G), was discovered in 1928 by Sir Alexander Fleming. Since then, numerous semi-synthetic penicillins have been developed to expand the spectrum of activity and stability against bacterial enzymes that can inactivate these drugs.

Penicillins are classified into several groups based on their chemical structure and spectrum of activity:

1. Natural Penicillins (e.g., benzylpenicillin, phenoxymethylpenicillin): These have a narrow spectrum of activity, mainly targeting Gram-positive bacteria such as streptococci and staphylococci. However, they are susceptible to degradation by beta-lactamase enzymes produced by some bacteria.
2. Penicillinase-resistant Penicillins (e.g., methicillin, oxacillin, nafcillin): These penicillins resist degradation by certain bacterial beta-lactamases and are primarily used to treat infections caused by staphylococci, including methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA).
3. Aminopenicillins (e.g., ampicillin, amoxicillin): These penicillins have an extended spectrum of activity compared to natural penicillins, including some Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Haemophilus influenzae. However, they are still susceptible to degradation by many beta-lactamases.
4. Antipseudomonal Penicillins (e.g., carbenicillin, ticarcillin): These penicillins have activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other Gram-negative bacteria with increased resistance to other antibiotics. They are often combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors such as clavulanate or tazobactam to protect them from degradation.
5. Extended-spectrum Penicillins (e.g., piperacillin): These penicillins have a broad spectrum of activity, including many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. They are often combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors to protect them from degradation.

Penicillins are generally well-tolerated antibiotics; however, they can cause allergic reactions in some individuals, ranging from mild skin rashes to life-threatening anaphylaxis. Cross-reactivity between different penicillin classes and other beta-lactam antibiotics (e.g., cephalosporins) is possible but varies depending on the specific drugs involved.

Peptaibols are a class of naturally occurring peptides that are characterized by their unusual structural features. They are typically composed of 5-20 amino acids, with a high proportion of non-polar and alpha-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib) residues. The Aib residue is unique to peptaibols and contributes to their ability to form stable alpha-helices in hydrophobic environments.

Peptaibols are produced by a variety of fungi, including species from the genera Trichoderma, Gliocladium, and Emericella. They have been found to exhibit a range of biological activities, including antimicrobial, insecticidal, and immunomodulatory effects. Some peptaibols have also been shown to disrupt ion channels in cell membranes, which may contribute to their ability to act as ionophores and transport ions across membranes.

Due to their unique structural features and biological activities, peptaibols have attracted interest from researchers in fields such as medicinal chemistry, drug discovery, and biotechnology. However, further research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and potential therapeutic applications.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

A cell line that is derived from tumor cells and has been adapted to grow in culture. These cell lines are often used in research to study the characteristics of cancer cells, including their growth patterns, genetic changes, and responses to various treatments. They can be established from many different types of tumors, such as carcinomas, sarcomas, and leukemias. Once established, these cell lines can be grown and maintained indefinitely in the laboratory, allowing researchers to conduct experiments and studies that would not be feasible using primary tumor cells. It is important to note that tumor cell lines may not always accurately represent the behavior of the original tumor, as they can undergo genetic changes during their time in culture.

Genetic transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is used to create a complementary RNA molecule. This process is the first step in gene expression, where the genetic code in DNA is converted into a form that can be used to produce proteins or functional RNAs.

During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to the DNA template strand and reads the sequence of nucleotide bases. As it moves along the template, it adds complementary RNA nucleotides to the growing RNA chain, creating a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to the DNA template strand. Once transcription is complete, the RNA molecule may undergo further processing before it can be translated into protein or perform its functional role in the cell.

Transcription can be either "constitutive" or "regulated." Constitutive transcription occurs at a relatively constant rate and produces essential proteins that are required for basic cellular functions. Regulated transcription, on the other hand, is subject to control by various intracellular and extracellular signals, allowing cells to respond to changing environmental conditions or developmental cues.

Thiomalates are not a medical term per se, but they refer to a group of chemical compounds that contain a sulfur atom (thio-) and a malic acid component (-malate). In the medical context, thiomalates are primarily known for their use in the preparation of certain medications. Specifically, potassium or sodium salt of thiomalic acid is used as an active ingredient in some types of disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), such as rheumatoid arthritis treatments. These medications, known as thiomalate drugs, work by reducing inflammation and slowing down the progression of the disease.

Examples of thiomalate drugs include:

* Sodium thiomalate (brand name: Thiosal)
* Potassium thiomalate (brand name: Thiomal-K)

It is important to note that these medications can have side effects and potential risks, so they should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional.

Recombinant proteins are artificially created proteins produced through the use of recombinant DNA technology. This process involves combining DNA molecules from different sources to create a new set of genes that encode for a specific protein. The resulting recombinant protein can then be expressed, purified, and used for various applications in research, medicine, and industry.

Recombinant proteins are widely used in biomedical research to study protein function, structure, and interactions. They are also used in the development of diagnostic tests, vaccines, and therapeutic drugs. For example, recombinant insulin is a common treatment for diabetes, while recombinant human growth hormone is used to treat growth disorders.

The production of recombinant proteins typically involves the use of host cells, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, which are engineered to express the desired protein. The host cells are transformed with a plasmid vector containing the gene of interest, along with regulatory elements that control its expression. Once the host cells are cultured and the protein is expressed, it can be purified using various chromatography techniques.

Overall, recombinant proteins have revolutionized many areas of biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study and manipulate proteins in ways that were previously impossible.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Penicillin resistance is the ability of certain bacteria to withstand the antibacterial effects of penicillin, a type of antibiotic. This occurs when these bacteria have developed mechanisms that prevent penicillin from binding to and inhibiting the function of their cell wall biosynthesis proteins, particularly the enzyme transpeptidase.

One common mechanism of penicillin resistance is the production of beta-lactamases, enzymes that can hydrolyze and inactivate the beta-lactam ring structure present in penicillin and other related antibiotics. Another mechanism involves alterations in the bacterial cell wall that prevent penicillin from binding to its target proteins.

Penicillin resistance is a significant concern in clinical settings, as it can limit treatment options for bacterial infections and may necessitate the use of more potent or toxic antibiotics. It is important to note that misuse or overuse of antibiotics can contribute to the development and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including those resistant to penicillin.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Ampicillin is a penicillin-type antibiotic used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form cell walls, which are essential for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die.

The medical definition of Ampicillin is:

"A semi-synthetic penicillin antibiotic, derived from the Penicillium mold. It is used to treat a variety of infections caused by susceptible gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Ampicillin is effective against both aerobic and anaerobic organisms. It is commonly used to treat respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, and endocarditis."

It's important to note that Ampicillin is not effective against infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) or other bacteria that have developed resistance to penicillins. Additionally, overuse of antibiotics like Ampicillin can lead to the development of antibiotic resistance, which is a significant public health concern.

Phosmet is an organophosphate insecticide and acaricide, which means it is used to kill insects and mites. It works by inhibiting the action of an enzyme called cholinesterase, leading to the accumulation of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and ultimately causing nervous system failure in the pest.

Phosmet has a wide range of uses, including controlling pests on fruits, vegetables, nuts, and ornamental plants, as well as on animals such as dogs and livestock. It can be applied as a spray, dust, or fog, and it is absorbed through the skin and respiratory system of both the target pests and any individuals who come into contact with it.

Like other organophosphate pesticides, phosmet can have harmful effects on human health if not used properly. It can cause acute symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headache, dizziness, and muscle weakness, and in severe cases, it can lead to respiratory failure, convulsions, and death. Chronic exposure has been linked to neurological damage, including memory loss and decreased cognitive function.

It is important to follow all safety precautions when using phosmet or any other pesticide, including wearing protective clothing, washing contaminated skin and clothing, and avoiding re-entry into treated areas until the recommended safety interval has passed.

Propolis is a resinous substance that honeybees collect from tree buds, sap flows, or other botanical sources. They use it to seal gaps and holes in their hives as a protective barrier against external threats such as intruders (like other insects) and harsh weather conditions. Propolis has been found to have various chemical compositions depending on the plant sources, but it primarily consists of flavonoids, phenolic acids, and esters, which contribute to its biological activities. It has been used in traditional medicine for centuries due to its potential health benefits, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and wound-healing properties; however, more scientific research is needed to confirm these effects and establish safe and effective therapeutic dosages.

Dimethoate is an organophosphate insecticide and acaricide (a chemical that kills mites). Its chemical formula is C5H12NO3PS. It works by inhibiting the activity of an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase, which is necessary for the proper functioning of the nervous system in both insects and mammals, including humans. This leads to an overstimulation of the nervous system, causing a variety of symptoms such as muscle twitching, tremors, convulsions, and eventually respiratory failure and death in severe cases.

Dimethoate is used to control a wide range of pests, including aphids, thrips, leafminers, and spider mites, on various crops such as fruits, vegetables, cereals, and ornamental plants. However, due to its toxicity to non-target organisms, including humans, it is important to use it with caution and follow all safety guidelines when handling and applying this chemical. It is also subject to regulations regarding its use and disposal in many countries.

Apoptosis is a programmed and controlled cell death process that occurs in multicellular organisms. It is a natural process that helps maintain tissue homeostasis by eliminating damaged, infected, or unwanted cells. During apoptosis, the cell undergoes a series of morphological changes, including cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, and fragmentation into membrane-bound vesicles called apoptotic bodies. These bodies are then recognized and engulfed by neighboring cells or phagocytic cells, preventing an inflammatory response. Apoptosis is regulated by a complex network of intracellular signaling pathways that involve proteins such as caspases, Bcl-2 family members, and inhibitors of apoptosis (IAPs).

Antineoplastic combined chemotherapy protocols refer to a treatment plan for cancer that involves the use of more than one antineoplastic (chemotherapy) drug given in a specific sequence and schedule. The combination of drugs is used because they may work better together to destroy cancer cells compared to using a single agent alone. This approach can also help to reduce the likelihood of cancer cells becoming resistant to the treatment.

The choice of drugs, dose, duration, and frequency are determined by various factors such as the type and stage of cancer, patient's overall health, and potential side effects. Combination chemotherapy protocols can be used in various settings, including as a primary treatment, adjuvant therapy (given after surgery or radiation to kill any remaining cancer cells), neoadjuvant therapy (given before surgery or radiation to shrink the tumor), or palliative care (to alleviate symptoms and prolong survival).

It is important to note that while combined chemotherapy protocols can be effective in treating certain types of cancer, they can also cause significant side effects, including nausea, vomiting, hair loss, fatigue, and an increased risk of infection. Therefore, patients undergoing such treatment should be closely monitored and managed by a healthcare team experienced in administering chemotherapy.

Medical Definition:

Lethal Dose 50 (LD50) is a standard measurement in toxicology that refers to the estimated amount or dose of a substance, which if ingested, injected, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin by either human or animal, would cause death in 50% of the test population. It is expressed as the mass of a substance per unit of body weight (mg/kg, μg/kg, etc.). LD50 values are often used to compare the toxicity of different substances and help determine safe dosage levels.

Antifungal agents are a type of medication used to treat and prevent fungal infections. These agents work by targeting and disrupting the growth of fungi, which include yeasts, molds, and other types of fungi that can cause illness in humans.

There are several different classes of antifungal agents, including:

1. Azoles: These agents work by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, a key component of fungal cell membranes. Examples of azole antifungals include fluconazole, itraconazole, and voriconazole.
2. Echinocandins: These agents target the fungal cell wall, disrupting its synthesis and leading to fungal cell death. Examples of echinocandins include caspofungin, micafungin, and anidulafungin.
3. Polyenes: These agents bind to ergosterol in the fungal cell membrane, creating pores that lead to fungal cell death. Examples of polyene antifungals include amphotericin B and nystatin.
4. Allylamines: These agents inhibit squalene epoxidase, a key enzyme in ergosterol synthesis. Examples of allylamine antifungals include terbinafine and naftifine.
5. Griseofulvin: This agent disrupts fungal cell division by binding to tubulin, a protein involved in fungal cell mitosis.

Antifungal agents can be administered topically, orally, or intravenously, depending on the severity and location of the infection. It is important to use antifungal agents only as directed by a healthcare professional, as misuse or overuse can lead to resistance and make treatment more difficult.

Polymyxins are a group of antibiotics derived from the bacterium Paenibacillus polymyxa. They consist of polymyxin B and polymyxin E (also known as colistin), which have similar structures and mechanisms of action. Polymyxins bind to the lipopolysaccharide component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, causing disruption of the membrane and ultimately leading to bacterial cell death. These antibiotics are primarily used to treat serious infections caused by multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria, but their use is limited due to potential nephrotoxicity and neurotoxicity.

Sulfamethoxazole is a type of antibiotic known as a sulfonamide. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to produce folic acid, which is necessary for their growth and survival. Sulfamethoxazole is often combined with trimethoprim (another antibiotic) in a single medication called co-trimoxazole, which is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and skin and soft tissue infections.

The medical definition of Sulfamethoxazole can be found in various pharmaceutical and medical resources, here are some examples:

* According to the Merck Manual, Sulfamethoxazole is a "synthetic antibacterial drug that inhibits bacterial synthesis of folic acid by competing with para-aminobenzoic acid for the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase."
* According to the British National Formulary (BNF), Sulfamethoxazole is a "sulfonamide antibacterial agent, active against many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. It is often combined with trimethoprim in a 5:1 ratio as co-trimoxazole."
* According to the National Library of Medicine (NLM), Sulfamethoxazole is a "synthetic antibacterial agent that is used in combination with trimethoprim for the treatment of various bacterial infections. It works by inhibiting the bacterial synthesis of folic acid."

It's important to note that, as any other medication, Sulfamethoxazole should be taken under medical supervision and following the instructions of a healthcare professional, as it can cause side effects and interact with other medications.

Transcriptional activation is the process by which a cell increases the rate of transcription of specific genes from DNA to RNA. This process is tightly regulated and plays a crucial role in various biological processes, including development, differentiation, and response to environmental stimuli.

Transcriptional activation occurs when transcription factors (proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences) interact with the promoter region of a gene and recruit co-activator proteins. These co-activators help to remodel the chromatin structure around the gene, making it more accessible for the transcription machinery to bind and initiate transcription.

Transcriptional activation can be regulated at multiple levels, including the availability and activity of transcription factors, the modification of histone proteins, and the recruitment of co-activators or co-repressors. Dysregulation of transcriptional activation has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

In the context of medical and biological sciences, a "binding site" refers to a specific location on a protein, molecule, or cell where another molecule can attach or bind. This binding interaction can lead to various functional changes in the original protein or molecule. The other molecule that binds to the binding site is often referred to as a ligand, which can be a small molecule, ion, or even another protein.

The binding between a ligand and its target binding site can be specific and selective, meaning that only certain ligands can bind to particular binding sites with high affinity. This specificity plays a crucial role in various biological processes, such as signal transduction, enzyme catalysis, or drug action.

In the case of drug development, understanding the location and properties of binding sites on target proteins is essential for designing drugs that can selectively bind to these sites and modulate protein function. This knowledge can help create more effective and safer therapeutic options for various diseases.

'Gram-negative anaerobic straight, curved, and helical rods' are categories of bacteria that do not stain gram-positive during the Gram staining procedure, lack a outer layer of peptidoglycan, and do not require oxygen to grow. They can be further classified into different genera and species based on their shape and other microbiological and biochemical characteristics. Some examples of gram-negative anaerobic rods include Bacteroides, Prevotella, Porphyromonas, Fusobacterium, and Campylobacter. These bacteria are often found in the human oral cavity, gastrointestinal tract, and female genital tract and can cause a variety of infections such as abscesses, bacteremia, pneumonia, and meningitis.

Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α) is a cytokine, a type of small signaling protein involved in immune response and inflammation. It is primarily produced by activated macrophages, although other cell types such as T-cells, natural killer cells, and mast cells can also produce it.

TNF-α plays a crucial role in the body's defense against infection and tissue injury by mediating inflammatory responses, activating immune cells, and inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death) in certain types of cells. It does this by binding to its receptors, TNFR1 and TNFR2, which are found on the surface of many cell types.

In addition to its role in the immune response, TNF-α has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and psoriasis, as well as cancer, where it can promote tumor growth and metastasis.

Therapeutic agents that target TNF-α, such as infliximab, adalimumab, and etanercept, have been developed to treat these conditions. However, these drugs can also increase the risk of infections and other side effects, so their use must be carefully monitored.

Cisplatin is a chemotherapeutic agent used to treat various types of cancers, including testicular, ovarian, bladder, head and neck, lung, and cervical cancers. It is an inorganic platinum compound that contains a central platinum atom surrounded by two chloride atoms and two ammonia molecules in a cis configuration.

Cisplatin works by forming crosslinks between DNA strands, which disrupts the structure of DNA and prevents cancer cells from replicating. This ultimately leads to cell death and slows down or stops the growth of tumors. However, cisplatin can also cause damage to normal cells, leading to side effects such as nausea, vomiting, hearing loss, and kidney damage. Therefore, it is essential to monitor patients closely during treatment and manage any adverse effects promptly.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Fosfomycin is an antibiotic that is primarily used to treat uncomplicated lower urinary tract infections. It works by inhibiting the bacterial enzyme responsible for the synthesis of the cell wall. The chemical name for fosfomycin is (E)-1,2-epoxypropylphosphonic acid.

Fosfomycin is available as an oral tablet and as a granule that can be dissolved in water for oral administration. It has a broad spectrum of activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including some strains that are resistant to other antibiotics.

Common side effects of fosfomycin include diarrhea, nausea, and headache. It is generally well tolerated and can be used in patients with impaired renal function. However, it should be avoided in people who have a history of allergic reactions to fosfomycin or any of its components.

It's important to note that the use of antibiotics like fosfomycin can lead to the development of bacterial resistance, so they should only be used when necessary and under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that are among the earliest known life forms on Earth. They are typically characterized as having a cell wall and no membrane-bound organelles. The majority of bacteria have a prokaryotic organization, meaning they lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

Bacteria exist in diverse environments and can be found in every habitat on Earth, including soil, water, and the bodies of plants and animals. Some bacteria are beneficial to their hosts, while others can cause disease. Beneficial bacteria play important roles in processes such as digestion, nitrogen fixation, and biogeochemical cycling.

Bacteria reproduce asexually through binary fission or budding, and some species can also exchange genetic material through conjugation. They have a wide range of metabolic capabilities, with many using organic compounds as their source of energy, while others are capable of photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.

Bacteria are highly adaptable and can evolve rapidly in response to environmental changes. This has led to the development of antibiotic resistance in some species, which poses a significant public health challenge. Understanding the biology and behavior of bacteria is essential for developing strategies to prevent and treat bacterial infections and diseases.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Fluconazole is an antifungal medication used to treat and prevent various fungal infections, such as candidiasis (yeast infections), cryptococcal meningitis, and other fungal infections that affect the mouth, throat, blood, lungs, genital area, and other parts of the body. It works by inhibiting the growth of fungi that cause these infections. Fluconazole is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and intravenous (IV) solutions, and is typically prescribed to be taken once daily.

The medical definition of Fluconazole can be found in pharmacological or medical dictionaries, which describe it as a triazole antifungal agent that inhibits fungal cytochrome P450-dependent synthesis of ergosterol, a key component of the fungal cell membrane. This results in increased permeability and leakage of cellular contents, ultimately leading to fungal death. Fluconazole has a broad spectrum of activity against various fungi, including Candida, Cryptococcus, Aspergillus, and others.

It is important to note that while Fluconazole is an effective antifungal medication, it may have side effects and interactions with other medications. Therefore, it should only be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Azlocillin is a semisynthetic antibiotic belonging to the class of extended-spectrum penicillins. It is derived from the basic penicillin structure and has an additional side chain that provides it with a broader spectrum of activity, including against many Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Azlocillin works by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, which ultimately leads to bacterial death. It is commonly used in the treatment of severe intra-abdominal infections, urinary tract infections, and septicemia caused by susceptible organisms.

Like other antibiotics, azlocillin should be used with caution and only when necessary, as overuse can lead to the development of antibiotic resistance. It is important to note that individual patient responses to medications may vary, and healthcare providers should consider each patient's unique medical history and current health status before prescribing any medication.

Protein binding, in the context of medical and biological sciences, refers to the interaction between a protein and another molecule (known as the ligand) that results in a stable complex. This process is often reversible and can be influenced by various factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration of the involved molecules.

In clinical chemistry, protein binding is particularly important when it comes to drugs, as many of them bind to proteins (especially albumin) in the bloodstream. The degree of protein binding can affect a drug's distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which in turn influence its therapeutic effectiveness and potential side effects.

Protein-bound drugs may be less available for interaction with their target tissues, as only the unbound or "free" fraction of the drug is active. Therefore, understanding protein binding can help optimize dosing regimens and minimize adverse reactions.

'Bacillus thuringiensis' (Bt) is a gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium that produces crystalline parasporal proteins during sporulation. These proteins are insecticidal and have the ability to kill certain insects when ingested. Different strains of Bt produce different types of insecticidal proteins, allowing them to target specific insect pests.

Bt is widely used in organic farming and integrated pest management programs as a natural alternative to chemical pesticides. It can be applied as a spray or incorporated into the genetic material of crops through biotechnology, producing transgenic plants known as Bt crops. These crops express the insecticidal proteins and protect themselves from specific pests, reducing the need for external applications of Bt formulations.

Bt is considered safe for humans, animals, and non-target organisms when used properly, as the parasporal proteins are not toxic to them. However, misuse or overreliance on Bt can lead to resistance development in target pests, reducing its effectiveness.

"Quantitative methods for assessing drug synergism". Genes & Cancer. 2 (11): 1003-1008. doi:10.1177/1947601912440575. PMC ... of older adults are potentially at risk for a major drug-drug interaction. Older adults are at a higher risk for a drug-drug ... "Drug Interactions: What You Should Know". Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2020-03- ... Merel SE, Paauw DS (July 2017). "Common Drug Side Effects and Drug-Drug Interactions in Elderly Adults in Primary Care". ...
"drugs.com/mtm/edetate-calcium-disodium.html". Peyrat-Maillard, M. N.; Cuvelier, M. E.; Berset, C. (2003). "Antioxidant activity ... It is a negative type of synergism. Experiments with different combinations show that binary mixtures of phenolics can lead to ... Indian dental academy (2013-12-04). "Drug receptor interactions". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires ,journal= (help) " ...
Pinoli; Ceddia; Ceri; Masseroli (2021). "Predicting drug synergism by means of non-negative matrix tri-factorization". IEEE/ACM ... A particular variant of NMF, namely Non-Negative Matrix Tri-Factorization (NMTF), has been use for drug repurposing tasks in ... to predict novel protein targets and therapeutic indications for approved drugs and to infer pair of synergic anticancer drugs ... "Matrix factorization-based technique for drug repurposing predictions". IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics. 24 ( ...
It is made up of the following four drugs: FOL - folinic acid (leucovorin), a vitamin B derivative that enhances the effects of ... FOLFIRI FOLFOX FOLFOXIRI IFL Moran, R. G.; Keyomarsi, K. (1987). "Biochemical rationale for the synergism of 5-fluorouracil and ... In 2013, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved protein-bound paclitaxel (also known as nab-paclitaxel, sold as ... "Pancreatic cancer patients to have routine access to life extending drug after new deal, says NICE" (Press release). National ...
The method has been applied in the combination of anti-cancer drugs, anti-HIV agents, drug-radiation, and traditional Chinese ... The CI Value quantitatively defines synergism (CI. 1). Based on the above MEE and CI algorithms, a plot of CI values at ... The DRI is a measure of how many folds the dose of each drug in a synergistic combination may be reduced, at a given effect ... The derived combination index equation for two drugs is: C I = ( D ) 1 ( D x ) 1 + ( D ) 2 ( D x ) 2 = ( D ) 1 ( D m ) 1 [ f a ...
The most important part of this combination therapy, however, is the synergism between the drugs. While researchers are not ... Although this drug still cannot strictly target cancer cells, cancer cells have a higher average turnover of microtubules ... Prednisone, the last drug in the CHOP combination therapy is a corticosteroid that acts as an immunosuppressant.[citation ... This also allows for patients to receive lower and fewer doses of the drug and experience fewer side effects. Newer cases are ...
... and Computerized Simulation of Synergism and Antagonism in Drug Combination Studies". Pharmacological Reviews. 58 (3): 621-681 ... The combination of drugs with different effects has the benefit of using each drug at its optimal dose. This decreases the ... If the combination of two drugs in combination therapy has an effect lower than the sum of the effects of the two drugs acting ... Thus, some drug combinations with additive effect are avoided. Below are commonly seen drug combinations with additive effect ...
Drug delivery is the next step beyond the basic addition of growth factors to nerve guidance conduits. Many biomaterials used ... Synergism often occurs when two elements are combined; it is an interaction between two elements that causes an effect greater ... Investigation of synergism is the next step after individual techniques have proven to be successful by themselves. The ... Synergism is evident in the combining of scaffold material and topography with cellular therapies, neurotrophic factors, and ...
By the time of Yao Campos' death on May 1, 2006, Unilab had become the Philippines' largest drug-manufacturing company. Unilab ... The keys were product sourcing and planning, synergism in promotions and distribution outreach." By 1959, after only fourteen ... local drug manufacturers. This was attributed to the values Yao Campos was said to have instilled in the company, which ... years in operation, Yao Campos and Tan, with the help of Yao Campos' brother-in-law Dee, had transformed United Drug into ...
... drugs altering the composition of the human microbiome, drug metabolism by microbial enzymes modifying the drug's ... Synbiotics refers to food ingredients or dietary supplements combining probiotics and prebiotics in a form of synergism. The ... More than 30 drugs have been shown to be metabolized by gut microbiota. The microbial metabolism of drugs can sometimes ... These effects can be varied; it could activate the inactive drugs such as lovastatin, inactivate the active drug such as ...
Two, peptide drugs are more expensive than small molecule drugs to produce, which is problematic since peptide drugs must be ... May 2022). "Synergism between the Synthetic Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Peptide (SAAP)-148 and Halicin". Antibiotics. 11 (5 ... One, drug candidates from AMPs have a narrow window of bioavailability, because peptides are quickly broken down by proteases. ... January 2018). "The antimicrobial peptide SAAP-148 combats drug-resistant bacteria and biofilms". Science Translational ...
Owing to synergism between remifentanil and hypnotic drugs (such as propofol) the dose of the hypnotic can be substantially ... "Remifentanil". Drug Information Portal. U.S. National Library of Medicine. "Remifentanil Hydrochloride". Drug Information ... due to synergism between remifentanil and various hypnotic drugs and volatile anesthetics. Remifentanil is used as an opioid ... approved drug products with therapeutic equivalence evaluations. Silver Spring, MD: US Food and Drug Administration. 2010. " ...
... this concept is called synergism. The Ayurvedic text Sarangdhar Samhita (c. 1300 AD) emphasizes the importance of synergism. ... Responsible Ayurvedic practitioners must take into account how herbal medications can interact with other drugs, or even other ... A 2014 review proposed several mechanisms that may be the basis for therapeutic herbal synergism. Herbal preparations in ... ISBN 978-3-642-18659-2. OCLC 847678719.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) "Calamus Uses, Benefits & Dosage - Drugs.com ...
For example, in drug delivery systems, the mucus layer must be penetrated in order to effectively transport micro- or nanosized ... The mucoadhesive properties of polymers can be evaluated via rheological synergism studies with freshly isolated mucus, tensile ... This results in unpredictable losses of the drug, as the non-solid dosage is unable to maintain its position at the site of ... Depending on the dosage form, some drug loss can occur due to swallowing of saliva. This can be minimized by layering the side ...
In case of urinary retention, the patient should stop using the drug. Risk assessment for the drug in pregnant people has yet ... known as synergism. The addition of darifenacin to vibegron created greater bladder relaxation only when used at high doses. ... "Drug Trials Snapshot: Gemtesa". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 23 December 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2021. This ... Clinical studies show no significant drug-drug interaction, aside from a serum concentration increase of digoxin when taken ...
Drugs missing an ATC code, Drugs with no legal status, Articles containing unverified chemical infoboxes, 11β-Hydroxylase ... Jawetz E, Gunnison JB (1952). "Quantitative aspects of antibiotic synergism and antagonism". The American Journal of Medicine. ... The drug was subsequently repurposed for use in the treatment of metastatic breast cancer and Cushing's syndrome. Amphenone B ... As such, early publications of amphenone B, and some subsequent publications, refer to the drug by the incorrect structure. ...
FosC uses ATP and adds a phosphate group to fosfomycin, thus altering its properties and making the drug ineffective. The drug ... "In Vitro and In Vivo Studies of Oritavancin and Fosfomycin Synergism against Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus faecium". ... "Fosfomycin". Drug Information Portal. U.S. National Library of Medicine. Portal: Medicine (Articles with short description, ... These enzymes function by nucleophilic attack on carbon 1 of fosfomycin, which opens the epoxide ring and renders the drug ...
... insights into drug action and drug discovery" (PDF). Nature Reviews. Endocrinology. 12 (6): 337-46. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2016.51 ... "Transcriptional activation by hepatocyte nuclear factor-1 requires synergism between multiple coactivator proteins". The ... The cause of hyperglycemia appears to alter the response to hypoglycemic drugs. Accordingly, HNF-1α-induced diabetes has marked ... Drug Metabolism and Disposition. 29 (5): 623-33. PMID 11302926. Rufibach LE, Duncan SA, Battle M, Deeb SS (July 2006). " ...
Infection and Drug Resistance. 13: 2485-2493. doi:10.2147/IDR.S258639. PMC 7383015. PMID 32801787. Hoyer, FF; Zhang, X; Coppin ... synergism with monocyte chemotactic protein-1 and -3". The Journal of Immunology. 157 (10): 4664-4671. doi:10.4049/jimmunol. ...
Carbon monoxide releasing materials (CORMAs) are essentially novel drug formulations and drug delivery platforms which have ... Based on the synergism of the heme oxygenase system and CO delivery, a new molecular hybrid-CORM (HYCO) class emerged ... Drug Discovery. 9 (9): 728-743. doi:10.1038/nrd3228. PMID 20811383. S2CID 205477130. Hopper CP, Zambrana PN, Goebel U, Wollborn ... Other advanced drug delivery devices, such as encapsulated CORMs and extracorporeal membrane-inspired technologies, have been ...
Structure/Function of EFF-2 Kinase, Ryazanov Alexey, RWJ-Pharmacology-PICS The Role of EF-2 Kinase in Drug Resistance, Ryazanov ... RWJ-Pharmacology-PISC Investigation of synergism between mTOR and eEF2 kinase pathways, Ryazanov Alexey, RWJ-Pharmacology-PISC ... RWJ-Pharmacology-PISC Development of New Drugs that Protect Gastrointestinal Tract from Radiation, Ryazanov Alexey, RWJ- ... 2013 Ryazanov and Alexander Chikunov conducted a large-scale study where they tested the effect of the large variety of drugs ...
... illuminated mechanisms of drug resistance and synergism, deciphered the structural basis for antibiotic selectivity and showed ... how it plays a key role in clinical usefulness and therapeutic effectiveness, thus paving the way for structure-based drug ...
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... drug antagonism MeSH G12.361.477 - drug synergism MeSH G12.361.511 - food-drug interactions MeSH G12.361.755 - herb-drug ... drug resistance, fungal MeSH G12.392.269.383.500 - drug resistance, multiple, fungal MeSH G12.392.269.420 - drug resistance, ... drug resistance, multiple, fungal MeSH G12.392.300.750 - drug resistance, multiple, viral MeSH G12.392.395 - drug resistance, ... drug resistance, multiple MeSH G12.392.300.500 - drug resistance, multiple, bacterial MeSH G12.392.300.625 - ...
... potentially dangerous synergism. Eluxadoline increases the concentrations of drugs which are OATP1B1 and BCRP substrates. Also ... "Viberzi Information from Drugs.com". www.drugs.com. Retrieved 2015-06-01. Lembo AJ, Lacy BE, Zuckerman MJ, Schey R, Dove LS, ... The drug originated from Janssen Pharmaceutica and was developed by Actavis. This drug is contraindicated in case of having: ... In March 2017, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration issued a safety alert for eluxadoline concerning an increased risk of ...
Covelli V, Passeri ME, Leogrande D, Jirillo E, Amati L (2005). "Drug targets in stress-related disorders". Curr. Med. Chem. 12 ... evidence for synergism between serotonergic and noradrenergic reuptake inhibition". Neuropharmacology. 51 (7-8): 1172-80. doi: ... Kulmatycki KM, Jamali F (2006). "Drug disease interactions: role of inflammatory mediators in depression and variability in ... and the drug Cytoxan, which unconditionally induces nausea and taste aversion and suppression of immune function. Ader was ...
This suggests that there are two ways to relieve anxiety in humans with serotonergic drugs: by blocking stimulation of 5-HT2A ... evidence for synergism between serotonergic and noradrenergic reuptake inhibition". Neuropharmacology. 51 (7-8): 1172-1180. doi ... Other animal research suggests that long term drug-induced antidepressants effects modulate the expression of genes mediated by ... March 2009). "The inflammatory & neurodegenerative (I&ND) hypothesis of depression: leads for future research and new drug ...
"Annual prevalence of use of drugs, by region and globally, 2016". World Drug Report 2018. United Nations Office on Drugs and ... Tallarida CS, Egan E, Alejo GD, Raffa R, Tallarida RJ, Rawls SM (April 2014). "Levamisole and cocaine synergism: a prevalent ... The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe 2008 (PDF). Luxembourg: European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. 2008 ... European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2008). Annual report: the state of the drugs problem in Europe (PDF). ...
The emergence of krokodil and excessive injuries among people who inject drugs in Eurasia". International Journal of Drug ... Lethal synergism between influenza virus and pneumococcus, causes excess mortality from secondary bacterial pneumonia during ... Drug and Alcohol Dependence (in press). González-Guarda Rosa; Florom-Smith A.; Thomas T. (2011). "A syndemic model of substance ... Singer, Merrill 2008 Drug-related Syndemics and the Risk Environment: Assessing Street risk among Hispanics in Hartford. ...
Drugs missing an ATC code, Drugs with no legal status, Adamantanes, Benzamides, Pyrazoles, All stub articles, Nervous system ... "Blockade of neurotensin receptors suppresses the dopamine D1/D2 synergism on immediate early gene expression in the rat brain ... In animal studies, SR-142948 blocked the effects of stimulant drugs, including MDMA. Nalivaiko E, Michaud JC, Soubrié P, Le Fur ... SR-142948 is a drug used in scientific research which is a non-peptide antagonist selective for the neurotensin receptors, ...
"Quantitative methods for assessing drug synergism". Genes & Cancer. 2 (11): 1003-1008. doi:10.1177/1947601912440575. PMC ... of older adults are potentially at risk for a major drug-drug interaction. Older adults are at a higher risk for a drug-drug ... "Drug Interactions: What You Should Know". Center for Drug Evaluation and Research. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2020-03- ... Merel SE, Paauw DS (July 2017). "Common Drug Side Effects and Drug-Drug Interactions in Elderly Adults in Primary Care". ...
Drug Synergism * Female * Humans * Immunosuppression Therapy * Immunotherapy / methods * Mice * Myeloid Cells / drug effects ...
Cell Line, Tumor / drug effects* * Doxorubicin / pharmacology* * Doxorubicin / therapeutic use * Drug Synergism ...
a drug, muscle, etc, that increases the action of another. *. Christian theol an upholder of synergism ... 1650-60; ,New Latin synergista,Greek synerg(ós) (see synergism) + New Latin -ista-ist ...
Drug Synergism. Guo C, Sinnott B, Niu B, Lowry MB, Fantacone ML, Gombart AF. 2014. Synergistic induction of human cathelicidin ... Drug Resistance, Microbial. Campbell Y, Fantacone ML, Gombart AF. 2012. Regulation of antimicrobial peptide gene expression by ...
Synergism; Drug-interaction; Solvents; Ears; Dose-response; Exposure-assessment; Noise-exposure ... Drugs and other substances that alter hearing or equilibrium by acting primarily at the level of the brain stem or the central ... 2005). Ototoxic drugs often cause a high-frequency hearing loss whereas the hearing loss caused by occupational exposure to ... Hearing loss can occur after ingestion of certain drugs due to their effects on the peripheral auditory system or central ...
This table represents the interaction index (γ = a/A + b/B) measure of drug synergism between PLD in plus AHCC in a ... Control wells had either no drug, media alone or were blank wells (no cells, drug or media). After a ... Whereas A= dose of drug A alone that gives the specified effect; B= dose of drug B lone that gives specified effect; ... a= dose of drug A used in combination to achieve specified effect; and b= dose of drug B used in combination to ...
Loewe, S. The problem of synergism and antagonism of combined drugs. Arzneimittelforschung 1953, 3, 285-290. [Google Scholar] [ ... Drug Dev. Res. 2019, 80, 353-359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]. *Zhi, L.Q.; Yao, S.X.; Liu, H.L.; Li, M.; Duan, N.; Ma, J.B. ... Wooten, D.J.; Meyer, C.T.; Quaranta, V.; Lopez, C. A consensus framework unifies multi-drug synergy metrics. BioRxiv 2019. [ ... Kirkland, J.L.; Tchkonia, T. Senolytic drugs: From discovery to translation. J. Intern. Med. 2020, 288, 518-536. [Google ...
Quantitative methods for assessing drug synergism. Genes Cancer. 2011;2:1003-8 ... Florea AM, Busselberg D. Cisplatin as an anti-tumor drug: cellular mechanisms of activity, drug resistance and induced side ... Single drug treatment commonly impedes one or a few specific signaling pathways, which increases the risk of drug resistance. ... A) The cell morphology of B16/F10 cells after drug treatment for 48 hrs. B16/F10 cells were treated with drugs and harvested ...
Combinations of the methanolic extract and antimicrobial drugs resulted in statistically significant synergism.. [24]. ... aureus and its biofilm formation and observed a synergism when the extract was used in combination with antimicrobial drugs. ... The drugs modulatory activity was tested at an initial concentration of 1024 μg/mL.. EO oil showed activity against ... In Silico Drug Design for Purinergic GPCRs: Overview on Molecular Dynamics Applied to Adenosine and P2Y Receptors ...
Since clinical trials involving ibudilast have shown no adverse side effects and the drug readily penetrates the blood brain ... Ibudilast showed modest anti-proliferative activity however, when combined with TMZ, significant synergism was observed, ... Chou, T. C. Theoretical basis, experimental design, and computerized simulation of synergism and antagonism in drug combination ... for the individual drugs as x- and y-intercept values. Synergism is demonstrated in all cell lines by the dose pair plotting as ...
Either increases effects of the other by pharmacodynamic synergism. Avoid or Use Alternate Drug. Avoid coadministration with ... Most commonly, these are "non-preferred" brand drugs.. 4. This drug is available at a higher level co-pay. Most commonly, these ... This drug is available at a higher level co-pay. Most commonly, these are "non-preferred" brand drugs or specialty prescription ... This drug is available at a higher level co-pay. Most commonly, these are "non-preferred" brand drugs or specialty prescription ...
Drug synergism was quantified using the median effect model with cell viability as read-out. Cytosolic Hsp90 isoforms AA1 and ... Hsp90 inhibition in adrenocortical carcinoma: Limited drug synergism with mitotane.. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2019; 480:36-41 [ ... response to drug - response to electrical stimulus - sequence-specific DNA binding - sequence-specific DNA binding ... activity in combination with immunomodulatory drugs and proteasome inhibitors. Here we show ACY241 significantly reduces the ...
A new paper published in The BMJ explores the effect of these drugs used concomitantly on the risk of venous thromboembolism ( ... The possibility of synergism between these drug categories in causing hypercoagulability requires further research. The authors ... A new paper published in The BMJ explores the effect of these drugs used concomitantly on the risk of venous thromboembolism ( ... Thus, these drugs come with a warning that they increase the risk of strokes and heart attacks. ...
Antiandrogen medication-synergism permitted low-dosage-low-exposure to both drugs. Appropriate method to investigate consumer ... Correlation between stevens-johnson syndrome belonged to serious adverse drug events and drug-drug interaction: 111 death in ... C4 - Gaps in Drug Development and strategies to avoid the risk and increase drug safety. Challenges and Strategies in Early ... Drug delivery and manufacturing back Drug delivery and manufacturing * Pediatric formulations focus group ...
Either increases effects of the other by pharmacodynamic synergism. Avoid or Use Alternate Drug. Effect of administering ... Most commonly, these are "non-preferred" brand drugs.. 4. This drug is available at a higher level co-pay. Most commonly, these ... This drug is available at a higher level co-pay. Most commonly, these are "non-preferred" brand drugs or specialty prescription ... This drug is available at a higher level co-pay. Most commonly, these are "non-preferred" brand drugs or specialty prescription ...
doxapram increases effects of diethylpropion by pharmacodynamic synergism. Avoid or Use Alternate Drug. Additive pressor effect ... Breastfeeding is not recommended while using this drug. Consult your doctor before breastfeeding. DRUG INTERACTIONS: Drug ... Most commonly, these are "non-preferred" brand drugs.. 4. This drug is available at a higher level co-pay. Most commonly, these ... This drug is available at a higher level co-pay. Most commonly, these are "non-preferred" brand drugs or specialty prescription ...
Coefficient of drug interaction (CDI) at termination was calculated using the following formula: z/(x*y), where z equals ratio ... CDI = 1 indicates additivity whereas CDI , 1 indicates synergism and CDI , 0.7 indicates significant synergy (34, 35). ... Characterization of the A549 cell line as a type II pulmonary epithelial cell model for drug metabolism ... coefficient of drug interaction, CDI , 0.7; Fig. 1A). In the anti-PD-1 and anti-LAG-3 treatment groups, 2/10 and 1/10 animals ...
... for combating drug resistance, and for elucidating fundamental relationships in cell physiology. When drugs are combined... ... Abstract Drug combinations are increasingly important in disease treatments, ... Interaction network for six antibiotics: synergism is red; antagonism, green; suppression, blue; stars show drug combinations ... of drug A experienced by mutant i was calculated from the response of this mutant to drug A at concentration a alone; here, gi( ...
The interaction index: a measure of drug synergism. Pain. 2002. ;. 98. :. 163 ... 6C). Two-way ANOVA indicated highly significant drug interactions (P , 0.001) and, according to Slinker (33), synergistic drug ... 5C). In comparison, drug combination further reduced the number of cells per field and 16.6% of the cells stained positive for ... Stars, P , 0.001, two-way ANOVA using Tukeys test for pairwise comparisons (synergistic drug interaction). B, cells were left ...
In vitro antimicrobial activity of propolis and synergism between propolis and antimicrobial drugs. Microbiology Research, ...
Synergism between antifungals and Cys was observed in C. parapsilosis sensu lato strains. Combinations formed by antifungals ... strengthen the potential of calcineurin inhibition as a promising approach to enhance the efficiency of antifungal drugs. ... The calcineurin inhibitor cyclosporin A exhibits synergism with antifungals against Candida parapsilosis species complex 2014 ...
Clove, guava and lemongrass exhibit the highest synergism rate with antimicrobial drugs. ... Lime has potent antibacterial activity against multiple drug resistant E. coli.. *Nigella sativa has anti-bacterial activity ... Rosemary has activity against drug-resistant bacterial and fungal pathogens.. *Propolis exhibits antimicrobial effects on ... Garlic and tea have antibacterial activity against Klebsiella, as well as drug resistant strains of Saphylococci, Enterococci ...
Synergism between plant extract and antimicrobial drugs used on Staphylococcus aureus diseases. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2006;101 ... In vitro antimicrobial activity of propolis and synergism between propolis and antimicrobial drugs. Microbiol Res. 2003;158:353 ... Cottarel G, Wierzbowski J. Combination drugs, an emerging option for antibacterial therapy. Trends Biotechnol. 2007;12:547-55. ... Infect Drug Resist. 2020;13:1697-711. https://doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S2.... ...
Traditional medicine continues to ignore the synergism of the body and merely treats the symptoms with medications. In the case ... use of any drug, or cessation in use of any prescribed drug. We are 100% committed to protecting your private information. ... Why Does a New Study Push Dangerous Estrogen Drugs but Ignore Bioidentical Estriol?. By TIM REIHMOn 10/30/2013. 11/27/2019. 19 ... So I suppose the hormone drugs are the least of our concerns at this moment. Thanks for a place to take action, learn and stop ...
Drug-induced damage to these structures of the auditory and balance system can result in hearing loss, tinnitus, and ... Any drug with the potential to cause toxic reactions to structures of the inner ear, including the cochlea, vestibule, ... As potentiation and synergism of ototoxic effects of aminoglycosides and loop diuretics is well documented, co-prescription of ... The propensity of specific classes of drugs to cause ototoxicity has been well established, and over 100 classes of drugs have ...
Drug, Drug Combinations, Drug Synergism, Drug Therapy, Combination, Flucytosine/*administration & dosage, Male, Mice, Microbial ... The strategy of combining antifungal drugs in a treatment regimen may improve the outcome of invasive candidiasis. Using a well ... N2 - The strategy of combining antifungal drugs in a treatment regimen may improve the outcome of invasive candidiasis. Using a ... AB - The strategy of combining antifungal drugs in a treatment regimen may improve the outcome of invasive candidiasis. Using a ...
  • Either increases effects of the other by pharmacodynamic synergism. (medscape.com)
  • aldesleukin increases effects of clevidipine by pharmacodynamic synergism. (medscape.com)
  • Either decreases effects of the other by pharmacodynamic synergism. (medscape.com)
  • isocarboxazid increases effects of diethylpropion by pharmacodynamic synergism. (medscape.com)
  • linezolid increases effects of diethylpropion by pharmacodynamic synergism. (medscape.com)
  • selegiline transdermal increases effects of diethylpropion by pharmacodynamic synergism. (medscape.com)
  • Mechanism: pharmacodynamic synergism. (medscape.com)
  • Drug combinations are increasingly important in disease treatments, for combating drug resistance, and for elucidating fundamental relationships in cell physiology. (embopress.org)
  • This robustness is encapsulated in a general principle of bacterial growth, which enables the quantitative prediction of mutant growth rates under drug combinations. (embopress.org)
  • These results provide a new conceptual framework for the design of multidrug combinations and suggest that there are universal mechanisms at the heart of most drug interactions. (embopress.org)
  • Multi-targeted drug therapy holds more promise than single-class drug regimens (Lapchak 2011 ) since some drug combinations exhibit pharmacological synergism, translating into lower doses, fewer adverse side effects, and extending the therapeutic window (Saleh et al. (springer.com)
  • Synergistic drug combinations from electronic health records and gene expression. (sutterhealth.org)
  • For example, a study using human Burkitt lymphoma cells found that oxidative stress actually interferes with the ability of the chemotherapy drugs doxorubicin, cisplatin, etoposide, and cytarabine to cause cancer cell death. (pinestreetfoundation.org)
  • The aims of this study are to clarify the antitumor effects of TCEE on human hepatocellular carcinoma cells and also evaluate the combination drug effects with conventional chemotherapy agents, cisplatin and doxorubicin. (hindawi.com)
  • Furthermore, the combined drug effects of TCEE with conventional chemotherapy agents, cisplatin and doxorubicin, were also analyzed to clarify whether TCEE enhances or antagonizes the cytotoxicity of the selected chemotherapy agents in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. (hindawi.com)
  • 4 Here ibrutinib demonstrated the strongest synergism with venetoclax, whereas cisplatin appeared the most antagonistic ( Figure 1B and C, Online Supplementary Figure S1B ). (haematologica.org)
  • The ototoxicity of therapeutic drugs has been recognized since the nineteenth century. (cdc.gov)
  • The effectiveness or lack of a major therapeutic effect of sphingolipid modulation by some drugs as a cancer therapy and other aspects related to their mechanism of action are discussed in this review. (frontiersin.org)
  • Methods Demographic, clinical and pharmacological variables, including tacrolimus whole blood concentrations obtained from therapeutic drug monitoring and data from dense-sampling pharmacokinetic profiles, were recorded in 26 paediatric patients with biliary atresia who underwent liver transplantation between 2016 and 2021. (unav.edu)
  • The most clinically important interactions involve drugs with a low therapeutic ratio (ie, toxic levels are close to therapeutic levels). (msdmanuals.com)
  • Targeted therapy drugs are used to target specific genes and proteins of cancer cells to precisely identify and attack specific types of cancer cells. (medsci.org)
  • Therapy with carbidopa, given with or without levodopa or carbidopa-levodopa combination products, is started, dosage adjustment of the antihypertensive drug may be required. (medscape.com)
  • Cottarel G, Wierzbowski J. Combination drugs, an emerging option for antibacterial therapy. (aaem.pl)
  • Drugs of the so-called targeted therapy operate selectively by either inhibiting receptors and ligands or molecules of the signaltransduction. (uni-marburg.de)
  • The data suggest that inhibitors of the Fd/FNR redox system should be avoided as ART partner drugs in ART combination therapy for treating malaria. (biorxiv.org)
  • Immunosuppressive drug therapy and any disease (eg, HIV infection) resulting in suppression of the normal inflammatory and immune mechanisms can cause or enhance severe periodontal diseases. (medscape.com)
  • 2000) A second study, involving the chemotherapy drugs etoposide and calcimycin, confirms this finding: Human Burkitt's lymphoma cells were unable to die quickly by apoptosis in the presence of oxidative stress and instead died using the slower and messier method of necrosis. (pinestreetfoundation.org)
  • In contrast, the antitumor effects and related biological mechanism of TCEE as well as the combination drug effects with conventional chemotherapy agents remain unclear particularly in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells. (hindawi.com)
  • Sphingolipid-targeting drugs have been tested alone or in combination with chemotherapy, exhibiting antitumor activity alone and in synergism with chemotherapy in vitro and in vivo . (frontiersin.org)
  • Concerns about polypharmacy include increased adverse drug reactions, drug interactions, prescribing cascade, and higher costs. (wikipedia.org)
  • Such drug interactions are crucial for treatment efficacy, but their underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. (embopress.org)
  • To uncover the causes of drug interactions, we developed a systematic approach based on precise quantification of the individual and joint effects of antibiotics on growth of genome-wide Escherichia coli gene deletion strains. (embopress.org)
  • We found that drug interactions between antibiotics representing the main modes of action are highly robust to genetic perturbation. (embopress.org)
  • Rare violations of this principle exposed recurring cellular functions controlling drug interactions. (embopress.org)
  • In particular, we found that polysaccharide and ATP synthesis control multiple drug interactions with previously unexplained mechanisms, and small molecule adjuvants targeting these functions synthetically reshape drug interactions in predictable ways. (embopress.org)
  • Rare violations of this principle expose cellular functions that control drug interactions and can be targeted by small molecules to alter drug interactions in predictable ways. (embopress.org)
  • Drug interactions between antibiotics are highly robust to genetic perturbations. (embopress.org)
  • Rare violations of this principle expose cellular functions that control drug interactions. (embopress.org)
  • Diverse drug interactions are controlled by recurring cellular functions, including LPS synthesis and ATP synthesis. (embopress.org)
  • A synergism between labetalol HCl and halothane anesthesia has been shown (see PRECAUTIONS: Drug Interactions ). (druglib.com)
  • EHRs provide real-world treatment and outcome patterns, while complementary biomolecular data, including disease-specific gene expression and drug-protein interactions, provide mechanistic understanding. (sutterhealth.org)
  • METHOD: We applied Group Lasso INTERaction NETwork (glinternet), an overlap group lasso penalty on a logistic regression model, with pairwise interactions to identify variables and interacting drug pairs associated with reduced 5-year mortality using EHRs of 9945 breast cancer patients. (sutterhealth.org)
  • The first 2 pairs were also enriched among pairs discovered using gene expression data and are supported by molecular interactions in drug-protein networks and preclinical and epidemiologic evidence. (sutterhealth.org)
  • Honeydew and manuka honey has strong antimicrobial activity against multi-drug resistant pathogens . (pakalertpress.com)
  • In vitro antimicrobial activity of propolis and synergism between propolis and antimicrobial drugs. (aaem.pl)
  • Today there are many well known ototoxic drugs used in clinical situations. (cdc.gov)
  • Permanent hearing loss or balance disorders caused by ototoxic drugs may have serious communication, educational, and social consequences. (medscape.com)
  • Therefore, the benefits of ototoxic drugs must be weighed against the potential risks, and alternative medications should be considered when appropriate. (medscape.com)
  • Of all ototoxic drugs, the aminoglycosides are the most vestibulotoxic, although they vary greatly in their differential effects on the vestibular and cochlear systems. (medscape.com)
  • Bringing our research together led to this new concept of a topical protein drug made in plants that can both kill bacteria and break down the oral biofilm. (upenn.edu)
  • These drugs are bacteriostatic, meaning they inhibit the growth of the bacteria but do not kill them. (americanaquariumproducts.com)
  • Antibacterial drugs are derived from bacteria or molds or are synthesized de novo. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Technically, "antibiotic" refers only to antimicrobials derived from bacteria or molds but is often (including in THE MANUAL) used synonymously with "antibacterial drug. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Moreover, it is well accepted in pharmacology that it is impossible to accurately predict the side effects or clinical effects of a combination of drugs without studying that particular combination of drugs in test subjects. (wikipedia.org)
  • Since clinical trials involving ibudilast have shown no adverse side effects and the drug readily penetrates the blood brain barrier, treatment of GBM with this combination is clinically achievable. (nature.com)
  • Using a well-validated pharmacodynamic murine model of invasive candidiasis, we defined the effect of the combination of amphotericin B deoxycholate (AmB) and 5-fluorocytosine (5FC) by use of the Greco model of drug interaction. (manchester.ac.uk)
  • We employed combinatorial drug screening to identify synergistic combination partners to enhance the efficacy of venetoclax in T-PLL patients. (haematologica.org)
  • To this topic, lycopene had been demonstrated to have synergism from the combination of oxaliplatin in a human ovarian cancer cell line ( 20 ), suggesting that the adjuvant property on the anticancer of lycopene. (frontiersin.org)
  • CONCLUSIONS: This is a proof-of-concept study demonstrating that a combination of complementary data sources, such as EHRs and gene expression, can corroborate discoveries and provide mechanistic insight into drug synergism for repurposing. (sutterhealth.org)
  • Since Pseudomonas & Aeromonas are common causes of opportunistic fin rot in fish (assuming the causes of this opportunity are negated), this drug or a combination that includes it may be a good alternative treatment. (americanaquariumproducts.com)
  • Synergism is usually defined as a more rapid and complete bactericidal action from a combination of antibiotics than occurs with either antibiotic alone. (msdmanuals.com)
  • This study supports evidence in literature pointing to a certain activity of these drugs and at the same time emphasizes the different sensibility of human ovarian cancer cell lines to targeted therapeutics in vitro. (uni-marburg.de)
  • Most of them (antibiotics, chemotherapeutics, diuretics, and antimalaria drugs) are used despite these negative side effects to treat other serious, sometimes life-threatening conditions. (cdc.gov)
  • Also, other drugs can increase or decrease levels of antibiotics. (msdmanuals.com)
  • nonetheless, mutations of Fd gene ( fd ) may modulate ART resistance and Fd would be an important target for antimalarial drugs. (biorxiv.org)
  • it exposes patients to drug complications without any benefit and contributes to bacterial resistance. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Synergism between plant extract and antimicrobial drugs used on Staphylococcus aureus diseases. (aaem.pl)
  • Now, a report by University of Pennsylvania School of Dental Medicine scientists in the journal Biomaterials suggests a new approach for delivering a protein drug to treat and prevent oral diseases, including dental caries, commonly known as cavities. (upenn.edu)
  • Hearing loss can occur after ingestion of certain drugs due to their effects on the peripheral auditory system or central nervous system. (cdc.gov)
  • In the developed nations, and in some developing ones, the prescription of these drugs will trigger "ototoxicity monitoring" of patients to allow early detection of auditory effects and, when necessary, audiologic interventions to address the hearing impairment (AAA 2009). (cdc.gov)
  • It is well known that the effects of many drugs or agents, when given concurrently, cannot necessarily be predicted on the basis of their individual effects. (cdc.gov)
  • When drugs are combined, their individual effects on cells may be amplified or weakened. (embopress.org)
  • Although the ototoxic effects of aminoglycosides are well documented, this class of drugs is still widely used today. (medscape.com)
  • Via flow cytometry in both cell lines a clear transformation of cell cycle induced by treatment with the drugs could be demonstrated, but these effects seem to be rather a single effect of flavopiridol. (uni-marburg.de)
  • What all of the drugs have in common is one or more psychoactive effects or characteristics that feed into the potential for abuse. (medpagetoday.com)
  • The drugs within each category pose a risk because of sedating properties, stimulant effects, euphoric effects, hallucinatory/dissociative effects, augmentation of another drug's effects, synergism with another drug, self-medication, or the principle that "if a little is good, more is better. (medpagetoday.com)
  • In recent decades, the use of natural products for pharmacological purposes has witnessed a significant increase worldwide due mainly to attempts to minimize the side effects caused by synthetic drugs 1 . (bvsalud.org)
  • However, with an adeq battery of necf expsre blmarkers, prospective studies of en- vironmental effects on pregnancy outcomes might be possible. (cdc.gov)
  • Clove, guava and lemongrass exhibit the highest synergism rate with antimicrobial drugs. (pakalertpress.com)
  • People try to "exacerbate" the hallucinogenic effect by taking the drug more often or at higher doses. (medpagetoday.com)
  • abstract = "The strategy of combining antifungal drugs in a treatment regimen may improve the outcome of invasive candidiasis. (manchester.ac.uk)
  • Owing to the toxicity of present-day antineoplastic drugs, it is imperative to explore safer and more effective molecules to combat and/or prevent this dreaded disease. (lu.se)
  • Clinical and antioxidant efficacy of 4% mangosteen gel as a local drug delivery in the treatment of chronic periodontitis: A placebo-controlled, split-mouth trial. (medlineplus.gov)
  • However, it is unclear whether lycopene can act as an adjuvant to increase the anti-metastatic activity of anticancer drugs. (frontiersin.org)
  • It is known that adjuvant is defined as a substance that helps and enhances the effect of a drug or treatment ( 19 ). (frontiersin.org)
  • Ibudilast showed modest anti-proliferative activity however, when combined with TMZ, significant synergism was observed, resulting in cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. (nature.com)
  • The propensity of specific classes of drugs to cause ototoxicity has been well established, and over 100 classes of drugs have been associated with ototoxicity. (medscape.com)
  • Garlic and tea have antibacterial activity against Klebsiella , as well as drug resistant strains of Saphylococci, Enterococci and Psedomonas aeruginosa . (pakalertpress.com)
  • Although drugs within each class share structural and functional similarities, they often have different pharmacology and spectra of activity. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Whether chosen according to culture results or not, drugs with the narrowest spectrum of activity that can control the infection should be used. (msdmanuals.com)
  • The abuse potential for many of the drugs has its origin in the nation's prison system, said Renee Dahring, MSN, APRN, CNP, who practices in Minneapolis, during the American Association of Nurse Practitioners annual meeting. (medpagetoday.com)
  • The use of multiple drugs, even in fairly straightforward illnesses, is not an indicator of poor treatment and is not necessarily overmedication. (wikipedia.org)
  • In the 1940s, permanent damage to the cochlea was reported in several patients treated with the newly discovered drug for treatment of tuberculosis, the aminoglycoside antibiotic streptomycin (Hinshaw and Feldman 1945). (cdc.gov)
  • The objective of this review was to analyze the results from preclinical and clinical trials of these drugs for the treatment of cancer. (frontiersin.org)
  • Patient factors that influence the number of medications a patient is prescribed include a high number of chronic conditions requiring a complex drug regimen. (wikipedia.org)
  • Systemic changes, such as pregnancy or drug intake, also alter the number and proportion of flora. (medscape.com)
  • Aslthough all these drugs have produced good results in preclinical studies of multiple cancers, the outcomes of clinical trials have not been similar. (frontiersin.org)
  • Avoid coadministration with other drugs that decrease pulse or blood pressure to mitigate risk of excessive bradycardia and hypotension. (medscape.com)
  • This is why these drugs currently have Black Box Warnings on them. (anh-usa.org)
  • Synergistic drug combos from EHR & gene expression. (sutterhealth.org)
  • We identified differentially expressed genes from 14 case-control human breast cancer gene expression datasets and integrated them with drug-protein networks. (sutterhealth.org)
  • Lastly, we determined whether synergistic drug pairs found in the EHRs were enriched among synergistic drug pairs from gene-expression data using a method similar to gene set enrichment analysis. (sutterhealth.org)
  • Any drug with the potential to cause toxic reactions to structures of the inner ear, including the cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals, and otoliths, is considered ototoxic. (medscape.com)
  • High exposure to VPA can lead to carnitine depletion causing a misbalance between the intra-mitochondrial beta-oxidation and the microsomal co-oxidation, a pathway that produces toxic metabolites such as 4-en-VPA which inhibits ammonia elimination. (unav.edu)
  • By using folk knowledge, and by seeking scientific proof concerning this knowledge, it is possible to find substances that are both effective and less toxic to human health, and which are able to combat microorganisms that are commonly resistant to conventional drugs. (bvsalud.org)
  • Schacht and Hawkins (2006) reviewed initial reports that associated the intake of certain drugs such as quinine and acetylsalicylic acid with temporary hearing loss as well as dizziness and tinnitus. (cdc.gov)
  • Protein drugs, which derive from biological sources, represent some of the most important and effective biopharmaceuticals on the market. (upenn.edu)
  • A prescribing cascade occurs when a person is prescribed a drug and experiences an adverse drug effect that is misinterpreted as a new medical condition, so the patient is prescribed another drug. (wikipedia.org)
  • A new paper published in The BMJ explores the effect of these drugs used concomitantly on the risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE). (news-medical.net)
  • RESULTS: From EHRs, we discovered 3 drug-class pairs associated with lower mortality: anti-inflammatories and hormone antagonists, anti-inflammatories and lipid modifiers, and lipid modifiers and obstructive airway drugs. (sutterhealth.org)
  • Commonly abused noncontrolled drugs range from the surprising (anticholinergics) to the perhaps not-so-surprising (antidepressants), and multiple categories in between. (medpagetoday.com)
  • Dahring singled out five specific drugs among commonly abused noncontrolled medications. (medpagetoday.com)
  • Drugs and other substances that alter hearing or equilibrium by acting primarily at the level of the brain stem or the central auditory pathways are considered to be neurotoxic and not strictly ototoxic (Hawkins 1976). (cdc.gov)
  • Sometimes maybe we think there is not a lot of harm in some of these drugs because they aren't controlled substances. (medpagetoday.com)
  • Drug-induced damage to these structures of the auditory and balance system can result in hearing loss, tinnitus , and dysequilibrium or dizziness . (medscape.com)
  • Thus, these drugs come with a warning that they increase the risk of strokes and heart attacks. (news-medical.net)
  • They excluded periods during which the women might have been put at higher VTE risk from other causes, including pregnancy and related events, surgeries requiring hospitalization, and the use of other drugs that carry a risk of thrombosis. (news-medical.net)
  • While overall adult HIV prevalence has remained low, at an average estimated 0.2%, evidence has accumulated that the epidemic is gaining hold in sub-groups of the population at increased risk associated with injecting drug use or risky sexual behaviour. (who.int)
  • By that, I mean that an adult can drink some alcohol, and be perfectly legal to drive, so long as his or her ability to drive has not been affected by the alcohol consumed (or medication or drugs taken). (drunkdrivingdefense.com)
  • Currently, there is no human experimental research on how these drugs interact on addiction-related measures. (bath.ac.uk)
  • Estimating generic drug use with electronic health records data from a health care delivery system: implications for quality improvement and research. (sutterhealth.org)
  • In this scenario, drug research is essential, and nature contains vast resources for this very purpose. (bvsalud.org)
  • OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to investigate how cannabis and tobacco, each alone and combined together in joints, affected individuals' demand for cannabis puffs and cigarettes, explicit liking of drug and non-drug-related stimuli and craving. (bath.ac.uk)

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