A mitosporic Tremellales fungal genus whose species usually have a capsule and do not form pseudomycellium. Teleomorphs include Filobasidiella and Fidobasidium.
A species of the fungus CRYPTOCOCCUS. Its teleomorph is Filobasidiella neoformans.
A species of the fungus CRYPTOCOCCUS. Its teleomorph is Filobasidiella bacillispora.
Infection with a fungus of the species CRYPTOCOCCUS NEOFORMANS.
Meningeal inflammation produced by CRYPTOCOCCUS NEOFORMANS, an encapsulated yeast that tends to infect individuals with ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME and other immunocompromised states. The organism enters the body through the respiratory tract, but symptomatic infections are usually limited to the lungs and nervous system. The organism may also produce parenchymal brain lesions (torulomas). Clinically, the course is subacute and may feature HEADACHE; NAUSEA; PHOTOPHOBIA; focal neurologic deficits; SEIZURES; cranial neuropathies; and HYDROCEPHALUS. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp721-2)
Substances that destroy fungi by suppressing their ability to grow or reproduce. They differ from FUNGICIDES, INDUSTRIAL because they defend against fungi present in human or animal tissues.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to FUNGAL ANTIGENS.
Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates consisting of long, often branched chains of repeating monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic bonds, which serve as energy storage molecules (e.g., glycogen), structural components (e.g., cellulose), and molecular recognition sites in various biological systems.
Procedures for identifying types and strains of fungi.
Substances of fungal origin that have antigenic activity.
Pulmonary diseases caused by fungal infections, usually through hematogenous spread.
Insoluble polymers of TYROSINE derivatives found in and causing darkness in skin (SKIN PIGMENTATION), hair, and feathers providing protection against SUNBURN induced by SUNLIGHT. CAROTENES contribute yellow and red coloration.
Fungal genes that mostly encode TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS. In some FUNGI they also encode PHEROMONES and PHEROMONE RECEPTORS. The transcription factors control expression of specific proteins that give a cell its mating identity. Opposite mating type identities are required for mating.
Triazole antifungal agent that is used to treat oropharyngeal CANDIDIASIS and cryptococcal MENINGITIS in AIDS.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of fungi.
A copper-containing oxidoreductase enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of 4-benzenediol to 4-benzosemiquinone. It also has activity towards a variety of O-quinols and P-quinols. It primarily found in FUNGI and is involved in LIGNIN degradation, pigment biosynthesis and detoxification of lignin-derived products.
The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. The pathogenic capacity of an organism is determined by its VIRULENCE FACTORS.
Proteins found in any species of fungus.
An inflammatory process involving the brain (ENCEPHALITIS) and meninges (MENINGITIS), most often produced by pathogenic organisms which invade the central nervous system, and occasionally by toxins, autoimmune disorders, and other conditions.
Macrolide antifungal antibiotic produced by Streptomyces nodosus obtained from soil of the Orinoco river region of Venezuela.
The study of the structure, growth, function, genetics, and reproduction of fungi, and MYCOSES.
A kingdom of eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that live parasitically as saprobes, including MUSHROOMS; YEASTS; smuts, molds, etc. They reproduce either sexually or asexually, and have life cycles that range from simple to complex. Filamentous fungi, commonly known as molds, refer to those that grow as multicellular colonies.
The ability of fungi to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antifungal agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation.
A fluorinated cytosine analog that is used as an antifungal agent.
A genus of yeast-like mitosporic Saccharomycetales fungi characterized by producing yeast cells, mycelia, pseudomycelia, and blastophores. It is commonly part of the normal flora of the skin, mouth, intestinal tract, and vagina, but can cause a variety of infections, including CANDIDIASIS; ONYCHOMYCOSIS; vulvovaginal candidiasis (CANDIDIASIS, VULVOVAGINAL), and thrush (see CANDIDIASIS, ORAL). (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Any tests that demonstrate the relative efficacy of different chemotherapeutic agents against specific microorganisms (i.e., bacteria, fungi, viruses).
The geographic area of the northwestern region of the United States. The states usually included in this region are Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Washington, and Wyoming.
Process of determining and distinguishing species of bacteria or viruses based on antigens they share.
The study of microorganisms living in a variety of environments (air, soil, water, etc.) and their pathogenic relationship to other organisms including man.
Opportunistic infections found in patients who test positive for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The most common include PNEUMOCYSTIS PNEUMONIA, Kaposi's sarcoma, cryptosporidiosis, herpes simplex, toxoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, and infections with Mycobacterium avium complex, Microsporidium, and Cytomegalovirus.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in fungi.
A triazole antifungal agent that inhibits cytochrome P-450-dependent enzymes required for ERGOSTEROL synthesis.
The engulfing and degradation of microorganisms; other cells that are dead, dying, or pathogenic; and foreign particles by phagocytic cells (PHAGOCYTES).
The functional hereditary units of FUNGI.
Mycoses are a group of diseases caused by fungal pathogens that can infect various tissues and organs, potentially leading to localized or systemic symptoms, depending on the immune status of the host.
The intergenic DNA segments that are between the ribosomal RNA genes (internal transcribed spacers) and between the tandemly repeated units of rDNA (external transcribed spacers and nontranscribed spacers).
A general term for single-celled rounded fungi that reproduce by budding. Brewers' and bakers' yeasts are SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE; therapeutic dried yeast is YEAST, DRIED.
A mitosporic fungal genus causing opportunistic infections, endocarditis, fungemia, a hypersensitivity pneumonitis (see TRICHOSPORONOSIS) and white PIEDRA.
MYCOSES of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges which may result in ENCEPHALITIS; MENINGITIS, FUNGAL; MYELITIS; BRAIN ABSCESS; and EPIDURAL ABSCESS. Certain types of fungi may produce disease in immunologically normal hosts, while others are classified as opportunistic pathogens, causing illness primarily in immunocompromised individuals (e.g., ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME).
An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of a single fatty acid ester bond in lysoglycerophosphatidates with the formation of glyceryl phosphatidates and a fatty acid. EC 3.1.1.5.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
A unicellular budding fungus which is the principal pathogenic species causing CANDIDIASIS (moniliasis).
Suspensions of attenuated or killed fungi administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious fungal disease.
Triazoles are a class of antifungal drugs that contain a triazole ring in their chemical structure and work by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, an essential component of fungal cell membranes, thereby disrupting the integrity and function of the membrane.
The outermost layer of a cell in most PLANTS; BACTERIA; FUNGI; and ALGAE. The cell wall is usually a rigid structure that lies external to the CELL MEMBRANE, and provides a protective barrier against physical or chemical agents.
Any liquid or solid preparation made specifically for the growth, storage, or transport of microorganisms or other types of cells. The variety of media that exist allow for the culturing of specific microorganisms and cell types, such as differential media, selective media, test media, and defined media. Solid media consist of liquid media that have been solidified with an agent such as AGAR or GELATIN.
Those components of an organism that determine its capacity to cause disease but are not required for its viability per se. Two classes have been characterized: TOXINS, BIOLOGICAL and surface adhesion molecules that effect the ability of the microorganism to invade and colonize a host. (From Davis et al., Microbiology, 4th ed. p486)
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
Reproductive bodies produced by fungi.
Five membered rings containing a NITROGEN atom.
Family in the order COLUMBIFORMES, comprised of pigeons or doves. They are BIRDS with short legs, stout bodies, small heads, and slender bills. Some sources call the smaller species doves and the larger pigeons, but the names are interchangeable.
Inbred strain A mice are genetically identical descendants of a single founder mouse, produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, primarily used in biomedical research for their genetic uniformity and experimental reproducibility.
Chemical substances, excreted by an organism into the environment, that elicit behavioral or physiological responses from other organisms of the same species. Perception of these chemical signals may be olfactory or by contact.
Inbred BALB/c mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical to each other, making them useful for scientific research and experiments due to their consistent genetic background and predictable responses to various stimuli or treatments.
Techniques used in microbiology.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
A genus of trees of the Myrtaceae family, native to Australia, that yields gums, oils, and resins which are used as flavoring agents, astringents, and aromatics.
The fruiting 'heads' or 'caps' of FUNGI, which as a food item are familiarly known as MUSHROOMS, that contain the FUNGAL SPORES.
Either of the pair of organs occupying the cavity of the thorax that effect the aeration of the blood.
A phylum of fungi that produce their sexual spores (basidiospores) on the outside of the basidium. It includes forms commonly known as mushrooms, boletes, puffballs, earthstars, stinkhorns, bird's-nest fungi, jelly fungi, bracket or shelf fungi, and rust and smut fungi.
Enumeration by direct count of viable, isolated bacterial, archaeal, or fungal CELLS or SPORES capable of growth on solid CULTURE MEDIA. The method is used routinely by environmental microbiologists for quantifying organisms in AIR; FOOD; and WATER; by clinicians for measuring patients' microbial load; and in antimicrobial drug testing.
A watery fluid that is continuously produced in the CHOROID PLEXUS and circulates around the surface of the BRAIN; SPINAL CORD; and in the CEREBRAL VENTRICLES.
Any normal or abnormal coloring matter in PLANTS; ANIMALS or micro-organisms.
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
Superficial infections of the skin or its appendages by any of various fungi.
The chromosomal constitution of cells, in which each type of CHROMOSOME is represented once. Symbol: N.
Inbred CBA mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical and uniform, which makes them useful for scientific research, particularly in the areas of immunology and cancer.
Xylose is a monosaccharide, a type of sugar, that is commonly found in woody plants and fruits, and it is used in medical testing to assess the absorptive capacity of the small intestine.
Meningitis caused by fungal agents which may occur as OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS or arise in immunocompetent hosts.
Pathogenic infections of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. DNA VIRUS INFECTIONS; RNA VIRUS INFECTIONS; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; MYCOPLASMA INFECTIONS; SPIROCHAETALES INFECTIONS; fungal infections; PROTOZOAN INFECTIONS; HELMINTHIASIS; and PRION DISEASES may involve the central nervous system as a primary or secondary process.
Cell wall components constituting a polysaccharide core found in fungi. They may act as antigens or structural substrates.
Microscopic threadlike filaments in FUNGI that are filled with a layer of protoplasm. Collectively, the hyphae make up the MYCELIUM.
A species of free-living soil amoebae in the family Acanthamoebidae. It can cause ENCEPHALITIS and KERATITIS in humans.
The presence of fungi circulating in the blood. Opportunistic fungal sepsis is seen most often in immunosuppressed patients with severe neutropenia or in postoperative patients with intravenous catheters and usually follows prolonged antibiotic therapy.
A technique for identifying individuals of a species that is based on the uniqueness of their DNA sequence. Uniqueness is determined by identifying which combination of allelic variations occur in the individual at a statistically relevant number of different loci. In forensic studies, RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISM of multiple, highly polymorphic VNTR LOCI or MICROSATELLITE REPEAT loci are analyzed. The number of loci used for the profile depends on the ALLELE FREQUENCY in the population.
A large and heterogenous group of fungi whose common characteristic is the absence of a sexual state. Many of the pathogenic fungi in humans belong to this group.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of urea and water to carbon dioxide and ammonia. EC 3.5.1.5.
The relatively long-lived phagocytic cell of mammalian tissues that are derived from blood MONOCYTES. Main types are PERITONEAL MACROPHAGES; ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES; HISTIOCYTES; KUPFFER CELLS of the liver; and OSTEOCLASTS. They may further differentiate within chronic inflammatory lesions to EPITHELIOID CELLS or may fuse to form FOREIGN BODY GIANT CELLS or LANGHANS GIANT CELLS. (from The Dictionary of Cell Biology, Lackie and Dow, 3rd ed.)
A mitosporic Onygenales fungal genus causing HISTOPLASMOSIS in humans and animals. Its single species is Histoplasma capsulatum which has two varieties: H. capsulatum var. capsulatum and H. capsulatum var. duboisii. Its teleomorph is AJELLOMYCES capsulatus.

Early mycological treatment failure in AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis. (1/529)

Cryptococcal meningitis causes significant morbidity and mortality in persons with AIDS. Of 236 AIDS patients treated with amphotericin B plus flucytosine, 29 (12%) died within 2 weeks and 62 (26%) died before 10 weeks. Just 129 (55%) of 236 patients were alive with negative cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cultures at 10 weeks. Multivariate analyses identified that titer of cryptococcal antigen in CSF, serum albumin level, and CD4 cell count, together with dose of amphotericin B, had the strongest joint association with failure to achieve negative CSF cultures by day 14. Among patients with similar CSF cryptococcal antigen titers, CD4 cell counts, and serum albumin levels, the odds of failure at week 10 for those without negative CSF cultures by day 14 was five times that for those with negative CSF cultures by day 14 (odds ratio, 5.0; 95% confidence interval, 2.2-10.9). Prognosis is dismal for patients with AIDS-related cryptococcal meningitis. Multivariate analyses identified three components that, along with initial treatment, have the strongest joint association with early outcome. Clearly, more effective initial therapy and patient management strategies that address immune function and nutritional status are needed to improve outcomes of this disease.  (+info)

In vitro susceptibilities of clinical yeast isolates to the new antifungal eberconazole compared with their susceptibilities to clotrimazole and ketoconazole. (2/529)

The antifungal activity of eberconazole, a new imidazole derivative, against 124 clinical isolates of Candida comprising eight different species and to 34 isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans was compared to those of clotrimazole and ketoconazole. MICs of eberconazole, determined by the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards standardized microbroth method, were equal to or lower than those of other azoles, especially for Candida krusei and Candida glabrata, which are usually resistant to triazoles.  (+info)

Topoisomerase I is essential in Cryptococcus neoformans: role In pathobiology and as an antifungal target. (3/529)

Topisomerase I is the target of several toxins and chemotherapy agents, and the enzyme is essential for viability in some organisms, including mice and drosophila. We have cloned the TOP1 gene encoding topoisomerase I from the opportunistic fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans. The C. neoformans topoisomerase I contains a fungal insert also found in topoisomerase I from Candida albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae that is not present in the mammalian enzyme. We were unable to disrupt the topoisomerase I gene in this haploid organism by homologous recombination in over 8000 transformants analyzed. When a second functional copy of the TOP1 gene was introduced into the genome, the topoisomerase I gene could be readily disrupted by homologous recombination (at 7% efficiency). Thus, topoisomerase I is essential in C. neoformans. This new molecular strategy with C. neoformans may also be useful in identifying essential genes in other pathogenic fungi. To address the physiological and pathobiological functions of the enzyme, the TOP1 gene was fused to the GAL7 gene promoter. The resulting GAL7::TOP1 fusion gene was modestly regulated by carbon source in a serotype A strain of C. neoformans. Modest overexpression of topoisomerase I conferred sensitivity to heat shock, gamma-rays, and camptothecin. In contrast, alterations in topoisomerase I levels had no effect on the toxicity of a novel class of antifungal agents, the dicationic aromatic compounds (DACs), indicating that topoisomerase I is not the target of DACs. In an animal model of cryptococcal meningitis, topoisomerase I regulation was not critically important to established infection, but may impact on the initial stress response to infection. In summary, our studies reveal that topoisomerase I is essential in the human pathogen C. neoformans and represents a novel target for antifungal agents.  (+info)

Comparison of three commercial systems for identification of yeasts commonly isolated in the clinical microbiology laboratory. (4/529)

We evaluated three commercial systems (RapID Yeast Plus System; Innovative Diagnostic Systems, Norcross, Ga.; API 20C Aux; bioMerieux-Vitek, Hazelwood, Mo.; and Vitek Yeast Biochemical Card, bioMerieux-Vitek) against an auxinographic and microscopic morphologic reference method for the ability to identify yeasts commonly isolated in our clinical microbiology laboratory. Two-hundred one yeast isolates were compared in the study. The RapID Yeast Plus System was significantly better than either API 20C Aux (193 versus 167 correct identifications; P < 0.0001) or the Vitek Yeast Biochemical Card (193 versus 173 correct identifications; P = 0.003) for obtaining correct identifications to the species level without additional testing. There was no significant difference between results obtained with API 20C Aux and the Vitek Yeast Biochemical Card system (P = 0.39). The API 20C Aux system did not correctly identify any of the Candida krusei isolates (n = 23) without supplemental testing and accounted for the major differences between the API 20C Aux and RapID Yeast Plus systems. Overall, the RapID Yeast Plus System was easy to use and is a good system for the routine identification of clinically relevant yeasts.  (+info)

Variation in Microbial Identification System accuracy for yeast identification depending on commercial source of Sabouraud dextrose agar. (5/529)

The accuracy of the Microbial Identification System (MIS; MIDI, Inc. ) for identification of yeasts to the species level was compared by using 438 isolates grown on prepoured BBL Sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA) and prepoured Remel SDA. Correct identification was observed for 326 (74%) of the yeasts cultured on BBL SDA versus only 214 (49%) of yeasts grown on Remel SDA (P < 0.001). The commercial source of the SDA used in the MIS procedure significantly influences the system's accuracy.  (+info)

Comparative study of seven commercial yeast identification systems. (6/529)

AIMS: To compare the performance of seven commercial yeast identification methods with that of a reference method, and to compare the costs of the commercial kits. METHODS: Clinical yeast isolates (n = 52), comprising 19 species, were identified using Vitek, Api ID 32C, Api 20C AUX, Yeast Star, Auxacolor, RapID Yeast Plus system, and Api Candida and compared with a reference method which employed conventional tests. RESULTS: The percentage of correctly identified isolates varied between 59.6% and 80.8%. Overall, the highest performance was obtained with Api Candida (78.8%) and Auxacolor (80.8%). Among germ tube negative yeast isolates, Auxacolor and Api Candida both identified 93.1% of isolates correctly. All systems failed to identify C norvegensis, C catenulata, C haemulonii, and C dubliniensis. In comparison with Auxacolor, the Api Candida is less expensive and requires less bench time. CONCLUSIONS: Auxacolor and Api Candida appeared to be the most useful systems for identification of germ tube negative yeast isolates in clinical microbiology laboratories, although one should be aware that several germ tube negative Candida species cannot be identified by these systems.  (+info)

Binding energy and specificity in the catalytic mechanism of yeast aldose reductases. (7/529)

Derivatives of d-xylose and d-glucose, in which the hydroxy groups at C-5, and C-5 and C-6 were replaced by fluorine, hydrogen and azide, were synthesized and used as substrates of the NAD(P)H-dependent aldehyde reduction catalysed by aldose reductases isolated from the yeasts Candida tenuis, C. intermedia and Cryptococcus flavus. Steady-state kinetic analysis showed that, in comparison with the parent aldoses, the derivatives were reduced with up to 3000-fold increased catalytic efficiencies (k(cat)/K(m)), reflecting apparent substrate binding constants (K(m)) decreased to as little as 1/250 and, for d-glucose derivatives, up to 5.5-fold increased maximum initial rates (k(cat)). The effects on K(m) mirror the relative proportion of free aldehyde that is available in aqueous solution for binding to the binary complex enzyme-NAD(P)H. The effects on k(cat) reflect non-productive binding of the pyranose ring of sugars; this occurs preferentially with the NADPH-dependent enzymes. No transition-state stabilization energy seems to be derived from hydrogen-bonding interactions between enzyme-NAD(P)H and positions C-5 and C-6 of the aldose. In contrast, unfavourable interactions with the C-6 group are used together with non-productive binding to bring about specificity (6-10 kJ/mol) in a series of d-aldoses and to prevent the reaction with poor substrates such as d-glucose. Azide introduced at C-5 or C-6 destabilizes the transition state of reduction of the corresponding hydrogen-substituted aldoses by approx. 4-9 kJ/mol. The total transition state stabilization energy derived from hydrogen bonds between hydroxy groups of the substrate and enzyme-NAD(P)H is similar for all yeast aldose reductases (yALRs), at approx. 12-17 kJ/mol. Three out of four yALRs manage on only hydrophobic enzyme-substrate interactions to achieve optimal k(cat), whereas the NAD(P)H-dependent enzyme from C. intermedia requires additional, probably hydrogen-bonding, interactions with the substrate for efficient turnover.  (+info)

Intraspecies diversity of Cryptococcus laurentii as revealed by sequences of internal transcribed spacer regions and 28S rRNA gene and taxonomic position of C. laurentii clinical isolates. (8/529)

The intraspecies diversity of an opportunistic yeast pathogen, Cryptococcus laurentii, was revealed by analysis of the sequences of the internal transcribed spacer regions and the 28S rRNA gene. Ten strains of C. laurentii were grouped into two major phylogenetic groups and were further divided into at least seven species. Four of the strains isolated from patients did not represent a single species but showed heterogeneity. These results suggest that C. laurentii is a genetically heterogeneous species, and this must be taken into consideration when identifying C. laurentii clinical isolates.  (+info)

'Cryptococcus' is a genus of encapsulated, budding yeast that are found in the environment, particularly in soil and bird droppings. The most common species that causes infection in humans is Cryptococcus neoformans, followed by Cryptococcus gattii.

Infection with Cryptococcus can occur when a person inhales the microscopic yeast cells, which can then lead to lung infections (pneumonia) or disseminated disease, particularly in people with weakened immune systems. The most common form of disseminated cryptococcal infection is meningitis, an inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

Cryptococcal infections can be serious and even life-threatening, especially in individuals with HIV/AIDS or other conditions that weaken the immune system. Treatment typically involves antifungal medications, such as amphotericin B and fluconazole.

'Cryptococcus neoformans' is a species of encapsulated, budding yeast that is an important cause of fungal infections in humans and animals. The capsule surrounding the cell wall is composed of polysaccharides and is a key virulence factor, allowing the organism to evade host immune responses. C. neoformans is found worldwide in soil, particularly in association with bird droppings, and can be inhaled, leading to pulmonary infection. In people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, hematological malignancies, or organ transplants, C. neoformans can disseminate from the lungs to other sites, most commonly the central nervous system (CNS), causing meningitis. The infection can also affect other organs, including the skin, bones, and eyes.

The diagnosis of cryptococcosis typically involves microscopic examination and culture of clinical specimens, such as sputum, blood, or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), followed by biochemical and molecular identification of the organism. Treatment usually consists of a combination of antifungal medications, such as amphotericin B and fluconazole, along with management of any underlying immunodeficiency. The prognosis of cryptococcosis depends on various factors, including the patient's immune status, the extent and severity of infection, and the timeliness and adequacy of treatment.

'Cryptococcus gattii' is a species of encapsulated, yeast-like fungi belonging to the family Tremellaceae. It is an environmental pathogen that can cause pulmonary and central nervous system infections in humans and animals. The organism is typically found in soil and on trees in tropical and subtropical regions, but it has also been identified in temperate climates. Infection usually occurs through inhalation of the spores or desiccated yeast cells.

The disease caused by 'Cryptococcus gattii' is called cryptococcosis, which can manifest as a pulmonary infection (pneumonia) or a disseminated infection involving the central nervous system (meningitis). The symptoms of cryptococcosis may include cough, chest pain, fever, night sweats, weight loss, headache, stiff neck, confusion, and altered mental status.

Risk factors for developing cryptococcosis caused by 'Cryptococcus gattii' include underlying lung disease, immunosuppression (such as HIV/AIDS), and exposure to the fungus in endemic areas. Diagnosis typically involves microscopic examination of clinical specimens (e.g., sputum, cerebrospinal fluid) and culture isolation of the organism, followed by confirmation using biochemical or molecular methods. Treatment usually consists of antifungal therapy with agents such as amphotericin B and fluconazole.

Cryptococcosis is a fungal infection caused by the yeast-like fungus Cryptococcus neoformans or Cryptococcus gattii. It can affect people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, organ transplants, or long-term steroid use. The infection typically starts in the lungs and can spread to other parts of the body, including the brain (meningitis), causing various symptoms like cough, fever, chest pain, headache, confusion, and vision problems. Treatment usually involves antifungal medications, and the prognosis depends on the patient's immune status and the severity of the infection.

Cryptococcal meningitis is a specific type of meningitis, which is an inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, known as the meninges. This condition is caused by the fungus Cryptococcus neoformans or Cryptococcus gattii.

In cryptococcal meningitis, the fungal cells enter the bloodstream and cross the blood-brain barrier, causing infection in the central nervous system. The immune system's response to the infection leads to inflammation of the meninges, resulting in symptoms such as headache, fever, neck stiffness, altered mental status, and sometimes seizures or focal neurological deficits.

Cryptococcal meningitis is a serious infection that can be life-threatening if left untreated. It primarily affects people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, organ transplant recipients, and individuals receiving immunosuppressive therapy for cancer or autoimmune diseases. Early diagnosis and appropriate antifungal treatment are crucial to improve outcomes in patients with cryptococcal meningitis.

Antifungal agents are a type of medication used to treat and prevent fungal infections. These agents work by targeting and disrupting the growth of fungi, which include yeasts, molds, and other types of fungi that can cause illness in humans.

There are several different classes of antifungal agents, including:

1. Azoles: These agents work by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, a key component of fungal cell membranes. Examples of azole antifungals include fluconazole, itraconazole, and voriconazole.
2. Echinocandins: These agents target the fungal cell wall, disrupting its synthesis and leading to fungal cell death. Examples of echinocandins include caspofungin, micafungin, and anidulafungin.
3. Polyenes: These agents bind to ergosterol in the fungal cell membrane, creating pores that lead to fungal cell death. Examples of polyene antifungals include amphotericin B and nystatin.
4. Allylamines: These agents inhibit squalene epoxidase, a key enzyme in ergosterol synthesis. Examples of allylamine antifungals include terbinafine and naftifine.
5. Griseofulvin: This agent disrupts fungal cell division by binding to tubulin, a protein involved in fungal cell mitosis.

Antifungal agents can be administered topically, orally, or intravenously, depending on the severity and location of the infection. It is important to use antifungal agents only as directed by a healthcare professional, as misuse or overuse can lead to resistance and make treatment more difficult.

Fungal antibodies are a type of protein called immunoglobulins that are produced by the immune system in response to the presence of fungi in the body. These antibodies are specifically designed to recognize and bind to antigens on the surface of fungal cells, marking them for destruction by other immune cells.

There are several types of fungal antibodies, including IgA, IgG, IgM, and IgE, each with a specific role in the immune response. For example, IgG antibodies are the most common type of antibody found in the blood and provide long-term immunity to fungi, while IgE antibodies are associated with allergic reactions to fungi.

Fungal antibodies can be measured in the blood or other bodily fluids to help diagnose fungal infections, monitor the effectiveness of treatment, or assess immune function in individuals who are at risk for fungal infections, such as those with weakened immune systems due to HIV/AIDS, cancer, or organ transplantation.

Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates consisting of long chains of monosaccharide units (simple sugars) bonded together by glycosidic linkages. They can be classified based on the type of monosaccharides and the nature of the bonds that connect them.

Polysaccharides have various functions in living organisms. For example, starch and glycogen serve as energy storage molecules in plants and animals, respectively. Cellulose provides structural support in plants, while chitin is a key component of fungal cell walls and arthropod exoskeletons.

Some polysaccharides also have important roles in the human body, such as being part of the extracellular matrix (e.g., hyaluronic acid) or acting as blood group antigens (e.g., ABO blood group substances).

Mycological typing techniques are methods used to identify and classify fungi at the species or strain level, based on their unique biological characteristics. These techniques are often used in clinical laboratories to help diagnose fungal infections and determine the most effective treatment approaches.

There are several different mycological typing techniques that may be used, depending on the specific type of fungus being identified and the resources available in the laboratory. Some common methods include:

1. Phenotypic methods: These methods involve observing and measuring the physical characteristics of fungi, such as their growth patterns, colonial morphology, and microscopic features. Examples include macroscopic and microscopic examination, as well as biochemical tests to identify specific metabolic properties.

2. Genotypic methods: These methods involve analyzing the DNA or RNA of fungi to identify unique genetic sequences that can be used to distinguish between different species or strains. Examples include PCR-based methods, such as restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis, as well as sequencing-based methods, such as internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequencing and multilocus sequence typing (MLST).

3. Proteotypic methods: These methods involve analyzing the proteins expressed by fungi to identify unique protein profiles that can be used to distinguish between different species or strains. Examples include matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS).

Mycological typing techniques are important tools for understanding the epidemiology of fungal infections, tracking outbreaks, and developing effective treatment strategies. By accurately identifying the specific fungi causing an infection, healthcare providers can tailor their treatments to target the most vulnerable aspects of the pathogen, improving patient outcomes and reducing the risk of drug resistance.

Fungal antigens are substances found on or produced by fungi that can stimulate an immune response in a host organism. They can be proteins, polysaccharides, or other molecules that are recognized as foreign by the host's immune system. Fungal antigens can be used in diagnostic tests to identify fungal infections, and they can also be targets of immune responses during fungal infections. In some cases, fungal antigens may contribute to the pathogenesis of fungal diseases by inducing inflammatory or allergic reactions. Examples of fungal antigens include the cell wall components of Candida albicans and the extracellular polysaccharide galactomannan produced by Aspergillus fumigatus.

Fungal lung diseases, also known as fungal pneumonia or mycoses, refer to a group of respiratory disorders caused by the infection of fungi in the lungs. These fungi are commonly found in the environment, such as soil, decaying organic matter, and contaminated materials. People can develop lung diseases from fungi after inhaling spores or particles that contain fungi.

There are several types of fungal lung diseases, including:

1. Aspergillosis: This is caused by the Aspergillus fungus and can affect people with weakened immune systems. It can cause allergic reactions, lung infections, or invasive aspergillosis, which can spread to other organs.
2. Cryptococcosis: This is caused by the Cryptococcus fungus and is usually found in soil contaminated with bird droppings. It can cause pneumonia, meningitis, or skin lesions.
3. Histoplasmosis: This is caused by the Histoplasma capsulatum fungus and is commonly found in the Ohio and Mississippi River valleys. It can cause flu-like symptoms, lung infections, or disseminated histoplasmosis, which can spread to other organs.
4. Blastomycosis: This is caused by the Blastomyces dermatitidis fungus and is commonly found in the southeastern and south-central United States. It can cause pneumonia, skin lesions, or disseminated blastomycosis, which can spread to other organs.
5. Coccidioidomycosis: This is caused by the Coccidioides immitis fungus and is commonly found in the southwestern United States. It can cause flu-like symptoms, lung infections, or disseminated coccidioidomycosis, which can spread to other organs.

Fungal lung diseases can range from mild to severe, depending on the type of fungus and the person's immune system. Treatment may include antifungal medications, surgery, or supportive care. Prevention measures include avoiding exposure to contaminated soil or dust, wearing protective masks in high-risk areas, and promptly seeking medical attention if symptoms develop.

Melanin is a pigment that determines the color of skin, hair, and eyes in humans and animals. It is produced by melanocytes, which are specialized cells found in the epidermis (the outer layer of the skin) and the choroid (the vascular coat of the eye). There are two main types of melanin: eumelanin and pheomelanin. Eumelanin is a black or brown pigment, while pheomelanin is a red or yellow pigment. The amount and type of melanin produced by an individual can affect their skin and hair color, as well as their susceptibility to certain diseases, such as skin cancer.

1. Genes: These are hereditary units that carry genetic information from parents to offspring and determine various characteristics such as eye color, hair color, and height in living organisms. In fungi, genes are responsible for encoding different traits, including mating type.

2. Mating Type: Fungi have a complex sexual reproduction system involving two or more mating types that must come together to reproduce sexually. The mating type of a fungus is determined by the presence or absence of specific genes called "mating type loci" (MAT). These genes control the ability of fungal cells to recognize and fuse with each other during sexual reproduction.

3. Fungal: This term refers to any member of the kingdom Fungi, which includes a diverse group of organisms such as yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. Fungi are eukaryotic, meaning they have complex cells with a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. They play essential roles in various ecosystems, decomposing organic matter, recycling nutrients, and forming mutualistic relationships with plants and animals.

In summary, 'Genes, Mating Type, Fungal' refers to the genetic factors that determine the mating type of fungi, which is crucial for their sexual reproduction and survival in various environments.

Fluconazole is an antifungal medication used to treat and prevent various fungal infections, such as candidiasis (yeast infections), cryptococcal meningitis, and other fungal infections that affect the mouth, throat, blood, lungs, genital area, and other parts of the body. It works by inhibiting the growth of fungi that cause these infections. Fluconazole is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and intravenous (IV) solutions, and is typically prescribed to be taken once daily.

The medical definition of Fluconazole can be found in pharmacological or medical dictionaries, which describe it as a triazole antifungal agent that inhibits fungal cytochrome P450-dependent synthesis of ergosterol, a key component of the fungal cell membrane. This results in increased permeability and leakage of cellular contents, ultimately leading to fungal death. Fluconazole has a broad spectrum of activity against various fungi, including Candida, Cryptococcus, Aspergillus, and others.

It is important to note that while Fluconazole is an effective antifungal medication, it may have side effects and interactions with other medications. Therefore, it should only be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Fungal DNA refers to the genetic material present in fungi, which are a group of eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as larger organisms like mushrooms. The DNA of fungi, like that of all living organisms, is made up of nucleotides that are arranged in a double helix structure.

Fungal DNA contains the genetic information necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of fungi. This includes the instructions for making proteins, which are essential for the structure and function of cells, as well as other important molecules such as enzymes and nucleic acids.

Studying fungal DNA can provide valuable insights into the biology and evolution of fungi, as well as their potential uses in medicine, agriculture, and industry. For example, researchers have used genetic engineering techniques to modify the DNA of fungi to produce drugs, biofuels, and other useful products. Additionally, understanding the genetic makeup of pathogenic fungi can help scientists develop new strategies for preventing and treating fungal infections.

Laccase is an enzyme (specifically, a type of oxidoreductase) that is widely distributed in plants, fungi, and bacteria. It catalyzes the oxidation of various phenolic compounds, including polyphenols, methoxy-substituted phenols, aromatic amines, and some inorganic ions, while reducing molecular oxygen to water. This enzyme plays a crucial role in lignin degradation, as well as in the detoxification of xenobiotic compounds and in the synthesis of various pigments and polymers. The medical relevance of laccase is linked to its potential applications in bioremediation, biofuel production, and biotechnology.

Virulence, in the context of medicine and microbiology, refers to the degree or severity of damage or harm that a pathogen (like a bacterium, virus, fungus, or parasite) can cause to its host. It is often associated with the ability of the pathogen to invade and damage host tissues, evade or suppress the host's immune response, replicate within the host, and spread between hosts.

Virulence factors are the specific components or mechanisms that contribute to a pathogen's virulence, such as toxins, enzymes, adhesins, and capsules. These factors enable the pathogen to establish an infection, cause tissue damage, and facilitate its transmission between hosts. The overall virulence of a pathogen can be influenced by various factors, including host susceptibility, environmental conditions, and the specific strain or species of the pathogen.

Fungal proteins are a type of protein that is specifically produced and present in fungi, which are a group of eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts and molds. These proteins play various roles in the growth, development, and survival of fungi. They can be involved in the structure and function of fungal cells, metabolism, pathogenesis, and other cellular processes. Some fungal proteins can also have important implications for human health, both in terms of their potential use as therapeutic targets and as allergens or toxins that can cause disease.

Fungal proteins can be classified into different categories based on their functions, such as enzymes, structural proteins, signaling proteins, and toxins. Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in fungal cells, while structural proteins provide support and protection for the cell. Signaling proteins are involved in communication between cells and regulation of various cellular processes, and toxins are proteins that can cause harm to other organisms, including humans.

Understanding the structure and function of fungal proteins is important for developing new treatments for fungal infections, as well as for understanding the basic biology of fungi. Research on fungal proteins has led to the development of several antifungal drugs that target specific fungal enzymes or other proteins, providing effective treatment options for a range of fungal diseases. Additionally, further study of fungal proteins may reveal new targets for drug development and help improve our ability to diagnose and treat fungal infections.

Meningoencephalitis is a medical term that refers to an inflammation of both the brain (encephalitis) and the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord (meninges), known as the meninges. It is often caused by an infection, such as bacterial or viral infections, that spreads to the meninges and brain. In some cases, it can also be caused by other factors like autoimmune disorders or certain medications.

The symptoms of meningoencephalitis may include fever, headache, stiff neck, confusion, seizures, and changes in mental status. If left untreated, this condition can lead to serious complications, such as brain damage, hearing loss, learning disabilities, or even death. Treatment typically involves antibiotics for bacterial infections or antiviral medications for viral infections, along with supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Amphotericin B is an antifungal medication used to treat serious and often life-threatening fungal infections. It works by binding to the ergosterol in the fungal cell membrane, creating pores that lead to the loss of essential cell components and ultimately cell death.

The medical definition of Amphotericin B is:

A polyene antifungal agent derived from Streptomyces nodosus, with a broad spectrum of activity against various fungi, including Candida, Aspergillus, Cryptococcus, and Histoplasma capsulatum. Amphotericin B is used to treat systemic fungal infections, such as histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, candidiasis, and aspergillosis, among others. It may be administered intravenously or topically, depending on the formulation and the site of infection.

Adverse effects associated with Amphotericin B include infusion-related reactions (such as fever, chills, and hypotension), nephrotoxicity, electrolyte imbalances, and anemia. These side effects are often dose-dependent and may be managed through careful monitoring and adjustment of the dosing regimen.

Mycology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and classification, their role in diseases and decomposition processes, and their potential uses in industry, agriculture, and medicine. It involves the examination and identification of various types of fungi, such as yeasts, molds, and mushrooms, and the investigation of their ecological relationships with other organisms and their environments. Mycologists may also study the medical and veterinary importance of fungi, including the diagnosis and treatment of fungal infections, as well as the development of antifungal drugs and vaccines.

Fungi, in the context of medical definitions, are a group of eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. The study of fungi is known as mycology.

Fungi can exist as unicellular organisms or as multicellular filamentous structures called hyphae. They are heterotrophs, which means they obtain their nutrients by decomposing organic matter or by living as parasites on other organisms. Some fungi can cause various diseases in humans, animals, and plants, known as mycoses. These infections range from superficial, localized skin infections to systemic, life-threatening invasive diseases.

Examples of fungal infections include athlete's foot (tinea pedis), ringworm (dermatophytosis), candidiasis (yeast infection), histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis, and aspergillosis. Fungal infections can be challenging to treat due to the limited number of antifungal drugs available and the potential for drug resistance.

Fungal drug resistance is a condition where fungi are no longer susceptible to the antifungal drugs that were previously used to treat infections they caused. This can occur due to genetic changes in the fungi that make them less sensitive to the drug's effects, or due to environmental factors that allow the fungi to survive and multiply despite the presence of the drug.

There are several mechanisms by which fungi can develop drug resistance, including:

1. Mutations in genes that encode drug targets: Fungi can acquire mutations in the genes that encode for the proteins or enzymes that the antifungal drugs target. These mutations can alter the structure or function of these targets, making them less susceptible to the drug's effects.
2. Overexpression of efflux pumps: Fungi can increase the expression of genes that encode for efflux pumps, which are proteins that help fungi expel drugs from their cells. This can reduce the intracellular concentration of the drug and make it less effective.
3. Changes in membrane composition: Fungi can alter the composition of their cell membranes to make them less permeable to antifungal drugs, making it more difficult for the drugs to enter the fungal cells and exert their effects.
4. Biofilm formation: Fungi can form biofilms, which are complex communities of microorganisms that adhere to surfaces and are protected by a matrix of extracellular material. Biofilms can make fungi more resistant to antifungal drugs by limiting drug penetration and creating an environment that promotes the development of resistance.

Fungal drug resistance is a significant clinical problem, particularly in patients with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or cancer. It can lead to treatment failures, increased morbidity and mortality, and higher healthcare costs. To address this issue, there is a need for new antifungal drugs, as well as strategies to prevent and manage drug resistance.

Flucytosine is an antifungal medication used to treat serious and life-threatening fungal infections, such as cryptococcal meningitis and candidiasis. It works by interfering with the production of DNA and RNA in the fungal cells, which inhibits their growth and reproduction.

The medical definition of Flucytosine is:

A synthetic fluorinated pyrimidine nucleoside analogue that is converted to fluorouracil after uptake into susceptible fungal cells. It is used as an antifungal agent in the treatment of serious systemic fungal infections, particularly those caused by Candida and Cryptococcus neoformans. Flucytosine has both fungistatic and fungicidal activity, depending on the concentration achieved at the site of infection and the susceptibility of the organism.

Flucytosine is available in oral form and is often used in combination with other antifungal agents to increase its effectiveness and prevent the development of resistance. Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and bone marrow suppression. Regular monitoring of blood counts and liver function tests is necessary during treatment to detect any potential toxicity.

'Candida' is a type of fungus (a form of yeast) that is commonly found on the skin and inside the body, including in the mouth, throat, gut, and vagina, in small amounts. It is a part of the normal microbiota and usually does not cause any problems. However, an overgrowth of Candida can lead to infections known as candidiasis or thrush. Common sites for these infections include the skin, mouth, throat, and genital areas. Some factors that can contribute to Candida overgrowth are a weakened immune system, certain medications (such as antibiotics and corticosteroids), diabetes, pregnancy, poor oral hygiene, and wearing damp or tight-fitting clothing. Common symptoms of candidiasis include itching, redness, pain, and discharge. Treatment typically involves antifungal medication, either topical or oral, depending on the site and severity of the infection.

Microbial sensitivity tests, also known as antibiotic susceptibility tests (ASTs) or bacterial susceptibility tests, are laboratory procedures used to determine the effectiveness of various antimicrobial agents against specific microorganisms isolated from a patient's infection. These tests help healthcare providers identify which antibiotics will be most effective in treating an infection and which ones should be avoided due to resistance. The results of these tests can guide appropriate antibiotic therapy, minimize the potential for antibiotic resistance, improve clinical outcomes, and reduce unnecessary side effects or toxicity from ineffective antimicrobials.

There are several methods for performing microbial sensitivity tests, including:

1. Disk diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer test): A standardized paper disk containing a predetermined amount of an antibiotic is placed on an agar plate that has been inoculated with the isolated microorganism. After incubation, the zone of inhibition around the disk is measured to determine the susceptibility or resistance of the organism to that particular antibiotic.
2. Broth dilution method: A series of tubes or wells containing decreasing concentrations of an antimicrobial agent are inoculated with a standardized microbial suspension. After incubation, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is determined by observing the lowest concentration of the antibiotic that prevents visible growth of the organism.
3. Automated systems: These use sophisticated technology to perform both disk diffusion and broth dilution methods automatically, providing rapid and accurate results for a wide range of microorganisms and antimicrobial agents.

The interpretation of microbial sensitivity test results should be done cautiously, considering factors such as the site of infection, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the antibiotic, potential toxicity, and local resistance patterns. Regular monitoring of susceptibility patterns and ongoing antimicrobial stewardship programs are essential to ensure optimal use of these tests and to minimize the development of antibiotic resistance.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Northwestern United States" is not a term that has a medical definition. It generally refers to a geographical region in the US, consisting of states like Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and sometimes Montana and Wyoming. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I'd be happy to try to help answer those!

Serotyping is a laboratory technique used to classify microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses, based on the specific antigens or proteins present on their surface. It involves treating the microorganism with different types of antibodies and observing which ones bind to its surface. Each distinct set of antigens corresponds to a specific serotype, allowing for precise identification and characterization of the microorganism. This technique is particularly useful in epidemiology, vaccine development, and infection control.

Environmental Microbiology is a branch of microbiology that deals with the study of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and other microscopic entities, that are found in various environments such as water, soil, air, and organic matter. This field focuses on understanding how these microbes interact with their surroundings, their role in various ecological systems, and their impact on human health and the environment. It also involves studying the genetic and biochemical mechanisms that allow microorganisms to survive and thrive in different environmental conditions, as well as the potential uses of microbes for bioremediation, bioenergy, and other industrial applications.

AIDS-related opportunistic infections (AROIs) are infections that occur more frequently or are more severe in people with weakened immune systems, such as those with advanced HIV infection or AIDS. These infections take advantage of a weakened immune system and can affect various organs and systems in the body.

Common examples of AROIs include:

1. Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP), caused by the fungus Pneumocystis jirovecii
2. Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) infection, caused by a type of bacteria called mycobacteria
3. Candidiasis, a fungal infection that can affect various parts of the body, including the mouth, esophagus, and genitals
4. Toxoplasmosis, caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii
5. Cryptococcosis, a fungal infection that affects the lungs and central nervous system
6. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection, caused by a type of herpes virus
7. Tuberculosis (TB), caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis
8. Cryptosporidiosis, a parasitic infection that affects the intestines
9. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a viral infection that affects the brain

Preventing and treating AROIs is an important part of managing HIV/AIDS, as they can cause significant illness and even death in people with weakened immune systems. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is used to treat HIV infection and prevent the progression of HIV to AIDS, which can help reduce the risk of opportunistic infections. In addition, medications to prevent specific opportunistic infections may be prescribed for people with advanced HIV or AIDS.

Gene expression regulation in fungi refers to the complex cellular processes that control the production of proteins and other functional gene products in response to various internal and external stimuli. This regulation is crucial for normal growth, development, and adaptation of fungal cells to changing environmental conditions.

In fungi, gene expression is regulated at multiple levels, including transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and post-translational modifications. Key regulatory mechanisms include:

1. Transcription factors (TFs): These proteins bind to specific DNA sequences in the promoter regions of target genes and either activate or repress their transcription. Fungi have a diverse array of TFs that respond to various signals, such as nutrient availability, stress, developmental cues, and quorum sensing.
2. Chromatin remodeling: The organization and compaction of DNA into chromatin can influence gene expression. Fungi utilize ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling complexes and histone modifying enzymes to alter chromatin structure, thereby facilitating or inhibiting the access of transcriptional machinery to genes.
3. Non-coding RNAs: Small non-coding RNAs (sncRNAs) play a role in post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression in fungi. These sncRNAs can guide RNA-induced transcriptional silencing (RITS) complexes to specific target loci, leading to the repression of gene expression through histone modifications and DNA methylation.
4. Alternative splicing: Fungi employ alternative splicing mechanisms to generate multiple mRNA isoforms from a single gene, thereby increasing proteome diversity. This process can be regulated by RNA-binding proteins that recognize specific sequence motifs in pre-mRNAs and promote or inhibit splicing events.
5. Protein stability and activity: Post-translational modifications (PTMs) of proteins, such as phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and sumoylation, can influence their stability, localization, and activity. These PTMs play a crucial role in regulating various cellular processes, including signal transduction, stress response, and cell cycle progression.

Understanding the complex interplay between these regulatory mechanisms is essential for elucidating the molecular basis of fungal development, pathogenesis, and drug resistance. This knowledge can be harnessed to develop novel strategies for combating fungal infections and improving agricultural productivity.

Itraconazole is an antifungal medication used to treat various fungal infections, including blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, aspergillosis, and candidiasis. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, a vital component of fungal cell membranes, thereby disrupting the integrity and function of these membranes. Itraconazole is available in oral and intravenous forms for systemic use and as a topical solution or cream for localized fungal infections.

Medical Definition:
Itraconazole (i-tra-KON-a-zole): A synthetic triazole antifungal agent used to treat various fungal infections, such as blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, aspergillosis, and candidiasis. It inhibits the synthesis of ergosterol, a critical component of fungal cell membranes, leading to disruption of their integrity and function. Itraconazole is available in oral (capsule and solution) and intravenous forms for systemic use and as a topical solution or cream for localized fungal infections.

Phagocytosis is the process by which certain cells in the body, known as phagocytes, engulf and destroy foreign particles, bacteria, or dead cells. This mechanism plays a crucial role in the immune system's response to infection and inflammation. Phagocytes, such as neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages, have receptors on their surface that recognize and bind to specific molecules (known as antigens) on the target particles or microorganisms.

Once attached, the phagocyte extends pseudopodia (cell extensions) around the particle, forming a vesicle called a phagosome that completely encloses it. The phagosome then fuses with a lysosome, an intracellular organelle containing digestive enzymes and other chemicals. This fusion results in the formation of a phagolysosome, where the engulfed particle is broken down by the action of these enzymes, neutralizing its harmful effects and allowing for the removal of cellular debris or pathogens.

Phagocytosis not only serves as a crucial defense mechanism against infections but also contributes to tissue homeostasis by removing dead cells and debris.

Fungal genes refer to the genetic material present in fungi, which are eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as larger organisms like mushrooms. The genetic material of fungi is composed of DNA, just like in other eukaryotes, and is organized into chromosomes located in the nucleus of the cell.

Fungal genes are segments of DNA that contain the information necessary to produce proteins and RNA molecules required for various cellular functions. These genes are transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules, which are then translated into proteins by ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

Fungal genomes have been sequenced for many species, revealing a diverse range of genes that encode proteins involved in various cellular processes such as metabolism, signaling, and regulation. Comparative genomic analyses have also provided insights into the evolutionary relationships among different fungal lineages and have helped to identify unique genetic features that distinguish fungi from other eukaryotes.

Understanding fungal genes and their functions is essential for advancing our knowledge of fungal biology, as well as for developing new strategies to control fungal pathogens that can cause diseases in humans, animals, and plants.

Mycoses are a group of diseases caused by fungal infections. These infections can affect various parts of the body, including the skin, nails, hair, lungs, and internal organs. The severity of mycoses can range from superficial, mild infections to systemic, life-threatening conditions, depending on the type of fungus and the immune status of the infected individual. Some common types of mycoses include candidiasis, dermatophytosis, histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis, and aspergillosis. Treatment typically involves antifungal medications, which can be topical or systemic, depending on the location and severity of the infection.

The ribosomal spacer in DNA refers to the non-coding sequences of DNA that are located between the genes for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These spacer regions are present in the DNA of organisms that have a nuclear genome, including humans and other animals, plants, and fungi.

In prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, there are two ribosomal RNA genes, 16S and 23S, separated by a spacer region known as the intergenic spacer (IGS). In eukaryotic cells, there are multiple copies of ribosomal RNA genes arranged in clusters called nucleolar organizer regions (NORs), which are located on the short arms of several acrocentric chromosomes. Each cluster contains hundreds to thousands of copies of the 18S, 5.8S, and 28S rRNA genes, separated by non-transcribed spacer regions known as internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and external transcribed spacers (ETS).

The ribosomal spacer regions in DNA are often used as molecular markers for studying evolutionary relationships among organisms because they evolve more rapidly than the rRNA genes themselves. The sequences of these spacer regions can be compared among different species to infer their phylogenetic relationships and to estimate the time since they diverged from a common ancestor. Additionally, the length and composition of ribosomal spacers can vary between individuals within a species, making them useful for studying genetic diversity and population structure.

Yeasts are single-celled microorganisms that belong to the fungus kingdom. They are characterized by their ability to reproduce asexually through budding or fission, and they obtain nutrients by fermenting sugars and other organic compounds. Some species of yeast can cause infections in humans, known as candidiasis or "yeast infections." These infections can occur in various parts of the body, including the skin, mouth, genitals, and internal organs. Common symptoms of a yeast infection may include itching, redness, irritation, and discharge. Yeast infections are typically treated with antifungal medications.

Trichosporon is a genus of fungi that are commonly found in the environment, particularly in soil, water, and air. They are also part of the normal flora of the human skin and mucous membranes. Some species of Trichosporon can cause various types of infections, mainly in people with weakened immune systems. These infections can range from superficial (e.g., skin and nail) to systemic and invasive, affecting internal organs. The most common Trichosporon-related infection is white piedra, a superficial mycosis that affects the hair shafts.

In a medical context, Trichosporon refers specifically to these fungi with potential pathogenic properties. It's essential to distinguish between the general term "trichosporon" (referring to the genus) and "Trichosporon" as a medically relevant entity causing infections.

Central nervous system (CNS) fungal infections refer to invasive fungal diseases that affect the brain and/or spinal cord. These types of infections are relatively uncommon but can be serious and potentially life-threatening, especially in individuals with weakened immune systems due to conditions such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, or organ transplantation.

There are several types of fungi that can cause CNS infections, including:

1. Candida species: These are yeast-like fungi that can cause a range of infections, from superficial to systemic. When they invade the CNS, they can cause meningitis or brain abscesses.
2. Aspergillus species: These are mold-like fungi that can cause invasive aspergillosis, which can affect various organs, including the brain.
3. Cryptococcus neoformans: This is a yeast-like fungus that primarily affects people with weakened immune systems. It can cause meningitis or brain abscesses.
4. Coccidioides species: These are mold-like fungi that can cause coccidioidomycosis, also known as Valley Fever. While most infections are limited to the lungs, some people may develop disseminated disease, which can affect the CNS.
5. Histoplasma capsulatum: This is a mold-like fungus that causes histoplasmosis, which primarily affects the lungs but can disseminate and involve the CNS.

Symptoms of CNS fungal infections may include headache, fever, altered mental status, seizures, stiff neck, and focal neurologic deficits. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies (such as MRI or CT), and laboratory tests (such as cerebrospinal fluid analysis or fungal cultures). Treatment usually involves long-term antifungal therapy, often with a combination of drugs, and may also include surgical intervention in some cases.

Lysophospholipase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of a single fatty acid from lysophospholipids, producing a glycerophosphocholine and free fatty acid. This enzyme plays a role in the metabolism of lipids and membrane homeostasis. There are several types of lysophospholipases that differ based on their specificity for the head group of the lysophospholipid substrate, such as lysophosphatidylcholine-specific phospholipase or lysophospholipase 1 (LPLA1), and lysophosphatidic acid-specific phospholipase D or autotaxin (ATX).

Deficiency or mutations in lysophospholipases can lead to various diseases, such as LPI (lysophosphatidylinositol lipidosis) caused by a deficiency of the lysophospholipase superfamily member called Ptdlns-specific phospholipase C (PLC).

Note: This definition is for general information purposes only and may not include all the latest findings or medical terminologies. For accurate and comprehensive understanding, it's recommended to consult authoritative medical textbooks or resources.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

'Candida albicans' is a species of yeast that is commonly found in the human body, particularly in warm and moist areas such as the mouth, gut, and genital region. It is a part of the normal microbiota and usually does not cause any harm. However, under certain conditions like a weakened immune system, prolonged use of antibiotics or steroids, poor oral hygiene, or diabetes, it can overgrow and cause infections known as candidiasis. These infections can affect various parts of the body including the skin, nails, mouth (thrush), and genital area (yeast infection).

The medical definition of 'Candida albicans' is:

A species of yeast belonging to the genus Candida, which is commonly found as a commensal organism in humans. It can cause opportunistic infections when there is a disruption in the normal microbiota or when the immune system is compromised. The overgrowth of C. albicans can lead to various forms of candidiasis, such as oral thrush, vaginal yeast infection, and invasive candidiasis.

A fungal vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity against fungal infections. It contains one or more fungal antigens, which are substances that can stimulate an immune response, along with adjuvants to enhance the immune response. The goal of fungal vaccines is to protect against invasive fungal diseases, especially in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those undergoing chemotherapy, organ transplantation, or HIV/AIDS treatment.

Fungal vaccines can work by inducing both humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Humoral immunity involves the production of antibodies that recognize and neutralize fungal antigens, while cell-mediated immunity involves the activation of T cells to directly attack infected cells.

Currently, there are no licensed fungal vaccines available for human use, although several candidates are in various stages of development and clinical trials. Some examples include vaccines against Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Pneumocystis jirovecii.

Triazoles are a class of antifungal medications that have broad-spectrum activity against various fungi, including yeasts, molds, and dermatophytes. They work by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, an essential component of fungal cell membranes, leading to increased permeability and disruption of fungal growth. Triazoles are commonly used in both systemic and topical formulations for the treatment of various fungal infections, such as candidiasis, aspergillosis, cryptococcosis, and dermatophytoses. Some examples of triazole antifungals include fluconazole, itraconazole, voriconazole, and posaconazole.

A cell wall is a rigid layer found surrounding the plasma membrane of plant cells, fungi, and many types of bacteria. It provides structural support and protection to the cell, maintains cell shape, and acts as a barrier against external factors such as chemicals and mechanical stress. The composition of the cell wall varies among different species; for example, in plants, it is primarily made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin, while in bacteria, it is composed of peptidoglycan.

Culture media is a substance that is used to support the growth of microorganisms or cells in an artificial environment, such as a petri dish or test tube. It typically contains nutrients and other factors that are necessary for the growth and survival of the organisms being cultured. There are many different types of culture media, each with its own specific formulation and intended use. Some common examples include blood agar, which is used to culture bacteria; Sabouraud dextrose agar, which is used to culture fungi; and Eagle's minimum essential medium, which is used to culture animal cells.

Virulence factors are characteristics or components of a microorganism, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, that contribute to its ability to cause damage or disease in a host organism. These factors can include various structures, enzymes, or toxins that allow the pathogen to evade the host's immune system, attach to and invade host tissues, obtain nutrients from the host, or damage host cells directly.

Examples of virulence factors in bacteria include:

1. Endotoxins: lipopolysaccharides found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria that can trigger a strong immune response and inflammation.
2. Exotoxins: proteins secreted by some bacteria that have toxic effects on host cells, such as botulinum toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum or diphtheria toxin produced by Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
3. Adhesins: structures that help the bacterium attach to host tissues, such as fimbriae or pili in Escherichia coli.
4. Capsules: thick layers of polysaccharides or proteins that surround some bacteria and protect them from the host's immune system, like those found in Streptococcus pneumoniae or Klebsiella pneumoniae.
5. Invasins: proteins that enable bacteria to invade and enter host cells, such as internalins in Listeria monocytogenes.
6. Enzymes: proteins that help bacteria obtain nutrients from the host by breaking down various molecules, like hemolysins that lyse red blood cells to release iron or hyaluronidases that degrade connective tissue.

Understanding virulence factors is crucial for developing effective strategies to prevent and treat infectious diseases caused by these microorganisms.

Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.

For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.

Fungal spores are defined as the reproductive units of fungi that are produced by specialized structures called hyphae. These spores are typically single-celled and can exist in various shapes such as round, oval, or ellipsoidal. They are highly resistant to extreme environmental conditions like heat, cold, and dryness, which allows them to survive for long periods until they find a suitable environment to germinate and grow into a new fungal organism. Fungal spores can be found in the air, water, soil, and on various surfaces, making them easily dispersible and capable of causing infections in humans, animals, and plants.

"Azoles" is a class of antifungal medications that have a similar chemical structure, specifically a five-membered ring containing nitrogen and two carbon atoms (a "azole ring"). The most common azoles used in medicine include:

1. Imidazoles: These include drugs such as clotrimazole, miconazole, and ketoconazole. They are used to treat a variety of fungal infections, including vaginal yeast infections, thrush, and skin infections.
2. Triazoles: These include drugs such as fluconazole, itraconazole, and voriconazole. They are also used to treat fungal infections, but have a broader spectrum of activity than imidazoles and are often used for more serious or systemic infections.

Azoles work by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, an essential component of fungal cell membranes. This leads to increased permeability of the cell membrane, which ultimately results in fungal cell death.

While azoles are generally well-tolerated, they can cause side effects such as nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. In addition, some azoles can interact with other medications and affect liver function, so it's important to inform your healthcare provider of all medications you are taking before starting an azole regimen.

Columbidae is the family that includes all pigeons and doves. According to the medical literature, there are no specific medical definitions associated with Columbidae. However, it's worth noting that some species of pigeons and doves are commonly kept as pets or used in research, and may be mentioned in medical contexts related to avian medicine, zoonoses (diseases transmissible from animals to humans), or public health concerns such as bird-related allergies.

Inbred A mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings. This results in a high degree of genetic similarity among individuals within the strain, making them useful for research purposes where a consistent genetic background is desired. The Inbred A strain is maintained through continued brother-sister mating. It's important to note that while these mice are called "Inbred A," the designation does not refer to any specific medical condition or characteristic. Instead, it refers to the breeding practices used to create and maintain this particular strain of laboratory mice.

Pheromones are chemical signals that one organism releases into the environment that can affect the behavior or physiology of other organisms of the same species. They are primarily used for communication in animals, including insects and mammals. In humans, the existence and role of pheromones are still a subject of ongoing research and debate.

In a medical context, pheromones may be discussed in relation to certain medical conditions or treatments that involve olfactory (smell) stimuli, such as some forms of aromatherapy. However, it's important to note that the use of pheromones as a medical treatment is not widely accepted and more research is needed to establish their effectiveness and safety.

BALB/c is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The strain was developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London by Henry Baldwin and his colleagues in the 1920s, and it has since become one of the most commonly used inbred strains in the world.

BALB/c mice are characterized by their black coat color, which is determined by a recessive allele at the tyrosinase locus. They are also known for their docile and friendly temperament, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory.

One of the key features of BALB/c mice that makes them useful for research is their susceptibility to certain types of tumors and immune responses. For example, they are highly susceptible to developing mammary tumors, which can be induced by chemical carcinogens or viral infection. They also have a strong Th2-biased immune response, which makes them useful models for studying allergic diseases and asthma.

BALB/c mice are also commonly used in studies of genetics, neuroscience, behavior, and infectious diseases. Because they are an inbred strain, they have a uniform genetic background, which makes it easier to control for genetic factors in experiments. Additionally, because they have been bred in the laboratory for many generations, they are highly standardized and reproducible, making them ideal subjects for scientific research.

Microbiological techniques refer to the various methods and procedures used in the laboratory for the cultivation, identification, and analysis of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites. These techniques are essential in fields like medical microbiology, food microbiology, environmental microbiology, and industrial microbiology.

Some common microbiological techniques include:

1. Microbial culturing: This involves growing microorganisms on nutrient-rich media in Petri dishes or test tubes to allow them to multiply. Different types of media are used to culture different types of microorganisms.
2. Staining and microscopy: Various staining techniques, such as Gram stain, acid-fast stain, and methylene blue stain, are used to visualize and identify microorganisms under a microscope.
3. Biochemical testing: These tests involve the use of specific biochemical reactions to identify microorganisms based on their metabolic characteristics. Examples include the catalase test, oxidase test, and sugar fermentation tests.
4. Molecular techniques: These methods are used to identify microorganisms based on their genetic material. Examples include polymerase chain reaction (PCR), DNA sequencing, and gene probes.
5. Serological testing: This involves the use of antibodies or antigens to detect the presence of specific microorganisms in a sample. Examples include enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Western blotting.
6. Immunofluorescence: This technique uses fluorescent dyes to label antibodies or antigens, allowing for the visualization of microorganisms under a fluorescence microscope.
7. Electron microscopy: This method uses high-powered electron beams to produce detailed images of microorganisms, allowing for the identification and analysis of their structures.

These techniques are critical in diagnosing infectious diseases, monitoring food safety, assessing environmental quality, and developing new drugs and vaccines.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

Eucalyptus is defined in medical terms as a genus of mostly Australian trees and shrubs that have aromatic leaves and bark, and oil-containing foliage. The oil from eucalyptus leaves contains a chemical called eucalyptol, which has been found to have several medicinal properties.

Eucalyptus oil has been used in traditional medicine for centuries to treat various health conditions such as respiratory problems, fever, and pain. It has anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, decongestant, and expectorant properties, making it a popular remedy for colds, coughs, and congestion.

Eucalyptus oil is also used in modern medicine as an ingredient in over-the-counter products such as throat lozenges, cough syrups, and topical pain relievers. It is important to note that eucalyptus oil should not be ingested undiluted, as it can be toxic in large amounts.

In addition to its medicinal uses, eucalyptus trees are also known for their rapid growth and ability to drain swampland, making them useful in land reclamation projects.

A fruiting body, in the context of mycology (the study of fungi), refers to the part of a fungus that produces spores for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures are often what we typically think of as mushrooms or toadstools, although not all fungal fruiting bodies resemble these familiar forms.

Fungal fruiting bodies can vary greatly in size, shape, and color, depending on the species of fungus. They may be aboveground, like the caps and stalks of mushrooms, or underground, like the tiny, thread-like structures known as "corals" in some species.

The primary function of a fruiting body is to produce and disperse spores, which can give rise to new individuals when they germinate under favorable conditions. The development of a fruiting body is often triggered by environmental factors such as moisture, temperature, and nutrient availability.

A lung is a pair of spongy, elastic organs in the chest that work together to enable breathing. They are responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide through the process of respiration. The left lung has two lobes, while the right lung has three lobes. The lungs are protected by the ribcage and are covered by a double-layered membrane called the pleura. The trachea divides into two bronchi, which further divide into smaller bronchioles, leading to millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli, where the exchange of gases occurs.

Basidiomycota is a phylum in the kingdom Fungi that consists of organisms commonly known as club fungi or club mushrooms. The name Basidiomycota is derived from the presence of a characteristic reproductive structure called a basidium, which is where spores are produced.

The basidiomycetes include many familiar forms such as mushrooms, toadstools, bracket fungi, and other types of polypores. They have a complex life cycle that involves both sexual and asexual reproduction. The sexual reproductive stage produces a characteristic fruiting body, which may be microscopic or highly visible, depending on the species.

Basidiomycota fungi play important ecological roles in decomposing organic matter, forming mutualistic relationships with plants, and acting as parasites on other organisms. Some species are economically important, such as edible mushrooms, while others can be harmful or even deadly to humans and animals.

A "colony count" is a method used to estimate the number of viable microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi, in a sample. In this technique, a known volume of the sample is spread onto the surface of a solid nutrient medium in a petri dish and then incubated under conditions that allow the microorganisms to grow and form visible colonies. Each colony that grows on the plate represents an individual cell (or small cluster of cells) from the original sample that was able to divide and grow under the given conditions. By counting the number of colonies that form, researchers can make a rough estimate of the concentration of microorganisms in the original sample.

The term "microbial" simply refers to microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, or viruses. Therefore, a "colony count, microbial" is a general term that encompasses the use of colony counting techniques to estimate the number of any type of microorganism in a sample.

Colony counts are used in various fields, including medical research, food safety testing, and environmental monitoring, to assess the levels of contamination or the effectiveness of disinfection procedures. However, it is important to note that colony counts may not always provide an accurate measure of the total number of microorganisms present in a sample, as some cells may be injured or unable to grow under the conditions used for counting. Additionally, some microorganisms may form clusters or chains that can appear as single colonies, leading to an overestimation of the true cell count.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless fluid that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. It acts as a shock absorber for the central nervous system and provides nutrients to the brain while removing waste products. CSF is produced by specialized cells called ependymal cells in the choroid plexus of the ventricles (fluid-filled spaces) inside the brain. From there, it circulates through the ventricular system and around the outside of the brain and spinal cord before being absorbed back into the bloodstream. CSF analysis is an important diagnostic tool for various neurological conditions, including infections, inflammation, and cancer.

Biological pigments are substances produced by living organisms that absorb certain wavelengths of light and reflect others, resulting in the perception of color. These pigments play crucial roles in various biological processes such as photosynthesis, vision, and protection against harmful radiation. Some examples of biological pigments include melanin, hemoglobin, chlorophyll, carotenoids, and flavonoids.

Melanin is a pigment responsible for the color of skin, hair, and eyes in animals, including humans. Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that contains a porphyrin ring with an iron atom at its center, which gives blood its red color and facilitates oxygen transport. Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in plants, algae, and some bacteria that absorbs light during photosynthesis to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen. Carotenoids are orange, yellow, or red pigments found in fruits, vegetables, and some animals that protect against oxidative stress and help maintain membrane fluidity. Flavonoids are a class of plant pigments with antioxidant properties that have been linked to various health benefits.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

Dermatomycoses are a group of fungal infections that affect the skin, hair, and nails. These infections are caused by various types of fungi, including dermatophytes, yeasts, and molds. Dermatophyte infections, also known as tinea, are the most common type of dermatomycoses and can affect different areas of the body, such as the scalp (tinea capitis), beard (tinea barbae), body (tinea corporis), feet (tinea pedis or athlete's foot), hands (tinea manuum), and nails (tinea unguium or onychomycosis). Yeast infections, such as those caused by Candida albicans, can lead to conditions like candidal intertrigo, vulvovaginitis, and balanitis. Mold infections are less common but can cause skin disorders like scalded skin syndrome and phaeohyphomycosis. Dermatomycoses are typically treated with topical or oral antifungal medications.

Haploidy is a term used in genetics to describe the condition of having half the normal number of chromosomes in a cell or an organism. In humans, for example, a haploid cell contains 23 chromosomes, whereas a diploid cell has 46 chromosomes.

Haploid cells are typically produced through a process called meiosis, which is a type of cell division that occurs in the reproductive organs of sexually reproducing organisms. During meiosis, a diploid cell undergoes two rounds of division to produce four haploid cells, each containing only one set of chromosomes.

In humans, haploid cells are found in the sperm and egg cells, which fuse together during fertilization to create a diploid zygote with 46 chromosomes. Haploidy is important for maintaining the correct number of chromosomes in future generations and preventing genetic abnormalities that can result from having too many or too few chromosomes.

"CBA" is an abbreviation for a specific strain of inbred mice that were developed at the Cancer Research Institute in London. The "Inbred CBA" mice are genetically identical individuals within the same strain, due to many generations of brother-sister matings. This results in a homozygous population, making them valuable tools for research because they reduce variability and increase reproducibility in experimental outcomes.

The CBA strain is known for its susceptibility to certain diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and cancer, which makes it a popular choice for researchers studying those conditions. Additionally, the CBA strain has been widely used in studies related to transplantation immunology, infectious diseases, and genetic research.

It's important to note that while "Inbred CBA" mice are a well-established and useful tool in biomedical research, they represent only one of many inbred strains available for scientific investigation. Each strain has its own unique characteristics and advantages, depending on the specific research question being asked.

Xylose is a type of sugar that is commonly found in plants and wood. In the context of medical definitions, xylose is often used in tests to assess the function of the small intestine. The most common test is called the "xylose absorption test," which measures the ability of the small intestine to absorb this sugar.

In this test, a patient is given a small amount of xylose to drink, and then several blood and/or urine samples are collected over the next few hours. The amount of xylose that appears in these samples is measured and used to determine how well the small intestine is absorbing nutrients.

Abnormal results on a xylose absorption test can indicate various gastrointestinal disorders, such as malabsorption syndromes, celiac disease, or bacterial overgrowth in the small intestine.

Fungal meningitis is a form of meningitis, which is an inflammation of the membranes (meninges) surrounding the brain and spinal cord. It is specifically caused by the invasion of the meninges by fungi. The most common causative agents are Cryptococcus neoformans and Histoplasma capsulatum.

Fungal meningitis typically occurs in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, or organ transplant recipients. It begins gradually, often with symptoms including headache, fever, stiff neck, and sensitivity to light. Other possible symptoms can include confusion, nausea, vomiting, and altered mental status.

Diagnosis of fungal meningitis typically involves a combination of clinical examination, imaging studies (such as CT or MRI scans), and laboratory tests (such as cerebrospinal fluid analysis). Treatment usually requires long-term antifungal therapy, often administered intravenously in a hospital setting. The prognosis for fungal meningitis depends on several factors, including the underlying immune status of the patient, the specific causative agent, and the timeliness and adequacy of treatment.

Central nervous system (CNS) infections refer to infectious processes that affect the brain, spinal cord, and their surrounding membranes, known as meninges. These infections can be caused by various microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Examples of CNS infections are:

1. Meningitis: Inflammation of the meninges, usually caused by bacterial or viral infections. Bacterial meningitis is a medical emergency that requires immediate treatment.
2. Encephalitis: Inflammation of the brain parenchyma, often caused by viral infections. Some viruses associated with encephalitis include herpes simplex virus, enteroviruses, and arboviruses.
3. Meningoencephalitis: A combined inflammation of both the brain and meninges, commonly seen in certain viral infections or when bacterial pathogens directly invade the brain.
4. Brain abscess: A localized collection of pus within the brain caused by a bacterial or fungal infection.
5. Spinal epidural abscess: An infection in the space surrounding the spinal cord, usually caused by bacteria.
6. Myelitis: Inflammation of the spinal cord, which can result from viral, bacterial, or fungal infections.
7. Rarely, parasitic infections like toxoplasmosis and cysticercosis can also affect the CNS.

Symptoms of CNS infections may include fever, headache, stiff neck, altered mental status, seizures, focal neurological deficits, or meningeal signs (e.g., Brudzinski's and Kernig's signs). The specific symptoms depend on the location and extent of the infection, as well as the causative organism. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are crucial to prevent long-term neurological complications or death.

Fungal polysaccharides refer to complex carbohydrates that are produced and found in fungi, including yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. These polysaccharides are made up of long chains of sugar molecules that are linked together by glycosidic bonds.

Fungal polysaccharides have various structures and functions depending on the specific fungal species they come from. Some fungal polysaccharides, such as beta-glucans, have been shown to have immunomodulatory effects and are used in some medical treatments. Beta-glucans, for example, can stimulate the immune system's response to infections and cancer.

Other fungal polysaccharides, such as chitin, are structural components of fungal cell walls. Chitin is a polysaccharide made up of N-acetylglucosamine units and is also found in the exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans.

Fungal polysaccharides have been studied for their potential therapeutic uses, including as antimicrobial, antitumor, and immunomodulatory agents. However, more research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and potential benefits and risks.

Hyphae (singular: hypha) are the long, branching filamentous structures of fungi that make up the mycelium. They are composed of an inner layer of cell wall materials and an outer layer of proteinaceous fibrils. Hyphae can be divided into several types based on their structure and function, including septate (with cross-walls) and coenocytic (without cross-walls) hyphae, as well as vegetative and reproductive hyphae. The ability of fungi to grow as hyphal networks allows them to explore and exploit their environment for resources, making hyphae critical to the ecology and survival of these organisms.

'Acanthamoeba castellanii' is a species of free-living amoebae that are widely found in the environment, such as in water, soil, and air. These amoebae are known for their ability to survive under various conditions and can cause opportunistic infections in humans, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems.

'Acanthamoeba castellanii' is known to be associated with a range of diseases, including Acanthamoeba keratitis, a sight-threatening eye infection that primarily affects contact lens wearers, and granulomatous amoebic encephalitis, a rare but serious central nervous system infection.

It is important to note that while 'Acanthamoeba castellanii' can cause infections in humans, these cases are relatively uncommon and typically occur in individuals with compromised immune systems or those who come into contact with contaminated water or soil. Proper hygiene practices and the use of sterile solutions when handling contact lenses can help reduce the risk of infection.

Fungemia is the presence of fungi (fungal organisms) in the blood. It's a type of bloodstream infection, which can be serious and life-threatening, particularly for people with weakened immune systems. The fungi that cause fungemia often enter the bloodstream through medical devices like catheters or from a fungal infection somewhere else in the body.

Fungemia is often associated with conditions like candidemia (caused by Candida species) and aspergillemia (caused by Aspergillus species). Symptoms can vary widely but often include fever, chills, and other signs of infection. It's important to diagnose and treat fungemia promptly to prevent serious complications like sepsis.

DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting, is a laboratory technique used to identify and compare the unique genetic makeup of individuals by analyzing specific regions of their DNA. This method is based on the variation in the length of repetitive sequences of DNA called variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) or short tandem repeats (STRs), which are located at specific locations in the human genome and differ significantly among individuals, except in the case of identical twins.

The process of DNA fingerprinting involves extracting DNA from a sample, amplifying targeted regions using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and then separating and visualizing the resulting DNA fragments through electrophoresis. The fragment patterns are then compared to determine the likelihood of a match between two samples.

DNA fingerprinting has numerous applications in forensic science, paternity testing, identity verification, and genealogical research. It is considered an essential tool for providing strong evidence in criminal investigations and resolving disputes related to parentage and inheritance.

Mitosporic fungi, also known as asexual fungi or anamorphic fungi, are a group of fungi that produce mitospores (also called conidia) during their asexual reproduction. Mitospores are produced from the tip of specialized hyphae called conidiophores and are used for dispersal and survival of the fungi in various environments. These fungi do not have a sexual reproductive stage or it has not been observed, making their taxonomic classification challenging. They are commonly found in soil, decaying organic matter, and water, and some of them can cause diseases in humans, animals, and plants. Examples of mitosporic fungi include Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium species.

Urease is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide. It is found in various organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and plants. In medicine, urease is often associated with certain bacterial infections, such as those caused by Helicobacter pylori, which can produce large amounts of this enzyme. The presence of urease in these infections can lead to increased ammonia production, contributing to the development of gastritis and peptic ulcers.

Macrophages are a type of white blood cell that are an essential part of the immune system. They are large, specialized cells that engulf and destroy foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, as well as damaged or dead cells. Macrophages are found throughout the body, including in the bloodstream, lymph nodes, spleen, liver, lungs, and connective tissues. They play a critical role in inflammation, immune response, and tissue repair and remodeling.

Macrophages originate from monocytes, which are a type of white blood cell produced in the bone marrow. When monocytes enter the tissues, they differentiate into macrophages, which have a larger size and more specialized functions than monocytes. Macrophages can change their shape and move through tissues to reach sites of infection or injury. They also produce cytokines, chemokines, and other signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response and recruit other immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

Macrophages have a variety of surface receptors that allow them to recognize and respond to different types of foreign substances and signals from other cells. They can engulf and digest foreign particles, bacteria, and viruses through a process called phagocytosis. Macrophages also play a role in presenting antigens to T cells, which are another type of immune cell that helps coordinate the immune response.

Overall, macrophages are crucial for maintaining tissue homeostasis, defending against infection, and promoting wound healing and tissue repair. Dysregulation of macrophage function has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and chronic inflammatory conditions.

Histoplasma is a genus of dimorphic fungi that can cause the infectious disease histoplasmosis in humans and animals. The two species that are most commonly associated with disease are Histoplasma capsulatum and Histoplasma duboisii. These fungi are found worldwide, but are particularly prevalent in certain regions such as the Ohio and Mississippi River Valleys in the United States and parts of Central and South America.

Histoplasma exists in two forms: a mold that grows in soil and other environments, and a yeast form that infects human and animal hosts. The fungi are typically inhaled into the lungs, where they can cause respiratory symptoms such as cough, fever, and shortness of breath. In severe cases, histoplasmosis can disseminate throughout the body and affect other organs, leading to more serious complications.

Histoplasma is often found in soil enriched with bird or bat droppings, and exposure can occur through activities such as digging, gardening, or cleaning chicken coops. While histoplasmosis can be a serious disease, it is usually treatable with antifungal medications. However, some people may develop chronic or severe forms of the disease, particularly those with weakened immune systems.

... neoformans sensu stricto and Cryptococcus deneoformans. Cryptococcus gattii (formerly C. neoformans var. gattii) ... The name Cryptococcus comes from the Greek for "hidden sphere" (literally "hidden berry"). Some Cryptococcus species cause a ... Cogliati M (2013). "Global Molecular Epidemiology of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii: An Atlas of the Molecular ... 2015). "Recognition of seven species in the Cryptococcus gattii/Cryptococcus neoformans species complex". Fungal Genetics and ...
... , formerly known as Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii, is an encapsulated yeast found primarily in ... "Recognition of seven species in the Cryptococcus gattii/Cryptococcus neoformans species complex". Fungal Genetics and Biology. ... "Cryptococcus gattii Q&A". The Globe and Mail. 2007-02-10. Kidd, S.E.; F. Hagen; R. L. Tscharke; M. Huynh; K. H. Bartlett; M. ... Cryptococcus gattii has recently been divided into five species. These are C. gattii, C. bacillisporus, C. deuterogattii, C. ...
... is a species of Cryptococcus that has some unique characteristics. When grown on agar it typically produces ... B. (1965) A note on cryptococcus after castellani. U.S. Dept. of Health. v t e (Articles with short description, Short ...
Media related to Cryptococcus neoformans at Wikimedia Commons A good overview of Cryptococcus neoformans biology from the ... Cryptococcus neoformans can cause disease in apparently immunocompetent, as well as immunocompromised, hosts. Cryptococcus ... "Recognition of seven species in the Cryptococcus gattii/Cryptococcus neoformans species complex". Fungal Genetics and Biology. ... Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast belonging to the class Tremellomycetes and an obligate aerobe that can live in ...
... , commonly known as the beech scale or woolly beech scale, is a felted scale insect in the superfamily ... Cryptococcus fagisuga aka Beech bark disease has been recorded as affecting common beech trees, Fagus sylvatica, in Europe ... Gora, Vincenz; König, Jürgen; Lunderstädt, Jörg (1996). "Population dynamics of beech scale (Cryptococcus fagisuga) (Coccina, ... Cryptococcus fagisuga (Hemiptera: Eriococcidae), an invasive pest in North America". Biological Control. 39 (1): 9-18. doi: ...
Wikispecies has information related to Cryptococcus (disambiguation). Cryptococcus may refer to: Cryptococcus (fungus), a ... fungus genus in the family Cryptococcaceae Cryptococcus (insect), an insect genus in the family Eriococcidae This ...
Cryptococcus on uio.mbl.edu Data related to Cryptococcus at Wikispecies Cryptococcus on Uniprot.org v t e (Articles with short ... Cryptococcus is a genus of scale insects in the family Eriococcidae. ...
Vishniac H. S. (1985) Cryptococcus socialis sp. nov. and Cryptococcus consotionis sp. nov., Antarctic Basidoblastomycetes. Int ... Cryptococcus consortionis is a fungus species. It produces colonies that are cream colored with a glistening, mucoid appearance ...
The terminology of the cryptococci with a note on Cryptococcus mollis. Mycologia 27: 496-502. 1935. Cryptococci-their ... which she termed Cryptococcus. Her subsequent publication in 1950 established Cryptococcus neoformans as the formally accepted ... With B. M. Kesten and M. Silva.) The genus Cryptococcus: the present status and criteria for the identification of species. ... Cryptococcus neoformans: "an ascomycete." Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 89. 243-245. 1955. Trichophyton rubrum infections: a ...
Satoh K, Maeda M, Umeda Y, Sugamata M, Makimura K (2013). "Cryptococcus lacticolor sp. nov. and Rhodotorula oligophaga sp. nov ... Middelhoven WJ (2005). "Cryptococcus allantoinivorans sp.nov., an anamorphic basidiomycetous yeast (Tremellales) ... "Phylogeny and Phenotypic Characterization of Pathogenic Cryptococcus Species and Closely Related Saprobic Taxa in the ... physiologically resembling other species of the Cryptococcus laurentii complex that degrade polysaccharides and C2 compounds". ...
Herman Phaff and L. do Carmo Sousa described the yeast Cryptococcus skinneri in 1962 from the frass of the beetle Scolytus ... Cryptococcus skinneri Characteristics. CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre. http://www.cbs.knaw.nl/collections/BioloMICS.aspx? ... Table=Yeasts%20species&Name=Cryptococcus%20skinneri&Fields=All&ExactMatch=T Wikispecies has information related to ...
Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii: separate varietal status for Cryptococcus neoformans serotype A isolates, in: Journal of ... Books 2011, Cryptococcus: from human pathogen to model yeast. with co-editors J. Heitman, T.R. Kozel, KJ Kwon-Chung, and JR ... 2011). Cryptococcus: from human pathogen to model yeast (1st ed.). ISBN 978-1555815011. Ma, H; Croudace, JE; Lammas, DA; May, ... 1998, Cryptococcus neoformans. with co-author John R. Perfect, ASM Press. Highly Cited Articles 2020, with Liise-anne Pirofski ...
Vishniac HS, Kurtzman CP (1992). "Cryptococcus antarcticus sp. nov. and Cryptococcus albidosimilis sp. nov., ... Naganishia albidosimilis (synonym Cryptococcus albidosimilis) is a species of fungus in the family Filobasidiaceae. It is ...
Lin, X, Hull, CM, Heitman J (April 2005). "Sexual reproduction between partners of the same mating type in Cryptococcus ... 2010). textbook Cryptococcus. ASM. doi:10.1128/9781555816858. ISBN 9781683671220. Retrieved 15 March 2020. Heitman, Joseph; ... His group described a previously unknown form of sexual reproduction in Cryptococcus species, known as unisexual reproduction, ... Hull, CM, Davidson, RC, Heitman, J (December 2002). "Cell identity and sexual development in Cryptococcus neoformans are ...
"Cryptococcus terrestris sp. nov., a tremellaceous, anamorphic yeast phylogenetically related to Cryptococcus flavescens". ... Cryptococcus laurentii fungemia. Banerjee P, Haider M, Trehan V, Mishra B, Thakur A, Dogra V and Loomba P, Indian J Med ...
... (synonym Cryptococcus adeliensis) is a species of fungus in the family Filobasidiaceae. It is currently ... Scorzetti G, Petrescu I, Yarrow D, Fell JW (2000). "Cryptococcus adeliensis sp. nov., a xylanase producing basidiomycetous ...
Vishniac HS, Hempfling WP (1979). "Cryptococcus vishniacii sp. nov., an Antarctic yeast". International Journal of Systematic ...
Other fungi reported are Acremonium charticola, Chaetomium sp., Cryptococcus, Mucor and Penicillium. Global Volcanism Program, ...
Pneumocystis carinni Cryptococcus spp. Candida spp. Aspergillus spp. Microsporidia Toxoplasma gondii Cryptosporidium parvum ...
Cryptococcus laurentii and microalgae. Among microalgae, one of the main progenitors of biofilms are diatoms, which colonise ...
Nocardia Corynebacterium urealyticum Cryptococcus spp., an opportunistic fungus Helicobacter pylori Certain Enteric bacteria ...
Garancis JC, Ankel H, Ankel E, Schutzbach JS (1970). "Mannosyl transfer in Cryptococcus laurentii". J. Biol. Chem. 245 (15): ...
Genus: Cryptococcus Cryptococcus histolycus Stoddard & Cutler. Cryptococcus linguae-pilosa Castellani & Chalmers. Cryptococcus ...
Cryptococcus, and other yeasts). It may also have occurred in some red algae (e.g., Porphyridium), but it is possible that they ...
Vishniac H. S., Kurtzman C. P. (1992) Cryptococcus anarcticus sp. nov. and Cryptococcus albidosimilis sp. nov., ...
Cryptococcus neoformans. Cancer can also cause fever of unknown origin. This is thought to be due to release of pyrogenic ...
2004) Mycocin production in Cryptococcus aquaticus. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 86:369-375 v t e (Articles with short description ...
The most represented fungal infections are Coccidioides and Cryptococcus. Cryptococcus are most common in cats. Pneumonia is ...
"Cryptococcus neoformans (ID 61) - Genome - NCBI". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2020-12-14. "Index of /genomes/refseq/fungi/ ... "Index of /genomes/refseq/fungi/Cryptococcus_neoformans/latest_assembly_versions/GCF_000091045.1_ASM9104v1". ftp.ncbi.nih.gov. ...
Vimercati, L.; Hamsher, S.; Schubert, Z.; Schmidt, S. K. (17 June 2016). "Growth of high-elevation Cryptococcus sp. during ...
Cryptococcus neoformans sensu stricto and Cryptococcus deneoformans. Cryptococcus gattii (formerly C. neoformans var. gattii) ... The name Cryptococcus comes from the Greek for "hidden sphere" (literally "hidden berry"). Some Cryptococcus species cause a ... Cogliati M (2013). "Global Molecular Epidemiology of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii: An Atlas of the Molecular ... 2015). "Recognition of seven species in the Cryptococcus gattii/Cryptococcus neoformans species complex". Fungal Genetics and ...
Cryptococcus neoformans InfectionIntroductionDisease History, Characteristics, and TransmissionScope and DistributionTreatment ... and PreventionImpacts and IssuesBIBLIOGRAPHY Source for information on Cryptococcus neoformans Infection: Infectious Diseases: ... Cryptococcus neoformans is a yeast that is the sole species of the genus capable of causing mycotic (fungal) disease. There are ... "Cryptococcus neoformans Infection ." Infectious Diseases: In Context. . Retrieved November 19, 2023 from Encyclopedia.com: ...
Cryptococcosis is the infection caused by the encapsulated yeast Cryptococcus neoformans, a dimorphic fungus. It was first ... Cryptococcus infection is most common in persons aged 30-60 years. Cryptococcus laurentii is a very rare human pathogen, but ... Cryptococcosis is an infection caused by the encapsulated yeast Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii. It was first ... Franzot SP, Salkin IF, Casadevall A. Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii: separate varietal status for Cryptococcus neoformans ...
Cryptococcus,/i, and tumorigenesis in individuals with PBL. ... Lymphoma in HIV/AIDS with Disseminated Cryptococcus. Jun Gong. ... A 63-year-old male with a history of HIV/AIDS (last known CD4 count of 279 CMM) and disseminated Cryptococcus presented to the ... and a potential association between a chronic inflammatory state caused by disseminated Cryptococcus and tumorigenesis in ... during which surgical biopsy of a left lateral calf mass yielded necrotizing granulomatous inflammation with Cryptococcus. ...
The pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus neoformans exhibits morphological changes in cell size during lung infection, producing both ... Titan cells formation in Cryptococcus neoformans is finely tuned by environmental conditions and modulated by positive and ...
Minimum inhibitory concentration required for antifungal activity against Cryptococcus neoformans DSM 70219 strain. ...
Cryptococcus gattii. Disease Outbreaks. Female. Genotype. Humans. Mice. Mitochondria. Molecular Epidemiology. Northwestern ... Cryptococcus gattii causes life-threatening disease in otherwise healthy hosts and to a lesser extent in immunocompromised ... Emergence and pathogenicity of highly virulent Cryptococcus gattii genotypes in the northwest United States. ... Emergence and pathogenicity of highly virulent Cryptococcus gattii genotypes in the northwest United States. PLoS Pathog, 6(4 ...
The sensitivity of three methods for the rapid identification of Cryptococcus neoformans was compared. These were: direct ... Comparison of the sensitivity of three methods for the rapid identification of Cryptococcus neoformans. ... Comparison of the sensitivity of three methods for the rapid identification of Cryptococcus neoformans. ...
Etudes entreprises sur Cryptococcus fagi Baersp. en Haute-Normandie Ann. For. Sci. 37, 291-297 (1980). ... La pollution soufrée limite-t-elle le développement de la maladie de lécorce du hêtre ? (Cryptococcus fagi, Nectria coccinea) ... Etude expérimentale de lassociation Cryptococcus fagisuga lind-Nectria coccinea (Pers ex Fries) Fries, Rôle respectif des deux ...
Cryptococcus gattii (C gattii) species complex is emerging worldwide. However, the geographical distribution, molecular traits ... Consensus multi-locus sequence typing scheme for Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii. Med Mycol 2009; 47(6): 561-70 ... Cogliati M. Global Molecular Epidemiology of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii: An Atlas of the Molecular Types. ... Cryptococcus gattii infections. Clin Microbiol Rev 2014; 27(4): 980-1024.. *Lockhart SR, Roe CC, Engelthaler DM. Whole-Genome ...
... on Cryptococcus neoformans using different viability methods (CFUs enumeration, XTT assay and propidium iodide permeability). ... Amphotericin B mediates killing in Cryptococcus neoformans through the induction of a strong oxidative burst. ... We studied the effects of Amphotericin B (AmB) on Cryptococcus neoformans using different viability methods (CFUs enumeration, ... Amphotericin B mediates killing in Cryptococcus neoformans through the induction of a strong oxidative burst. en. ...
Genome Portal version:8.18.168 content:e3a5e14d1f portal-web-2.jgi.lbl.gov Release Date:03-Nov-2023 07:50:28.423 PST Current Date:30-Nov-2023 02:34:13.979 PST ...
Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptococcus laurentii, Cryptococcus gattii, Sistema nervoso central Abstract. A criptococose é uma ... sendo um de Cryptococcus laurentii, dois de Cryptococcus neoformans e um de Cryptococcus gattii. Com este trabalho, obteve-se o ... Isolamento de Cryptococcus neoformans, C. gattii e C. laurentii de sistema nervoso central de cães na cidade do Rio de Janeiro ... Cryptococcus neoformans a partir de sistema nervoso central de cães e gatos, no Município do Rio de Janeiro, procederam-se ...
Cryptococcus neoformans is a leading cause of invasive fungal infections among immunocompromised patients. However, the ... Inflammatory monocytes are detrimental to the host immune response during acute infection with Cryptococcus neoformans Heung, ...
Dive into the research topics of Cryptococcus festucosus sp. nov. a new hymenomycetous yeast in the Holtermannia clade. ... Cryptococcus festucosus sp. nov. a new hymenomycetous yeast in the Holtermannia clade. ...
Stories from people who have been diagnosed with fungal diseases to increase awareness of these diseases and share experiences of people living with these infections
Cryptococcus gattii Providers WA , September 30, 2017 What is it?. C. gattii is a fungus closely related to C. neoformans that ... When Cryptococcus is identified in a respiratory specimen or cerebrospinal fluid, do not assume that it is C. neoformans; ... If your laboratory does not currently use CGB agar for all Cryptococcus isolates, consider adding this to your laboratorys ...
Prevalence of Cryptococcus neoformans in pigeon habitats Cite CITE. Title : Prevalence of Cryptococcus neoformans in pigeon ... Projecting Global Occurrence of Cryptococcus gattii Cite CITE. Title : Projecting Global Occurrence of Cryptococcus gattii ... 2009). Spread of Cryptococcus gattii into Pacific Northwest Region of the United States. 15(8). Datta, Kausik et al. "Spread of ... "Spread of Cryptococcus gattii into Pacific Northwest Region of the United States" vol. 15, no. 8, 2009. Export RIS Citation ...
title = "Intracellular parasitism of macrophages by Cryptococcus neoformans",. abstract = "Cryptococcus neoformans, an ... Intracellular parasitism of macrophages by Cryptococcus neoformans. In: Trends in Microbiology. 2001 ; Vol. 9, No. 6. pp. 273- ... Feldmesser, M, Tucker, S & Casadevall, A 2001, Intracellular parasitism of macrophages by Cryptococcus neoformans, Trends in ... Feldmesser M, Tucker S, Casadevall A. Intracellular parasitism of macrophages by Cryptococcus neoformans. Trends in ...
Cryptococcus neoformans - Rps3a. Organism. Cryptococcus neoformans. Gene Name. Rps3a. Product. Rps3a. Sequence. gene / cDNA / ...
Pesquisa de antígeno Cryptococcus neoformans nas matrizes soro e líquor ... Cryptococcus neoformans - Antígeno (Líquor) (2 itens x 4 rodadas) - EPCCNAL24 , EP472. *Cryptococcus neoformans - Antígeno ( ... Cryptococcus neoformans - Antígeno quantidade. ADICIONAR PARA ORÇAMENTO. Categorias: Clínico, Controle Interno, Ensaio de ... Cryptococcus neoformans - Antígeno (Líquor) 2x2xn (2 níveis x 2 itens) - CICCNAL22N , CI236 ...
Cryptococcus-derived alkaline extracts were protected against lethal challenge with Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus ... including ones that are species specific.IMPORTANCE The encapsulated fungi Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii are ... Vaccination with Recombinant Cryptococcus Proteins in Glucan Particles Protects Mice against Cryptococcosis in a Manner ... "Vaccination with Recombinant Cryptococcus Proteins in Glucan Particles Protects Mice against Cryptococcosis in a Manner ...
https://www.metabiom.org/microbiota/1267/filobasidium- ...
Cryptococcus neoformans is a yeast with a prominent polysaccharide capsule. It is an opportunistic fungal pathogen notoriously ... Cryptococcus neoformans is an opportunistic fungal pathogen (yeast) responsible for causing cryptococcal meningitis. ... Virulence Factors of Cryptococcus neformans *Capsule: Cryptococcus neoformans is the only pathogenic yeast known to have a ... Cryptococcus neoformans: Pathogenesis, Lab Diagnosis. Written by Acharya Tankeshwar in Mycology Last Updated May 5, 2022. ...
Cryptococcus neoformans is a yeast-like organism found commonly in pigeon bird droppings. Cryptococcus is associated with ...
Biological activity of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii from clinical and environmental isolates  Barbosa ... INTRODUCTION: Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii are encapsulated basidiomycetous yeasts with worldwide ... Characterization of an ecto-ATPase activity in Cryptococcus neoformans  Junior, I. C.; Rodrigues, M. L.; Alviano, C. S.; ... Cryptococcus neoformans é uma levedura patogênica oportunista que durante seu ciclo de vida tem como principal desafio se ...
Access Cryptococcus Gattii Infection (C. gattii) case definitions; uniform criteria used to define a disease for public health ...
Two of the species, Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus bacillisporus, are the casual agents of the majority of human and ... Please confirm that you want to SAVE all your changes for Cryptococcus neoformans var neoformans JEC21. ... Please confirm that you want to DISCARD all your changes for Cryptococcus neoformans var neoformans JEC21. ... The genome of Cryptococcus neoformans JEC21 (serotype D) was not sequenced by the JGI, but by TIGR. The data (genome assembly ...
  • Cryptococcosis is an infection caused by the encapsulated yeast Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii . (medscape.com)
  • Cutaneous Cryptococcus infection should be presumed to be disseminated until proven otherwise, and a search for other sites of involvement must be immediately undertaken. (medscape.com)
  • In a study of 40 HIV-negative patients with Cryptococcus infection, 65% had an associated underlying condition. (medscape.com)
  • Cryptococcus infection occurs primarily from the inhalation of infectious yeast from contaminated soil. (medscape.com)
  • Cryptococcosis is a fungal infection caused by numerous species, two of which cause the majority of cryptococcal infections in humans and animals: Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . (outbreaknewstoday.com)
  • We investigated the pathogenesis of pulmonary Cryptococcus neoformans infection and passive Ab efficacy in mice deficient in inducible NO synthase (NOS2 -/- ) and the parental strain. (elsevierpure.com)
  • We are interested in elucidating the process of melanogenesis in Cryptococcus neoformans, where melanin plays a key role during infection. (jhu.edu)
  • Sarah Gregory] Vancouver Island, Canada, reports the world's highest incidence of Cryptococcus gattii infection among humans and animals. (cdc.gov)
  • Bacterial and viral are the more prevalent and commonly discussed forms of meningitis, but one infectious disease expert at the University of Alabama at Birmingham says fungal meningitis stemming from Cryptococcus is the true "hidden epidemic" needing more attention - as it is deadly if it goes undiagnosed. (outbreaknewstoday.com)
  • The combined administration of an efflux inhibitor with itraconazole should increase cerebral itraconazole concentrations and therefore, improve the treatment of Cryptococcus neoformans meningitis with this antifungal agent. (pasteur.fr)
  • Although the focus of this draft global road map is not on other important causes of meningitis, such as tuberculosis, cryptococcus, enteric bacteria and viruses such as enterovirus, several goals directed at reducing the burden of disease are applicable to all causes of meningitis. (who.int)
  • describir las características epidemiológicas de las meningitis, en pacientes de todas las edades internados en el lapso de enero del 2014 a octubre del 2015 en el Hospital Nacional de Itauguá, Paraguay. (bvsalud.org)
  • Se incluye a pacientes de todas las edades que ingresaron con sospecha de meningitis y/o encefalitis en el periodo de estudio. (bvsalud.org)
  • en el periodo de estudio ingresaron 173 casos probables de 201 casos sospechosos de meningitis correspondiendo al 0,5% (173/35140) de todos los ingresos hospitalarios. (bvsalud.org)
  • No se ha registrado vacunación para N. meningitis en ningún caso. (bvsalud.org)
  • la incidencia total de meningitis en este periodo de estudio fue de 173 casos. (bvsalud.org)
  • La letalidad fue de 3% en los casos de encefalitis viral, 14% en meningitis bacteriana aguda y 43% en meningitis a Criptococcus. (bvsalud.org)
  • 7 cases (4%) Fungal Meningitis (Cryptococcus). (bvsalud.org)
  • 14% in MBA and 43% in Cryptococcus meningitis. (bvsalud.org)
  • Following changes to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, the practice of giving different names to teleomorph and anamorph forms of the same fungus was discontinued, meaning that Filobasidiella became a synonym of the earlier name Cryptococcus. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cryptococcus luteus is parasitic on Granulobasidium vellereum, a corticioid fungus, and is known from England and Italy. (wikipedia.org)
  • As a life-threatening fungus, Cryptococcus gattii ( C gattii ) species complex is emerging worldwide. (researchsquare.com)
  • Cryptococcus neoformans is an opportunistic pathogenic fungus of human beings that infects mainly immunocompromised patients. (unifesp.br)
  • The fungus Cryptococcus can be found all around the world, and most of us are likely to breathe it in at some point in our lives. (cnn.com)
  • Cryptococcus -- here's an example of a skin lesion caused by the fungus. (cnn.com)
  • There are over 30 different species of Cryptococcus -- here's an example of a skin lesion caused by the fungus. (cnn.com)
  • Christopher Uejio] Cryptococcus gattii is a fungus that can cause illness in humans and animals. (cdc.gov)
  • Christopher Uejio] People and animals living in areas with Cryptococcus gattii breathe in the microscopic fungus. (cdc.gov)
  • however, serotype A has been proposed to be reclassified into a separate variety Cryptococcus neoformans var grubii . (medscape.com)
  • Cryptococcus is a genus of fungi in the family Cryptococcaceae that includes both yeasts and filamentous species. (wikipedia.org)
  • Most yeast species formerly referred to Cryptococcus have now been placed in different genera. (wikipedia.org)
  • Some Cryptococcus species cause a disease called cryptococcosis. (wikipedia.org)
  • As a result, some ten species are currently recognized in Cryptococcus. (wikipedia.org)
  • The teleomorph was first described in 1975 by K.J. Kwon-Chung, who obtained cultures of the type species, Filobasidiella neoformans, by crossing strains of the yeast Cryptococcus neoformans. (wikipedia.org)
  • Some Cryptococcus species have a huge diversity at the infraspecific level with different molecular types based on their genetic differences, mainly due to their geographical distribution, molecular characteristics, and ecological niches. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cryptococcus species are not known to produce distinct, visible fruitbodies. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cryptococcus neoformans is cosmopolitan and is the most prominent medically important species. (wikipedia.org)
  • The taxonomy of C. neoformans has been reviewed: it has now been divided into two species: Cryptococcus neoformans sensu stricto and Cryptococcus deneoformans. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cryptococcus neoformans is a yeast that is the sole species of the genus capable of causing mycotic (fungal) disease. (encyclopedia.com)
  • Scholars@Duke publication: Vaccination with Recombinant Cryptococcus Proteins in Glucan Particles Protects Mice against Cryptococcosis in a Manner Dependent upon Mouse Strain and Cryptococcal Species. (duke.edu)
  • Protection varied depending on the mouse strain and cryptococcal species, suggesting that a successful human subunit vaccine will need to contain multiple antigens, including ones that are species specific.IMPORTANCE The encapsulated fungi Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii are responsible for nearly 200,000 deaths annually, mostly in immunocompromised individuals. (duke.edu)
  • Cryptococcal disease is acquired via inhalation of haploid yeast or basidiospores from the environment.Genus Filobasidiella contains approximately 38 Cryptococcus species. (doe.gov)
  • A few are pathogenic and constitute the pathogenic Cryptococcus species cluster. (doe.gov)
  • Two of the species, Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus bacillisporus , are the casual agents of the majority of human and animal cryptococcosis . (doe.gov)
  • Cryptococcus gattii, a species belonging to the Cryptococcus complex which occurs endemically in tropical and subtropical regions, has been reported as a causative agent of cryptococcosis in healthy individuals. (fiocruz.br)
  • Fungi of the Cryptococcus genus, mainly the species C. neoformans and C. gattii, are pathogens that cause meningoencephalitis , especially in immunocompromised individuals. (bvsalud.org)
  • Fungi of the Cryptococcus genus were isolated in 6 samples, of which 5 were identifi ed by conventional tests, such as C. neoformans and C. gattii, but these species were not confi rmed by molecular tests. (bvsalud.org)
  • If your laboratory does not currently use CGB agar for all Cryptococcus isolates, consider adding this to your laboratory's protocol. (whatcomcounty.org)
  • Similar to amphotericin B, liposomal nystatin and the parent compound nystatin also show favorable in vitro activity against most Cryptococcus neoformans isolates [ 385 , 1129 ]. (drfungus.org)
  • Azoles, particularly fluconazole and itraconazole , have been shown to have fungistatic effects against most Cryptococcus neoformans isolates [ 343 ]. (drfungus.org)
  • Although most Cryptococcus neoformans strains are susceptible to fluconazole, isolates with high MICs have been detected [ 1118 , 1742 , 2451 ]. (drfungus.org)
  • Using Etest instead of the reference microdilution method has resulted in misclassification of a number of susceptible Cryptococcus neoformans isolates as being resistant to fluconazole, itraconazole, and flucytosine [ 2378 ]. (drfungus.org)
  • A total of 476 European isolates (310 Cryptococcus neoformans var. (uludag.edu.tr)
  • The interaction between the fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans and human fibronectin (HFN) was examined in this study. (unifesp.br)
  • The genome of the basidiomycetous yeast and human pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans. (doe.gov)
  • Emergence and pathogenicity of highly virulent Cryptococcus gattii genotypes in the northwest United States. (duke.edu)
  • Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans can cause life-threatening infections, especially in immune-compromised patients. (japsonline.com)
  • Shehu A, Ismail S, Rohin MAK, Harun A, Aziz AA, Haque M. Antifungal Properties of Malaysian Tualang Honey and Stingless Bee Propolis against Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans. (japsonline.com)
  • A major research area of the department is focused on understanding the ecology and pathogenesis of Cryptococcus neoformans . (jhu.edu)
  • The filamentous, sexual forms or teleomorphs were formerly classified in the genus Filobasidiella, while Cryptococcus was reserved for the yeasts. (wikipedia.org)
  • em excretas de pombos nos arredores dos grandes hospitais de Porto Alegre / Presence and susceptibility to antifungal agents of Cryptococcus spp. (bvsalud.org)
  • Cryptococcus neoformans is the causative agent of pulmonary cryptococcosis and cryptococcal meningoencephalitis, which are major clinical manifestations in immunosuppressed patients. (unifesp.br)
  • INTRODUCTION: Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii are encapsulated basidiomycetous yeasts with worldwide distribution. (unifesp.br)
  • Cryptococcus neoformans is a yeast-like organism found commonly in pigeon bird droppings. (clevelandcliniclabs.com)
  • Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated fungal organism and it can cause disease in apparently immunocompetent, as well as immunocompromised, hosts. (ensembl.org)
  • However, there has been a dearth of research on CAP-Gly proteins in fungal pathogens, including Cryptococcus neoformans, which is a global cause of fatal meningoencephalitis in immunocompromised patients. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Cryptococcus neoformans is a yeast with a prominent polysaccharide capsule. (microbeonline.com)
  • Cryptococcus neoformans is the only pathogenic yeast known to have a polysaccharide capsule. (microbeonline.com)
  • Based on the differences in capsule polysaccharides, Cryptococcus is traditionally subdivided into 5 serotypes - A, B, C, D and AD. (doe.gov)
  • Cryptococcus neoformans is a leading cause of invasive fungal infections among immunocompromised patients. (listlabs.com)
  • Os fungos do gênero Cryptococcus foram isolados em seis amostras, sendo que cinco foram identificados, pelas provas convencionais, como o C. neoformans e uma o C. gattii, porém estas espécies não foram confirmadas pelas provas moleculares. (bvsalud.org)
  • Cryptococcus neoformans, an encapsulated fungal pathogen, causes meningoencephalitis in immunocompromised patients. (elsevierpure.com)
  • O presente estudo visa pesquisar o fungo Cryptococcus spp. (bvsalud.org)
  • He initially experienced symptoms of bilateral lower extremity lesions four months prior to presentation, during which surgical biopsy of a left lateral calf mass yielded necrotizing granulomatous inflammation with Cryptococcus . (hindawi.com)
  • Os fungos do gênero Cryptococcus , principalmente as espécies C. neoformans e C. gattii, são patógenos que causam a meningoencefalite , principalmente em indivíduos imunocomprometidos. (bvsalud.org)
  • sendo um de Cryptococcus laurentii , dois de Cryptococcus neoformans e um de Cryptococcus gattii . (ufrgs.br)
  • These alternatively activated macrophages were also shown to harbor highly encapsulated, replicating cryptococci. (elsevierpure.com)
  • In vitro synergy between amphotericin B and flucytosine or rifampin was observed for Cryptococcus neoformans strains isolated from patients who failed to respond to amphotericin B therapy [ 1939 ]. (drfungus.org)
  • Similarly, most of the Cryptococcus neoformans strains are susceptible to itraconazole in vitro [ 576 ]. (drfungus.org)
  • Cryptococcus gattii AFLP6/VGII was isolated from cerebrospinal fluid and molecular typing was performed by URA5-RFLP. (fiocruz.br)
  • Sabouraud's dextrose agar ) at room temperature or 37 °C. Cryptococcus neoformans are sensitive to cycloheximide so media containing cycloheximide should be avoided. (microbeonline.com)
  • We studied the effects of Amphotericin B (AmB) on Cryptococcus neoformans using different viability methods (CFUs enumeration, XTT assay and propidium iodide permeability). (unesp.br)
  • Amphotericin B exerts a fungicidal effect on Cryptococcus neoformans [ 343 ]. (drfungus.org)
  • In vitro data suggest that activities of amphotericin B and fluconazole against Cryptococcus neoformans may be enhanced by caspofungin [ 759 ]. (drfungus.org)
  • Using glucan particles (GPs) as a delivery system, we previously demonstrated that mice vaccinated with crude Cryptococcus-derived alkaline extracts were protected against lethal challenge with Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii The goal of the present study was to identify protective protein antigens that could be used in a subunit vaccine. (duke.edu)
  • The present study evaluated the efficacy of interferon-γ transgene expression by Cryptococcus neoformans strain H99γ in abrogating alternative macrophage activation in infected mice. (elsevierpure.com)
  • This case highlights the challenges that remain in improving clinical outcomes, the importance of antiretroviral therapy and HIV disease control, and a potential association between a chronic inflammatory state caused by disseminated Cryptococcus and tumorigenesis in individuals with PBL. (hindawi.com)
  • Cryptococcus gattii causes life-threatening disease in otherwise healthy hosts and to a lesser extent in immunocompromised hosts. (duke.edu)
  • We used " Cryptococcus gattii " and "China (or specific location)" to search all related publications in PubMed and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). (researchsquare.com)
  • Search Cryptococcus neoformans var. (ensembl.org)
  • The genome of Cryptococcus neoformans JEC21 (serotype D) was not sequenced by the JGI, but by TIGR. (doe.gov)