An important intermediate in lipid biosynthesis and in glycolysis.
A ketotriose compound. Its addition to blood preservation solutions results in better maintenance of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate levels during storage. It is readily phosphorylated to dihydroxyacetone phosphate by triokinase in erythrocytes. In combination with naphthoquinones it acts as a sunscreening agent.
Trioses are monosaccharides, specifically simple sugars, that contain three carbon atoms, and can be glyceraldehydes or dihydroxyacetones, which are important intermediates in metabolic pathways such as glycolysis.
Any salt or ester of glycerophosphoric acid.
Glycerolphosphate Dehydrogenase is an enzyme (EC 1.1.1.8) that catalyzes the reversible conversion of dihydroxyacetone phosphate to glycerol 3-phosphate, using nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) as an electron acceptor in the process.
An aldotriose which is an important intermediate in glycolysis and in tryptophan biosynthesis.
An enzyme of the lyase class that catalyzes the cleavage of fructose 1,6-biphosphate to form dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. The enzyme also acts on (3S,4R)-ketose 1-phosphates. The yeast and bacterial enzymes are zinc proteins. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) E.C. 4.1.2.13.
A colorless liquid used as a solvent and an antiseptic. It is one of the ketone bodies produced during ketoacidosis.
Inorganic salts of phosphoric acid.
An enzyme that transfers acyl groups from acyl-CoA to glycerol-3-phosphate to form monoglyceride phosphates. It acts only with CoA derivatives of fatty acids of chain length above C-10. Also forms diglyceride phosphates. EC 2.3.1.15.
An enzyme that catalyzes reversibly the conversion of D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to dihydroxyacetone phosphate. A deficiency in humans causes nonspherocytic hemolytic disease (ANEMIA, HEMOLYTIC, CONGENITAL NONSPHEROCYTIC). EC 5.3.1.1.
Enzymes from the transferase class that catalyze the transfer of acyl groups from donor to acceptor, forming either esters or amides. (From Enzyme Nomenclature 1992) EC 2.3.
Enzymes that catalyze the transfer of aldehyde or ketone residues. EC 2.2.
A trihydroxy sugar alcohol that is an intermediate in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. It is used as a solvent, emollient, pharmaceutical agent, and sweetening agent.
Fructosephosphates are organic compounds resulting from the combination of fructose with a phosphate group, playing crucial roles in various metabolic processes, particularly within carbohydrate metabolism.
An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of glycerol 3-phosphate from ATP and glycerol. Dihydroxyacetone and L-glyceraldehyde can also act as acceptors; UTP and, in the case of the yeast enzyme, ITP and GTP can act as donors. It provides a way for glycerol derived from fats or glycerides to enter the glycolytic pathway. EC 2.7.1.30.
Glyceraldehyde is a triose sugar, a simple monosaccharide (sugar) that contains three carbon atoms, with the molecular formula C3H6O3, and it exists in two structural forms, namely D-glyceraldehyde and L-glyceraldehyde, which are diastereomers of each other, and it is a key intermediate in several biochemical pathways, including glycolysis and gluconeogenesis.
Inorganic salts or organic esters of phosphorous acid that contain the (3-)PO3 radical. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Electron-dense cytoplasmic particles bounded by a single membrane, such as PEROXISOMES; GLYOXYSOMES; and glycosomes.
A FENFLURAMINE analog that inhibits serotonin uptake and may provoke release of serotonin. It is used as an appetite depressant and an experimental tool in animal studies.
An enzyme of the transferase class that catalyzes the reaction sedoheptulose 7-phosphate and D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to yield D-erythrose 4-phosphate and D-fructose phosphate in the PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY. (Dorland, 27th ed) EC 2.2.1.2.
An ester of glucose with phosphoric acid, made in the course of glucose metabolism by mammalian and other cells. It is a normal constituent of resting muscle and probably is in constant equilibrium with fructose-6-phosphate. (Stedman, 26th ed)
Diphosphoric acid esters of fructose. The fructose-1,6- diphosphate isomer is most prevalent. It is an important intermediate in the glycolysis process.
A metabolic process that converts GLUCOSE into two molecules of PYRUVIC ACID through a series of enzymatic reactions. Energy generated by this process is conserved in two molecules of ATP. Glycolysis is the universal catabolic pathway for glucose, free glucose, or glucose derived from complex CARBOHYDRATES, such as GLYCOGEN and STARCH.
Enzymes that catalyze a reverse aldol condensation. A molecule containing a hydroxyl group and a carbonyl group is cleaved at a C-C bond to produce two smaller molecules (ALDEHYDES or KETONES). EC 4.1.2.
Quinolinic acid is a physiologically occurring metabolite of the kynurenine pathway, involved in the metabolism of tryptophan, which functions as a neuroexcitatory agent and has been implicated in several neurological disorders, including Huntington's disease and HIV-associated dementia.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
Method for assessing flow through a system by injection of a known quantity of radionuclide into the system and monitoring its concentration over time at a specific point in the system. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
An organic compound used often as a reagent in organic synthesis, as a flavoring agent, and in tanning. It has been demonstrated as an intermediate in the metabolism of acetone and its derivatives in isolated cell preparations, in various culture media, and in vivo in certain animals.
Transferases are enzymes transferring a group, for example, the methyl group or a glycosyl group, from one compound (generally regarded as donor) to another compound (generally regarded as acceptor). The classification is based on the scheme "donor:acceptor group transferase". (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.
A somewhat heterogeneous class of enzymes that catalyze the transfer of alkyl or related groups (excluding methyl groups). EC 2.5.
A fatty acid coenzyme derivative which plays a key role in fatty acid oxidation and biosynthesis.
A coenzyme composed of ribosylnicotinamide 5'-diphosphate coupled to adenosine 5'-phosphate by pyrophosphate linkage. It is found widely in nature and is involved in numerous enzymatic reactions in which it serves as an electron carrier by being alternately oxidized (NAD+) and reduced (NADH). (Dorland, 27th ed)
A sulfhydryl reagent that is widely used in experimental biochemical studies.
Organic compounds that contain phosphorus as an integral part of the molecule. Included under this heading is broad array of synthetic compounds that are used as PESTICIDES and DRUGS.
A transplantable, poorly differentiated malignant tumor which appeared originally as a spontaneous breast carcinoma in a mouse. It grows in both solid and ascitic forms.
The normality of a solution with respect to HYDROGEN ions; H+. It is related to acidity measurements in most cases by pH = log 1/2[1/(H+)], where (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per liter of solution. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
Fatty acid derivatives of glycerophosphates. They are composed of glycerol bound in ester linkage with 1 mole of phosphoric acid at the terminal 3-hydroxyl group and with 2 moles of fatty acids at the other two hydroxyl groups.
Reversibly catalyzes the oxidation of a hydroxyl group of sugar alcohols to form a keto sugar, aldehyde or lactone. Any acceptor except molecular oxygen is permitted. Includes EC 1.1.1.; EC 1.1.2. and EC 1.1.99.
A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement.
Errors in the metabolism of LIPIDS resulting from inborn genetic MUTATIONS that are heritable.
GLYCEROL esterified with FATTY ACIDS.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts.
The addition of an organic acid radical into a molecule.
Unstable isotopes of carbon that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. C atoms with atomic weights 10, 11, and 14-16 are radioactive carbon isotopes.
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
Calcium salts of phosphoric acid. These compounds are frequently used as calcium supplements.
A group of enzymes that transfers a phosphate group onto an alcohol group acceptor. EC 2.7.1.
A rod-shaped to ellipsoidal, gram-negative bacterium which oxidizes ethanol to acetic acid and prefers sugar-enriched environments. (From Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th ed)
Enzymes that catalyze the dehydrogenation of GLYCERALDEHYDE 3-PHOSPHATE. Several types of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase exist including phosphorylating and non-phosphorylating varieties and ones that transfer hydrogen to NADP and ones that transfer hydrogen to NAD.
'Sugar phosphates' are organic compounds that consist of a sugar molecule linked to one or more phosphate groups, playing crucial roles in biochemical processes such as energy transfer and nucleic acid metabolism.
Tritium is an isotope of hydrogen (specifically, hydrogen-3) that contains one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus, making it radioactive with a half-life of about 12.3 years, and is used in various applications including nuclear research, illumination, and dating techniques due to its low energy beta decay.
Mitochondria in hepatocytes. As in all mitochondria, there are an outer membrane and an inner membrane, together creating two separate mitochondrial compartments: the internal matrix space and a much narrower intermembrane space. In the liver mitochondrion, an estimated 67% of the total mitochondrial proteins is located in the matrix. (From Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 2d ed, p343-4)
Biosynthesis of GLUCOSE from nonhexose or non-carbohydrate precursors, such as LACTATE; PYRUVATE; ALANINE; and GLYCEROL.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
A chemical reaction in which an electron is transferred from one molecule to another. The electron-donating molecule is the reducing agent or reductant; the electron-accepting molecule is the oxidizing agent or oxidant. Reducing and oxidizing agents function as conjugate reductant-oxidant pairs or redox pairs (Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, 1982, p471).
A colorless, flammable liquid used in the manufacture of FORMALDEHYDE and ACETIC ACID, in chemical synthesis, antifreeze, and as a solvent. Ingestion of methanol is toxic and may cause blindness.
Pyruvates, in the context of medical and biochemistry definitions, are molecules that result from the final step of glycolysis, containing a carboxylic acid group and an aldehyde group, playing a crucial role in cellular metabolism, including being converted into Acetyl-CoA to enter the Krebs cycle or lactate under anaerobic conditions.
An oxidative decarboxylation process that converts GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE to D-ribose-5-phosphate via 6-phosphogluconate. The pentose product is used in the biosynthesis of NUCLEIC ACIDS. The generated energy is stored in the form of NADPH. This pathway is prominent in tissues which are active in the synthesis of FATTY ACIDS and STEROIDS.
A species of the genus SACCHAROMYCES, family Saccharomycetaceae, order Saccharomycetales, known as "baker's" or "brewer's" yeast. The dried form is used as a dietary supplement.
Salts or esters of LACTIC ACID containing the general formula CH3CHOHCOOR.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
Artifactual vesicles formed from the endoplasmic reticulum when cells are disrupted. They are isolated by differential centrifugation and are composed of three structural features: rough vesicles, smooth vesicles, and ribosomes. Numerous enzyme activities are associated with the microsomal fraction. (Glick, Glossary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 1990; from Rieger et al., Glossary of Genetics: Classical and Molecular, 5th ed)
A rather large group of enzymes comprising not only those transferring phosphate but also diphosphate, nucleotidyl residues, and others. These have also been subdivided according to the acceptor group. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.7.
The study of crystal structure using X-RAY DIFFRACTION techniques. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
Stable carbon atoms that have the same atomic number as the element carbon, but differ in atomic weight. C-13 is a stable carbon isotope.
Closed vesicles of fragmented endoplasmic reticulum created when liver cells or tissue are disrupted by homogenization. They may be smooth or rough.
A generic term for fats and lipoids, the alcohol-ether-soluble constituents of protoplasm, which are insoluble in water. They comprise the fats, fatty oils, essential oils, waxes, phospholipids, glycolipids, sulfolipids, aminolipids, chromolipids (lipochromes), and fatty acids. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)

Redundant systems of phosphatidic acid biosynthesis via acylation of glycerol-3-phosphate or dihydroxyacetone phosphate in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. (1/115)

In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae lipid particles harbor two acyltransferases, Gat1p and Slc1p, which catalyze subsequent steps of acylation required for the formation of phosphatidic acid. Both enzymes are also components of the endoplasmic reticulum, but this compartment contains additional acyltransferase(s) involved in the biosynthesis of phosphatidic acid (K. Athenstaedt and G. Daum, J. Bacteriol. 179:7611-7616, 1997). Using the gat1 mutant strain TTA1, we show here that Gat1p present in both subcellular fractions accepts glycerol-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate as a substrate. Similarly, the additional acyltransferase(s) present in the endoplasmic reticulum can acylate both precursors. In contrast, yeast mitochondria harbor an enzyme(s) that significantly prefers dihydroxyacetone phosphate as a substrate for acylation, suggesting that at least one additional independent acyltransferase is present in this organelle. Surprisingly, enzymatic activity of 1-acyldihydroxyacetone phosphate reductase, which is required for the conversion of 1-acyldihydroxyacetone phosphate to 1-acylglycerol-3-phosphate (lysophosphatidic acid), is detectable only in lipid particles and the endoplasmic reticulum and not in mitochondria. In vivo labeling of wild-type cells with [2-3H, U-14C]glycerol revealed that both glycerol-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate can be incorporated as a backbone of glycerolipids. In the gat1 mutant and the 1-acylglycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase slc1 mutant, the dihydroxyacetone phosphate pathway of phosphatidic acid biosynthesis is slightly preferred as compared to the wild type. Thus, mutations of the major acyltransferases Gat1p and Slc1p lead to an increased contribution of mitochondrial acyltransferase(s) to glycerolipid synthesis due to their substrate preference for dihydroxyacetone phosphate.  (+info)

The glycerol phosphate, dihydroxyacetone phosphate and monoacylglycerol pathways of glycerolipid synthesis in rat adipose-tissue homogenates. (2/115)

1. Fat-free homogenates from the epididymal fat-pads of rats were used to measure the rate of palmitate esterification with different substrates. The effectiveness of the acyl acceptors decreased in the order glycerol phosphate, dihydroxyacetone phosphate, 2-octadecenyl-glycerol and 2-hexadecylglycerol. 2. Glycerol phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate inhibited their rates of esterification in a mutually competitive manner. 3. The esterification of glycerol phosphate was also inhibited in a partially competitive manner by 2-octadecenylglycerol and to a lesser extent by 2-hexadecylglycerol. However, glycerol phosphate did not inhibit the esterification of 2-octadecenylglycerol. 4. The esterification of dihydroxyacetone phosphate and 2-hexadecylglycerol was more sensitive to inhibition by clofenapate than was that of glycerol phosphate. Norfenfluramine was more effective in inhibiting the esterification of 2-hexadecylglycerol than that of glycerol phosphate or dihydroxyacetone phosphate. 5 It is concluded that rat adipose tissue can synthesize glycerolipids by three independent routes.  (+info)

The effects of diet on the esterification of glycerol phosphate, dihydroxyacetone phosphate and 2-hexadecylglycerol by homogenates of rat adipose tissue. (3/115)

1. Male rats were fed for 5 weeks after weaning on a diet containing (by weight) 59% of starch or on diets that contained 39% of starch and 20% of either sucrose, beef tallow or corn oil. 2. The rats fed on the beef tallow consumed more energy than did the rats fed on the starch and sucrose diets. The rats fed on the corn oil drank less water than did the other groups of rats. 3. There were no significant differences between the four groups in terms of body-weight gain, epididymal-fat-pad weight and in the size, number and triacylglycerol content of the adipocytes in the fat-pads. 4. There was a significant correlation (P less than 0.001) between the activities of glycerol phosphate acyltransferase and monoacylglycerol acyltransferase in individual rats. Both of these activities were highest in the group fed on the high-starch diet and both correlated with the consumption of glucose by individual rats in the four groups. 5. The percentage of glycerol phosphate converted into diacylglycerol and triacylglycerol was positively correlated with the mean diameters, surface area and triacylglycerol content of the adipocytes for individual rats and was greates in the sucrose-fed rats. 6. The specific activity of dihydroxyacetone phosphate acyltransferase was highest in the rats fed on beef tallow. This activity was positively correlated with the energy intake for all dietary groups over the 5-week feeding period. 7. The results are discussed in terms of the functions of the three routes of glycerolipid synthesis in adipose tissue.  (+info)

A functional arginine residue in rabbit-muscle aldolase. (4/115)

Rabbit muscle aldolase is irreversibly modified by the arginine-selective alpha-dicarbonyl, phenylglyoxal, loss of activity correlating with the unique modifications of one arginine residue per subunit, as determined by amino acid analysis, and (7-14C)phenylglyoxal incorporation. The affinity of the modified enzyme for dihydroxyacetone phosphate is significantly reduced while substantial protection against inactivation is afforded by fructose 1,6-disphosphate, dihydroxyacetone phosphate or phosphate ion. The nature of the substrate C-1 phosphate binding site in this enzyme is discussed in the light of these and other results.  (+info)

Magnetic resonance detects metabolic changes associated with chemotherapy-induced apoptosis. (5/115)

Apoptosis was induced by treating L1210 leukaemia cells with mechlorethamine, and SW620 colorectal cells with doxorubicin. The onset and progression of apoptosis were monitored by assessing caspase activation, mitochondrial transmembrane potential, phosphatidylserine externalization, DNA fragmentation and cell morphology. In parallel, 31P magnetic resonance (MR) spectra of cell extracts were recorded. In L1210 cells, caspase activation was detected at 4 h. By 3 h, the MR spectra showed a steady decrease in NTP and NAD, and a significant build-up of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (F-1,6-P) dihydroxyacetonephosphate and glycerol-3-phosphate, indicating modulation of glycolysis. Treatment with iodoacetate also induced a build-up of F-1,6-P, while preincubation with two poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors, 3-aminobenzamide and nicotinamide, prevented the drop in NAD and the build-up of glycolytic intermediates. This suggested that our results were due to inhibition of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, possibly as a consequence of NAD depletion following poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase activation. Doxorubicin treatment of the adherent SW620 cells caused cells committed to apoptosis to detach. F-1,6-P was observed in detached cells, but not in treated cells that remained attached. This indicated that our observations were not cell line- or treatment-specific, but were correlated with the appearance of apoptotic cells following drug treatment. The 31P MR spectrum of tumours responding to chemotherapy could be modulated by similar effects.  (+info)

Phosphatidic acid, a key intermediate in lipid metabolism. (6/115)

Phosphatidic acid (PtdOH) is a key intermediate in glycerolipid biosynthesis. Two different pathways are known for de novo formation of this compound, namely (a) the Gro3P (glycerol 3-phosphate) pathway, and (b) the GrnP (dihydroxyacetone phosphate) pathway. Whereas the former route of PtdOH synthesis is present in bacteria and all types of eukaryotes, the GrnP pathway is restricted to yeast and mammalian cells. In this review article, we describe the enzymes catalyzing de novo formation of PtdOH, their properties and their occurrence in different cell types and organelles. Much attention has recently been paid to the subcellular localization of enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of PtdOH. In all eukaryotic cells, microsomes (ER) harbour the complete set of enzymes catalyzing these pathways and are thus the usual organelle for PtdOH formation. In contrast, the contribution of mitochondria to PtdOH synthesis is restricted to certain enzymes and depends on the cell type. In addition, chloroplasts of plants, lipid particles of the yeast, and peroxisomes of mammalian cells are significantly involved in PtdOH biosynthesis. Redundant systems of acyltransferases, the interplay of organelles, regulation of the pathway on the compartmental level, and finally the contribution of alternative pathways (phosphorylation of diacylglycerol and cleavage of phospholipids by phospholipases) to PtdOH biosynthesis appear to be required for the balanced formation of this important lipid intermediate. Dysfunction of enzymes involved in PtdOH synthesis can result in severe defects of various cellular processes. In this context, the possible physiological role(s) of PtdOH and its related metabolites, lysophosphatidic acid and diacylglycerol, will be discussed.  (+info)

Enhanced association of mutant triosephosphate isomerase to red cell membranes and to brain microtubules. (7/115)

In a Hungarian family with triosephosphate isomerase (TPI; D-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate keto-isomerase, EC 5.3.1.1) deficiency, two germ-line identical, but phenotypically differing compound heterozygote brothers (one of them with neurological disorder) have been identified with the same very low (<5%) TPI activity and 20- or 40-fold higher erythrocyte dihydroxyacetone phosphate levels as compared with normal controls. Our present studies with purified TPI and hemolysates revealed the binding of TPI, and the binding of human wild-type and mutant TPIs in hemolysate, to the red cell membrane, and the interference of binding with other hemolysate proteins. The binding of the mutant TPI is enhanced as compared with the wild-type enzyme. The increased binding is influenced by both the altered structure of the mutant and the changes in the red cell membrane. Compared with binding of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, the isomerase binding is much less sensitive to ionic strength or blocking of the N-terminal tail of the band-3 transmembrane protein. The binding of TPIs to the membrane decreases the isomerase activity, resulting in extremely high dihydroxyacetone phosphate levels in deficient cells. In cell-free brain extract, tubulin copolymerizes with TPI and with other cytosolic proteins forming highly decorated microtubules as shown by immunoblot analysis with anti-TPI antibody and by electron microscopic images. The efficacy order of TPI binding to microtubules is propositus > brother without neurological disorder > normal control. This distinct microcompartmentation of mutant proteins may be relevant in the development of the neurodegenerative process in TPI deficiency and in other, more common neurological diseases.  (+info)

Alkyl-dihydroxyacetonephosphate synthase. Presence and role of flavin adenine dinucleotide. (8/115)

Alkyl-dihydroxyacetonephosphate synthase is a peroxisomal enzyme involved in ether lipid synthesis. It catalyzes the exchange of the acyl chain in acyl-dihydroxyacetonephosphate for a long chain fatty alcohol, yielding the first ether linked intermediate, i.e. alkyl-dihydroxyacetonephosphate, in the pathway of ether lipid biosynthesis. Although this reaction is not a net redox reaction, the amino acid sequence of the enzyme suggested the presence of a flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)-binding domain. In this study we show that alkyl-dihydroxyacetonephosphate synthase contains an essential FAD molecule as cofactor, which is evidenced by fluorescence properties, UV-visible absorption spectra and the observation that the enzyme activity is dependent on the presence of this cofactor in a coupled in vitro transcription/translation assay. Furthermore, we could demonstrate that the FAD cofactor directly participates in catalysis. Upon incubation of the enzyme with the substrate palmitoyl-dihydroxyacetonephosphate, the flavin moiety is reduced, indicating that in this initial step the substrate is oxidized. Stopped flow experiments show that the reduction of the flavin moiety is a monophasic process yielding a oxygen stable, reduced enzyme species. Upon addition of hexadecanol to the reduced enzyme species, the flavin moiety is efficiently reoxidized. A hypothetical reaction mechanism is proposed that is consistent with the data in this paper and with previous studies.  (+info)

Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate (DHAP) is a 3-carbon organic compound that plays a crucial role in the metabolic pathway called glycolysis. It is an intermediate molecule formed during the conversion of glucose into pyruvate, which ultimately produces energy in the form of ATP.

In the glycolytic process, DHAP is produced from glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme triose phosphate isomerase. Then, DHAP is converted back to G3P in a subsequent step, which prepares it for further processing in the glycolytic pathway. This reversible conversion of DHAP and G3P helps maintain the equilibrium of the glycolytic process.

Apart from its role in energy metabolism, DHAP is also involved in other biochemical processes, such as the synthesis of glucose during gluconeogenesis and the formation of lipids in the liver.

Dihydroxyacetone (DHA) is a simple sugar that is used as an ingredient in many self-tanning products. When applied to the skin, DHA reacts with amino acids in the dead layer of the skin to temporarily darken the skin color. This process is known as the Maillard reaction, which is a chemical reaction between an amino acid and a sugar. The effect of DHA is limited to the uppermost layer of the skin and it does not provide any protection against sunburn or UV radiation. The tanning effect produced by DHA usually lasts for about 5-7 days.

It's important to note that while DHA is considered safe for external use, it should not be inhaled or ingested, as it can cause irritation and other adverse effects. Additionally, some people may experience skin irritation or allergic reactions to products containing DHA, so it's always a good idea to do a patch test before using a new self-tanning product.

Trioses are simple sugars that contain three carbon atoms and a functional group called a ketone or aldehyde. They are the simplest type of sugar molecule, after monosaccharides such as glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone.

Triose sugars can exist in two structural forms:

* Dihydroxyacetone (DHA), which is a ketotriose with the formula CH2OH-CO-CH2OH, and
* Glyceraldehyde (GA), which is an aldotriose with the formula HO-CHOH-CHO.

Trioses play important roles in various metabolic pathways, including glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis. In particular, DHA and GA are intermediates in the conversion of glucose to pyruvate during glycolysis, and they are also produced from pyruvate during gluconeogenesis.

Trioses can be synthesized chemically or biochemically through various methods, such as enzymatic reactions or microbial fermentation. They have potential applications in the food, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries, as they can serve as building blocks for more complex carbohydrates or as precursors for other organic compounds.

Glycerophosphates are esters of glycerol and phosphoric acid. In the context of biochemistry and medicine, glycerophosphates often refer to glycerol 3-phosphate (also known as glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or glycerone phosphate) and its derivatives.

Glycerol 3-phosphate plays a crucial role in cellular metabolism, particularly in the process of energy production and storage. It is an important intermediate in both glycolysis (the breakdown of glucose to produce energy) and gluconeogenesis (the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors).

In addition, glycerophosphates are also involved in the formation of phospholipids, a major component of cell membranes. The esterification of glycerol 3-phosphate with fatty acids leads to the synthesis of phosphatidic acid, which is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of other phospholipids.

Abnormalities in glycerophosphate metabolism have been implicated in various diseases, including metabolic disorders and neurological conditions.

Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the metabolism of glucose and lipids. It catalyzes the conversion of dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) to glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P), which is a key intermediate in the synthesis of triglycerides, phospholipids, and other glycerophospholipids.

There are two main forms of GPD: a cytoplasmic form (GPD1) and a mitochondrial form (GPD2). The cytoplasmic form is involved in the production of NADH, which is used in various metabolic processes, while the mitochondrial form is involved in the production of ATP, the main energy currency of the cell.

Deficiencies or mutations in GPD can lead to a variety of metabolic disorders, including glycerol kinase deficiency and congenital muscular dystrophy. Elevated levels of GPD have been observed in certain types of cancer, suggesting that it may play a role in tumor growth and progression.

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) is a crucial intermediate in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis metabolic pathways. It is an triose sugar phosphate, which means it contains three carbon atoms and has a phosphate group attached to it.

In the glycolysis process, G3P is produced during the third step of the process from the molecule dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) via the enzyme triosephosphate isomerase. In the following steps, G3P is converted into 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, which eventually leads to the production of ATP and NADH.

In gluconeogenesis, G3P is produced from the reverse reaction of the glycolytic enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, using the molecule dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) as a starting point. G3P is then converted into glucose-6-phosphate, which can be further metabolized or released from the cell.

It's important to note that Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate plays a key role in energy production and carbohydrate metabolism.

Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase is a crucial enzyme in the glycolytic pathway, which is a metabolic process that breaks down glucose to produce energy. This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into two triose sugars: dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.

There are two main types of aldolase isoenzymes in humans, classified as aldolase A (or muscle type) and aldolase B (or liver type). Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase refers specifically to aldolase A, which is primarily found in the muscles, brain, and red blood cells. Aldolase B, on the other hand, is predominantly found in the liver, kidney, and small intestine.

Deficiency or dysfunction of fructose-bisphosphate aldolase can lead to metabolic disorders, such as hereditary fructose intolerance, which results from a deficiency in another enzyme called aldolase B. However, it is essential to note that the term "fructose-bisphosphate aldolase" typically refers to aldolase A and not aldolase B.

Acetone is a colorless, volatile, and flammable liquid organic compound with the chemical formula (CH3)2CO. It is the simplest and smallest ketone, and its molecules consist of a carbonyl group linked to two methyl groups. Acetone occurs naturally in the human body and is produced as a byproduct of normal metabolic processes, particularly during fat burning.

In clinical settings, acetone can be measured in breath or blood to assess metabolic status, such as in cases of diabetic ketoacidosis, where an excess production of acetone and other ketones occurs due to insulin deficiency and high levels of fatty acid breakdown. High concentrations of acetone can lead to a sweet, fruity odor on the breath, often described as "fruity acetone" or "acetone breath."

Phosphates, in a medical context, refer to the salts or esters of phosphoric acid. Phosphates play crucial roles in various biological processes within the human body. They are essential components of bones and teeth, where they combine with calcium to form hydroxyapatite crystals. Phosphates also participate in energy transfer reactions as phosphate groups attached to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Additionally, they contribute to buffer systems that help maintain normal pH levels in the body.

Abnormal levels of phosphates in the blood can indicate certain medical conditions. High phosphate levels (hyperphosphatemia) may be associated with kidney dysfunction, hyperparathyroidism, or excessive intake of phosphate-containing products. Low phosphate levels (hypophosphatemia) might result from malnutrition, vitamin D deficiency, or certain diseases affecting the small intestine or kidneys. Both hypophosphatemia and hyperphosphatemia can have significant impacts on various organ systems and may require medical intervention.

Glycerol-3-Phosphate O-Acyltransferase (GPAT) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the biosynthesis of triacylglycerols and phospholipids, which are major components of cellular membranes and energy storage molecules. The GPAT enzyme catalyzes the initial and rate-limiting step in the glycerolipid synthesis pathway, specifically the transfer of an acyl group from an acyl-CoA donor to the sn-1 position of glycerol-3-phosphate, forming lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). This reaction is essential for the production of various glycerolipids, including phosphatidic acid, diacylglycerol, and triacylglycerol. There are four isoforms of GPAT (GPAT1-4) in humans, each with distinct subcellular localizations and functions. Dysregulation of GPAT activity has been implicated in several pathological conditions, such as metabolic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and cancers.

Triose-phosphate isomerase (TPI) is a crucial enzyme in the glycolytic pathway, which is a metabolic process that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH as energy currency for the cell. TPI specifically catalyzes the reversible interconversion of the triose phosphates dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). This interconversion is a vital step in maintaining the balance of metabolites in the glycolytic pathway.

The reaction catalyzed by TPI is as follows:

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate ↔ Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

Deficiency or mutations in the gene encoding triose-phosphate isomerase can lead to a severe autosomal recessive disorder known as Triose Phosphate Isomerase Deficiency (TID). This condition is characterized by chronic hemolytic anemia, neuromuscular symptoms, and shortened lifespan.

Acyltransferases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the transfer of an acyl group (a functional group consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and single-bonded to a hydrogen atom) from one molecule to another. This transfer involves the formation of an ester bond between the acyl group donor and the acyl group acceptor.

Acyltransferases play important roles in various biological processes, including the biosynthesis of lipids, fatty acids, and other metabolites. They are also involved in the detoxification of xenobiotics (foreign substances) by catalyzing the addition of an acyl group to these compounds, making them more water-soluble and easier to excrete from the body.

Examples of acyltransferases include serine palmitoyltransferase, which is involved in the biosynthesis of sphingolipids, and cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP), which facilitates the transfer of cholesteryl esters between lipoproteins.

Acyltransferases are classified based on the type of acyl group they transfer and the nature of the acyl group donor and acceptor molecules. They can be further categorized into subclasses based on their sequence similarities, three-dimensional structures, and evolutionary relationships.

Aldehyde-ketone transferases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the transfer of an aldehyde or ketone group from one molecule to another. These enzymes play a crucial role in various metabolic pathways, including the detoxification of harmful aldehydes produced during alcohol metabolism and the biosynthesis of complex carbohydrates and lipids.

One example of an aldehyde-ketone transferase is acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH), which is responsible for converting toxic acetaldehyde, a byproduct of alcohol metabolism, into non-toxic acetate. Another example is mevalonate kinase, which transfers a phosphate group to mevalonic acid, an important intermediate in the biosynthesis of cholesterol and other steroids.

Deficiencies or mutations in aldehyde-ketone transferases can lead to various metabolic disorders and diseases, such as alcohol intolerance, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and certain inherited neurological conditions.

Glycerol, also known as glycerine or glycerin, is a simple polyol (a sugar alcohol) with a sweet taste and a thick, syrupy consistency. It is a colorless, odorless, viscous liquid that is slightly soluble in water and freely miscible with ethanol and ether.

In the medical field, glycerol is often used as a medication or supplement. It can be used as a laxative to treat constipation, as a source of calories and energy for people who cannot eat by mouth, and as a way to prevent dehydration in people with certain medical conditions.

Glycerol is also used in the production of various medical products, such as medications, skin care products, and vaccines. It acts as a humectant, which means it helps to keep things moist, and it can also be used as a solvent or preservative.

In addition to its medical uses, glycerol is also widely used in the food industry as a sweetener, thickening agent, and moisture-retaining agent. It is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (also known as fructose 1,6-diphosphate or Fru-1,6-BP) is the chemical compound that plays a crucial role in cellular respiration and glucose metabolism. It is not accurate to refer to "fructosephosphates" as a medical term, but fructose-1-phosphate and fructose-1,6-bisphosphate are important fructose phosphates with specific functions in the body.

Fructose-1-phosphate is an intermediate metabolite formed during the breakdown of fructose in the liver, while fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is a key regulator of glycolysis, the process by which glucose is broken down to produce energy in the form of ATP. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate allosterically regulates the enzyme phosphofructokinase, which is the rate-limiting step in glycolysis, and its levels are tightly controlled to maintain proper glucose metabolism. Dysregulation of fructose metabolism has been implicated in various metabolic disorders, including insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

Glycerol kinase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the metabolism of glycerol, which is a simple carbohydrate. The enzyme catalyzes the conversion of glycerol to glycerol-3-phosphate by transferring a phosphate group from ATP to glycerol. This reaction is an essential step in the metabolic pathway that leads to the formation of glucose or other energy-rich compounds in the body.

There are two main forms of glycerol kinase found in humans, designated as GK1 and GK2. GK1 is primarily expressed in the liver, while GK2 is found in various tissues, including the brain, heart, and muscles. Deficiencies in glycerol kinase can lead to metabolic disorders such as hyperglycerolemia, which is characterized by high levels of glycerol in the blood.

Glyceraldehyde is a triose, a simple sugar consisting of three carbon atoms. It is a clear, colorless, sweet-tasting liquid that is used as a sweetener and preservative in the food industry. In the medical field, glyceraldehyde is used in research and diagnostics, particularly in the study of carbohydrate metabolism and enzyme function.

Glyceraldehyde is also an important intermediate in the glycolytic pathway, which is a series of reactions that convert glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH as energy-rich compounds. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate in this pathway.

In addition, glyceraldehyde has been studied for its potential role in the development of diabetic complications and other diseases associated with carbohydrate metabolism disorders.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Phosphites" is not a term commonly used in medical definitions. It is a term more frequently used in chemistry and biochemistry, where it refers to salts or esters of phosphorous acid in which the phosphorus has an oxidation state of +3. If you're looking for information on a medical topic, could you please provide more context or clarify what you're asking? I'm here to help!

Microbodies are small, membrane-bound organelles found in the cells of eukaryotic organisms. They typically measure between 0.2 to 0.5 micrometers in diameter and play a crucial role in various metabolic processes, particularly in the detoxification of harmful substances and the synthesis of lipids.

There are several types of microbodies, including:

1. Peroxisomes: These are the most common type of microbody. They contain enzymes that help break down fatty acids and amino acids, producing hydrogen peroxide as a byproduct. Another set of enzymes within peroxisomes then converts the harmful hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen, thus detoxifying the cell.
2. Glyoxysomes: These microbodies are primarily found in plants and some fungi. They contain enzymes involved in the glyoxylate cycle, a metabolic pathway that helps convert stored fats into carbohydrates during germination.
3. Microbody-like particles (MLPs): These are smaller organelles found in certain protists and algae. Their functions are not well understood but are believed to be involved in lipid metabolism.

It is important to note that microbodies do not have a uniform structure or function across all eukaryotic cells, and their specific roles can vary depending on the organism and cell type.

Norfenfluramine is not a medication that is currently used in medical practice. It is a serotonin agonist, meaning it binds to and activates serotonin receptors in the body. Norfenfluramine was previously used as an appetite suppressant for the treatment of obesity, but it was withdrawn from the market due to safety concerns. Specifically, it was found to be associated with an increased risk of heart valve damage and primary pulmonary hypertension, a rare but serious lung condition.

The chemical structure of norfenfluramine is similar to that of fenfluramine, another appetite suppressant that was also withdrawn from the market due to safety concerns. Both drugs were found to increase levels of serotonin in the body, which can have harmful effects on the heart and lungs. Norfenfluramine is still occasionally used in research settings to study the effects of serotonin agonists on various physiological processes, but it is not used as a medication.

Transaldolase is not a medical term per se, but it is a term used in biochemistry and molecular biology. Transaldolase is an enzyme involved in the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), which is a metabolic pathway that supplies reducing energy to cells by converting glucose-6-phosphate into ribulose-5-phosphate, a key intermediate in the synthesis of nucleotides.

The medical relevance of transaldolase lies in its role in maintaining cellular redox balance and providing precursors for nucleic acid synthesis. Defects in the PPP can lead to various metabolic disorders, including some forms of congenital cataracts, neurological dysfunction, and growth retardation. However, specific diseases or conditions directly attributed to transaldolase deficiency are not well-established.

Glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) is a vital intermediate compound in the metabolism of glucose, which is a simple sugar that serves as a primary source of energy for living organisms. G6P plays a critical role in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis pathways, contributing to the regulation of blood glucose levels and energy production within cells.

In biochemistry, glucose-6-phosphate is defined as:

A hexose sugar phosphate ester formed by the phosphorylation of glucose at the 6th carbon atom by ATP in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme hexokinase or glucokinase. This reaction is the first step in both glycolysis and glucose storage (glycogen synthesis) processes, ensuring that glucose can be effectively utilized for energy production or stored for later use.

G6P serves as a crucial metabolic branch point, leading to various pathways such as:

1. Glycolysis: In the presence of sufficient ATP and NAD+ levels, G6P is further metabolized through glycolysis to generate pyruvate, which enters the citric acid cycle for additional energy production in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
2. Gluconeogenesis: During periods of low blood glucose levels, G6P can be synthesized back into glucose through the gluconeogenesis pathway, primarily occurring in the liver and kidneys. This process helps maintain stable blood glucose concentrations and provides energy to cells when dietary intake is insufficient.
3. Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP): A portion of G6P can be shunted into the PPP, an alternative metabolic route that generates NADPH, ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis, and erythrose-4-phosphate for aromatic amino acid production. The PPP is essential in maintaining redox balance within cells and supporting biosynthetic processes.

Overall, glucose-6-phosphate plays a critical role as a central metabolic intermediate, connecting various pathways to regulate energy homeostasis, redox balance, and biosynthesis in response to cellular demands and environmental cues.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Fructosediphosphates" is not a recognized term in medicine or biochemistry. It's possible there may be a spelling mistake or misunderstanding in the term you're looking for.

If you meant "Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate," that is a key intermediate in carbohydrate metabolism. It's formed from fructose 6-phosphate in the process of glucose breakdown (glycolysis) and is then used in the generation of energy through the citric acid cycle.

If these terms are not what you were looking for, could you please provide more context or check the spelling? I'm here to help!

Glycolysis is a fundamental metabolic pathway that occurs in the cytoplasm of cells, consisting of a series of biochemical reactions. It's the process by which a six-carbon glucose molecule is broken down into two three-carbon pyruvate molecules. This process generates a net gain of two ATP molecules (the main energy currency in cells), two NADH molecules, and two water molecules.

Glycolysis can be divided into two stages: the preparatory phase (or 'energy investment' phase) and the payoff phase (or 'energy generation' phase). During the preparatory phase, glucose is phosphorylated twice to form glucose-6-phosphate and then converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. These reactions consume two ATP molecules but set up the subsequent breakdown of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into triose phosphates in the payoff phase. In this second stage, each triose phosphate is further oxidized and degraded to produce one pyruvate molecule, one NADH molecule, and one ATP molecule through substrate-level phosphorylation.

Glycolysis does not require oxygen to proceed; thus, it can occur under both aerobic (with oxygen) and anaerobic (without oxygen) conditions. In the absence of oxygen, the pyruvate produced during glycolysis is further metabolized through fermentation pathways such as lactic acid fermentation or alcohol fermentation to regenerate NAD+, which is necessary for glycolysis to continue.

In summary, glycolysis is a crucial process in cellular energy metabolism, allowing cells to convert glucose into ATP and other essential molecules while also serving as a starting point for various other biochemical pathways.

Aldehyde-lyases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the breakdown or synthesis of molecules involving an aldehyde group through a reaction known as lyase cleavage. This type of reaction results in the removal of a molecule, typically water or carbon dioxide, from the substrate.

In the case of aldehyde-lyases, these enzymes specifically catalyze reactions that involve the conversion of an aldehyde into a carboxylic acid or vice versa. These enzymes are important in various metabolic pathways and play a crucial role in the biosynthesis and degradation of several biomolecules, including carbohydrates, amino acids, and lipids.

The systematic name for this class of enzymes is "ald(e)hyde-lyases." They are classified under EC number 4.3.1 in the Enzyme Commission (EC) system.

Quinolinic acid is a type of organic compound that belongs to the class of heterocyclic compounds known as quinolines, which contain a bicyclic system made up of a benzene ring fused to a piperidine ring. Quinolinic acid is specifically a derivative of quinoline with a carboxylic acid functional group.

In the context of medicine and biology, quinolinic acid is an endogenous excitatory neurotransmitter and a metabolite in the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism. It is mainly produced in the brain by activated microglia and to some extent by macrophages, neurons, and astrocytes.

Quinolinic acid has been implicated in several neurological disorders, including Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), HIV-associated dementia, and depression. High levels of quinolinic acid can cause excitotoxicity, which is a process of neurotoxicity induced by excessive stimulation of glutamate receptors leading to neuronal damage or death. It has also been suggested that quinolinic acid may play a role in the pathogenesis of some psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

The Radioisotope Dilution Technique is a method used in nuclear medicine to measure the volume and flow rate of a particular fluid in the body. It involves introducing a known amount of a radioactive isotope, or radioisotope, into the fluid, such as blood. The isotope mixes with the fluid, and samples are then taken from the fluid at various time points.

By measuring the concentration of the radioisotope in each sample, it is possible to calculate the total volume of the fluid based on the amount of the isotope introduced and the dilution factor. The flow rate can also be calculated by measuring the concentration of the isotope over time and using the formula:

Flow rate = Volume/Time

This technique is commonly used in medical research and clinical settings to measure cardiac output, cerebral blood flow, and renal function, among other applications. It is a safe and reliable method that has been widely used for many years. However, it does require the use of radioactive materials and specialized equipment, so it should only be performed by trained medical professionals in appropriate facilities.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Pyruvaldehyde" is not a recognized term in medical or clinical sciences. It is, however, a chemical compound with the formula CH3COCHO, which is sometimes used in laboratory research. It might be referred to in the context of biochemistry or pathophysiology of certain diseases, but it's not a term commonly used in medical diagnosis or treatment. Always consult with a healthcare professional or trusted medical source for information related to health and medicine.

Transferases are a class of enzymes that facilitate the transfer of specific functional groups (like methyl, acetyl, or phosphate groups) from one molecule (the donor) to another (the acceptor). This transfer of a chemical group can alter the physical or chemical properties of the acceptor molecule and is a crucial process in various metabolic pathways. Transferases play essential roles in numerous biological processes, such as biosynthesis, detoxification, and catabolism.

The classification of transferases is based on the type of functional group they transfer:

1. Methyltransferases - transfer a methyl group (-CH3)
2. Acetyltransferases - transfer an acetyl group (-COCH3)
3. Aminotransferases or Transaminases - transfer an amino group (-NH2 or -NHR, where R is a hydrogen atom or a carbon-containing group)
4. Glycosyltransferases - transfer a sugar moiety (a glycosyl group)
5. Phosphotransferases - transfer a phosphate group (-PO3H2)
6. Sulfotransferases - transfer a sulfo group (-SO3H)
7. Acyltransferases - transfer an acyl group (a fatty acid or similar molecule)

These enzymes are identified and named according to the systematic nomenclature of enzymes developed by the Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUBMB). The naming convention includes the class of enzyme, the specific group being transferred, and the molecules involved in the transfer reaction. For example, the enzyme that transfers a phosphate group from ATP to glucose is named "glucokinase."

Alkyl and aryl transferases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the transfer of alkyl or aryl groups from one molecule to another. These enzymes play a role in various biological processes, including the metabolism of drugs and other xenobiotics, as well as the biosynthesis of certain natural compounds.

Alkyl transferases typically catalyze the transfer of methyl or ethyl groups, while aryl transferases transfer larger aromatic rings. These enzymes often use cofactors such as S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) or acetyl-CoA to donate the alkyl or aryl group to a recipient molecule.

Examples of alkyl and aryl transferases include:

1. Methyltransferases: enzymes that transfer methyl groups from SAM to various acceptor molecules, such as DNA, RNA, proteins, and small molecules.
2. Histone methyltransferases: enzymes that methylate specific residues on histone proteins, which can affect chromatin structure and gene expression.
3. N-acyltransferases: enzymes that transfer acetyl or other acyl groups to amino groups in proteins or small molecules.
4. O-acyltransferases: enzymes that transfer acyl groups to hydroxyl groups in lipids, steroids, and other molecules.
5. Arylsulfatases: enzymes that remove sulfate groups from aromatic rings, releasing an alcohol and sulfate.
6. Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs): enzymes that transfer the tripeptide glutathione to electrophilic centers in xenobiotics and endogenous compounds, facilitating their detoxification and excretion.

Palmitoyl Coenzyme A, often abbreviated as Palmitoyl-CoA, is a type of fatty acyl coenzyme A that plays a crucial role in the body's metabolism. It is formed from the esterification of palmitic acid (a saturated fatty acid) with coenzyme A.

Medical Definition: Palmitoyl Coenzyme A is a fatty acyl coenzyme A ester, where palmitic acid is linked to coenzyme A via an ester bond. It serves as an important intermediate in lipid metabolism and energy production, particularly through the process of beta-oxidation in the mitochondria. Palmitoyl CoA also plays a role in protein modification, known as S-palmitoylation, which can affect protein localization, stability, and function.

NAD (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) is a coenzyme found in all living cells. It plays an essential role in cellular metabolism, particularly in redox reactions, where it acts as an electron carrier. NAD exists in two forms: NAD+, which accepts electrons and becomes reduced to NADH. This pairing of NAD+/NADH is involved in many fundamental biological processes such as generating energy in the form of ATP during cellular respiration, and serving as a critical cofactor for various enzymes that regulate cellular functions like DNA repair, gene expression, and cell death.

Maintaining optimal levels of NAD+/NADH is crucial for overall health and longevity, as it declines with age and in certain disease states. Therefore, strategies to boost NAD+ levels are being actively researched for their potential therapeutic benefits in various conditions such as aging, neurodegenerative disorders, and metabolic diseases.

Ethylmaleimide is a chemical compound that is commonly used in research and scientific studies. Its chemical formula is C7H10N2S. It is known to modify proteins by forming covalent bonds with them, which can alter their function or structure. This property makes it a useful tool in the study of protein function and interactions.

In a medical context, Ethylmaleimide is not used as a therapeutic agent due to its reactivity and potential toxicity. However, it has been used in research to investigate various physiological processes, including the regulation of ion channels and the modulation of enzyme activity. It is important to note that the use of Ethylmaleimide in medical research should be carried out with appropriate precautions and safety measures due to its potential hazards.

Organophosphorus compounds are a class of chemical substances that contain phosphorus bonded to organic compounds. They are used in various applications, including as plasticizers, flame retardants, pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, and nerve gases), and solvents. In medicine, they are also used in the treatment of certain conditions such as glaucoma. However, organophosphorus compounds can be toxic to humans and animals, particularly those that affect the nervous system by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Exposure to these compounds can cause symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, muscle weakness, and in severe cases, respiratory failure and death.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Carcinoma, Ehrlich Tumor" is not a recognized medical term or a valid medical definition. The term "Ehrlich tumor" is sometimes used to refer to a type of transplantable tumor that was first developed by the German physician Paul Ehrlich in the early 20th century for cancer research purposes. However, it's important to note that this type of tumor is not a naturally occurring cancer and is typically used only in laboratory experiments.

Carcinoma, on the other hand, is a medical term that refers to a type of cancer that starts in cells that line the inner or outer surfaces of organs. Carcinomas can develop in various parts of the body, including the lungs, breasts, colon, and skin.

If you have any specific questions about cancer or a particular medical condition, I would be happy to try to help answer them for you.

Hydrogen-ion concentration, also known as pH, is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is defined as the negative logarithm (to the base 10) of the hydrogen ion activity in a solution. The standard unit of measurement is the pH unit. A pH of 7 is neutral, less than 7 is acidic, and greater than 7 is basic.

In medical terms, hydrogen-ion concentration is important for maintaining homeostasis within the body. For example, in the stomach, a high hydrogen-ion concentration (low pH) is necessary for the digestion of food. However, in other parts of the body such as blood, a high hydrogen-ion concentration can be harmful and lead to acidosis. Conversely, a low hydrogen-ion concentration (high pH) in the blood can lead to alkalosis. Both acidosis and alkalosis can have serious consequences on various organ systems if not corrected.

Phosphatidic acids (PAs) are a type of phospholipid that are essential components of cell membranes. They are composed of a glycerol backbone linked to two fatty acid chains and a phosphate group. The phosphate group is esterified to another molecule, usually either serine, inositol, or choline, forming different types of phosphatidic acids.

PAs are particularly important as they serve as key regulators of many cellular processes, including signal transduction, membrane trafficking, and autophagy. They can act as signaling molecules by binding to and activating specific proteins, such as the enzyme phospholipase D, which generates second messengers involved in various signaling pathways.

PAs are also important intermediates in the synthesis of other phospholipids, such as phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylinositol. They are produced by the enzyme diacylglycerol kinase (DGK), which adds a phosphate group to diacylglycerol (DAG) to form PA.

Abnormal levels of PAs have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders. Therefore, understanding the regulation and function of PAs is an active area of research with potential therapeutic implications.

Sugar alcohol dehydrogenases (SADHs) are a group of enzymes that catalyze the interconversion between sugar alcohols and sugars, which involves the gain or loss of a pair of electrons, typically in the form of NAD(P)+/NAD(P)H. These enzymes play a crucial role in the metabolism of sugar alcohols, which are commonly found in various plants and some microorganisms.

Sugar alcohols, also known as polyols, are reduced forms of sugars that contain one or more hydroxyl groups instead of aldehyde or ketone groups. Examples of sugar alcohols include sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol, and erythritol. SADHs can interconvert these sugar alcohols to their corresponding sugars through a redox reaction that involves the transfer of hydrogen atoms.

The reaction catalyzed by SADHs is typically represented as follows:

R-CH(OH)-CH2OH + NAD(P)+ ↔ R-CO-CH2OH + NAD(P)H + H+

where R represents a carbon chain, and CH(OH)-CH2OH and CO-CH2OH represent the sugar alcohol and sugar forms, respectively.

SADHs are widely distributed in nature and have been found in various organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. These enzymes have attracted significant interest in biotechnology due to their potential applications in the production of sugar alcohols and other value-added products. Additionally, SADHs have been studied as targets for developing novel antimicrobial agents, as inhibiting these enzymes can disrupt the metabolism of certain pathogens that rely on sugar alcohols for growth and survival.

Glucose is a simple monosaccharide (or single sugar) that serves as the primary source of energy for living organisms. It's a fundamental molecule in biology, often referred to as "dextrose" or "grape sugar." Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and is vital to the functioning of cells, especially those in the brain and nervous system.

In the body, glucose is derived from the digestion of carbohydrates in food, and it's transported around the body via the bloodstream to cells where it can be used for energy. Cells convert glucose into a usable form through a process called cellular respiration, which involves a series of metabolic reactions that generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP)—the main currency of energy in cells.

Glucose is also stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen, a polysaccharide (multiple sugar) that can be broken down back into glucose when needed for energy between meals or during physical activity. Maintaining appropriate blood glucose levels is crucial for overall health, and imbalances can lead to conditions such as diabetes mellitus.

Inborn errors of lipid metabolism refer to genetic disorders that affect the body's ability to break down and process lipids (fats) properly. These disorders are caused by defects in genes that code for enzymes or proteins involved in lipid metabolism. As a result, toxic levels of lipids or their intermediates may accumulate in the body, leading to various health issues, which can include neurological problems, liver dysfunction, muscle weakness, and cardiovascular disease.

There are several types of inborn errors of lipid metabolism, including:

1. Disorders of fatty acid oxidation: These disorders affect the body's ability to convert long-chain fatty acids into energy, leading to muscle weakness, hypoglycemia, and cardiomyopathy. Examples include medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (MCAD) and very long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (VLCAD).
2. Disorders of cholesterol metabolism: These disorders affect the body's ability to process cholesterol, leading to an accumulation of cholesterol or its intermediates in various tissues. Examples include Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome and lathosterolosis.
3. Disorders of sphingolipid metabolism: These disorders affect the body's ability to break down sphingolipids, leading to an accumulation of these lipids in various tissues. Examples include Gaucher disease, Niemann-Pick disease, and Fabry disease.
4. Disorders of glycerophospholipid metabolism: These disorders affect the body's ability to break down glycerophospholipids, leading to an accumulation of these lipids in various tissues. Examples include rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata and abetalipoproteinemia.

Inborn errors of lipid metabolism are typically diagnosed through genetic testing and biochemical tests that measure the activity of specific enzymes or the levels of specific lipids in the body. Treatment may include dietary modifications, supplements, enzyme replacement therapy, or gene therapy, depending on the specific disorder and its severity.

Glycerides are esters formed from glycerol and one, two, or three fatty acids. They include monoglycerides (one fatty acid), diglycerides (two fatty acids), and triglycerides (three fatty acids). Triglycerides are the main constituents of natural fats and oils, and they are a major form of energy storage in animals and plants. High levels of triglycerides in the blood, also known as hypertriglyceridemia, can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

Substrate specificity in the context of medical biochemistry and enzymology refers to the ability of an enzyme to selectively bind and catalyze a chemical reaction with a particular substrate (or a group of similar substrates) while discriminating against other molecules that are not substrates. This specificity arises from the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme, which has evolved to match the shape, charge distribution, and functional groups of its physiological substrate(s).

Substrate specificity is a fundamental property of enzymes that enables them to carry out highly selective chemical transformations in the complex cellular environment. The active site of an enzyme, where the catalysis takes place, has a unique conformation that complements the shape and charge distribution of its substrate(s). This ensures efficient recognition, binding, and conversion of the substrate into the desired product while minimizing unwanted side reactions with other molecules.

Substrate specificity can be categorized as:

1. Absolute specificity: An enzyme that can only act on a single substrate or a very narrow group of structurally related substrates, showing no activity towards any other molecule.
2. Group specificity: An enzyme that prefers to act on a particular functional group or class of compounds but can still accommodate minor structural variations within the substrate.
3. Broad or promiscuous specificity: An enzyme that can act on a wide range of structurally diverse substrates, albeit with varying catalytic efficiencies.

Understanding substrate specificity is crucial for elucidating enzymatic mechanisms, designing drugs that target specific enzymes or pathways, and developing biotechnological applications that rely on the controlled manipulation of enzyme activities.

Acylation is a medical and biological term that refers to the process of introducing an acyl group (-CO-) into a molecule. This process can occur naturally or it can be induced through chemical reactions. In the context of medicine and biology, acylation often occurs during post-translational modifications of proteins, where an acyl group is added to specific amino acid residues, altering the protein's function, stability, or localization.

An example of acylation in medicine is the administration of neuraminidase inhibitors, such as oseltamivir (Tamiflu), for the treatment and prevention of influenza. These drugs work by inhibiting the activity of the viral neuraminidase enzyme, which is essential for the release of newly formed virus particles from infected cells. Oseltamivir is administered orally as an ethyl ester prodrug, which is then hydrolyzed in the body to form the active acylated metabolite that inhibits the viral neuraminidase.

In summary, acylation is a vital process in medicine and biology, with implications for drug design, protein function, and post-translational modifications.

Carbon radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of carbon, which is an naturally occurring chemical element with the atomic number 6. The most common and stable isotope of carbon is carbon-12 (^12C), but there are also several radioactive isotopes, including carbon-11 (^11C), carbon-14 (^14C), and carbon-13 (^13C). These radioisotopes have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, which makes them unstable and causes them to emit radiation.

Carbon-11 has a half-life of about 20 minutes and is used in medical imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) scans. It is produced by bombarding nitrogen-14 with protons in a cyclotron.

Carbon-14, also known as radiocarbon, has a half-life of about 5730 years and is used in archaeology and geology to date organic materials. It is produced naturally in the atmosphere by cosmic rays.

Carbon-13 is stable and has a natural abundance of about 1.1% in carbon. It is not radioactive, but it can be used as a tracer in medical research and in the study of metabolic processes.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

Calcium phosphates are a group of minerals that are important components of bones and teeth. They are also found in some foods and are used in dietary supplements and medical applications. Chemically, calcium phosphates are salts of calcium and phosphoric acid, and they exist in various forms, including hydroxyapatite, which is the primary mineral component of bone tissue. Other forms of calcium phosphates include monocalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate, and tricalcium phosphate, which are used as food additives and dietary supplements. Calcium phosphates are important for maintaining strong bones and teeth, and they also play a role in various physiological processes, such as nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction.

'Gluconobacter oxydans' is a species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic bacteria that are commonly found in various environments such as fruit, flowers, and soil. They are known for their ability to oxidize a variety of alcohols and sugars, including glucose, into their corresponding acids. This makes them important in industrial applications, such as the production of vinegar and other food ingredients. In a medical context, they can sometimes be associated with opportunistic infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. However, they are not typically considered harmful to healthy individuals.

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the metabolic pathway of glycolysis. Its primary function is to convert glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (a triose sugar phosphate) into D-glycerate 1,3-bisphosphate, while also converting nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) into its reduced form NADH. This reaction is essential for the production of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during cellular respiration. GAPDH has also been implicated in various non-metabolic processes, including DNA replication, repair, and transcription regulation, due to its ability to interact with different proteins and nucleic acids.

Sugar phosphates are organic compounds that play crucial roles in various biological processes, particularly in the field of genetics and molecular biology. They are formed by the attachment of a phosphate group to a sugar molecule, most commonly to the 5-carbon sugar ribose or deoxyribose.

In genetics, sugar phosphates form the backbone of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA. In DNA, the sugar phosphate backbone consists of alternating deoxyribose (a sugar) and phosphate groups, linked together by covalent bonds between the 5' carbon atom of one sugar molecule and the 3' carbon atom of another sugar molecule. This forms a long, twisted ladder-like structure known as a double helix.

Similarly, in RNA, the sugar phosphate backbone is formed by ribose (a sugar) and phosphate groups, creating a single-stranded structure that can fold back on itself to form complex shapes. These sugar phosphate backbones provide structural support for the nucleic acids and help to protect the genetic information stored within them.

Sugar phosphates also play important roles in energy metabolism, as they are involved in the formation and breakdown of high-energy compounds such as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and GTP (guanosine triphosphate). These molecules serve as energy currency for cells, storing and releasing energy as needed to power various cellular processes.

Tritium is not a medical term, but it is a term used in the field of nuclear physics and chemistry. Tritium (symbol: T or 3H) is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen with two neutrons and one proton in its nucleus. It is also known as heavy hydrogen or superheavy hydrogen.

Tritium has a half-life of about 12.3 years, which means that it decays by emitting a low-energy beta particle (an electron) to become helium-3. Due to its radioactive nature and relatively short half-life, tritium is used in various applications, including nuclear weapons, fusion reactors, luminous paints, and medical research.

In the context of medicine, tritium may be used as a radioactive tracer in some scientific studies or medical research, but it is not a term commonly used to describe a medical condition or treatment.

I'd be happy to help! However, I believe there might be a slight misunderstanding in your question. Mitochondria are organelles found in the cells of all complex living organisms, including humans, while the liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen. They don't have a medical definition together. I can certainly provide you with separate definitions for each:

1. Mitochondria: These are double-membrane-bound cellular organelles that generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions. Commonly known as the "powerhouse of the cell," mitochondria convert organic substrates, such as glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids, into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through a process called oxidative phosphorylation. Mitochondria are dynamic structures that can change their shape, size, and number through fission (division) and fusion (merging) processes. They play essential roles in various cellular functions, including calcium signaling, apoptosis (programmed cell death), and the regulation of cellular metabolism.

2. Liver: The liver is a large, lobulated organ that lies mainly in the upper right portion of the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm. It plays a crucial role in various physiological functions, such as detoxification, protein synthesis, metabolism, and nutrient storage. The liver is responsible for removing toxins from the bloodstream, producing bile to aid in digestion, regulating glucose levels, synthesizing plasma proteins, and storing glycogen, vitamins, and minerals. It also contributes to the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids, helping maintain energy homeostasis in the body.

I hope this clarifies any confusion! If you have any further questions or need more information, please don't hesitate to ask.

Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway that occurs in the liver, kidneys, and to a lesser extent in the small intestine. It involves the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors such as lactate, pyruvate, glycerol, and certain amino acids. This process becomes particularly important during periods of fasting or starvation when glucose levels in the body begin to drop, and there is limited carbohydrate intake to replenish them.

Gluconeogenesis helps maintain blood glucose homeostasis by providing an alternative source of glucose for use by various tissues, especially the brain, which relies heavily on glucose as its primary energy source. It is a complex process that involves several enzymatic steps, many of which are regulated to ensure an adequate supply of glucose while preventing excessive production, which could lead to hyperglycemia.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Oxidation-Reduction (redox) reactions are a type of chemical reaction involving a transfer of electrons between two species. The substance that loses electrons in the reaction is oxidized, and the substance that gains electrons is reduced. Oxidation and reduction always occur together in a redox reaction, hence the term "oxidation-reduction."

In biological systems, redox reactions play a crucial role in many cellular processes, including energy production, metabolism, and signaling. The transfer of electrons in these reactions is often facilitated by specialized molecules called electron carriers, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+/NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD/FADH2).

The oxidation state of an element in a compound is a measure of the number of electrons that have been gained or lost relative to its neutral state. In redox reactions, the oxidation state of one or more elements changes as they gain or lose electrons. The substance that is oxidized has a higher oxidation state, while the substance that is reduced has a lower oxidation state.

Overall, oxidation-reduction reactions are fundamental to the functioning of living organisms and are involved in many important biological processes.

Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol or wood alcohol, is a volatile, colorless, flammable liquid with a distinctive odor similar to that of ethanol (drinking alcohol). It is used in various industrial applications such as the production of formaldehyde, acetic acid, and other chemicals. In the medical field, methanol is considered a toxic alcohol that can cause severe intoxication and metabolic disturbances when ingested or improperly consumed. Methanol poisoning can lead to neurological symptoms, blindness, and even death if not treated promptly and effectively.

Pyruvate is a negatively charged ion or group of atoms, called anion, with the chemical formula C3H3O3-. It is formed from the decomposition of glucose and other sugars in the process of cellular respiration. Pyruvate plays a crucial role in the metabolic pathways that generate energy for cells.

In the cytoplasm, pyruvate is produced through glycolysis, where one molecule of glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate, releasing energy and producing ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide).

In the mitochondria, pyruvate can be further metabolized through the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle) to produce more ATP. The process involves the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA, which then enters the citric acid cycle and undergoes a series of reactions that generate energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2 (reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide).

Overall, pyruvate is an important intermediate in cellular respiration and plays a central role in the production of energy for cells.

The Pentose Phosphate Pathway (also known as the Hexose Monophosphate Shunt or HMP Shunt) is a metabolic pathway that runs parallel to glycolysis. It serves two major functions:

1. Providing reducing equivalents in the form of NADPH for reductive biosynthesis and detoxification processes.
2. Generating ribose-5-phosphate, a pentose sugar used in the synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).

This pathway begins with the oxidation of glucose-6-phosphate to form 6-phosphogluconolactone, catalyzed by the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. The resulting NADPH is used in various anabolic reactions and antioxidant defense systems.

The Pentose Phosphate Pathway also includes a series of reactions called the non-oxidative branch, which interconverts various sugars to meet cellular needs for different types of monosaccharides. These conversions are facilitated by several enzymes including transketolase and transaldolase.

"Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is not typically considered a medical term, but it is a scientific name used in the field of microbiology. It refers to a species of yeast that is commonly used in various industrial processes, such as baking and brewing. It's also widely used in scientific research due to its genetic tractability and eukaryotic cellular organization.

However, it does have some relevance to medical fields like medicine and nutrition. For example, certain strains of S. cerevisiae are used as probiotics, which can provide health benefits when consumed. They may help support gut health, enhance the immune system, and even assist in the digestion of certain nutrients.

In summary, "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is a species of yeast with various industrial and potential medical applications.

Lactates, also known as lactic acid, are compounds that are produced by muscles during intense exercise or other conditions of low oxygen supply. They are formed from the breakdown of glucose in the absence of adequate oxygen to complete the full process of cellular respiration. This results in the production of lactate and a hydrogen ion, which can lead to a decrease in pH and muscle fatigue.

In a medical context, lactates may be measured in the blood as an indicator of tissue oxygenation and metabolic status. Elevated levels of lactate in the blood, known as lactic acidosis, can indicate poor tissue perfusion or hypoxia, and may be seen in conditions such as sepsis, cardiac arrest, and severe shock. It is important to note that lactates are not the primary cause of acidemia (low pH) in lactic acidosis, but rather a marker of the underlying process.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Microsomes are subcellular membranous vesicles that are obtained as a byproduct during the preparation of cellular homogenates. They are not naturally occurring structures within the cell, but rather formed due to fragmentation of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) during laboratory procedures. Microsomes are widely used in various research and scientific studies, particularly in the fields of biochemistry and pharmacology.

Microsomes are rich in enzymes, including the cytochrome P450 system, which is involved in the metabolism of drugs, toxins, and other xenobiotics. These enzymes play a crucial role in detoxifying foreign substances and eliminating them from the body. As such, microsomes serve as an essential tool for studying drug metabolism, toxicity, and interactions, allowing researchers to better understand and predict the effects of various compounds on living organisms.

Phosphotransferases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. This reaction is essential for various cellular processes, including energy metabolism, signal transduction, and biosynthesis.

The systematic name for this group of enzymes is phosphotransferase, which is derived from the general reaction they catalyze: D-donor + A-acceptor = D-donor minus phosphate + A-phosphate. The donor molecule can be a variety of compounds, such as ATP or a phosphorylated protein, while the acceptor molecule is typically a compound that becomes phosphorylated during the reaction.

Phosphotransferases are classified into several subgroups based on the type of donor and acceptor molecules they act upon. For example, kinases are a subgroup of phosphotransferases that transfer a phosphate group from ATP to a protein or other organic compound. Phosphatases, another subgroup, remove phosphate groups from molecules by transferring them to water.

Overall, phosphotransferases play a critical role in regulating many cellular functions and are important targets for drug development in various diseases, including cancer and neurological disorders.

X-ray crystallography is a technique used in structural biology to determine the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a crystal lattice. In this method, a beam of X-rays is directed at a crystal and diffracts, or spreads out, into a pattern of spots called reflections. The intensity and angle of each reflection are measured and used to create an electron density map, which reveals the position and type of atoms in the crystal. This information can be used to determine the molecular structure of a compound, including its shape, size, and chemical bonds. X-ray crystallography is a powerful tool for understanding the structure and function of biological macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.

Carbon isotopes are variants of the chemical element carbon that have different numbers of neutrons in their atomic nuclei. The most common and stable isotope of carbon is carbon-12 (^{12}C), which contains six protons and six neutrons. However, carbon can also come in other forms, known as isotopes, which contain different numbers of neutrons.

Carbon-13 (^{13}C) is a stable isotope of carbon that contains seven neutrons in its nucleus. It makes up about 1.1% of all carbon found on Earth and is used in various scientific applications, such as in tracing the metabolic pathways of organisms or in studying the age of fossilized materials.

Carbon-14 (^{14}C), also known as radiocarbon, is a radioactive isotope of carbon that contains eight neutrons in its nucleus. It is produced naturally in the atmosphere through the interaction of cosmic rays with nitrogen gas. Carbon-14 has a half-life of about 5,730 years, which makes it useful for dating organic materials, such as archaeological artifacts or fossils, up to around 60,000 years old.

Carbon isotopes are important in many scientific fields, including geology, biology, and medicine, and are used in a variety of applications, from studying the Earth's climate history to diagnosing medical conditions.

Microsomes, liver refers to a subcellular fraction of liver cells (hepatocytes) that are obtained during tissue homogenization and subsequent centrifugation. These microsomal fractions are rich in membranous structures known as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), particularly the rough ER. They are involved in various important cellular processes, most notably the metabolism of xenobiotics (foreign substances) including drugs, toxins, and carcinogens.

The liver microsomes contain a variety of enzymes, such as cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, that are crucial for phase I drug metabolism. These enzymes help in the oxidation, reduction, or hydrolysis of xenobiotics, making them more water-soluble and facilitating their excretion from the body. Additionally, liver microsomes also host other enzymes involved in phase II conjugation reactions, where the metabolites from phase I are further modified by adding polar molecules like glucuronic acid, sulfate, or acetyl groups.

In summary, liver microsomes are a subcellular fraction of liver cells that play a significant role in the metabolism and detoxification of xenobiotics, contributing to the overall protection and maintenance of cellular homeostasis within the body.

Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents. They include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, and phospholipids. Lipids serve many important functions in the body, including energy storage, acting as structural components of cell membranes, and serving as signaling molecules. High levels of certain lipids, particularly cholesterol and triglycerides, in the blood are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

It is the phosphate ester of dihydroxyacetone. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate lies in the glycolysis metabolic pathway, and is one ... Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP, also glycerone phosphate in older texts) is the anion with the formula HOCH2C(O)CH2OPO32-. ... Dihydroxyacetone Glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle Berg, Jeremy M.; Tymoczko, Stryer (2002). Biochemistry (5th ed.). New York: W.H. ... DHAP is also the product of the dehydrogenation of L-glycerol-3-phosphate, which is part of the entry of glycerol (sourced from ...
Commonly known as dihydroxyacetone phosphate. Anderson RL, Markwell JP (1982). "D-Tagatose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase (Class II ... The systematic name of this enzyme class is D-tagatose 1,6-bisphosphate D-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate-lyase (glycerone-phosphate ... glycerone phosphate + Dglyceraldehyde 3-phosphate This enzyme belongs to the family of lyases, specifically the aldehyde-lyases ... and nucleotide sequence of the tagatose 6-phosphate pathway gene cluster of the lactose operon of Lactococcus lactis". J. Biol ...
Biosynthetically, it is derived from dihydroxyacetone phosphate. It can be prepared in several steps starting with the ...
Glycerone phosphate is often known as dihydroxyacetone phosphate. Chiu TH, Feingold DS (1969). "L-rhamnulose 1-phosphate ... L-rhamnulose 1-phosphate aldolase, L-rhamnulose-phosphate aldolase, and L-rhamnulose-1-phosphate lactaldehyde-lyase. This ... The systematic name of this enzyme class is L-rhamnulose-1-phosphate (S)-lactaldehyde-lyase (glycerone-phosphate-forming). ... The enzyme rhamnulose-1-phosphate aldolase (EC 4.1.2.19) catalyzes the chemical reaction L-rhamnulose 1-phosphate ⇌ {\ ...
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), catalyzed by triose phosphate isomerase. Compound C00111 at KEGG Pathway Database.Enzyme 5.3 ... Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, also known as triose phosphate or 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and abbreviated as G3P, GA3P, GADP, GAP, ... ISBN 1-57259-153-6. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. D-Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and the ... D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is also of some importance since this is how glycerol (as DHAP) enters the glycolytic and ...
"Alkyl-dihydroxyacetone phosphate synthase and dihydroxyacetone phosphate acyltransferase form a protein complex in peroxisomes ... This enzyme acylates dihydroxyacetone phosphate at the sn-1 position. This is followed by the exchange of the acyl group for an ... "An animal cell mutant with a deficiency in acyl/alkyl-dihydroxyacetone-phosphate reductase activity. Effects on the ... by an acyl/alkyl-dihydroxyacetone phosphate reductase located in both peroxisomal and endoplasmatic reticulum membranes. All ...
Aldolase B converts it into glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP). Glyceraldehyde is then phosphorylated by ... Fructose-1-phosphate is a derivative of fructose. It is generated mainly by hepatic fructokinase but is also generated in ... It depletes intracellular phosphate reserves which leads to loss of ATP and inhibition of biosynthetic pathways. Symptoms of ... In hereditary fructose intolerance caused by defects in aldolase B, fructose 1-phosphate accumulates in the liver and causes a ...
... retro-aldol cleavage of sulfofructose-1-phosphate to afford dihydroxyacetone phosphate and (S)-sulfolactaldehyde (catalyzed by ... This pathway leads to the production of the C3 intermediate dihydroxyacetone phosphate. The sulfoglycolytic Entner-Doudoroff ( ... into various smaller metabolizable carbon fragments such as pyruvate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate that enter central ... glyceraldehyde phosphate (GAP), yielding fructose-6-phosphate (F6P). The SLA released can either be oxidized (to sulfolactate) ...
Fuculose L-Fuculose kinase Glycerone phosphate is often known as dihydroxyacetone phosphate. Ghalambor MA, Heath EC (1966). " ... The systematic name of this enzyme class is L-fuculose-1-phosphate (S)-lactaldehyde-lyase (glycerone-phosphate-forming). Other ... The enzyme L-fuculose-phosphate aldolase (EC 4.1.2.17) catalyzes the chemical reaction L-fuculose-1-phosphate ⇌ {\displaystyle ... Dreyer MK, Schulz GE (1993). "The spatial structure of the class II L-fuculose-1-phosphate aldolase from Escherichia coli". J. ...
The first step of the biosynthesis involves ribulose 5-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. They react in the presence of ... a synthase complex consisting of Pdx1 and Pdx2, and form pyridoxal phosphate. The second step is hypothetical and consists of ...
Fructose-1-phosphate is metabolized by aldolase B into dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde. HFI is caused by a ... If fructose is ingested, the enzymatic block at aldolase B causes an accumulation of fructose-1-phosphate which, over time, ... After ingestion, fructose is converted to fructose-1-phosphate in the liver by fructokinase. Deficiencies of fructokinase cause ... and trapping of phosphate (fructokinase requires adenosine triphosphate (ATP)). The downstream effects of this enzyme block are ...
... synthesis of dihydroxyacetone phosphate, sn-glycerol-3-phosphate, and chiral analogs". Journal of the American Chemical Society ...
D-glycerol 1-phosphate, L-α-glycerophosphoric acid. Glycerol 3-phosphate is synthesized by reducing dihydroxyacetone phosphate ... Glycerol 3-phosphate (G3P) and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) are molecules so small that they can permeate the ... Glycerol 1-phosphate, sometimes called as D-glycerol 3-phosphate, is the enantiomer of glycerol 3-phosphate. Most higher ... The Glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle is an emergency back-up system to supply neurons' demand of energy. Glycerol-3-phosphate was ...
... palmitoyl dihydroxyacetone phosphate reductase, palmitoyl-dihydroxyacetone-phosphate reductase, acyldihydroxyacetone phosphate ... LaBelle EF, Hajra AK (September 1972). "Enzymatic reduction of alkyl and acyl derivatives of dihydroxyacetone phosphate by ... and palmitoyl dihydroxyacetone phosphate reductase. This enzyme participates in glycerophospholipid and ether lipid metabolism ... palmitoylglycerone phosphate + NADPH + H+ Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are 1-palmitoylglycerol 3-phosphate and NADP+ ...
It is, in turn, broken down into two compounds: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. It is an allosteric ... Fructose 1,6-bis(phosphate) has also been implicated in the ability to bind and sequester Fe(II), a soluble form of iron whose ... The ability of fructose 1,6-bis(phosphate) to bind Fe(II) may prevent such electron transfers, and thus act as an antioxidant ... The numbering of the carbon atoms indicates the fate of the carbons according to their position in fructose 6-phosphate. Click ...
Here, methylglyoxal arises from nonenzymatic phosphate elimination from glyceraldehyde phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate ... Methylglyoxal mainly arises as side products of glycolysis involving glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate ...
Suri, Jeff T.; Ramachary, D. B.; Barbas, Carlos F. (1 March 2005). "Mimicking Dihydroxy Acetone Phosphate-Utilizing Aldolases ...
During glycolysis, fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is broken down into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. ... There are only three possible trioses (including dihydroxyacetone): L-glyceraldehyde and D-glyceraldehyde, the two enantiomers ... of glyceraldehyde, which are aldotrioses because the carbonyl group is at the end of the chain, and dihydroxyacetone, the only ...
... it is broken down into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate by the action of aldolase. Harden married ... It is now known to be the product of phosphorylating fructose 6-phosphate by the action of phosphofructokinase; ... 12 December 1929 The Function of Phosphate in Alcoholic Fermentation Works by Arthur Harden at Project Gutenberg Works by or ...
Methylglyoxal is formed from dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) by the enzyme methylglyoxal synthase, giving off a phosphate ... The enzyme triose phosphate isomerase affects the levels of DHAP by converting glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP) into DHAP. The ... an inorganic phosphate is given off which can be used to replenish a low concentration of needed inorganic phosphate. The ... One believed purpose of the methylglyoxal pathway is to help release the stress of elevated sugar phosphate concentration. Also ...
"Assay and Properties of the Enzyme Catalyzing the Biosynthesis of 1-O-Alkyl Dihydroxyacetone 3-Phosphate" (PDF). Archives of ... alcohols were evaluated as substrates for alkyl DHAP synthase's catalysis of fatty alcohol with acyl dihydroxyacetone phosphate ...
A marked decrease in TPI activity and an accumulation of dihydroxyacetone phosphate have been detected in erythrocyte extracts ... TPI is a crucial enzyme of glycolysis and catalyzes the interconversion of dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3- ... "Triose Phosphate Isomerase Deficiency Is Caused by Altered Dimerization-Not Catalytic Inactivity-of the Mutant Enzymes". PLOS ...
substrate pages: glycerol 3-phosphate, dihydroxyacetone phosphate related topics: glycerol phosphate shuttle, creatine kinase, ... Oxidation of cytoplasmic NADH by the cytosolic form of the enzyme creates glycerol-3-phosphate from dihydroxyacetone phosphate ... Through the reduction of dihydroxyacetone phosphate into glycerol 3-phosphate, GPDH allows the prompt dephosphorylation of ... Cytosolic Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD1), is an NAD+-dependent enzyme that reduces dihydroxyacetone phosphate to ...
It exports triose phosphate (Dihydroxyacetone phosphate) in exchange for inorganic phosphate and is therefore classified as an ... Walters, R.; Ibrahim, D.; Horton, P.; Kruger, N. (2004). "A mutant of Arabidopsis lacking the triose-phosphate/phosphate ... "Structure of the triose-phosphate/phosphate translocator reveals the basis of substrate specificity". Nature Plants. 3 (10): ... The imported phosphate is then used for ATP regeneration via the light-dependent-reaction; the ATP may then for example be used ...
Glyceraldehyde is a structural isomer of dihydroxyacetone. Its phosphorylated form, dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), takes ... Dihydroxyacetone can affect the anti-microbial activity in wine, as it has the ability to bind SO2. Coppertone introduced the ... Dihydroxyacetone (/ˌdaɪhaɪˌdrɒksiˈæsɪtoʊn/ ; DHA), also known as glycerone, is a simple saccharide (a triose) with formula C 3H ... In the 1950s, Eva Wittgenstein at the University of Cincinnati did further research with dihydroxyacetone. Her studies involved ...
... is synthesized by reducing dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), a glycolysis intermediate, with sn-glycerol- ... 1-phosphate dehydrogenase. DHAP and thus glycerol 1-phosphate is also possible to be synthesized from amino acids and citric ... sn-Glycerol 1-phosphate is the conjugate base of a phosphoric ester of glycerol. It is a component of ether lipids, which are ... NAD(P)H + H+ → + NAD(P)+ Glycerol 1-phosphate is a starting material for de novo synthesis of ether lipids, such as those ...
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate, one of the two products of breakdown (glycolysis) of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, is a precursor to ...
Methylglyoxal is formed spontaneously from dihydroxyacetone phosphate, enzymatically by triosephosphate isomerase and ... Phillips SA, Thornalley PJ (February 1993). "The formation of methylglyoxal from triose phosphates. Investigation using a ...
Transcription of the lsr operon is also thought to be inhibited by dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) through its competitive ... Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate has also been shown to inhibit the lsr operon through cAMP-CAPK-mediated inhibition. This explains ...
"Selective synthesis of erythrulose and 3-pentulose from formaldehyde and dihydroxyacetone catalyzed by phosphates in a neutral ... It is used in some self-tanning cosmetics, in general, combined with dihydroxyacetone (DHA). Erythrulose/DHA reacts with the ... Petersen, Anita B; Na, Renhua; Wulf, Hans Christian (2003). "Sunless skin tanning with dihydroxyacetone delays broad-spectrum ... Faurschou, A.; Wulf, H.C. (2004). "Durability of the sun protection factor provided by dihydroxyacetone". Photodermatology, ...
It is the phosphate ester of dihydroxyacetone. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate lies in the glycolysis metabolic pathway, and is one ... Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP, also glycerone phosphate in older texts) is the anion with the formula HOCH2C(O)CH2OPO32-. ... Dihydroxyacetone Glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle Berg, Jeremy M.; Tymoczko, Stryer (2002). Biochemistry (5th ed.). New York: W.H. ... DHAP is also the product of the dehydrogenation of L-glycerol-3-phosphate, which is part of the entry of glycerol (sourced from ...
Redesign of the phosphate binding site of L -rhamnulose- 1-phosphate aldolase towards a dihydroxyacetone dependent aldolase. ... Dive into the research topics of Redesign of the phosphate binding site of L -rhamnulose- 1-phosphate aldolase towards a ...
Glycerol-3-phosphate + O2--------------------------------, dihydroxyacetone phosphate + H2O2 peroxidase. H2O2 + 4- ... Glycerol + ATP -----------------------------------, glycerol-3-phosphate + ADP glycerophosphate oxidase. ...
... or dihydroxyacetonephosphate acyltransferase (DHAPAT). Learn about this gene and related health conditions. ... dihydroxyacetone phosphate acyltransferase. *glycerone-phosphate O-acyltransferase. *GNPAT_HUMAN. Additional Information & ... Acyl-CoA:dihydroxyacetonephosphate acyltransferase: cloning of the human cDNA and resolution of the molecular basis in ... Role of dihydroxyacetonephosphate acyltransferase in the biosynthesis of plasmalogens and nonether glycerolipids. J Lipid Res. ...
The AGPS gene provides instructions for making an enzyme known as alkylglycerone phosphate synthase. Learn about this gene and ... alkyl-dihydroxyacetone phosphate synthase. *alkyldihydroxyacetone phosphate synthetase. *alkyldihydroxyacetonephosphate ... Within peroxisomes, alkylglycerone phosphate synthase is responsible for a critical step in the production of lipid molecules ... The AGPS gene provides instructions for making an enzyme known as alkylglycerone phosphate synthase. This enzyme is found in ...
Dihydroxy acetone phosphate acyl transferase (DHAP-AT). A peroxisomal enzyme. Requested to aid the diagnosis of peroxisomal ...
Co-expression of additional EMP enzymes, fructose bisphosphate aldolase (Fba) and triose phosphate isomerase (Tpi), with Pfk I ... Co-expression of additional EMP enzymes, fructose bisphosphate aldolase (Fba) and triose phosphate isomerase (Tpi), with Pfk I ... Abbreviations: DHAP, dihydroxyacetone phosphate; KDPG, 2-keto-3-deoxy-6-phosphogluconate; Pfk, phosphofructokinase; Fba, ... ribulose-5-phosphate; G3P, glycerol-3-phosphate and those in Figure 1. ...
Dihydroxy-acetone-phosphate. 2.218. 0.008. Cytidine. 2.311. 0.033. Deoxycytidine. 2.450. 0.012. D-Glucose 6-phosphate. 2.840. ...
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate acyltransferase (O15228) (SMART). OMIM:602744: Chondrodysplasia punctata, rhizomelic, type 2. OMIM: ... Bacterial glycerol-phosphate acyltransferases are involved in membrane biogenesis since they use fatty acid chains to form the ... The 1.55 A Crystal Structure of Glycerol-3-Phosphate Acyltransferase. 1k30. Crystal Structure Analysis of Squash (Cucurbita ...
... fructose is phosphorylated largely to the 1-phosphate form and converted to glyceraldehydes and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. ... Phosphoglucomutase converts the glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate. Glucose-1-phosphate can then be metabolized, eg, by ... Phosphoglucomutase converts the glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate. Glucose-1-phosphate can then be metabolized, eg, by ... Phosphoglucomutase converts the glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate. Glucose-1-phosphate can then be metabolized, eg, by ...
Glycerol 3-phosphate + NAD → Dihydroxyacetone phosphate + NADH. details. Glycerol 3-phosphate + NAD → Dihydroxyacetone ... Glycerol 3-phosphate + NAD → Dihydroxyacetone phosphate + NADH. details. Glycerol 3-phosphate + NAD → Dihydroxyacetone ... Glycerol 3-phosphate + a quinone → Dihydroxyacetone phosphate + a quinol. details. Glycerol 3-phosphate + FAD → ... It is commonly confused with the similarly named glycerate 3-phosphate or glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Glycerol 3-phosphate is ...
Cleaves F6P to dihydroxyacetone phosphate & glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (2 molecules). This process is reversible and not ... Oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Definition. The first oxidation rxn of gycolysis; will form NADH and then it is ...
... only enzymes catalyzing the aldolisation of glyceraldehyde-3P with dihydroxyacetone phosphate generating fructose-6P are ... enzymes catalyzing the formation of hexose-6P by Mass Spectrometry identified putative aldolase candidates for sugar phosphate ...
... enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of fructose 1-6-bisphosphate in glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate ...
DR5P-2-deoxyribose 5-phosphate; G3P-D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate; DHAP-dihydroxyacetone phosphate; Glu-glucose; FDP-fructose 1, ... Abbreviations: RNR-ribonucleotide reductase; dNs-deoxyribonucleosides; DR1P-2-deoxyribose 1-phosphate; ...
Triosephosphate isomerase catalyzes the formation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate from dihydroxyacetone phosphate, which is a ...
BioCyc: META:DIHYDROXY-ACETONE-PHOSPHATE Provided by MetaNetX (CC BY 4.0) Old identifiers. dhap_c ...
dihydroxyacetone phosphate + iminosuccinate <=> H(+) + 2 H2O + phosphate + quinolinate. Comment(s). *Quinolinate synthase ...
In the liver the glycerol can be converted into glucose via dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by way of ...
... it relies on the reduction of dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) to glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P) by the cytosolic glycerol-3- ... The glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase Gpd2 provides NAD+ for histidine and lysine biosynthesis in peroxisomes. S. japonicus ... Both reactions reduce the cofactor NAD+ to NADH, which can be re-oxidised to NAD+ via glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P) synthesis from ... B) Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase Gpd2 produces NAD+ for histidine and lysine biosynthesis in peroxisomes. (C) Lysine and ...
Sn-glycerol-1-phosphate dehydrogenase (G1PDH), usually found in archaea, catalyses the formation of sn-glycerol-1-phosphate ( ... G1P), while sn-glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (G3PDH) catalyses the formation of sn-glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P) in bacteria ... phospholipids under prebiotic conditions with special attention paid to the starting materials as pro-chiral dihydroxyacetone ... and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), which are the key molecules to break symmetry in phospholipids. The advantages of ...
1-Halo Analogs of Dihydroxyacetone 3-Phosphate. The Effects of the Fluoro Analog on Cytosolic Glycerol-3-Phosphate ... 1 Fluoro analogs of glycerol 3 P, dihydroxyacetone 3 P, and glycerol in chemotherapy of L 1210 mouse leukemia. Fondy, T. P., ...
... is an enzyme in the glycolytic pathway that catalyzes the interconversion of dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and ... Examples include triose phosphate isomerase, fumarase, and superoxide dismutase.. Most enzymes achieve catalytic perfection due ... glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). The slow conversion of DHAP into G3P forms an enediol intermediate that eventually decomposes ...
... dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP)) causing oxidative stress, which depletes intracellular ...
... is a dimeric enzyme that catalyzes the conversion between dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and R-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate ( ...
... class II aldolase that catalyzes the reversible condensation of dihydroxyacetone phosphate with glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to ...
Synthesis of diacylglycerol begins with glycerol-3-phosphate, which is derived primarily from dihydroxyacetone phosphate, a ... product of glycolysis (usually in the cytoplasm of liver or adipose tissue cells). Glycerol-3-phosphate is first acylated with ...
Synthesis of diacylglycerol begins with glycerol-3-phosphate, which is derived primarily from dihydroxyacetone phosphate, a ... product of glycolysis (usually in the cytoplasm of liver or adipose tissue cells). Glycerol-3-phosphate is first acylated with ...
PicoProbe? Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate (DHAP) Fluorometric Assay Kit. K673-100 each. EUR 927.6 ... Malachite Green Phosphate Assay Kit 2500. Malachite Green Phosphate Assay Kit 2500 To Order Contact us: [email protected]. ... Description: Our Phosphate Assay Kit (Fluorometric) measures total inorganic phosphate present in lysates, solutions, food, or ... First, lipase is used to hydrolyze phosphatidic acid to glycerol-3-phosphate. Next, the glycerol-3-phosphate product is ...
  • DHAP is also the product of the dehydrogenation of L-glycerol-3-phosphate, which is part of the entry of glycerol (sourced from triglycerides) into the glycolytic pathway. (wikipedia.org)
  • Conversely, reduction of glycolysis-derived DHAP to L-glycerol-3-phosphate provides adipose cells with the activated glycerol backbone they require to synthesize new triglycerides. (wikipedia.org)
  • Glycerol 3-phospate may then be converted by dehydrogenation to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) by the enzyme glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. (hmdb.ca)
  • DHAP can then be rearranged into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GA3P) by triose phosphate isomerase (TIM), and feed into glycolysis. (hmdb.ca)
  • We reviewed a few plausibly organic syntheses of phospholipids under prebiotic conditions with special attention paid to the starting materials as pro-chiral dihydroxyacetone and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), which are the key molecules to break symmetry in phospholipids. (mdpi.com)
  • In diabetics, hyperglycaemia causes long-term health complications, because elevated levels of glycolytic intermediates (dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP)) causing oxidative stress, which depletes intracellular glutathione and cysteine. (findaphd.com)
  • Aldolase is an enzyme responsible for breaking down glucose products into energy, specifically converting fructose 1,6-bisphosphate into the triose phosphates dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehydes 3-phosphate. (medscape.com)
  • Aldolase is a cytoplasmic enzyme responsible for converting sugar into energy, specifically splitting aldol, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, into the triose phosphates dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehydes 3-phosphate (a reversible reaction). (medscape.com)
  • Dihydroxyacetone phosphate lies in the glycolysis metabolic pathway, and is one of the two products of breakdown of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, along with glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. (wikipedia.org)
  • It is rapidly and reversibly isomerised to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. (wikipedia.org)
  • Fructose can then be phosphorylated by fructokinase and subsequently be metabolized via dihydroxyacetone phosphate or glyceraldehyde to D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, which can be used as a substrate in the process of glycolysis. (wikipathways.org)
  • It is commonly confused with the similarly named glycerate 3-phosphate or glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. (hmdb.ca)
  • In addition, only enzymes catalyzing the aldolisation of glyceraldehyde-3P with dihydroxyacetone phosphate generating fructose-6P are currently known. (cea.fr)
  • Triosephosphate isomerase catalyzes the formation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate from dihydroxyacetone phosphate, which is a critical step to ensure the maximum ATP production per glucose molecule. (rcsb.org)
  • In the liver the glycerol can be converted into glucose via dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by way of gluconeogenesis . (citizendium.org)
  • Tagatose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase (TBPA) is a tetrameric class II aldolase that catalyzes the reversible condensation of dihydroxyacetone phosphate with glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to produce tagatose 1,6-bisphosphate. (whiterose.ac.uk)
  • In the energy-harvesting phase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is cleaved into two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, which are then oxidized and phosphorylated to form two molecules of pyruvate. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • The GNPAT gene provides instructions for making an enzyme known as glyceronephosphate O-acyltransferase (GNPAT) or dihydroxyacetonephosphate acyltransferase (DHAPAT). (medlineplus.gov)
  • Role of dihydroxyacetonephosphate acyltransferase in the biosynthesis of plasmalogens and nonether glycerolipids. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Acyl-CoA:dihydroxyacetonephosphate acyltransferase: cloning of the human cDNA and resolution of the molecular basis in rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata type 2. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Etherphospholipid biosynthesis and dihydroxyactetone-phosphate acyltransferase: resolution of the genomic organization of the human gnpat gene and its use in the identification of novel mutations. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Human dihydroxyacetonephosphate acyltransferase deficiency: a new peroxisomal disorder. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Second, the mitochondrial outer membrane enzyme glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase esterifies an acyl-group to the sn-1 position of sn-glycerol 3-phosphate to form 1-acyl-sn-glycerol 3-phosphate (lysophosphatidic acid or LPA). (smpdb.ca)
  • The enzyme 1-acyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase converts LPA into phosphatidic acid (1,2-diacyl-sn-glycerol 3-phosphate) by esterifying an acyl-group to the sn-2 position of the glycerol backbone. (smpdb.ca)
  • Agarwal AK, Sukumaran S, Cortes VA, Tunison K, Mizrachi D, Sankella S, Gerard RD, Horton JD, Garg A: Human 1-acylglycerol-3-phosphate O-acyltransferase isoforms 1 and 2: biochemical characterization and inability to rescue hepatic steatosis in Agpat2(-/-) gene lipodystrophic mice. (smpdb.ca)
  • Co-expression of additional EMP enzymes, fructose bisphosphate aldolase (Fba) and triose phosphate isomerase (Tpi), with Pfk I did not enable EMP flux, and resulted in production of glycerol as a side product. (frontiersin.org)
  • The screening strategy we used by selecting enzymes catalyzing the formation of hexose-6P by Mass Spectrometry identified putative aldolase candidates for sugar phosphate with a stereochemistry different from the one of fructose. (cea.fr)
  • The reaction sequence in the Calvin-Benson cycle is from triose phosphates to pentose phosphates, the opposite of the typical direction of the non-oxidative PPP. (mdpi.com)
  • It is also used in the synthesis of sedoheptulose 1,7-bisphosphate and fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, both of which are used to reform ribulose 5-phosphate, the 'key' carbohydrate of the Calvin cycle. (wikipedia.org)
  • First, dihydroxyacetone phosphate (or glycerone phosphate) from glycolysis is used by the cytosolic enzyme glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase [NAD(+)] to synthesize sn-glycerol 3-phosphate. (smpdb.ca)
  • Description: Our Phosphate Assay Kit (Fluorometric) measures total inorganic phosphate present in lysates, solutions, food, or biological samples in a 96-well fluorescence-based plate reader. (wlsolutions.be)
  • where Pi stands for inorganic phosphate. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • Which of the following enzymes incorporates inorganic phosphate into the substrate? (medquizzes.net)
  • Both reactions are catalyzed by the enzyme glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase with NAD+/NADH as cofactor. (wikipedia.org)
  • The AGPS gene provides instructions for making an enzyme known as alkylglycerone phosphate synthase. (medlineplus.gov)
  • These mutations change single protein building blocks (amino acids) in alkylglycerone phosphate synthase, which alters the structure of the enzyme and significantly reduces its activity. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Glycerol 3-phosphate is produced from glycerol, the triose sugar backbone of triglycerides and glycerophospholipids, by the enzyme glycerol kinase. (hmdb.ca)
  • Samples: Enzyme reactions with free phosphate releases. (wlsolutions.be)
  • First ATP is used in converting glucose into glocose-6-phosphate and second ATP is used in conversion of fructose-6-phosphate into fructose-1-6-diphoshate. (neetprep.com)
  • The process also involves the transfer of phosphate groups from ATP to glucose and from intermediate compounds to ADP, resulting in a net gain of two ATP molecules. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • Plasmid pSR3 carrying gpd1 and gpp2 encoding two isoforms of glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and plasmid pLB2 carrying aldO encoding alditol oxidase from Streptomyces violaceoruber were introduced into E. coli to enable the production of glycerate from glucose via glycerol. (bvsalud.org)
  • Glycerol 3-phosphate is a chemical intermediate in the glycolysis metabolic pathway. (hmdb.ca)
  • The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) is divided into an oxidative branch that makes pentose phosphates and a non-oxidative branch that consumes pentose phosphates, though the non-oxidative branch is considered reversible. (mdpi.com)
  • Previous studies shed light on the important role that Aspergillus nidulans gfdB, putatively encoding a NAD+-dependent glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, plays in the oxidative and cell wall integrity stress tolerance of this filamentous fungus model organism. (bvsalud.org)
  • The rapid initial phase of these reactions, but not the subsequent slow phase, was augmented by incubating the triose phosphate aerobically or anaerobically at pH 9.0 prior to adding the cyanide. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Within peroxisomes, alkylglycerone phosphate synthase is responsible for a critical step in the production of lipid molecules called plasmalogens. (medlineplus.gov)
  • A shortage of functional alkylglycerone phosphate synthase disrupts peroxisome function and severely reduces the amount of plasmalogens within cells. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Alkyl-dihydroxyacetonephosphate synthase. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Transaldolases transfer an activated dihydroxyacetone moiety from a ketose donor, e.g. fructose 6-phosphate, to an aldose acceptor, e.g. erythrose 4-phosphate, reversibly. (europa.eu)
  • Synthesis of diacylglycerol begins with glycerol-3-phosphate, which is derived primarily from dihydroxyacetone phosphate, a product of glycolysis (usually in the cytoplasm of liver or adipose tissue cells). (hmdb.ca)
  • The high flux through cytosolic glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD) is required to maintain redox balance and support lipid synthesis. (bvsalud.org)
  • Instead, loss of GPD2 upregulates cytosolic GPD on a transcriptional level and promotes cancer cell proliferation by increasing glycerol-3-phosphate supply. (bvsalud.org)
  • Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Rat Bifunctional ATP dependent dihydroxyacetone kinase/FAD AMP lyase(DAK) in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. (rlinstruments.com)
  • Menaya J, Gonzalez-Manchon C, Parrilla R, Ayuso MS: Molecular cloning, sequencing and expression of a cDNA encoding a human liver NAD-dependent alpha-glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. (smpdb.ca)
  • The glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle (G3PS) is a major NADH shuttle that regenerates reducing equivalents in the cytosol and produces energy in the mitochondria. (bvsalud.org)
  • Cyanide catalyzes the reduction of dioxygen or of ferricytochrome c by dihydroxyacetone phosphate. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Description: For quantitative determination of phosphate and evaluation of drug effects on phosphate metabolism. (wlsolutions.be)
  • The glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle is used to rapidly regenerate NAD+ in the brain and skeletal muscle cells of mammals (wikipedia). (hmdb.ca)
  • Glycerol-3-phosphate is first acylated with acyl-coenzyme A (acyl-CoA) to form lysophosphatidic acid, which is then acylated with another molecule of acyl-CoA to yield phosphatidic acid. (hmdb.ca)
  • Description: This product includes 100 ml of Reagent P1 and 1 ml of 100 x Reagent P2 and 0.1 ml of 1 mM potassium phosphate (KH2PO4). (wlsolutions.be)
  • Description: For sensitive and high-throughput phosphate determination. (wlsolutions.be)
  • The numbering of the carbon atoms indicates the fate of the carbons according to their position in fructose 6-phosphate. (wikipedia.org)
  • Fast and convenient: single reagent "mix-and-measure" assay allows quantitation of free phosphate within 30 minutes. (wlsolutions.be)
  • High sensitivity and wide detection range: detection of as little of 20 pmoles of phosphate and useful range between 0.4 µM and 50 µM phosphate. (wlsolutions.be)