Visible morphologic changes in cells infected with viruses. It includes shutdown of cellular RNA and protein synthesis, cell fusion, release of lysosomal enzymes, changes in cell membrane permeability, diffuse changes in intracellular structures, presence of viral inclusion bodies, and chromosomal aberrations. It excludes malignant transformation, which is CELL TRANSFORMATION, VIRAL. Viral cytopathogenic effects provide a valuable method for identifying and classifying the infecting viruses.
A genus of parasitic flagellate EUKARYOTES distinguished by the presence of four anterior flagella, an undulating membrane, and a trailing flagellum.
A group of viruses in the genus PESTIVIRUS, causing diarrhea, fever, oral ulcerations, hemorrhagic syndrome, and various necrotic lesions among cattle and other domestic animals. The two species (genotypes), BVDV-1 and BVDV-2 , exhibit antigenic and pathological differences. The historical designation, BVDV, consisted of both (then unrecognized) genotypes.
Infections with viruses of the genus TOROVIRUS, family CORONAVIRIDAE.
Acute disease of cattle caused by the bovine viral diarrhea viruses (DIARRHEA VIRUSES, BOVINE VIRAL). Often mouth ulcerations are the only sign but fever, diarrhea, drop in milk yield, and loss of appetite are also seen. Severity of clinical disease varies and is strain dependent. Outbreaks are characterized by low morbidity and high mortality.
A genus of FLAVIVIRIDAE, also known as mucosal disease virus group, which is not arthropod-borne. Transmission is by direct and indirect contact, and by transplacental and congenital transmission. Species include BORDER DISEASE VIRUS, bovine viral diarrhea virus (DIARRHEA VIRUS, BOVINE VIRAL), and CLASSICAL SWINE FEVER VIRUS.
A species of the PESTIVIRUS genus causing exceedingly contagious and fatal hemorrhagic disease of swine.
A family of proteins that promote unwinding of RNA during splicing and translation.
A technique for maintaining or growing TISSUE in vitro, usually by DIFFUSION, perifusion, or PERFUSION. The tissue is cultured directly after removal from the host without being dispersed for cell culture.
The type species of GYROVIRUS, a small, non-enveloped DNA virus originally isolated from contaminated vaccines in Japan. It causes chicken infectious anemia and may possibly play a key role in hemorrhagic anemia syndrome, anemia dermatitis, and blue wing disease.
Minute infectious agents whose genomes are composed of DNA or RNA, but not both. They are characterized by a lack of independent metabolism and the inability to replicate outside living host cells.
Process of growing viruses in live animals, plants, or cultured cells.
Viruses which lack a complete genome so that they cannot completely replicate or cannot form a protein coat. Some are host-dependent defectives, meaning they can replicate only in cell systems which provide the particular genetic function which they lack. Others, called SATELLITE VIRUSES, are able to replicate only when their genetic defect is complemented by a helper virus.
Proteins encoded by a VIRAL GENOME that are produced in the organisms they infect, but not packaged into the VIRUS PARTICLES. Some of these proteins may play roles within the infected cell during VIRUS REPLICATION or act in regulation of virus replication or VIRUS ASSEMBLY.
The complete genetic complement contained in a DNA or RNA molecule in a virus.
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
Hydrolases that specifically cleave the peptide bonds found in PROTEINS and PEPTIDES. Examples of sub-subclasses for this group include EXOPEPTIDASES and ENDOPEPTIDASES.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
Ribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
Critical and exhaustive investigation or experimentation, having for its aim the discovery of new facts and their correct interpretation, the revision of accepted conclusions, theories, or laws in the light of newly discovered facts, or the practical application of such new or revised conclusions, theories, or laws. (Webster, 3d ed)
Methods of maintaining or growing biological materials in controlled laboratory conditions. These include the cultures of CELLS; TISSUES; organs; or embryo in vitro. Both animal and plant tissues may be cultured by a variety of methods. Cultures may derive from normal or abnormal tissues, and consist of a single cell type or mixed cell types.
The process of intracellular viral multiplication, consisting of the synthesis of PROTEINS; NUCLEIC ACIDS; and sometimes LIPIDS, and their assembly into a new infectious particle.
Inflammation of the lung parenchyma that is caused by a viral infection.
Infection of the lung often accompanied by inflammation.
Inflammation of the lung parenchyma that is caused by bacterial infections.
Infections with viruses of the family PARAMYXOVIRIDAE. This includes MORBILLIVIRUS INFECTIONS; RESPIROVIRUS INFECTIONS; PNEUMOVIRUS INFECTIONS; HENIPAVIRUS INFECTIONS; AVULAVIRUS INFECTIONS; and RUBULAVIRUS INFECTIONS.
A species of RESPIROVIRUS also called hemadsorption virus 2 (HA2), which causes laryngotracheitis in humans, especially children.
An acute viral infection in humans involving the respiratory tract. It is marked by inflammation of the NASAL MUCOSA; the PHARYNX; and conjunctiva, and by headache and severe, often generalized, myalgia.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS with the surface proteins hemagglutinin 1 and neuraminidase 1. The H1N1 subtype was responsible for the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918.
Works containing information articles on subjects in every field of knowledge, usually arranged in alphabetical order, or a similar work limited to a special field or subject. (From The ALA Glossary of Library and Information Science, 1983)
A genus of bacteriophages of the family INOVIRIDAE. Organisms of this genus infect Acholeplasma and Spiroplasma.
A generic term for any circumscribed mass of foreign (e.g., lead or viruses) or metabolically inactive materials (e.g., ceroid or MALLORY BODIES), within the cytoplasm or nucleus of a cell. Inclusion bodies are in cells infected with certain filtrable viruses, observed especially in nerve, epithelial, or endothelial cells. (Stedman, 25th ed)
An area showing altered staining behavior in the nucleus or cytoplasm of a virus-infected cell. Some inclusion bodies represent "virus factories" in which viral nucleic acid or protein is being synthesized; others are merely artifacts of fixation and staining. One example, Negri bodies, are found in the cytoplasm or processes of nerve cells in animals that have died from rabies.

Quantitation of Friend spleen focus-forming virus by a nine-day 59Fe assay. (1/2026)

A previously described 3-day 59Fe assay for quantitation of Friend spleen focus-forming virus has been modified to produce a 200-fold more sensitive 9-day 59Fe assay. A characterization of this assay is reported here. Male BALB/c mice received intravenous injections of appropriately diluted Friend polycythemia virus (FVP); control mice received virus diluent. All mice were allowed food and water ad libitum for 6 days, and on day 6 after virus injection were fasted by removal of food but not water. On day 3 of the fast (the 9th day after virus injection) each mouse received an intraperitoneal injection of 1 muCi of 59Fe. Six hours later the mice were sacrificed and the splenic radioactivity was determined. The percent splenic incorporation of 59Fe was directly related to the logarithm of spleen focus-forming units (SFFU) of FVP injected in a range of approximately 25 to 1,000 SFFU. Using a standard FVP preparation in a dose range of 25 to 1,000 SFFU, it was possible to determine the SFFU titers of unknown samples by extrapolation of the percent splenic 59Fe incorporation to the logarithm of SFFU. SFFU titers obtained by the 9-day 59Fe assay were similar to those obtained by the enumerative-response assay. Advantages of the 9-day 59Fe assay over the enumerative-response assay include a 50-fold greater virus dose range, an easier and a more objective counting procedure, and a reduced coefficient of variation.  (+info)

A new picornavirus isolated from bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus). (2/2026)

A previously unknown picornavirus was isolated from bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus). Electron microscopy images and sequence data of the prototype isolate, named Ljungan virus, showed that it is a picornavirus. The amino acid sequences of predicted Ljungan virus capsid proteins VP2 and VP3 were closely related to the human pathogen echovirus 22 (approximately 70% similarity). A partial 5' noncoding region sequence of Ljungan virus showed the highest degree of relatedness to cardioviruses. Two additional isolates were serologically and molecularly related to the prototype.  (+info)

Rubella virus-induced apoptosis varies among cell lines and is modulated by Bcl-XL and caspase inhibitors. (3/2026)

Rubella virus (RV) causes multisystem birth defects in the fetuses of infected women. To investigate the cellular basis of this pathology, we examined the cytopathic effect of RV in three permissive cell lines: Vero 76, RK13, and BHK21. Electron microscopy and the TUNEL assay showed that the cytopathic effect resulted from RV-induced programmed cell death (apoptosis) in all three cell lines, but the extent of apoptosis varied among these cells. At 48 h postinfection, the RK13 cell line showed the greatest number of apoptotic cells, the Vero 76 cell line was approximately 3-fold less, and BHK21 had very few. An increased multiplicity of infection and longer time postinfection were required for the BHK21 cell line to reach the level of apoptotic cells in Vero 76 at 48 h. Purified RV induced apoptosis in a dose-dependent fashion, but not UV-inactivated RV or virus-depleted culture supernatant. Specific inhibitors of the apoptosis-specific proteases caspases reduced RV-induced apoptosis and led to higher levels of RV components in infected cells. To address the role of regulatory proteins in RV-induced apoptosis, the antiapoptotic gene Bcl-2 or Bcl-XL was transfected into RK13 cells. Although a high level of Bcl-2 family proteins was expressed, no protection was observed from apoptosis induced by RV, Sindbis virus, or staurosporine in RK13 cells. In BHK21 cells, however, increased expression of Bcl-XL protected cells from apoptosis. The observed variability in apoptotic response to RV of these cell lines demonstrates that programmed cell death is dependent on the unique properties of each cell and may be indicative of how selective organ damage occurs in a congenital rubella syndrome fetus.  (+info)

Maturation, activation, and protection of dendritic cells induced by double-stranded RNA. (4/2026)

The initiation of an immune response is critically dependent on the activation of dendritic cells (DCs). This process is triggered by surface receptors specific for inflammatory cytokines or for conserved patterns characteristic of infectious agents. Here we show that human DCs are activated by influenza virus infection and by double-stranded (ds)RNA. This activation results not only in increased antigen presentation and T cell stimulatory capacity, but also in resistance to the cytopathic effect of the virus, mediated by the production of type I interferon, and upregulation of MxA. Because dsRNA stimulates both maturation and resistance, DCs can serve as altruistic antigen-presenting cells capable of sustaining viral antigen production while acquiring the capacity to trigger naive T cells and drive polarized T helper cell type 1 responses.  (+info)

Noncytopathic flavivirus replicon RNA-based system for expression and delivery of heterologous genes. (5/2026)

Noncytopathic replicons of the flavivirus Kunjin (KUN) were employed for expression and delivery of heterologous genes. Replicon vector C20DX2Arep, containing a unique cloning site followed by the sequence of 2A autoprotease of foot-and-mouth disease virus, was constructed and used for expression of a number of heterologous genes including chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT), green fluorescent protein (GFP), beta-galactosidase, glycoprotein G of vesicular stomatitis virus, and the Core and NS3 genes of hepatitis C virus. The expression and proper processing of these genes upon transfection of BHK21 cells with the recombinant replicon RNAs were demonstrated by immunofluorescence, radioimmunoprecipitation, and appropriate reporter gene assays. Most of these recombinant KUN replicon RNAs were also successfully packaged into secreted virus-like particles (VLPs) by subsequent transfection with Semliki Forest virus replicon RNA expressing KUN structural genes. Infection of BHK21 and Vero cells with these VLPs resulted in continuous replication of the recombinant replicon RNAs and prolonged expression of the cloned genes without any cytopathic effect. We also developed a replicon vector for generation of stable cell lines continuously expressing heterologous genes by inserting an encephalomyelocarditis virus internal ribosomal entry site-neomycin transferase gene cassette into the 3'-untranslated region of the C20DX2Arep vector. Using this vector (C20DX2ArepNeo), stable BHK cell lines persistently expressing GFP and CAT genes for up to 17 passages were established. Thus noncytopathic KUN replicon vectors with the ability to be packaged into VLPs should provide a useful tool for the development of noninfectious and noncytopathic vaccines as well as for gene therapy applications.  (+info)

Serum albumin inhibits echovirus 7 uncoating. (6/2026)

Echoviruses induce a wide spectrum of diseases in man, the most severe being meningitis. In neonates, however, a severe systemic infection can be observed, leading to death. Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in plasma and most interstitial fluids, and its functions include osmoregulation and transport and delivery of hydrophobic molecules such as fatty acids and steroids. The results of cold-synchronized one-step growth analysis of echovirus 7 infection and sucrose-gradient analysis of A-particles suggest that physiological concentrations of albumin block echovirus 7 infection by inhibiting uncoating. The blockage was reversible and was still effective when albumin was added 30 min after virus adsorption. Inhibition of uncoating was confirmed by using rhodanine, a known specific inhibitor of echovirus uncoating. After removal of the albumin blockage, addition of rhodanine perpetuated the inhibition. Serum and interstitial albumin concentrations may limit echovirus infection in vivo and thereby act as an extracellular determinant for echovirus tropism.  (+info)

First identification of infectious salmon anaemia virus in North America with haemorrhagic kidney syndrome. (7/2026)

Haemorrhagic kidney syndrome (HKS), a serious disease affecting Atlantic salmon on the east coast of Canada, was determined to be caused by infectious salmon anaemia virus (ISAV) through the isolation of the pathogen on the SHK-1 (salmon head kidney) cell line and confirmation by ISAV-specific immunofluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). In addition, the defining histopathology of HKS could be reproduced following the injection of material that rendered challenged fish ISAV-positive by cell culture in the absence of any other detectable pathogen. Preliminary nucleotide sequence comparison does not suggest any direct epidemiological connection between the Canadian and Norwegian isolates.  (+info)

Activation of caspases and p53 by bovine herpesvirus 1 infection results in programmed cell death and efficient virus release. (8/2026)

Programmed cell death (PCD), or apoptosis, is initiated in response to various stimuli, including virus infection. Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) induces PCD in peripheral blood mononuclear cells at the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle (E. Hanon, S. Hoornaert, F. Dequiedt, A. Vanderplasschen, J. Lyaku, L. Willems, and P.-P. Pastoret, Virology 232:351-358, 1997). However, penetration of virus particles is not required for PCD (E. Hanon, G. Meyer, A. Vanderplasschen, C. Dessy-Doize, E. Thiry, and P. P. Pastoret, J. Virol. 72:7638-7641, 1998). The mechanism by which BHV-1 induces PCD in peripheral blood mononuclear cells is not understood, nor is it clear whether nonlymphoid cells undergo PCD following infection. This study demonstrates that infection of bovine kidney (MDBK) cells with BHV-1 leads to PCD, as judged by terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling, DNA laddering, and chromatin condensation. p53 appears to be important in this process, because p53 levels and promoter activity increased after infection. Expression of proteins that are stimulated by p53 (p21(Waf1) and Bax) is also activated after infection. Cleavage of Bcl-xL, a protein that inhibits PCD, occurred after infection, suggesting that caspases (interleukin-1beta-converting enzyme-like proteases) were activated. Other caspase substrates [poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase and actin] are also cleaved during the late stages of infection. Inhibition of caspase activity delayed cytotoxic activity and virus release but increased the overall virus yield. Taken together, these results indicate that nonlymphoid cells undergo PCD near the end of productive infection and further suggest that caspases enhance virus release.  (+info)

A Cytopathic Effect (CPE) is a visible change in the cell or group of cells due to infection by a pathogen, such as a virus. When the cytopathic effect is caused specifically by a viral infection, it is referred to as a "Viral Cytopathic Effect" (VCPE).

The VCPE can include various changes in the cell's morphology, size, and structure, such as rounding, shrinkage, multinucleation, inclusion bodies, and formation of syncytia (multinucleated giant cells). These changes are often used to identify and characterize viruses in laboratory settings.

The VCPE is typically observed under a microscope after the virus has infected cell cultures, and it can help researchers determine the type of virus, the degree of infection, and the effectiveness of antiviral treatments. The severity and timing of the VCPE can vary depending on the specific virus and the type of cells that are infected.

Trichomonas is a genus of protozoan parasites that are commonly found in the human body, particularly in the urogenital tract. The most well-known species is Trichomonas vaginalis, which is responsible for the sexually transmitted infection known as trichomoniasis. This infection can cause various symptoms in both men and women, including vaginitis, urethritis, and pelvic inflammatory disease.

T. vaginalis is a pear-shaped flagellate protozoan that measures around 10 to 20 micrometers in length. It has four flagella at the anterior end and an undulating membrane along one side of its body, which helps it move through its environment. The parasite can attach itself to host cells using a specialized structure called an adhesion zone.

Trichomonas species are typically transmitted through sexual contact, although they can also be spread through the sharing of contaminated towels or clothing. Infection with T. vaginalis can increase the risk of acquiring other sexually transmitted infections, such as HIV and human papillomavirus (HPV).

Diagnosis of trichomoniasis typically involves the detection of T. vaginalis in a sample of vaginal or urethral discharge. Treatment usually involves the administration of antibiotics, such as metronidazole or tinidazole, which are effective at killing the parasite and curing the infection.

Bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) is a viral disease that primarily affects cattle, but can also infect other ruminants such as sheep and goats. The disease is caused by the bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), which belongs to the family Flaviviridae and genus Pestivirus.

There are two biotypes of BVDV, type 1 and type 2, which can be further divided into various subtypes based on their genetic makeup. The virus can cause a range of clinical signs in infected animals, depending on the age and immune status of the animal, as well as the strain of the virus.

Acute infection with BVDV can cause fever, lethargy, loss of appetite, nasal discharge, and diarrhea, which can be severe and life-threatening in young calves. In addition, BVDV can cause reproductive problems such as abortion, stillbirth, and the birth of persistently infected (PI) calves. PI animals are those that were infected with BVDV in utero and have the virus continuously present in their bloodstream and other tissues throughout their lives. These animals serve as a source of infection for other cattle and can spread the virus to naive herds.

BVDV is transmitted through direct contact with infected animals or their bodily fluids, such as saliva, nasal secretions, and feces. The virus can also be spread indirectly through contaminated feed, water, and equipment. Prevention and control measures for BVDV include biosecurity practices, vaccination, and testing to identify and remove PI animals from herds.

Torovirus infections refer to illnesses caused by toroviruses, which are a type of viruses that can infect humans and animals. These viruses primarily cause gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal cramps. Torovirus infections are most commonly seen in children and the elderly, and they can also affect immunocompromised individuals more severely.

Transmission of toroviruses typically occurs through the fecal-oral route, either by direct contact with an infected person or by ingesting contaminated food or water. The virus can also be spread through respiratory droplets, although this is less common.

Diagnosis of torovirus infections is usually made based on clinical symptoms and laboratory tests that detect the presence of the virus in stool samples. Treatment is generally supportive and includes hydration to replace lost fluids due to diarrhea and vomiting. Preventive measures include good hygiene practices, such as handwashing and safe food handling, to reduce the risk of transmission.

Bovine Virus Diarrhea-Mucosal Disease (BVD-MD) is a complex of diseases caused by the Bovine Virus Diarrhea virus (BVDV) and is a significant problem in the global cattle industry. The disease can manifest in various forms, from mild respiratory or reproductive issues to severe, life-threatening conditions such as mucosal disease.

Mucosal disease is the most acute form of BVD-MD and occurs when an animal that has been persistently infected (PI) with a specific strain of BVDV develops a secondary infection with a cytopathic biotype of the virus. PI animals are those that were infected in utero with BVDV before they developed immune competence, resulting in them shedding large amounts of the virus throughout their lives.

The secondary infection with the cytopathic biotype of BVDV causes extensive damage to the animal's lymphoid tissues and gastrointestinal tract, leading to severe clinical signs such as:

1. Profuse diarrhea
2. High fever (up to 41°C or 105.8°F)
3. Ulcerative lesions in the mouth, esophagus, and intestines
4. Severe dehydration
5. Depression and loss of appetite
6. Weight loss
7. Weakness
8. Increased respiratory rate
9. Swelling of the head, neck, and brisket
10. Death within 2-3 weeks after the onset of clinical signs

Morbidity and mortality rates in BVD-MD outbreaks can be high, causing significant economic losses for farmers due to decreased production, increased veterinary costs, and animal deaths. Prevention strategies include vaccination programs, biosecurity measures, and testing for PI animals to remove them from the herd.

Pestivirus is a genus of viruses in the family Flaviviridae, which are enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses. There are several species within this genus that can cause disease in animals, including bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) in cattle, border disease virus (BDV) in sheep, and classical swine fever virus (CSFV) in pigs. These viruses can cause a range of clinical signs, including respiratory and enteric diseases, reproductive failures, and immunosuppression. They are primarily spread through direct contact with infected animals or their bodily fluids, and can also be transmitted through contaminated fomites and semen. Prevention and control measures include vaccination, biosecurity practices, and testing and culling of infected animals.

Classical Swine Fever Virus (CSFV) is a positive-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the genus Pestivirus within the family Flaviviridae. It is the causative agent of Classical Swine Fever (CSF), also known as hog cholera, which is a highly contagious and severe disease in pigs. The virus is primarily transmitted through direct contact with infected animals or their body fluids, but it can also be spread through contaminated feed, water, and fomites.

CSFV infects pigs of all ages, causing a range of clinical signs that may include fever, loss of appetite, lethargy, weakness, diarrhea, vomiting, and respiratory distress. In severe cases, the virus can cause hemorrhages in various organs, leading to high mortality rates. CSF is a significant disease of economic importance in the swine industry, as it can result in substantial production losses and trade restrictions.

Prevention and control measures for CSF include vaccination, biosecurity practices, and stamping-out policies. Vaccines against CSF are available but may not provide complete protection or prevent the virus from shedding, making it essential to maintain strict biosecurity measures in pig farms. In some countries, stamping-out policies involve the rapid detection and elimination of infected herds to prevent the spread of the disease.

RNA helicases are a class of enzymes that are capable of unwinding RNA secondary structures using the energy derived from ATP hydrolysis. They play crucial roles in various cellular processes involving RNA, such as transcription, splicing, translation, ribosome biogenesis, and RNA degradation. RNA helicases can be divided into several superfamilies based on their sequence and structural similarities, with the two largest being superfamily 1 (SF1) and superfamily 2 (SF2). These enzymes typically contain conserved motifs that are involved in ATP binding and hydrolysis, as well as RNA binding. By unwinding RNA structures, RNA helicases facilitate the access of other proteins to their target RNAs, thereby enabling the coordinated regulation of RNA metabolism.

Tissue culture techniques refer to the methods used to maintain and grow cells, tissues or organs from multicellular organisms in an artificial environment outside of the living body, called an in vitro culture. These techniques are widely used in various fields such as biology, medicine, and agriculture for research, diagnostics, and therapeutic purposes.

The basic components of tissue culture include a sterile growth medium that contains nutrients, growth factors, and other essential components to support the growth of cells or tissues. The growth medium is often supplemented with antibiotics to prevent contamination by microorganisms. The cells or tissues are cultured in specialized containers called culture vessels, which can be plates, flasks, or dishes, depending on the type and scale of the culture.

There are several types of tissue culture techniques, including:

1. Monolayer Culture: In this technique, cells are grown as a single layer on a flat surface, allowing for easy observation and manipulation of individual cells.
2. Organoid Culture: This method involves growing three-dimensional structures that resemble the organization and function of an organ in vivo.
3. Co-culture: In co-culture, two or more cell types are grown together to study their interactions and communication.
4. Explant Culture: In this technique, small pieces of tissue are cultured to maintain the original structure and organization of the cells within the tissue.
5. Primary Culture: This refers to the initial culture of cells directly isolated from a living organism. These cells can be further subcultured to generate immortalized cell lines.

Tissue culture techniques have numerous applications, such as studying cell behavior, drug development and testing, gene therapy, tissue engineering, and regenerative medicine.

Chicken anemia virus (CAV) is a small, non-enveloped DNA virus that belongs to the family *Circoviridae* and genus *Gyrovirus*. It primarily infects chickens and causes a variety of clinical signs, including severe anemia, immunosuppression, and runting in young birds.

The virus is highly contagious and can be spread through horizontal transmission via feces, contaminated equipment, or vertically from infected breeder hens to their offspring. CAV infection can lead to significant economic losses in the poultry industry due to decreased growth rates, increased mortality, and reduced egg production.

In addition to its impact on the poultry industry, CAV has also been used as a vector for gene delivery in biomedical research. Its small genome size and ability to infect a wide range of avian species make it an attractive candidate for vaccine development and gene therapy applications.

A virus is a small infectious agent that replicates inside the living cells of an organism. It is not considered to be a living organism itself, as it lacks the necessary components to independently maintain its own metabolic functions. Viruses are typically composed of genetic material, either DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid. Some viruses also have an outer lipid membrane known as an envelope.

Viruses can infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea. They cause various diseases by invading the host cell, hijacking its machinery, and using it to produce numerous copies of themselves, which can then infect other cells. The resulting infection and the immune response it triggers can lead to a range of symptoms, depending on the virus and the host organism.

Viruses are transmitted through various means, such as respiratory droplets, bodily fluids, contaminated food or water, and vectors like insects. Prevention methods include vaccination, practicing good hygiene, using personal protective equipment, and implementing public health measures to control their spread.

Virus cultivation, also known as virus isolation or viral culture, is a laboratory method used to propagate and detect viruses by introducing them to host cells and allowing them to replicate. This process helps in identifying the specific virus causing an infection and studying its characteristics, such as morphology, growth pattern, and sensitivity to antiviral agents.

The steps involved in virus cultivation typically include:

1. Collection of a clinical sample (e.g., throat swab, blood, sputum) from the patient.
2. Preparation of the sample by centrifugation or filtration to remove cellular debris and other contaminants.
3. Inoculation of the prepared sample into susceptible host cells, which can be primary cell cultures, continuous cell lines, or embryonated eggs, depending on the type of virus.
4. Incubation of the inoculated cells under appropriate conditions to allow viral replication.
5. Observation for cytopathic effects (CPE), which are changes in the host cells caused by viral replication, such as cell rounding, shrinkage, or lysis.
6. Confirmation of viral presence through additional tests, like immunofluorescence assays, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or electron microscopy.

Virus cultivation is a valuable tool in diagnostic virology, vaccine development, and research on viral pathogenesis and host-virus interactions. However, it requires specialized equipment, trained personnel, and biosafety measures due to the potential infectivity of the viruses being cultured.

Defective viruses are viruses that have lost the ability to complete a full replication cycle and produce progeny virions independently. These viruses require the assistance of a helper virus, which provides the necessary functions for replication. Defective viruses can arise due to mutations, deletions, or other genetic changes that result in the loss of essential genes. They are often non-infectious and cannot cause disease on their own, but they may interfere with the replication of the helper virus and modulate the course of infection. Defective viruses can be found in various types of viruses, including retroviruses, bacteriophages, and DNA viruses.

Viral nonstructural proteins (NS) are viral proteins that are not part of the virion structure. They play various roles in the viral life cycle, such as replication of the viral genome, transcription, translation regulation, and modulation of the host cell environment to favor virus replication. These proteins are often produced in large quantities during infection and can manipulate or disrupt various cellular pathways to benefit the virus. They may also be involved in evasion of the host's immune response. The specific functions of viral nonstructural proteins vary depending on the type of virus.

A viral genome is the genetic material (DNA or RNA) that is present in a virus. It contains all the genetic information that a virus needs to replicate itself and infect its host. The size and complexity of viral genomes can vary greatly, ranging from a few thousand bases to hundreds of thousands of bases. Some viruses have linear genomes, while others have circular genomes. The genome of a virus also contains the information necessary for the virus to hijack the host cell's machinery and use it to produce new copies of the virus. Understanding the genetic makeup of viruses is important for developing vaccines and antiviral treatments.

"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.

Peptide hydrolases, also known as proteases or peptidases, are a group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of peptide bonds in proteins and peptides. They play a crucial role in various biological processes such as protein degradation, digestion, cell signaling, and regulation of various physiological functions. Based on their catalytic mechanism and the specificity for the peptide bond, they are classified into several types, including serine proteases, cysteine proteases, aspartic proteases, and metalloproteases. These enzymes have important clinical applications in the diagnosis and treatment of various diseases, such as cancer, viral infections, and inflammatory disorders.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

A viral RNA (ribonucleic acid) is the genetic material found in certain types of viruses, as opposed to viruses that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). These viruses are known as RNA viruses. The RNA can be single-stranded or double-stranded and can exist as several different forms, such as positive-sense, negative-sense, or ambisense RNA. Upon infecting a host cell, the viral RNA uses the host's cellular machinery to translate the genetic information into proteins, leading to the production of new virus particles and the continuation of the viral life cycle. Examples of human diseases caused by RNA viruses include influenza, COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), hepatitis C, and polio.

Research, in the context of medicine, is a systematic and rigorous process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information in order to increase our understanding, develop new knowledge, or evaluate current practices and interventions. It can involve various methodologies such as observational studies, experiments, surveys, or literature reviews. The goal of medical research is to advance health care by identifying new treatments, improving diagnostic techniques, and developing prevention strategies. Medical research is typically conducted by teams of researchers including clinicians, scientists, and other healthcare professionals. It is subject to ethical guidelines and regulations to ensure that it is conducted responsibly and with the best interests of patients in mind.

Culture techniques are methods used in microbiology to grow and multiply microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, or viruses, in a controlled laboratory environment. These techniques allow for the isolation, identification, and study of specific microorganisms, which is essential for diagnostic purposes, research, and development of medical treatments.

The most common culture technique involves inoculating a sterile growth medium with a sample suspected to contain microorganisms. The growth medium can be solid or liquid and contains nutrients that support the growth of the microorganisms. Common solid growth media include agar plates, while liquid growth media are used for broth cultures.

Once inoculated, the growth medium is incubated at a temperature that favors the growth of the microorganisms being studied. During incubation, the microorganisms multiply and form visible colonies on the solid growth medium or turbid growth in the liquid growth medium. The size, shape, color, and other characteristics of the colonies can provide important clues about the identity of the microorganism.

Other culture techniques include selective and differential media, which are designed to inhibit the growth of certain types of microorganisms while promoting the growth of others, allowing for the isolation and identification of specific pathogens. Enrichment cultures involve adding specific nutrients or factors to a sample to promote the growth of a particular type of microorganism.

Overall, culture techniques are essential tools in microbiology and play a critical role in medical diagnostics, research, and public health.

Virus replication is the process by which a virus produces copies or reproduces itself inside a host cell. This involves several steps:

1. Attachment: The virus attaches to a specific receptor on the surface of the host cell.
2. Penetration: The viral genetic material enters the host cell, either by invagination of the cell membrane or endocytosis.
3. Uncoating: The viral genetic material is released from its protective coat (capsid) inside the host cell.
4. Replication: The viral genetic material uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
5. Assembly: The newly synthesized viral components are assembled into new virus particles.
6. Release: The newly formed viruses are released from the host cell, often through lysis (breaking) of the cell membrane or by budding off the cell membrane.

The specific mechanisms and details of virus replication can vary depending on the type of virus. Some viruses, such as DNA viruses, use the host cell's DNA polymerase to replicate their genetic material, while others, such as RNA viruses, use their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase enzymes. Understanding the process of virus replication is important for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Viral pneumonia is a type of pneumonia caused by viral infection. It primarily affects the upper and lower respiratory tract, leading to inflammation of the alveoli (air sacs) in the lungs. This results in symptoms such as cough, difficulty breathing, fever, fatigue, and chest pain. Common viruses that can cause pneumonia include influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and adenovirus. Viral pneumonia is often milder than bacterial pneumonia but can still be serious, especially in young children, older adults, and people with weakened immune systems. Treatment typically involves supportive care, such as rest, hydration, and fever reduction, while the body fights off the virus. In some cases, antiviral medications may be used to help manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Pneumonia is an infection or inflammation of the alveoli (tiny air sacs) in one or both lungs. It's often caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi. Accumulated pus and fluid in these air sacs make it difficult to breathe, which can lead to coughing, chest pain, fever, and difficulty breathing. The severity of symptoms can vary from mild to life-threatening, depending on the underlying cause, the patient's overall health, and age. Pneumonia is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as chest X-rays or blood tests. Treatment usually involves antibiotics for bacterial pneumonia, antivirals for viral pneumonia, and supportive care like oxygen therapy, hydration, and rest.

Bacterial pneumonia is a type of lung infection that's caused by bacteria. It can affect people of any age, but it's more common in older adults, young children, and people with certain health conditions or weakened immune systems. The symptoms of bacterial pneumonia can vary, but they often include cough, chest pain, fever, chills, and difficulty breathing.

The most common type of bacteria that causes pneumonia is Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus). Other types of bacteria that can cause pneumonia include Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.

Bacterial pneumonia is usually treated with antibiotics, which are medications that kill bacteria. The specific type of antibiotic used will depend on the type of bacteria causing the infection. It's important to take all of the prescribed medication as directed, even if you start feeling better, to ensure that the infection is completely cleared and to prevent the development of antibiotic resistance.

In severe cases of bacterial pneumonia, hospitalization may be necessary for close monitoring and treatment with intravenous antibiotics and other supportive care.

Paramyxoviridae is a family of viruses that includes several important pathogens causing respiratory infections in humans and animals. According to the medical perspective, Paramyxoviridae infections refer to the diseases caused by these viruses.

Some notable human paramyxovirus infections include:

1. Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Infection: RSV is a common cause of respiratory tract infections, particularly in young children and older adults. It can lead to bronchiolitis and pneumonia, especially in infants and patients with compromised immune systems.
2. Measles (Rubeola): Measles is a highly contagious viral disease characterized by fever, cough, coryza (runny nose), conjunctivitis, and a maculopapular rash. It can lead to severe complications such as pneumonia, encephalitis, and even death, particularly in malnourished children and individuals with weakened immune systems.
3. Parainfluenza Virus Infection: Parainfluenza viruses are responsible for upper and lower respiratory tract infections, including croup, bronchitis, and pneumonia. They mainly affect young children but can also infect adults, causing mild to severe illnesses.
4. Mumps: Mumps is a contagious viral infection that primarily affects the salivary glands, causing painful swelling. It can lead to complications such as meningitis, encephalitis, deafness, and orchitis (inflammation of the testicles) in rare cases.
5. Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV) Infection: HMPV is a respiratory virus that can cause upper and lower respiratory tract infections, similar to RSV and parainfluenza viruses. It mainly affects young children and older adults, leading to bronchitis, pneumonia, and exacerbations of chronic lung diseases.

Prevention strategies for Paramyxoviridae infections include vaccination programs, practicing good personal hygiene, and implementing infection control measures in healthcare settings.

Parainfluenza Virus 1, Human (HPIV-1) is a type of respiratory virus that belongs to the family Paramyxoviridae and genus Respirovirus. It is one of the four serotypes of human parainfluenza viruses (HPIVs), which are important causes of acute respiratory infections in children, immunocompromised individuals, and the elderly.

HPIV-1 primarily infects the upper respiratory tract, causing symptoms such as cough, runny nose, sore throat, and fever. However, it can also cause lower respiratory tract infections, including bronchitis, bronchiolitis, and pneumonia, particularly in young children and infants.

HPIV-1 is transmitted through respiratory droplets or direct contact with infected individuals. The incubation period for HPIV-1 infection ranges from 2 to 7 days, after which symptoms can last for up to 10 days. There is no specific antiviral treatment available for HPIV-1 infections, and management typically involves supportive care such as hydration, fever reduction, and respiratory support if necessary.

Prevention measures include good hand hygiene, avoiding close contact with infected individuals, and practicing cough etiquette. Vaccines are not currently available for HPIV-1 infections, but research is ongoing to develop effective vaccines against these viruses.

Influenza, also known as the flu, is a highly contagious viral infection that attacks the respiratory system of humans. It is caused by influenza viruses A, B, or C and is characterized by the sudden onset of fever, chills, headache, muscle pain, sore throat, cough, runny nose, and fatigue. Influenza can lead to complications such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and ear infections, and can be particularly dangerous for young children, older adults, pregnant women, and people with weakened immune systems or chronic medical conditions. The virus is spread through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks, and can also survive on surfaces for a period of time. Influenza viruses are constantly changing, which makes it necessary to get vaccinated annually to protect against the most recent and prevalent strains.

'Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype' is a specific subtype of the influenza A virus that causes flu in humans and animals. It contains certain proteins called hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) on its surface, with this subtype specifically having H1 and N1 antigens. The H1N1 strain is well-known for causing the 2009 swine flu pandemic, which was a global outbreak of flu that resulted in significant morbidity and mortality. This subtype can also cause seasonal flu, although the severity and symptoms may vary. It is important to note that influenza viruses are constantly changing, and new strains or subtypes can emerge over time, requiring regular updates to vaccines to protect against them.

An encyclopedia is a comprehensive reference work containing articles on various topics, usually arranged in alphabetical order. In the context of medicine, a medical encyclopedia is a collection of articles that provide information about a wide range of medical topics, including diseases and conditions, treatments, tests, procedures, and anatomy and physiology. Medical encyclopedias may be published in print or electronic formats and are often used as a starting point for researching medical topics. They can provide reliable and accurate information on medical subjects, making them useful resources for healthcare professionals, students, and patients alike. Some well-known examples of medical encyclopedias include the Merck Manual and the Stedman's Medical Dictionary.

A plectrovirus is a type of plant virus that belongs to the family *Geminiviridae* and the genus *Plerovirus*. These viruses are characterized by having twinned, icosahedral particles containing single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) genomes. Plectroviruses are transmitted by the leafhopper vector and primarily infect plants in the family Chenopodiaceae.

The genus *Plerovirus* currently contains two species: *Bean yellow dwarf virus* and *Beet curly top virus*. These viruses can cause significant economic losses in agriculture due to the diseases they induce in their host plants, which can result in stunted growth, yellowing, and reduced yield.

It is important to note that plectroviruses are not known to infect humans or animals, and their impact is limited to the plant species they infect.

Inclusion bodies are abnormal, intracellular accumulations or aggregations of various misfolded proteins, protein complexes, or other materials within the cells of an organism. They can be found in various tissues and cell types and are often associated with several pathological conditions, including infectious diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and genetic diseases.

Inclusion bodies can vary in size, shape, and location depending on the specific disease or condition. Some inclusion bodies have a characteristic appearance under the microscope, such as eosinophilic (pink) staining with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) histological stain, while others may require specialized stains or immunohistochemical techniques to identify the specific misfolded proteins involved.

Examples of diseases associated with inclusion bodies include:

1. Infectious diseases: Some viral infections, such as HIV, hepatitis B and C, and herpes simplex virus, can lead to the formation of inclusion bodies within infected cells.
2. Neurodegenerative disorders: Several neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by the presence of inclusion bodies, including Alzheimer's disease (amyloid-beta plaques and tau tangles), Parkinson's disease (Lewy bodies), Huntington's disease (Huntingtin aggregates), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (TDP-43 and SOD1 inclusions).
3. Genetic diseases: Certain genetic disorders, such as Danon disease, neuronal intranuclear inclusion disease, and some lysosomal storage disorders, can also present with inclusion bodies due to the accumulation of abnormal proteins or metabolic products within cells.

The exact role of inclusion bodies in disease pathogenesis remains unclear; however, they are often associated with cellular dysfunction, oxidative stress, and increased inflammation, which can contribute to disease progression and neurodegeneration.

Inclusion bodies, viral are typically described as intracellular inclusions that appear as a result of viral infections. These inclusion bodies consist of aggregates of virus-specific proteins, viral particles, or both, which accumulate inside the host cell's cytoplasm or nucleus during the replication cycle of certain viruses.

The presence of inclusion bodies can sometimes be observed through histological or cytological examination using various staining techniques. Different types of viruses may exhibit distinct morphologies and locations of these inclusion bodies, which can aid in the identification and diagnosis of specific viral infections. However, it is important to note that not all viral infections result in the formation of inclusion bodies, and their presence does not necessarily indicate active viral replication or infection.

... or cytopathogenic effect (abbreviated CPE) refers to structural changes in host cells that are caused by ... Although this type of CPE may eventually affect the entire tissue, the initial stages and spreading occur at localized viral ... Indirect immunoperoxidase assay Viral culture Virus "Cytopathic Effect (CPE)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 19 November ... Both of these effects occur due to CPEs. If a virus causes these morphological changes in the host cell, it is said to be ...
... viral MeSH G04.185.515.880.225 - cytopathogenic effect, viral MeSH G04.185.515.880.420 - hemagglutination, viral MeSH G04.185. ... graft vs tumor effect MeSH G04.610.555.714.402.320.320 - graft vs leukemia effect MeSH G04.610.555.714.519 - histocompatibility ... viral MeSH G04.185.515.286.420.500 - drug resistance, multiple, viral MeSH G04.185.515.329 - drug resistance, multiple MeSH ... 515.880.450 - inclusion bodies, viral MeSH G04.185.515.880.910 - viral interference MeSH G04.185.515.880.926 - virus ...
... cytopathogenic effect, viral MeSH E01.450.230.700 - spinal puncture MeSH E01.450.230.900 - vaginal smears MeSH E01.450.375.107 ...
2000). "The effects of bovine viral diarrhoea virus on cattle reproduction in relation to disease control". Animal Reproduction ... to a cytopathogenic strain of virus diarrhea virus of cattle". Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine ... PIs act as viral reservoirs and are the principal source of viral infection but transiently infected animals and contaminated ... Bovine viral diarrhea (BVD), bovine viral diarrhoea (UK English) or mucosal disease, previously referred to as bovine virus ...
Adenoviruses have long been a popular viral vector for gene therapy due to their ability to affect both replicating and non- ... Rowe WP, Huebner RJ, Gilmore LK, Parrott RH, Ward TG (December 1953). "Isolation of a cytopathogenic agent from human adenoids ... To address this risk, the genome of the viral genes have been modified to remove some viral genes. One such modification is the ... viral gene expression can occur, without integrating the viral genome into host cell chromosomes, and new virus particles can ...
... the viral DNA will directly integrate into the host's genome via the viral enzyme integrase. If the payload was ssRNA the RNA ... Thought this effect in seen quite frequently, its cause is still yet to be determined. In some more rare instances, cell death ... Enders, J. F.; Peebles, T. C. (June 1954). "Propagation in tissue cultures of cytopathogenic agents from patients with measles ... Once the viral particle has delivered its genetic material safely into the cytoplasm of its host, one of two things will occur ...
Hopkins, N.; Rowe, W. P.; Hartley, J. W.; Holland, C. A. (January 1985). "At least four viral genes contribute to the ... Huebner, R. J.; Rowe, W. P.; Lane, W. T. (1962). "Oncogenic Effects in Hamsters of Human Adenovirus Types 12 and 18". ... "Isolation of a Cytopathogenic Agent from Human Adenoids Undergoing Spontaneous Degeneration in Tissue Culture". Experimental ... 2 December 2012). "Chapter 2. Dedication (to Wallace Prescott Rowe) by Janet W. Hartley". Viral and Mycoplasmal Infections of ...
"Isolation of different non-cytopathogenic bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) viruses from cytopathogenic BVD virus stocks using ... Animals who are affected by the virus during early fetal development may become persistently infected (PI) and lack an immune ... of the viral genome recruits viral and cellular translation factors to initiate viral protein translation. Viral proteins are ... The bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is what causes bovine viral diarrhea (BVD). Bovine viral diarrhea virus type 1 (BVDV-1 ...
... but only affected piglets. It spread to the neighbouring countries and was referred to as epidemic viral diarrhea. A second ... The isolation and identification of a cytopathogenic virus of transmissible gastroenteritis in primary swine kidney cell ... It affected pigs of all ages, and mortality was as high as 95% among the suckling piglets. Another severe outbreak occurred in ... Liver was particularly affected with severe tissue damage (necrosis), indicating hepatitis. The new virus was named JHM, after ...
Viral pneumonia decreases in frequency in healthy young and middle-aged adults, but it then increases substantially among the ... The cultures are examined for cytopathogenic effects and for evidence of viral growth. The cytopathogenic effect is the ... Viral Culture. Viral pneumonia can be diagnosed by isolation and identification of the pathogen through viral culture. ... Viral cultures are still the criterion standard for most viral pathogens, but they take a long time to complete. Therefore, ...
Viral pneumonia decreases in frequency in healthy young and middle-aged adults, but it then increases substantially among the ... The SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) quickly spread from China to the rest of the world over a period of 1 year, affecting more than ... Sex differences in viral pneumonia. Men who are infected develop viral pneumonia at a slightly higher rate than women. Pregnant ... Viral transmission. The mechanism of viral transmission varies with the type of virus. Routes include large-droplet spread over ...
Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral / drug effects * Dextran Sulfate * Dextrans / pharmacology * Dideoxynucleosides / pharmacology * ... Inhibition of the HIV-induced cytopathic effect was used as the end point. The viability of both HIV- and mock-infected cells ...
We observed a cytopathogenic effect within 72 hours. We observed numerous spherical, enveloped viral particles, ≈70 nm in ... To identify potential viral pathogens, we performed reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) to detect a panel of viruses, including ... Spearman correlation analysis revealed a significant negative correlation between antibody titers and viral RNA copy numbers (r ...
During the time that synthesis of viral components is occurring in the infected cell, the cell undergoes characteristic ... the responsible virus is said to be cytopathogenic. The degree of visible damage to cells caused by viral infection varies with ... Morphological changes in cells caused by viral infection are called cytopathic effects (CPE); ... During the time that synthesis of viral components is occurring in the infected cell, the cell undergoes characteristic ...
Cytopathic effect or cytopathogenic effect (abbreviated CPE) refers to structural changes in host cells that are caused by ... Although this type of CPE may eventually affect the entire tissue, the initial stages and spreading occur at localized viral ... Indirect immunoperoxidase assay Viral culture Virus "Cytopathic Effect (CPE)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 19 November ... Both of these effects occur due to CPEs. If a virus causes these morphological changes in the host cell, it is said to be ...
If a sample portrayed a distinct cytopathogenic effect, 140 µL of the cell culture supernatant was removed prior to staining ... Figure 2. Viral load in mosquito bodies (A) and legs plus wings (B) 14/15 and 20/21 days post infection in the different ... Figure 2. Viral load in mosquito bodies (A) and legs plus wings (B) 14/15 and 20/21 days post infection in the different ... The viral loads (virus RNA copies/µL RNA) in the mosquito bodies and legs plus wings 14/15 and 20/21 dpi are depicted in Figure ...
Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral. 1. 2005. 4. 0.070. Why? Cell Fusion. 1. 2005 ...
Viral pneumonia decreases in frequency in healthy young and middle-aged adults, but it then increases substantially among the ... The SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) quickly spread from China to the rest of the world over a period of 1 year, affecting more than ... Sex differences in viral pneumonia. Men who are infected develop viral pneumonia at a slightly higher rate than women. Pregnant ... Viral pneumonia in the elderly. Elderly persons are at increased risk of infection and complications in viral pneumonia because ...
Anti-HIV AgentsCell LineChromatography, GasCytopathogenic Effect, ViralFruitHIVJuniperusMass SpectrometryOils, VolatilePlant ...
It develops in the outcome of acute viral hepatitis B. The hepatitis B virus (HBV) does not have a cytopathogenic effect on ... It develops in the outcome of acute viral hepatitis C, chronicity in 50% of patients. The virus has a cytopathogenic effect on ... of cases of viral hepatitis B, 2% of viral hepatitis C and more often in viral hepatitis D. Acute hepatitis sometimes ... ACUTE VIRAL HEPATITIS. Acute viral hepatitis can be caused by different types of viruses.. These include hepatitis A, B, C, E, ...
Drug Resistance, Viral. *Virus Physiological Phenomena. *Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral. *Drug Resistance, Viral ... "Drug Resistance, Viral" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicines controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical ... High concordance in plasma and CSF HIV-1 drug resistance mutations despite high cases of CSF viral escape in individuals with ... This graph shows the total number of publications written about "Drug Resistance, Viral" by people in Harvard Catalyst Profiles ...
... genetics system to determine which part of the NS1 genes is responsible for the observed differences in cytopathogenic effect ( ... This fact showed the importance of the selection of candidate viral strains for live vaccine development. The viral strains, ... This fact showed the importance of the selection of candidate viral strains for live vaccine development. The viral strains, ... We anticipate that NS1 mediates the effects of AIV on macrophages and would like to test viruses with different NS1 alleles to ...
Inhibition of cell-surface vimentin availability resulted in reduced viral entry and cytopathogenic effects. Finally, we showed ... In this study, we aimed at investigating the implication of vimentin in SARS-CoV-2 viral entry and the consequences on viral ... In the gut, the E. mundtii secretome may modulate the expression of tuberculosis, exhibiting an anti-tuberculosis effect, with ... Upregulation of neutrophil CD64 or monocyte CD169 has been abundantly reported as markers of bacterial or acute viral infection ...
On basis of pBR-XJ160, the effects of substitutions within nonstructural protein 1 (nsP1) or nsP2 on the infectivity and ... Wang HL, ORear J, Stollar V: Mutagenesis of the Sindbis virus nsP1 protein: effects on methyltransferase activity and viral ... The recovered virus was indistinguishable from the parental virus XJ2160 in the aspect s of cytopathogenic effect, plaque ... Zhu WY, Fu SH, Wang JL, He Y, Tang Q, Liang GD: Effects of the nsP2-726 Pro mutation on infectivity and pathogenesis of Sindbis ...
On the other hand, viral cytopathogenic effects are also observed: these effects are obtained by using viruses further ...
Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral. Joint Tuberculosis. Pathogenesis. Expand. Broader. (. 1. ). Microbiology procedure. Papers ...
Vaccinia produces cytopathogenic effects within 24 to 48 hours, but variola takes longer. ... The viral genome is composed of a big, double-stranded, linear DNA with both ends joined. The DNA ranges in size from 130 to ... Viral replication of Variola (Smallpox) Virus *Replication of poxviruses is complex. They are uncommon among DNA viruses in ... Cell culture: For viral isolation from clinical specimens, human and nonhuman primate cells, such as monkey kidney and HeLa ...
... cell culture can only detect viable virus particles that can initiate infection and cause cytopathogenic effects (CPE), or ... RT-qPCR can detect not only viral RNA from viable virus particles but any viral RNA, i.e. mRNA that can be found in the ... cytopathogenic effects; FFU, fluorescent focus-forming units; MIR, minimum infection rate ... Specificity of viral primers and probes The results of the specificity of the primers and probes for ZIKV, USUV, WNV, and CHIKV ...
E5.242 Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral E1.450.230.235 E1.370.225.500.384.235 E5.200.500.384.235 E5.242.384.235 Cytophaga B3.140. ... Viral Load E1.370.225.875.950 Virus Cultivation E1.370.225.875.970 Virus Inactivation E1.370.225.875.977 Visceral Prolapse ... G1.750.740 Radiation Effects G1.201.875.745 G1.750.745 Radiation Tolerance G1.201.875.795 Radiation, Ionizing G1.201.875.750 ... Replaced for 2012 by Viral Plaque Assay) Plastic Embedding E1.370.225.500.620.720.640 E1.370.225.750.600.720.640 Plastoquinol- ...
E5.242 Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral E1.450.230.235 E1.370.225.500.384.235 E5.200.500.384.235 E5.242.384.235 Cytophaga B3.140. ... Viral Load E1.370.225.875.950 Virus Cultivation E1.370.225.875.970 Virus Inactivation E1.370.225.875.977 Visceral Prolapse ... G1.750.740 Radiation Effects G1.201.875.745 G1.750.745 Radiation Tolerance G1.201.875.795 Radiation, Ionizing G1.201.875.750 ... Replaced for 2012 by Viral Plaque Assay) Plastic Embedding E1.370.225.500.620.720.640 E1.370.225.750.600.720.640 Plastoquinol- ...
E5.242 Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral E1.450.230.235 E1.370.225.500.384.235 E5.200.500.384.235 E5.242.384.235 Cytophaga B3.140. ... Viral Load E1.370.225.875.950 Virus Cultivation E1.370.225.875.970 Virus Inactivation E1.370.225.875.977 Visceral Prolapse ... G1.750.740 Radiation Effects G1.201.875.745 G1.750.745 Radiation Tolerance G1.201.875.795 Radiation, Ionizing G1.201.875.750 ... Replaced for 2012 by Viral Plaque Assay) Plastic Embedding E1.370.225.500.620.720.640 E1.370.225.750.600.720.640 Plastoquinol- ...
E5.242 Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral E1.450.230.235 E1.370.225.500.384.235 E5.200.500.384.235 E5.242.384.235 Cytophaga B3.140. ... Viral Load E1.370.225.875.950 Virus Cultivation E1.370.225.875.970 Virus Inactivation E1.370.225.875.977 Visceral Prolapse ... G1.750.740 Radiation Effects G1.201.875.745 G1.750.745 Radiation Tolerance G1.201.875.795 Radiation, Ionizing G1.201.875.750 ... Replaced for 2012 by Viral Plaque Assay) Plastic Embedding E1.370.225.500.620.720.640 E1.370.225.750.600.720.640 Plastoquinol- ...
E5.242 Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral E1.450.230.235 E1.370.225.500.384.235 E5.200.500.384.235 E5.242.384.235 Cytophaga B3.140. ... Viral Load E1.370.225.875.950 Virus Cultivation E1.370.225.875.970 Virus Inactivation E1.370.225.875.977 Visceral Prolapse ... G1.750.740 Radiation Effects G1.201.875.745 G1.750.745 Radiation Tolerance G1.201.875.795 Radiation, Ionizing G1.201.875.750 ... Replaced for 2012 by Viral Plaque Assay) Plastic Embedding E1.370.225.500.620.720.640 E1.370.225.750.600.720.640 Plastoquinol- ...
E5.242 Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral E1.450.230.235 E1.370.225.500.384.235 E5.200.500.384.235 E5.242.384.235 Cytophaga B3.140. ... Viral Load E1.370.225.875.950 Virus Cultivation E1.370.225.875.970 Virus Inactivation E1.370.225.875.977 Visceral Prolapse ... G1.750.740 Radiation Effects G1.201.875.745 G1.750.745 Radiation Tolerance G1.201.875.795 Radiation, Ionizing G1.201.875.750 ... Replaced for 2012 by Viral Plaque Assay) Plastic Embedding E1.370.225.500.620.720.640 E1.370.225.750.600.720.640 Plastoquinol- ...
E5.242 Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral E1.450.230.235 E1.370.225.500.384.235 E5.200.500.384.235 E5.242.384.235 Cytophaga B3.140. ... Viral Load E1.370.225.875.950 Virus Cultivation E1.370.225.875.970 Virus Inactivation E1.370.225.875.977 Visceral Prolapse ... G1.750.740 Radiation Effects G1.201.875.745 G1.750.745 Radiation Tolerance G1.201.875.795 Radiation, Ionizing G1.201.875.750 ... Replaced for 2012 by Viral Plaque Assay) Plastic Embedding E1.370.225.500.620.720.640 E1.370.225.750.600.720.640 Plastoquinol- ...
E5.242 Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral E1.450.230.235 E1.370.225.500.384.235 E5.200.500.384.235 E5.242.384.235 Cytophaga B3.140. ... Viral Load E1.370.225.875.950 Virus Cultivation E1.370.225.875.970 Virus Inactivation E1.370.225.875.977 Visceral Prolapse ... G1.750.740 Radiation Effects G1.201.875.745 G1.750.745 Radiation Tolerance G1.201.875.795 Radiation, Ionizing G1.201.875.750 ... Replaced for 2012 by Viral Plaque Assay) Plastic Embedding E1.370.225.500.620.720.640 E1.370.225.750.600.720.640 Plastoquinol- ...
E5.242 Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral E1.450.230.235 E1.370.225.500.384.235 E5.200.500.384.235 E5.242.384.235 Cytophaga B3.140. ... Viral Load E1.370.225.875.950 Virus Cultivation E1.370.225.875.970 Virus Inactivation E1.370.225.875.977 Visceral Prolapse ... G1.750.740 Radiation Effects G1.201.875.745 G1.750.745 Radiation Tolerance G1.201.875.795 Radiation, Ionizing G1.201.875.750 ... Replaced for 2012 by Viral Plaque Assay) Plastic Embedding E1.370.225.500.620.720.640 E1.370.225.750.600.720.640 Plastoquinol- ...
... with a significant role for HIV-specific CTLs in the control of HIV infection and suggest a considerable cytopathic effect of ... it has not been possible to demonstrate a direct relation between CTL activity and plasma RNA viral load. Human leukocyte ... a significant inverse correlation was observed between HIV-specific CTL frequency and plasma RNA viral load. In contrast, no ... Anti-HIV Agents, CD4 Lymphocyte Count, Coloring Agents, Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral, Cytotoxicity, Immunologic, Flow Cytometry ...
Cells with visible cytopathogenic effect. Cells attacked by the virus are destroyed. Copyright: Institut Pasteur / CNR of ... Viral pathogenesis. Understanding how the virus works, how it replicates and interacts with the cell and the host organism, to ... With the whole viral genome of coronavirus 2019-nCoV having recently been sequenced at the Institut Pasteur, the isolation of ... The rapid growth of the culture may be explained by "the high viral load in the samples," but also by "the quality of the ...
  • Viral-antigen detection is one of the new tests, but the results are generally less sensitive and less specific than those of conventional cell cultures. (medscape.com)
  • Their presence can be detected visually only by hemadsorption or interference, in which infected cell cultures showing no CPE inhibit the replication of another virus subsequently introduced into the cultures, or in situ by viral antigen or nucleic acid detection. (asm.org)
  • the distribution of viral antigen in intestinal tissues was determined by immunofluorescent staining with anti-simian rotavirus (sa-11) serum. (liverpool.ac.uk)
  • Lymphocyte proliferation in response to bovine viral diarrhoea virus antigen. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Depletion of either of the other two T-cell subsets that expressed the BoCD8 antigen or the BoWC1 antigen present on the gamma/delta T-cells had no demonstrable effect. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Frequent mutations change some viral antigens so that the lymphocytes are unable to create an antibody that can neutralize the original antigen and its replacement. (unboundmedicine.com)
  • Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most frequent cause of lower respiratory tract infection in infants and children and the second most common viral cause of pneumonia in adults. (medscape.com)
  • The degree of visible damage to cells caused by viral infection varies with type of virus, type of host cells, multiplicity of infection (MOI) and other factors. (asm.org)
  • CPEs are important aspects of a viral infection in diagnostics. (wikipedia.org)
  • Then, the viral infection is introduced. (wikipedia.org)
  • Similarly to total destruction, this CPE is observed by seeding a confluent monolayer of host cell on a glass surface then introducing a viral infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cell biology approaches will next be used to determine the consequence of the interaction in the viral infection, cell signaling pathways and the host pathogenesis both in macrophages and in vivo. (usda.gov)
  • Although cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are thought to be involved in the control of human immunodeficiency virus-type 1 (HIV-1) infection, it has not been possible to demonstrate a direct relation between CTL activity and plasma RNA viral load. (ox.ac.uk)
  • These data are consistent with a significant role for HIV-specific CTLs in the control of HIV infection and suggest a considerable cytopathic effect of the virus in vivo. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Moreover, the time from HIV-1 infection, rather than genetic subtype, seems to be linked to viral phenotype. (fiocruz.br)
  • An interferon regulatory factor that is expressed constitutively and undergoes POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATION following viral infection. (lookformedical.com)
  • Cross-infection studies of normal calves infected with homologous pairs of non-cytopathic and cytopathic bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) showed significant differences in both humoral and cell- mediated immune responses against either biotype over a period of 5 months. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Of particular interest was the finding that PC-positive DBs induced an antibody response that blocked the infection of fibroblasts by a PC-positive viral strain more efficiently than sera following immunizations with PC-negative particles. (asm.org)
  • Using a subviral particle vaccine candidate, we show here that one protein complex of HCMV, termed the pentameric complex (PC), enhances the neutralizing antibody response against viral infection of different cell types. (asm.org)
  • Although some of these candidates have shown a moderate protective effect against primary infection, there are still open questions regarding the goals and the most appropriate formulation for a successful HCMV vaccine ( 8 ). (asm.org)
  • We observed numerous spherical, enveloped viral particles, ≈70 nm in diameter, after negative staining in a transmission electron microscope. (cdc.gov)
  • In 1906, Paschen created a staining method for viral particles and demonstrated the elementary bodies (Paschen bodies) in smallpox lesion smears. (microbiologynote.com)
  • Further, no demonstration of physical isolation of viral particles or of viral RNA, nor of sequencing from lysed whole virions was shown. (linode.com)
  • Bovine viral diarrhea virus: a review. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Molecular specificity of the antibody responses of cattle naturally and experimentally infected with cytopathic and noncytopathic bovine viral diarrhea virus biotypes. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Limited virucidal activity has been declared when there is a proven efficacy against two representatives of enveloped viruses, the vaccinia virus strain Lister Elstree (VACV) or the modified vaccinia Ankara strain (MVA) [ 6 ] and the bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) strain NADL. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The influenza viruses are the most common viral cause of pneumonia. (medscape.com)
  • To identify potential viral pathogens, we performed reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) to detect a panel of viruses, including canine distemper virus, canine parvovirus, canine coronavirus, and canine adenovirus. (cdc.gov)
  • CPEs and other changes in cell morphology are only a few of the many effects by cytocidal viruses. (wikipedia.org)
  • We anticipate that NS1 mediates the effects of AIV on macrophages and would like to test viruses with different NS1 alleles to determine if it mediates the downregulation of immune function genes as we described in the Prelimiary Results. (usda.gov)
  • Reverse genetics: NS1 genes will be altered through site mutagenesis and mutated viruses will be generated through co-transfection of macropahges with a reverse genetics system to determine which part of the NS1 genes is responsible for the observed differences in cytopathogenic effect (apoptosis) and the modulation of the immnue genes detected by microarray analysis. (usda.gov)
  • On the other hand, viral cytopathogenic effects are also observed: these effects are obtained by using viruses further inactivated through cell fixation processes. (ac.be)
  • Virologists are trained and told to follow a specific procedure in 'isolating' & 'sequencing' viruses because both the virus & the viral genome don't exist in nature. (linode.com)
  • Among the influenza viruses, types A and B cause severe tragic effects in humans. (springeropen.com)
  • Meanwhile, these non-engineered viruses sometimes inevitably infect and spread to normal tissues, indiscriminately killed both tumor and normal cells, causing a series of unpredicted side effects. (biomedcentral.com)
  • With the whole viral genome of coronavirus 2019-nCoV having recently been sequenced at the Institut Pasteur, the isolation of strains of coronavirus 2019-nCoV detected in France has now been successfully finalized, in a very short space of time, using the samples taken from the first confirmed French cases. (pasteur.fr)
  • Further, the 'viral genome' was derived in silico, which means no actual virus was physically lysed & analyzed, let alone proven to exist. (linode.com)
  • RNA wasn't physically extracted by whole lysed virions, but instead, as the authors state: 'We extracted RNA for whole genome sequencing of the viral isolate. (linode.com)
  • The viral genome is always generated in silico through the computational reconstruction of a larger gene out of millions of short gene fragments of unknown origins. (linode.com)
  • Here, we report the genomic sequences of 2 wild-type viral isolates of genotype D4 with genome lengths of 15,900 nt. (cdc.gov)
  • Kenan DJ, Mieczkowski PA, Burger-Calderon R, Singh HK, Nickeleit V. The oncogenic potential of BK-polyomavirus is linked to viral integration into the human genome. (umassmed.edu)
  • Viral architecture is very complex, but every virus contains at least a genome and a capsid. (unboundmedicine.com)
  • The cells will be observed every 6 hours for cytopathic effects. (usda.gov)
  • This was also the case for the p7 from the related virus, bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV). (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Nuclear antigens encoded by VIRAL GENES found in HUMAN HERPESVIRUS 4. (lookformedical.com)
  • dose effect on experimental reproduction of rotavirus diarrhoea in colostrum-deprived newborn calves. (liverpool.ac.uk)
  • Calves were then infected intranasally with a non-cytopathogenic biotype of bovine virus diarrhoea virus and the effect of the specific depletion with the mAb on viraemia and shedding of virus from the nasopharynx determined. (ox.ac.uk)
  • However, the detection of viral pathogens does not always indicate active disease. (medscape.com)
  • Viral cultures are still the criterion standard for most viral pathogens, but they take a long time to complete. (medscape.com)
  • The interactions between pathogens and their hosts involve complex and diverse processes at the genetic, biochemical, phenotypic, population, and community levels, while the distribution and abundance of microorganisms in nature and their microbial processes are affected by both biotic and abiotic factors that act at different scales. (nationalacademies.org)
  • Failure to consider these effects may result in spurious conclusions that do not truly reflect the abundance and distribution of waterborne pathogens. (nationalacademies.org)
  • On basis of pBR-XJ160, the effects of substitutions within nonstructural protein 1 (nsP1) or nsP2 on the infectivity and pathogenesis of Sindbis virus (SINV) have been investigated. (biomedcentral.com)
  • effects of tunicamycin on rotavirus morphogenesis and infectivity. (liverpool.ac.uk)
  • results showed that glycosylation of vp7 is not required for normal viral morphogenesis and infectivity and suggested that the nonstructural glycoprotein is involved in assembly of the outer capsid. (liverpool.ac.uk)
  • the assay systems include : viral infectivity, complement fixing activity, particle counts, radial diffusion titre and single radial haemolysis titre. (liverpool.ac.uk)
  • Using detection methods, we had observed a high viral load in the samples taken from the patients in hospital in Paris. (pasteur.fr)
  • The rapid growth of the culture may be explained by "the high viral load in the samples," but also by "the quality of the samples," adds Vincent Enouf, Deputy Director of the CNR at the Institut Pasteur. (pasteur.fr)
  • However, while animal protection and economic reasons prohibit the use of higher primates for routine tests on commercial products, the Tupaia model is expensive, the availability of hepatocytes is limited and the test requires human sera with high viral load. (biomedcentral.com)
  • It was declared this constitutes evidence of a new viral pathogen '2019-nCoV', later to be renamed SARS-CoV-2. (linode.com)
  • The second generation (G2) of engineered OVs armed with viral and/or non-viral genes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Viral pneumonia can be diagnosed by isolation and identification of the pathogen through viral culture. (medscape.com)
  • Propagation in tissue cultures of cytopathogenic agents from patients with measles. (zero-sum.org)
  • Because of the difficulty in distinguishing between the various etiologic agents, both viral and bacterial, causing pneumonia, the workup for symptomatic patients with an infiltrate on chest radiograph should include laboratory studies. (medscape.com)
  • The reported incidence of viral pneumonia (see the image below) has increased during the past decade. (medscape.com)
  • Depending on the virulence of the organism, as well as the age and comorbidities of the patient, viral pneumonia can vary from a mild, self-limited illness to a life-threatening disease. (medscape.com)
  • Their efficacy in patients with influenza viral pneumonia or severe influenza is unknown. (medscape.com)
  • Viral pneumonia decreases in frequency in healthy young and middle-aged adults, but it then increases substantially among the elderly. (medscape.com)
  • METHODS: The antiviral activities of KD-1 against SARS-CoV-2 and HCoV-229E were assessed in Vero E6 cells using cytopathic effect and plaque-reduction assay. (bvsalud.org)
  • Quantitation of HIV-1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes and plasma load of viral RNA. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Proteins associated with the inner surface of the lipid bilayer of the viral envelope. (lookformedical.com)
  • These proteins have been implicated in control of viral transcription and may possibly serve as the "glue" that binds the nucleocapsid to the appropriate membrane site during viral budding from the host cell. (lookformedical.com)
  • For many viral infections, different host cell strains may have a characteristic response. (wikipedia.org)
  • Antiviral drugs are the other option available for the treatment of influenza, which falls under three categories as M2 inhibitors, neuraminidase inhibitors, and nucleoprotein inhibitors [ 15 ] targeting the viral components, thwarted by newly emerging strains. (springeropen.com)
  • So, these viral-specific drugs are not able to become viral resisting drugs for new strains. (springeropen.com)
  • High concordance in plasma and CSF HIV-1 drug resistance mutations despite high cases of CSF viral escape in individuals with HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis in Botswana. (harvard.edu)
  • Tissue from the upper or lower respiratory tract, sputum samples, and samples obtained by nasopharyngeal washing, bronchoalveolar lavage, and biopsy may be submitted for viral culture. (medscape.com)
  • Demonstration of p7 ion channel activity in cellular membranes and its inhibition by amantadine affirm the protein as a target for future anti-viral chemotherapy. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • During the time that synthesis of viral components is occurring in the infected cell, the cell undergoes characteristic biochemical and morphological changes. (asm.org)
  • The presence of viral inclusions is diagnostic, although this method has low sensitivity. (medscape.com)
  • Drug Resistance, Viral" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicine's controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) . (harvard.edu)
  • This graph shows the total number of publications written about "Drug Resistance, Viral" by people in Harvard Catalyst Profiles by year, and whether "Drug Resistance, Viral" was a major or minor topic of these publication. (harvard.edu)
  • Below are the most recent publications written about "Drug Resistance, Viral" by people in Profiles. (harvard.edu)
  • routine analysis of suspensions of foot-and-mouth disease virus and eluates of vaccine by the isopycnic method in analytical ultracentrifuge demonstrates the important heterogeneity of the viral population. (liverpool.ac.uk)
  • The viral pentameric protein complex consisting of glycoprotein H (gH)/gL/UL128-131A (PC) is considered to be an important vaccine component. (asm.org)
  • Cytopathic effect or cytopathogenic effect (abbreviated CPE) refers to structural changes in host cells that are caused by viral invasion. (wikipedia.org)
  • Typically, the first sign of viral infections is the rounding of cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cells with visible cytopathogenic effect. (pasteur.fr)
  • What effect do sampling and environmental variations have on the efficacy of indicators? (nationalacademies.org)
  • Vaccinia produces cytopathogenic effects within 24 to 48 hours, but variola takes longer. (microbiologynote.com)
  • This limitation is overcome by using quantitative PCR, which shows the level of viral load. (medscape.com)
  • With the use of the tetrameric complexes, a significant inverse correlation was observed between HIV-specific CTL frequency and plasma RNA viral load. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Capsid-CPSF6 Interaction Licenses Nuclear HIV-1 Trafficking to Sites of Viral DNA Integration. (umassmed.edu)
  • De Iaco A, Luban J. Cyclophilin A promotes HIV-1 reverse transcription but its effect on transduction correlates best with its effect on nuclear entry of viral cDNA. (umassmed.edu)
  • In the gut, the E. mundtii secretome may modulate the expression of tuberculosis, exhibiting an anti-tuberculosis effect, with some protective roles in human and animal health. (bvsalud.org)
  • However, the therapeutic effects of these drugs have not been fully demonstrated in clinical studies. (bvsalud.org)