Time schedule for administration of a drug in order to achieve optimum effectiveness and convenience.
An agency of the PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE concerned with the overall planning, promoting, and administering of programs pertaining to maintaining standards of quality of foods, drugs, therapeutic devices, etc.
The long-term (minutes to hours) administration of a fluid into the vein through venipuncture, either by letting the fluid flow by gravity or by pumping it.
The giving of drugs, chemicals, or other substances by mouth.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
Substances that inhibit or prevent the proliferation of NEOPLASMS.
Agents obtained from higher plants that have demonstrable cytostatic or antineoplastic activity.
New abnormal growth of tissue. Malignant neoplasms show a greater degree of anaplasia and have the properties of invasion and metastasis, compared to benign neoplasms.
The use of two or more chemicals simultaneously or sequentially in the drug therapy of neoplasms. The drugs need not be in the same dosage form.
A pyrimidine analog that is an antineoplastic antimetabolite. It interferes with DNA synthesis by blocking the THYMIDYLATE SYNTHETASE conversion of deoxyuridylic acid to thymidylic acid.
An alkaloid isolated from the stem wood of the Chinese tree, Camptotheca acuminata. This compound selectively inhibits the nuclear enzyme DNA TOPOISOMERASES, TYPE I. Several semisynthetic analogs of camptothecin have demonstrated antitumor activity.
A schedule prescribing when the subject is to be reinforced or rewarded in terms of temporal interval in psychological experiments. The schedule may be continuous or intermittent.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
Deoxycytidine is a nucleoside consisting of the pentose sugar deoxyribose linked to the nitrogenous base cytosine, which plays a crucial role in DNA replication and repair processes within cells.
A cyclodecane isolated from the bark of the Pacific yew tree, TAXUS BREVIFOLIA. It stabilizes MICROTUBULES in their polymerized form leading to cell death.
Process that is gone through in order for a drug to receive approval by a government regulatory agency. This includes any required pre-clinical or clinical testing, review, submission, and evaluation of the applications and test results, and post-marketing surveillance of the drug.
Process that is gone through in order for a device to receive approval by a government regulatory agency. This includes any required preclinical or clinical testing, review, submission, and evaluation of the applications and test results, and post-marketing surveillance. It is not restricted to FDA.
Freedom of equipment from actual or potential hazards.
Use of written, printed, or graphic materials upon or accompanying a drug container or wrapper. It includes contents, indications, effects, dosages, routes, methods, frequency and duration of administration, warnings, hazards, contraindications, side effects, precautions, and other relevant information.
The term "United States" in a medical context often refers to the country where a patient or study participant resides, and is not a medical term per se, but relevant for epidemiological studies, healthcare policies, and understanding differences in disease prevalence, treatment patterns, and health outcomes across various geographic locations.
Parasitic infestation of the human lymphatic system by WUCHERERIA BANCROFTI or BRUGIA MALAYI. It is also called lymphatic filariasis.
Schedule giving optimum times usually for primary and/or secondary immunization.
Laws concerned with manufacturing, dispensing, and marketing of drugs.
Family in the order COLUMBIFORMES, comprised of pigeons or doves. They are BIRDS with short legs, stout bodies, small heads, and slender bills. Some sources call the smaller species doves and the larger pigeons, but the names are interchangeable.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Injections made into a vein for therapeutic or experimental purposes.
Pharmacological agents destructive to nematodes in the superfamily Filarioidea.
The various ways of administering a drug or other chemical to a site in a patient or animal from where the chemical is absorbed into the blood and delivered to the target tissue.
Surveillance of drugs, devices, appliances, etc., for efficacy or adverse effects, after they have been released for general sale.
An anthelmintic used primarily as the citrate in the treatment of filariasis, particularly infestations with Wucheria bancrofti or Loa loa.
Learning situations in which the sequence responses of the subject are instrumental in producing reinforcement. When the correct response occurs, which involves the selection from among a repertoire of responses, the subject is immediately reinforced.
The strengthening of a conditioned response.
A listing of established professional service charges, for specified dental and medical procedures.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
Consumer Product Safety refers to the measures and regulations implemented to ensure household items, toys, and other consumer products are designed, manufactured, and distributed in a manner that minimizes risks of harm, injury, or death to consumers during normal use or foreseeable misuse.
A benzimidazole broad-spectrum anthelmintic structurally related to MEBENDAZOLE that is effective against many diseases. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p38)
An application that must be submitted to a regulatory agency (the FDA in the United States) before a drug can be studied in humans. This application includes results of previous experiments; how, where, and by whom the new studies will be conducted; the chemical structure of the compound; how it is thought to work in the body; any toxic effects found in animal studies; and how the compound is manufactured. (From the "New Medicines in Development" Series produced by the Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association and published irregularly.)
Use of written, printed, or graphic materials upon or accompanying a food or its container or wrapper. The concept includes ingredients, NUTRITIONAL VALUE, directions, warnings, and other relevant information.
Works about pre-planned studies of the safety, efficacy, or optimum dosage schedule (if appropriate) of one or more diagnostic, therapeutic, or prophylactic drugs, devices, or techniques selected according to predetermined criteria of eligibility and observed for predefined evidence of favorable and unfavorable effects. This concept includes clinical trials conducted both in the U.S. and in other countries.
Drugs used to treat or prevent parasitic infections.
A mixture of mostly avermectin H2B1a (RN 71827-03-7) with some avermectin H2B1b (RN 70209-81-3), which are macrolides from STREPTOMYCES avermitilis. It binds glutamate-gated chloride channel to cause increased permeability and hyperpolarization of nerve and muscle cells. It also interacts with other CHLORIDE CHANNELS. It is a broad spectrum antiparasitic that is active against microfilariae of ONCHOCERCA VOLVULUS but not the adult form.
Control of drug and narcotic use by international agreement, or by institutional systems for handling prescribed drugs. This includes regulations concerned with the manufacturing, dispensing, approval (DRUG APPROVAL), and marketing of drugs.
A statistical means of summarizing information from a series of measurements on one individual. It is frequently used in clinical pharmacology where the AUC from serum levels can be interpreted as the total uptake of whatever has been administered. As a plot of the concentration of a drug against time, after a single dose of medicine, producing a standard shape curve, it is a means of comparing the bioavailability of the same drug made by different companies. (From Winslade, Dictionary of Clinical Research, 1992)
Use of written, printed, or graphic materials upon or accompanying a product or its container or wrapper. It includes purpose, effect, description, directions, hazards, warnings, and other relevant information.
The extent to which the active ingredient of a drug dosage form becomes available at the site of drug action or in a biological medium believed to reflect accessibility to a site of action.
The time it takes for a substance (drug, radioactive nuclide, or other) to lose half of its pharmacologic, physiologic, or radiologic activity.
The action of a drug that may affect the activity, metabolism, or toxicity of another drug.
Laws and regulations concerned with industrial processing and marketing of foods.
Delivery of medications through the nasal mucosa.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
That segment of commercial enterprise devoted to the design, development, and manufacture of chemical products for use in the diagnosis and treatment of disease, disability, or other dysfunction, or to improve function.
Administration of a drug or chemical by the individual under the direction of a physician. It includes administration clinically or experimentally, by human or animal.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
Any process by which toxicity, metabolism, absorption, elimination, preferred route of administration, safe dosage range, etc., for a drug or group of drugs is determined through clinical assessment in humans or veterinary animals.
A white threadlike worm which causes elephantiasis, lymphangitis, and chyluria by interfering with the lymphatic circulation. The microfilaria are found in the circulating blood and are carried by mosquitoes.
A method of studying a drug or procedure in which both the subjects and investigators are kept unaware of who is actually getting which specific treatment.
Expendable and nonexpendable equipment, supplies, apparatus, and instruments that are used in diagnostic, surgical, therapeutic, scientific, and experimental procedures.
The observable response an animal makes to any situation.
Systems developed for collecting reports from government agencies, manufacturers, hospitals, physicians, and other sources on adverse drug reactions.
Forceful administration under the skin of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle piercing the skin.
Animal searching behavior. The variable introductory phase of an instinctive behavior pattern or sequence, e.g., looking for food, or sequential courtship patterns prior to mating.
Diseases that are underfunded and have low name recognition but are major burdens in less developed countries. The World Health Organization has designated six tropical infectious diseases as being neglected in industrialized countries that are endemic in many developing countries (HELMINTHIASIS; LEPROSY; LYMPHATIC FILARIASIS; ONCHOCERCIASIS; SCHISTOSOMIASIS; and TRACHOMA).
Forceful administration into the peritoneal cavity of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle piercing the abdominal wall.
Forceful administration into a muscle of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle piercing the muscle and any tissue covering it.
Disorders that result from the intended use of PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS. Included in this heading are a broad variety of chemically-induced adverse conditions due to toxicity, DRUG INTERACTIONS, and metabolic effects of pharmaceuticals.
An alkaloid ester extracted from the leaves of plants including coca. It is a local anesthetic and vasoconstrictor and is clinically used for that purpose, particularly in the eye, ear, nose, and throat. It also has powerful central nervous system effects similar to the amphetamines and is a drug of abuse. Cocaine, like amphetamines, acts by multiple mechanisms on brain catecholaminergic neurons; the mechanism of its reinforcing effects is thought to involve inhibition of dopamine uptake.
Drugs which have received FDA approval for human testing but have yet to be approved for commercial marketing. This includes drugs used for treatment while they still are undergoing clinical trials (Treatment IND). The main heading includes drugs under investigation in foreign countries.
Physiological or psychological effects of periods of work which may be fixed or flexible such as flexitime, work shifts, and rotating shifts.
Studies comparing two or more treatments or interventions in which the subjects or patients, upon completion of the course of one treatment, are switched to another. In the case of two treatments, A and B, half the subjects are randomly allocated to receive these in the order A, B and half to receive them in the order B, A. A criticism of this design is that effects of the first treatment may carry over into the period when the second is given. (Last, A Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
Drugs intended for human or veterinary use, presented in their finished dosage form. Included here are materials used in the preparation and/or formulation of the finished dosage form.
Agents destructive to parasitic worms. They are used therapeutically in the treatment of HELMINTHIASIS in man and animal.
The d-form of AMPHETAMINE. It is a central nervous system stimulant and a sympathomimetic. It has also been used in the treatment of narcolepsy and of attention deficit disorders and hyperactivity in children. Dextroamphetamine has multiple mechanisms of action including blocking uptake of adrenergics and dopamine, stimulating release of monamines, and inhibiting monoamine oxidase. It is also a drug of abuse and a psychotomimetic.
Therapy with two or more separate preparations given for a combined effect.
Exercise of governmental authority to control conduct.
The application of drug preparations to the surfaces of the body, especially the skin (ADMINISTRATION, CUTANEOUS) or mucous membranes. This method of treatment is used to avoid systemic side effects when high doses are required at a localized area or as an alternative systemic administration route, to avoid hepatic processing for example.
Chemistry dealing with the composition and preparation of agents having PHARMACOLOGIC ACTIONS or diagnostic use.
The relative equivalency in the efficacy of different modes of treatment of a disease, most often used to compare the efficacy of different pharmaceuticals to treat a given disease.
An anxiolytic benzodiazepine derivative with anticonvulsant, sedative, and amnesic properties. It has also been used in the symptomatic treatment of alcohol withdrawal.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
Single preparations containing two or more active agents, for the purpose of their concurrent administration as a fixed dose mixture.
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
The practice of prescribing or using a drug outside the scope of the drug's official approved label as designated by a regulatory agency concerning the treatment of a particular disease or condition.
Medicines that can be sold legally without a DRUG PRESCRIPTION.
Preclinical testing of drugs in experimental animals or in vitro for their biological and toxic effects and potential clinical applications.
Progressive diminution of the susceptibility of a human or animal to the effects of a drug, resulting from its continued administration. It should be differentiated from DRUG RESISTANCE wherein an organism, disease, or tissue fails to respond to the intended effectiveness of a chemical or drug. It should also be differentiated from MAXIMUM TOLERATED DOSE and NO-OBSERVED-ADVERSE-EFFECT LEVEL.
The insertion of drugs into the rectum, usually for confused or incompetent patients, like children, infants, and the very old or comatose.
A process involving chance used in therapeutic trials or other research endeavor for allocating experimental subjects, human or animal, between treatment and control groups, or among treatment groups. It may also apply to experiments on inanimate objects.
Nonexpendable items used in examination.
Volume of biological fluid completely cleared of drug metabolites as measured in unit time. Elimination occurs as a result of metabolic processes in the kidney, liver, saliva, sweat, intestine, heart, brain, or other site.
Accumulation of a drug or chemical substance in various organs (including those not relevant to its pharmacologic or therapeutic action). This distribution depends on the blood flow or perfusion rate of the organ, the ability of the drug to penetrate organ membranes, tissue specificity, protein binding. The distribution is usually expressed as tissue to plasma ratios.
Conferences, conventions or formal meetings usually attended by delegates representing a special field of interest.
Learning that is manifested in the ability to respond differentially to various stimuli.
The procedure of presenting the conditioned stimulus without REINFORCEMENT to an organism previously conditioned. It refers also to the diminution of a conditioned response resulting from this procedure.
Compounds with activity like OPIATE ALKALOIDS, acting at OPIOID RECEPTORS. Properties include induction of ANALGESIA or NARCOSIS.
The use of DRUGS to treat a DISEASE or its symptoms. One example is the use of ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS to treat CANCER.
The act of making a selection among two or more alternatives, usually after a period of deliberation.
The administration of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through some other route than the alimentary canal, usually over minutes or hours, either by gravity flow or often by infusion pumping.
A systematic statement of policy rules or principles. Guidelines may be developed by government agencies at any level, institutions, professional societies, governing boards, or by convening expert panels. The text may be cursive or in outline form but is generally a comprehensive guide to problems and approaches in any field of activity. For guidelines in the field of health care and clinical medicine, PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC is available.
Administration of a soluble dosage form by placement under the tongue.
A loosely defined group of drugs that tend to increase behavioral alertness, agitation, or excitation. They work by a variety of mechanisms, but usually not by direct excitation of neurons. The many drugs that have such actions as side effects to their main therapeutic use are not included here.
The domestic dog, Canis familiaris, comprising about 400 breeds, of the carnivore family CANIDAE. They are worldwide in distribution and live in association with people. (Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th ed, p1065)
PRESSURE of the BLOOD on the ARTERIES and other BLOOD VESSELS.
A statistical technique that isolates and assesses the contributions of categorical independent variables to variation in the mean of a continuous dependent variable.
Liquid chromatographic techniques which feature high inlet pressures, high sensitivity, and high speed.
Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.
Inbred BALB/c mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical to each other, making them useful for scientific research and experiments due to their consistent genetic background and predictable responses to various stimuli or treatments.
Freedom from exposure to danger and protection from the occurrence or risk of injury or loss. It suggests optimal precautions in the workplace, on the street, in the home, etc., and includes personal safety as well as the safety of property.
Works about clinical trials that involve at least one test treatment and one control treatment, concurrent enrollment and follow-up of the test- and control-treated groups, and in which the treatments to be administered are selected by a random process, such as the use of a random-numbers table.
The detection of long and short term side effects of conventional and traditional medicines through research, data mining, monitoring, and evaluation of healthcare information obtained from healthcare providers and patients.
The principal alkaloid in opium and the prototype opiate analgesic and narcotic. Morphine has widespread effects in the central nervous system and on smooth muscle.
The application of suitable drug dosage forms to the skin for either local or systemic effects.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. This also includes animals with a long history of closed colony breeding.
A family of hexahydropyridines.
Laws and regulations pertaining to devices used in medicine, proposed for enactment, or enacted by a legislative body.
Errors in prescribing, dispensing, or administering medication with the result that the patient fails to receive the correct drug or the indicated proper drug dosage.
Complex pharmaceutical substances, preparations, or matter derived from organisms usually obtained by biological methods or assay.
Production of drugs or biologicals which are unlikely to be manufactured by private industry unless special incentives are provided by others.
Activities involved in ensuring the safety of FOOD including avoidance of bacterial and other contamination.
The mass or quantity of heaviness of an individual. It is expressed by units of pounds or kilograms.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
The presence of organisms, or any foreign material that makes a drug preparation impure.
The physical activity of a human or an animal as a behavioral phenomenon.
A central nervous system stimulant and sympathomimetic with actions and uses similar to DEXTROAMPHETAMINE. The smokable form is a drug of abuse and is referred to as crank, crystal, crystal meth, ice, and speed.
The study of the physical and chemical properties of a drug and its dosage form as related to the onset, duration, and intensity of its action.

Clindamycin plus gentamicin as expectant therapy for presumed mixed infections. (1/14307)

The prevalence of obligate anaerobes was studied prospectively in 60 patients with severe sepsis of intra-abdominal, soft tissue, female genital or oropulmonary origin. In addition, the efficacy of clindamycin (for anaerobes) plus gentamicin (for aerobic bacteria, especially coliforms) as initial empiric therapy in these patients was evaluated. Among 54 patients with cultural proof of infection, anaerobic pathogens were recovered from 52%. Nineteen patients had bacteremia; Bacteroides fragilis and Klebsiella pneumoniae were the most prevalent pathogens, being isolated in five patients each. Infection was eradicated in 56 of the 60 patients (93%). Mortality related to sepsis was 7% in the entire group, 16% in patients with bacteremia and 2% in patients without bacteremia. Eighty-five percent of aerobic isolates tested were susceptible in vitro to either gentamicin or clindamycin; 97% of anaerobic isolates were inhibited by 5 mug/ml of clindamycin.  (+info)

A comparison of three methods of setting prescribing budgets, using data derived from defined daily dose analyses of historic patterns of use. (2/14307)

BACKGROUND: Prescribing matters (particularly budget setting and research into prescribing variation between doctors) have been handicapped by the absence of credible measures of the volume of drugs prescribed. AIM: To use the defined daily dose (DDD) method to study variation in the volume and cost of drugs prescribed across the seven main British National Formulary (BNF) chapters with a view to comparing different methods of setting prescribing budgets. METHOD: Study of one year of prescribing statistics from all 129 general practices in Lothian, covering 808,059 patients: analyses of prescribing statistics for 1995 to define volume and cost/volume of prescribing for one year for 10 groups of practices defined by the age and deprivation status of their patients, for seven BNF chapters; creation of prescribing budgets for 1996 for each individual practice based on the use of target volume and cost statistics; comparison of 1996 DDD-based budgets with those set using the conventional historical approach; and comparison of DDD-based budgets with budgets set using a capitation-based formula derived from local cost/patient information. RESULTS: The volume of drugs prescribed was affected by the age structure of the practices in BNF Chapters 1 (gastrointestinal), 2 (cardiovascular), and 6 (endocrine), and by deprivation structure for BNF Chapters 3 (respiratory) and 4 (central nervous system). Costs per DDD in the major BNF chapters were largely independent of age, deprivation structure, or fundholding status. Capitation and DDD-based budgets were similar to each other, but both differed substantially from historic budgets. One practice in seven gained or lost more than 100,000 Pounds per annum using DDD or capitation budgets compared with historic budgets. The DDD-based budget, but not the capitation-based budget, can be used to set volume-specific prescribing targets. CONCLUSIONS: DDD-based and capitation-based prescribing budgets can be set using a simple explanatory model and generalizable methods. In this study, both differed substantially from historic budgets. DDD budgets could be created to accommodate new prescribing strategies and raised or lowered to reflect local intentions to alter overall prescribing volume or cost targets. We recommend that future work on setting budgets and researching prescribing variations should be based on DDD statistics.  (+info)

Intensive weekly chemotherapy is not effective in advanced pancreatic cancer patients: a report from the Italian Group for the Study of Digestive Tract Cancer (GISCAD). (3/14307)

Twenty-two patients, with locally advanced unresectable and/or metastatic pancreatic carcinoma, received weekly administration of cisplatin 40 mg m(-2), 5-fluorouracil 500 mg m(-2), epidoxorubicin 35 mg m(-2), 6S stereoisomer of leucovorin 250 mg m(-2) and glutathione 1.5 mg m(-2), supported by a daily administration of lenograstim at a dose of 5 microg kg(-1). Nineteen patients were men and three were women. Median age was 63 years (range 47-70). At study entry, pain was present in 15 out of 22 patients (68%) with a mean value of Scott-Huskisson scale of 27.6+/-23.8, whereas a weight loss >10% was present in 15 patients. After eight weekly treatments, three partial responses were achieved for a response rate of 13% (95% CI 0-26%), five patients had stable disease and 14 progressed on therapy. Pain was present in 9 out of 22 patients (40%) with a mean value of Scott-Huskisson scale of 12.3+/-18.4. Eight patients (36%) (three partial response and five stable disease) had a positive weight change. Toxicity was mild: WHO grade III or IV toxicity was recorded in terms of anaemia in 7 out of 188 cycles (3.7%), of neutropenia in 9 out of 188 cycles (4.7%) and of thrombocytopenia in 3 out of 188 cycles (1.5%). Median survival of all patients was 6 months. The outcome of this intensive chemotherapy regimen does not support its use in pancreatic cancer.  (+info)

Synergistic protective effects of antioxidant and nitric oxide synthase inhibitor in transient focal ischemia. (4/14307)

Both nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitors and free radical scavengers have been shown to protect brain tissue in ischemia-reperfusion injury. Nitric oxide and superoxide anion act via distinct mechanisms and react together to form the highly deleterious peroxynitrite. Therefore the authors examined the effects and the interaction between the NOS inhibitor, NG nitro-L-arginine (LNA) and the antioxidant/superoxide scavenger, di-tert-butyl-hydroxybenzoic acid (DtBHB) in the rat submitted to 2 hours of middle cerebral artery occlusion. Posttreatment was initiated 4 hours after the onset of ischemia and infarct volume was measured at 48 hours. The dose-related effect of LNA resulted in a bell-shaped curve: 15, 56, 65, and 33% reduction of total infarct for 0.03, 0.1, 0.3, and 1 mg/kg (intravenously [IV]) respectively and 11% increase in infarct volume for 3 mg/kg (IV). Whereas DtBHB (20 mg/kg; intraperitoneally [IP]) was ineffective, the dose of 60 mg/kg produced 65% protection in infarct volume. The combination of a subthreshold dose of LNA (0.03 mg/kg; IV) and DtBHB (20 mg/kg; IP) resulted in significant reduction (49%) in infarct volume. These results show that LNA and DtBHB act synergistically to provide a consistent neuroprotection against ischemic injury when administered 4 hours after ischemia. This suggests that nitric oxide and free radicals are involved and interact in synergy in ischemia-reperfusion injury.  (+info)

Beta2-adrenoceptor polymorphism and bronchoprotective sensitivity with regular short- and long-acting beta2-agonist therapy. (5/14307)

The aim of the present study was to investigate bronchoprotective sensitivity in patients receiving regular treatment with short- and long-acting beta2-agonists and to evaluate any possible association with genetic polymorphism. Thirty-eight patients with stable mild to moderate asthma and receiving inhaled corticosteroids were randomized in a parallel group, double-blind, double-dummy fashion to receive 2 weeks of treatment with either formoterol (12 microg once daily, 6 microg twice daily or 24 microg twice daily) or terbutaline (500 microg four times daily). Bronchoprotection against methacholine challenge (as a provocative dose to produce a 20% fall in forced expiratory volume in 1.0 s: PD20) was measured at baseline (unprotected) after an initial 1 week run-in without beta2-agonist, and at 1 h after the first and last doses of each treatment. The PD20 values were log-transformed and calculated as change from baseline. Percentage desensitization of log PD20 for first- versus last-dose bronchoprotection was calculated and analysed according to effects of treatment and beta2-adrenoceptor polymorphism at codon 16 or 27. The mean degree of desensitization for bronchoprotection was comparable with all four treatments and there were no significant differences in absolute PD20 values after 2 weeks of chronic dosing. The PD20 values were (as microg of methacholine, geometric means+/-S. E.M.): formoterol, 12 microg once daily, 99+/-42 microg; formoterol, 6 microg twice daily, 107+/-44 microg; formoterol, 24 microg twice daily, 108+/-45 microg; terbutaline, 500 microg four times daily, 88+/-37 microg. All patients receiving formoterol, 24 microg twice daily, exhibited a loss of protection greater than 30% which was unrelated to polymorphism at codon 16 or 27. For codon 16, the use of lower doses of formoterol (12 microg once daily or 6 microg twice daily) showed wider variability in the propensity for protection loss in patients who were heterozygous, in contrast to a more uniform protection loss seen with homozygous glycine patients. The amount of protection loss was not significantly related to polymorphism at codon 16 or 27, expressed as values (mean+/-S.E.M.) for percentage desensitization according to each genotype (pooled treatments): Gly-16, 66+/-11%; Het-16, 53+/-8%; Arg-16, 69+/-18%; Glu-27, 68+/-12%; Het-27, 58+/-8%; Gln-27, 52+/-12%. The results of this preliminary study showed that bronchoprotective desensitization occurred readily in response to short- or long-acting beta2-agonist exposure irrespective of beta2-adrenoceptor polymorphism at codon 16 or 27. Further studies with larger patient numbers are required to further evaluate the effects of polymorphisms with lower doses of regular formoterol.  (+info)

Warfarin therapy: evolving strategies in anticoagulation. (6/14307)

Warfarin is the oral anticoagulant most frequently used to control and prevent thromboembolic disorders. Prescribing the dose that both avoids hemorrhagic complications and achieves sufficient suppression of thrombosis requires a thorough understanding of the drug's unique pharmacology. Warfarin has a complex dose-response relationship that makes safe and effective use a challenge. For most indications, the dose is adjusted to maintain the patient's International Normalized Ratio (INR) at 2 to 3. Because of the delay in factor II (prothrombin) suppression, heparin is administered concurrently for four to five days to prevent thrombus propagation. Loading doses of warfarin are not warranted and may result in bleeding complications. Interactions with other drugs must be considered, and therapy in elderly patients requires careful management. Current dosing recommendations are reviewed, and practical guidelines for the optimal use of warfarin are provided.  (+info)

Protective alterations in phase 1 and 2 metabolism of aflatoxin B1 by oltipraz in residents of Qidong, People's Republic of China. (7/14307)

BACKGROUND: Residents of Qidong, People's Republic of China, are at high risk for development of hepatocellular carcinoma, in part due to consumption of foods contaminated with aflatoxins, which require metabolic activation to become carcinogenic. In a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind phase IIa chemoprevention trial, we tested oltipraz, an antischistosomal drug that has been shown to be a potent and effective inhibitor of aflatoxin-induced hepatocarcinogenesis in animal models. METHODS: In 1995, 234 adults from Qidong were enrolled. Healthy eligible individuals were randomly assigned to receive by mouth 125 mg oltipraz daily, 500 mg oltipraz weekly, or a placebo. Sequential immunoaffinity chromatography and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry or to fluorescence detection were used to identify and quantify phase 1 and phase 2 metabolites of aflatoxin B1 in the urine of study participants. Reported P values are two-sided. RESULTS: One month of weekly administration of 500 mg oltipraz led to a 51% decrease in median levels of the phase 1 metabolite aflatoxin M1 excreted in urine compared with administration of a placebo (P = .030), but it had no effect on levels of a phase 2 metabolite, aflatoxin-mercapturic acid (P = .871). By contrast, daily intervention with 125 mg oltipraz led to a 2.6-fold increase in median aflatoxin-mercapturic acid excretion (P = .017) but had no effect on excreted aflatoxin M1 levels (P = .682). CONCLUSIONS: Intermittent, high-dose oltipraz inhibited phase 1 activation of aflatoxins, and sustained low-dose oltipraz increased phase 2 conjugation of aflatoxin, yielding higher levels of aflatoxin-mercapturic acid. While both mechanisms can contribute to protection, this study highlights the feasibility of inducing phase 2 enzymes as a chemopreventive strategy in humans.  (+info)

Secondary glioblastoma remarkably reduced by steroid administration after anaplastic transformation from gliomatosis cerebri--case report. (8/14307)

A 45-year-old female presented with gliomatosis cerebri manifesting as hemiballismus-like involuntary movement in the arm, motor weakness in the leg, and hypesthesia in her left side. Computed tomography showed only diffuse swelling of the right cerebral hemisphere, but T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging revealed a diffuse lesion spreading from the right thalamus to the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes on the same side. No abnormal enhancement was recognized. Cerebral angiography showed no specific finding. A right occipital lobectomy was performed to confirm the diagnosis of gliomatosis cerebri. Anaplastic transformation was recognized 5 months later. The disease did not resolve with radiation or interferon administration, but steroid therapy achieved remarkably effective tumor regression. The patient died due to pneumonia. Autopsy showed the features of diffuse glioblastoma. Steroid therapy may be an effective treatment for gliomatosis cerebri before the terminal stage.  (+info)

A "Drug Administration Schedule" refers to the plan for when and how a medication should be given to a patient. It includes details such as the dose, frequency (how often it should be taken), route (how it should be administered, such as orally, intravenously, etc.), and duration (how long it should be taken) of the medication. This schedule is often created and prescribed by healthcare professionals, such as doctors or pharmacists, to ensure that the medication is taken safely and effectively. It may also include instructions for missed doses or changes in the dosage.

The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is a federal government agency responsible for protecting public health by ensuring the safety, efficacy, and security of human and veterinary drugs, biological products, medical devices, our country's food supply, cosmetics, and products that emit radiation. The FDA also provides guidance on the proper use of these products, and enforces laws and regulations related to them. It is part of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS).

Intravenous (IV) infusion is a medical procedure in which liquids, such as medications, nutrients, or fluids, are delivered directly into a patient's vein through a needle or a catheter. This route of administration allows for rapid absorption and distribution of the infused substance throughout the body. IV infusions can be used for various purposes, including resuscitation, hydration, nutrition support, medication delivery, and blood product transfusion. The rate and volume of the infusion are carefully controlled to ensure patient safety and efficacy of treatment.

Oral administration is a route of giving medications or other substances by mouth. This can be in the form of tablets, capsules, liquids, pastes, or other forms that can be swallowed. Once ingested, the substance is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and enters the bloodstream to reach its intended target site in the body. Oral administration is a common and convenient route of medication delivery, but it may not be appropriate for all substances or in certain situations, such as when rapid onset of action is required or when the patient has difficulty swallowing.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

Antineoplastic agents are a class of drugs used to treat malignant neoplasms or cancer. These agents work by inhibiting the growth and proliferation of cancer cells, either by killing them or preventing their division and replication. Antineoplastic agents can be classified based on their mechanism of action, such as alkylating agents, antimetabolites, topoisomerase inhibitors, mitotic inhibitors, and targeted therapy agents.

Alkylating agents work by adding alkyl groups to DNA, which can cause cross-linking of DNA strands and ultimately lead to cell death. Antimetabolites interfere with the metabolic processes necessary for DNA synthesis and replication, while topoisomerase inhibitors prevent the relaxation of supercoiled DNA during replication. Mitotic inhibitors disrupt the normal functioning of the mitotic spindle, which is essential for cell division. Targeted therapy agents are designed to target specific molecular abnormalities in cancer cells, such as mutated oncogenes or dysregulated signaling pathways.

It's important to note that antineoplastic agents can also affect normal cells and tissues, leading to various side effects such as nausea, vomiting, hair loss, and myelosuppression (suppression of bone marrow function). Therefore, the use of these drugs requires careful monitoring and management of their potential adverse effects.

Antineoplastic agents, phytogenic, also known as plant-derived anticancer drugs, are medications that are derived from plants and used to treat cancer. These agents have natural origins and work by interfering with the growth and multiplication of cancer cells, helping to slow or stop the spread of the disease. Some examples of antineoplastic agents, phytogenic include paclitaxel (Taxol), vincristine, vinblastine, and etoposide. These drugs are often used in combination with other treatments such as surgery, radiation therapy, and other medications to provide a comprehensive approach to cancer care.

Neoplasms are abnormal growths of cells or tissues in the body that serve no physiological function. They can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign neoplasms are typically slow growing and do not spread to other parts of the body, while malignant neoplasms are aggressive, invasive, and can metastasize to distant sites.

Neoplasms occur when there is a dysregulation in the normal process of cell division and differentiation, leading to uncontrolled growth and accumulation of cells. This can result from genetic mutations or other factors such as viral infections, environmental exposures, or hormonal imbalances.

Neoplasms can develop in any organ or tissue of the body and can cause various symptoms depending on their size, location, and type. Treatment options for neoplasms include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy, among others.

Antineoplastic combined chemotherapy protocols refer to a treatment plan for cancer that involves the use of more than one antineoplastic (chemotherapy) drug given in a specific sequence and schedule. The combination of drugs is used because they may work better together to destroy cancer cells compared to using a single agent alone. This approach can also help to reduce the likelihood of cancer cells becoming resistant to the treatment.

The choice of drugs, dose, duration, and frequency are determined by various factors such as the type and stage of cancer, patient's overall health, and potential side effects. Combination chemotherapy protocols can be used in various settings, including as a primary treatment, adjuvant therapy (given after surgery or radiation to kill any remaining cancer cells), neoadjuvant therapy (given before surgery or radiation to shrink the tumor), or palliative care (to alleviate symptoms and prolong survival).

It is important to note that while combined chemotherapy protocols can be effective in treating certain types of cancer, they can also cause significant side effects, including nausea, vomiting, hair loss, fatigue, and an increased risk of infection. Therefore, patients undergoing such treatment should be closely monitored and managed by a healthcare team experienced in administering chemotherapy.

Fluorouracil is a antineoplastic medication, which means it is used to treat cancer. It is a type of chemotherapy drug known as an antimetabolite. Fluorouracil works by interfering with the growth of cancer cells and ultimately killing them. It is often used to treat colon, esophageal, stomach, and breast cancers, as well as skin conditions such as actinic keratosis and superficial basal cell carcinoma. Fluorouracil may be given by injection or applied directly to the skin in the form of a cream.

It is important to note that fluorouracil can have serious side effects, including suppression of bone marrow function, mouth sores, stomach and intestinal ulcers, and nerve damage. It should only be used under the close supervision of a healthcare professional.

Camptothecin is a topoisomerase I inhibitor, which is a type of chemotherapeutic agent used in cancer treatment. It works by interfering with the function of an enzyme called topoisomerase I, which helps to uncoil DNA during cell division. By inhibiting this enzyme, camptothecin prevents the cancer cells from dividing and growing, ultimately leading to their death.

Camptothecin is found naturally in the bark and stem of the Camptotheca acuminata tree, also known as the "happy tree," which is native to China. It was first isolated in 1966 and has since been developed into several synthetic derivatives, including irinotecan and topotecan, which are used clinically to treat various types of cancer, such as colon, lung, and ovarian cancers.

Like other chemotherapeutic agents, camptothecin can have significant side effects, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and myelosuppression (suppression of bone marrow function). It is important for patients receiving camptothecin-based therapies to be closely monitored by their healthcare team to manage these side effects effectively.

A reinforcement schedule is a concept in behavioral psychology that refers to the timing and pattern of rewards or reinforcements provided in response to certain behaviors. It is used to shape, maintain, or strengthen specific behaviors in individuals. There are several types of reinforcement schedules, including:

1. **Fixed Ratio (FR):** A reward is given after a fixed number of responses. For example, a salesperson might receive a bonus for every 10 sales they make.
2. **Variable Ratio (VR):** A reward is given after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule is commonly used in gambling, as the uncertainty of when a reward (winning) will occur keeps the individual engaged and motivated to continue the behavior.
3. **Fixed Interval (FI):** A reward is given after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reward, regardless of the number of responses during that time. For example, an employee might receive a paycheck every two weeks, regardless of how many tasks they completed during that period.
4. **Variable Interval (VI):** A reward is given after an unpredictable amount of time has passed since the last reward, regardless of the number of responses during that time. This schedule can be observed in foraging behavior, where animals search for food at irregular intervals.
5. **Combined schedules:** Reinforcement schedules can also be combined to create more complex patterns, such as a fixed ratio followed by a variable interval (FR-VI) or a variable ratio followed by a fixed interval (VR-FI).

Understanding reinforcement schedules is essential for developing effective behavioral interventions in various settings, including healthcare, education, and rehabilitation.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Deoxycytidine is a chemical compound that is a component of DNA, one of the nucleic acids in living organisms. It is a nucleoside, consisting of the sugar deoxyribose and the base cytosine. Deoxycytidine pairs with guanine via hydrogen bonds to form base pairs in the double helix structure of DNA.

In biochemistry, deoxycytidine can also exist as a free nucleoside, not bound to other molecules. It is involved in various cellular processes related to DNA metabolism and replication. Deoxycytidine can be phosphorylated to form deoxycytidine monophosphate (dCMP), which is an important intermediate in the synthesis of DNA.

It's worth noting that while deoxycytidine is a component of DNA, its counterpart in RNA is cytidine, which contains ribose instead of deoxyribose as the sugar component.

Paclitaxel is a chemotherapeutic agent derived from the bark of the Pacific yew tree (Taxus brevifolia). It is an antimicrotubule agent that promotes the assembly and stabilization of microtubules, thereby interfering with the normal dynamic reorganization of the microtubule network that is essential for cell division.

Paclitaxel is used in the treatment of various types of cancer including ovarian, breast, lung, and pancreatic cancers. It works by inhibiting the disassembly of microtubules, which prevents the separation of chromosomes during mitosis, leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis (programmed cell death).

Common side effects of paclitaxel include neutropenia (low white blood cell count), anemia (low red blood cell count), alopecia (hair loss), peripheral neuropathy (nerve damage causing numbness or tingling in the hands and feet), myalgias (muscle pain), arthralgias (joint pain), and hypersensitivity reactions.

"Drug approval" is the process by which a regulatory agency, such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), grants formal authorization for a pharmaceutical company to market and sell a drug for a specific medical condition. The approval process is based on rigorous evaluation of clinical trial data to ensure that the drug is safe and effective for its intended use.

The FDA's approval process typically involves several stages, including preclinical testing in the lab and animal studies, followed by three phases of clinical trials in human subjects. The first phase tests the safety of the drug in a small group of healthy volunteers, while the second and third phases test the drug's efficacy and side effects in larger groups of patients with the medical condition for which the drug is intended.

If the results of these studies demonstrate that the drug is safe and effective, the pharmaceutical company can submit a New Drug Application (NDA) or Biologics License Application (BLA) to the FDA for review. The application includes data from the clinical trials, as well as information about the manufacturing process, labeling, and proposed use of the drug.

The FDA reviews the application and may seek input from independent experts before making a decision on whether to approve the drug. If approved, the drug can be marketed and sold to patients with the medical condition for which it was approved. The FDA continues to monitor the safety and efficacy of approved drugs after they reach the market to ensure that they remain safe and effective for their intended use.

"Device approval" is a term used to describe the process by which a medical device is determined to be safe and effective for use in patients by regulatory authorities, such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The approval process typically involves a rigorous evaluation of the device's design, performance, and safety data, as well as a review of the manufacturer's quality systems and labeling.

The FDA's Center for Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH) is responsible for regulating medical devices in the United States. The CDRH uses a risk-based classification system to determine the level of regulatory control needed for each device. Class I devices are considered low risk, Class II devices are moderate risk, and Class III devices are high risk.

For Class III devices, which include life-sustaining or life-supporting devices, as well as those that present a potential unreasonable risk of illness or injury, the approval process typically involves a premarket approval (PMA) application. This requires the submission of comprehensive scientific evidence to demonstrate the safety and effectiveness of the device.

For Class II devices, which include moderate-risk devices such as infusion pumps and powered wheelchairs, the approval process may involve a premarket notification (510(k)) submission. This requires the manufacturer to demonstrate that their device is substantially equivalent to a predicate device that is already legally marketed in the United States.

Once a medical device has been approved for marketing, the FDA continues to monitor its safety and effectiveness through post-market surveillance programs. Manufacturers are required to report any adverse events or product problems to the FDA, and the agency may take regulatory action if necessary to protect public health.

Equipment safety in a medical context refers to the measures taken to ensure that medical equipment is free from potential harm or risks to patients, healthcare providers, and others who may come into contact with the equipment. This includes:

1. Designing and manufacturing the equipment to meet safety standards and regulations.
2. Properly maintaining and inspecting the equipment to ensure it remains safe over time.
3. Providing proper training for healthcare providers on how to use the equipment safely.
4. Implementing safeguards, such as alarms and warnings, to alert users of potential hazards.
5. Conducting regular risk assessments to identify and address any potential safety concerns.
6. Reporting and investigating any incidents or accidents involving the equipment to determine their cause and prevent future occurrences.

Drug labeling refers to the information that is provided on the packaging or container of a medication, as well as any accompanying promotional materials. This information is intended to provide healthcare professionals and patients with accurate and up-to-date data about the drug's composition, intended use, dosage, side effects, contraindications, and other important details that are necessary for safe and effective use.

The labeling of prescription drugs in the United States is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which requires manufacturers to submit proposed labeling as part of their new drug application. The FDA reviews the labeling to ensure that it is truthful, balanced, and not misleading, and provides accurate information about the drug's risks and benefits.

The labeling of over-the-counter (OTC) drugs is also regulated by the FDA, but in this case, the agency has established a set of monographs that specify the conditions under which certain active ingredients can be used and the labeling requirements for each ingredient. Manufacturers of OTC drugs must ensure that their labeling complies with these monographs.

In addition to the information required by regulatory agencies, drug labeling may also include additional information provided by the manufacturer, such as detailed instructions for use, storage requirements, and any warnings or precautions that are necessary to ensure safe and effective use of the medication. It is important for healthcare professionals and patients to carefully review and understand all of the information provided on a drug's labeling before using the medication.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "United States" is a geopolitical entity, specifically the name of the country consisting of 50 states, and it is not a medical term or concept. Therefore, I can't provide a medical definition for it. If you have any questions related to health, medicine, or biology, I would be happy to try to help answer those!

Elephantiasis, filarial is a medical condition characterized by the severe swelling of limbs or other parts of the body due to the blockage of lymphatic vessels by parasitic worms. It is caused by infection with threadlike nematode filarial worms, such as Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia timori. These worms are transmitted to humans through mosquito bites.

The blockage of lymphatic vessels leads to the accumulation of lymph fluid in the affected area, causing progressive swelling, thickening, and hardening of the skin and underlying tissues. In advanced cases, the skin may become rough, nodular, and fissured, resembling the hide of an elephant, hence the name "elephantiasis."

The condition is usually chronic and can cause significant disability and social stigma. While there is no cure for filarial elephantiasis, various treatments are available to alleviate symptoms, prevent transmission, and halt the progression of the disease. These include antibiotics to kill the worms, surgery to remove the lymphatic obstruction, and various supportive measures to manage the swelling and prevent secondary infections.

An immunization schedule is a series of planned dates when a person, usually a child, should receive specific vaccines in order to be fully protected against certain preventable diseases. The schedule is developed based on scientific research and recommendations from health organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

The immunization schedule outlines which vaccines are recommended, the number of doses required, the age at which each dose should be given, and the minimum amount of time that must pass between doses. The schedule may vary depending on factors such as the individual's age, health status, and travel plans.

Immunization schedules are important for ensuring that individuals receive timely protection against vaccine-preventable diseases, and for maintaining high levels of immunity in populations, which helps to prevent the spread of disease. It is important to follow the recommended immunization schedule as closely as possible to ensure optimal protection.

'Drug legislation' refers to the laws and regulations that govern the production, distribution, sale, possession, and use of medications and pharmaceutical products within a given jurisdiction. These laws are designed to protect public health and safety by establishing standards for drug quality, ensuring appropriate prescribing and dispensing practices, preventing drug abuse and diversion, and promoting access to necessary medications. Drug legislation may also include provisions related to clinical trials, advertising, packaging, labeling, and reimbursement. Compliance with these regulations is typically enforced through a combination of government agencies, professional organizations, and legal penalties for non-compliance.

Columbidae is the family that includes all pigeons and doves. According to the medical literature, there are no specific medical definitions associated with Columbidae. However, it's worth noting that some species of pigeons and doves are commonly kept as pets or used in research, and may be mentioned in medical contexts related to avian medicine, zoonoses (diseases transmissible from animals to humans), or public health concerns such as bird-related allergies.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Intravenous injections are a type of medical procedure where medication or fluids are administered directly into a vein using a needle and syringe. This route of administration is also known as an IV injection. The solution injected enters the patient's bloodstream immediately, allowing for rapid absorption and onset of action. Intravenous injections are commonly used to provide quick relief from symptoms, deliver medications that are not easily absorbed by other routes, or administer fluids and electrolytes in cases of dehydration or severe illness. It is important that intravenous injections are performed using aseptic technique to minimize the risk of infection.

Filaricides are a type of medication used to treat infections caused by filarial worms, which are parasitic roundworms that can infect humans and animals. These medications work by killing or inhibiting the development of the larval stages of the worms, thereby helping to eliminate the infection and prevent further transmission.

Filaricides are often used to treat diseases such as onchocerciasis (river blindness), lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis), and loiasis (African eye worm). Examples of filaricides include ivermectin, diethylcarbamazine, and albendazole. It is important to note that these medications should only be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as they can have serious side effects if not used properly.

Drug administration routes refer to the different paths through which medications or drugs are introduced into the body to exert their therapeutic effects. Understanding these routes is crucial in ensuring appropriate drug delivery, optimizing drug effectiveness, and minimizing potential adverse effects. Here are some common drug administration routes with their definitions:

1. Oral (PO): Medications are given through the mouth, allowing for easy self-administration. The drug is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and then undergoes first-pass metabolism in the liver before reaching systemic circulation.
2. Parenteral: This route bypasses the gastrointestinal tract and involves direct administration into the body's tissues or bloodstream. Examples include intravenous (IV), intramuscular (IM), subcutaneous (SC), and intradermal (ID) injections.
3. Intravenous (IV): Medications are administered directly into a vein, ensuring rapid absorption and onset of action. This route is often used for emergency situations or when immediate therapeutic effects are required.
4. Intramuscular (IM): Medications are injected deep into a muscle, allowing for slow absorption and prolonged release. Common sites include the deltoid, vastus lateralis, or ventrogluteal muscles.
5. Subcutaneous (SC): Medications are administered just under the skin, providing slower absorption compared to IM injections. Common sites include the abdomen, upper arm, or thigh.
6. Intradermal (ID): Medications are introduced into the superficial layer of the skin, often used for diagnostic tests like tuberculin skin tests or vaccine administration.
7. Topical: Medications are applied directly to the skin surface, mucous membranes, or other body surfaces. This route is commonly used for local treatment of infections, inflammation, or pain. Examples include creams, ointments, gels, patches, and sprays.
8. Inhalational: Medications are administered through inhalation, allowing for rapid absorption into the lungs and quick onset of action. Commonly used for respiratory conditions like asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Examples include metered-dose inhalers, dry powder inhalers, and nebulizers.
9. Rectal: Medications are administered through the rectum, often used when oral administration is not possible or desirable. Commonly used for systemic treatment of pain, fever, or seizures. Examples include suppositories, enemas, or foams.
10. Oral: Medications are taken by mouth, allowing for absorption in the gastrointestinal tract and systemic distribution. This is the most common route of medication administration. Examples include tablets, capsules, liquids, or chewable forms.

Product surveillance, postmarketing refers to the ongoing monitoring and evaluation of a pharmaceutical or medical device product after it has been approved and released on the market. This process is used to detect any safety issues, adverse effects, or product performance concerns that may not have been identified during clinical trials. The data collected from postmarketing surveillance helps regulatory agencies, such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), to make informed decisions about the continued use, modification, or withdrawal of a product from the market. Postmarketing surveillance is an essential component of post-market risk management and helps ensure the safety and efficacy of medical products throughout their lifecycle.

Diethylcarbamazine (DECT or DEC) is an anti-parasitic medication used to treat infections caused by roundworms, including lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis) and river blindness (onchocerciasis). It works by killing the parasitic worms, thus helping to prevent the progression of these diseases.

Diethylcarbamazine is typically available as a prescription oral medication in the form of tablets or capsules. The dosage and duration of treatment will depend on the type and severity of the infection being treated. It's important to note that DEC should only be taken under the supervision of a healthcare professional, as it may have side effects and potential drug interactions.

Medical Citation:
"Diethylcarbamazine." National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Database. U.S. National Library of Medicine. . Accessed on April 18, 2023.

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is modified by its consequences, either reinforcing or punishing the behavior. It was first described by B.F. Skinner and involves an association between a response (behavior) and a consequence (either reward or punishment). There are two types of operant conditioning: positive reinforcement, in which a desirable consequence follows a desired behavior, increasing the likelihood that the behavior will occur again; and negative reinforcement, in which a undesirable consequence is removed following a desired behavior, also increasing the likelihood that the behavior will occur again.

For example, if a child cleans their room (response) and their parent gives them praise or a treat (positive reinforcement), the child is more likely to clean their room again in the future. If a child is buckling their seatbelt in the car (response) and the annoying buzzer stops (negative reinforcement), the child is more likely to buckle their seatbelt in the future.

It's important to note that operant conditioning is a form of learning, not motivation. The behavior is modified by its consequences, regardless of the individual's internal state or intentions.

A fee schedule in a medical context refers to a list of fees that healthcare providers charge for various procedures, services, or treatments. It is essentially a price list that outlines the cost of each service offered by the healthcare provider. Fee schedules can be established by individual practitioners, hospitals, clinics, or insurance networks and may vary based on factors such as location, specialty, and complexity of the procedure.

In some cases, fee schedules are negotiated between healthcare providers and insurance companies to determine the allowed amount for reimbursement. This helps ensure that patients receive consistent and predictable pricing for medical services while also allowing healthcare providers to maintain a sustainable practice. Additionally, fee schedules can help patients understand their financial responsibilities before undergoing medical procedures or treatments.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Consumer Product Safety refers to the measures taken to ensure that products intended for consumer use are free from unreasonable risks of injury or illness. This is typically overseen by regulatory bodies, such as the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) in the United States, which establishes safety standards, tests products, and recalls dangerous ones.

The definition of 'Consumer Product' can vary but generally refers to any article, or component part thereof, produced or distributed (i) for sale to a consumer for use in or around a permanent or temporary household or residence, a school, in recreation, or otherwise; (ii) for the personal use, consumption or enjoyment of a consumer in or around a permanent or temporary household or residence, a school, in recreation, or otherwise; (iii) for sensory evaluation and direct physical contact by a consumer in or around a permanent or temporary household or residence, a school, in recreation, or otherwise.

The safety measures can include various aspects such as design, manufacturing, packaging, and labeling of the product to ensure that it is safe for its intended use. This includes ensuring that the product does not contain any harmful substances, that it functions as intended, and that it comes with clear instructions for use and any necessary warnings.

It's important to note that even with these safety measures in place, it is still possible for products to cause injury or illness if they are used improperly or if they malfunction. Therefore, it is also important for consumers to be aware of the risks associated with the products they use and to take appropriate precautions.

Albendazole is an antiparasitic medication used to treat a variety of parasitic infections, including neurocysticercosis (a tapeworm infection that affects the brain), hydatid disease (a parasitic infection that can affect various organs), and other types of worm infestations such as pinworm, roundworm, hookworm, and whipworm infections.

Albendazole works by inhibiting the polymerization of beta-tubulin, a protein found in the microtubules of parasitic cells, which disrupts the parasite's ability to maintain its shape and move. This leads to the death of the parasite and elimination of the infection.

Albendazole is available in oral form and is typically taken two to three times a day with meals for several days or weeks, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated. Common side effects of albendazole include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and headache. Rare but serious side effects may include liver damage, bone marrow suppression, and neurological problems.

It is important to note that albendazole should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare provider, as it can have serious side effects and interactions with other medications. Additionally, it is not effective against all types of parasitic infections, so proper diagnosis is essential before starting treatment.

An Investigational New Drug Application (IND) is a regulatory submission required by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for a sponsor to start clinical trials with a new drug. The IND application includes data from previous non-clinical studies, the plan for clinical studies, manufacturing information, investigator information, and the investigational drug's chemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology. The FDA reviews the IND to ensure that the proposed study does not pose unreasonable safety risks to human subjects and that the study design is scientifically sound. Once the IND is approved, the clinical trial can begin.

Food labeling is the practice of providing written information about the characteristics and contents of food products, typically on the packaging or container in which they are sold. In a medical context, accurate and clear food labeling is essential for individuals with dietary restrictions due to medical conditions such as food allergies, intolerances, or chronic diseases (e.g., diabetes).

Standardized food labeling guidelines help consumers make informed decisions about the foods they consume, allowing them to avoid potential health risks and maintain a balanced diet. Components of food labels often include:

1. Product identity: The name of the food product and its intended use.
2. Net quantity declaration: The amount of the food product contained in the package, expressed in both metric and customary units (e.g., grams or ounces).
3. Ingredient list: A comprehensive list of all ingredients included in the food product, arranged in descending order by weight. This is particularly important for individuals with food allergies or intolerances, as it allows them to identify and avoid specific allergens (e.g., milk, eggs, peanuts).
4. Nutrition facts panel: A standardized format presenting the nutritional content of the food product per serving, including information on calories, total fat, saturated and trans fats, cholesterol, sodium, total carbohydrates, dietary fiber, sugars, protein, and various vitamins and minerals.
5. Nutrient content claims: Voluntary statements made by manufacturers regarding the level of a nutrient in a food product (e.g., "low fat," "high fiber"). These claims must adhere to strict guidelines established by regulatory bodies to ensure accuracy and consistency.
6. Health claims: Statements linking a specific food or food component to a reduced risk of a particular disease or health-related condition (e.g., "a diet rich in whole grains may reduce the risk of heart disease"). Like nutrient content claims, health claims are subject to strict regulatory oversight.
7. Special dietary statements: Labeling statements indicating that a food product is suitable for specific dietary uses or restrictions (e.g., "gluten-free," "kosher," "vegan"). These statements help consumers with special dietary needs quickly identify appropriate food options.
8. Allergen labeling: Mandatory identification of the presence of any of the eight major food allergens (milk, eggs, fish, crustacean shellfish, tree nuts, peanuts, wheat, and soybeans) in a food product. This information must be clearly displayed in the ingredient list or as a separate "contains" statement.
9. Warning statements: Required labeling of specific health risks associated with the consumption of certain food products (e.g., "consuming raw or undercooked meats, poultry, seafood, shellfish, or eggs may increase your risk of foodborne illness").
10. Country of origin labeling: Identification of the country where a food product was produced, grown, or packaged. This information helps consumers make informed decisions about their food purchases based on factors such as quality, safety, and environmental concerns.

Clinical trials are research studies that involve human participants and are designed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of new medical treatments, drugs, devices, or behavioral interventions. The purpose of clinical trials is to determine whether a new intervention is safe, effective, and beneficial for patients, as well as to compare it with currently available treatments. Clinical trials follow a series of phases, each with specific goals and criteria, before a new intervention can be approved by regulatory authorities for widespread use.

Clinical trials are conducted according to a protocol, which is a detailed plan that outlines the study's objectives, design, methodology, statistical analysis, and ethical considerations. The protocol is developed and reviewed by a team of medical experts, statisticians, and ethicists, and it must be approved by an institutional review board (IRB) before the trial can begin.

Participation in clinical trials is voluntary, and participants must provide informed consent before enrolling in the study. Informed consent involves providing potential participants with detailed information about the study's purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, and alternatives, as well as their rights as research subjects. Participants can withdraw from the study at any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which they are entitled.

Clinical trials are essential for advancing medical knowledge and improving patient care. They help researchers identify new treatments, diagnostic tools, and prevention strategies that can benefit patients and improve public health. However, clinical trials also pose potential risks to participants, including adverse effects from experimental interventions, time commitment, and inconvenience. Therefore, it is important for researchers to carefully design and conduct clinical trials to minimize risks and ensure that the benefits outweigh the risks.

Antiparasitic agents are a type of medication used to treat parasitic infections. These agents include a wide range of drugs that work to destroy, inhibit the growth of, or otherwise eliminate parasites from the body. Parasites are organisms that live on or inside a host and derive nutrients at the host's expense.

Antiparasitic agents can be divided into several categories based on the type of parasite they target. Some examples include:

* Antimalarial agents: These drugs are used to treat and prevent malaria, which is caused by a parasite that is transmitted through the bites of infected mosquitoes.
* Antiprotozoal agents: These drugs are used to treat infections caused by protozoa, which are single-celled organisms that can cause diseases such as giardiasis, amoebic dysentery, and sleeping sickness.
* Antihelminthic agents: These drugs are used to treat infections caused by helminths, which are parasitic worms that can infect various organs of the body, including the intestines, lungs, and skin. Examples include roundworms, tapeworms, and flukes.

Antiparasitic agents work in different ways to target parasites. Some disrupt the parasite's metabolism or interfere with its ability to reproduce. Others damage the parasite's membrane or exoskeleton, leading to its death. The specific mechanism of action depends on the type of antiparasitic agent and the parasite it is targeting.

It is important to note that while antiparasitic agents can be effective in treating parasitic infections, they can also have side effects and potential risks. Therefore, it is essential to consult with a healthcare provider before starting any antiparasitic medication to ensure safe and appropriate use.

Ivermectin is an anti-parasitic drug that is used to treat a variety of infections caused by parasites such as roundworms, threadworms, and lice. It works by paralyzing and killing the parasites, thereby eliminating the infection. Ivermectin is available in various forms, including tablets, creams, and solutions for topical use, as well as injections for veterinary use.

Ivermectin has been shown to be effective against a wide range of parasitic infections, including onchocerciasis (river blindness), strongyloidiasis, scabies, and lice infestations. It is also being studied as a potential treatment for other conditions, such as COVID-19, although its effectiveness for this use has not been proven.

Ivermectin is generally considered safe when used as directed, but it can cause side effects in some people, including skin rashes, nausea, and diarrhea. It should be used with caution in pregnant women and people with certain medical conditions, such as liver or kidney disease.

"Drug and narcotic control" refers to the regulation and oversight of drugs and narcotics, including their production, distribution, and use. This is typically carried out by governmental agencies in order to ensure public safety, prevent abuse and diversion, and protect the health of individuals. The goal of drug and narcotic control is to strike a balance between making sure that medications are available for legitimate medical purposes while also preventing their misuse and illegal sale.

Drug control policies may include measures such as licensing and registration of manufacturers, distributors, and pharmacies; tracking and monitoring of controlled substances; setting standards for prescription practices; and enforcement of laws and regulations related to drug use and trafficking. Narcotic control specifically refers to the regulation of drugs that have a high potential for abuse and are subject to international treaties, such as opioids.

It's important to note that while these regulations aim to protect public health and safety, they can also be controversial and have unintended consequences, such as contributing to drug shortages or creating barriers to access for people who need controlled substances for legitimate medical reasons.

The term "Area Under Curve" (AUC) is commonly used in the medical field, particularly in the analysis of diagnostic tests or pharmacokinetic studies. The AUC refers to the mathematical calculation of the area between a curve and the x-axis in a graph, typically representing a concentration-time profile.

In the context of diagnostic tests, the AUC is used to evaluate the performance of a test by measuring the entire two-dimensional area underneath the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve, which plots the true positive rate (sensitivity) against the false positive rate (1-specificity) at various threshold settings. The AUC ranges from 0 to 1, where a higher AUC indicates better test performance:

* An AUC of 0.5 suggests that the test is no better than chance.
* An AUC between 0.7 and 0.8 implies moderate accuracy.
* An AUC between 0.8 and 0.9 indicates high accuracy.
* An AUC greater than 0.9 signifies very high accuracy.

In pharmacokinetic studies, the AUC is used to assess drug exposure over time by calculating the area under a plasma concentration-time curve (AUC(0-t) or AUC(0-\∞)) following drug administration. This value can help determine dosing regimens and evaluate potential drug interactions:

* AUC(0-t): Represents the area under the plasma concentration-time curve from time zero to the last measurable concentration (t).
* AUC(0-\∞): Refers to the area under the plasma concentration-time curve from time zero to infinity, which estimates total drug exposure.

Product labeling, in the context of medicine or healthcare, refers to the information that is required by law to be present on the packaging of a pharmaceutical product or medical device. This information typically includes:

1. The name of the product, often with an active ingredient listed separately.
2. A description of what the product is used for (indications).
3. Dosage instructions and route of administration.
4. Warnings about potential side effects, contraindications, and precautions.
5. The name and address of the manufacturer or distributor.
6. The expiration date or storage conditions, if applicable.
7. Any other relevant information, such as whether the product is subject to additional monitoring.

The purpose of product labeling is to provide accurate and standardized information to healthcare professionals and patients about the safe and effective use of a medical product. It helps to ensure that the product is used appropriately, reducing the risk of adverse events or misuse.

Biological availability is a term used in pharmacology and toxicology that refers to the degree and rate at which a drug or other substance is absorbed into the bloodstream and becomes available at the site of action in the body. It is a measure of the amount of the substance that reaches the systemic circulation unchanged, after administration by any route (such as oral, intravenous, etc.).

The biological availability (F) of a drug can be calculated using the area under the curve (AUC) of the plasma concentration-time profile after extravascular and intravenous dosing, according to the following formula:

F = (AUCex/AUCiv) x (Doseiv/Doseex)

where AUCex is the AUC after extravascular dosing, AUCiv is the AUC after intravenous dosing, Doseiv is the intravenous dose, and Doseex is the extravascular dose.

Biological availability is an important consideration in drug development and therapy, as it can affect the drug's efficacy, safety, and dosage regimen. Drugs with low biological availability may require higher doses to achieve the desired therapeutic effect, while drugs with high biological availability may have a more rapid onset of action and require lower doses to avoid toxicity.

In the context of pharmacology, "half-life" refers to the time it takes for the concentration or amount of a drug in the body to be reduced by half during its elimination phase. This is typically influenced by factors such as metabolism and excretion rates of the drug. It's a key factor in determining dosage intervals and therapeutic effectiveness of medications, as well as potential side effects or toxicity risks.

A drug interaction is the effect of combining two or more drugs, or a drug and another substance (such as food or alcohol), which can alter the effectiveness or side effects of one or both of the substances. These interactions can be categorized as follows:

1. Pharmacodynamic interactions: These occur when two or more drugs act on the same target organ or receptor, leading to an additive, synergistic, or antagonistic effect. For example, taking a sedative and an antihistamine together can result in increased drowsiness due to their combined depressant effects on the central nervous system.
2. Pharmacokinetic interactions: These occur when one drug affects the absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion of another drug. For example, taking certain antibiotics with grapefruit juice can increase the concentration of the antibiotic in the bloodstream, leading to potential toxicity.
3. Food-drug interactions: Some drugs may interact with specific foods, affecting their absorption, metabolism, or excretion. An example is the interaction between warfarin (a blood thinner) and green leafy vegetables, which can increase the risk of bleeding due to enhanced vitamin K absorption from the vegetables.
4. Drug-herb interactions: Some herbal supplements may interact with medications, leading to altered drug levels or increased side effects. For instance, St. John's Wort can decrease the effectiveness of certain antidepressants and oral contraceptives by inducing their metabolism.
5. Drug-alcohol interactions: Alcohol can interact with various medications, causing additive sedative effects, impaired judgment, or increased risk of liver damage. For example, combining alcohol with benzodiazepines or opioids can lead to dangerous levels of sedation and respiratory depression.

It is essential for healthcare providers and patients to be aware of potential drug interactions to minimize adverse effects and optimize treatment outcomes.

"Food Legislation" refers to laws, regulations, and policies related to food production, distribution, labeling, safety, and marketing. These rules are designed to protect consumers from fraudulent or unsafe food practices, promote fair trade in the food industry, and ensure that food is produced and distributed in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner. Food legislation can cover a wide range of issues, including foodborne illness outbreaks, pesticide residues, organic farming, genetically modified foods, and nutrition labeling. Compliance with food legislation is typically enforced by government agencies, such as the US Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in the United States.

Intranasal administration refers to the delivery of medication or other substances through the nasal passages and into the nasal cavity. This route of administration can be used for systemic absorption of drugs or for localized effects in the nasal area.

When a medication is administered intranasally, it is typically sprayed or dropped into the nostril, where it is absorbed by the mucous membranes lining the nasal cavity. The medication can then pass into the bloodstream and be distributed throughout the body for systemic effects. Intranasal administration can also result in direct absorption of the medication into the local tissues of the nasal cavity, which can be useful for treating conditions such as allergies, migraines, or pain in the nasal area.

Intranasal administration has several advantages over other routes of administration. It is non-invasive and does not require needles or injections, making it a more comfortable option for many people. Additionally, intranasal administration can result in faster onset of action than oral administration, as the medication bypasses the digestive system and is absorbed directly into the bloodstream. However, there are also some limitations to this route of administration, including potential issues with dosing accuracy and patient tolerance.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

The "drug industry" is also commonly referred to as the "pharmaceutical industry." It is a segment of the healthcare sector that involves the research, development, production, and marketing of medications or drugs. This includes both prescription and over-the-counter medicines used to treat, cure, or prevent diseases and medical conditions in humans and animals.

The drug industry comprises various types of organizations, such as:

1. Research-based pharmaceutical companies: These are large corporations that focus on the research and development (R&D) of new drugs, clinical trials, obtaining regulatory approvals, manufacturing, and marketing their products globally. Examples include Pfizer, Johnson & Johnson, Roche, and Merck.

2. Generic drug manufacturers: After the patent for a brand-name drug expires, generic drug manufacturers can produce and sell a similar version of the drug at a lower cost. These companies must demonstrate that their product is bioequivalent to the brand-name drug in terms of safety, quality, and efficacy.

3. Biotechnology companies: These firms specialize in developing drugs using biotechnological methods, such as recombinant DNA technology, gene therapy, or monoclonal antibodies. Many biotech companies focus on specific therapeutic areas, like oncology, immunology, or neurology.

4. Contract research organizations (CROs): CROs provide various services to the drug industry, including clinical trial management, data analysis, regulatory affairs support, and pharmacovigilance. They work with both large pharmaceutical companies and smaller biotech firms to help streamline the drug development process.

5. Drug delivery system companies: These organizations focus on developing innovative technologies for delivering drugs more effectively and safely to patients. Examples include transdermal patches, inhalers, or long-acting injectables.

6. Wholesalers and distributors: Companies that purchase drugs from manufacturers and distribute them to pharmacies, hospitals, and other healthcare providers.

The drug industry plays a crucial role in improving public health by discovering, developing, and delivering new treatments for various diseases and medical conditions. However, it is also subject to criticism and regulation due to concerns about high drug prices, marketing practices, and the potential for conflicts of interest between industry and healthcare professionals.

Self-administration, in the context of medicine and healthcare, refers to the act of an individual administering medication or treatment to themselves. This can include various forms of delivery such as oral medications, injections, or topical treatments. It is important that individuals who self-administer are properly trained and understand the correct dosage, timing, and technique to ensure safety and effectiveness. Self-administration promotes independence, allows for timely treatment, and can improve overall health outcomes.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

"Drug evaluation" is a medical term that refers to the systematic process of assessing the pharmacological, therapeutic, and safety profile of a drug or medication. This process typically involves several stages, including preclinical testing in the laboratory, clinical trials in human subjects, and post-marketing surveillance.

The goal of drug evaluation is to determine the efficacy, safety, and optimal dosage range of a drug, as well as any potential interactions with other medications or medical conditions. The evaluation process also includes an assessment of the drug's pharmacokinetics, or how it is absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and eliminated by the body.

The findings from drug evaluations are used to inform regulatory decisions about whether a drug should be approved for use in clinical practice, as well as to provide guidance to healthcare providers about how to use the drug safely and effectively.

Wuchereria bancrofti is a parasitic roundworm that causes lymphatic filariasis, also known as elephantiasis. It is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes. The worms infect the lymphatic system and can lead to chronic swelling of body parts such as the limbs, breasts, and genitals, as well as other symptoms including fever, chills, and skin rashes. Wuchereria bancrofti is a significant public health problem in many tropical and subtropical regions around the world.

The double-blind method is a study design commonly used in research, including clinical trials, to minimize bias and ensure the objectivity of results. In this approach, both the participants and the researchers are unaware of which group the participants are assigned to, whether it be the experimental group or the control group. This means that neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving a particular treatment or placebo, thus reducing the potential for bias in the evaluation of outcomes. The assignment of participants to groups is typically done by a third party not involved in the study, and the codes are only revealed after all data have been collected and analyzed.

'Equipment and Supplies' is a term used in the medical field to refer to the physical items and materials needed for medical care, treatment, and procedures. These can include a wide range of items, such as:

* Medical equipment: This includes devices and machines used for diagnostic, monitoring, or therapeutic purposes, such as stethoscopes, blood pressure monitors, EKG machines, ventilators, and infusion pumps.
* Medical supplies: These are consumable items that are used once and then discarded, such as syringes, needles, bandages, gowns, gloves, and face masks.
* Furniture and fixtures: This includes items such as hospital beds, examination tables, chairs, and cabinets that are used to create a functional medical space.

Having the right equipment and supplies is essential for providing safe and effective medical care. The specific items needed will depend on the type of medical practice or facility, as well as the needs of individual patients.

'Animal behavior' refers to the actions or responses of animals to various stimuli, including their interactions with the environment and other individuals. It is the study of the actions of animals, whether they are instinctual, learned, or a combination of both. Animal behavior includes communication, mating, foraging, predator avoidance, and social organization, among other things. The scientific study of animal behavior is called ethology. This field seeks to understand the evolutionary basis for behaviors as well as their physiological and psychological mechanisms.

Adverse Drug Reaction (ADR) Reporting Systems are spontaneous reporting systems used for monitoring the safety of authorized medicines in clinical practice. These systems collect and manage reports of suspected adverse drug reactions from healthcare professionals, patients, and pharmaceutical companies. The primary objective of ADR reporting systems is to identify new risks or previously unrecognized risks associated with the use of a medication, monitor the frequency and severity of known adverse effects, and contribute to post-marketing surveillance and pharmacovigilance activities.

Healthcare professionals, including physicians, pharmacists, and nurses, are encouraged to voluntarily report any suspected adverse drug reactions they encounter during their practice. In some countries, patients can also directly report any suspected adverse reactions they experience after taking a medication. Pharmaceutical companies are obligated to submit reports of adverse events identified through their own pharmacovigilance activities or from post-marketing surveillance studies.

The data collected through ADR reporting systems are analyzed to identify signals, which are defined as new, changing, or unknown safety concerns related to a medicine or vaccine. Signals are further investigated and evaluated for causality and clinical significance. If a signal is confirmed, regulatory actions may be taken, such as updating the product label, issuing safety communications, or restricting the use of the medication.

Examples of ADR reporting systems include the US Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS), the European Medicines Agency's (EMA) EudraVigilance, and the World Health Organization's (WHO) Uppsala Monitoring Centre.

Subcutaneous injection is a route of administration where a medication or vaccine is delivered into the subcutaneous tissue, which lies between the skin and the muscle. This layer contains small blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissues that help to absorb the medication slowly and steadily over a period of time. Subcutaneous injections are typically administered using a short needle, at an angle of 45-90 degrees, and the dose is injected slowly to minimize discomfort and ensure proper absorption. Common sites for subcutaneous injections include the abdomen, thigh, or upper arm. Examples of medications that may be given via subcutaneous injection include insulin, heparin, and some vaccines.

Appetitive behavior is a term used in the field of psychology and neuroscience to refer to actions or behaviors that are performed in order to obtain a reward or positive reinforcement. These behaviors are often driven by basic biological needs, such as hunger, thirst, or the need for social interaction. They can also be influenced by learned associations and past experiences.

In the context of medical terminology, appetitive behavior may be used to describe a patient's level of interest in food or their desire to eat. For example, a patient with a good appetite may have a strong desire to eat and may seek out food regularly, while a patient with a poor appetite may have little interest in food and may need to be encouraged to eat.

Appetitive behavior is regulated by a complex interplay of hormonal, neural, and psychological factors. Disruptions in these systems can lead to changes in appetitive behavior, such as increased or decreased hunger and eating. Appetitive behavior is an important area of study in the field of obesity research, as it is thought that understanding the underlying mechanisms that drive appetitive behavior may help to develop more effective treatments for weight management.

Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) are a group of infectious diseases that primarily affect people living in poverty, in tropical and subtropical areas. These diseases are called "neglected" because they have been largely ignored by medical research and drug development, as well as by global health agencies and pharmaceutical companies.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified 20 diseases as NTDs, including:

1. Buruli ulcer
2. Chagas disease
3. Dengue and chikungunya
4. Dracunculiasis (guinea-worm disease)
5. Echinococcosis
6. Endemic treponematoses
7. Foodborne trematodiases
8. Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)
9. Leishmaniasis
10. Leprosy (Hansen's disease)
11. Lymphatic filariasis
12. Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
13. Rabies
14. Schistosomiasis
15. Soil-transmitted helminthiases
16. Snakebite envenoming
17. Taeniasis/Cysticercosis
18. Trachoma
19. Mycetoma, chromoblastomycosis and other deep mycoses
20. Yaws (Endemic treponematoses)

These diseases can lead to severe disfigurement, disability, and even death if left untreated. They affect more than 1 billion people worldwide, mainly in low-income countries in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. NTDs also have significant social and economic impacts, contributing to poverty, stigma, discrimination, and exclusion.

Efforts are underway to raise awareness and increase funding for research, prevention, and treatment of NTDs. The WHO has set targets for controlling or eliminating several NTDs by 2030, including dracunculiasis, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, trachoma, and human African trypanosomiasis.

"Intraperitoneal injection" is a medical term that refers to the administration of a substance or medication directly into the peritoneal cavity, which is the space between the lining of the abdominal wall and the organs contained within it. This type of injection is typically used in clinical settings for various purposes, such as delivering chemotherapy drugs, anesthetics, or other medications directly to the abdominal organs.

The procedure involves inserting a needle through the abdominal wall and into the peritoneal cavity, taking care to avoid any vital structures such as blood vessels or nerves. Once the needle is properly positioned, the medication can be injected slowly and carefully to ensure even distribution throughout the cavity.

It's important to note that intraperitoneal injections are typically reserved for situations where other routes of administration are not feasible or effective, as they carry a higher risk of complications such as infection, bleeding, or injury to surrounding organs. As with any medical procedure, it should only be performed by trained healthcare professionals under appropriate clinical circumstances.

"Intramuscular injections" refer to a medical procedure where a medication or vaccine is administered directly into the muscle tissue. This is typically done using a hypodermic needle and syringe, and the injection is usually given into one of the large muscles in the body, such as the deltoid (shoulder), vastus lateralis (thigh), or ventrogluteal (buttock) muscles.

Intramuscular injections are used for a variety of reasons, including to deliver medications that need to be absorbed slowly over time, to bypass stomach acid and improve absorption, or to ensure that the medication reaches the bloodstream quickly and directly. Common examples of medications delivered via intramuscular injection include certain vaccines, antibiotics, and pain relievers.

It is important to follow proper technique when administering intramuscular injections to minimize pain and reduce the risk of complications such as infection or injury to surrounding tissues. Proper site selection, needle length and gauge, and injection technique are all critical factors in ensuring a safe and effective intramuscular injection.

Drug-related side effects and adverse reactions refer to any unintended or harmful outcome that occurs during the use of a medication. These reactions can be mild or severe and may include predictable, known responses (side effects) as well as unexpected, idiosyncratic reactions (adverse effects). Side effects are typically related to the pharmacologic properties of the drug and occur at therapeutic doses, while adverse reactions may result from allergic or hypersensitivity reactions, overdoses, or interactions with other medications or substances.

Side effects are often dose-dependent and can be managed by adjusting the dose, frequency, or route of administration. Adverse reactions, on the other hand, may require discontinuation of the medication or treatment with antidotes or supportive care. It is important for healthcare providers to monitor patients closely for any signs of drug-related side effects and adverse reactions and to take appropriate action when necessary.

Cocaine is a highly addictive stimulant drug derived from the leaves of the coca plant (Erythroxylon coca). It is a powerful central nervous system stimulant that affects the brain and body in many ways. When used recreationally, cocaine can produce feelings of euphoria, increased energy, and mental alertness; however, it can also cause serious negative consequences, including addiction, cardiovascular problems, seizures, and death.

Cocaine works by increasing the levels of dopamine in the brain, a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure and reward. This leads to the pleasurable effects that users seek when they take the drug. However, cocaine also interferes with the normal functioning of the brain's reward system, making it difficult for users to experience pleasure from natural rewards like food or social interactions.

Cocaine can be taken in several forms, including powdered form (which is usually snorted), freebase (a purer form that is often smoked), and crack cocaine (a solid form that is typically heated and smoked). Each form of cocaine has different risks and potential harms associated with its use.

Long-term use of cocaine can lead to a number of negative health consequences, including addiction, heart problems, malnutrition, respiratory issues, and mental health disorders like depression or anxiety. It is important to seek help if you or someone you know is struggling with cocaine use or addiction.

Investigational drugs, also known as experimental or trial drugs, refer to medications that are currently being tested in clinical trials to evaluate their safety and efficacy for the treatment of various medical conditions. These drugs have not yet been approved by regulatory agencies such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for general use.

Before entering clinical trials, investigational drugs must undergo extensive preclinical testing in the lab and on animals to assess their safety and potential therapeutic benefits. Clinical trials are conducted in phases, starting with small groups of healthy volunteers to assess safety, followed by larger groups of patients to evaluate efficacy and side effects.

Participation in clinical trials is voluntary, and participants must meet certain eligibility criteria to ensure their safety and the validity of the trial results. Investigational drugs may ultimately be approved for general use if they are found to be safe and effective in clinical trials.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Work Schedule Tolerance" is not a recognized term in the medical field. It may be a term used in occupational health or human resources to refer to an employee's ability to adapt to different work schedules, such as night shifts, rotating shifts, or irregular hours. However, it is not a medical diagnosis or condition. If you have any concerns about your work schedule and how it affects your health, I would recommend speaking with a healthcare provider or occupational health professional.

A cross-over study is a type of experimental design in which participants receive two or more interventions in a specific order. After a washout period, each participant receives the opposite intervention(s). The primary advantage of this design is that it controls for individual variability by allowing each participant to act as their own control.

In medical research, cross-over studies are often used to compare the efficacy or safety of two treatments. For example, a researcher might conduct a cross-over study to compare the effectiveness of two different medications for treating high blood pressure. Half of the participants would be randomly assigned to receive one medication first and then switch to the other medication after a washout period. The other half of the participants would receive the opposite order of treatments.

Cross-over studies can provide valuable insights into the relative merits of different interventions, but they also have some limitations. For example, they may not be suitable for studying conditions that are chronic or irreversible, as it may not be possible to completely reverse the effects of the first intervention before administering the second one. Additionally, carryover effects from the first intervention can confound the results if they persist into the second treatment period.

Overall, cross-over studies are a useful tool in medical research when used appropriately and with careful consideration of their limitations.

Pharmaceutical preparations refer to the various forms of medicines that are produced by pharmaceutical companies, which are intended for therapeutic or prophylactic use. These preparations consist of an active ingredient (the drug) combined with excipients (inactive ingredients) in a specific formulation and dosage form.

The active ingredient is the substance that has a therapeutic effect on the body, while the excipients are added to improve the stability, palatability, bioavailability, or administration of the drug. Examples of pharmaceutical preparations include tablets, capsules, solutions, suspensions, emulsions, ointments, creams, and injections.

The production of pharmaceutical preparations involves a series of steps that ensure the quality, safety, and efficacy of the final product. These steps include the selection and testing of raw materials, formulation development, manufacturing, packaging, labeling, and storage. Each step is governed by strict regulations and guidelines to ensure that the final product meets the required standards for use in medical practice.

Anthelmintics are a type of medication used to treat infections caused by parasitic worms, also known as helminths. These medications work by either stunting the growth of the worms, paralyzing them, or killing them outright, allowing the body to expel the worms through normal bodily functions. Anthelmintics are commonly used to treat infections caused by roundworms, tapeworms, flukeworms, and hookworms. Examples of anthelmintic drugs include albendazole, mebendazole, praziquantel, and ivermectin.

Dextroamphetamine is a central nervous system stimulant that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. It works by increasing the levels of certain neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and norepinephrine, in the brain. Dextroamphetamine is available as a prescription medication and is sold under various brand names, including Adderall and Dexedrine. It is important to use this medication only as directed by a healthcare professional, as it can have potentially serious side effects if used improperly.

Combination drug therapy is a treatment approach that involves the use of multiple medications with different mechanisms of action to achieve better therapeutic outcomes. This approach is often used in the management of complex medical conditions such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, and cardiovascular diseases. The goal of combination drug therapy is to improve efficacy, reduce the risk of drug resistance, decrease the likelihood of adverse effects, and enhance the overall quality of life for patients.

In combining drugs, healthcare providers aim to target various pathways involved in the disease process, which may help to:

1. Increase the effectiveness of treatment by attacking the disease from multiple angles.
2. Decrease the dosage of individual medications, reducing the risk and severity of side effects.
3. Slow down or prevent the development of drug resistance, a common problem in chronic diseases like HIV/AIDS and cancer.
4. Improve patient compliance by simplifying dosing schedules and reducing pill burden.

Examples of combination drug therapy include:

1. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV treatment, which typically involves three or more drugs from different classes to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
2. Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where multiple cytotoxic agents are used to target various stages of the cell cycle and reduce the likelihood of tumor cells developing resistance.
3. Cardiovascular disease management, which may involve combining medications such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, beta-blockers, diuretics, and statins to control blood pressure, heart rate, fluid balance, and cholesterol levels.
4. Treatment of tuberculosis, which often involves a combination of several antibiotics to target different aspects of the bacterial life cycle and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

When prescribing combination drug therapy, healthcare providers must carefully consider factors such as potential drug interactions, dosing schedules, adverse effects, and contraindications to ensure safe and effective treatment. Regular monitoring of patients is essential to assess treatment response, manage side effects, and adjust the treatment plan as needed.

Government regulation in the context of medicine refers to the rules, guidelines, and laws established by government agencies to control, monitor, and standardize various aspects of healthcare. These regulations are designed to protect patients, promote public health, ensure quality of care, and regulate the healthcare industry. Examples of government regulation in medicine include:

1. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations for drug approval, medical device clearance, and food safety.
2. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) regulations for healthcare reimbursement, quality measures, and program eligibility.
3. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations for workplace safety in healthcare settings.
4. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations to minimize environmental impacts from healthcare facilities and pharmaceutical manufacturing.
5. State medical boards' regulations for licensing, disciplining, and monitoring physicians and other healthcare professionals.
6. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) regulations for patient privacy and data security.
7. Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA) regulations for laboratory testing quality and standards.
8. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) regulations to prevent deceptive or unfair trade practices in healthcare marketing and advertising.
9. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) guidelines for evidence-based practice and patient safety.
10. Public Health Service Act (PHSA) regulations related to infectious diseases, bioterrorism preparedness, and substance abuse treatment.

Topical administration refers to a route of administering a medication or treatment directly to a specific area of the body, such as the skin, mucous membranes, or eyes. This method allows the drug to be applied directly to the site where it is needed, which can increase its effectiveness and reduce potential side effects compared to systemic administration (taking the medication by mouth or injecting it into a vein or muscle).

Topical medications come in various forms, including creams, ointments, gels, lotions, solutions, sprays, and patches. They may be used to treat localized conditions such as skin infections, rashes, inflammation, or pain, or to deliver medication to the eyes or mucous membranes for local or systemic effects.

When applying topical medications, it is important to follow the instructions carefully to ensure proper absorption and avoid irritation or other adverse reactions. This may include cleaning the area before application, covering the treated area with a dressing, or avoiding exposure to sunlight or water after application, depending on the specific medication and its intended use.

Pharmaceutical chemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the design, synthesis, and development of chemical entities used as medications. It involves the study of drugs' physical, chemical, and biological properties, as well as their interactions with living organisms. This field also encompasses understanding the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of drugs in the body, which are critical factors in drug design and development. Pharmaceutical chemists often work closely with biologists, medical professionals, and engineers to develop new medications and improve existing ones.

Therapeutic equivalence refers to the concept in pharmaceutical medicine where two or more medications are considered to be equivalent in clinical efficacy and safety profiles. This means that they can be used interchangeably to produce the same therapeutic effect.

Two products are deemed therapeutically equivalent if they contain the same active ingredient(s), are available in the same dosage form and strength, and have been shown to have comparable bioavailability, which is a measure of how much and how quickly a drug becomes available for use in the body.

It's important to note that therapeutic equivalence does not necessarily mean that the medications are identical or have identical excipients (inactive ingredients). Therefore, patients who may have sensitivities or allergies to certain excipients should still consult their healthcare provider before switching between therapeutically equivalent medications.

In many countries, including the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) maintains a list of therapeutic equivalence evaluations for generic drugs, known as the "Orange Book." This resource helps healthcare providers and patients make informed decisions about using different versions of the same medication.

Chlordiazepoxide is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs known as benzodiazepines. It is primarily used to treat anxiety disorders, but can also be used for the short-term relief of symptoms related to alcohol withdrawal and muscle spasms. Chlordiazepoxide works by enhancing the activity of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a neurotransmitter that inhibits nerve impulses in the brain, resulting in sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties.

The medication is available in both immediate-release and extended-release forms, and is typically taken orally. Common side effects of chlordiazepoxide include dizziness, drowsiness, and impaired coordination. More serious side effects can include memory problems, confusion, and difficulty breathing. Chlordiazepoxide can also be habit-forming, so it is important to use the medication only as directed by a healthcare provider.

It's important to note that chlordiazepoxide can interact with other medications, including certain antidepressants, opioids, and sedatives, so it's essential to inform your doctor about all the medications you are taking before starting chlordiazepoxide. Additionally, this medication should not be used during pregnancy or while breastfeeding, as it can cause harm to the developing fetus or newborn baby.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

A drug combination refers to the use of two or more drugs in combination for the treatment of a single medical condition or disease. The rationale behind using drug combinations is to achieve a therapeutic effect that is superior to that obtained with any single agent alone, through various mechanisms such as:

* Complementary modes of action: When different drugs target different aspects of the disease process, their combined effects may be greater than either drug used alone.
* Synergistic interactions: In some cases, the combination of two or more drugs can result in a greater-than-additive effect, where the total response is greater than the sum of the individual responses to each drug.
* Antagonism of adverse effects: Sometimes, the use of one drug can mitigate the side effects of another, allowing for higher doses or longer durations of therapy.

Examples of drug combinations include:

* Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for HIV infection, which typically involves a combination of three or more antiretroviral drugs to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
* Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where combinations of cytotoxic agents are used to target different stages of the cell cycle and increase the likelihood of tumor cell death.
* Fixed-dose combination products, such as those used in the treatment of hypertension or type 2 diabetes, which combine two or more active ingredients into a single formulation for ease of administration and improved adherence to therapy.

However, it's important to note that drug combinations can also increase the risk of adverse effects, drug-drug interactions, and medication errors. Therefore, careful consideration should be given to the selection of appropriate drugs, dosing regimens, and monitoring parameters when using drug combinations in clinical practice.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

Off-label use refers to the practice of prescribing or using pharmaceutical drugs for purposes, dosages, patient populations, or routes of administration that are not included in the approved labeling of the drug by the regulatory authority, such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). It is not illegal or unethical for physicians to prescribe medications off-label when they judge that it is medically appropriate for their patients. However, manufacturers are prohibited from promoting their drugs for off-label uses.

Nonprescription drugs, also known as over-the-counter (OTC) drugs, are medications that can be legally purchased without a prescription from a healthcare professional. They are considered safe and effective for treating minor illnesses or symptoms when used according to the directions on the label. Examples include pain relievers like acetaminophen and ibuprofen, antihistamines for allergies, and topical treatments for skin conditions. It is still important to follow the recommended dosage and consult with a healthcare provider if there are any concerns or questions about using nonprescription drugs.

Preclinical drug evaluation refers to a series of laboratory tests and studies conducted to determine the safety and effectiveness of a new drug before it is tested in humans. These studies typically involve experiments on cells and animals to evaluate the pharmacological properties, toxicity, and potential interactions with other substances. The goal of preclinical evaluation is to establish a reasonable level of safety and understanding of how the drug works, which helps inform the design and conduct of subsequent clinical trials in humans. It's important to note that while preclinical studies provide valuable information, they may not always predict how a drug will behave in human subjects.

Drug tolerance is a medical concept that refers to the decreased response to a drug following its repeated use, requiring higher doses to achieve the same effect. This occurs because the body adapts to the presence of the drug, leading to changes in the function or expression of targets that the drug acts upon, such as receptors or enzymes. Tolerance can develop to various types of drugs, including opioids, benzodiazepines, and alcohol, and it is often associated with physical dependence and addiction. It's important to note that tolerance is different from resistance, which refers to the ability of a pathogen to survive or grow in the presence of a drug, such as antibiotics.

"Administration, Rectal" is a medical term that refers to the process of administering medication or other substances through the rectum. This route of administration is also known as "rectal suppository" or "suppository administration."

In this method, a solid dosage form called a suppository is inserted into the rectum using fingers or a special applicator. Once inside, the suppository melts or dissolves due to the body's temperature and releases the active drug or substance, which then gets absorbed into the bloodstream through the walls of the rectum.

Rectal administration is an alternative route of administration for people who have difficulty swallowing pills or liquids, or when rapid absorption of the medication is necessary. It can also be used to administer medications that are not well absorbed through other routes, such as the gastrointestinal tract. However, it may take longer for the medication to reach the bloodstream compared to intravenous (IV) administration.

Common examples of rectally administered medications include laxatives, antidiarrheal agents, analgesics, and some forms of hormonal therapy. It is important to follow the instructions provided by a healthcare professional when administering medication rectally, as improper administration can reduce the effectiveness of the medication or cause irritation or discomfort.

"Random allocation," also known as "random assignment" or "randomization," is a process used in clinical trials and other research studies to distribute participants into different intervention groups (such as experimental group vs. control group) in a way that minimizes selection bias and ensures the groups are comparable at the start of the study.

In random allocation, each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group, and the assignment is typically made using a computer-generated randomization schedule or other objective methods. This process helps to ensure that any differences between the groups are due to the intervention being tested rather than pre-existing differences in the participants' characteristics.

Diagnostic equipment refers to the instruments, tools, and machines used by healthcare professionals to identify and diagnose various medical conditions and diseases. These devices can range from simple handheld tools to complex imaging systems and laboratory analyzers. Some common examples of diagnostic equipment include:

1. Stethoscope: A handheld device used to listen to the internal sounds of the body, such as heartbeats, lung sounds, and intestinal movements.
2. Blood pressure monitor: A device that measures a person's blood pressure using an inflatable cuff placed around the arm or wrist.
3. Otoscope: A tool used to examine the ear canal and eardrum for signs of infection, injury, or other abnormalities.
4. Thermometer: A device used to measure body temperature, which can help identify fever or hypothermia.
5. Pulse oximeter: A non-invasive device that measures a person's oxygen saturation levels in the blood.
6. Electrocardiogram (ECG) machine: A device that records the electrical activity of the heart, which can help diagnose heart conditions such as arrhythmias or heart attacks.
7. X-ray machines: Equipment used to produce images of internal structures, such as bones and organs, to detect fractures, tumors, or other abnormalities.
8. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners: Machines that use magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the body's internal structures, which can help diagnose a wide range of medical conditions.
9. Computed tomography (CT) scanners: Devices that use X-rays to produce cross-sectional images of the body, allowing healthcare professionals to visualize internal structures in three dimensions.
10. Laboratory analyzers: Machines used to analyze various bodily fluids, such as blood and urine, to detect signs of infection, disease, or other medical conditions.

Metabolic clearance rate is a term used in pharmacology to describe the volume of blood or plasma from which a drug is completely removed per unit time by metabolic processes. It is a measure of the body's ability to eliminate a particular substance and is usually expressed in units of volume (e.g., milliliters or liters) per time (e.g., minutes, hours, or days).

The metabolic clearance rate can be calculated by dividing the total amount of drug eliminated by the plasma concentration of the drug and the time over which it was eliminated. It provides important information about the pharmacokinetics of a drug, including its rate of elimination and the potential for drug-drug interactions that may affect metabolism.

It is worth noting that there are different types of clearance rates, such as renal clearance rate (which refers to the removal of a drug by the kidneys) or hepatic clearance rate (which refers to the removal of a drug by the liver). Metabolic clearance rate specifically refers to the elimination of a drug through metabolic processes, which can occur in various organs throughout the body.

Tissue distribution, in the context of pharmacology and toxicology, refers to the way that a drug or xenobiotic (a chemical substance found within an organism that is not naturally produced by or expected to be present within that organism) is distributed throughout the body's tissues after administration. It describes how much of the drug or xenobiotic can be found in various tissues and organs, and is influenced by factors such as blood flow, lipid solubility, protein binding, and the permeability of cell membranes. Understanding tissue distribution is important for predicting the potential effects of a drug or toxin on different parts of the body, and for designing drugs with improved safety and efficacy profiles.

The term "Congresses as Topic" refers to large, formal meetings that are held to discuss and exchange information on a specific topic or field, usually academic or professional in nature. In the context of medical science, a congress is an event where healthcare professionals, researchers, and experts gather to present and discuss the latest research, developments, and innovations in their field. Medical congresses can cover a wide range of topics, including specific diseases, treatments, medical specialties, public health issues, or healthcare policies. These events often include keynote speeches, panel discussions, workshops, poster sessions, and networking opportunities for attendees. Examples of well-known medical congresses are the annual meetings of the American Medical Association, the American Heart Association, and the European Society of Cardiology.

Discrimination learning is a type of learning in which an individual learns to distinguish between two or more stimuli and respond differently to each. It involves the ability to recognize the differences between similar stimuli and to respond appropriately based on the specific characteristics of each stimulus. This type of learning is important for many aspects of cognition, including perception, language, and problem-solving.

In discrimination learning, an individual may be presented with two or more stimuli and reinforced for responding differently to each. For example, a person might be trained to press a button in response to the color red and to do nothing in response to the color green. Through this process of differential reinforcement, the individual learns to discriminate between the two colors and to respond appropriately to each.

Discrimination learning is often studied in animals as well as humans, and it is thought to involve a range of cognitive processes, including attention, memory, and perception. It is an important aspect of many forms of learning and plays a role in a wide variety of behaviors.

"Extinction, Psychological" refers to the process by which a conditioned response or behavior becomes weakened and eventually disappears when the behavior is no longer reinforced or rewarded. It is a fundamental concept in learning theory and conditioning.

In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (US), leading to the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response (CR). For example, if a person learns to associate a tone (CS) with a puff of air to the eye (US), causing blinking (CR), but then the tone is presented several times without the puff of air, the blinking response will become weaker and eventually disappear.

In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when a reinforcer is no longer provided following a behavior, leading to the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of that behavior. For example, if a child receives candy every time they clean their room (reinforcement), but then the candy is withheld, the child may eventually stop cleaning their room (extinction).

It's important to note that extinction can be a slow process and may require multiple trials or repetitions. Additionally, behaviors that have been extinguished can sometimes reappear in certain circumstances, a phenomenon known as spontaneous recovery.

Analgesics, opioid are a class of drugs used for the treatment of pain. They work by binding to specific receptors in the brain and spinal cord, blocking the transmission of pain signals to the brain. Opioids can be synthetic or natural, and include drugs such as morphine, codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, fentanyl, and methadone. They are often used for moderate to severe pain, such as that resulting from injury, surgery, or chronic conditions like cancer. However, opioids can also produce euphoria, physical dependence, and addiction, so they are tightly regulated and carry a risk of misuse.

Drug therapy, also known as pharmacotherapy, refers to the use of medications to treat, cure, or prevent a disease or disorder. It is a crucial component of medical treatment and involves the prescription, administration, and monitoring of drugs to achieve specific therapeutic goals. The choice of drug therapy depends on various factors, including the patient's age, sex, weight, overall health status, severity of the condition, potential interactions with other medications, and personal preferences.

The goal of drug therapy is to alleviate symptoms, reduce the risk of complications, slow down disease progression, or cure a disease. It can be used as a standalone treatment or in combination with other therapies such as surgery, radiation therapy, or lifestyle modifications. The effectiveness of drug therapy varies depending on the condition being treated and the individual patient's response to the medication.

Drug therapy requires careful monitoring to ensure its safety and efficacy. Patients should be informed about the potential benefits and risks associated with the medication, including side effects, contraindications, and interactions with other drugs or foods. Regular follow-up appointments with healthcare providers are necessary to assess the patient's response to the therapy and make any necessary adjustments.

In summary, drug therapy is a medical intervention that involves the use of medications to treat, cure, or prevent diseases or disorders. It requires careful consideration of various factors, including the patient's individual needs and preferences, and ongoing monitoring to ensure its safety and effectiveness.

Choice behavior refers to the selection or decision-making process in which an individual consciously or unconsciously chooses one option over others based on their preferences, values, experiences, and motivations. In a medical context, choice behavior may relate to patients' decisions about their healthcare, such as selecting a treatment option, choosing a healthcare provider, or adhering to a prescribed medication regimen. Understanding choice behavior is essential in shaping health policies, developing patient-centered care models, and improving overall health outcomes.

Parenteral infusions refer to the administration of fluids or medications directly into a patient's vein or subcutaneous tissue using a needle or catheter. This route bypasses the gastrointestinal tract and allows for rapid absorption and onset of action. Parenteral infusions can be used to correct fluid and electrolyte imbalances, administer medications that cannot be given orally, provide nutritional support, and deliver blood products. Common types of parenteral infusions include intravenous (IV) drips, IV push, and subcutaneous infusions. It is important that parenteral infusions are administered using aseptic technique to reduce the risk of infection.

'Guidelines' in the medical context are systematically developed statements or sets of recommendations designed to assist healthcare professionals and patients in making informed decisions about appropriate health care for specific clinical circumstances. They are based on a thorough evaluation of the available evidence, including scientific studies, expert opinions, and patient values. Guidelines may cover a wide range of topics, such as diagnosis, treatment, prevention, screening, and management of various diseases and conditions. They aim to standardize care, improve patient outcomes, reduce unnecessary variations in practice, and promote efficient use of healthcare resources.

Sublingual administration refers to a route of delivering medication or other substances through placement under the tongue, allowing for rapid absorption into the bloodstream through the mucous membranes located there. This method can allow for quick onset of action and avoids first-pass metabolism in the liver that may occur with oral administration. Common examples of sublingual medications include nitroglycerin for angina pectoris and certain forms of hormone replacement therapy.

Central nervous system (CNS) stimulants are a class of drugs that increase alertness, attention, energy, and/or mood by directly acting on the brain. They can be prescribed to treat medical conditions such as narcolepsy, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and depression that has not responded to other treatments.

Examples of CNS stimulants include amphetamine (Adderall), methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta), and modafinil (Provigil). These medications work by increasing the levels of certain neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and norepinephrine, in the brain.

In addition to their therapeutic uses, CNS stimulants are also sometimes misused for non-medical reasons, such as to enhance cognitive performance or to get high. However, it's important to note that misusing these drugs can lead to serious health consequences, including addiction, cardiovascular problems, and mental health issues.

I believe there might be a misunderstanding in your question. "Dogs" is not a medical term or condition. It is the common name for a domesticated carnivore of the family Canidae, specifically the genus Canis, which includes wolves, foxes, and other extant and extinct species of mammals. Dogs are often kept as pets and companions, and they have been bred in a wide variety of forms and sizes for different purposes, such as hunting, herding, guarding, assisting police and military forces, and providing companionship and emotional support.

If you meant to ask about a specific medical condition or term related to dogs, please provide more context so I can give you an accurate answer.

Blood pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of the blood vessels. It is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and is given as two figures:

1. Systolic pressure: This is the pressure when the heart pushes blood out into the arteries.
2. Diastolic pressure: This is the pressure when the heart rests between beats, allowing it to fill with blood.

Normal blood pressure for adults is typically around 120/80 mmHg, although this can vary slightly depending on age, sex, and other factors. High blood pressure (hypertension) is generally considered to be a reading of 130/80 mmHg or higher, while low blood pressure (hypotension) is usually defined as a reading below 90/60 mmHg. It's important to note that blood pressure can fluctuate throughout the day and may be affected by factors such as stress, physical activity, and medication use.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique used to compare the means of two or more groups and determine whether there are any significant differences between them. It is a way to analyze the variance in a dataset to determine whether the variability between groups is greater than the variability within groups, which can indicate that the groups are significantly different from one another.

ANOVA is based on the concept of partitioning the total variance in a dataset into two components: variance due to differences between group means (also known as "between-group variance") and variance due to differences within each group (also known as "within-group variance"). By comparing these two sources of variance, ANOVA can help researchers determine whether any observed differences between groups are statistically significant, or whether they could have occurred by chance.

ANOVA is a widely used technique in many areas of research, including biology, psychology, engineering, and business. It is often used to compare the means of two or more experimental groups, such as a treatment group and a control group, to determine whether the treatment had a significant effect. ANOVA can also be used to compare the means of different populations or subgroups within a population, to identify any differences that may exist between them.

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a type of chromatography that separates and analyzes compounds based on their interactions with a stationary phase and a mobile phase under high pressure. The mobile phase, which can be a gas or liquid, carries the sample mixture through a column containing the stationary phase.

In HPLC, the mobile phase is a liquid, and it is pumped through the column at high pressures (up to several hundred atmospheres) to achieve faster separation times and better resolution than other types of liquid chromatography. The stationary phase can be a solid or a liquid supported on a solid, and it interacts differently with each component in the sample mixture, causing them to separate as they travel through the column.

HPLC is widely used in analytical chemistry, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and other fields to separate, identify, and quantify compounds present in complex mixtures. It can be used to analyze a wide range of substances, including drugs, hormones, vitamins, pigments, flavors, and pollutants. HPLC is also used in the preparation of pure samples for further study or use.

Monoclonal antibodies are a type of antibody that are identical because they are produced by a single clone of cells. They are laboratory-produced molecules that act like human antibodies in the immune system. They can be designed to attach to specific proteins found on the surface of cancer cells, making them useful for targeting and treating cancer. Monoclonal antibodies can also be used as a therapy for other diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and inflammatory conditions.

Monoclonal antibodies are produced by fusing a single type of immune cell, called a B cell, with a tumor cell to create a hybrid cell, or hybridoma. This hybrid cell is then able to replicate indefinitely, producing a large number of identical copies of the original antibody. These antibodies can be further modified and engineered to enhance their ability to bind to specific targets, increase their stability, and improve their effectiveness as therapeutic agents.

Monoclonal antibodies have several mechanisms of action in cancer therapy. They can directly kill cancer cells by binding to them and triggering an immune response. They can also block the signals that promote cancer growth and survival. Additionally, monoclonal antibodies can be used to deliver drugs or radiation directly to cancer cells, increasing the effectiveness of these treatments while minimizing their side effects on healthy tissues.

Monoclonal antibodies have become an important tool in modern medicine, with several approved for use in cancer therapy and other diseases. They are continuing to be studied and developed as a promising approach to treating a wide range of medical conditions.

BALB/c is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The strain was developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London by Henry Baldwin and his colleagues in the 1920s, and it has since become one of the most commonly used inbred strains in the world.

BALB/c mice are characterized by their black coat color, which is determined by a recessive allele at the tyrosinase locus. They are also known for their docile and friendly temperament, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory.

One of the key features of BALB/c mice that makes them useful for research is their susceptibility to certain types of tumors and immune responses. For example, they are highly susceptible to developing mammary tumors, which can be induced by chemical carcinogens or viral infection. They also have a strong Th2-biased immune response, which makes them useful models for studying allergic diseases and asthma.

BALB/c mice are also commonly used in studies of genetics, neuroscience, behavior, and infectious diseases. Because they are an inbred strain, they have a uniform genetic background, which makes it easier to control for genetic factors in experiments. Additionally, because they have been bred in the laboratory for many generations, they are highly standardized and reproducible, making them ideal subjects for scientific research.

In the context of healthcare, "safety" refers to the freedom from harm or injury that is intentionally designed into a process, system, or environment. It involves the prevention of adverse events or injuries, as well as the reduction of risk and the mitigation of harm when accidents do occur. Safety in healthcare aims to protect patients, healthcare workers, and other stakeholders from potential harm associated with medical care, treatments, or procedures. This is achieved through evidence-based practices, guidelines, protocols, training, and continuous quality improvement efforts.

A randomized controlled trial (RCT) is a type of clinical study in which participants are randomly assigned to receive either the experimental intervention or the control condition, which may be a standard of care, placebo, or no treatment. The goal of an RCT is to minimize bias and ensure that the results are due to the intervention being tested rather than other factors. This design allows for a comparison between the two groups to determine if there is a significant difference in outcomes. RCTs are often considered the gold standard for evaluating the safety and efficacy of medical interventions, as they provide a high level of evidence for causal relationships between the intervention and health outcomes.

Pharmacovigilance is the science and activities relating to the detection, assessment, understanding, and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug-related problem. It encompasses the monitoring and regulation of medicines throughout their lifecycle, including pre-marketing (clinical trials) and post-marketing phases (surveillance in the general population). The primary goal of pharmacovigilance is to ensure that the benefits of a medicine outweigh its risks, thereby protecting public health.

Morphine is a potent opioid analgesic (pain reliever) derived from the opium poppy. It works by binding to opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, blocking the transmission of pain signals and reducing the perception of pain. Morphine is used to treat moderate to severe pain, including pain associated with cancer, myocardial infarction, and other conditions. It can also be used as a sedative and cough suppressant.

Morphine has a high potential for abuse and dependence, and its use should be closely monitored by healthcare professionals. Common side effects of morphine include drowsiness, respiratory depression, constipation, nausea, and vomiting. Overdose can result in respiratory failure, coma, and death.

"Cutaneous administration" is a route of administering medication or treatment through the skin. This can be done through various methods such as:

1. Topical application: This involves applying the medication directly to the skin in the form of creams, ointments, gels, lotions, patches, or solutions. The medication is absorbed into the skin and enters the systemic circulation slowly over a period of time. Topical medications are often used for local effects, such as treating eczema, psoriasis, or fungal infections.

2. Iontophoresis: This method uses a mild electrical current to help a medication penetrate deeper into the skin. A positive charge is applied to a medication with a negative charge, or vice versa, causing it to be attracted through the skin. Iontophoresis is often used for local pain management and treating conditions like hyperhidrosis (excessive sweating).

3. Transdermal delivery systems: These are specialized patches that contain medication within them. The patch is applied to the skin, and as time passes, the medication is released through the skin and into the systemic circulation. This method allows for a steady, controlled release of medication over an extended period. Common examples include nicotine patches for smoking cessation and hormone replacement therapy patches.

Cutaneous administration offers several advantages, such as avoiding first-pass metabolism (which can reduce the effectiveness of oral medications), providing localized treatment, and allowing for self-administration in some cases. However, it may not be suitable for all types of medications or conditions, and potential side effects include skin irritation, allergic reactions, and systemic absorption leading to unwanted systemic effects.

"Inbred strains of rats" are genetically identical rodents that have been produced through many generations of brother-sister mating. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the genes at any particular locus in the genome are identical in all members of the strain.

Inbred strains of rats are widely used in biomedical research because they provide a consistent and reproducible genetic background for studying various biological phenomena, including the effects of drugs, environmental factors, and genetic mutations on health and disease. Additionally, inbred strains can be used to create genetically modified models of human diseases by introducing specific mutations into their genomes.

Some commonly used inbred strains of rats include the Wistar Kyoto (WKY), Sprague-Dawley (SD), and Fischer 344 (F344) rat strains. Each strain has its own unique genetic characteristics, making them suitable for different types of research.

Piperidines are not a medical term per se, but they are a class of organic compounds that have important applications in the pharmaceutical industry. Medically relevant piperidines include various drugs such as some antihistamines, antidepressants, and muscle relaxants.

A piperidine is a heterocyclic amine with a six-membered ring containing five carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom. The structure can be described as a cyclic secondary amine. Piperidines are found in some natural alkaloids, such as those derived from the pepper plant (Piper nigrum), which gives piperidines their name.

In a medical context, it is more common to encounter specific drugs that belong to the class of piperidines rather than the term itself.

Medical Device Legislation refers to the laws, regulations, and guidelines that govern the development, manufacturing, marketing, distribution, use, and post-market surveillance of medical devices. These laws aim to ensure the safety, efficacy, and quality of medical devices, as well as to protect public health. They cover various aspects such as:

1. Classification of medical devices based on risk levels
2. Clinical evaluation, performance testing, and technical documentation requirements for device approval or clearance
3. Quality management systems and good manufacturing practices for device manufacturers
4. Labeling, advertising, and promotion restrictions to prevent false or misleading claims
5. Post-market surveillance, vigilance, and incident reporting obligations for manufacturers and regulatory authorities
6. Importation, distribution, and sales controls to prevent unauthorized devices from entering the market
7. Penalties and sanctions for non-compliance with medical device regulations

Medical Device Legislation varies across different countries and regions, reflecting national healthcare priorities, risk tolerance, and legal frameworks. Examples of prominent medical device legislations include the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations, the European Union Medical Device Regulation (EU MDR), and the Japanese Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency (PMDA) guidelines.

Medication errors refer to preventable events that may cause or lead to inappropriate medication use or patient harm, while the medication is in the control of the healthcare professional, patient, or consumer. Such events may be related to professional practice, health care products, procedures, and systems, including prescribing; order communication; product labeling, packaging, and nomenclature; compounding; dispensing; distribution; administration; education; monitoring; and use.

Medication errors can occur at any stage of the medication process, including ordering, transcribing, dispensing, administering, and monitoring. They can result from various factors such as poor communication, lack of knowledge, distractions, confusing drug names or labels, and inadequate systems for preventing errors. Medication errors can lead to adverse drug events, which can cause patient harm, including temporary or permanent disability, and even death.

According to the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), biological products are "products that are made from or contain a living organism or its derivatives, such as vaccines, blood and blood components, cells, genes, tissues, and proteins." These products can be composed of sugars, proteins, nucleic acids, or complex combinations of these substances, and they can come from many sources, including humans, animals, microorganisms, or plants.

Biological products are often used to diagnose, prevent, or treat a wide range of medical conditions, and they can be administered in various ways, such as through injection, inhalation, or topical application. Because biological products are derived from living organisms, their manufacturing processes can be complex and must be tightly controlled to ensure the safety, purity, and potency of the final product.

It's important to note that biological products are not the same as drugs, which are chemically synthesized compounds. While drugs are designed to interact with specific targets in the body, such as enzymes or receptors, biological products can have more complex and varied mechanisms of action, making them potentially more difficult to characterize and regulate.

An "Orphan Drug" is a pharmaceutical agent that is developed to treat a rare medical condition, disorder, or disease that affects a small number of people in comparison to other conditions. In the United States, this is defined as a condition or disease that affects fewer than 200,000 people nationwide. Due to the limited market for these drugs, pharmaceutical companies are often reluctant to invest in their development and production.

"Orphan Drug Production," therefore, refers to the manufacturing process of these rare disease treatments. To encourage the development and production of orphan drugs, governments and regulatory agencies offer incentives such as tax credits, grants, and exclusive marketing rights for a certain period of time. These measures help offset the higher costs and lower profit margins associated with developing and producing orphan drugs, ultimately benefiting patients with rare diseases who often have few or no treatment options available to them.

Food safety is the scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. This includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards. Food safety often involves keeping food at low temperatures to prevent bacterial growth and toxin production. It can also include practices such as washing hands and surfaces well and avoiding cross-contamination between raw and cooked foods. Additionally, proper cooking and pasteurization can kill bacteria that may be present in food.

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines food safety as "the assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared or eaten according to its intended use." Food safety is important for everyone, but particularly for vulnerable populations such as pregnant women, young children, older adults, and people with weakened immune systems.

In summary, food safety refers to the proper handling, preparation, and storage of food in order to prevent foodborne illness and ensure that it is safe for consumption.

Body weight is the measure of the force exerted on a scale or balance by an object's mass, most commonly expressed in units such as pounds (lb) or kilograms (kg). In the context of medical definitions, body weight typically refers to an individual's total weight, which includes their skeletal muscle, fat, organs, and bodily fluids.

Healthcare professionals often use body weight as a basic indicator of overall health status, as it can provide insights into various aspects of a person's health, such as nutritional status, metabolic function, and risk factors for certain diseases. For example, being significantly underweight or overweight can increase the risk of developing conditions like malnutrition, diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

It is important to note that body weight alone may not provide a complete picture of an individual's health, as it does not account for factors such as muscle mass, bone density, or body composition. Therefore, healthcare professionals often use additional measures, such as body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and blood tests, to assess overall health status more comprehensively.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

Drug contamination refers to the presence of impurities or foreign substances in a pharmaceutical drug or medication. These impurities can include things like bacteria, chemicals, or other drugs that are not intended to be present in the final product. Drug contamination can occur at any stage during the production, storage, or distribution of a medication and can potentially lead to reduced effectiveness, increased side effects, or serious health risks for patients. It is closely monitored and regulated by various health authorities to ensure the safety and efficacy of medications.

"Motor activity" is a general term used in the field of medicine and neuroscience to refer to any kind of physical movement or action that is generated by the body's motor system. The motor system includes the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and muscles that work together to produce movements such as walking, talking, reaching for an object, or even subtle actions like moving your eyes.

Motor activity can be voluntary, meaning it is initiated intentionally by the individual, or involuntary, meaning it is triggered automatically by the nervous system without conscious control. Examples of voluntary motor activity include deliberately lifting your arm or kicking a ball, while examples of involuntary motor activity include heartbeat, digestion, and reflex actions like jerking your hand away from a hot stove.

Abnormalities in motor activity can be a sign of neurological or muscular disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, cerebral palsy, or multiple sclerosis. Assessment of motor activity is often used in the diagnosis and treatment of these conditions.

Methamphetamine is a powerful, highly addictive central nervous system stimulant that affects brain chemistry, leading to mental and physical dependence. Its chemical formula is N-methylamphetamine, and it is structurally similar to amphetamine but has additional methyl group, which makes it more potent and longer-lasting.

Methamphetamine exists in various forms, including crystalline powder (commonly called "meth" or "crystal meth") and a rocklike form called "glass." It can be taken orally, snorted, smoked, or injected after being dissolved in water or alcohol.

Methamphetamine use leads to increased levels of dopamine, a neurotransmitter responsible for reward, motivation, and reinforcement, resulting in euphoria, alertness, and energy. Prolonged use can cause severe psychological and physiological harm, including addiction, psychosis, cardiovascular issues, dental problems (meth mouth), and cognitive impairments.

Biopharmaceutics is a branch of pharmaceutical sciences that deals with the study of the properties of biological, biochemical, and physicochemical systems and their interactions with drug formulations and delivery systems. It encompasses the investigation of the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of drugs in biological systems, as well as the factors that affect these processes.

The main goal of biopharmaceutics is to understand how the physical and chemical properties of a drug and its formulation influence its pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, with the aim of optimizing drug delivery and improving therapeutic outcomes. Biopharmaceutical studies are essential for the development and optimization of new drugs, as well as for the improvement of existing drug products.

Some key areas of study in biopharmaceutics include:

1. Drug solubility and dissolution: The ability of a drug to dissolve in biological fluids is critical for its absorption and bioavailability. Biopharmaceutical studies investigate the factors that affect drug solubility, such as pH, ionic strength, and the presence of other molecules, and use this information to optimize drug formulations.
2. Drug permeability: The ability of a drug to cross biological membranes is another key factor in its absorption and bioavailability. Biopharmaceutical studies investigate the mechanisms of drug transport across cell membranes, including passive diffusion, active transport, and endocytosis, and use this information to design drugs and formulations that can effectively penetrate target tissues.
3. Drug metabolism: The metabolic fate of a drug in the body is an important consideration for its safety and efficacy. Biopharmaceutical studies investigate the enzymes and pathways involved in drug metabolism, as well as the factors that affect these processes, such as genetic polymorphisms, age, sex, and disease state.
4. Drug interactions: The interaction between drugs and biological systems can lead to unexpected effects, both beneficial and harmful. Biopharmaceutical studies investigate the mechanisms of drug-drug and drug-biological interactions, and use this information to design drugs and formulations that minimize these risks.
5. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics: The study of how a drug is absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted (pharmacokinetics) and how it interacts with its target receptors or enzymes to produce its effects (pharmacodynamics) is an essential component of biopharmaceutical research. Biopharmaceutical studies use a variety of techniques, including in vitro assays, animal models, and clinical trials, to characterize the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of drugs and formulations.

Overall, biopharmaceutical research is an interdisciplinary field that combines principles from chemistry, biology, physics, mathematics, and engineering to develop new drugs and therapies. By understanding the complex interactions between drugs and biological systems, biopharmaceutical researchers can design more effective and safer treatments for a wide range of diseases and conditions.

Drug Enforcement Administration. Schedules of Controlled Substances: Placement of Perampanel into Schedule III" (PDF). Federal ... The drug or other substance has a potential for abuse less than the drugs or other substances in schedules I and II. The drug ... Rescheduling of Buprenorphine From Schedule V to Schedule III". Federal Register. Drug Enforcement Administration. Retrieved ... Drug Enforcement Administration. Retrieved January 16, 2023. Marshall, Donnie (March 13, 2000). "Schedules of Controlled ...
Drug Enforcement Administration. Retrieved January 16, 2023. Evans, D. Christopher (May 24, 2021). "Schedules of Controlled ... The drug or other substance has a low potential for abuse relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule IV. 2. The drug ... Drug Enforcement Administration. Retrieved January 16, 2023. Shea, Timothy (August 20, 2020). "Schedules of Controlled ... Drug Enforcement Administration. Retrieved September 7, 2023. Leonhart, Michele (December 15, 2011). "Schedules of Controlled ...
"White Oak Campus Project Schedule". FDA. October 8, 2015. Archived from the original on April 23, 2019. Retrieved December 16, ... for drugs) Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act of 2007 (e.g. drugs) Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation ... Drug Administration Official website Food and Drug Administration in the Federal Register Strategic Plan Works by Food and Drug ... "Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act (FDAAA) of 2007". Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original on May ...
Due to illicit drug labs using phenylacetone to make amphetamines, phenylacetone was declared a schedule II controlled ... Drug Enforcement Administration. 11 February 1980. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2022. Retrieved 16 January 2023 ... "Adderall XR Prescribing Information" (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. Shire US Inc. December 2013. pp. 12-13 ... "Schedules of Controlled Substances; Schedule II Placement of Phenylacetone; (Phenyl-2-propanone, P2P, methyl benzyl ketone, ...
"关于印发《非药用类麻醉药品和精神药品列管办法》的通知" (in Chinese). China Food and Drug Administration. 27 September 2015. Archived from the original on ... "Temporary class drug order report on 5-6APB and NBOMe compounds". UK Home Office. 4 Jun 2013. Retrieved 2013-07-10. "Schedule I ... On March 5, 2014, the UK Home Office announced that 5-MAPB would be made a class B drug on 10 June 2014 alongside every other ... 5-MAPB (1-(benzofuran-5-yl)-N-methylpropan-2-amine) is an entactogenic designer drug similar to MDMA
China Food and Drug Administration. 27 September 2015. Archived from the original on 1 October 2015. Retrieved 1 October 2015 ... "Schedule 1" (PDF). Sixty-eighth Legislative Assembly of North Dakota. 3 January 2023. v t e (CS1 Chinese-language sources (zh ... Drugs missing an ATC code, Cannabinoids, Designer drugs, Naphthalenes, Aromatic ketones, Naphthol ethers, Peripherally ... CB-13 (CRA13, SAB-378) is a cannabinoid drug, which acts as a potent agonist at both the CB1 and CB2 receptors, but has poor ...
"Search National Drug Schedule - NAPRA". Archived from the original on February 1, 2014. "Controlled Substances Act". Food and ... Drug Administration. Fineschi V, Riezzo I, Centini F, Silingardi E, Licata M, Beduschi G, Karch SB (January 2007). "Sudden ... It is also considered a performance-enhancing drug, the use of which can cause competitors to be suspended or banned from ...
The Drug Enforcement Administration labels cannabis as a schedule 2. Opioids are the most used illicit drug in the state of ... The Drug Enforcement Administration labels cannabis as a schedule 1. As of January 1, 2017, it is illegal to possess more than ... The Drug Enforcement Administration labels methamphetamine as a schedule 2. As of 2018, Missouri had the tenth highest rate of ... The Drug Enforcement Administration labels opioids as a schedule 2. In the year of 2021, an estimated 235,000 Missourians ...
Standards and Schedules-Section 812. Schedules of controlled substances. U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Archived ... Drugs and Chemicals of Concern. Office of Diversion Control - U.S. Department of Justice - Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA ... Diversion Control - U.S. Department of Justice - Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). March 2020. Archived (PDF) from the ... Per their drugs and drug paraphernelia policy, eBay does not permit sale of Salvia divinorum or derived products (despite ...
"关于印发《非药用类麻醉药品和精神药品列管办法》的通知" (in Chinese). China Food and Drug Administration. 27 September 2015. Archived from the original on ... Placement of Chemicals in Schedule I." Commonwealth of Virginia. 2 December 2015. Retrieved 11 March 2016. v t e (CS1 Chinese- ... 4-Bromomethcathinone (4-BMC, Brephedrone) is a psychoactive drug and research chemical of the phenethylamine, amphetamine, and ... 4-Bromomethcathinone is considered a Schedule 1 substance in Virginia. 4B-MAR 4
China Food and Drug Administration. 27 September 2015. Archived from the original on 1 October 2015. Retrieved 1 October 2015 ... 4-CMC is considered a Schedule 1 substance in Virginia. In December 2019, the UNODC announced scheduling recommendations ... is a stimulant drug of the cathinone class that has been sold online as a designer drug. The exact pharmacology of 4-CMC is ... Drugs missing an ATC code, Articles containing unverified chemical infoboxes, Cathinones, Designer drugs, Chlorobenzenes, ...
"Pay Tables for Non-General Schedule Pay Plans" (PDF). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 2019-03-03. "FDA's Staff ... Food and Drug Administration. 2018-07-19. Retrieved 2019-03-03. "Commissioner's Fellowship Program". U.S. Food and Drug ... 862 were in the Food and Drug Administration, and 27 were in other agencies. This accounted for 25% of all NIH employees, ... which is equivalent to Level IV of the Executive Schedule and the highest pay allowable to General Schedule employees. As of ...
"Rescheduling of Alfentanil from Schedule I to Schedule II" (PDF). Isomer Design. Drug Enforcement Administration. Archived from ... Transfer of Glutethimide from Schedule III to Schedule II" (PDF). Isomer Design. Drug Enforcement Administration. Archived (PDF ... Transfer of Levo-acetylmethadol from Schedule I into Schedule II" (PDF). Isomer Design. Drug Enforcement Administration. ... Drug Enforcement Administration. Retrieved September 7, 2023. Bartels Jr., John R. (June 20, 1974). "PART 1308- SCHEDULES OF ...
"Section 1308.12 Schedules of Controlled Substances". Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations. Drug Enforcement Administration. ... Glutethimide is a Schedule II drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. It was originally a Schedule III drug in ... Manufacturing of the drug was discontinued in the US in 1993 and discontinued in several eastern European countries in 2006. ... Analysis of confiscated glutethimide seems to invariably show the drug or the results of attempted synthesis, whereas purported ...
Drug Enforcement Administration asking the agency to reclassify marijuana as a Schedule 2 drug, which will allow its use for ... In June 2010, the Oregon Board of Pharmacy reclassified marijuana from a Schedule I drug to a Schedule II drug. News reports ... equivalent to a Schedule V drug - has no accepted medical use, then it must remain in Schedule I: When it comes to a drug that ... the drug must remain in schedule I. In such circumstances, placement of the drug in schedules II through V would conflict with ...
"PART 1308 - Section 1308.11 Schedule I". Office of Diversion Control. Drug Enforcement Administration, U.S. Department of ... Drug Enforcement Administration, U.S. Department of Justice. Archived from the original on 2012-01-17. "HU-210" (PDF). Office ... Drug Enforcement Administration, U.S. Department of Justice. January 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-12-28. 6aR, ... A brief profile of HU-210 written and published by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) in 2009, but removed in later ...
... is a prescription drug and is assigned to Schedule IV of the Controlled Substances Act by the Drug Enforcement Administration. ... Under the UK drug misuse classification system, benzodiazepines are Class C drugs (Schedule 4). In the UK, alprazolam is not ... In Ireland, alprazolam is a Schedule 4 medicine. In Sweden, alprazolam is a prescription drug in List IV (Schedule 4) under the ... "FDA expands Boxed Warning to improve safe use of benzodiazepine drug". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 23 September ...
"DEA Announces Intent to Schedule Kratom: SE Asian drug is imminent hazard to public safety". US Drug Enforcement Administration ... A Proposed Rule by the Drug Enforcement Administration on 10/13/2016". Federal Register. Drug Enforcement Administration. 2016- ... Department of Health and Aging Therapeutic Goods Administration (26 February 2004). National Drugs and Poisons Schedule ... The U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) stated in 2013 that there is no legitimate medical use for kratom, and in 2019, ...
... was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of postpartum depression in August 2023 ... "Zurzuvae (zuranolone) capsules, for oral use, [controlled substance schedule pending]" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original ... "FDA Approves First Oral Treatment for Postpartum Depression". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (Press release). 4 August ... 2018). "Breakthroughs in neuroactive steroid drug discovery". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 28 (2): 61-70. doi: ...
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Archived from the original on 2003-01-02. Florida Statutes - Chapter 893 - DRUG ABUSE ... TFMPP is a Schedule I controlled substance in the state of Florida making it illegal to buy, sell, or possess in Florida. TFMPP ... "关于印发《非药用类麻醉药品和精神药品列管办法》的通知" (in Chinese). China Food and Drug Administration. 27 September 2015. Retrieved 1 October 2015. " ... Drugs not assigned an ATC code, Drugs with non-standard legal status, Articles with changed
"Drug Trials Snapshots: Xcopri". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 3 December 2019. Archived from the original on 19 ... "Schedules of Controlled Substances: Placement of Cenobamate in Schedule V". Federal Register. 10 March 2020. "Ontozry EPAR". ... "Drug Approval Package: Xcopri". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 10 December 2019. Archived from the original on 19 ... The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved cenobamate in November 2019, and granted the application for Xcopri to SK ...
"Quviviq (daridorexant) tablets, for oral use, [controlled substance schedule pending]" (PDF). U.S. Food and Drug Administration ... Principal Drug Metabolizing Enzyme, Drug-Drug Interactions, and Effects of Liver and Renal Impairment on Metabolism". Journal ... Principal Drug Metabolizing Enzyme, Drug-Drug Interactions, and Effects of Liver and Renal Impairment on Metabolism". Journal ... An orexin receptor antagonist, or orexin antagonist, is a drug that inhibits the effect of orexin by acting as a receptor ...
The drug is currently not approved by Food and Drug Administration. It is also classified as DEA Schedule III controlled ... 52-. ISBN 978-94-011-4439-1. "Boldenone - Drugs.com". Drugs.com. Retrieved 28 April 2017. William Llewellyn (2011). Anabolics. ... The drug is a synthetic androgen and anabolic steroid and hence is an agonist of the androgen receptor (AR), the biological ... The drug is a controlled substance in the United States and its use is generally illicit. It remains marketed for veterinary ...
"Section 1308.11 Schedule I". Code of Federal Regulations. Office of Diversion Control, Drug Enforcement Administration, U.S. ... CBN is not listed in the schedules set out by the United Nations' Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs from 1961 nor their ... "UN International Drug Control Conventions". United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. United Nations Commission on Narcotic ... In the case of oral administration of CBN, first-pass metabolism in the liver involves the addition of a hydroxyl group at C9 ...
"Controlled Substances in Schedule I". Drug Enforcement Administration - Office of Diversion Control. Retrieved 2012-05-11. ... Similarly to many of its analogues, noracymethadol is a Schedule I controlled substance in the United States with an ACSCN of ... Nordegren T (1 March 2002). The A-Z Encyclopedia of Alcohol and Drug Abuse. Universal-Publishers. p. 468. ISBN 978-1-58112-404- ... and is also controlled internationally under the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961. The salts known ...
"关于印发《非药用类麻醉药品和精神药品列管办法》的通知" (in Chinese). China Food and Drug Administration. 27 September 2015. Archived from the original on ... On January 28, 2014, the DEA listed it, along with nine other synthetic cathinones, on the Schedule 1 with a temporary ban, ... Maheux CR, Copeland CR (January 2012). "Chemical analysis of two new designer drugs: buphedrone and pentedrone". Drug Testing ... Designer drugs, Norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitors, All stub articles
"National Drug Code Amphetamine Search Results". National Drug Code Directory. United States Food and Drug Administration. ... In the United States, amphetamine is a Schedule II prescription drug, classified as a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant. ... the Food and Drug Administration commissioner Robert Califf stated that "a number of generic drugs are in shortage at any given ... and the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA), amphetamine is contraindicated in people with a history of drug ...
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2017. Hellebrekers LJ, Baumans V, Bertens AP, ... and was added to the list of Schedule III drugs in the US in 2006, as a Non-Narcotic with ACSCN 2020, which classifies it with ... It may cause significant pain to the animal being euthanized, and so may be less humane than older drugs used for this purpose ... Embutramide (INN, USAN, BAN) (brand name Embutane) is a potent analgesic and sedative drug that is structurally related to GHB ...
Drug Enforecement Administration, Department of Justice (2018). "Schedules of Controlled Substances:Temporary Placement of ... Acetylfentanyl Isofentanyl List of fentanyl analogues Drug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice (2018). "Schedules ... Drugs missing an ATC code, Articles containing unverified chemical infoboxes, Anilides, Designer drugs, Mu-opioid receptor ... United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, November 2017 Mounteney J, Giraudon I, Denissov G, Griffiths P (July 2015). " ...
"21 CFR - SCHEDULES OF CONTROLLED SUBSTANCES §1308.11 Schedule I." Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). U.S. Department Of ... in Schedule I; Withdrawal of Proposed Rule". 27 July 2022. "Chapter 893 - Drug Abuse Prevention and Control". Florida Statutes ... As is the case with many PiHKAL and TiHKAL drugs, it is Class A in the UK, making it illegal to possess or use. DiPT is not ... However the US Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) withdrew a proposal to ban five psychedelic substances including 4-Hydroxy-N,N- ...
Placement of Propylhexedrine and Pyrovalerone into Schedule V" (PDF). Isomer Design. Drug Enforcement Administration. Archived ... Expert Committee on Drug Dependence. 28 September 1990. Retrieved 3 July 2023. "Schedule 4 Appendix D drugs - Prescribed ... Cooper D. ""Future Synthetic Drugs of Abuse"". Erowid. Drug Enforcement Administration. Archived from the original on 9 August ... Drug Enforcement Administration. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 June 2023. Retrieved 26 June 2023. Rose W (September ...
... and no drug can be placed in the most restrictive schedule (Schedule I) if DHHS finds that the drug has an accepted medical use ... "Drug Enforcement Administration: Drug Abuse Prevention Service Award" (PDF). Learning for Life. Archived from the original (PDF ... "Drug Questionnaire". U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. Archived from the original on May 13, 2007. Retrieved April 28, 2007 ... Major Studies of Drugs and Drug Policy Rufus King (1972), The Drug Hang-Up: America's Fifty Year Folly Results of America's ...
Considerable research has been designed to obtain useful measures of a given drugs or doses reinforcing efficacy and to ... Drugs, like other reinforcers, can vary in their relative abilities to support operant responding. ... Progressive-ratio schedules of drug delivery in the analysis of drug self-administration: a review Psychopharmacology (Berl). ... Progressive-ratio schedules of drug delivery have been used to characterize the effects of pretreatment drugs, lesions, drug ...
2018-005 ,, Training Courses / Seminar and Schedule of Fees for the Trainings Offered by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA ... Academy - Policy Planning Service (PPS) for Calendar Year 2018FDA Circular 2017-002 ,, Training Courses/Seminars and Schedule ... 2017-001 ,, Training Courses/Seminar and Schedule of Fee for the Training Offered by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) ... 2018-005 ,, Training Courses / Seminar and Schedule of Fees for the Trainings Offered by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA ...
HUMAN PRESCRIPTION DRUG. Item Code (Source). NDC:0173-0810. Route of Administration. ORAL. DEA Schedule. CV ... Subscribe to Drugs.com newsletters Subscribe to Drugs.com newsletters for the latest medication news, new drug approvals, ... 9. Drug Abuse and Dependence. 9.1 Controlled Substance. POTIGA is a Schedule V controlled substance. ... Drug Interactions. Ezogabine plasma levels may be reduced by concomitant administration of phenytoin or carbamazepine. An ...
FIORINAL is controlled by the Drug Enforcement Administration and is classified under Schedule III. ... Subscribe to Drugs.com newsletters Subscribe to Drugs.com newsletters for the latest medication news, new drug approvals, ... Drugs.com Mobile Apps The easiest way to lookup drug information, identify pills, check interactions and set up your own ... Drug Reaction with Eosinophilia and Systemic Symptoms (DRESS) Drug Reaction with Eosinophilia and Systemic Symptoms (DRESS) has ...
... drug interactions, warnings, patient labeling, reviews, and related medications including drug comparison and health resources. ... for Oral Administration) may treat, side effects, dosage, ... For oral administration only.. Dose And Schedule. Administer a ... Drugs & Vitamins. Drugs A-Z Generic Drugs A-Z Drugs by Classification Drugs Comparison (Drug Vs. Drug) Vitamins & Supplements ... Report Problems to the Food and Drug Administration. You are encouraged to report negative side effects of prescription drugs ...
... or three-dose schedule of human papillomavirus vaccination, depending on age and other factors. ... or three-dose schedule of human papillomavirus vaccination, depending on age and other factors. ... In October 2016, after considering new clinical trial results (4), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) also approved 9vHPV ... Food and Drug Administration. Prescribing information [package insert]. Gardasil 9 [human papillomavirus 9-valent vaccine, ...
Drug Enforcement Administration. Schedules of Controlled Substances: Placement of Perampanel into Schedule III" (PDF). Federal ... The drug or other substance has a potential for abuse less than the drugs or other substances in schedules I and II. The drug ... Rescheduling of Buprenorphine From Schedule V to Schedule III". Federal Register. Drug Enforcement Administration. Retrieved ... Drug Enforcement Administration. Retrieved January 16, 2023. Marshall, Donnie (March 13, 2000). "Schedules of Controlled ...
Food and Drug Administration reviews. A free inside look at company reviews and salaries posted anonymously by employees. ... Flexible work schedule is available. (in 20 reviews). .css-11kwx7q.css-11kwx7q{color:#C13833;font-size:18px;font-weight:600; ... Glassdoor has 1,158 U.S. Food and Drug Administration reviews submitted anonymously by U.S. Food and Drug Administration ... Read employee reviews and ratings on Glassdoor to decide if U.S. Food and Drug Administration is right for you. ...
Manufacturer compliance with the regulation to report serious and unexpected AEs to the FDA within 15 calendar days is unknown ... Drug Manufacturers Delayed Disclosure of Serious and Unexpected Adverse Events to the US Food and Drug Administration. ... Federal regulations define adverse drug events as those "associated with the use of a drug in humans whether or not considered ... care professionals and consumers can voluntarily report adverse drug events directly to the US Food and Drug Administration ( ...
Acquisition of nicotine self-administration in rats: The effects of dose, feeding schedule, and drug contingency. / Donny, Eric ... Acquisition of nicotine self-administration in rats: The effects of dose, feeding schedule, and drug contingency. ... Acquisition of nicotine self-administration in rats : The effects of dose, feeding schedule, and drug contingency. In: ... title = "Acquisition of nicotine self-administration in rats: The effects of dose, feeding schedule, and drug contingency", ...
Conjunctivitis, Bacterial / drug therapy* * Drug Administration Schedule * Erythromycin / adverse effects * Erythromycin / ...
Source for information on Adjunctive Drug Taking: Encyclopedia of Drugs, Alcohol, and Addictive Behavior dictionary. ... ADJUNCTIVE DRUG TAKING Drug abuse is usually viewed as a behavior that occurs because of what the drugs do in the body. ... Falk, J. L. (1993) Schedule-induced drug self-administration. In F. van Haaren (Ed.), Methods in Behavioral Pharmacology (pp. ... Similar generator schedules (intermittent food delivery) also can induce excessive intravenous drug self-administration. ...
TITLE 21--FOOD AND DRUGS. CHAPTER II--DRUG ENFORCEMENT ADMINISTRATION. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE PART 1308. SCHEDULES OF CONTROLLED ... Schedules § 1308.11 - Schedule I. § 1308.12 - Schedule II. § 1308.13 - Schedule III. § 1308.14 - Schedule IV. § 1308.15 - ... U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 10903 New Hampshire Avenue Silver Spring, MD 20993 Ph. 1-888-INFO-FDA (1-888-463-6332). ... Schedule V. Excluded Nonnarcotic Substances § 1308.21 - Application for exclusion of a nonnarcotic substance. § 1308.22 - ...
US Food and Drug Administration. Bexsero-summary basis for regulatory action. Washington: The Administration; 2015. ... The US Food and Drug Administration noted the unavailability of a suitable strain for assessing bactericidal activity of NHBA- ... Shorter dosing schedules can improve compliance and lead to higher vaccine coverage (11). An accelerated dosing schedule for ... A shorter dosing schedule might provide more rapid individual direct protection and be easier to schedule around exams and ...
6Food and Drug Administration, Washington, District of Columbia. 7Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, ... Commercial rabies virus antibody titer determination kits that are not approved by the Food and Drug Administration are not ... Food and Drug Administration, Bethesda, Maryland; Linda Kinsinger, MD, Department of Veterans Affairs, Durham, North Carolina. ... Food and Drug Administration, Washington, District of Columbia; William Schaffner, MD, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine ...
Dose-Response Relationship, Drug * Double-Blind Method * Drug Administration Schedule * ErbB Receptors / genetics* ... Antineoplastic Combined Chemotherapy Protocols / administration & dosage* * Antineoplastic Combined Chemotherapy Protocols / ...
Although PCV13 is licensed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use among and can be administered to persons aged 50 ... Although the vaccine is licensed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use among and can be administered to persons ... Manufacturers of the live, attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) have obtained Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for a ... Changes to the previous schedules (2) include the following:. *Figure 1, "Recommended immunization schedule for persons aged 0 ...
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... the bill would grant the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) broad authority within the scheduling process, increase ... Rather than focusing resources on reducing overdose deaths from synthetic drugs, ... 4] Drug Enforcement Administration. (2018). U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration Emergency Schedules All Illicit Fentanyls In ... 7] See Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration; Schedules of Controlled Substances: Temporary Placement of ...
Currently, federal laws classify marijuana as a "Schedule I" (unhelpful and dangerous) drug. This means that physicians cannot ... The FDCA also directed the commissioner of food and drugs to examine both products to make sure they were safe for interstate ... We do not decide by plebiscite which drugs should be sold to the public. America has resolved that experts should make that ... Maybe we should treat marijuana in the same way that we treat any other new drug that someone argues should be used ...
b) a corporation named in Schedule III to the Financial Administration Act. ; ... FOOD AND DRUGS ACT. Marginal note:1993, c. 34, s. 71(3). *. 2. (1) The definition "device". in section 2 of the Food and Drugs ... means a drug or device or any combination of drugs and devices, but does not include a natural health product within the ... An Act to amend the Food and Drugs Act. SUMMARY. This enactment amends the Food and Drugs Act. regarding therapeutic products ...
Calendar Menu. Menu Labeling Provisions Guidelines by the Food and Drug Administration, Health + Nutrition July 26, 2017. ... guidelines by the Food and Drug Administration, which were expected in late 2011. At this point, it remains unclear how the ...
us food and drug administration Blogs, Comments and Archive News on Economictimes.com ... us food and drug administration Latest Breaking News, Pictures, Videos, and Special Reports from The Economic Times. ... The government aims to upgrade Schedule M, which lays down GMP, to international standards. ... The approval by the US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) is for the abbreviated new drug application for Bromfenac ...
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved the use of Gardasil 9 for males and females ages 9 to 45. If youre ages 27 to ... Research has shown that the two-dose schedule is effective for children under 15. ... U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-expanded-use-gardasil-9- ... Having a compromised immune system, such as from HIV or drugs from an organ transplant ...
Cannabis administration receives pushback on licensing timeline. Some potential cannabis businesses are criticizing the tight ... State Roundup: Lawmakers seek cap on some prescription drugs; Montgomery Council considers raising tipped workers minimum wage ... Creative Calendar Themes and Ideas. Artistic Expressions. Turn your calendar into a gallery by showcasing your favorite ... Calendars are indispensable tools in our lives, helping us stay organized and manage our schedules. However, they dont have to ...
Results of search for su:{Drug administration schedule.} Refine your search. *. Availability. * Limit to currently available ... Monitoring drug coverage for preventive chemotherapy. by World Health Organization.. Material type: Text; Format: print ... Text; Format: print Publication details: Oslo : WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology , 1993Other title: ... by WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology , Nordiska Läkemedelsnämnden.. Edition: 2nd ed.Material type: ...
Drug Therapy [E02.319]. *Drug Administration Schedule [E02.319.283]. *Pulse Therapy, Drug [E02.319.283.600] ... "Pulse Therapy, Drug" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicines controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical ... This graph shows the total number of publications written about "Pulse Therapy, Drug" by people in Harvard Catalyst Profiles by ... Below are the most recent publications written about "Pulse Therapy, Drug" by people in Profiles. ...
Warren County Drug & Alcohol administration and contact information. ... Calendar. September 2023. Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat 27 28 29 30 31 01 02 ... Drug & Alcohol Administration & Contact Info Drug & Alcohol Offices. 285 Hospital Drive. Warren, PA 16365. Phone: 814-726-2100 ... Drug & Alcohol Management Team:. Betsy Miller, SCA Director. Phone: 814-726- 8408. Email: millerb(a)wc-hs.org ...
For infants and children not vaccinated according to the recommended schedule see DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION . ... Drug Interactions *Adverse Reactions *Dosage and Administration *How Supplied - Drugs index. - Manufacturers. - Feedback. ... DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION FOR INTRAMUSCULAR ADMINISTRATION Do not inject intravenously, intradermally, or subcutaneously. ... Children not vaccinated according to recommended schedule for COMVAX Vaccination schedules for children not vaccinated ...
This public calendar is issued by the Food and Drug Administration. It lists significant meetings held by designated FDA policy ... In this section: Public Calendar - Meetings With FDA Officials * Public Calendar - Meetings With FDA Officials *2022 Public ... Subject: Parenteral Drug Association (PDA) /FDA Joint Regulatory Conference; Speaker: Plenary Session 1 and Q&A. FDA ... Subject: Parenteral Drug Association / FDA Joint Regulatory Conference; Plenary Session 5 - FDA Updates. FDA Participant/Group ...
  • What Drugs, Substances, or Supplements Interact with Vaxchora? (rxlist.com)
  • List of Schedule III controlled substances (U.S. (wikipedia.org)
  • This is the list of Schedule III controlled substances as defined by the United States Controlled Substances Act at 21 U.S.C. § 812(c) and 21 CFR 1308.13. (wikipedia.org)
  • The following findings are required for substances to be placed in this schedule: The drug or other substance has a potential for abuse less than the drugs or other substances in schedules I and II. (wikipedia.org)
  • The complete list of Schedule III substances is as follows. (wikipedia.org)
  • Schedules of Controlled Substances: Addition of Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid to Schedule I". Federal Register. (wikipedia.org)
  • Schedules of Controlled Substances: Placement of Preparations Which Contain Both Tiletamine and Zolazepam into Schedule III" (PDF). (wikipedia.org)
  • Schedules of controlled substances: rescheduling of the Food and Drug Administration approved product containing synthetic dronabinol in sesame oil and encapsulated in soft gelatin capsules from schedule II to schedule III" (PDF). (wikipedia.org)
  • § 1308.03 - Administration Controlled Substances Code Number. (fda.gov)
  • As a result, the DEA has requested that Congress pass legislation, the Stopping Overdoses of Fentanyl Analogues Act, to give the agency broad "class-wide" powers to schedule all fentanyl's, circumventing essential coordination with HHS (as is currently required under the Controlled Substances Act). (hrw.org)
  • Indeed, DEA would reserve for itself the right to treat substances as Schedule I even if it has not specifically identified the substance prior to its interdiction. (hrw.org)
  • [9] SOFA would change this penalty structure dramatically and lighten DOJ's evidentiary burden by granting DEA the unfettered authority to place a potentially limitless class of substances into Schedule I as controlled fentanyl analogues. (hrw.org)
  • The agency cited 15 deaths linked to kratom in the last two years as rationale - although it's unclear whether the deaths were due to the compounds in kratom, unintentional ingestion of other drugs contaminating the kratom, or mixing of kratom and other substances. (theverge.com)
  • Effective October 14, 2022, pharmacists with valid drug administration certification may administer any Schedule I, IA, and II drugs, including controlled drugs by injection and intranasal route, with the exception of cosmetic drugs and substances, and allergy serums. (bcpharmacists.org)
  • Drug Enforcement Administration. (wikipedia.org)
  • Rather than focusing resources on reducing overdose deaths from synthetic drugs, the bill would grant the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) broad authority within the scheduling process, increase sentences, and expose many more individuals to harsh penalties, including mandatory minimum sentences. (hrw.org)
  • The Drug Enforcement Administration announced today that it will postpone its controversial decision to temporarily classify the plant as a Schedule I controlled substance. (theverge.com)
  • Behavioral factors, including food restriction and electric shock, and organismic factors, including gender and strain, have also been investigated using progressive-ratio schedules of drug delivery. (nih.gov)
  • Avoid food or drink for 60 minutes before and after Vaxchora vaccine administration. (rxlist.com)
  • In October 2016, after considering new clinical trial results ( 4 ), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) also approved 9vHPV for use in a 2-dose series for girls and boys aged 9 through 14 years ( 5 ). (cdc.gov)
  • This rating reflects the overall rating of U.S. Food and Drug Administration and is not affected by filters. (glassdoor.com)
  • Health care professionals and consumers can voluntarily report adverse drug events directly to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or the drug manufacturer. (stanford.edu)
  • The studies presented here were designed to further clarify the nature of nicotine self-administration (SA) based on a limited access model in which rats are food restricted, receive operant training using food reinforcement, and are then tested in daily 1-h drug sessions. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Two doses of nicotine bitartrate, 0.03 and 0.06 mg/kg per infusion (free base), supported the transition from food-reinforced to drug-reinforced responding, although the pattern of behavior differed between these doses. (elsevierpure.com)
  • These results indicate that acquisition of nicotine SA can be influenced by both dose of nicotine and feeding schedule and that, in animals previously trained on a food-reinforced operant, active lever pressing is maintained only when nicotine delivery is contingent upon responding. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Although water was always freely available back in each animal's home cage, this schedule of intermittent food availability, in which the eating of small food portions was spread out over a 3-hour period, produced a strange result. (encyclopedia.com)
  • The term polydipsia means the food schedule can induce excessive drinking of many sorts of fluids. (encyclopedia.com)
  • The phenomenon of adjunctive behavior is not limited to the rat species and it can be induced in ways other than food-schedule intermittency. (encyclopedia.com)
  • DEA has not asked the relevant public health agencies, HHS and Food and Drug Administration (FDA), to determine if their scheduling action is medically and scientifically valid, so they are ineligible for a one-year extension to this timeline. (hrw.org)
  • That date is significant because the following year Congress passed the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act. (foxnews.com)
  • The FDCA prohibited interstate commerce of "adulterated" food and drugs. (foxnews.com)
  • The FDCA also directed the commissioner of food and drugs to examine both products to make sure they were safe for interstate distribution. (foxnews.com)
  • But that does not mean senators and representatives should act in a vacuum, without regard for the nation's designated authority on food and drug safety. (foxnews.com)
  • Menu labeling provisions within the landmark Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act have left the California restaurant industry in a holding pattern, as it waits to see the final guidelines by the Food and Drug Administration, which were expected in late 2011. (calrest.org)
  • The companies have also been asked to share information on international approvals obtained from the European Union, US Food and Drug Administration, Japan's Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency, Brazilian Health Regulatory Agency (Anvisa), among other regulatory bodies abroad. (indiatimes.com)
  • The approval granted by the US Food & Drug Administration (USFDA) is for Mycophenolate Mofetil for oral suspension of strength 200 mg/ml, Strides Pharma Science said in a regulatory filing. (indiatimes.com)
  • Glenmark Pharmaceuticals is recalling 1,200 bottles of a generic drug, used to treat high blood pressure, in the American market due to a manufacturing issue, according to the US Food and Drug Administration (USFDA). (indiatimes.com)
  • If you're a food enthusiast, why not design a calendar that tantalizes the taste buds? (marylandreporter.com)
  • This public calendar is issued by the Food and Drug Administration. (fda.gov)
  • It also has requested that the Food and Drug Administration speed up its scientific and medical review of kratom. (theverge.com)
  • 5, 2019-- Gilead Sciences, Inc. (NASDAQ: GILD) announced today that the company has submitted a supplemental New Drug Application (sNDA) to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) for Descovy ® (emtricitabine 200 mg and tenofovir alafenamide 25 mg tablets) for pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) to reduce the risk of sexually acquired HIV-1 infection among individuals who are HIV-negative and at risk for HIV. (gilead.com)
  • While clinical research involves increasing reliance on electronic systems for data capture and storage ( Food and Drug Administration, 2013 ), current research data collection and storage systems face limited capabilities to meet emerging technological needs ( Efanov and Roschin, 2018 ). (frontiersin.org)
  • A boxed warning is the most serious warning from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (healthline.com)
  • Lorazepam oral tablet has a boxed warning from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for misuse and dependence. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) tracks side effects of drugs it has approved. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • We hypothesized that by blocking ox/hcrt-1R signaling, we could reduce the effort rats are willing to exert for drug and palatable food reinforcers. (jneurosci.org)
  • In its capacity to assure the sound scientific basis for international standards and recommendations on veterinary drug residues in food, the work of the Expert Committee is crucial to the work of the Codex Alimentarius Commission. (who.int)
  • their use should be guided by the Food and Drug Regulations, 1975 and its relevant amendments as well as the list of approved sweeteners published by the US Food and Drug Administration, which the Ministry of Health has adopted. (who.int)
  • Concomitant use of opioids with benzodiazepine or other central nervous system (CNS) depressants, including alcohol, may result in profound sedation, respiratory depression, coma, and death (see WARNINGS and DRUG INTERACTIONS ). (globalrph.com)
  • Due to system maintenance, the drug interactions feature you are attempting to access is temporarily unavailable. (medscape.com)
  • During MenB outbreaks, MenB-4C has been administered in 2 doses at varying schedules, including 0 and 30 days, 0 and 6-8 weeks, 0 and 2 months, and 0 and 10 weeks ( 7 - 9 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Administration of high doses of pharmaceuticals over short periods of time. (harvard.edu)
  • Small doses reportedly cause a similar feeling as caffeine, but higher doses can act like opioids - although the drugs have very different molecular structures. (theverge.com)
  • This report includes new recommendations for use of a 2-dose schedule for girls and boys who initiate the vaccination series at ages 9 through 14 years. (cdc.gov)
  • In October 2016, ACIP recommended a 2-dose schedule for adolescents initiating HPV vaccination in this age range. (cdc.gov)
  • This report provides recommendations for use of 2-dose and 3-dose schedules for HPV vaccination. (cdc.gov)
  • The public health response to a MenB outbreak includes education about prevention and early recognition of disease, antimicrobial drug prophylaxis for close contacts, and either preexposure or early postexposure vaccination ( 3 ). (cdc.gov)
  • However, few controlled studies have investigated the immunogenicity and reactogenicity of MenB-4C in older adolescents and young adults to compare various vaccination schedules ( 10 - 13 ). (cdc.gov)
  • An accelerated MenB-4C immunization schedule could be considered for rapid control of campus outbreaks. (cdc.gov)
  • This form of "content syndication" ensures that the most current and accurate immunization schedule information is on each organization's website. (cdc.gov)
  • Each year, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) reviews the current recommended immunization schedules for persons aged 0 through 18 years to ensure that the schedule reflects current recommendations for licensed vaccines. (cdc.gov)
  • Officer 1 found materials consistent with illicit drugs, including the contents of an unlabeled rubber container. (cdc.gov)
  • A lack of ventilation in the property room where illicit drugs were stored was also of concern. (cdc.gov)
  • Illicit drugs were found on some surfaces in the property room. (cdc.gov)
  • Investigators also recommended that surfaces contaminated with lead or illicit drugs be properly cleaned. (cdc.gov)
  • Our Vaxchora (Cholera Vaccine, Live, Oral) Side Effects Drug Center provides a comprehensive view of available drug information on the potential side effects when taking this medication. (rxlist.com)
  • VAXCHORA ( Cholera Vaccine, Live, Oral) is a live, attenuated bacterial vaccine suspension for oral administration containing the V. cholerae strain CVD 103-HgR. (rxlist.com)
  • Evidence regarding a 3-dose schedule for HPV vaccine was reviewed previously ( 1 , 2 ). (cdc.gov)
  • We conducted a randomized, controlled, multicenter, observer-blinded trial comparing immunogenicity and tolerability of an accelerated vaccine schedule of 0 and 21 days to a longer interval of 0 and 60 days for 4-component MenB vaccine (MenB-4C) in students 17-25 years of age. (cdc.gov)
  • 95% of participants sustained protective titers regardless of their vaccine schedule. (cdc.gov)
  • When MenB-4C vaccine was authorized in Canada, public health stakeholders identified a need to assess shorter dosing schedules for outbreak control to reduce the strain on public health resources by implementing the vaccine campaign in a single condensed period instead of 2 separate deployments. (cdc.gov)
  • As the FDA uses this information to update drug warnings, delays in reporting can have important public health consequences, particularly if manufacturers selectively delay reporting based on relevant patient outcomes. (stanford.edu)
  • Progressive-ratio schedules of drug delivery have been used to characterize the effects of pretreatment drugs, lesions, drug deprivation, physical dependence, and repeated non-contingent drug exposure on breaking points. (nih.gov)
  • Vaxchora is not absorbed systemically by the mother following oral administration, and breastfeeding is not expected to result in exposure of the child to Vaxchora. (rxlist.com)
  • Furthermore, the differences between self-administering and yoked animals emerged during the first session, suggesting that nicotine may serve as a reinforcer during the first drug exposure in naive animals. (elsevierpure.com)
  • It has been hypothesized that strengthened excitatory synapses onto dopamine neurons leads to burst-like firing, and consequently, enhanced dopamine release in VTA target regions involved in the attachment of salience to events associated with exposure to commonly addictive drugs ( Jones and Bonci, 2005 ). (jneurosci.org)
  • An article from NIOSH researchers entitled "Health effects from unintentional occupational exposure to opioids among law enforcement officers: Two case investigations" published in the American Journal of Industrial Medicine seeks to characterize the risk associated with unintentional occupational exposure to drugs. (cdc.gov)
  • In October 2012, ACIP approved the recommended immunization schedules for persons aged 0 through 18 years for 2013, which includes several changes from 2012. (cdc.gov)
  • If you plan to sell your custom calendars online, optimizing your eCommerce website for search engines to reach a wider audience is essential. (marylandreporter.com)
  • Results of search for 'su:{Drug administration schedule. (who.int)
  • Search or browse forms and documents related to student administration. (edu.au)
  • 2) The rx list web site will open here with the drug search completed. (globalrph.com)
  • In the past few years, synthetic drugs such as fentanyl and their analogues have been responsible for overdose deaths in many parts of the country. (hrw.org)
  • Synthetic opioids, primarily fentanyl, caused nearly two-thirds (64%) of all drug overdose deaths in the same 12-month period, up 49% from the year before. (medscape.com)
  • Four police officers (Officers 2-5) developed symptoms while responding to a 911 call about an unconscious person with a possible drug overdose in a hotel room. (cdc.gov)
  • And in September, 51 senators wrote a letter to the DEA arguing that banning the drug would exacerbate the nationwide opioid epidemic. (theverge.com)
  • Buprenex contains the active drug buprenorphine, which is a type of opioid. (healthline.com)
  • Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to moderate or low physical dependence or high psychological dependence. (wikipedia.org)
  • Hydrocodone can produce drug dependence of the morphine type and, therefore, has the potential for being abused. (nih.gov)
  • With dependence, your body becomes reliant on a drug in order to function normally. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Dependence can lead to withdrawal symptoms if you suddenly stop taking a drug. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • All three vaccines have been approved for administration in a 3-dose series at intervals of 0, 1 or 2, and 6 months. (cdc.gov)
  • CDC's National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases (NCIRD) maintains the most current immunization schedules on the Vaccines and Immunizations pages of CDC's website ( http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/schedules ), including the schedules published in this supplement. (cdc.gov)
  • If errors or omissions are discovered after publication of the schedules, CDC posts revised versions on the Vaccines and Immunizations Web pages. (cdc.gov)
  • Instructions for copying and placing syndication code are available at http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/schedules/hcp/syndicate.html . (cdc.gov)
  • Each tablet, for oral administration contains 5 mg or 10 mg of amphetamine sulfate. (nih.gov)
  • Lorazepam oral tablet is a generic drug. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The College must approve your Drug Administration Certification (DAC) application prior to you providing drug administration in accordance with HPA Bylaws Schedule F Part 4 - Certified Practice - Drug Administration by Injection and Intranasal Route Standards, Limits and Conditions . (bcpharmacists.org)
  • CFTA pre-registration applicants and CFTA pre-registration applicants and Temporary registrants who previously completed drug administration training for injection only, must complete the intranasal administration online module and submit the "intranasal administration declaration" through eServices before they may administer a drug by intranasal route. (bcpharmacists.org)
  • Submit the Application for Certification - Drug Administration by Injection and Intranasal Route to the College, along with copies of your drug administration training course certificate(s) and first aid/CPR certificate. (bcpharmacists.org)
  • In order to complete the declaration page of this application, you must read and understand the Certified Practice - Drug Administration by Injection and Intranasal Route Standards, Limits and Conditions . (bcpharmacists.org)
  • If your First Aid/CPR certification expires, your DAC becomes invalid and you must notify the College and cease from administering drugs by injection and intranasal route immediately. (bcpharmacists.org)
  • If you are unable to declare any of the above, you must cease administering drugs by injection and intranasal route immediately. (bcpharmacists.org)
  • Buprenex is a drug that's given as an injection into your muscle or into your vein . (healthline.com)
  • The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States. (wikipedia.org)
  • [6] If granted this authority, the DEA could place each substance it deems chemically similar to fentanyl into Schedule I, regardless of whether or not the substance has similar physiological effects to fentanyl. (hrw.org)
  • Yes, lorazepam oral tablets are classified as a Schedule IV controlled substance. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Drugs, like other reinforcers, can vary in their relative abilities to support operant responding. (nih.gov)
  • So, the rats did not really need the excessive amount of water they drink under the schedule of intermittent pellet delivery. (encyclopedia.com)
  • Medscape prescription drug monographs are based on FDA-approved labeling information, unless otherwise noted, combined with additional data derived from primary medical literature. (medscape.com)
  • Progressive-ratio schedules of drug delivery generate an index of a drug's or dose's reinforcing efficacy (the breaking point) and are being used increasingly as tools in the analysis of drug self-administration. (nih.gov)
  • To the extent that breaking points provide an index of reinforcing efficacy, these studies demonstrate that a wide range of variables can influence the reinforcing efficacy of self-administered drugs. (nih.gov)
  • India's drug regulator, the Drug Controller General of India (DCGI), plans to review pharmaceutical manufacturing standards in order to ensure the quality, safety, and efficacy of drugs. (indiatimes.com)
  • Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs. (wikipedia.org)
  • The administration of hydrocodone bitartrate and homatropine methylbromide or other narcotics may obscure the diagnosis or clinical course of patients with acute abdominal conditions. (nih.gov)
  • We do not let the public decide which antibiotic, antiviral, antifungal, or chemotherapy drugs can be marketed. (foxnews.com)
  • Monitoring drug coverage for preventive chemotherapy. (who.int)
  • Our Prolia (denosumab) Side Effects Drug Center provides a comprehensive view of available drug information on the potential side effects when taking this medication. (rxlist.com)
  • At the center of the Texas medication abortion lawsuit lies mifepristone, a drug developed by Danco Laboratories, embroiled in a contentious legal battle that has the potential to shape the future of abortion access in the United States. (indiatimes.com)
  • A. All medication shall be properly labeled consistent with the requirements of the Virginia Drug Control Act (§ 54.1-3400 et seq. (virginia.gov)
  • H. In the event of a medication incident or an adverse drug reaction, first aid shall be administered if indicated. (virginia.gov)
  • A generic drug is an exact copy of the active drug in a brand-name medication. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • F. All medications shall be administered in accordance with the physician's or other prescriber's instructions and consistent with the requirements of § 54.2-2408 of the Code of Virginia and the Virginia Drug Control Act (§ 54.1-3400 et seq. (virginia.gov)
  • I also promise to conduct myself in accordance with the Code of Ethics for Coaches/Administration/Volunteers, etc. (emailmeform.com)
  • Other evaluations of incidents involving first responders with unintentional occupational exposures to drugs, with similar implications for prevention, are available on the NIOSH website . (cdc.gov)
  • Therefore, new drug discovery and the establishment of new therapeutic methods effective for these disorders are considered to be beneficial and pressing needs. (hindawi.com)
  • According to the CDC, more than 100,000 people died of drug overdoses in the United States during the 12-month period May 2020 to April 2021, reflecting a new record high. (medscape.com)
  • Currently, federal laws classify marijuana as a "Schedule I" (unhelpful and dangerous) drug. (foxnews.com)
  • The DEA said its decision at the end of August to classify two of kratom's psychoactive compounds as Schedule I drugs by September 30th was to 'avoid an imminent threat to public safety. (theverge.com)
  • Drugs in this class used in obesity are commonly known as "anorectics" or "anorexigenics. (nih.gov)
  • Benzodiazepines are a class of drugs used for anxiety or seizures . (healthline.com)
  • Benzodiazepines are a class of drugs that help relieve anxiety and problems with sleep. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • A class of drugs describes a group of drugs that work in a similar way. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The renal clearance is greatly augmented by an alkaline urine as is produced by concurrent administration of sodium bicarbonate or potassium citrate. (drugs.com)
  • We examined the effects of dose, feeding schedule, and contingency of drug delivery on acquisition of nicotine SA. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Most people assume that drug abuse is mainly driven by the immediate, attractive effects and sensations produced by the drugs - their physiological and psychological effects. (encyclopedia.com)
  • The effects of some drugs can change if you take other drugs or herbal products at the same time. (rxlist.com)
  • Moreover, we found that leaf extract from A. trifoliatus significantly exhibited acute antianxiety effects in animal models by the single oral administration at the concentration of 500 mg/kg body weight [ 6 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • The origins of the increased weight loss due to the various possible drug effects are not established. (nih.gov)
  • A boxed warning alerts doctors and patients about drug effects that may be dangerous. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The following two HHEs were conducted by NIOSH at the request of law enforcement agencies to evaluate incidents involving drugs where officers experienced health effects. (cdc.gov)
  • Drug abuse is usually viewed as a behavior that occurs because of what the drugs do in the body. (encyclopedia.com)
  • It has not been established, however, that the action of such drugs in treating obesity is primarily one of appetite suppression. (nih.gov)
  • Exogenous Obesity as a short term (a few weeks) adjunct in a regimen of weight reduction based on caloric restriction for patients refractory to alternative therapy, e.g., repeated diets, group programs, and other drugs. (nih.gov)
  • Examples of these drugs include benzodiazepines or other central nervous system (CNS) depressants , such as alcohol. (healthline.com)
  • Excessive drug use can develop as a side effect of other strongly desired behavior that, for various reasons, cannot be engaged in or completed. (encyclopedia.com)
  • Pulse Therapy, Drug" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicine's controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) . (harvard.edu)
  • The most common (≥5 percent in the Descovy group) drug-related adverse event was diarrhea. (gilead.com)
  • Maybe we should treat marijuana in the same way that we treat any other new drug that someone argues should be used therapeutically. (foxnews.com)
  • The term steroids are normally associated with drugs that are used to treat many medical conditions. (ipl.org)
  • Buprenex is a prescription drug that's used to treat pain in adults and in children ages 2 to 12 years. (healthline.com)
  • Serious adverse events (AEs) are defined by the regulation as those involving "death, a life-threatening adverse drug experience, inpatient hospitalization or prolongation of existing hospitalization, a persistent or significant disability/incapacity, or a congenital anomaly/birth defect. (stanford.edu)
  • Manufacturer compliance with the regulation to report serious and unexpected AEs to the FDA within 15 calendar days is unknown, although some media coverage has offered anecdotal examples of delays. (stanford.edu)
  • Prolonged administration of TUSSIONEX Pennkinetic Extended-Release Suspension may produce constipation. (globalrph.com)
  • One specific form of CBD is approved as a drug in the U.S. for seizures. (medlineplus.gov)
  • FIORINAL (Butalbital, Aspirin, and Caffeine Capsules, USP) is supplied in capsule form for oral administration. (drugs.com)
  • This graph shows the total number of publications written about "Pulse Therapy, Drug" by people in Harvard Catalyst Profiles by year, and whether "Pulse Therapy, Drug" was a major or minor topic of these publication. (harvard.edu)
  • Below are the most recent publications written about "Pulse Therapy, Drug" by people in Profiles. (harvard.edu)
  • The rate of weight loss is greatest in the first weeks of therapy for both drug and placebo subjects and tends to decrease in succeeding weeks. (nih.gov)
  • This form of content syndication also gives organizations the ability to offer a PDF of each schedule on their website. (cdc.gov)
  • This article describes the dosages of Buprenex, including its form, strength, and how the drug is given. (healthline.com)
  • Health-care providers are advised to use both the recommended schedule and the catch-up schedule ( Figures 1 and 2 ) in combination with their footnotes (pages 6-8) and not as stand-alones. (cdc.gov)
  • The New Jersey-based arm of the drug firm is recalling 1,200 bottles of Trandolapril and Verapamil Hydrochloride extended-release tablets, as per the latest Enforcement Report of the US health regulator. (indiatimes.com)
  • It is designed to assist the development of country specific schedules and is not intended for direct use by health care workers. (who.int)
  • The results of this sampling will help determine which elements of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration lead standard need to be followed. (cdc.gov)
  • Consider the paper type, thickness, and finish to ensure your calendar looks and feels like you envisioned. (marylandreporter.com)
  • The DEA have scheduled this drug as a type III drug. (ipl.org)
  • CDC encourages organizations that have previously relied on copying and posting PDFs of the schedules to their websites to instead use a safer method to consistently display current schedules. (cdc.gov)
  • Drug development and ethics is also important in India, particularly now that the local pharmaceutical industry is expanding and so many drugs trials are outsourced to the country. (who.int)