A cyclin B subtype that colocalizes with MICROTUBULES during INTERPHASE and is transported into the CELL NUCLEUS at the end of the G2 PHASE.
A cyclin subtype that is transported into the CELL NUCLEUS at the end of the G2 PHASE. It stimulates the G2/M phase transition by activating CDC2 PROTEIN KINASE.
Protein encoded by the bcl-1 gene which plays a critical role in regulating the cell cycle. Overexpression of cyclin D1 is the result of bcl-1 rearrangement, a t(11;14) translocation, and is implicated in various neoplasms.
A cyclin subtype that has specificity for CDC2 PROTEIN KINASE and CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE 2. It plays a role in progression of the CELL CYCLE through G1/S and G2/M phase transitions.
A 50-kDa protein that complexes with CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE 2 in the late G1 phase of the cell cycle.
Phosphoprotein with protein kinase activity that functions in the G2/M phase transition of the CELL CYCLE. It is the catalytic subunit of the MATURATION-PROMOTING FACTOR and complexes with both CYCLIN A and CYCLIN B in mammalian cells. The maximal activity of cyclin-dependent kinase 1 is achieved when it is fully dephosphorylated.
A cyclin D subtype which is regulated by GATA4 TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR. Experiments using KNOCKOUT MICE suggest a role for cyclin D2 in granulosa cell proliferation and gonadal development.
A broadly expressed type D cyclin. Experiments using KNOCKOUT MICE suggest a role for cyclin D3 in LYMPHOCYTE development.
A cyclin A subtype primarily found in male GERM CELLS. It may play a role in the passage of SPERMATOCYTES into meiosis I.
A widely-expressed cyclin A subtype that functions during the G1/S and G2/M transitions of the CELL CYCLE.
A cyclin subtype that is specific for CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE 4 and CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE 6. Unlike most cyclins, cyclin D expression is not cyclical, but rather it is expressed in response to proliferative signals. Cyclin D may therefore play a role in cellular responses to mitogenic signals.
A large family of regulatory proteins that function as accessory subunits to a variety of CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES. They generally function as ENZYME ACTIVATORS that drive the CELL CYCLE through transitions between phases. A subset of cyclins may also function as transcriptional regulators.
A type of CELL NUCLEUS division by means of which the two daughter nuclei normally receive identical complements of the number of CHROMOSOMES of the somatic cells of the species.
A cyclin G subtype that is constitutively expressed throughout the cell cycle. Cyclin G1 is considered a major transcriptional target of TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEIN P53 and is highly induced in response to DNA damage.
A cyclin subtype that is found associated with CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE 5; cyclin G associated kinase, and PROTEIN PHOSPHATASE 2.
Protein kinases that control cell cycle progression in all eukaryotes and require physical association with CYCLINS to achieve full enzymatic activity. Cyclin-dependent kinases are regulated by phosphorylation and dephosphorylation events.
The complex series of phenomena, occurring between the end of one CELL DIVISION and the end of the next, by which cellular material is duplicated and then divided between two daughter cells. The cell cycle includes INTERPHASE, which includes G0 PHASE; G1 PHASE; S PHASE; and G2 PHASE, and CELL DIVISION PHASE.
The period of the CELL CYCLE following DNA synthesis (S PHASE) and preceding M PHASE (cell division phase). The CHROMOSOMES are tetraploid in this point.
A cyclin subtype that binds to the CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE 3 and CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE 8. Cyclin C plays a dual role as a transcriptional regulator and a G1 phase CELL CYCLE regulator.
A cyclin B subtype that colocalizes with GOLGI APPARATUS during INTERPHASE and is transported into the CELL NUCLEUS at the end of the G2 PHASE.
Proteins that control the CELL DIVISION CYCLE. This family of proteins includes a wide variety of classes, including CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES, mitogen-activated kinases, CYCLINS, and PHOSPHOPROTEIN PHOSPHATASES as well as their putative substrates such as chromatin-associated proteins, CYTOSKELETAL PROTEINS, and TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS.
A key regulator of CELL CYCLE progression. It partners with CYCLIN E to regulate entry into S PHASE and also interacts with CYCLIN A to phosphorylate RETINOBLASTOMA PROTEIN. Its activity is inhibited by CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE INHIBITOR P27 and CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE INHIBITOR P21.
Protein kinase that drives both the mitotic and meiotic cycles in all eukaryotic organisms. In meiosis it induces immature oocytes to undergo meiotic maturation. In mitosis it has a role in the G2/M phase transition. Once activated by CYCLINS; MPF directly phosphorylates some of the proteins involved in nuclear envelope breakdown, chromosome condensation, spindle assembly, and the degradation of cyclins. The catalytic subunit of MPF is PROTEIN P34CDC2.
A cyclin subtype that is found associated with CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE 9. Unlike traditional cyclins, which regulate the CELL CYCLE, type T cyclins appear to regulate transcription and are components of positive transcriptional elongation factor B.
A family of cell cycle-dependent kinases that are related in structure to CDC28 PROTEIN KINASE; S CEREVISIAE; and the CDC2 PROTEIN KINASE found in mammalian species.
A subclass of dual specificity phosphatases that play a role in the progression of the CELL CYCLE. They dephosphorylate and activate CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES.
An unusual cyclin subtype that is found highly expressed in terminally differentiated cells. Unlike conventional cyclins increased expression of cyclin G2 is believed to cause a withdrawal of cells from the CELL CYCLE.
A cyclin subtype that is found as a component of a heterotrimeric complex containing cyclin-dependent kinase 7 and CDK-activating kinase assembly factor. The complex plays a role in cellular proliferation by phosphorylating several CYCLIN DEPENDENT KINASES at specific regulatory threonine sites.
The period of the CELL CYCLE preceding DNA REPLICATION in S PHASE. Subphases of G1 include "competence" (to respond to growth factors), G1a (entry into G1), G1b (progression), and G1c (assembly). Progression through the G1 subphases is effected by limiting growth factors, nutrients, or inhibitors.
Cyclin-dependent kinase 4 is a key regulator of G1 PHASE of the CELL CYCLE. It partners with CYCLIN D to phosphorylate RETINOBLASTOMA PROTEIN. CDK4 activity is inhibited by CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE INHIBITOR P16.
Phase of the CELL CYCLE following G1 and preceding G2 when the entire DNA content of the nucleus is replicated. It is achieved by bidirectional replication at multiple sites along each chromosome.
Echinoderms having bodies of usually five radially disposed arms coalescing at the center.
The introduction of a phosphoryl group into a compound through the formation of an ester bond between the compound and a phosphorus moiety.
Female germ cells derived from OOGONIA and termed OOCYTES when they enter MEIOSIS. The primary oocytes begin meiosis but are arrested at the diplotene state until OVULATION at PUBERTY to give rise to haploid secondary oocytes or ova (OVUM).
An aspect of protein kinase (EC 2.7.1.37) in which serine residues in protamines and histones are phosphorylated in the presence of ATP.
A group of enzymes that catalyzes the phosphorylation of serine or threonine residues in proteins, with ATP or other nucleotides as phosphate donors.
Complexes of enzymes that catalyze the covalent attachment of UBIQUITIN to other proteins by forming a peptide bond between the C-terminal GLYCINE of UBIQUITIN and the alpha-amino groups of LYSINE residues in the protein. The complexes play an important role in mediating the selective-degradation of short-lived and abnormal proteins. The complex of enzymes can be broken down into three components that involve activation of ubiquitin (UBIQUITIN-ACTIVATING ENZYMES), conjugation of ubiquitin to the ligase complex (UBIQUITIN-CONJUGATING ENZYMES), and ligation of ubiquitin to the substrate protein (UBIQUITIN-PROTEIN LIGASES).
A cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor that coordinates the activation of CYCLIN and CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES during the CELL CYCLE. It interacts with active CYCLIN D complexed to CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE 4 in proliferating cells, while in arrested cells it binds and inhibits CYCLIN E complexed to CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE 2.
A type of CELL NUCLEUS division, occurring during maturation of the GERM CELLS. Two successive cell nucleus divisions following a single chromosome duplication (S PHASE) result in daughter cells with half the number of CHROMOSOMES as the parent cells.
Product of the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor gene. It is a nuclear phosphoprotein hypothesized to normally act as an inhibitor of cell proliferation. Rb protein is absent in retinoblastoma cell lines. It also has been shown to form complexes with the adenovirus E1A protein, the SV40 T antigen, and the human papilloma virus E7 protein.
The fission of a CELL. It includes CYTOKINESIS, when the CYTOPLASM of a cell is divided, and CELL NUCLEUS DIVISION.
Cellular proteins encoded by the c-mos genes (GENES, MOS). They function in the cell cycle to maintain MATURATION PROMOTING FACTOR in the active state and have protein-serine/threonine kinase activity. Oncogenic transformation can take place when c-mos proteins are expressed at the wrong time.
The phase of cell nucleus division following PROMETAPHASE, in which the CHROMOSOMES line up across the equatorial plane of the SPINDLE APPARATUS prior to separation.
The first continuously cultured human malignant CELL LINE, derived from the cervical carcinoma of Henrietta Lacks. These cells are used for VIRUS CULTIVATION and antitumor drug screening assays.
A cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor that mediates TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEIN P53-dependent CELL CYCLE arrest. p21 interacts with a range of CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES and associates with PROLIFERATING CELL NUCLEAR ANTIGEN and CASPASE 3.
A cyclin subtype that is found abundantly in post-mitotic tissues. In contrast to the classical cyclins, its level does not fluctuate during the cell cycle.
The phase of cell nucleus division following PROPHASE, when the breakdown of the NUCLEAR ENVELOPE occurs and the MITOTIC SPINDLE APPARATUS enters the nuclear region and attaches to the KINETOCHORES.
An aquatic genus of the family, Pipidae, occurring in Africa and distinguished by having black horny claws on three inner hind toes.
Proteins obtained from various species of Xenopus. Included here are proteins from the African clawed frog (XENOPUS LAEVIS). Many of these proteins have been the subject of scientific investigations in the area of MORPHOGENESIS and development.
An E3 ubiquitin ligase primarily involved in regulation of the metaphase-to-anaphase transition during MITOSIS through ubiquitination of specific CELL CYCLE PROTEINS. Enzyme activity is tightly regulated through subunits and cofactors, which modulate activation, inhibition, and substrate specificity. The anaphase-promoting complex, or APC-C, is also involved in tissue differentiation in the PLACENTA, CRYSTALLINE LENS, and SKELETAL MUSCLE, and in regulation of postmitotic NEURONAL PLASTICITY and excitability.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
The phase of cell nucleus division following METAPHASE, in which the CHROMATIDS separate and migrate to opposite poles of the spindle.
Securin is involved in the control of the metaphase-anaphase transition during MITOSIS. It promotes the onset of anaphase by blocking SEPARASE function and preventing proteolysis of cohesin and separation of sister CHROMATIDS. Overexpression of securin is associated with NEOPLASTIC CELL TRANSFORMATION and tumor formation.
Within a eukaryotic cell, a membrane-limited body which contains chromosomes and one or more nucleoli (CELL NUCLEOLUS). The nuclear membrane consists of a double unit-type membrane which is perforated by a number of pores; the outermost membrane is continuous with the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM. A cell may contain more than one nucleus. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
A cell line derived from cultured tumor cells.
All of the processes involved in increasing CELL NUMBER including CELL DIVISION.
Nocodazole is an antineoplastic agent which exerts its effect by depolymerizing microtubules.
A microtubule structure that forms during CELL DIVISION. It consists of two SPINDLE POLES, and sets of MICROTUBULES that may include the astral microtubules, the polar microtubules, and the kinetochore microtubules.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
A family of enzymes that catalyze the conversion of ATP and a protein to ADP and a phosphoprotein.
Cdh1 is an activator of the anaphase-promoting complex-cyclosome, and is involved in substrate recognition. It associates with the complex in late MITOSIS from anaphase through G1 to regulate activity of CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES and to prevent premature DNA replication.
Proteins coded by oncogenes. They include proteins resulting from the fusion of an oncogene and another gene (ONCOGENE PROTEINS, FUSION).
The B-cell leukemia/lymphoma-1 genes, associated with various neoplasms when overexpressed. Overexpression results from the t(11;14) translocation, which is characteristic of mantle zone-derived B-cell lymphomas. The human c-bcl-1 gene is located at 11q13 on the long arm of chromosome 11.
Proteins found in the nucleus of a cell. Do not confuse with NUCLEOPROTEINS which are proteins conjugated with nucleic acids, that are not necessarily present in the nucleus.
Cyclin-dependent kinase 6 associates with CYCLIN D and phosphorylates RETINOBLASTOMA PROTEIN during G1 PHASE of the CELL CYCLE. It helps regulate the transition to S PHASE and its kinase activity is inhibited by CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE INHIBITOR P18.
One of the mechanisms by which CELL DEATH occurs (compare with NECROSIS and AUTOPHAGOCYTOSIS). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA; (DNA FRAGMENTATION); at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
Nuclear phosphoprotein encoded by the p53 gene (GENES, P53) whose normal function is to control CELL PROLIFERATION and APOPTOSIS. A mutant or absent p53 protein has been found in LEUKEMIA; OSTEOSARCOMA; LUNG CANCER; and COLORECTAL CANCER.
Highly conserved proteins that specifically bind to and activate the anaphase-promoting complex-cyclosome, promoting ubiquitination and proteolysis of cell-cycle-regulatory proteins. Cdc20 is essential for anaphase-promoting complex activity, initiation of anaphase, and cyclin proteolysis during mitosis.
Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blot transferring from the electrophoresis gel to strips of nitrocellulose paper, followed by labeling with antibody probes.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
High molecular weight proteins found in the MICROTUBULES of the cytoskeletal system. Under certain conditions they are required for TUBULIN assembly into the microtubules and stabilize the assembled microtubules.
The commonest and widest ranging species of the clawed "frog" (Xenopus) in Africa. This species is used extensively in research. There is now a significant population in California derived from escaped laboratory animals.
The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.
Proteins that are normally involved in holding cellular growth in check. Deficiencies or abnormalities in these proteins may lead to unregulated cell growth and tumor development.
The first phase of cell nucleus division, in which the CHROMOSOMES become visible, the CELL NUCLEUS starts to lose its identity, the SPINDLE APPARATUS appears, and the CENTRIOLES migrate toward opposite poles.
Recombinant proteins produced by the GENETIC TRANSLATION of fused genes formed by the combination of NUCLEIC ACID REGULATORY SEQUENCES of one or more genes with the protein coding sequences of one or more genes.
Cells grown in vitro from neoplastic tissue. If they can be established as a TUMOR CELL LINE, they can be propagated in cell culture indefinitely.
The cell center, consisting of a pair of CENTRIOLES surrounded by a cloud of amorphous material called the pericentriolar region. During interphase, the centrosome nucleates microtubule outgrowth. The centrosome duplicates and, during mitosis, separates to form the two poles of the mitotic spindle (MITOTIC SPINDLE APPARATUS).
A mature haploid female germ cell extruded from the OVARY at OVULATION.
Preparations of cell constituents or subcellular materials, isolates, or substances.
A family of proteins that share the F-BOX MOTIF and are involved in protein-protein interactions. They play an important role in process of protein ubiquition by associating with a variety of substrates and then associating into SCF UBIQUITIN LIGASE complexes. They are held in the ubiquitin-ligase complex via binding to SKP DOMAIN PROTEINS.
Conversion of an inactive form of an enzyme to one possessing metabolic activity. It includes 1, activation by ions (activators); 2, activation by cofactors (coenzymes); and 3, conversion of an enzyme precursor (proenzyme or zymogen) to an active enzyme.
The interval between two successive CELL DIVISIONS during which the CHROMOSOMES are not individually distinguishable. It is composed of the G phases (G1 PHASE; G0 PHASE; G2 PHASE) and S PHASE (when DNA replication occurs).
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in neoplastic tissue.
Products of proto-oncogenes. Normally they do not have oncogenic or transforming properties, but are involved in the regulation or differentiation of cell growth. They often have protein kinase activity.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.
A negative regulatory effect on physiological processes at the molecular, cellular, or systemic level. At the molecular level, the major regulatory sites include membrane receptors, genes (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION), mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), and proteins.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
The part of a cell that contains the CYTOSOL and small structures excluding the CELL NUCLEUS; MITOCHONDRIA; and large VACUOLES. (Glick, Glossary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 1990)
Nuclear antigen with a role in DNA synthesis, DNA repair, and cell cycle progression. PCNA is required for the coordinated synthesis of both leading and lagging strands at the replication fork during DNA replication. PCNA expression correlates with the proliferation activity of several malignant and non-malignant cell types.
CELL CYCLE regulatory signaling systems that are triggered by DNA DAMAGE or lack of nutrients during G2 PHASE. When triggered they restrain cells transitioning from G2 phase to M PHASE.
DNA sequences which are recognized (directly or indirectly) and bound by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase during the initiation of transcription. Highly conserved sequences within the promoter include the Pribnow box in bacteria and the TATA BOX in eukaryotes.
A family of basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors that control expression of a variety of GENES involved in CELL CYCLE regulation. E2F transcription factors typically form heterodimeric complexes with TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR DP1 or transcription factor DP2, and they have N-terminal DNA binding and dimerization domains. E2F transcription factors can act as mediators of transcriptional repression or transcriptional activation.
Small double-stranded, non-protein coding RNAs (21-31 nucleotides) involved in GENE SILENCING functions, especially RNA INTERFERENCE (RNAi). Endogenously, siRNAs are generated from dsRNAs (RNA, DOUBLE-STRANDED) by the same ribonuclease, Dicer, that generates miRNAs (MICRORNAS). The perfect match of the siRNAs' antisense strand to their target RNAs mediates RNAi by siRNA-guided RNA cleavage. siRNAs fall into different classes including trans-acting siRNA (tasiRNA), repeat-associated RNA (rasiRNA), small-scan RNA (scnRNA), and Piwi protein-interacting RNA (piRNA) and have different specific gene silencing functions.
A protein kinase encoded by the Saccharomyces cerevisiae CDC28 gene and required for progression from the G1 PHASE to the S PHASE in the CELL CYCLE.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process.
Technique using an instrument system for making, processing, and displaying one or more measurements on individual cells obtained from a cell suspension. Cells are usually stained with one or more fluorescent dyes specific to cell components of interest, e.g., DNA, and fluorescence of each cell is measured as it rapidly transverses the excitation beam (laser or mercury arc lamp). Fluorescence provides a quantitative measure of various biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell, as well as a basis for cell sorting. Other measurable optical parameters include light absorption and light scattering, the latter being applicable to the measurement of cell size, shape, density, granularity, and stain uptake.
The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Regulatory signaling systems that control the progression through the CELL CYCLE. They ensure that the cell has completed, in the correct order and without mistakes, all the processes required to replicate the GENOME and CYTOPLASM, and divide them equally between two daughter cells. If cells sense they have not completed these processes or that the environment does not have the nutrients and growth hormones in place to proceed, then the cells are restrained (or "arrested") until the processes are completed and growth conditions are suitable.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
A heterotrimeric DNA-binding protein that binds to CCAAT motifs in the promoters of eukaryotic genes. It is composed of three subunits: A, B and C.
The process of germ cell development in the female from the primordial germ cells through OOGONIA to the mature haploid ova (OVUM).
Compounds or agents that combine with an enzyme in such a manner as to prevent the normal substrate-enzyme combination and the catalytic reaction.
A highly evolutionarily conserved subunit of the anaphase-promoting complex (APC-C) containing multiple 34-amino-acid tetratricopeptide repeats. These domains, also found in Apc subunits 6, 7, and 8, have been shown to mediate protein-protein interactions, suggesting that Apc3 may assist in coordinating the juxtaposition of the catalytic and substrate recognition module subunits relative to co-activators and APC-C inhibitors.
Proteins which bind to DNA. The family includes proteins which bind to both double- and single-stranded DNA and also includes specific DNA binding proteins in serum which can be used as markers for malignant diseases.
Genes that code for proteins that regulate the CELL DIVISION CYCLE. These genes form a regulatory network that culminates in the onset of MITOSIS by activating the p34cdc2 protein (PROTEIN P34CDC2).
A series of heterocyclic compounds that are variously substituted in nature and are known also as purine bases. They include ADENINE and GUANINE, constituents of nucleic acids, as well as many alkaloids such as CAFFEINE and THEOPHYLLINE. Uric acid is the metabolic end product of purine metabolism.
A quiescent state of cells during G1 PHASE.
The developmental entity of a fertilized egg (ZYGOTE) in animal species other than MAMMALS. For chickens, use CHICK EMBRYO.
The process by which a DNA molecule is duplicated.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
An E2F transcription factor that interacts directly with RETINOBLASTOMA PROTEIN and CYCLIN A and activates GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION required for CELL CYCLE entry and DNA synthesis. E2F1 is involved in DNA REPAIR and APOPTOSIS.
A large multisubunit complex that plays an important role in the degradation of most of the cytosolic and nuclear proteins in eukaryotic cells. It contains a 700-kDa catalytic sub-complex and two 700-kDa regulatory sub-complexes. The complex digests ubiquitinated proteins and protein activated via ornithine decarboxylase antizyme.
Serologic tests in which a positive reaction manifested by visible CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION occurs when a soluble ANTIGEN reacts with its precipitins, i.e., ANTIBODIES that can form a precipitate.
A specific inhibitor of phosphoserine/threonine protein phosphatase 1 and 2a. It is also a potent tumor promoter. (Thromb Res 1992;67(4):345-54 & Cancer Res 1993;53(2):239-41)
Mad2 is a component of the spindle-assembly checkpoint apparatus. It binds to and inhibits the Cdc20 activator subunit of the anaphase-promoting complex, preventing the onset of anaphase until all chromosomes are properly aligned at the metaphase plate. Mad2 is required for proper microtubule capture at KINETOCHORES.
The injection of very small amounts of fluid, often with the aid of a microscope and microsyringes.
The chromosomal constitution of a cell containing multiples of the normal number of CHROMOSOMES; includes triploidy (symbol: 3N), tetraploidy (symbol: 4N), etc.
Cell lines whose original growing procedure consisted being transferred (T) every 3 days and plated at 300,000 cells per plate (J Cell Biol 17:299-313, 1963). Lines have been developed using several different strains of mice. Tissues are usually fibroblasts derived from mouse embryos but other types and sources have been developed as well. The 3T3 lines are valuable in vitro host systems for oncogenic virus transformation studies, since 3T3 cells possess a high sensitivity to CONTACT INHIBITION.
An essential amino acid occurring naturally in the L-form, which is the active form. It is found in eggs, milk, gelatin, and other proteins.
The cellular signaling system that halts the progression of cells through MITOSIS or MEIOSIS if a defect that will affect CHROMOSOME SEGREGATION is detected.
A gene silencing phenomenon whereby specific dsRNAs (RNA, DOUBLE-STRANDED) trigger the degradation of homologous mRNA (RNA, MESSENGER). The specific dsRNAs are processed into SMALL INTERFERING RNA (siRNA) which serves as a guide for cleavage of the homologous mRNA in the RNA-INDUCED SILENCING COMPLEX. DNA METHYLATION may also be triggered during this process.
Immunologic method used for detecting or quantifying immunoreactive substances. The substance is identified by first immobilizing it by blotting onto a membrane and then tagging it with labeled antibodies.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
An antiviral antibiotic produced by Cephalosporium aphidicola and other fungi. It inhibits the growth of eukaryotic cells and certain animal viruses by selectively inhibiting the cellular replication of DNA polymerase II or the viral-induced DNA polymerases. The drug may be useful for controlling excessive cell proliferation in patients with cancer, psoriasis or other dermatitis with little or no adverse effect upon non-multiplying cells.
A continuous cell line of high contact-inhibition established from NIH Swiss mouse embryo cultures. The cells are useful for DNA transfection and transformation studies. (From ATCC [Internet]. Virginia: American Type Culture Collection; c2002 [cited 2002 Sept 26]. Available from http://www.atcc.org/)
A product of the p16 tumor suppressor gene (GENES, P16). It is also called INK4 or INK4A because it is the prototype member of the INK4 CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE INHIBITORS. This protein is produced from the alpha mRNA transcript of the p16 gene. The other gene product, produced from the alternatively spliced beta transcript, is TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEIN P14ARF. Both p16 gene products have tumor suppressor functions.
Connective tissue cells which secrete an extracellular matrix rich in collagen and other macromolecules.
A family of proteins that are structurally-related to Ubiquitin. Ubiquitins and ubiquitin-like proteins participate in diverse cellular functions, such as protein degradation and HEAT-SHOCK RESPONSE, by conjugation to other proteins.
A non-essential amino acid occurring in natural form as the L-isomer. It is synthesized from GLYCINE or THREONINE. It is involved in the biosynthesis of PURINES; PYRIMIDINES; and other amino acids.
A family of structurally-related proteins that were originally identified by their ability to complex with cyclin proteins (CYCLINS). They share a common domain that binds specifically to F-BOX MOTIFS. They take part in SKP CULLIN F-BOX PROTEIN LIGASES, where they can bind to a variety of F-BOX PROTEINS.
Slender, cylindrical filaments found in the cytoskeleton of plant and animal cells. They are composed of the protein TUBULIN and are influenced by TUBULIN MODULATORS.
Proteins that originate from insect species belonging to the genus DROSOPHILA. The proteins from the most intensely studied species of Drosophila, DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER, are the subject of much interest in the area of MORPHOGENESIS and development.
A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.
A negative regulator of the CELL CYCLE that undergoes PHOSPHORYLATION by CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES. It contains a conserved pocket region that binds E2F4 TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR and interacts with viral ONCOPROTEINS such as POLYOMAVIRUS TUMOR ANTIGENS; ADENOVIRUS E1A PROTEINS; and PAPILLOMAVIRUS E7 PROTEINS.
Microscopy of specimens stained with fluorescent dye (usually fluorescein isothiocyanate) or of naturally fluorescent materials, which emit light when exposed to ultraviolet or blue light. Immunofluorescence microscopy utilizes antibodies that are labeled with fluorescent dye.
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
A class of enzymes that catalyze the formation of a bond between two substrate molecules, coupled with the hydrolysis of a pyrophosphate bond in ATP or a similar energy donor. (Dorland, 28th ed) EC 6.
Injuries to DNA that introduce deviations from its normal, intact structure and which may, if left unrepaired, result in a MUTATION or a block of DNA REPLICATION. These deviations may be caused by physical or chemical agents and occur by natural or unnatural, introduced circumstances. They include the introduction of illegitimate bases during replication or by deamination or other modification of bases; the loss of a base from the DNA backbone leaving an abasic site; single-strand breaks; double strand breaks; and intrastrand (PYRIMIDINE DIMERS) or interstrand crosslinking. Damage can often be repaired (DNA REPAIR). If the damage is extensive, it can induce APOPTOSIS.
The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.
Tumors or cancer of the human BREAST.
The addition of a tail of polyadenylic acid (POLY A) to the 3' end of mRNA (RNA, MESSENGER). Polyadenylation involves recognizing the processing site signal, (AAUAAA), and cleaving of the mRNA to create a 3' OH terminal end to which poly A polymerase (POLYNUCLEOTIDE ADENYLYLTRANSFERASE) adds 60-200 adenylate residues. The 3' end processing of some messenger RNAs, such as histone mRNA, is carried out by a different process that does not include the addition of poly A as described here.
The biosynthesis of PEPTIDES and PROTEINS on RIBOSOMES, directed by MESSENGER RNA, via TRANSFER RNA that is charged with standard proteinogenic AMINO ACIDS.
Short sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) of DNA that are complementary to sequences of messenger RNA and allow reverse transcriptases to start copying the adjacent sequences of mRNA. Primers are used extensively in genetic and molecular biology techniques.
Transport proteins that carry specific substances in the blood or across cell membranes.
Any of various enzymatically catalyzed post-translational modifications of PEPTIDES or PROTEINS in the cell of origin. These modifications include carboxylation; HYDROXYLATION; ACETYLATION; PHOSPHORYLATION; METHYLATION; GLYCOSYLATION; ubiquitination; oxidation; proteolysis; and crosslinking and result in changes in molecular weight and electrophoretic motility.
Proteins whose abnormal expression (gain or loss) are associated with the development, growth, or progression of NEOPLASMS. Some neoplasm proteins are tumor antigens (ANTIGENS, NEOPLASM), i.e. they induce an immune reaction to their tumor. Many neoplasm proteins have been characterized and are used as tumor markers (BIOMARKERS, TUMOR) when they are detectable in cells and body fluids as monitors for the presence or growth of tumors. Abnormal expression of ONCOGENE PROTEINS is involved in neoplastic transformation, whereas the loss of expression of TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEINS is involved with the loss of growth control and progression of the neoplasm.
Either of the two longitudinally adjacent threads formed when a eukaryotic chromosome replicates prior to mitosis. The chromatids are held together at the centromere. Sister chromatids are derived from the same chromosome. (Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
A highly conserved 76-amino acid peptide universally found in eukaryotic cells that functions as a marker for intracellular PROTEIN TRANSPORT and degradation. Ubiquitin becomes activated through a series of complicated steps and forms an isopeptide bond to lysine residues of specific proteins within the cell. These "ubiquitinated" proteins can be recognized and degraded by proteosomes or be transported to specific compartments within the cell.
Agents that interact with TUBULIN to inhibit or promote polymerization of MICROTUBULES.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action during the developmental stages of an organism.
A CELL CYCLE and tumor growth marker which can be readily detected using IMMUNOCYTOCHEMISTRY methods. Ki-67 is a nuclear antigen present only in the nuclei of cycling cells.
The sequence at the 3' end of messenger RNA that does not code for product. This region contains transcription and translation regulating sequences.
A group of acylated oligopeptides produced by Actinomycetes that function as protease inhibitors. They have been known to inhibit to varying degrees trypsin, plasmin, KALLIKREINS, papain and the cathepsins.
Gated transport mechanisms by which proteins or RNA are moved across the NUCLEAR MEMBRANE.
A genus of small, two-winged flies containing approximately 900 described species. These organisms are the most extensively studied of all genera from the standpoint of genetics and cytology.
A transcription factor that possesses DNA-binding and E2F-binding domains but lacks a transcriptional activation domain. It is a binding partner for E2F TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS and enhances the DNA binding and transactivation function of the DP-E2F complex.
A multifunctional CDC2 kinase-related kinase that plays roles in transcriptional elongation, CELL DIFFERENTIATION, and APOPTOSIS. It is found associated with CYCLIN T and is a component of POSITIVE TRANSCRIPTIONAL ELONGATION FACTOR B.
Small chromosomal proteins (approx 12-20 kD) possessing an open, unfolded structure and attached to the DNA in cell nuclei by ionic linkages. Classification into the various types (designated histone I, histone II, etc.) is based on the relative amounts of arginine and lysine in each.
Substances that inhibit or prevent the proliferation of NEOPLASMS.
A group of enzymes removing the SERINE- or THREONINE-bound phosphate groups from a wide range of phosphoproteins, including a number of enzymes which have been phosphorylated under the action of a kinase. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992)
A class in the phylum MOLLUSCA comprised of mussels; clams; OYSTERS; COCKLES; and SCALLOPS. They are characterized by a bilaterally symmetrical hinged shell and a muscular foot used for burrowing and anchoring.
Cellular DNA-binding proteins encoded by the c-myc genes. They are normally involved in nucleic acid metabolism and in mediating the cellular response to growth factors. Elevated and deregulated (constitutive) expression of c-myc proteins can cause tumorigenesis.
A class of enzymes that form a thioester bond to UBIQUITIN with the assistance of UBIQUITIN-ACTIVATING ENZYMES. They transfer ubiquitin to the LYSINE of a substrate protein with the assistance of UBIQUITIN-PROTEIN LIGASES.
A diverse class of enzymes that interact with UBIQUITIN-CONJUGATING ENZYMES and ubiquitination-specific protein substrates. Each member of this enzyme group has its own distinct specificity for a substrate and ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme. Ubiquitin-protein ligases exist as both monomeric proteins multiprotein complexes.
A ubiquitously expressed regulatory protein that contains a retinoblastoma protein binding domain and an AT-rich interactive domain. The protein may play a role in recruiting HISTONE DEACETYLASES to the site of RETINOBLASTOMA PROTEIN-containing transcriptional repressor complexes.
A family of proteins involved in NUCLEOCYTOPLASMIC TRANSPORT. Karyopherins are heteromeric molecules composed two major types of components, ALPHA KARYOPHERINS and BETA KARYOPHERINS, that function together to transport molecules through the NUCLEAR PORE COMPLEX. Several other proteins such as RAN GTP BINDING PROTEIN and CELLULAR APOPTOSIS SUSCEPTIBILITY PROTEIN bind to karyopherins and participate in the transport process.
The process by which the CELL NUCLEUS is divided.
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
Protein kinases that catalyze the PHOSPHORYLATION of TYROSINE residues in proteins with ATP or other nucleotides as phosphate donors.
Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function that leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.
The degree of similarity between sequences of amino acids. This information is useful for the analyzing genetic relatedness of proteins and species.
Agents that arrest cells in MITOSIS, most notably TUBULIN MODULATORS.
A positive regulatory effect on physiological processes at the molecular, cellular, or systemic level. At the molecular level, the major regulatory sites include membrane receptors, genes (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION), mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), and proteins.
A furanyl adenine found in PLANTS and FUNGI. It has plant growth regulation effects.
Cell changes manifested by escape from control mechanisms, increased growth potential, alterations in the cell surface, karyotypic abnormalities, morphological and biochemical deviations from the norm, and other attributes conferring the ability to invade, metastasize, and kill.
Single-stranded complementary DNA synthesized from an RNA template by the action of RNA-dependent DNA polymerase. cDNA (i.e., complementary DNA, not circular DNA, not C-DNA) is used in a variety of molecular cloning experiments as well as serving as a specific hybridization probe.
The orderly segregation of CHROMOSOMES during MEIOSIS or MITOSIS.
Proteins which maintain the transcriptional quiescence of specific GENES or OPERONS. Classical repressor proteins are DNA-binding proteins that are normally bound to the OPERATOR REGION of an operon, or the ENHANCER SEQUENCES of a gene until a signal occurs that causes their release.
The aggregation of soluble ANTIGENS with ANTIBODIES, alone or with antibody binding factors such as ANTI-ANTIBODIES or STAPHYLOCOCCAL PROTEIN A, into complexes large enough to fall out of solution.
A family of rat kangaroos found in and around Australia. Genera include Potorous and Bettongia.
Cleavage of proteins into smaller peptides or amino acids either by PROTEASES or non-enzymatically (e.g., Hydrolysis). It does not include Protein Processing, Post-Translational.
Hormones produced by invertebrates, usually insects, mollusks, annelids, and helminths.
Processes that stimulate the GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION of a gene or set of genes.

The cyclin B2 promoter depends on NF-Y, a trimer whose CCAAT-binding activity is cell-cycle regulated. (1/43)

Cyclin B2 is a regulator of p34cdc2 kinase, involved in G2/M progression of the cell cycle, whose gene is strictly regulated at the transcriptional level in cycling cells. The mouse promoter was cloned and three conserved CCAAT boxes were found. In this study, we analysed the mechanisms leading to activation of the cyclin B2 CCAAT boxes: a combination of (i) genomic footprinting, (ii) transfections with single, double and triple mutants, (iii) EMSAs with nuclear extracts, antibodies and NF-Y recombinant proteins and (iv) transfections with an NF-YA dominant negative mutant established the positive role of the three CCAAT sequences and proved that NF-Y plays a crucial role in their activation. NF-Y, an ubiquitous trimer containing histone fold subunits, activates several other promoters regulated during the cell cycle. To analyse the levels of NF-Y subunits in the different phases of the cycle, we separated MEL cells by elutriation, obtaining fractions >80% pure. The mRNA and protein levels of the histone-fold containing NF-YB and NF-YC were invariant, whereas the NF-YA protein, but not its mRNA, was maximal in mid-S and decreased in G2/M. EMSA confirmed that the CCAAT-binding activity followed the amount of NF-YA, indicating that this subunit is limiting within the NF-Y complex, and suggesting that post-transcriptional mechanisms regulate NF-YA levels. Our results support a model whereby fine tuning of this activator is important for phase-specific transcription of CCAAT-containing promoters.  (+info)

A CDE/CHR tandem element regulates cell cycle-dependent repression of cyclin B2 transcription. (2/43)

Cyclin B is an important regulator of progression through the cell division cycle. The oscillating appearance of cyclin B1 and B2 proteins during the cell cycle is in part due to fluctuating mRNA levels. We had identified earlier a tandem promoter element named cell cycle-dependent element (CDE) and cell cycle genes homology region (CHR) which regulates cell cycle-dependent transcription of cdc25C, cyclin A and cdc2. Here we describe that cyclin B2 transcription is repressed through a novel CDE/CHR element in resting and G(1) cells. By relief of this repression in S and G(2) oscillating expression of cyclin B2 mRNA is achieved during the cell cycle.  (+info)

The tumour suppressor protein p53 can repress transcription of cyclin B. (3/43)

The tumour suppressor protein p53 has functions in controlling the G(1)/S and G(2)/M transitions. Central regulators for progression from G(2) to mitosis are B-type cyclins complexed with cdc2 kinase. In mammals two cyclin B proteins are found, cyclin B1 and B2. We show that upon treatment of HepG2 cells with 5-fluorouracil or methotrexate, p53 levels increase while concentrations of cyclin B2 mRNA, measured by RT-PCR with the LightCycler system, are reduced. In DLD-1 colorectal adenocarcinoma cells (DLD-1-tet-off-p53) cyclin B1 and B2 mRNA levels drop after expression of wild-type p53 but not after induction of a DNA binding-deficient mutant of p53. Analysis of the cyclin B2 promoter reveals specific repression of this gene by p53. Transfection of wild-type p53 into SaOS-2 cells shuts off transcription from a cyclin B2 promoter-luciferase construct whereas a p53 mutant protein does not. The cyclin B2 promoter does not contain a consensus p53 binding site. Most of the p53-dependent transcriptional responsiveness resides in its 226 bp core promoter. Taken together with earlier observations on p53-dependent transcription of cyclin B1, our results suggest that one way of regulating G(2) arrest may be a reduction in cyclin B levels through p53-dependent transcriptional repression.  (+info)

The localization of human cyclins B1 and B2 determines CDK1 substrate specificity and neither enzyme requires MEK to disassemble the Golgi apparatus. (4/43)

In this paper, we show that substrate specificity is primarily conferred on human mitotic cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) by their subcellular localization. The difference in localization of the B-type cyclin-CDKs underlies the ability of cyclin B1-CDK1 to cause chromosome condensation, reorganization of the microtubules, and disassembly of the nuclear lamina and of the Golgi apparatus, while it restricts cyclin B2-CDK1 to disassembly of the Golgi apparatus. We identify the region of cyclin B2 responsible for its localization and show that this will direct cyclin B1 to the Golgi apparatus and confer upon it the more limited properties of cyclin B2. Equally, directing cyclin B2 to the cytoplasm with the NH(2) terminus of cyclin B1 confers the broader properties of cyclin B1. Furthermore, we show that the disassembly of the Golgi apparatus initiated by either mitotic cyclin-CDK complex does not require mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) activity.  (+info)

Meiotic maturation of the mouse oocyte requires an equilibrium between cyclin B synthesis and degradation. (5/43)

Among the proteins whose synthesis and/or degradation is necessary for a proper progression through meiotic maturation, cyclin B appears to be one of the most important. Here, we attempted to modulate the level of cyclin B1 and B2 synthesis during meiotic maturation of the mouse oocyte. We used cyclin B1 or B2 mRNAs with poly(A) tails of different sizes and cyclin B1 or B2 antisense RNAs. Oocytes microinjected with cyclin B1 mRNA showed two phenotypes: most were blocked in MI, while the others extruded the first polar body in advance when compared to controls. Moreover, these effects were correlated with the length of the poly(A) tail. Thus it seems that the rate of cyclin B1 translation controls the timing of the first meiotic M phase and the transition to anaphase I. Moreover, overexpression of cyclin B1 or B2 was able to bypass the dbcAMP-induced germinal vesicle block, but only the cyclin B1 mRNA-microinjected oocytes did not extrude their first polar body. Oocytes injected with the cyclin B1 antisense progressed through the first meiotic M phase but extruded the first polar body in advance and were unable to enter metaphase II. This suggested that inhibition of cyclin B1 synthesis only took place at the end of the first meiotic M phase, most likely because the cyclin B1 mRNA was protected. The injection of cyclin B2 antisense RNA had no effect. The life observation of the synthesis and degradation of a cyclin B1-GFP chimera during meiotic maturation of the mouse oocyte demonstrated that degradation can only occur during a given period of time once it has started. Taken together, our data demonstrate that the rates of cyclin B synthesis and degradation determine the timing of the major events taking place during meiotic maturation of the mouse oocyte.  (+info)

Overexpression of B-type cyclins alters chromosomal segregation. (6/43)

To identify genes which overexpression results into chromosomal instability (CIN), we developed a biological approach based on a yeast indicator strain in which CIN can be detected by a sectoring phenotype. Screening in this strain of a yeast genomic library cloned into a high copy vector led us to identify, among the clones generating 100% of sectoring colonies, Clb5, one of the six B-type cyclins present in yeast. Overexpression of cyclin B2 and cyclin B1, the two human homologs of Clb5, in the CIN indicator strain resulted also into a sectoring phenotype and induced, like overexpression of Clb5, an abnormal sensitivity to benomyl, indicating that overexpression of B-type cyclins alters the spindle checkpoint. In a series of 38 primary colorectal cancers, we detected in five tumors (13%) an accumulation of cyclin B1, which was neither related to mRNA overexpression nor to mutation within the coding region, and in five other tumors (13%) a 2-10-fold increase of cyclin B2 mRNA which was not related to gene amplification. These results suggest that overexpression of cyclins B, resulting from different mechanisms, could contribute, through an alteration of the spindle checkpoint, to the chromosomal instability observed in cancer.  (+info)

Mos is not required for the initiation of meiotic maturation in Xenopus oocytes. (7/43)

In Xenopus oocytes, the c-mos proto-oncogene product has been proposed to act downstream of progesterone to control the entry into meiosis I, the transition from meiosis I to meiosis II, which is characterized by the absence of S phase, and the metaphase II arrest seen prior to fertilization. Here, we report that inhibition of Mos synthesis by morpholino antisense oligonucleotides does not prevent the progesterone-induced initiation of Xenopus oocyte meiotic maturation, as previously thought. Mos-depleted oocytes complete meiosis I but fail to arrest at metaphase II, entering a series of embryonic-like cell cycles accompanied by oscillations of Cdc2 activity and DNA replication. We propose that the unique and conserved role of Mos is to prevent mitotic cell cycles of the female gamete until the fertilization in Xenopus, starfish and mouse oocytes.  (+info)

Increased hepatic Forkhead Box M1B (FoxM1B) levels in old-aged mice stimulated liver regeneration through diminished p27Kip1 protein levels and increased Cdc25B expression. (8/43)

Recent liver regeneration studies indicate that maintaining hepatic Forkhead Box M1B (FoxM1B) expression in 12-month-old (old-aged) Transthyretin-FoxM1B transgenic mice increases hepatocyte proliferation and expression of cell cycle regulatory genes. Because these transgenic CD-1 mice maintain FoxM1B levels during the aging process, we conducted the current study to determine whether adenovirus delivery of the FoxM1B gene (AdFoxM1B) is sufficient to stimulate liver regeneration in old-aged Balb/c mice. Here we show that AdFoxM1B infection of old-aged mice caused a significant increase in FoxM1B expression, hepatocyte DNA replication, and mitosis following partial hepatectomy. This stimulation in hepatocyte S-phase progression was associated with diminished protein expression and perinuclear localization of cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) inhibitor p27(Kip1) (p27) protein following partial hepatectomy. In contrast, old-aged mice infected with control virus displayed high hepatocyte levels of p27 protein, which had been localized to the nucleus prior to S-phase. Furthermore, we found that restoring FoxM1B expression did not influence p27 mRNA levels, and this new finding implicates FoxM1B in regulation of p27 protein levels. Likewise, AdFoxM1B-infected regenerating livers displayed elevated S-phase levels of Cdk2 kinase activity compared with old-aged mice infected with control virus. Furthermore, restoring FoxM1B expression in old-aged mice caused elevated levels of Cyclin B1, Cyclin B2, Cdc25B, Cdk1, and p55CDC mRNA as well as stimulating Cdc25B nuclear localization during liver regeneration, all of which are required for mitosis. These studies indicated that an acute delivery of the FoxM1B gene in old-aged mice is sufficient to re-establish proliferation of regenerating hepatocytes, suggesting that FoxM1B can be used for therapeutic intervention to alleviate the reduction in cellular proliferation observed in the elderly.  (+info)

Cyclin B1 is a protein that plays a crucial role in regulating the progression of the cell cycle, particularly during the M phase (mitosis). It is synthesized and degraded in a tightly regulated manner, with its levels increasing just before the onset of mitosis and decreasing afterwards. Cyclin B1 forms a complex with the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 1, which is a key regulator of cell division. This complex phosphorylates various target proteins, including the nuclear envelope, microtubules, and other cell cycle regulators, to promote the progression of mitosis. Mutations in the gene encoding cyclin B1 have been implicated in several human diseases, including cancer. In particular, overexpression of cyclin B1 has been observed in many types of cancer, and it has been proposed that this contributes to uncontrolled cell proliferation and tumor growth.

Cyclin B is a protein that plays a crucial role in regulating the progression of the cell cycle, particularly during the M phase (mitosis). It is synthesized and degraded in a tightly regulated manner, with its levels increasing just before the onset of mitosis and decreasing afterwards. Cyclin B forms a complex with the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 1, which is also known as Cdk1. This complex is responsible for phosphorylating various target proteins, including the nuclear envelope, kinetochores, and microtubules, which are essential for the proper progression of mitosis. Disruptions in the regulation of cyclin B and CDK1 activity can lead to various diseases, including cancer. For example, overexpression of cyclin B or mutations in CDK1 can result in uncontrolled cell proliferation and the development of tumors. Conversely, loss of cyclin B function can lead to cell cycle arrest and genomic instability, which can also contribute to cancer development.

Cyclin D1 is a protein that plays a critical role in regulating the progression of the cell cycle from the G1 phase to the S phase. It is encoded by the CCND1 gene and is expressed in a variety of tissues, including epithelial cells, fibroblasts, and leukocytes. In the cell cycle, cyclin D1 binds to and activates cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), particularly CDK4 and CDK6. This complex then phosphorylates retinoblastoma protein (Rb), which releases the transcription factor E2F from its inhibition. E2F then activates the transcription of genes required for DNA synthesis and cell proliferation. Abnormal expression or activity of cyclin D1 has been implicated in the development of various types of cancer, including breast, prostate, and lung cancer. Overexpression of cyclin D1 can lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation and the formation of tumors. Conversely, loss of cyclin D1 function has been associated with cell cycle arrest and the development of cancer.

Cyclin A is a protein that plays a crucial role in regulating the cell cycle, which is the process by which cells grow, divide, and replicate their genetic material. Cyclin A is synthesized in the S phase of the cell cycle, when the cell is preparing to divide, and is degraded as the cell enters the G2 phase, before it actually divides. Cyclin A forms a complex with the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 2, which is a key regulator of the cell cycle. This complex phosphorylates a variety of target proteins, including the retinoblastoma protein (Rb), which is a tumor suppressor that prevents cells from dividing unless they have completed the necessary DNA replication and repair processes. When Cyclin A and CDK2 are activated, they promote the progression of the cell cycle from the S phase to the G2 phase, and ultimately to mitosis, the process by which the cell divides into two daughter cells. Dysregulation of Cyclin A expression or activity has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, where it can contribute to uncontrolled cell proliferation and tumor growth.

Cyclin E is a protein that plays a crucial role in regulating the cell cycle, which is the process by which cells grow, divide, and replicate their genetic material. Cyclin E is synthesized in the late G1 phase of the cell cycle and is degraded as the cell enters the S phase, where DNA replication occurs. Cyclin E functions by binding to and activating the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 2, which is a key regulator of the G1/S transition. The cyclin E-CDK2 complex phosphorylates several target proteins, including the retinoblastoma protein (Rb), which is a tumor suppressor that inhibits cell cycle progression. When cyclin E-CDK2 is activated, it phosphorylates Rb, releasing it from its inhibitory complex and allowing the cell to progress into the S phase. Abnormal expression or activity of cyclin E has been implicated in the development of several types of cancer, including breast, ovarian, and cervical cancer. In these cancers, high levels of cyclin E can lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation and the formation of tumors. Therefore, cyclin E is an important target for cancer therapy, and several drugs that target cyclin E or its downstream targets are currently being developed for the treatment of cancer.

CDC2 Protein Kinase is a type of enzyme that plays a crucial role in cell division and the regulation of the cell cycle. It is a serine/threonine protein kinase that is activated during the G2 phase of the cell cycle and is responsible for the initiation of mitosis. CDC2 is also involved in the regulation of DNA replication and the maintenance of genomic stability. In the medical field, CDC2 Protein Kinase is often studied in the context of cancer research, as its dysregulation has been linked to the development and progression of various types of cancer.

Cyclin D2 is a protein that plays a role in regulating the cell cycle, which is the process by which cells grow, divide, and replicate their genetic material. Cyclin D2 is expressed at high levels in cells that are actively dividing, and it helps to promote the progression of the cell cycle from the G1 phase (the first phase of interphase) to the S phase (the second phase of interphase), where DNA replication occurs. In the medical field, cyclin D2 is often studied in the context of cancer. Abnormal expression or activity of cyclin D2 has been linked to the development and progression of various types of cancer, including breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and prostate cancer. In these cases, cyclin D2 may contribute to uncontrolled cell growth and division, leading to the formation of tumors. Cyclin D2 is also being studied as a potential therapeutic target in cancer treatment. Researchers are exploring the use of drugs that inhibit the activity of cyclin D2 as a way to slow or stop the growth of cancer cells.

Cyclin D3 is a protein that plays a role in regulating the progression of the cell cycle, which is the process by which cells grow and divide. It is a type of cyclin, which are proteins that are involved in regulating the cell cycle by interacting with cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). Cyclin D3 is expressed primarily in cells that are actively dividing, such as those in the skin, bone marrow, and breast. It helps to promote the progression of the cell cycle from the G1 phase (the first phase of the cell cycle) to the S phase (the second phase), where DNA replication occurs. Abnormal expression of cyclin D3 has been linked to the development of certain types of cancer, including breast, prostate, and colon cancer.

Cyclin A1 is a protein that plays a role in regulating the cell cycle, which is the process by which cells grow, divide, and replicate their genetic material. Cyclin A1 is synthesized in response to cell growth signals and helps to coordinate the progression of the cell cycle through the different stages, including DNA replication and cell division. It is expressed primarily in cells that are actively dividing, such as those in the liver, kidney, and testes. In the medical field, cyclin A1 is often studied in the context of cancer, as its overexpression has been linked to the development and progression of certain types of tumors.

Cyclin A2 is a protein that plays a role in regulating the cell cycle, which is the process by which cells grow, divide, and replicate their genetic material. Cyclin A2 is synthesized in response to cell growth signals and helps to coordinate the progression of the cell cycle through its interaction with cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). Specifically, Cyclin A2 forms a complex with CDK2, which is a key regulator of the G1/S transition, the point at which cells move from the G1 phase (resting phase) to the S phase (synthesis phase) of the cell cycle. This complex helps to phosphorylate and activate other proteins involved in the cell cycle, allowing cells to progress through the G1/S transition and enter the S phase. Cyclin A2 is also involved in the regulation of DNA replication and mitosis, the process by which cells divide into two daughter cells.

Cyclin D is a protein that plays a critical role in regulating the progression of the cell cycle, which is the process by which cells divide and replicate. Cyclin D is synthesized in response to growth signals and helps to promote the transition of cells from the G1 phase (interphase) to the S phase (synthesis phase) of the cell cycle. During the S phase, the cell replicates its DNA in preparation for cell division. Cyclin D is often overexpressed in cancer cells, leading to uncontrolled cell proliferation and the development of tumors. In addition, mutations in the genes that encode cyclin D or its regulatory proteins can also contribute to the development of cancer. Cyclin D is a target for several cancer therapies, including targeted therapies that block the activity of cyclin D or its downstream signaling pathways. Understanding the role of cyclin D in the cell cycle and its role in cancer is an active area of research in the medical field.

Cyclins are a family of proteins that play a critical role in regulating the progression of the cell cycle in eukaryotic cells. They are synthesized and degraded in a cyclic manner, hence their name, and their levels fluctuate throughout the cell cycle. Cyclins interact with cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) to form cyclin-CDK complexes, which are responsible for phosphorylating target proteins and regulating cell cycle progression. Different cyclins are associated with different stages of the cell cycle, and their activity is tightly regulated by various mechanisms, including post-translational modifications and proteolysis. Dysregulation of cyclin expression or activity has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, where it is often associated with uncontrolled cell proliferation and tumor growth. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms that regulate cyclin expression and activity is important for developing new therapeutic strategies for cancer and other diseases.

Cyclin G1 is a protein that plays a role in regulating the cell cycle, which is the process by which cells grow, divide, and replicate their genetic material. Cyclin G1 is expressed at low levels in most cells, but its levels increase during the G1 phase of the cell cycle, which is the phase when the cell prepares for DNA replication. Cyclin G1 works by binding to and activating an enzyme called cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4), which in turn phosphorylates and inactivates the retinoblastoma protein (Rb). This inactivation of Rb allows the cell to progress through the G1 phase and enter the S phase, where DNA replication occurs. Dysregulation of cyclin G1 expression or activity has been implicated in the development of various types of cancer.

Cyclin G is a protein that plays a role in regulating the cell cycle, which is the process by which cells divide and grow. It is a type of cyclin, which are proteins that are involved in regulating the progression of the cell cycle through different phases. Cyclin G is expressed at low levels in most cells, but its levels increase during certain stages of the cell cycle, particularly during the G1 phase, which is the first phase of the cell cycle. Cyclin G is thought to help regulate the progression of the cell cycle by interacting with and activating cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), which are enzymes that control the progression of the cell cycle. Dysregulation of cyclin G expression or function has been implicated in the development of various types of cancer.

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are a family of protein kinases that play a critical role in regulating cell cycle progression in eukaryotic cells. They are activated by binding to specific regulatory proteins called cyclins, which are synthesized and degraded in a cyclic manner throughout the cell cycle. CDKs phosphorylate target proteins, including other kinases and transcription factors, to promote or inhibit cell cycle progression at specific points. Dysregulation of CDK activity has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, and is a target for therapeutic intervention.

The cell cycle is the series of events that a cell undergoes from the time it is born until it divides into two daughter cells. It is a highly regulated process that is essential for the growth, development, and repair of tissues in the body. The cell cycle consists of four main phases: interphase, prophase, metaphase, and anaphase. During interphase, the cell grows and replicates its DNA in preparation for cell division. In prophase, the chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope breaks down. In metaphase, the chromosomes align at the center of the cell, and in anaphase, the sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell. The cell cycle is tightly regulated by a complex network of proteins that ensure that the cell only divides when it is ready and that the daughter cells receive an equal share of genetic material. Disruptions in the cell cycle can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including cancer.

Cyclin C is a protein that plays a role in regulating the cell cycle, which is the process by which cells divide and grow. It is a member of the cyclin family of proteins, which are involved in regulating the progression of the cell cycle through different phases. Cyclin C is primarily expressed in the brain and is involved in the regulation of neural development and function. It has also been implicated in the development of certain types of cancer, including breast cancer and glioblastoma. In the medical field, cyclin C is studied as a potential target for the development of new treatments for these and other diseases.

Cyclin B2 is a protein that plays a crucial role in regulating the progression of the cell cycle, particularly during the G2/M phase. It is a member of the cyclin family of proteins, which are involved in regulating the cell cycle by interacting with cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). Cyclin B2 is synthesized and degraded in a tightly regulated manner during the cell cycle. It is synthesized during the G2 phase and accumulates in the cell until the onset of mitosis, at which point it binds to and activates CDK1, forming the cyclin B1/CDK1 complex. This complex is essential for the initiation of mitosis and the proper progression of the cell through the M phase. Disruptions in the regulation of cyclin B2 expression or activity have been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer. For example, overexpression of cyclin B2 has been observed in several types of cancer, and it has been suggested that this may contribute to the uncontrolled proliferation of cancer cells. Conversely, loss of cyclin B2 function has been associated with defects in cell cycle progression and may contribute to the development of certain types of cancer.

Cell cycle proteins are a group of proteins that play a crucial role in regulating the progression of the cell cycle. The cell cycle is a series of events that a cell goes through in order to divide and produce two daughter cells. It consists of four main phases: G1 (Gap 1), S (Synthesis), G2 (Gap 2), and M (Mitosis). Cell cycle proteins are involved in regulating the progression of each phase of the cell cycle, ensuring that the cell divides correctly and that the daughter cells have the correct number of chromosomes. Some of the key cell cycle proteins include cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), and checkpoint proteins. Cyclins are proteins that are synthesized and degraded in a cyclic manner throughout the cell cycle. They bind to CDKs, which are enzymes that regulate cell cycle progression by phosphorylating target proteins. The activity of CDKs is tightly regulated by cyclins, ensuring that the cell cycle progresses in a controlled manner. Checkpoint proteins are proteins that monitor the cell cycle and ensure that the cell does not proceed to the next phase until all the necessary conditions are met. If any errors are detected, checkpoint proteins can halt the cell cycle and activate repair mechanisms to correct the problem. Overall, cell cycle proteins play a critical role in maintaining the integrity of the cell cycle and ensuring that cells divide correctly. Disruptions in the regulation of cell cycle proteins can lead to a variety of diseases, including cancer.

Cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2) is an enzyme that plays a critical role in cell cycle regulation. It is a member of the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) family of proteins, which are involved in the control of cell division and progression through the cell cycle. CDK2 is activated by binding to cyclin A, a regulatory protein that is expressed during the S phase of the cell cycle. Once activated, CDK2 phosphorylates a variety of target proteins, including the retinoblastoma protein (Rb), which is a key regulator of the cell cycle. Phosphorylation of Rb leads to its inactivation and the release of the transcription factor E2F, which promotes the transcription of genes required for DNA replication and cell division. CDK2 is also involved in the regulation of other cellular processes, including DNA repair, apoptosis, and differentiation. Dysregulation of CDK2 activity has been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer, where it is often overexpressed or mutated. As such, CDK2 is a target for the development of new cancer therapies.

Maturation-Promoting Factor (MPF) is a complex of proteins that plays a crucial role in the regulation of cell cycle progression and the initiation of mitosis in eukaryotic cells. It is composed of two subunits: cyclin B and cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK1). During the cell cycle, MPF is synthesized and activated during the G2 phase, and it remains active until the end of mitosis. MPF promotes the progression of the cell cycle by phosphorylating various target proteins, including the nuclear envelope, kinetochores, and other cell cycle regulators. MPF is also involved in the regulation of apoptosis, the process of programmed cell death. When cells are damaged or stressed, MPF can be activated to trigger apoptosis, which helps to eliminate damaged or abnormal cells. In the medical field, MPF is of interest because it plays a critical role in the development and progression of many diseases, including cancer. Abnormal regulation of MPF activity has been linked to the development of various types of cancer, and targeting MPF has been proposed as a potential therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment.

Cyclin T is a protein that plays a role in regulating the progression of the cell cycle. It is a subunit of the cyclin-dependent kinase 9 (CDK9) complex, which is involved in the transcription of RNA. Cyclin T is essential for the activation of the transcription factor elongation factor 2 (EF2), which is responsible for the synthesis of proteins. In the context of the medical field, cyclin T has been implicated in the regulation of various cellular processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Dysregulation of cyclin T has been associated with several diseases, including cancer, viral infections, and neurological disorders.

CDC2-CDC28 kinases are a family of protein kinases that play a critical role in regulating cell cycle progression in eukaryotic cells. These kinases are named after the two genes that were originally identified in yeast, CDC2 and CDC28. CDC2-CDC28 kinases are involved in several key events during the cell cycle, including the initiation of DNA replication, the progression through the G1, S, G2, and M phases, and the regulation of mitosis. They are also involved in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. Inactivation of CDC2-CDC28 kinases can lead to cell cycle arrest, which can have both positive and negative effects on cell function. For example, cell cycle arrest can prevent the proliferation of cancer cells, but it can also lead to cell death in cells that are unable to repair damaged DNA. In the medical field, CDC2-CDC28 kinases are of interest as potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, as well as for the development of new drugs to regulate cell cycle progression and cell growth.

CDC25 phosphatases are a family of enzymes that play a critical role in regulating cell cycle progression in eukaryotic cells. These enzymes are named after the cell division cycle 25 (CDC25) gene family, which encodes for the phosphatases. CDC25 phosphatases are responsible for dephosphorylating tyrosine residues on cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), which are key regulators of cell cycle progression. By removing phosphate groups from CDKs, CDC25 phosphatases activate these enzymes, allowing them to phosphorylate and activate other proteins involved in cell cycle progression. In addition to their role in cell cycle regulation, CDC25 phosphatases have also been implicated in a variety of other cellular processes, including DNA repair, apoptosis, and cancer development. Dysregulation of CDC25 phosphatase activity has been linked to several types of cancer, including breast, ovarian, and colorectal cancer. Overall, CDC25 phosphatases are important regulators of cell cycle progression and have important implications for human health and disease.

Cyclin G2 is a protein that plays a role in regulating the cell cycle, which is the process by which cells grow, divide, and replicate their genetic material. Cyclin G2 is involved in the transition from the G1 phase (the first stage of the cell cycle) to the S phase (the stage where DNA replication occurs). It is also involved in the regulation of the G2/M transition, which is the stage where the cell prepares to divide. In the medical field, Cyclin G2 has been implicated in the development of certain types of cancer, including breast cancer and ovarian cancer. It is also being studied as a potential target for cancer therapy.

Cyclin H is a protein that plays a role in the regulation of cell division. It is a component of the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) complex, which is responsible for phosphorylating target proteins and regulating the progression of the cell cycle. Cyclin H is involved in the transition from the G1 phase to the S phase of the cell cycle, where DNA replication occurs. It is also involved in the regulation of DNA repair and the maintenance of genomic stability. Mutations in the gene encoding cyclin H have been associated with an increased risk of certain types of cancer, including colorectal and ovarian cancer.

Cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4) is a protein that plays a critical role in regulating the cell cycle, which is the process by which cells divide and replicate. CDK4 is a member of the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) family of proteins, which are involved in regulating various cellular processes, including cell division, DNA replication, and transcription. CDK4 is activated by binding to cyclin D, a regulatory protein that is produced in response to growth signals. Once activated, CDK4 phosphorylates a number of target proteins, including the retinoblastoma protein (Rb), which is a key regulator of the cell cycle. Phosphorylation of Rb leads to its inactivation, allowing the cell to progress through the cell cycle and divide. Abnormal regulation of CDK4 activity has been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer. For example, mutations in the CDK4 gene or overexpression of CDK4 have been found in various types of cancer, including breast, prostate, and lung cancer. In these cases, CDK4 may contribute to uncontrolled cell division and the development of tumors. In the medical field, CDK4 inhibitors are being developed as potential treatments for cancer. These drugs work by blocking the activity of CDK4, thereby inhibiting the growth and proliferation of cancer cells. Some CDK4 inhibitors have already been approved for use in certain types of cancer, and others are currently being tested in clinical trials.

Protamine kinase is an enzyme that is involved in the regulation of blood clotting. It is responsible for converting protamine sulfate, a substance that is used to neutralize the anticoagulant effects of heparin, into protamine. Protamine sulfate is often used in conjunction with heparin during medical procedures, such as surgery or catheterization, to prevent excessive bleeding. Protamine kinase helps to ensure that the appropriate amount of protamine is present to neutralize the heparin, preventing the formation of blood clots.

Protein-Serine-Threonine Kinases (PSTKs) are a family of enzymes that play a crucial role in regulating various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, metabolism, and apoptosis. These enzymes phosphorylate specific amino acids, such as serine and threonine, on target proteins, thereby altering their activity, stability, or localization within the cell. PSTKs are involved in a wide range of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of PSTKs is important for developing new therapeutic strategies for these diseases.

Ubiquitin-Protein Ligase Complexes (UPCs) are multi-protein complexes that play a crucial role in the process of protein degradation in cells. These complexes are responsible for attaching small protein molecules called ubiquitin to specific target proteins, which marks them for degradation by the proteasome, a large protein complex that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. UPCs are composed of several subunits, including E1, E2, and E3 enzymes, which work together to transfer ubiquitin from one enzyme to another and ultimately to the target protein. The E1 enzyme activates ubiquitin, while the E2 enzyme binds to it and transfers it to the E3 enzyme, which recognizes the target protein and facilitates its ubiquitination. UPCs are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell cycle regulation, DNA repair, and the regulation of protein levels. Dysregulation of UPCs has been implicated in several diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases. Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of UPCs is an important area of research in the medical field.

Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27 (p27Kip1) is a protein that plays a role in regulating cell cycle progression. It is a member of the Cip/Kip family of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors, which also includes p21 and p57. In the cell cycle, the progression from one phase to the next is tightly regulated by a series of events that involve the activity of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). CDKs are enzymes that are activated by binding to specific cyclins, which are proteins that are synthesized and degraded in a cyclic manner throughout the cell cycle. When CDKs are activated, they phosphorylate target proteins, which can either promote or inhibit cell cycle progression. p27Kip1 acts as a CDK inhibitor by binding to and inhibiting the activity of CDKs. It is primarily expressed in cells that are in a non-dividing state, such as terminally differentiated cells and quiescent cells. In these cells, p27Kip1 helps to maintain the cell in a non-dividing state by inhibiting the activity of CDKs, which prevents the cell from entering the cell cycle. In contrast, p27Kip1 is downregulated or lost in many types of cancer cells, where it is often associated with increased cell proliferation and tumor growth. This suggests that p27Kip1 may play a role in the development and progression of cancer.

Retinoblastoma protein (pRb) is a tumor suppressor protein that plays a critical role in regulating cell cycle progression and preventing the development of cancer. It is encoded by the RB1 gene, which is located on chromosome 13. In normal cells, pRb functions as a regulator of the cell cycle by binding to and inhibiting the activity of the E2F family of transcription factors. When cells are damaged or under stress, pRb is phosphorylated, which leads to its release from E2F and allows the cell to proceed through the cell cycle and divide. However, in cells with a mutated RB1 gene, pRb is unable to function properly, leading to uncontrolled cell division and the formation of tumors. Retinoblastoma is a type of eye cancer that occurs almost exclusively in children and is caused by mutations in the RB1 gene. Other types of cancer, such as osteosarcoma and small cell lung cancer, can also be associated with mutations in the RB1 gene.

Cell division is the process by which a single cell divides into two or more daughter cells. This process is essential for the growth, development, and repair of tissues in the body. There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is the process by which somatic cells (non-reproductive cells) divide to produce two identical daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This process is essential for the growth and repair of tissues in the body. Meiosis, on the other hand, is the process by which germ cells (reproductive cells) divide to produce four genetically diverse daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This process is essential for sexual reproduction. Abnormalities in cell division can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including cancer. In cancer, cells divide uncontrollably and form tumors, which can invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body.

Proto-oncogene proteins c-mos (also known as c-mos or Mos) are a family of proteins that play a role in cell division and differentiation. They are encoded by the c-mos gene, which is located on chromosome 14 in humans. c-mos proteins are involved in the regulation of the cell cycle, which is the process by which cells grow, divide, and differentiate. They are also involved in the activation of certain signaling pathways that are important for cell growth and survival. Abnormalities in the c-mos gene or the proteins it encodes can lead to the development of cancer. For example, mutations in the c-mos gene have been associated with several types of human cancer, including breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and colon cancer. In these cases, the mutated c-mos proteins may be overactive or expressed at higher levels than normal, leading to uncontrolled cell growth and the development of cancer. Overall, c-mos proteins play an important role in regulating cell growth and division, and abnormalities in these proteins can contribute to the development of cancer.

Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21 (p21) is a protein that plays a role in regulating the cell cycle, which is the process by which cells divide and grow. It is encoded by the CDKN1A gene and is a member of the Cip/Kip family of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors. In the cell cycle, the progression from one phase to the next is controlled by a series of checkpoints that ensure that the cell is ready to proceed. One of the key regulators of these checkpoints is the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) family of enzymes. CDKs are activated by binding to cyclins, which are proteins that are synthesized and degraded in a cyclic manner throughout the cell cycle. p21 acts as a CDK inhibitor by binding to and inhibiting the activity of cyclin-CDK complexes. This prevents the complexes from phosphorylating target proteins that are required for the progression of the cell cycle. As a result, p21 helps to prevent the cell from dividing when it is not ready, and it plays a role in preventing the development of cancer. In addition to its role in regulating the cell cycle, p21 has been implicated in a number of other cellular processes, including DNA repair, senescence, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). It is also involved in the response of cells to various stressors, such as DNA damage, oxidative stress, and hypoxia.

Cyclin I is a protein that plays a role in regulating the cell cycle, which is the process by which cells grow, divide, and replicate their genetic material. Cyclin I is a type of cyclin, which are proteins that bind to and activate cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), enzymes that control the progression of the cell cycle. Cyclin I is involved in the G1 phase of the cell cycle, which is the first phase of the cycle and is characterized by cell growth and preparation for DNA replication. During the G1 phase, cyclin I helps to activate CDK4 and CDK6, which in turn phosphorylate and activate other proteins that are necessary for the progression of the cell cycle. Disruptions in the regulation of cyclin I and CDKs can lead to uncontrolled cell growth and the development of cancer.

Xenopus proteins are proteins that are found in the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis. These proteins have been widely used in the field of molecular biology and genetics as model systems for studying gene expression, development, and other biological processes. Xenopus proteins have been used in a variety of research applications, including the study of gene regulation, cell signaling, and the development of new drugs. They have also been used to study the mechanisms of diseases such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and infectious diseases. In the medical field, Xenopus proteins have been used to develop new treatments for a variety of diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders. They have also been used to study the effects of drugs and other compounds on biological processes, which can help to identify potential new treatments for diseases. Overall, Xenopus proteins are important tools in the field of molecular biology and genetics, and have contributed significantly to our understanding of many biological processes and diseases.

The Anaphase-Promoting Complex/Cyclosome (APC/C) is a large multi-subunit E3 ubiquitin ligase complex that plays a critical role in regulating the progression of cell division, specifically the transition from metaphase to anaphase. The APC/C is responsible for the ubiquitination and subsequent degradation of a number of key regulatory proteins, including securin and cyclin B, which are essential for the proper progression of cell division. Dysregulation of the APC/C has been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer, and is an important target for the development of new therapeutic strategies.

Anaphase is a stage of cell division in which sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite poles of the cell. This stage occurs after prophase, during which the chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes, and before telophase, during which the chromosomes decondense and the nuclear envelope reforms. Anaphase is a critical stage of mitosis and meiosis, as it ensures that each daughter cell receives an equal and complete set of genetic material. Any errors during anaphase can lead to chromosomal abnormalities and genetic disorders.

Securin is a protein that plays a critical role in cell division, particularly during mitosis. It is synthesized in response to the activation of the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), which is responsible for the degradation of key cell cycle regulators. Securin binds to and inhibits the APC, preventing it from targeting and destroying other proteins that are necessary for the proper progression of mitosis. As a result, securin ensures that the cell can complete its division cycle without errors. In the absence of securin, the APC is able to degrade its targets, leading to the premature separation of chromosomes and the formation of aneuploid daughter cells, which can contribute to the development of cancer and other diseases.

The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells that contains the cell's genetic material, or DNA. It is typically located in the center of the cell and is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nucleus is responsible for regulating gene expression and controlling the cell's activities. It contains a dense, irregularly shaped mass of chromatin, which is made up of DNA and associated proteins. The nucleus also contains a small body called the nucleolus, which is responsible for producing ribosomes, the cellular structures that synthesize proteins.

A cell line, tumor is a type of cell culture that is derived from a cancerous tumor. These cell lines are grown in a laboratory setting and are used for research purposes, such as studying the biology of cancer and testing potential new treatments. They are typically immortalized, meaning that they can continue to divide and grow indefinitely, and they often exhibit the characteristics of the original tumor from which they were derived, such as specific genetic mutations or protein expression patterns. Cell lines, tumor are an important tool in cancer research and have been used to develop many of the treatments that are currently available for cancer patients.

Cell proliferation refers to the process of cell division and growth, which is essential for the maintenance and repair of tissues in the body. In the medical field, cell proliferation is often studied in the context of cancer, where uncontrolled cell proliferation can lead to the formation of tumors and the spread of cancer cells to other parts of the body. In normal cells, cell proliferation is tightly regulated by a complex network of signaling pathways and feedback mechanisms that ensure that cells divide only when necessary and that they stop dividing when they have reached their full capacity. However, in cancer cells, these regulatory mechanisms can become disrupted, leading to uncontrolled cell proliferation and the formation of tumors. In addition to cancer, cell proliferation is also important in other medical conditions, such as wound healing, tissue regeneration, and the development of embryos. Understanding the mechanisms that regulate cell proliferation is therefore critical for developing new treatments for cancer and other diseases.

Nocodazole is a type of chemotherapy drug that is used to treat certain types of cancer. It works by interfering with the formation of microtubules, which are important components of the cell's cytoskeleton. This can cause the cancer cells to stop dividing and eventually die. Nocodazole is typically administered intravenously and is used to treat a variety of cancers, including ovarian cancer, lung cancer, and leukemia. It may also be used to treat other conditions, such as abnormal bleeding or to prevent the growth of blood vessels in tumors.

In the medical field, RNA, Messenger (mRNA) refers to a type of RNA molecule that carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus of a cell to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized. During the process of transcription, the DNA sequence of a gene is copied into a complementary RNA sequence called messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA molecule then leaves the nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm of the cell, where it binds to ribosomes and serves as a template for the synthesis of a specific protein. The sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule determines the sequence of amino acids in the protein that is synthesized. Therefore, changes in the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule can result in changes in the amino acid sequence of the protein, which can affect the function of the protein and potentially lead to disease. mRNA molecules are often used in medical research and therapy as a way to introduce new genetic information into cells. For example, mRNA vaccines work by introducing a small piece of mRNA that encodes for a specific protein, which triggers an immune response in the body.

Protein kinases are enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP (adenosine triphosphate) to specific amino acid residues on proteins. This process, known as phosphorylation, can alter the activity, localization, or stability of the target protein, and is a key mechanism for regulating many cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, metabolism, and signaling pathways. Protein kinases are classified into different families based on their sequence, structure, and substrate specificity. Some of the major families of protein kinases include serine/threonine kinases, tyrosine kinases, and dual-specificity kinases. Each family has its own unique functions and roles in cellular signaling. In the medical field, protein kinases are important targets for the development of drugs for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Many cancer drugs target specific protein kinases that are overactive in cancer cells, while drugs for diabetes and cardiovascular disease often target kinases involved in glucose metabolism and blood vessel function, respectively.

Cdh1 proteins, also known as cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1 (Cdkn1), are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in regulating cell cycle progression in the cell cycle. They are encoded by the CDC20 gene and are involved in the destruction of cyclin B, which is necessary for the transition from the G2 phase to the M phase of the cell cycle. Cdh1 proteins are also involved in the regulation of other cell cycle-related proteins, such as cyclin A and cyclin E. In the medical field, Cdh1 proteins are often studied in the context of cancer, as mutations or dysregulation of Cdh1 proteins have been linked to the development and progression of various types of cancer.

Oncogenes are genes that have the potential to cause cancer when they are mutated or expressed at high levels. Oncogenes are also known as proto-oncogenes, and they are involved in regulating cell growth and division. When oncogenes are mutated or expressed at high levels, they can cause uncontrolled cell growth and division, leading to the development of cancer. Oncogene proteins are the proteins that are produced by oncogenes. These proteins can play a variety of roles in the development and progression of cancer, including promoting cell growth and division, inhibiting cell death, and contributing to the formation of tumors.

Nuclear proteins are proteins that are found within the nucleus of a cell. The nucleus is the control center of the cell, where genetic material is stored and regulated. Nuclear proteins play a crucial role in many cellular processes, including DNA replication, transcription, and gene regulation. There are many different types of nuclear proteins, each with its own specific function. Some nuclear proteins are involved in the structure and organization of the nucleus itself, while others are involved in the regulation of gene expression. Nuclear proteins can also interact with other proteins, DNA, and RNA molecules to carry out their functions. In the medical field, nuclear proteins are often studied in the context of diseases such as cancer, where changes in the expression or function of nuclear proteins can contribute to the development and progression of the disease. Additionally, nuclear proteins are important targets for drug development, as they can be targeted to treat a variety of diseases.

Cyclin-dependent kinase 6 (CDK6) is an enzyme that plays a critical role in cell cycle regulation. It is a member of the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) family, which are regulatory enzymes that control the progression of cells through the different phases of the cell cycle. CDK6 is activated by binding to cyclin D, a regulatory protein that is expressed during the G1 phase of the cell cycle. Once activated, CDK6 phosphorylates a number of target proteins, including the retinoblastoma protein (Rb), which is a key regulator of the G1/S transition. Phosphorylation of Rb leads to its inactivation, allowing the cell to progress through the G1 phase and enter the S phase of the cell cycle. CDK6 is also involved in the regulation of other cellular processes, including DNA replication, transcription, and cell proliferation. Dysregulation of CDK6 activity has been implicated in the development of a number of human diseases, including cancer. For example, overexpression of CDK6 has been observed in many types of cancer, and it is thought to contribute to the uncontrolled cell proliferation that characterizes these diseases.

Apoptosis is a programmed cell death process that occurs naturally in the body. It is a vital mechanism for maintaining tissue homeostasis and eliminating damaged or unwanted cells. During apoptosis, cells undergo a series of changes that ultimately lead to their death and removal from the body. These changes include chromatin condensation, DNA fragmentation, and the formation of apoptotic bodies, which are engulfed by neighboring cells or removed by immune cells. Apoptosis plays a critical role in many physiological processes, including embryonic development, tissue repair, and immune function. However, when apoptosis is disrupted or dysregulated, it can contribute to the development of various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases.

In the medical field, an amino acid sequence refers to the linear order of amino acids in a protein molecule. Proteins are made up of chains of amino acids, and the specific sequence of these amino acids determines the protein's structure and function. The amino acid sequence is determined by the genetic code, which is a set of rules that specifies how the sequence of nucleotides in DNA is translated into the sequence of amino acids in a protein. Each amino acid is represented by a three-letter code, and the sequence of these codes is the amino acid sequence of the protein. The amino acid sequence is important because it determines the protein's three-dimensional structure, which in turn determines its function. Small changes in the amino acid sequence can have significant effects on the protein's structure and function, and this can lead to diseases or disorders. For example, mutations in the amino acid sequence of a protein involved in blood clotting can lead to bleeding disorders.

Tumor suppressor protein p53 is a protein that plays a crucial role in regulating cell growth and preventing the development of cancer. It is encoded by the TP53 gene and is one of the most commonly mutated genes in human cancer. The p53 protein acts as a "guardian of the genome" by detecting DNA damage and initiating a series of cellular responses to repair the damage or trigger programmed cell death (apoptosis) if the damage is too severe. This helps to prevent the accumulation of mutations in the DNA that can lead to the development of cancer. In addition to its role in preventing cancer, p53 also plays a role in regulating cell cycle progression, DNA repair, and the response to cellular stress. Mutations in the TP53 gene can lead to the production of a non-functional or mutated p53 protein, which can result in the loss of these important functions and contribute to the development of cancer. Overall, the p53 protein is a critical regulator of cell growth and survival, and its dysfunction is a common feature of many types of cancer.

Cdc20 proteins are a family of cell cycle regulators that play a crucial role in the progression of the cell cycle from the G2 phase to mitosis. They are named after the cell division cycle 20 gene, which encodes one of the first proteins to be expressed during mitosis. Cdc20 proteins are part of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), a large multi-subunit E3 ubiquitin ligase complex that targets specific cell cycle regulators for degradation by the proteasome. The APC/C-Cdc20 complex is responsible for the degradation of securin and cyclin B, two key regulators of the transition from G2 to M phase and the onset of anaphase, respectively. In addition to their role in the APC/C, Cdc20 proteins also interact with other cell cycle regulators, such as the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) proteins, to ensure proper cell cycle progression and prevent errors that could lead to genomic instability or cancer. Mutations in CDC20 genes have been implicated in several human cancers, including ovarian, breast, and colorectal cancer, and are associated with poor prognosis. Targeting Cdc20 proteins has therefore become an area of active research in the development of new cancer therapies.

Blotting, Western is a laboratory technique used to detect specific proteins in a sample by transferring proteins from a gel to a membrane and then incubating the membrane with a specific antibody that binds to the protein of interest. The antibody is then detected using an enzyme or fluorescent label, which produces a visible signal that can be quantified. This technique is commonly used in molecular biology and biochemistry to study protein expression, localization, and function. It is also used in medical research to diagnose diseases and monitor treatment responses.

In the medical field, a cell line refers to a group of cells that have been derived from a single parent cell and have the ability to divide and grow indefinitely in culture. These cells are typically grown in a laboratory setting and are used for research purposes, such as studying the effects of drugs or investigating the underlying mechanisms of diseases. Cell lines are often derived from cancerous cells, as these cells tend to divide and grow more rapidly than normal cells. However, they can also be derived from normal cells, such as fibroblasts or epithelial cells. Cell lines are characterized by their unique genetic makeup, which can be used to identify them and compare them to other cell lines. Because cell lines can be grown in large quantities and are relatively easy to maintain, they are a valuable tool in medical research. They allow researchers to study the effects of drugs and other treatments on specific cell types, and to investigate the underlying mechanisms of diseases at the cellular level.

In the medical field, a base sequence refers to the specific order of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine) that make up the genetic material (DNA or RNA) of an organism. The base sequence determines the genetic information encoded within the DNA molecule and ultimately determines the traits and characteristics of an individual. The base sequence can be analyzed using various techniques, such as DNA sequencing, to identify genetic variations or mutations that may be associated with certain diseases or conditions.

Microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) are a group of proteins that bind to microtubules, which are important components of the cytoskeleton in cells. These proteins play a crucial role in regulating the dynamics of microtubules, including their assembly, disassembly, and stability. MAPs are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell division, intracellular transport, and the maintenance of cell shape. They can also play a role in the development of diseases such as cancer, where the abnormal regulation of microtubules and MAPs can contribute to the growth and spread of tumors. There are many different types of MAPs, each with its own specific functions and mechanisms of action. Some MAPs are involved in regulating the dynamics of microtubules, while others are involved in the transport of molecules along microtubules. Some MAPs are also involved in the organization and function of the mitotic spindle, which is essential for the proper segregation of chromosomes during cell division. Overall, MAPs are important regulators of microtubule dynamics and play a crucial role in many cellular processes. Understanding the function of these proteins is important for developing new treatments for diseases that are associated with abnormal microtubule regulation.

Tumor suppressor proteins are a group of proteins that play a crucial role in regulating cell growth and preventing the development of cancer. These proteins act as brakes on the cell cycle, preventing cells from dividing and multiplying uncontrollably. They also help to repair damaged DNA and prevent the formation of tumors. Tumor suppressor proteins are encoded by genes that are located on specific chromosomes. When these genes are functioning properly, they produce proteins that help to regulate cell growth and prevent the development of cancer. However, when these genes are mutated or damaged, the proteins they produce may not function properly, leading to uncontrolled cell growth and the development of cancer. There are many different tumor suppressor proteins, each with its own specific function. Some of the most well-known tumor suppressor proteins include p53, BRCA1, and BRCA2. These proteins are involved in regulating cell cycle checkpoints, repairing damaged DNA, and preventing the formation of tumors. In summary, tumor suppressor proteins are a group of proteins that play a critical role in regulating cell growth and preventing the development of cancer. When these proteins are functioning properly, they help to maintain the normal balance of cell growth and division, but when they are mutated or damaged, they can contribute to the development of cancer.

Recombinant fusion proteins are proteins that are produced by combining two or more genes in a single molecule. These proteins are typically created using genetic engineering techniques, such as recombinant DNA technology, to insert one or more genes into a host organism, such as bacteria or yeast, which then produces the fusion protein. Fusion proteins are often used in medical research and drug development because they can have unique properties that are not present in the individual proteins that make up the fusion. For example, a fusion protein might be designed to have increased stability, improved solubility, or enhanced targeting to specific cells or tissues. Recombinant fusion proteins have a wide range of applications in medicine, including as therapeutic agents, diagnostic tools, and research reagents. Some examples of recombinant fusion proteins used in medicine include antibodies, growth factors, and cytokines.

In the medical field, the centrosome is a cellular organelle that plays a crucial role in cell division and the organization of microtubules. It is composed of two centrioles surrounded by a protein matrix called the pericentriolar material (PCM). The centrosome is responsible for organizing the microtubules that make up the mitotic spindle, which is essential for the separation of chromosomes during cell division. The centrosome also plays a role in the organization of the cytoskeleton, which provides structural support for the cell and helps to maintain its shape. Abnormalities in the structure or function of the centrosome can lead to a variety of diseases, including cancer. For example, mutations in genes that regulate centrosome function have been linked to the development of certain types of cancer, such as ovarian cancer and glioblastoma.

In the medical field, cell extracts refer to the substances that are obtained by extracting cellular components from cells or tissues. These extracts can include proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids, and other molecules that are present in the cells. Cell extracts are often used in research to study the functions of specific cellular components or to investigate the interactions between different molecules within a cell. They can also be used in the development of new drugs or therapies, as they can provide a way to test the effects of specific molecules on cellular processes. There are different methods for preparing cell extracts, depending on the type of cells and the components of interest. Some common methods include homogenization, sonication, and centrifugation. These methods can be used to isolate specific components, such as cytosolic proteins or nuclear proteins, or to obtain a crude extract that contains a mixture of all cellular components.

F-box proteins are a family of proteins that play a role in the regulation of protein degradation in cells. They are involved in the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, which is the primary mechanism by which cells degrade and recycle proteins. F-box proteins are characterized by an F-box domain, which is a protein-protein interaction module that binds to other proteins, often through their ubiquitin modification. F-box proteins are often components of larger protein complexes, such as the SCF (Skp1-Cullin-F-box) complex, which is involved in the degradation of specific target proteins. Dysregulation of F-box proteins has been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and developmental disorders.

Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that are involved in regulating cell growth and division. When these genes are mutated or overexpressed, they can become oncogenes, which can lead to the development of cancer. Proto-oncogenes are also known as proto-oncogene proteins.

In the medical field, cytoplasm refers to the gel-like substance that fills the cell membrane of a living cell. It is composed of various organelles, such as mitochondria, ribosomes, and the endoplasmic reticulum, as well as various dissolved molecules, including proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. The cytoplasm plays a crucial role in many cellular processes, including metabolism, protein synthesis, and cell division. It also serves as a site for various cellular activities, such as the movement of organelles within the cell and the transport of molecules across the cell membrane. In addition, the cytoplasm is involved in maintaining the structural integrity of the cell and protecting it from external stressors, such as toxins and pathogens. Overall, the cytoplasm is a vital component of the cell and plays a critical role in its function and survival.

Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen (PCNA) is a protein that plays a crucial role in DNA replication and repair in cells. It is also known as Replication Factor C (RFC) subunit 4 or proliferating cell nuclear antigen-like 1 (PCNA-like 1). PCNA is a highly conserved protein that is found in all eukaryotic cells. It is a homotrimeric protein, meaning that it is composed of three identical subunits. Each subunit has a central channel that can bind to DNA, and it is this channel that is responsible for the interaction of PCNA with other proteins involved in DNA replication and repair. During DNA replication, PCNA forms a complex with other proteins, including DNA polymerase δ and the replication factor C (RFC) complex. This complex is responsible for unwinding the DNA double helix, synthesizing new DNA strands, and ensuring that the newly synthesized strands are correctly paired with the template strands. PCNA is also involved in DNA repair processes, particularly in the repair of DNA damage caused by ultraviolet (UV) radiation. In this context, PCNA interacts with other proteins, such as the X-ray repair cross-complementing protein 1 (XRCC1), to facilitate the repair of DNA damage. Overall, PCNA is a critical protein in the maintenance of genomic stability and the prevention of DNA damage-induced diseases, such as cancer.

E2F transcription factors are a family of proteins that play a critical role in regulating the cell cycle and controlling cell proliferation. They are named for their ability to bind to the E2 promoter region of genes that are involved in cell cycle progression. There are six known E2F transcription factors in humans, which are classified into three groups: E2F1-3, DP1-3, and E4F1. E2F1-3 are primarily involved in regulating cell cycle progression, while DP1-3 are required for the formation of stable E2F-DP complexes that are necessary for transcriptional activation. E4F1 is a transcriptional repressor that is involved in regulating DNA repair and cell death. E2F transcription factors are activated by the binding of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) to cyclins, which occur during the G1 phase of the cell cycle. Once activated, E2F transcription factors bind to specific DNA sequences and promote the transcription of genes involved in cell cycle progression, such as those encoding cyclins and other cell cycle regulators. Abnormal regulation of E2F transcription factors has been implicated in a variety of human diseases, including cancer. For example, overexpression of E2F1 has been associated with the development of several types of cancer, including breast, lung, and ovarian cancer. Conversely, loss of E2F1 function has been shown to inhibit tumor growth and improve the efficacy of cancer therapies.

RNA, Small Interfering (siRNA) is a type of non-coding RNA molecule that plays a role in gene regulation. siRNA is approximately 21-25 nucleotides in length and is derived from double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecules. In the medical field, siRNA is used as a tool for gene silencing, which involves inhibiting the expression of specific genes. This is achieved by introducing siRNA molecules that are complementary to the target mRNA sequence, leading to the degradation of the mRNA and subsequent inhibition of protein synthesis. siRNA has potential applications in the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, viral infections, and genetic disorders. It is also used in research to study gene function and regulation. However, the use of siRNA in medicine is still in its early stages, and there are several challenges that need to be addressed before it can be widely used in clinical practice.

CDC28 Protein Kinase, S cerevisiae is a protein that plays a crucial role in regulating cell cycle progression in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. It is a serine/threonine protein kinase that is activated during the G1 phase of the cell cycle and is responsible for initiating the transition from G1 to S phase. The activity of CDC28 is regulated by a number of factors, including cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases inhibitors, and other regulatory proteins. Mutations in the CDC28 gene can lead to defects in cell cycle regulation, which can result in a variety of cellular abnormalities and diseases, including cancer.

Transcription factors are proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences and controlling the transcription of genetic information from DNA to RNA. They play a crucial role in the development and function of cells and tissues in the body. In the medical field, transcription factors are often studied as potential targets for the treatment of diseases such as cancer, where their activity is often dysregulated. For example, some transcription factors are overexpressed in certain types of cancer cells, and inhibiting their activity may help to slow or stop the growth of these cells. Transcription factors are also important in the development of stem cells, which have the ability to differentiate into a wide variety of cell types. By understanding how transcription factors regulate gene expression in stem cells, researchers may be able to develop new therapies for diseases such as diabetes and heart disease. Overall, transcription factors are a critical component of gene regulation and have important implications for the development and treatment of many diseases.

In the medical field, "Cells, Cultured" refers to cells that have been grown and maintained in a controlled environment outside of their natural biological context, typically in a laboratory setting. This process is known as cell culture and involves the isolation of cells from a tissue or organism, followed by their growth and proliferation in a nutrient-rich medium. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including human or animal tissues, and can be used for a wide range of applications in medicine and research. For example, cultured cells can be used to study the behavior and function of specific cell types, to develop new drugs and therapies, and to test the safety and efficacy of medical products. Cultured cells can be grown in various types of containers, such as flasks or Petri dishes, and can be maintained at different temperatures and humidity levels to optimize their growth and survival. The medium used to culture cells typically contains a combination of nutrients, growth factors, and other substances that support cell growth and proliferation. Overall, the use of cultured cells has revolutionized medical research and has led to many important discoveries and advancements in the field of medicine.

In the medical field, the cell cycle checkpoints are critical control points in the cell cycle that ensure the proper progression of the cell cycle and prevent errors that could lead to genomic instability and cancer. There are three main cell cycle checkpoints: the G1 checkpoint, the G2 checkpoint, and the M checkpoint (also known as the spindle assembly checkpoint). The G1 checkpoint ensures that the cell has sufficient nutrients and energy to proceed with the cell cycle, and that it has not encountered any DNA damage that could lead to errors in DNA replication. The G2 checkpoint ensures that all DNA replication has been completed correctly and that any DNA damage has been repaired before the cell enters mitosis. The M checkpoint ensures that the chromosomes are properly attached to the spindle fibers before the cell proceeds with cell division. If any errors are detected at these checkpoints, the cell cycle is halted, and the cell attempts to repair the damage before proceeding. If the damage is too severe, the cell may undergo programmed cell death (apoptosis) to prevent the propagation of errors to daughter cells.

CCAAT-Binding Factor (CBF) is a transcription factor that plays a crucial role in the regulation of gene expression in various biological processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and metabolism. CBF is a heterodimeric protein composed of two subunits, CBF-A and CBF-B, which are encoded by separate genes. In the context of the medical field, CBF is involved in the regulation of genes that are involved in the metabolism of glucose and fatty acids, as well as genes that are involved in the differentiation of various cell types, including hematopoietic cells, muscle cells, and adipocytes. CBF is also involved in the regulation of genes that are involved in the response to stress, including the production of heat shock proteins. Disruptions in the function of CBF have been implicated in various diseases, including diabetes, obesity, and cancer. For example, mutations in the CBF-A gene have been associated with a rare form of diabetes called maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY), while overexpression of CBF has been implicated in the development of certain types of cancer.

The Anaphase-Promoting Complex/Cyclosome (APC/C) is a large multi-subunit E3 ubiquitin ligase complex that plays a critical role in regulating the progression of the cell cycle. The APC/C is responsible for the ubiquitination and subsequent degradation of a number of key cell cycle regulators, including securin and cyclin B, which are essential for the proper progression of mitosis. The APC/C is composed of multiple subunits, including the APC3 subunit. The APC3 subunit is a regulatory subunit of the APC/C that is involved in the activation of the complex. It is thought to play a role in the recruitment of other subunits to the APC/C and in the regulation of the activity of the complex. In the medical field, the APC/C and its subunits, including the APC3 subunit, are of interest because they are involved in the regulation of cell division. Mutations or abnormalities in the APC/C or its subunits have been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer. Understanding the function of the APC/C and its subunits may lead to the development of new treatments for these diseases.

DNA-binding proteins are a class of proteins that interact with DNA molecules to regulate gene expression. These proteins recognize specific DNA sequences and bind to them, thereby affecting the transcription of genes into messenger RNA (mRNA) and ultimately the production of proteins. DNA-binding proteins play a crucial role in many biological processes, including cell division, differentiation, and development. They can act as activators or repressors of gene expression, depending on the specific DNA sequence they bind to and the cellular context in which they are expressed. Examples of DNA-binding proteins include transcription factors, histones, and non-histone chromosomal proteins. Transcription factors are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences and regulate the transcription of genes by recruiting RNA polymerase and other factors to the promoter region of a gene. Histones are proteins that package DNA into chromatin, and non-histone chromosomal proteins help to organize and regulate chromatin structure. DNA-binding proteins are important targets for drug discovery and development, as they play a central role in many diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and infectious diseases.

In the medical field, purines are a type of organic compound that are found in many foods and are also produced by the body as a natural byproduct of metabolism. Purines are the building blocks of nucleic acids, which are the genetic material in all living cells. They are also important for the production of energy in the body. Purines are classified into two main types: endogenous purines, which are produced by the body, and exogenous purines, which are obtained from the diet. Foods that are high in purines include red meat, organ meats, seafood, and some types of beans and legumes. In some people, the body may not be able to properly break down and eliminate purines, leading to a buildup of uric acid in the blood. This condition, known as gout, can cause pain and inflammation in the joints. High levels of uric acid in the blood can also lead to the formation of kidney stones and other health problems.

E2F1 transcription factor is a protein that plays a crucial role in regulating the cell cycle and cell proliferation. It is a member of the E2F family of transcription factors, which are involved in controlling the expression of genes that are necessary for cell cycle progression and DNA replication. E2F1 is activated during the G1 phase of the cell cycle, when the cell is preparing to divide. It binds to specific DNA sequences in the promoter regions of target genes, such as those involved in DNA replication and cell cycle progression, and promotes their transcription. In this way, E2F1 helps to coordinate the various events that occur during the cell cycle and ensure that the cell divides properly. Abnormal regulation of E2F1 has been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer. For example, overexpression of E2F1 has been observed in many types of cancer, and it is thought to contribute to the uncontrolled proliferation of cancer cells. Conversely, loss of E2F1 function has been associated with impaired cell cycle progression and reduced cell proliferation, which may contribute to the development of certain types of cancer. Overall, E2F1 transcription factor plays a critical role in regulating the cell cycle and cell proliferation, and its dysregulation has been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer.

The proteasome endopeptidase complex is a large protein complex found in the cells of all eukaryotic organisms. It is responsible for breaking down and recycling damaged or unnecessary proteins within the cell. The proteasome is composed of two main subunits: the 20S core particle, which contains the proteolytic active sites, and the 19S regulatory particle, which recognizes and unfolds target proteins for degradation. The proteasome plays a critical role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and is involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell cycle regulation, immune response, and protein quality control. Dysregulation of the proteasome has been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases.

Okadaic acid is a potent marine toxin produced by certain species of dinoflagellates, which are microscopic algae found in marine environments. It is a member of a group of toxins called polyether lipids, which are also known as diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins. In the medical field, okadaic acid is primarily associated with seafood poisoning, which can occur when contaminated shellfish are consumed. The symptoms of okadaic acid poisoning can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fever. In severe cases, it can lead to liver damage, kidney failure, and even death. Okadaic acid is also being studied for its potential therapeutic uses. Some research has suggested that it may have anti-cancer properties and may be useful in the treatment of certain types of cancer. However, more research is needed to confirm these findings and to determine the safety and efficacy of okadaic acid as a cancer treatment.

Mad2 proteins are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in the regulation of the cell cycle, particularly during mitosis. They are involved in the spindle assembly checkpoint, which ensures that the chromosomes are properly aligned and attached to the spindle fibers before the cell proceeds to anaphase. If the chromosomes are not properly aligned, the Mad2 proteins prevent the cell from entering anaphase, allowing time for the error to be corrected. This checkpoint mechanism is important for preventing chromosomal abnormalities and maintaining genomic stability. Mutations in Mad2 genes have been associated with various diseases, including cancer.

Polyploidy refers to a condition in which an organism has more than two sets of chromosomes in its cells. This can occur naturally or as a result of genetic mutations. In the medical field, polyploidy is often associated with certain types of cancer, particularly those that are aggressive and difficult to treat. For example, some forms of breast, ovarian, and colon cancer are known to be associated with polyploidy. In these cases, the extra copies of chromosomes can contribute to the growth and spread of the cancer cells. Polyploidy can also be a feature of some genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome, in which individuals have an extra copy of chromosome 21.

3T3 cells are a type of mouse fibroblast cell line that are commonly used in biomedical research. They are derived from the mouse embryo and are known for their ability to grow and divide indefinitely in culture. 3T3 cells are often used as a model system for studying cell growth, differentiation, and other cellular processes. They are also used in the development of new drugs and therapies, as well as in the testing of cosmetic and other products for safety and efficacy.

Threonine is an essential amino acid that plays a crucial role in various biological processes in the human body. It is a polar amino acid with a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to the alpha carbon atom, which makes it hydrophilic and capable of forming hydrogen bonds. In the medical field, threonine is important for several reasons. Firstly, it is a building block of proteins, which are essential for the structure and function of cells and tissues in the body. Secondly, threonine is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids, which are important sources of energy for the body. Thirdly, threonine is a precursor for the synthesis of several important molecules, including carnitine, which plays a role in the metabolism of fatty acids. Threonine deficiency can lead to a range of health problems, including muscle wasting, impaired growth and development, and weakened immune function. It is therefore important to ensure that the body receives adequate amounts of threonine through a balanced diet or supplements.

Aphidicolin is a chemical compound that is derived from the plant species Aphidium intermediella. It is a type of microtubule-disrupting agent that has been used in the medical field as an anticancer drug. Aphidicolin works by inhibiting the polymerization of microtubules, which are important components of the cell's cytoskeleton. This disruption of the microtubules can lead to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis (cell death), which can help to slow or stop the growth of cancer cells. Aphidicolin has been studied for its potential use in the treatment of a variety of different types of cancer, including leukemia, lymphoma, and solid tumors. However, more research is needed to fully understand its potential as a cancer treatment and to determine the most effective ways to use it in the clinic.

Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p16, also known as CDKN2A or p16INK4a, is a protein that plays a crucial role in regulating the cell cycle and preventing uncontrolled cell growth. It is encoded by the CDKN2A gene and is a member of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor (CKI) family. In normal cells, p16 is expressed in response to DNA damage and acts as a brake on the cell cycle by inhibiting the activity of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), which are enzymes that control cell cycle progression. When cells are damaged, p16 is activated and binds to CDK4 and CDK6, preventing them from phosphorylating and activating the retinoblastoma protein (Rb), which is a key regulator of the cell cycle. However, in many types of cancer, the CDKN2A gene is mutated or deleted, leading to a loss of p16 expression and allowing cells to bypass the cell cycle checkpoint controlled by p16. This can result in uncontrolled cell growth and the development of tumors. Therefore, p16 is considered a tumor suppressor gene, and its loss of function is associated with an increased risk of developing various types of cancer, including melanoma, lung cancer, and pancreatic cancer. In addition, p16 is also used as a diagnostic and prognostic marker in cancer, as its expression levels can be used to predict the aggressiveness of tumors and the response to treatment.

Ubiquitins are small, highly conserved proteins that are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including protein degradation, signal transduction, and gene expression. In the medical field, ubiquitins are often studied in the context of diseases such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases. One of the key functions of ubiquitins is to mark proteins for degradation by the proteasome, a large protein complex that breaks down and removes damaged or unnecessary proteins from the cell. This process is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and regulating the levels of specific proteins in the cell. In addition to their role in protein degradation, ubiquitins are also involved in a number of other cellular processes, including cell cycle regulation, DNA repair, and immune response. Dysregulation of ubiquitin-mediated processes has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, where it can contribute to the development and progression of tumors. Overall, ubiquitins are an important class of proteins that play a critical role in many cellular processes, and their dysfunction can have significant consequences for human health.

Serine is an amino acid that is a building block of proteins. It is a non-essential amino acid, meaning that it can be synthesized by the body from other compounds. In the medical field, serine is known to play a role in various physiological processes, including the production of neurotransmitters, the regulation of blood sugar levels, and the maintenance of healthy skin and hair. It is also used as a dietary supplement to support these functions and to promote overall health. In some cases, serine may be prescribed by a healthcare provider to treat certain medical conditions, such as liver disease or depression.

S-phase kinase-associated proteins (SKAPs) are a family of proteins that play a role in regulating the progression of the cell cycle, specifically during the S phase (DNA synthesis phase). They are involved in the regulation of DNA replication and repair, and are also implicated in the development of certain types of cancer. SKAPs are activated by the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) complex, which is a key regulator of the cell cycle. Dysregulation of SKAPs has been linked to various cellular processes, including cell proliferation, apoptosis, and differentiation.

Drosophila proteins are proteins that are found in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, which is a widely used model organism in genetics and molecular biology research. These proteins have been studied extensively because they share many similarities with human proteins, making them useful for understanding the function and regulation of human genes and proteins. In the medical field, Drosophila proteins are often used as a model for studying human diseases, particularly those that are caused by genetic mutations. By studying the effects of these mutations on Drosophila proteins, researchers can gain insights into the underlying mechanisms of these diseases and potentially identify new therapeutic targets. Drosophila proteins have also been used to study a wide range of biological processes, including development, aging, and neurobiology. For example, researchers have used Drosophila to study the role of specific genes and proteins in the development of the nervous system, as well as the mechanisms underlying age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.

Retinoblastoma-like protein p107 (p107) is a protein that plays a role in regulating cell cycle progression and cell differentiation. It is a member of the retinoblastoma protein family, which includes other proteins such as pRb and p130. Like other members of this family, p107 is involved in the regulation of the G1/S transition of the cell cycle, which is the process by which cells prepare to divide. It does this by binding to specific DNA sequences and inhibiting the activity of proteins that promote cell cycle progression. In addition to its role in cell cycle regulation, p107 has also been implicated in the regulation of cell differentiation and the development of certain types of cancer.

Recombinant proteins are proteins that are produced by genetically engineering bacteria, yeast, or other organisms to express a specific gene. These proteins are typically used in medical research and drug development because they can be produced in large quantities and are often more pure and consistent than proteins that are extracted from natural sources. Recombinant proteins can be used for a variety of purposes in medicine, including as diagnostic tools, therapeutic agents, and research tools. For example, recombinant versions of human proteins such as insulin, growth hormones, and clotting factors are used to treat a variety of medical conditions. Recombinant proteins can also be used to study the function of specific genes and proteins, which can help researchers understand the underlying causes of diseases and develop new treatments.

Ligases are enzymes that catalyze the formation of covalent bonds between two molecules, typically by joining together small molecules such as nucleotides, amino acids, or sugars. In the medical field, ligases play important roles in various biological processes, including DNA replication, transcription, and translation. One example of a ligase enzyme is DNA ligase, which is responsible for joining together the two strands of DNA during replication and repair. Another example is RNA ligase, which is involved in the formation of RNA molecules by joining together RNA nucleotides. Mutations or deficiencies in ligase enzymes can lead to various medical conditions, such as genetic disorders, cancer, and viral infections. For example, mutations in the DNA ligase gene can cause rare inherited disorders such as Cockayne syndrome and Xeroderma pigmentosum, which are characterized by sensitivity to sunlight and an increased risk of cancer. Similarly, mutations in the RNA ligase gene can lead to various forms of cancer, including breast cancer and leukemia.

Breast neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the breast tissue. These growths can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign breast neoplasms are usually not life-threatening, but they can cause discomfort or cosmetic concerns. Malignant breast neoplasms, on the other hand, can spread to other parts of the body and are considered a serious health threat. Some common types of breast neoplasms include fibroadenomas, ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS), invasive ductal carcinoma, and invasive lobular carcinoma.

DNA primers are short, single-stranded DNA molecules that are used in a variety of molecular biology techniques, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. They are designed to bind to specific regions of a DNA molecule, and are used to initiate the synthesis of new DNA strands. In PCR, DNA primers are used to amplify specific regions of DNA by providing a starting point for the polymerase enzyme to begin synthesizing new DNA strands. The primers are complementary to the target DNA sequence, and are added to the reaction mixture along with the DNA template, nucleotides, and polymerase enzyme. The polymerase enzyme uses the primers as a template to synthesize new DNA strands, which are then extended by the addition of more nucleotides. This process is repeated multiple times, resulting in the amplification of the target DNA sequence. DNA primers are also used in DNA sequencing to identify the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. In this application, the primers are designed to bind to specific regions of the DNA molecule, and are used to initiate the synthesis of short DNA fragments. The fragments are then sequenced using a variety of techniques, such as Sanger sequencing or next-generation sequencing. Overall, DNA primers are an important tool in molecular biology, and are used in a wide range of applications to study and manipulate DNA.

In the medical field, carrier proteins are proteins that transport molecules across cell membranes or within cells. These proteins bind to specific molecules, such as hormones, nutrients, or waste products, and facilitate their movement across the membrane or within the cell. Carrier proteins play a crucial role in maintaining the proper balance of molecules within cells and between cells. They are involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including nutrient absorption, hormone regulation, and waste elimination. There are several types of carrier proteins, including facilitated diffusion carriers, active transport carriers, and ion channels. Each type of carrier protein has a specific function and mechanism of action. Understanding the role of carrier proteins in the body is important for diagnosing and treating various medical conditions, such as genetic disorders, metabolic disorders, and neurological disorders.

Neoplasm proteins are proteins that are produced by cancer cells. These proteins are often abnormal and can contribute to the growth and spread of cancer. They can be detected in the blood or other body fluids, and their presence can be used as a diagnostic tool for cancer. Some neoplasm proteins are also being studied as potential targets for cancer treatment.

Chromatids are the two identical strands of DNA that make up a chromosome during cell division. Each chromatid is a duplicated copy of a single chromosome, and they are held together by a protein structure called the centromere. During cell division, the chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell, ensuring that each daughter cell receives a complete set of chromosomes. This process is known as mitosis or meiosis, depending on whether the cell is dividing to produce two identical daughter cells (mitosis) or four genetically diverse daughter cells (meiosis). In the medical field, the study of chromatids is important in understanding genetic disorders and diseases that are caused by abnormalities in chromosome structure or function. For example, chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, and Klinefelter syndrome are caused by errors in chromosome number or structure, which can affect the expression of genes on the chromatids. Additionally, chromatids play a critical role in the process of DNA repair, which is important for maintaining genomic stability and preventing the development of cancer.

Ubiquitin is a small, highly conserved protein that is found in all eukaryotic cells. It plays a crucial role in the regulation of various cellular processes, including protein degradation, cell cycle progression, and signal transduction. In the medical field, ubiquitin is often studied in the context of various diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases. For example, mutations in genes encoding ubiquitin or its regulatory enzymes have been linked to several forms of cancer, including breast, ovarian, and prostate cancer. Additionally, the accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins has been observed in several neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Overall, understanding the role of ubiquitin in cellular processes and its involvement in various diseases is an active area of research in the medical field.

Ki-67 is a protein found in the nuclei of cells that are actively dividing. It is a useful marker for assessing the growth rate of tumors and is often used in conjunction with other markers to help diagnose and predict the behavior of cancer. The Ki-67 antigen is named after the Danish pathologist, Kai Erik Nielsen, who first described it in the 1980s. It is typically measured using immunohistochemistry, a technique that uses antibodies to detect specific proteins in tissue samples.

In the medical field, the 3 untranslated regions (3' UTRs) refer to the non-coding regions of messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules that are located at the 3' end of the gene. These regions are important for regulating gene expression, as they can influence the stability, localization, and translation of the mRNA molecule into protein. The 3' UTR can contain a variety of regulatory elements, such as microRNA binding sites, RNA stability elements, and translational repression elements. These elements can interact with other molecules in the cell to control the amount of protein that is produced from a particular gene. Abnormalities in the 3' UTR can lead to a variety of diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and developmental disorders. For example, mutations in the 3' UTR of the TP53 gene, which is a tumor suppressor gene, have been linked to an increased risk of cancer. Similarly, mutations in the 3' UTR of the FMR1 gene, which is involved in the development of Fragile X syndrome, can lead to the loss of function of the gene and the development of the disorder.

Leupeptins are a class of protease inhibitors that are commonly used in the medical field to study protein degradation and turnover. They are named after the fungus Leucocoprinus erythrorhizus, from which they were originally isolated. Leupeptins are protease inhibitors that specifically target serine proteases, a class of enzymes that cleave proteins at specific amino acid sequences. They work by binding to the active site of the protease, preventing it from cleaving its substrate. This inhibition of protease activity can have a variety of effects on cellular processes, including protein degradation, cell signaling, and immune function. Leupeptins are used in a variety of research applications, including the study of protein turnover, the identification of new proteases, and the development of new drugs. They are also used in some clinical settings, such as in the treatment of certain types of cancer and in the management of certain inflammatory conditions. It is important to note that leupeptins are not approved for use as a therapeutic agent and should only be used under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional.

Active transport is a cellular process in which molecules or ions are transported across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient, from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. This process requires energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and is facilitated by specific transport proteins embedded in the cell membrane. The cell nucleus is the control center of the cell, containing the genetic material (DNA) and regulating gene expression. It is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope, which contains nuclear pores that allow for the exchange of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. In the context of active transport, the cell nucleus plays a role in regulating the expression of genes that encode for transport proteins. These transport proteins are responsible for moving molecules and ions across the cell membrane through active transport, and their expression is tightly regulated by the cell nucleus. Additionally, the cell nucleus may also directly participate in active transport by transporting molecules or ions across its own nuclear envelope.

Transcription factor DP1 is a protein that plays a role in regulating gene expression. It is a member of the basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) family of transcription factors, which are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences and help to control the transcription of genes. DP1 is encoded by the "DPF1" gene, which is located on chromosome 12 in humans. DP1 is involved in the development and differentiation of various cell types, including neurons, muscle cells, and immune cells. It has been implicated in a number of different diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and autoimmune diseases. For example, mutations in the "DPF1" gene have been associated with an increased risk of developing certain types of cancer, such as breast cancer and ovarian cancer. Additionally, DP1 has been shown to play a role in the development of multiple sclerosis, an autoimmune disorder that affects the central nervous system.

Cyclin-dependent kinase 9 (CDK9) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in regulating gene expression by phosphorylating the C-terminal domain (CTD) of RNA polymerase II (Pol II). CDK9 is a component of the positive transcription elongation factor b (P-TEFb) complex, which is responsible for promoting the transition of Pol II from initiation to elongation during transcription. CDK9 is activated by the cyclin T1 or cyclin T2 proteins, which bind to the kinase and stimulate its activity. The P-TEFb complex is involved in the regulation of many genes, including those involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival. Dysregulation of CDK9 activity has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, HIV infection, and neurological disorders. CDK9 inhibitors are being developed as potential therapeutic agents for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer and HIV infection. These inhibitors target the interaction between CDK9 and its cyclin partners, thereby inhibiting the activity of the P-TEFb complex and blocking transcription.

Histones are proteins that play a crucial role in the structure and function of DNA in cells. They are small, positively charged proteins that help to package and organize DNA into a compact structure called chromatin. Histones are found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and are essential for the proper functioning of genes. There are five main types of histones: H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. Each type of histone has a specific role in the packaging and organization of DNA. For example, H3 and H4 are the most abundant histones and are responsible for the formation of nucleosomes, which are the basic unit of chromatin. H1 is a linker histone that helps to compact chromatin into a more condensed structure. In the medical field, histones have been studied in relation to various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases. For example, changes in the levels or modifications of histones have been linked to the development of certain types of cancer, such as breast cancer and prostate cancer. Additionally, histones have been shown to play a role in the regulation of gene expression, which is important for the proper functioning of cells.

Antineoplastic agents, also known as cytotoxic agents or chemotherapeutic agents, are drugs that are used to treat cancer by killing or slowing the growth of cancer cells. These agents work by interfering with the normal processes of cell division and growth, which are necessary for the survival and spread of cancer cells. There are many different types of antineoplastic agents, including alkylating agents, antimetabolites, topoisomerase inhibitors, and monoclonal antibodies, among others. These agents are often used in combination with other treatments, such as surgery and radiation therapy, to provide the most effective treatment for cancer.

Phosphoprotein phosphatases are enzymes that remove phosphate groups from phosphoproteins, which are proteins that have been modified by the addition of a phosphate group. These enzymes play a crucial role in regulating cellular signaling pathways by modulating the activity of phosphoproteins. There are several types of phosphoprotein phosphatases, including protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs), protein serine/threonine phosphatases (S/T phosphatases), and phosphatases that can dephosphorylate both tyrosine and serine/threonine residues. Phosphoprotein phosphatases are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell growth and division, metabolism, and immune response. Dysregulation of phosphoprotein phosphatase activity has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Bivalvia is a class of mollusks that includes animals such as clams, oysters, mussels, and scallops. These animals are characterized by having two shells that are hinged together, allowing them to open and close their shells to feed or breathe. In the medical field, bivalvia are sometimes used as a source of food, particularly in the form of shellfish. However, they can also be a source of foodborne illness if they are not properly cooked or handled. Additionally, some species of bivalvia are used in traditional medicine for their supposed medicinal properties. For example, the shells of certain species of clams and oysters are sometimes used in Chinese medicine to treat a variety of conditions, including digestive problems and respiratory infections.

Proto-oncogene proteins c-myc is a family of proteins that play a role in regulating cell growth and division. They are also known as myc proteins. The c-myc protein is encoded by the MYC gene, which is located on chromosome 8. The c-myc protein is a transcription factor, which means that it helps to regulate the expression of other genes. When the c-myc protein is overexpressed or mutated, it can contribute to the development of cancer. In normal cells, the c-myc protein helps to control the cell cycle and prevent uncontrolled cell growth. However, in cancer cells, the c-myc protein may be overactive or mutated, leading to uncontrolled cell growth and the formation of tumors.

Ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes, also known as E2 enzymes, are a family of enzymes that play a crucial role in the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) in the medical field. The UPS is a major pathway for the degradation of proteins in cells, and it is involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell cycle regulation, signal transduction, and protein quality control. E2 enzymes are responsible for transferring ubiquitin, a small protein that is covalently attached to target proteins, from an E1 enzyme to a target protein. This process is essential for the formation of polyubiquitin chains, which serve as a signal for the degradation of the target protein by the proteasome. In the medical field, the UPS is involved in the regulation of many diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases. Dysregulation of the UPS has been implicated in the development and progression of these diseases, and targeting the UPS has become an important strategy for the development of new therapies. E2 enzymes are therefore of great interest in the medical field, as they play a central role in the UPS and are involved in the regulation of many important cellular processes. Understanding the function and regulation of E2 enzymes is essential for developing new therapies for diseases that are associated with dysregulation of the UPS.

Ubiquitin-protein ligases, also known as E3 ligases, are a class of enzymes that play a crucial role in the process of protein degradation in cells. These enzymes are responsible for recognizing specific target proteins and tagging them with ubiquitin, a small protein that serves as a signal for degradation by the proteasome, a large protein complex that breaks down proteins in the cell. In the medical field, ubiquitin-protein ligases are of great interest because they are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell cycle regulation, DNA repair, and the regulation of immune responses. Dysregulation of these enzymes has been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases. For example, some E3 ligases have been shown to play a role in the development of certain types of cancer by promoting the degradation of tumor suppressor proteins or by stabilizing oncogenic proteins. In addition, mutations in certain E3 ligases have been linked to neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington's disease and Parkinson's disease. Overall, understanding the function and regulation of ubiquitin-protein ligases is an important area of research in the medical field, as it may lead to the development of new therapeutic strategies for a variety of diseases.

Retinoblastoma-Binding Protein 1 (RBBP1) is a protein that plays a role in the regulation of gene expression. It is encoded by the RBBP1 gene and is found in the nucleus of cells. RBBP1 is a component of the Retinoblastoma protein (pRb) pathway, which is involved in the regulation of the cell cycle and the prevention of uncontrolled cell growth. In the context of retinoblastoma, a type of eye cancer that occurs in children, RBBP1 is thought to play a role in the development and progression of the disease.

Karyopherins, also known as nuclear transport receptors, are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in the transport of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. These proteins recognize specific signals on cargo molecules, such as nuclear localization signals (NLS) or nuclear export signals (NES), and facilitate their movement across the nuclear envelope. There are two main classes of karyopherins: importins and exportins. Importins recognize and bind to NLS-containing cargo molecules in the cytoplasm and transport them into the nucleus. Exportins recognize and bind to NES-containing cargo molecules in the nucleus and transport them out of the nucleus. Karyopherins are essential for many cellular processes, including gene expression, DNA replication, and cell division. Mutations in karyopherin genes can lead to a variety of diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and developmental abnormalities.

Cell nucleus division, also known as nuclear division or mitosis, is a process by which a single cell divides its nucleus into two identical nuclei, each containing a complete copy of the genetic material. This process is essential for growth, repair, and reproduction in living organisms. During mitosis, the cell's DNA is replicated and organized into two identical sets of chromosomes. The chromosomes then condense and move to opposite poles of the cell, where they are separated by a structure called the mitotic spindle. Finally, the cell membrane divides, forming two new daughter cells, each with its own nucleus containing a complete set of chromosomes. Mitosis is a tightly regulated process that ensures that each daughter cell receives an identical copy of the genetic material. Any errors in this process can lead to genetic abnormalities and diseases such as cancer.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that carries genetic information in living organisms. It is composed of four types of nitrogen-containing molecules called nucleotides, which are arranged in a specific sequence to form the genetic code. In the medical field, DNA is often studied as a tool for understanding and diagnosing genetic disorders. Genetic disorders are caused by changes in the DNA sequence that can affect the function of genes, leading to a variety of health problems. By analyzing DNA, doctors and researchers can identify specific genetic mutations that may be responsible for a particular disorder, and develop targeted treatments or therapies to address the underlying cause of the condition. DNA is also used in forensic science to identify individuals based on their unique genetic fingerprint. This is because each person's DNA sequence is unique, and can be used to distinguish one individual from another. DNA analysis is also used in criminal investigations to help solve crimes by linking DNA evidence to suspects or victims.

Protein-tyrosine kinases (PTKs) are a family of enzymes that play a crucial role in various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, metabolism, and signal transduction. These enzymes catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to the hydroxyl group of tyrosine residues on specific target proteins, thereby modifying their activity, localization, or interactions with other molecules. PTKs are involved in many diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurological disorders. They are also targets for many drugs, including those used to treat cancer and other diseases. In the medical field, PTKs are studied to understand their role in disease pathogenesis and to develop new therapeutic strategies.

Cell differentiation is the process by which cells acquire specialized functions and characteristics during development. It is a fundamental process that occurs in all multicellular organisms, allowing cells to differentiate into various types of cells with specific functions, such as muscle cells, nerve cells, and blood cells. During cell differentiation, cells undergo changes in their shape, size, and function, as well as changes in the proteins and other molecules they produce. These changes are controlled by a complex network of genes and signaling pathways that regulate the expression of specific genes in different cell types. Cell differentiation is a critical process for the proper development and function of tissues and organs in the body. It is also involved in tissue repair and regeneration, as well as in the progression of diseases such as cancer, where cells lose their normal differentiation and become cancerous.

Antimitotic agents are a class of drugs that inhibit the growth and division of cells, particularly cancer cells. They work by targeting the mitotic spindle, a structure that helps to separate chromosomes during cell division. By disrupting the spindle, antimitotic agents prevent the cell from dividing and can cause it to die. There are several different types of antimitotic agents, including microtubule inhibitors, which prevent the formation of the mitotic spindle, and tubulin antagonists, which interfere with the function of tubulin, a protein that is essential for the formation and function of the mitotic spindle. Antimitotic agents are commonly used in cancer treatment, particularly in chemotherapy. They are often used in combination with other drugs to increase their effectiveness and reduce the risk of resistance. Some examples of antimitotic agents include paclitaxel, docetaxel, vinblastine, and vincristine.

Kinetin is a plant hormone that belongs to the cytokinin group. It is a naturally occurring compound that is produced in plants and has a variety of physiological effects on plant growth and development. In the medical field, kinetin has been studied for its potential therapeutic applications. It has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties, and may be useful in the treatment of a variety of diseases, including cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, and rheumatoid arthritis. Kinetin has also been used in research to study the mechanisms of plant growth and development, and to develop new methods for improving crop yields and increasing plant resistance to environmental stress.

Cell transformation, neoplastic refers to the process by which normal cells in the body undergo genetic changes that cause them to become cancerous or malignant. This process involves the accumulation of mutations in genes that regulate cell growth, division, and death, leading to uncontrolled cell proliferation and the formation of tumors. Neoplastic transformation can occur in any type of cell in the body, and it can be caused by a variety of factors, including exposure to carcinogens, radiation, viruses, and inherited genetic mutations. Once a cell has undergone neoplastic transformation, it can continue to divide and grow uncontrollably, invading nearby tissues and spreading to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. The diagnosis of neoplastic transformation typically involves a combination of clinical examination, imaging studies, and biopsy. Treatment options for neoplastic transformation depend on the type and stage of cancer, as well as the patient's overall health and preferences. Common treatments include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy.

In the medical field, "DNA, Complementary" refers to the property of DNA molecules to pair up with each other in a specific way. Each strand of DNA has a unique sequence of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine), and the nucleotides on one strand can only pair up with specific nucleotides on the other strand in a complementary manner. For example, adenine (A) always pairs up with thymine (T), and guanine (G) always pairs up with cytosine (C). This complementary pairing is essential for DNA replication and transcription, as it ensures that the genetic information encoded in one strand of DNA can be accurately copied onto a new strand. The complementary nature of DNA also plays a crucial role in genetic engineering and biotechnology, as scientists can use complementary DNA strands to create specific genetic sequences or modify existing ones.

Chromosome segregation refers to the process by which chromosomes are separated and distributed equally between two daughter cells during cell division. This process is essential for the proper functioning of cells and the maintenance of genetic information. During cell division, the chromosomes replicate and condense into visible structures called bivalents. These bivalents then align at the metaphase plate, a plane equidistant from the two poles of the cell. At anaphase, the sister chromatids of each bivalent are pulled apart and move towards opposite poles of the cell by a mechanism called the mitotic spindle. In humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes, and each pair consists of two identical copies, called homologous chromosomes. During meiosis, the process of cell division that produces gametes (sperm and egg cells), the homologous chromosomes are separated and distributed randomly between the two daughter cells, resulting in genetic diversity. Chromosome segregation errors can lead to genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome, which is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. In some cases, chromosome segregation errors can also lead to cancer, as they can result in the accumulation of genetic mutations that promote uncontrolled cell growth.

Repressor proteins are a class of proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences and preventing the transcription of the associated gene. They are often involved in controlling the expression of genes that are involved in cellular processes such as metabolism, growth, and differentiation. Repressor proteins can be classified into two main types: transcriptional repressors and post-transcriptional repressors. Transcriptional repressors bind to specific DNA sequences near the promoter region of a gene, which prevents the binding of RNA polymerase and other transcription factors, thereby inhibiting the transcription of the gene. Post-transcriptional repressors, on the other hand, bind to the mRNA of a gene, which prevents its translation into protein or causes its degradation, thereby reducing the amount of protein produced. Repressor proteins play important roles in many biological processes, including development, differentiation, and cellular response to environmental stimuli. They are also involved in the regulation of many diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and metabolic disorders.

Invertebrate hormones are chemical messengers produced by glands in invertebrates, such as insects, crustaceans, mollusks, and worms. These hormones play a crucial role in regulating various physiological processes, including growth and development, reproduction, metabolism, and behavior. Invertebrate hormones can be classified into different types based on their chemical structure and function. Some examples of invertebrate hormones include: * Ecdysteroids: These hormones are involved in regulating molting and metamorphosis in insects and crustaceans. * JH (Juvenile Hormone): This hormone is involved in regulating growth and development in insects. * Melatonin: This hormone is involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle in many invertebrates. * Octopamine: This hormone is involved in regulating metabolism, feeding behavior, and aggression in insects and crustaceans. * Serotonin: This hormone is involved in regulating mood, appetite, and sleep in many invertebrates. Invertebrate hormones are studied in the medical field because they can provide insights into the evolution of endocrine systems and the mechanisms underlying various physiological processes. Additionally, some invertebrate hormones have potential therapeutic applications in medicine, such as in the treatment of sleep disorders or the regulation of metabolism.

... is a member of the cyclin family, specifically the B-type cyclins. The B-type cyclins, B1 and B2, associate with ... Cyclin B1 co-localizes with microtubules, whereas cyclin B2 is primarily associated with the Golgi region. Cyclin B2 also binds ... Cyclin B2 has been shown to interact with TGF beta receptor 2. Cyclin B GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000157456 - Ensembl, ... "Cyclin B2-null mice develop normally and are fertile whereas cyclin B1-null mice die in utero". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. ...
"Interactions between p300 and multiple NF-Y trimers govern cyclin B2 promoter function". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. ...
"Interactions between p300 and multiple NF-Y trimers govern cyclin B2 promoter function". J. Biol. Chem. 278 (9): 6642-50. doi: ...
Specifically, miR-427 targets include cell cycle regulators such as Cyclin A1 and Cyclin B2. Lee MT, Bonneau AR, Takacs CM, ...
Gong D, Ferrell JE (Sep 2010). "The roles of cyclin A2, B1, and B2 in early and late mitotic events". Mol. Biol. Cell. 21 (18 ... Cyclin-A2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CCNA2 gene. It is one of the two types of cyclin A: cyclin A1 is ... Cyclin A2 belongs to the cyclin family, whose members regulate cell cycle progression by interacting with CDK kinases. Cyclin ... The cyclin A2-CDK2 complex eventually phosphorylates E2F, turning off cyclin A2 transcription. E2F promotes cyclin A2 ...
It is known that cyclin B1 can compensate for loss of both cyclin B2 (and vice versa in Drosophila). Saccharomyces cerevisiae ... FoxM1 and B-Myb by upstream G1 and G1/S cyclin-CDK complexes. Increased levels of cyclin B1 cause rising levels of cyclin B1- ... In vertebrates, there are five cyclin B isoforms (B1, B2, B3, B4, and B5), but the specific role of each of these isoforms in ... However, cyclin A2/CDK complexes do not function strictly as activators of cyclin B1/CDK1 in G2, as CDK2 has been shown to be ...
"Human cyclins B1 and B2 are localized to strikingly different structures: B1 to microtubules, B2 primarily to the Golgi ... "Cyclin F regulates the nuclear localization of cyclin B1 through a cyclin-cyclin interaction". EMBO J. 19 (6): 1378-88. doi: ... G2/mitotic-specific cyclin-B1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CCNB1 gene. Cyclin B1 is a regulatory protein ... Like all cyclins, levels of cyclin B1 oscillate over the course of the cell cycle. Just prior to mitosis, a large amount of ...
... differential signaling requirements for activation of assembled cyclin D3-cdk4 complexes in B-1 and B-2 lymphocyte subsets". ... Cyclins function as regulators of cyclin-dependent kinases. Different cyclins exhibit distinct expression and degradation ... Brooks AR, Shiffman D, Chan CS, Brooks EE, Milner PG (Apr 1996). "Functional analysis of the human cyclin D2 and cyclin D3 ... "The consensus motif for phosphorylation by cyclin D1-Cdk4 is different from that for phosphorylation by cyclin A/E-Cdk2". The ...
... followed by a buildup of cyclin B2 (CLB2) protein (resulting from increased CLB2 mRNA concentration that codes for the CLB2 ...
... cyclin B2, Nek2 and CENPF, and plays an important role in maintenance of chromosomal segregation and genomic stability. FOXM1 ...
... has been shown to interact with: AP2B1, Cyclin B2, Endoglin, Heat shock protein 90kDa alpha (cytosolic), ... "Functional association of TGF-beta receptor II with cyclin B". Oncogene. 18 (1): 269-75. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1202263. PMID ...
Cyclin B1 and B2 can localize Cdk1 to the nucleus and the Golgi, respectively, through a localization sequence outside the CDK- ... CDK6; cyclin D1, cyclin D2, cyclin D3 CDK7; cyclin H CDK8; cyclin C CDK9; cyclin T1, cyclin T2a, cyclin T2b, cyclin K CDK10 ... cyclin A, cyclin B CDK2; cyclin A, cyclin E CDK3; cyclin C CDK4; cyclin D1, cyclin D2, cyclin D3 CDK5; CDK5R1, CDK5R2. See also ... Furthermore, cyclin binding determines the specificity of the cyclin-CDK complex for particular substrates. Cyclins can ...
... 1 Cyclin B2 PDB: 2B9R​; Petri, E.T.; Errico, A.; Escobedo, L.; Hunt, T. & Basavappa, R. (2007). "The crystal structure ... Cyclin B is a member of the cyclin family. Cyclin B is a mitotic cyclin. The amount of cyclin B (which binds to Cdk1) and the ... Because cyclin B is necessary for cells to enter mitosis and therefore necessary for cell division, cyclin B levels are often ... The fact that cyclin B is often disregulated in cancer cells makes cyclin B an attractive biomarker. Many studies have been ...
Interactions of this protein with the v-erb-b2 erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog 2 gene product p185 interferes ... This protein inhibits T cell proliferation and transcription of cytokines and cyclins. The protein interacts with both mothers ... associates with a component of the CCR4 transcriptional regulatory complex capable of binding cyclin-dependent kinases". ... associates with a component of the CCR4 transcriptional regulatory complex capable of binding cyclin-dependent kinases". ...
The lamins are type V intermediate filaments which can be categorized as either A-type (lamin A, C) or B-type (lamin B1, B2) ... After phosphorylation by cyclin B/Cdk1, the nuclear lamina depolymerises and B-type lamins stay associated with the fragments ... The major types are LI and LII, which are considered homologs of lamin B1 and B2. LA are considered homologous to lamin A and ... Lamin B1 reaches the highest expression level, whereas the expression of B2 is relatively constant in the early stages and ...
Rapamycin induces dephosphorylation of 4EBP1 as well, resulting in an increase in p27 and a decrease in cyclin D1 expression. ... Example of these growth factors are angiopoietin 1 (ANG1), ANG 2, basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), ephrin-B2, vascular ...
... Cip1 (alternatively p21Waf1), also known as cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1 or CDK-interacting protein 1, is a cyclin- ... type B2/B3. When combined with low p27 and high p53, DFS (Disease-Free Survival) decreases. p21 mediates the resistance of ... Yam CH, Ng RW, Siu WY, Lau AW, Poon RY (January 1999). "Regulation of cyclin A-Cdk2 by SCF component Skp1 and F-box protein ... Cyclin-Dependent+Kinase+Inhibitor+p21 at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Drosophila ...
By contrast, the roles of the B2 and B3 elements are less clear. The B2 region is similar to the ACS in sequence and has been ... In S-phase, Dbf4-dependent kinase (DDK) and Cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) phosphorylate several Mcm2-7 subunits and additional ... These ARS regions are approximately 100-200 bp long and exhibit a multipartite organization, containing A, B1, B2, and ... Wilmes GM, Bell SP (January 2002). "The B2 element of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae ARS1 origin of replication requires specific ...
... and the iridoid glycosides scyphiphorin A1-A2 and scyphiphorin B1-B2. Alvocidib is a synthetic analog of rohitukine that acts ... "Successful treatment of animal models of rheumatoid arthritis with small-molecule cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors". J. ...
... cyclin D1. The recruitment of TLS to the promoter of cyclin D1 is directed by long ncRNAs expressed at low levels and tethered ... Many of the ncRNAs that interact with general transcription factors or RNAP II itself (including 7SK, Alu and B1 and B2 RNAs) ... Yik JH, Chen R, Nishimura R, Jennings JL, Link AJ, Zhou Q (October 2003). "Inhibition of P-TEFb (CDK9/Cyclin T) kinase and RNA ... Espinoza CA, Allen TA, Hieb AR, Kugel JF, Goodrich JA (September 2004). "B2 RNA binds directly to RNA polymerase II to repress ...
... cyclin a MeSH D23.348.353.120 - cyclin b MeSH D23.348.353.161 - cyclin d1 MeSH D23.348.353.180 - cyclin e MeSH D23.348.383.110 ... ephrin-b2 MeSH D23.348.479.500.800 - ephrin-b3 MeSH D23.348.479.750 - fibroblast growth factors MeSH D23.348.479.750.110 - ... thromboxane b2 MeSH D23.469.050.300 - histamine MeSH D23.469.050.375 - kinins MeSH D23.469.050.375.110 - bradykinin MeSH ...
... a G-protein coupled receptor Resolvin D2 Cyclin D2 (CCND2) Vitamin D2, or ergocalciferol D02, the ICD-10 code for carcinoma in ... a standard paper size between B2 and A1 D2 Subway, a planned Dallas, Texas light rail tunnel 2D (disambiguation) DII ( ...
... cyclin-dependent kinase 5 MeSH D12.644.360.250.067.900 - cyclin-dependent kinase 9 MeSH D12.644.360.250.323 - cyclin-dependent ... ephrin-b2 MeSH D12.644.276.500.800 - ephrin-b3 MeSH D12.644.276.625 - epidermal growth factor MeSH D12.644.276.750 - fibroblast ... kinase 2 MeSH D12.644.360.250.451 - cyclin-dependent kinase 4 MeSH D12.644.360.250.515 - cyclin-dependent kinase 6 MeSH D12.644 ... cyclin-dependent kinases MeSH D12.644.360.250.067 - cdc2-cdc28 kinases MeSH D12.644.360.250.067.249 - cdc2 protein kinase MeSH ...
"ERBB2 erb-b2 receptor tyrosine kinase 2 [Homo sapiens (human)] - Gene - NCBI". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2016-06-14. " ... ISBN 978-1-259-64403-0. Le XF, Pruefer F, Bast RC (January 2005). "HER2-targeting antibodies modulate the cyclin-dependent ...
The TRIpartite motif consists of a zinc RING finger, two zinc binding domains, termed the B1 and B2 boxes, and an RBCC ... Marcello A, Ferrari A, Pellegrini V, Pegoraro G, Lusic M, Beltram F, Giacca M (May 2003). "Recruitment of human cyclin T1 to ... Promyelocytic leukemia protein has been shown to interact with: ANKRD2, CREB-binding protein, Cyclin T1, Death associated ...
"Genetic evidence for the essential role of beta-transducin repeat-containing protein in the inducible processing of NF-kappa B2 ... by driving the degradation of mitotic CDK1 activating cyclin subunits). Furthermore, βTrCP controls APC/C by targeting REST, ...
"Genetic evidence for the essential role of beta-transducin repeat-containing protein in the inducible processing of NF-kappa B2 ... by driving the degradation of mitotic CDK1 activating cyclin subunits). Furthermore, βTrCP controls APC/C by targeting REST, ...
"Entrez Gene: ERBB2 v-erb-b2 erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog 2, neuro/glioblastoma derived oncogene homolog ( ... "Estrogen and progesterone promote breast cancer cell proliferation by inducing cyclin G1 expression". Brazilian Journal of ...
G2/mitotic-specific cyclin-B2 derived from Recombinant full-length Xenopus laevis Cyclin B2 protein. Clone: X29.2. Gene ID: ... The two B type cyclins, cyclin B1 and cyclin B2, have been shown to have distinct tissue distributions. ... SDS-PAGE Analysis Purified Cyclin B2 Mouse Monoclonal Antibody (X29.2). Confirmation of Purity and Integrity of Antibody. ... Evidence has established that B type cyclins not only act on M phase regulatory subunits of the Cdc2 protein kinase, but also ...
... mRNA cleavage of cyclin B2 mRNA necessary for cell cycle progression, associated with susceptibility to cancer, immune ...
... and mitosis-related genes including cyclin A2 (CCNA2), cyclin B1 (CCNB1), cyclin B2 (CCNB2), cyclin F (CCNF), cell division ... cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor 2D (CDKN2D), cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor 3 (CDKN3), centromere protein A (CENPA), ... Lim, S.; Kaldis, P. Cdks, cyclins and CKIs: Roles beyond cell cycle regulation. Development 2013, 140, 3079-3093. [Google ... cycle 25B (CDC25B), cell division cycle associated 2 (CDCA2), cyclin dependent kinase 1 (CDK1), ...
Ki-67 expression both in the crypt-surface epithelium and cyclin D1, c-erb B2, bcl-2 over-expression may be a clue of ...
Description: Recombinant Arabidopsis thaliana Cyclin-B2-2(CYCB2-2) expressed in Yeast ... Description: Recombinant Arabidopsis thaliana Cyclin-B1-1(CYCB1-1) expressed in E.coli ...
cyclin B2. 15q22.2. CV:GWASdb. CV:PGCnp. 9768. KIAA0101. L5 , NS5ATP9 , OEATC , OEATC-1 , OEATC1 , PAF , PAF15 , p15(PAF) , p15 ... cyclin E1. 19q12. CV:PGCnp. DMG:Montano_2016. Network. 3953. LEPR. CD295 , LEP-R , LEPRD , OB-R , OBR. leptin receptor. 1p31. ... cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 3. 14q22. CV:GWAScat. CV:GWASdb. CV:PGCnp. DNM:Kranz_2015. PMID:cooccur. ... cyclin-dependent kinase 1. 10q21.1. CV:GWASdb. CV:PGCnp. DMG:Wockner_2014. GO_Annotation. Network. ...
Expression of B2-type cyclin-dependent kinase is controlled by protein degradation in Arabidopsis thaliana.. Adachi S, Uchimiya ... Cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors regulate the CDK-cyclin complex activities in endoreduplicating cells of developing ... Two maize Kip-related proteins differentially interact with, inhibit and are phosphorylated by cyclin D-cyclin-dependent kinase ... Arabidopsis KRPs have distinct inhibitory activity toward cyclin D2-associated kinases, including plant-specific B-type cyclin- ...
"Cyclin B2 mediated events". Pathways not previously discussed or interpreted for EC in literature were identified, which ...
Cyclin B2 (CCNB2) was identified in the top genes associated with LVI positivity. In vitro functional assays were carried out ... Upregulation of Cyclin B2 (CCNB2) in breast cancer contributes to the development of lymphovascular invasion. ...
... cyclin B1 and cyclin B2. PCR using the actin primer set was performed with the cDNA produced in the PAT assay (actin). PCR ... cyclin B2 and tbp. The MO activity targeting cyclins A and B mRNAs was validated in unfertilized starfish oocytes and eggs. The ... In vivo regulation of cyclin A/Cdc2 and cyclin B/Cdc2 through meiotic and early cleavage cycles in starfish. 1998, Pubmed , ... A) Sequences of cyclin B1 and B2 MOs. (B) Total RNA was extracted from 5 hpf embryos in which the indicated MOs were injected ( ...
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Harlow 1993 β3-LNCaP and HeLa cells had been also transfected with pCMV-βgal and pCMX cyclin A pCMV cyclin B1 or pCMV cyclin B2 ... β3-LNCaP β6-LNCaP HT1080 HT2-19 cells cyclin B2-null and wt MEFs had been seeded on 5-μm (HT1080 HT2-19) 8 (β3-LNCaP β6-LNCaP) ... After 4 h (HT1080 HT2-19 cyclin B2-null MEFs wt MEFs) or 6 h (β3-LNCaP β6-LNCaP) cells had been set with 3% PFA/PBS stained ... immunoprecipitates had been then utilized as substrate for either cyclin B2 immunocomplexes or recombinant cdc2/cyclin B1 (New ...
6F). Meanwhile, mRNA expression of PCNA, CCL2, TNF-α, IL-6, cyclin B1 and cyclin B2 were decreased in TLR4 KO mice as compared ... 2F). We further tested the liver mRNA levels of CCL-2, cyclin B1, cyclin B2, IL-6, TNF-α and proliferating cell nuclear antigen ... 4F). Similarly, liver expression of the mRNA of CCL-2, cyclin B1, cyclin B2, TNF-α, IL-6, and PCNA was significantly decreased ... 6B-C). Liver expression of CXCL1, CXCL2, CCL2, IL-6, TNF-α and cyclin B1 mRNA was higher in WT mice than in TLR4 KO mice (Fig. ...
Cyclin B2 undergoes cell cycle-dependent nuclear translocation and, when expressed as a non-destructible mutant, causes mitotic ...
Human CCNB(Cyclin B) ELISA Kit. *Human CCNB2(Cyclin B2) ELISA Kit ... Human CCNB(Cyclin B) ELISA Kit. *Human CCNB2(Cyclin B2) ELISA ...
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Cells were collected 1 and 16 h after IR (10 Gy). Cyclin B1 and PCNA were used as loading controls for the left and right ... F) ATR pathway signaling integrity after ATR, BRCA2 LP-533401 ic50 (B2) and BRCA1 (B1) depletion. ...
Anti- Cyclin Dependent Kinase 5 (CDK5)-Mouse monoc ... € 318.00. Anti- Cyclophilin A (CYPA)-Mouse monoclonal Antibo ... € ... Anti- Crystallin Beta B2 (CRYbB2)-Mouse monoclonal ... € 250.00. Anti- Crystallin Lambda 1 (CRYl1)-Mouse monoclonal ... € ... Anti- Cyclin D1 (CCND1)-Mouse monoclonal Antibody € 241.00. ... Cyclin D1 (CCND1)-Mouse monoclonal Antibody products are the ... The following Anti- Cross Linked C-Telopeptide Of Type I Collagen (CTXI)-Mouse monoclonal Antibody, Anti- Crystallin Beta B2 ( ...
Human EFNB2(Ephrin B2) ELISA Kit. *Human ELA3B(Elastase 3B) ELISA Kit ... Human CDKN3(Cyclin Dependent Kinase Inhibitor 3) ELISA Kit. Human CDKN3(Cyclin Dependent Kinase Inhibitor 3) ELISA Kit. To ... Human Cyclin Dependent Kinase Inhibitor 2A (CDKN2A) ELISA Kit. SEA794Hu-10x96wellstestplate Cloud-Clone 10x96-wells test plate ... Human CDKN3(Cyclin Dependent Kinase Inhibitor 3) ELISA Kit. *Human CEACAM1(Carcinoembryonic Antigen Related Cell Adhesion ...
B) Western blot of Ephrin-B2 and VEGF-R2 in HUVECs infected with CTRL lentivirus, HUVECs overexpressing wild type GJA4, HUVECs ... A) Western blot of TK, PCNA and Cyclin D1 in HUVECs infected with CTRL lentivirus, HUVECs overexpressing wild type GJA4, HUVECs ... D) Immunohistochemical staining of a tissue sample of ECH with a GJA4 mutation shows decreased level of Ephrin-B2 in ... Ephrin-B2 were considerably lower in GJA4-mutant samples than that of GJA4-WT or control (figure 4D). These results ...
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AML stem/BPCs the β-catenin-TCF4/LEF1 complex increases manifestation of the pro-growth and pro-survival genes including cyclin ...
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Cyclin B1. Ciclina B1. Ciclina B1. Cyclin B2. Ciclina B2. Ciclina B2. ... Cyclin C. Ciclina C. Ciclina C. Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 8. Quinase 8 Dependente de Ciclina. Quinasa 8 Dependiente de la Ciclina ... Cyclin T. Ciclina T. Ciclina T. Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 3. Quinase 3 Dependente de Ciclina. Quinasa 3 Dependiente de la Ciclina ... Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 3. Quinase 3 Dependente de Ciclina. Quinasa 3 Dependiente de la Ciclina. ...
Ciclina B2. Cyclin B2. Ciclina B2. Ciclina C. Cyclin C. Ciclina C. ... Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 3. Quinasa 3 Dependiente de la Ciclina. Quinase 8 Dependente de Ciclina. Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 8. ... Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 3. Quinasa 3 Dependiente de la Ciclina. Quinase 8 Dependente de Ciclina. Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 8. ... Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 8. Quinasa 8 Dependiente de la Ciclina. Subunidade 1 do Complexo Mediador. Mediator Complex Subunit 1. ...
Cyclin B1. Ciclina B1. Ciclina B1. Cyclin B2. Ciclina B2. Ciclina B2. ... Cyclin C. Ciclina C. Ciclina C. Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 8. Quinase 8 Dependente de Ciclina. Quinasa 8 Dependiente de la Ciclina ... Cyclin T. Ciclina T. Ciclina T. Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 3. Quinase 3 Dependente de Ciclina. Quinasa 3 Dependiente de la Ciclina ... Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 3. Quinase 3 Dependente de Ciclina. Quinasa 3 Dependiente de la Ciclina. ...
Cyclin B1. Ciclina B1. Ciclina B1. Cyclin B2. Ciclina B2. Ciclina B2. ... Cyclin C. Ciclina C. Ciclina C. Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 8. Quinase 8 Dependente de Ciclina. Quinasa 8 Dependiente de la Ciclina ... Cyclin T. Ciclina T. Ciclina T. Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 3. Quinase 3 Dependente de Ciclina. Quinasa 3 Dependiente de la Ciclina ... Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 3. Quinase 3 Dependente de Ciclina. Quinasa 3 Dependiente de la Ciclina. ...
  • Cyclin B2 also binds to transforming growth factor beta RII and thus cyclin B2/cdc2 may play a key role in transforming growth factor beta-mediated cell cycle control. (wikipedia.org)
  • This protein kinase is composed of a catalytic subunit (Cdc2), a regulatory subunit (cyclin B) and a low molecular weight subunit (p13-Suc1). (neobiotechnologies.com)
  • Tyrosine phosphorylation inhibits the Cdc2/ cyclin B enzyme, and tyrosine dephosphorylation, occurring at the onset of mitosis, directly activates the pre-MPF complex. (neobiotechnologies.com)
  • Evidence has established that B type cyclins not only act on M phase regulatory subunits of the Cdc2 protein kinase, but also activate the Cdc25A and Cdc25B endogenous tyrosine phosphatase, of which Cdc2 is the physiological substrate. (neobiotechnologies.com)
  • Recent studies have shown that cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors can have a tremendous impact on cell cycle progression in plants. (uni-bielefeld.de)
  • Description: A sandwich quantitative ELISA assay kit for detection of Human Cyclin Dependent Kinase Inhibitor 3 (CDKN3) in samples from tissue homogenates or other biological fluids. (jemsec.com)
  • Description: A sandwich ELISA for quantitative measurement of Human Cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor 3(CDKN3) in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. (jemsec.com)
  • Description: This is Double-antibody Sandwich Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Human Cyclin Dependent Kinase Inhibitor 3 (CDKN3) in Tissue homogenates and other biological fluids. (jemsec.com)
  • ACT‑3 significantly reduced the expression levels of cyclin D1 and cyclin‑dependent kinase 4, and upregulated the expression levels of p21 and p53. (iasp-pain.org)
  • B1 and B2 differ in their subcellular localization. (wikipedia.org)
  • G2/mitotic-specific cyclin-B2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CCNB2 gene. (wikipedia.org)
  • Homo sapiens shugoshin-like 1 (S. pombe) (SGOL1), transcript variant B2, mRNA. (dbcls.jp)
  • The B-type cyclins, B1 and B2, associate with p34cdc2 and are essential components of the cell cycle regulatory machinery. (wikipedia.org)
  • Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vpr arrests the cell cycle in G2 by inhibiting the activation of p34cdc2-cyclin B". J. Virol. (wikipedia.org)
  • β3-LNCaP β6-LNCaP HT1080 HT2-19 cells cyclin B2-null and wt MEFs had been seeded on 5-μm (HT1080 HT2-19) 8 (β3-LNCaP β6-LNCaP) or 12-μm (cyclin B2-null MEFs wt MEFs) pore-sized transwell filtration system StemRegenin 1 (SR1) inserts covered with 5 or 10 μg/ml FN or 3 μg/ml VN. (colinsbraincancer.com)
  • After 4 h (HT1080 HT2-19 cyclin B2-null MEFs wt MEFs) or 6 h (β3-LNCaP β6-LNCaP) cells had been set with 3% PFA/PBS stained with crystal violet and the amount of cells per square millimeter on underneath had been counted (standard StemRegenin 1 (SR1) and SEM of 10 arbitrary areas). (colinsbraincancer.com)
  • Anticancer effects of the HDAC inhibitor, 3β,6β‑dihydroxyurs‑12‑en‑27‑oic acid, in MCF‑7 breast cancer cells via the inhibition of Akt/mTOR pathways. (iasp-pain.org)
  • Cyclin B2 has been shown to interact with TGF beta receptor 2. (wikipedia.org)
  • The two B type cyclins, cyclin B1 and cyclin B2, have been shown to have distinct tissue distributions. (neobiotechnologies.com)
  • The Cdc/cyclin enzyme is subject to multiple levels of control, of which the regulation of the catalytic subunit by tyrosine phosphorylation is the best understood. (neobiotechnologies.com)
  • F) ATR pathway signaling integrity after ATR, BRCA2 LP-533401 ic50 (B2) and BRCA1 (B1) depletion. (insulin-receptor.info)
  • The following Anti- Cross Linked C-Telopeptide Of Type I Collagen (CTXI)-Mouse monoclonal Antibody, Anti- Crystallin Beta B2 (CRYbB2)-Mouse monoclonal Antibody, Anti- Crystallin Lambda 1 (CRYl1)-Mouse monoclonal Antibody, Anti- Cyclin D1 (CCND1)-Mouse monoclonal Antibody products are the most profitable elements of the Cloud Clone Corp offer. (mousanti.com)
  • Ki-67 expression both in the crypt-surface epithelium and cyclin D1, c-erb B2, bcl-2 over-expression may be a clue of dysplastic epithelium. (uwi.edu)
  • G2/mitotic-specific cyclin-B2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CCNB2 gene. (wikipedia.org)
  • In particular, severe immunodeficiency is mostly associated with mutations that alter cyclin B2 mRNA cleavage and thus are likely to reflect disturbances in cell cycle control. (nih.gov)
  • Senescence is a cell type-specific form of permanent growth arrest, which occurs during aging, tissue damage or stress and involves progressively acquired phenotypes including activation of a DNA damage response, upregulation of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors, an apoptosis resistance phenotype and a senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). (npod.org)
  • Using nPOD pancreas specimens from a small cohort of donors, we previously found that β cells expressing senescence markers indicating the DNA damage response, cyclin-dependent kinase activation and SASP accumulated in islets of autoantibody-positive (1 or 2 autoantibodies) and recent onset T1D donors (diagnosed ≥11-12 years of age, 0-6 years post-diagnosis) relative to control donors without T1D. (npod.org)
  • A well-studied actor of cell cycle is cyclin dependent kinase 1 (cdk1) (Malumbres, 2014). (biologists.com)
  • OTS964 hydrochloride is also a potent inhibitor of the cyclin-dependent kinase CDK11 , which binds to CDK11 B with a K d of 40 nM. (medchemexpress.com)
  • Vanicoside B targets cyclin-dependent kinase 8 ( CDK8 ) and exhibits anti-tumor activity. (medchemexpress.com)
  • At the time of transfer, encephalitogenic T cells in vitro are maximally activated, i.e. they exhibit a prominent upregulation of cell cycle genes such as cyclin A2 (CCNA2) and cyclin B2 (CCNB2) among others. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • Changes in islet protein levels of cyclins and of two critical cell cycle regulators cyclin kinase inhibitor p27 and S-phase kinase-associated protein 2 (Skp2) were assessed in mice treated with exendin-4 and in a mouse model with specific upregulation of nuclear cAMP signaling exhibiting increased β-cell proliferation (CBP-S436A mouse). (medscape.com)
  • Alk5 kinase inhibition produced a similar loss of EMT marker expression but showed a contrasting upregulation of the proliferation and remodeling markers, Cyclin B2 and beta-catenin. (nih.gov)
  • The company is a developer of small molecule inhibitors of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) intended to provide treatment for patients with advanced and resistant cancers. (silverwoodpartners.com)
  • Mice treated with exendin-4 showed increased β-cell proliferation, elevated islet protein levels of cyclin A2 with unchanged D-type cyclins, elevated PDX-1 and Skp2 levels, and reduced p27 levels. (medscape.com)
  • Exendin-4 stimulated cyclin A2 promoter activity via the cAMP-cAMP response element binding protein pathway. (medscape.com)
  • Cyclin B2 also binds to transforming growth factor beta RII and thus cyclin B2/cdc2 may play a key role in transforming growth factor beta-mediated cell cycle control. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cyclin A2 over expression in primary islets increased proliferation and reduced p27. (medscape.com)
  • In Min6 cells, cyclin A2 knockdown prevented exendin-4-stimulated proliferation. (medscape.com)
  • Cyclin A2 is required for β-cell proliferation, exendin-4 stimulates cyclin A2 expression via the cAMP pathway, and exendin-4 stimulation of cAMP requires PDX-1. (medscape.com)
  • The B-type cyclins, B1 and B2, associate with p34cdc2 and are essential components of the cell cycle regulatory machinery. (wikipedia.org)
  • Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vpr arrests the cell cycle in G2 by inhibiting the activation of p34cdc2-cyclin B". J. Virol. (wikipedia.org)
  • Because cyclin A2 was stimulated by cAMP, we assessed the role of cylcin A2 in cell cycle progression in Min6 and isolated islet β-cells. (medscape.com)
  • A cyclin B subtype that colocalizes with GOLGI APPARATUS during INTERPHASE and is transported into the CELL NUCLEUS at the end of the G2 PHASE . (nih.gov)
  • CBP-S436A islets exhibited elevated cyclin A2, reduced p27, and no changes in D-type cyclins, PDX-1, or Skp2. (medscape.com)
  • In cultured islets, exendin-4 increased cyclin A2 and Skp2 and reduced p27. (medscape.com)
  • synthetic types in higher té: Critical and Many sergeant of cyclin something. (lolipop.jp)
  • Cyclin B2 is a member of the cyclin family, specifically the B-type cyclins. (wikipedia.org)
  • For microfiche on looking books in Basic, B2, German and impressive, be this Wikipedia Friendship. (johncmcdonald.com)