Laboratory tests used to evaluate how well the kidneys are working through examination of blood and urine.
Pathological processes of the KIDNEY or its component tissues.
The volume of water filtered out of plasma through glomerular capillary walls into Bowman's capsules per unit of time. It is considered to be equivalent to INULIN clearance.
Body organ that filters blood for the secretion of URINE and that regulates ion concentrations.
An extracellular cystatin subtype that is abundantly expressed in bodily fluids. It may play a role in the inhibition of interstitial CYSTEINE PROTEASES.
Abrupt reduction in kidney function. Acute kidney injury encompasses the entire spectrum of the syndrome including acute kidney failure; ACUTE KIDNEY TUBULAR NECROSIS; and other less severe conditions.
Conditions in which the KIDNEYS perform below the normal level in the ability to remove wastes, concentrate URINE, and maintain ELECTROLYTE BALANCE; BLOOD PRESSURE; and CALCIUM metabolism. Renal insufficiency can be classified by the degree of kidney damage (as measured by the level of PROTEINURIA) and reduction in GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE.
The end-stage of CHRONIC RENAL INSUFFICIENCY. It is characterized by the severe irreversible kidney damage (as measured by the level of PROTEINURIA) and the reduction in GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE to less than 15 ml per min (Kidney Foundation: Kidney Disease Outcome Quality Initiative, 2002). These patients generally require HEMODIALYSIS or KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION.
The urea concentration of the blood stated in terms of nitrogen content. Serum (plasma) urea nitrogen is approximately 12% higher than blood urea nitrogen concentration because of the greater protein content of red blood cells. Increases in blood or serum urea nitrogen are referred to as azotemia and may have prerenal, renal, or postrenal causes. (From Saunders Dictionary & Encyclopedia of Laboratory Medicine and Technology, 1984)
The presence of proteins in the urine, an indicator of KIDNEY DISEASES.
Measurable and quantifiable biological parameters (e.g., specific enzyme concentration, specific hormone concentration, specific gene phenotype distribution in a population, presence of biological substances) which serve as indices for health- and physiology-related assessments, such as disease risk, psychiatric disorders, environmental exposure and its effects, disease diagnosis, metabolic processes, substance abuse, pregnancy, cell line development, epidemiologic studies, etc.
A compound formed in the liver from ammonia produced by the deamination of amino acids. It is the principal end product of protein catabolism and constitutes about one half of the total urinary solids.
The transference of a kidney from one human or animal to another.
A homologous group of endogenous CYSTEINE PROTEINASE INHIBITORS. The cystatins inhibit most CYSTEINE ENDOPEPTIDASES such as PAPAIN, and other peptidases which have a sulfhydryl group at the active site.
An amino acid that occurs in vertebrate tissues and in urine. In muscle tissue, creatine generally occurs as phosphocreatine. Creatine is excreted as CREATININE in the urine.
Examination of urine by chemical, physical, or microscopic means. Routine urinalysis usually includes performing chemical screening tests, determining specific gravity, observing any unusual color or odor, screening for bacteriuria, and examining the sediment microscopically.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
Volume of biological fluid completely cleared of drug metabolites as measured in unit time. Elimination occurs as a result of metabolic processes in the kidney, liver, saliva, sweat, intestine, heart, brain, or other site.
KIDNEY injuries associated with diabetes mellitus and affecting KIDNEY GLOMERULUS; ARTERIOLES; KIDNEY TUBULES; and the interstitium. Clinical signs include persistent PROTEINURIA, from microalbuminuria progressing to ALBUMINURIA of greater than 300 mg/24 h, leading to reduced GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE and END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE.
Portable peritoneal dialysis using the continuous (24 hours a day, 7 days a week) presence of peritoneal dialysis solution in the peritoneal cavity except for periods of drainage and instillation of fresh solution.
Conditions in which the KIDNEYS perform below the normal level for more than three months. Chronic kidney insufficiency is classified by five stages according to the decline in GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE and the degree of kidney damage (as measured by the level of PROTEINURIA). The most severe form is the end-stage renal disease (CHRONIC KIDNEY FAILURE). (Kidney Foundation: Kidney Disease Outcome Quality Initiative, 2002)
A beta-N-Acetylhexosaminidase that catalyzes the hydrolysis of terminal, non-reducing 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-beta-glucose residues in chitobiose and higher analogs as well as in glycoproteins. Has been used widely in structural studies on bacterial cell walls and in the study of diseases such as MUCOLIPIDOSIS and various inflammatory disorders of muscle and connective tissue.
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
Therapy for the insufficient cleansing of the BLOOD by the kidneys based on dialysis and including hemodialysis, PERITONEAL DIALYSIS, and HEMODIAFILTRATION.
An oxidation product, via XANTHINE OXIDASE, of oxypurines such as XANTHINE and HYPOXANTHINE. It is the final oxidation product of purine catabolism in humans and primates, whereas in most other mammals URATE OXIDASE further oxidizes it to ALLANTOIN.
A diverse family of extracellular proteins that bind to small hydrophobic molecules. They were originally characterized as transport proteins, however they may have additional roles such as taking part in the formation of macromolecular complexes with other proteins and binding to CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS.
In screening and diagnostic tests, the probability that a person with a positive test is a true positive (i.e., has the disease), is referred to as the predictive value of a positive test; whereas, the predictive value of a negative test is the probability that the person with a negative test does not have the disease. Predictive value is related to the sensitivity and specificity of the test.
Long convoluted tubules in the nephrons. They collect filtrate from blood passing through the KIDNEY GLOMERULUS and process this filtrate into URINE. Each renal tubule consists of a BOWMAN CAPSULE; PROXIMAL KIDNEY TUBULE; LOOP OF HENLE; DISTAL KIDNEY TUBULE; and KIDNEY COLLECTING DUCT leading to the central cavity of the kidney (KIDNEY PELVIS) that connects to the URETER.
Dialysis fluid being introduced into and removed from the peritoneal cavity as either a continuous or an intermittent procedure.
A contrast medium in diagnostic radiology with properties similar to those of diatrizoic acid. It is used primarily as its sodium and meglumine (IOTHALAMATE MEGLUMINE) salts.
Solutions prepared for exchange across a semipermeable membrane of solutes below a molecular size determined by the cutoff threshold of the membrane material.
The range or frequency distribution of a measurement in a population (of organisms, organs or things) that has not been selected for the presence of disease or abnormality.
Acute kidney failure resulting from destruction of EPITHELIAL CELLS of the KIDNEY TUBULES. It is commonly attributed to exposure to toxic agents or renal ISCHEMIA following severe TRAUMA.
Agents that suppress immune function by one of several mechanisms of action. Classical cytotoxic immunosuppressants act by inhibiting DNA synthesis. Others may act through activation of T-CELLS or by inhibiting the activation of HELPER CELLS. While immunosuppression has been brought about in the past primarily to prevent rejection of transplanted organs, new applications involving mediation of the effects of INTERLEUKINS and other CYTOKINES are emerging.
Excision of kidney.
Studies in which individuals or populations are followed to assess the outcome of exposures, procedures, or effects of a characteristic, e.g., occurrence of disease.
Method of analyzing chemicals using automation.
Absence of urine formation. It is usually associated with complete bilateral ureteral (URETER) obstruction, complete lower urinary tract obstruction, or unilateral ureteral obstruction when a solitary kidney is present.
A membrane of squamous EPITHELIAL CELLS, the mesothelial cells, covered by apical MICROVILLI that allow rapid absorption of fluid and particles in the PERITONEAL CAVITY. The peritoneum is divided into parietal and visceral components. The parietal peritoneum covers the inside of the ABDOMINAL WALL. The visceral peritoneum covers the intraperitoneal organs. The double-layered peritoneum forms the MESENTERY that suspends these organs from the abdominal wall.
An effective non-ionic, water-soluble contrast agent which is used in myelography, arthrography, nephroangiography, arteriography, and other radiographic procedures. Its low systemic toxicity is the combined result of low chemotoxicity and low osmolality.
An examination of chemicals in the blood.
PRESSURE of the BLOOD on the ARTERIES and other BLOOD VESSELS.
A clinical syndrome associated with the retention of renal waste products or uremic toxins in the blood. It is usually the result of RENAL INSUFFICIENCY. Most uremic toxins are end products of protein or nitrogen CATABOLISM, such as UREA or CREATININE. Severe uremia can lead to multiple organ dysfunctions with a constellation of symptoms.
A chronic form of glomerulonephritis characterized by deposits of predominantly IMMUNOGLOBULIN A in the mesangial area (GLOMERULAR MESANGIUM). Deposits of COMPLEMENT C3 and IMMUNOGLOBULIN G are also often found. Clinical features may progress from asymptomatic HEMATURIA to END-STAGE KIDNEY DISEASE.
An 11-kDa protein associated with the outer membrane of many cells including lymphocytes. It is the small subunit of the MHC class I molecule. Association with beta 2-microglobulin is generally required for the transport of class I heavy chains from the endoplasmic reticulum to the cell surface. Beta 2-microglobulin is present in small amounts in serum, csf, and urine of normal people, and to a much greater degree in the urine and plasma of patients with tubular proteinemia, renal failure, or kidney transplants.
The ratio of the density of a material to the density of some standard material, such as water or air, at a specified temperature.
Studies in which subsets of a defined population are identified. These groups may or may not be exposed to factors hypothesized to influence the probability of the occurrence of a particular disease or other outcome. Cohorts are defined populations which, as a whole, are followed in an attempt to determine distinguishing subgroup characteristics.
An immune response with both cellular and humoral components, directed against an allogeneic transplant, whose tissue antigens are not compatible with those of the recipient.
A cyclic undecapeptide from an extract of soil fungi. It is a powerful immunosupressant with a specific action on T-lymphocytes. It is used for the prophylaxis of graft rejection in organ and tissue transplantation. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed).
A major protein in the BLOOD. It is important in maintaining the colloidal osmotic pressure and transporting large organic molecules.
Liquid by-product of excretion produced in the kidneys, temporarily stored in the bladder until discharge through the URETHRA.
Levels within a diagnostic group which are established by various measurement criteria applied to the seriousness of a patient's disorder.
Persistently high systemic arterial BLOOD PRESSURE. Based on multiple readings (BLOOD PRESSURE DETERMINATION), hypertension is currently defined as when SYSTOLIC PRESSURE is consistently greater than 140 mm Hg or when DIASTOLIC PRESSURE is consistently 90 mm Hg or more.
A prediction of the probable outcome of a disease based on a individual's condition and the usual course of the disease as seen in similar situations.
A starch found in the tubers and roots of many plants. Since it is hydrolyzable to FRUCTOSE, it is classified as a fructosan. It has been used in physiologic investigation for determination of the rate of glomerular function.
Narrowing or occlusion of the RENAL ARTERY or arteries. It is due usually to ATHEROSCLEROSIS; FIBROMUSCULAR DYSPLASIA; THROMBOSIS; EMBOLISM, or external pressure. The reduced renal perfusion can lead to renovascular hypertension (HYPERTENSION, RENOVASCULAR).
A cluster of convoluted capillaries beginning at each nephric tubule in the kidney and held together by connective tissue.
Decreased URINE output that is below the normal range. Oliguria can be defined as urine output of less than or equal to 0.5 or 1 ml/kg/hr depending on the age.
The survival of a graft in a host, the factors responsible for the survival and the changes occurring within the graft during growth in the host.
Salts and esters of hippuric acid.
A bile pigment that is a degradation product of HEME.
Inflammation of the renal glomeruli (KIDNEY GLOMERULUS) that can be classified by the type of glomerular injuries including antibody deposition, complement activation, cellular proliferation, and glomerulosclerosis. These structural and functional abnormalities usually lead to HEMATURIA; PROTEINURIA; HYPERTENSION; and RENAL INSUFFICIENCY.
Age as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or the effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from AGING, a physiological process, and TIME FACTORS which refers only to the passage of time.
Substances used to allow enhanced visualization of tissues.
The mass or quantity of heaviness of an individual. It is expressed by units of pounds or kilograms.
A branch of the abdominal aorta which supplies the kidneys, adrenal glands and ureters.
The qualitative or quantitative estimation of the likelihood of adverse effects that may result from exposure to specified health hazards or from the absence of beneficial influences. (Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 1988)
Diseases which have one or more of the following characteristics: they are permanent, leave residual disability, are caused by nonreversible pathological alteration, require special training of the patient for rehabilitation, or may be expected to require a long period of supervision, observation, or care. (Dictionary of Health Services Management, 2d ed)
Procedures for finding the mathematical function which best describes the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. In linear regression (see LINEAR MODELS) the relationship is constrained to be a straight line and LEAST-SQUARES ANALYSIS is used to determine the best fit. In logistic regression (see LOGISTIC MODELS) the dependent variable is qualitative rather than continuously variable and LIKELIHOOD FUNCTIONS are used to find the best relationship. In multiple regression, the dependent variable is considered to depend on more than a single independent variable.
Studies in which the presence or absence of disease or other health-related variables are determined in each member of the study population or in a representative sample at one particular time. This contrasts with LONGITUDINAL STUDIES which are followed over a period of time.
Any technique by which an unknown color is evaluated in terms of standard colors. The technique may be visual, photoelectric, or indirect by means of spectrophotometry. It is used in chemistry and physics. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
The worsening of a disease over time. This concept is most often used for chronic and incurable diseases where the stage of the disease is an important determinant of therapy and prognosis.
The separation of particles from a suspension by passage through a filter with very fine pores. In ultrafiltration the separation is accomplished by convective transport; in DIALYSIS separation relies instead upon differential diffusion. Ultrafiltration occurs naturally and is a laboratory procedure. Artificial ultrafiltration of the blood is referred to as HEMOFILTRATION or HEMODIAFILTRATION (if combined with HEMODIALYSIS).
Substances that dissociate into two or more ions, to some extent, in water. Solutions of electrolytes thus conduct an electric current and can be decomposed by it (ELECTROLYSIS). (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
A set of techniques used when variation in several variables has to be studied simultaneously. In statistics, multivariate analysis is interpreted as any analytic method that allows simultaneous study of two or more dependent variables.
Agents that promote the excretion of urine through their effects on kidney function.
A technetium imaging agent used in renal scintigraphy, computed tomography, lung ventilation imaging, gastrointestinal scintigraphy, and many other procedures which employ radionuclide imaging agents.
Adverse functional, metabolic, or structural changes in ischemic tissues resulting from the restoration of blood flow to the tissue (REPERFUSION), including swelling; HEMORRHAGE; NECROSIS; and damage from FREE RADICALS. The most common instance is MYOCARDIAL REPERFUSION INJURY.
Necrosis or disintegration of skeletal muscle often followed by myoglobinuria.
A class of drugs whose main indications are the treatment of hypertension and heart failure. They exert their hemodynamic effect mainly by inhibiting the renin-angiotensin system. They also modulate sympathetic nervous system activity and increase prostaglandin synthesis. They cause mainly vasodilation and mild natriuresis without affecting heart rate and contractility.
A complex of closely related aminoglycosides obtained from MICROMONOSPORA purpurea and related species. They are broad-spectrum antibiotics, but may cause ear and kidney damage. They act to inhibit PROTEIN BIOSYNTHESIS.
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
A clinicopathological syndrome or diagnostic term for a type of glomerular injury that has multiple causes, primary or secondary. Clinical features include PROTEINURIA, reduced GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE, and EDEMA. Kidney biopsy initially indicates focal segmental glomerular consolidation (hyalinosis) or scarring which can progress to globally sclerotic glomeruli leading to eventual KIDNEY FAILURE.
A condition characterized by severe PROTEINURIA, greater than 3.5 g/day in an average adult. The substantial loss of protein in the urine results in complications such as HYPOPROTEINEMIA; generalized EDEMA; HYPERTENSION; and HYPERLIPIDEMIAS. Diseases associated with nephrotic syndrome generally cause chronic kidney dysfunction.
A subclass of DIABETES MELLITUS that is not INSULIN-responsive or dependent (NIDDM). It is characterized initially by INSULIN RESISTANCE and HYPERINSULINEMIA; and eventually by GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE; HYPERGLYCEMIA; and overt diabetes. Type II diabetes mellitus is no longer considered a disease exclusively found in adults. Patients seldom develop KETOSIS but often exhibit OBESITY.
Inflammation of the interstitial tissue of the kidney. This term is generally used for primary inflammation of KIDNEY TUBULES and/or surrounding interstitium. For primary inflammation of glomerular interstitium, see GLOMERULONEPHRITIS. Infiltration of the inflammatory cells into the interstitial compartment results in EDEMA, increased spaces between the tubules, and tubular renal dysfunction.
Pathologic processes that affect patients after a surgical procedure. They may or may not be related to the disease for which the surgery was done, and they may or may not be direct results of the surgery.
A type of glomerulonephritis that is characterized by the accumulation of immune deposits (COMPLEMENT MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX) on the outer aspect of the GLOMERULAR BASEMENT MEMBRANE. It progresses from subepithelial dense deposits, to basement membrane reaction and eventual thickening of the basement membrane.
Liquid chromatographic techniques which feature high inlet pressures, high sensitivity, and high speed.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
Persistent high BLOOD PRESSURE due to KIDNEY DISEASES, such as those involving the renal parenchyma, the renal vasculature, or tumors that secrete RENIN.
A graphic means for assessing the ability of a screening test to discriminate between healthy and diseased persons; may also be used in other studies, e.g., distinguishing stimuli responses as to a faint stimuli or nonstimuli.
Therapy with two or more separate preparations given for a combined effect.
An increase in the excretion of URINE. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
Functional KIDNEY FAILURE in patients with liver disease, usually LIVER CIRRHOSIS or portal hypertension (HYPERTENSION, PORTAL), and in the absence of intrinsic renal disease or kidney abnormality. It is characterized by intense renal vasculature constriction, reduced renal blood flow, OLIGURIA, and sodium retention.
The time it takes for a substance (drug, radioactive nuclide, or other) to lose half of its pharmacologic, physiologic, or radiologic activity.
Proteins that are secreted into the blood in increased or decreased quantities by hepatocytes in response to trauma, inflammation, or disease. These proteins can serve as inhibitors or mediators of the inflammatory processes. Certain acute-phase proteins have been used to diagnose and follow the course of diseases or as tumor markers.
Histidine substituted in any position with one or more methyl groups.
Glomerulonephritis associated with autoimmune disease SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS. Lupus nephritis is histologically classified into 6 classes: class I - normal glomeruli, class II - pure mesangial alterations, class III - focal segmental glomerulonephritis, class IV - diffuse glomerulonephritis, class V - diffuse membranous glomerulonephritis, and class VI - advanced sclerosing glomerulonephritis (The World Health Organization classification 1982).
A group of condensed ring hydrocarbons.
A method of studying a drug or procedure in which both the subjects and investigators are kept unaware of who is actually getting which specific treatment.
An antibiotic substance derived from Penicillium stoloniferum, and related species. It blocks de novo biosynthesis of purine nucleotides by inhibition of the enzyme inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase. Mycophenolic acid is important because of its selective effects on the immune system. It prevents the proliferation of T-cells, lymphocytes, and the formation of antibodies from B-cells. It also may inhibit recruitment of leukocytes to inflammatory sites. (From Gilman et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th ed, p1301)
The statistical reproducibility of measurements (often in a clinical context), including the testing of instrumentation or techniques to obtain reproducible results. The concept includes reproducibility of physiological measurements, which may be used to develop rules to assess probability or prognosis, or response to a stimulus; reproducibility of occurrence of a condition; and reproducibility of experimental results.
Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body.
A macrolide isolated from the culture broth of a strain of Streptomyces tsukubaensis that has strong immunosuppressive activity in vivo and prevents the activation of T-lymphocytes in response to antigenic or mitogenic stimulation in vitro.
The circulation of the BLOOD through the vessels of the KIDNEY.
Statistical models in which the value of a parameter for a given value of a factor is assumed to be equal to a + bx, where a and b are constants. The models predict a linear regression.
General dysfunction of an organ occurring immediately following its transplantation. The term most frequently refers to renal dysfunction following KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION.
Procedures which temporarily or permanently remedy insufficient cleansing of body fluids by the kidneys.
The period following a surgical operation.
The proportion of survivors in a group, e.g., of patients, studied and followed over a period, or the proportion of persons in a specified group alive at the beginning of a time interval who survive to the end of the interval. It is often studied using life table methods.
A thiol-containing amino acid formed by a demethylation of METHIONINE.
Triiodo-substituted derivatives of BENZOIC ACID.
A class of statistical procedures for estimating the survival function (function of time, starting with a population 100% well at a given time and providing the percentage of the population still well at later times). The survival analysis is then used for making inferences about the effects of treatments, prognostic factors, exposures, and other covariates on the function.
The two dimensional measure of the outer layer of the body.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
Extracorporeal ULTRAFILTRATION technique without HEMODIALYSIS for treatment of fluid overload and electrolyte disturbances affecting renal, cardiac, or pulmonary function.
A member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol Na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23.
Statistical models which describe the relationship between a qualitative dependent variable (that is, one which can take only certain discrete values, such as the presence or absence of a disease) and an independent variable. A common application is in epidemiology for estimating an individual's risk (probability of a disease) as a function of a given risk factor.
Drugs used in the treatment of acute or chronic vascular HYPERTENSION regardless of pharmacological mechanism. Among the antihypertensive agents are DIURETICS; (especially DIURETICS, THIAZIDE); ADRENERGIC BETA-ANTAGONISTS; ADRENERGIC ALPHA-ANTAGONISTS; ANGIOTENSIN-CONVERTING ENZYME INHIBITORS; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKERS; GANGLIONIC BLOCKERS; and VASODILATOR AGENTS.
Individuals supplying living tissue, organs, cells, blood or blood components for transfer or transplantation to histocompatible recipients.
The combination of hemodialysis and hemofiltration either simultaneously or sequentially. Convective transport (hemofiltration) may be better for removal of larger molecular weight substances and diffusive transport (hemodialysis) for smaller molecular weight solutes.
The long-term (minutes to hours) administration of a fluid into the vein through venipuncture, either by letting the fluid flow by gravity or by pumping it.
Abnormally high potassium concentration in the blood, most often due to defective renal excretion. It is characterized clinically by electrocardiographic abnormalities (elevated T waves and depressed P waves, and eventually by atrial asystole). In severe cases, weakness and flaccid paralysis may occur. (Dorland, 27th ed)
The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from PREVALENCE, which refers to all cases, new or old, in the population at a given time.
A non-metal element that has the atomic symbol P, atomic number 15, and atomic weight 31. It is an essential element that takes part in a broad variety of biochemical reactions.
The giving of drugs, chemicals, or other substances by mouth.
Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison, referent) group without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing diseased and non-diseased persons with regard to the frequency or levels of the attribute in each group.
The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from INCIDENCE, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time.
Statistical models used in survival analysis that assert that the effect of the study factors on the hazard rate in the study population is multiplicative and does not change over time.
State of the body in relation to the consumption and utilization of nutrients.
Disease having a short and relatively severe course.
A disease or state in which death is possible or imminent.
Presence of blood in the urine.
A biochemical abnormality referring to an elevation of BLOOD UREA NITROGEN and CREATININE. Azotemia can be produced by KIDNEY DISEASES or other extrarenal disorders. When azotemia becomes associated with a constellation of clinical signs, it is termed UREMIA.
Hardening of the KIDNEY due to infiltration by fibrous connective tissue (FIBROSIS), usually caused by renovascular diseases or chronic HYPERTENSION. Nephrosclerosis leads to renal ISCHEMIA.
The exposure to potentially harmful chemical, physical, or biological agents that occurs as a result of one's occupation.
Time schedule for administration of a drug in order to achieve optimum effectiveness and convenience.
A statistical means of summarizing information from a series of measurements on one individual. It is frequently used in clinical pharmacology where the AUC from serum levels can be interpreted as the total uptake of whatever has been administered. As a plot of the concentration of a drug against time, after a single dose of medicine, producing a standard shape curve, it is a means of comparing the bioavailability of the same drug made by different companies. (From Winslade, Dictionary of Clinical Research, 1992)
The appearance of an abnormally large amount of GLUCOSE in the urine, such as more than 500 mg/day in adults. It can be due to HYPERGLYCEMIA or genetic defects in renal reabsorption (RENAL GLYCOSURIA).
Maleness or femaleness as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from SEX CHARACTERISTICS, anatomical or physiological manifestations of sex, and from SEX DISTRIBUTION, the number of males and females in given circumstances.
A histamine congener, it competitively inhibits HISTAMINE binding to HISTAMINE H2 RECEPTORS. Cimetidine has a range of pharmacological actions. It inhibits GASTRIC ACID secretion, as well as PEPSIN and GASTRIN output.
A series of steps taken in order to conduct research.
Inflammation of any part of the KIDNEY.
A distribution in which a variable is distributed like the sum of the squares of any given independent random variable, each of which has a normal distribution with mean of zero and variance of one. The chi-square test is a statistical test based on comparison of a test statistic to a chi-square distribution. The oldest of these tests are used to detect whether two or more population distributions differ from one another.
A benzoic-sulfonamide-furan. It is a diuretic with fast onset and short duration that is used for EDEMA and chronic RENAL INSUFFICIENCY.
A heterogeneous condition in which the heart is unable to pump out sufficient blood to meet the metabolic need of the body. Heart failure can be caused by structural defects, functional abnormalities (VENTRICULAR DYSFUNCTION), or a sudden overload beyond its capacity. Chronic heart failure is more common than acute heart failure which results from sudden insult to cardiac function, such as MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION.
The transference of a part of or an entire liver from one human or animal to another.
An element with atomic symbol Cd, atomic number 48, and atomic weight 114. It is a metal and ingestion will lead to CADMIUM POISONING.
Poisoning occurring after exposure to cadmium compounds or fumes. It may cause gastrointestinal syndromes, anemia, or pneumonitis.
Pathological conditions involving the CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM including the HEART; the BLOOD VESSELS; or the PERICARDIUM.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
Enzymes of the transferase class that catalyze the conversion of L-aspartate and 2-ketoglutarate to oxaloacetate and L-glutamate. EC 2.6.1.1.

Late referral of end-stage renal failure. (1/7078)

We studied all new patients accepted for renal replacement therapy (RRT) in one unit from 1/1/96 to 31/12/97 (n = 198), to establish time from nephrology referral to RRT, evidence of renal disease prior to referral and the adequacy of renal management prior to referral. Sixty four (32.3%, late referral group) required RRT within 12 weeks of referral. Fifty-nine (29.8%) had recognizable signs of chronic renal failure > 26 weeks prior to referral. Patients starting RRT soon after referral were hospitalized for significantly longer on starting RRT (RRT within 12 weeks of referral, median hospitalization 25.0 days (n = 64); RRT > 12 weeks after referral, median 9.7 days (n = 126), (p < 0.001)). Observed survival at 1 year was 68.3% overall, with 1-year survival of the late referral and early referral groups being 60.5% and 72.5%, respectively (p = NS). Hypertension was found in 159 patients (80.3%): 46 (28.9%) were started on antihypertensive medication following referral, while a further 28 (17.6%) were started on additional antihypertensives. Of the diabetic population (n = 78), only 26 (33.3%) were on an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor (ACEI) at referral. Many patients are referred late for dialysis despite early signs of renal failure, and the pre-referral management of many of the patients, as evidenced by the treatment of hypertension and use of ACEI in diabetics, is less than optimal.  (+info)

Mycophenolate mofetil prevents the progressive renal failure induced by 5/6 renal ablation in rats. (2/7078)

BACKGROUND: Extensive renal ablation is associated with progressive sclerosis of the remnant kidney. Because lymphocytes and monocytes accumulate in the remnant kidney, it is likely that they play a role in the renal scarring. Therefore, we treated rats with 5/6 nephrectomy (5/6Nx) with mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), a drug that has an antiproliferative effect and that suppresses the expression of intercellular adhesion molecules. METHODS: Sprague-Dawley rats with 5/6Nx received MMF (30 mg. kg-1. day-1 by daily gastric gavage, N = 15) or vehicle (N = 16). Ten additional rats were sham operated. All rats were fed a 30% protein diet. Body weight, serum creatinine, and urinary protein excretion were determined weekly. Lipid peroxidation, as a measure of oxidative stress observed by urinary malondialdehyde determinations, was performed every two weeks. Histologic studies were done in the remnant kidney four weeks (9 rats from the vehicle-treated group, 7 rats from the MMF group, and 5 sham-operated rats) and eight weeks after surgery (the remaining rats). Glomerular volume, sclerosis in glomeruli (segmental and global) and interstitium (semiquantitative scale), infiltrating lymphocytes and macrophages (CD43- and ED1-positive cells), and expression of adhesion molecules (CD54, CD18, and CD11b) were analyzed. RESULTS: MMF treatment prevented the progressive increment in serum creatinine and the proteinuria observed in the 5/6 nephrectomized rats during the eight weeks of observation (P < 0.01). Weight gain was comparable in the MMF-treated and sham-operated rats, whereas weight gain was decreased in untreated 5/6 nephrectomized rats. Excretion of malondialdehyde increased after surgery but returned sooner to control levels in the MMF-treated rats. Increments in glomerular size and mean arterial blood pressure induced by renal ablation were not modified by MMF treatment. Eight weeks after surgery, segmental sclerosis was present in 48.4 +/- 8.35% (+/- sd) glomeruli in the vehicle-treated group versus 25 +/- 10.5% in the MMF-treated group (P < 0.001). Interstitial fibrosis was reduced significantly with MMF treatment (P < 0.001). Infiltration with CD43- and ED1-positive cells in glomeruli and interstitium was two to five times lower in MMF-treated rats (P < 0.01). Expression of adhesion molecules CD18 and CD11b was similarly reduced. CONCLUSION: MMF ameliorates the progressive renal damage in the remnant kidney after 5/6Nx. This effect is associated with a reduction in the infiltration of lymphocytes and monocytes, whereas glomerular hypertrophy and systemic hypertension are unchanged.  (+info)

Serum levels of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, and 25-hydroxyvitamin D in nondialyzed patients with chronic renal failure. (3/7078)

BACKGROUND: In patients with chronic renal failure (CRF), abnormalities in vitamin D metabolism are known to be present, and several factors could contribute to the abnormalities. METHODS: We measured serum levels of three vitamin D metabolites, 1,25(OH)2D, 24, 25(OH)2D and 25(OH)D, and analyzed factors affecting their levels in 76 nondialyzed patients with CRF (serum creatinine> 1.6 and < 9.0 mg/dl), 37 of whom had diabetes mellitus (DM-CRF) and 39 of whom were nondiabetic (nonDM-CRF). RESULTS: Serum levels of 1,25(OH)2D were positively correlated with estimated creatinine clearance (CCr; r = 0.429; P < 0.0001), and levels of 24,25(OH)2D were weakly correlated with CCr (r = 0.252, P < 0.05); no correlation was noted for 25(OH)D. Serum levels of all three vitamin D metabolites were significantly and positively correlated with serum albumin. Although there were no significant differences in age, sex, estimated CCr, calcium and phosphate between DM-CRF and nonDM-CRF, all three vitamin D metabolites were significantly lower in DM-CRF than in nonDM-CRF. To analyze factors influencing vitamin D metabolite levels, we performed multiple regression analyses. Serum 25(OH)D levels were significantly and independently associated with serum albumin, presence of DM and serum phosphate (R2 = 0.599; P < 0.0001). 24,25(OH)2D levels were significantly and strongly associated with 25(OH)D (beta = 0.772; R2 = 0.446; P < 0.0001). Serum 1,25(OH)2D levels were significantly associated only with estimated CCr (R2 = 0. 409; P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that hypoalbuminemia and the presence of DM independently affect serum 25(OH)D levels, probably via diabetic nephropathy and poor nutritional status associated with diabetes, and that 25(OH)D is actively catalyzed to 24,25(OH)2D in CRF, probably largely via extrarenal 24-hydroxylase. Serum levels of 1,25(OH)2D were significantly affected by the degree of renal failure. Thus, this study indicates that patients with CRF, particularly those with DM, should receive supplements containing the active form of vitamin D prior to dialysis.  (+info)

Plasma total homocysteine and cysteine in relation to glomerular filtration rate in diabetes mellitus. (4/7078)

BACKGROUND: The plasma concentrations of total homocysteine (tHcy) and total cysteine (tCys) are determined by intracellular metabolism and by renal plasma clearance, and we hypothesized that glomerular filtration is a major determinant of plasma tHcy and tCys. We studied the relationships between the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and plasma tHcy and tCys in populations of diabetic patients with particularly wide ranges of GFR. METHODS: We measured GFR, urine albumin excretion rate (UAER), plasma tHcy, tCys, methionine, vitamin B12, folate, C-peptide, and routine parameters in 50 insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) and 30 non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) patients. All patients underwent intensive insulin treatment and had a serum creatinine concentration below 115 micromol/liter. RESULTS: Mean plasma tHcy in diabetic patients (0.1 micromol/liter) was lower than in normal persons (11.1 micromol/liter, P = 0.0014). Mean plasma tCys in diabetic patients (266.1 micromol/liter) was also lower than in normal persons (281.9 micromol/liter, P = 0.0005). Seventy-three percent of the diabetic patients had relative hyperfiltration. Plasma tHcy and tCys were closely and independently associated with GFR, serum folate, and serum B12. However, plasma tHcy was not independently associated with any of the 22 other variables tested, including age, serum creatinine concentration, UAER, total daily insulin dose, and glycemic control. CONCLUSIONS: Glomerular filtration rate is an independent determinant of plasma tHcy and tCys concentrations, and GFR is rate limiting for renal clearance of both homocysteine and cysteine in diabetic patients without overt nephropathy. Declining GFR explains the age-related increase in plasma tHcy, and hyperfiltration explains the lower than normal mean plasma tHcy and tCys concentrations in populations of diabetic patients.  (+info)

HIV-associated nephropathy is a late, not early, manifestation of HIV-1 infection. (5/7078)

BACKGROUND: Human immunodeficiency virus-associated nephropathy (HIVAN) can be the initial presentation of HIV-1 infection. As a result, many have assumed that HIVAN can occur at any point in the infection. This issue has important implications for appropriate therapy and, perhaps, for pathogenesis. Since the development of new case definitions for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and better tools to assess infection, the relationship of HIVAN to the time of AIDS infection has not been addressed. In this study, we reassessed the stage of infection at the time of HIVAN diagnosis in 10 patients, and we reviewed all previously published cases applying the new case definitions to assess stage of infection. METHODS: HIVAN was confirmed by kidney biopsy in HIV seropositive patients with azotemia and/or proteinuria. CD4+ cell count and plasma HIV-1 RNA copy number were measured. We also reviewed all published cases of HIVAN to determine if AIDS-defining conditions, by current Centers for Disease Control definitions, were present in patients with biopsy-proven HIVAN. RESULTS: Twenty HIV-1 seropositive patients with proteinuria and an elevated creatinine concentration were biopsied. HIVAN was the single most common cause of renal disease. CD4+ cell count was below 200/mm3 in all patients with HIVAN, fulfilling Centers for Disease Control criteria for an AIDS-defining condition. HIV-1 plasma RNA was detectable in all patients with HIVAN. In reviewing previous reports, an AIDS-defining condition was present in virtually all patients with HIVAN. CONCLUSION: HIVAN develops late, not early, in the course of HIV-1 infection following the development of AIDS. This likely accounts for the poor prognosis noted in previous publications and has implications for pathogenesis. In addition, given the detectable viral RNA levels, highly active antiretroviral therapy is indicated in HIVAN. Highly active antiretroviral therapy may improve survival as well as alter the natural history of HIVAN.  (+info)

Long-term effects of cyclosporine A in Alport's syndrome. (6/7078)

BACKGROUND: In 1991, our initial results of cyclosporine A (CsA) administration in eight patients with Alport's syndrome were published. A significant decrease in or disappearance of proteinuria and apparently good tolerance to CsA were observed in all patients. METHODS: CsA administration has been maintained in these eight patients with the aim of obtaining further information about the clinical course of the disease. The ages of these eight patients currently range from 15 to 27 years, and the mean duration of treatment is from 7 to 10 years (x = 8.4 years). RESULTS: Renal function has remained stable, with no evaluable changes in serum creatinine levels compared with pre-CsA treatment values. Proteinuria in all patients has either remained negative or are values far lower than pretreatment levels. A second renal biopsy was performed in all patients after five years of CsA administration. No aggravation of the lesion present at the first biopsy or lesions typical of cyclosporine intoxication was observed. CONCLUSIONS: After a mean duration of 8.4 years and with no deterioration in renal function, we found possible beneficial effects of the continued treatment of CsA in patients with Alport's syndrome who present evidence of progression to renal insufficiency.  (+info)

Renal failure predisposes patients to adverse outcome after coronary artery bypass surgery. VA Cooperative Study #5. (7/7078)

BACKGROUND: More than 600,000 coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) procedures are done annually in the United States. Some data indicate that 10 to 20% of patients who are undergoing a CABG procedure have a serum creatinine of more than 1.5 mg/dl. There are few data on the impact of a mild increase in serum creatinine concentration on CABG outcome. METHODS: We analyzed a Veterans Affairs database obtained prospectively from 1992 through 1996 at 14 of 43 centers performing heart surgery. We compared the outcome after CABG in patients with a baseline serum creatinine of less than 1.5 mg/dl (median 1.1 mg/dl, N = 3271) to patients with a baseline serum creatinine of 1.5 to 3.0 mg/dl (median 1.7, N = 631). RESULTS: Univariate analysis revealed that patients with a serum creatinine of 1.5 to 3.0 mg/dl had a higher 30-day mortality (7% vs. 3%, P < 0.001) requirement for prolonged mechanical ventilation (15% vs. 8%, P = 0.001), stroke (7% vs. 2%, P < 0.001), renal failure requiring dialysis at discharge (3% vs. 1%, P < 0.001), and bleeding complications (8% vs. 3%, P < 0.001) than patients with a baseline serum creatinine of less than 1.5 mg/dl. Multiple logistic regression analyses found that patients with a baseline serum creatinine of less than 1.5 mg/dl had significantly lower (P < 0.02) 30-day mortality and postoperative bleeding and ventilatory complications than patients with a serum creatinine of 1.5 to 3.0 mg/dl when controlling for all other variables. CONCLUSION: These results demonstrate that mild renal failure is an independent risk factor for adverse outcome after CABG.  (+info)

Effect of fasting on temporal variation in the nephrotoxicity of amphotericin B in rats. (8/7078)

Evidence for temporal variation in the nephrotoxicity of amphotericin B was recently reported in experimental animals. The role of food in these variations was determined by studying the effect of a short fasting period on the temporal variation in the renal toxicity of amphotericin B. Twenty-eight normally fed and 28 fasted female Sprague-Dawley rats were used. Food was available ad libitum to the fed rats, while the fasted animals were fasted 12 h before and 24 h after amphotericin B injection to minimize stress for the animals. Water was available ad libitum to both groups of rats, which were maintained on a 14-h light, 10-h dark regimen (light on at 0600 h). Renal toxicity was determined by comparing the levels of excretion of renal enzyme and the serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels at the time of the maximal (0700 h) or the minimal (1900 h) nephrotoxicity after the intraperitoneal administration of a single dose of dextrose (5%; control group) or amphotericin B (50 mg/kg of body weight; treated group) to the rats. The nephrotoxicities obtained after amphotericin B administration at both times of day were compared to the nephrotoxicities observed for time-matched controls. In fed animals, the 24-h urinary excretion of N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase and beta-galactosidase was significantly higher when amphotericin B was injected at 0700 and 1900 h. The excretion of these two enzymes was reduced significantly (P < 0.05) in fasting rats, and this effect was larger at 0700 h (P < 0.05) than at 1900 h. The serum creatinine level was also significantly higher (P < 0.05) in fed animals treated at 0700 h than in fed animals treated at 1900 h. Fasting reduced significantly (P < 0.05) the increase in the serum creatinine level, and this effect was larger in the animals treated at 0700 h. Similar data were obtained for BUN levels. Amphotericin B accumulation was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the renal cortexes of fed rats than in those of fasted animals, but there was no difference according to the time of injection. These results demonstrated that fasting reduces the nephrotoxicity of amphotericin B and that food availability is of crucial importance in the temporal variation in the renal toxicity of amphotericin B in rats.  (+info)

Types of Kidney Diseases:

1. Acute Kidney Injury (AKI): A sudden and reversible loss of kidney function that can be caused by a variety of factors, such as injury, infection, or medication.
2. Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD): A gradual and irreversible loss of kidney function that can lead to end-stage renal disease (ESRD).
3. End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD): A severe and irreversible form of CKD that requires dialysis or a kidney transplant.
4. Glomerulonephritis: An inflammation of the glomeruli, the tiny blood vessels in the kidneys that filter waste products.
5. Interstitial Nephritis: An inflammation of the tissue between the tubules and blood vessels in the kidneys.
6. Kidney Stone Disease: A condition where small, hard mineral deposits form in the kidneys and can cause pain, bleeding, and other complications.
7. Pyelonephritis: An infection of the kidneys that can cause inflammation, damage to the tissues, and scarring.
8. Renal Cell Carcinoma: A type of cancer that originates in the cells of the kidney.
9. Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS): A condition where the immune system attacks the platelets and red blood cells, leading to anemia, low platelet count, and damage to the kidneys.

Symptoms of Kidney Diseases:

1. Blood in urine or hematuria
2. Proteinuria (excess protein in urine)
3. Reduced kidney function or renal insufficiency
4. Swelling in the legs, ankles, and feet (edema)
5. Fatigue and weakness
6. Nausea and vomiting
7. Abdominal pain
8. Frequent urination or polyuria
9. Increased thirst and drinking (polydipsia)
10. Weight loss

Diagnosis of Kidney Diseases:

1. Physical examination
2. Medical history
3. Urinalysis (test of urine)
4. Blood tests (e.g., creatinine, urea, electrolytes)
5. Imaging studies (e.g., X-rays, CT scans, ultrasound)
6. Kidney biopsy
7. Other specialized tests (e.g., 24-hour urinary protein collection, kidney function tests)

Treatment of Kidney Diseases:

1. Medications (e.g., diuretics, blood pressure medication, antibiotics)
2. Diet and lifestyle changes (e.g., low salt intake, increased water intake, physical activity)
3. Dialysis (filtering waste products from the blood when the kidneys are not functioning properly)
4. Kidney transplantation ( replacing a diseased kidney with a healthy one)
5. Other specialized treatments (e.g., plasmapheresis, hemodialysis)

Prevention of Kidney Diseases:

1. Maintaining a healthy diet and lifestyle
2. Monitoring blood pressure and blood sugar levels
3. Avoiding harmful substances (e.g., tobacco, excessive alcohol consumption)
4. Managing underlying medical conditions (e.g., diabetes, high blood pressure)
5. Getting regular check-ups and screenings

Early detection and treatment of kidney diseases can help prevent or slow the progression of the disease, reducing the risk of complications and improving quality of life. It is important to be aware of the signs and symptoms of kidney diseases and seek medical attention if they are present.

The definition of AKI has evolved over time, and it is now defined as a syndrome characterized by an abrupt or rapid decrease in kidney function, with or without oliguria (decreased urine production), and with evidence of tubular injury. The RIFLE (Risk, Injury, Failure, Loss, and End-stage kidney disease) criteria are commonly used to diagnose and stage AKI based on serum creatinine levels, urine output, and other markers of kidney damage.

There are three stages of AKI, with stage 1 representing mild injury and stage 3 representing severe and potentially life-threatening injury. Treatment of AKI typically involves addressing the underlying cause, correcting fluid and electrolyte imbalances, and providing supportive care to maintain blood pressure and oxygenation. In some cases, dialysis may be necessary to remove waste products from the blood.

Early detection and treatment of AKI are crucial to prevent long-term damage to the kidneys and improve outcomes for patients.

There are two main types of Renal Insufficiency:

1. Acute Kidney Injury (AKI): This is a sudden and reversible decrease in kidney function, often caused by injury, sepsis, or medication toxicity. AKI can resolve with appropriate treatment and supportive care.
2. Chronic Renal Insufficiency (CRI): This is a long-standing and irreversible decline in kidney function, often caused by diabetes, high blood pressure, or chronic kidney disease. CRI can lead to ESRD if left untreated.

Signs and symptoms of Renal Insufficiency may include:

* Decreased urine output
* Swelling in the legs and ankles (edema)
* Fatigue
* Nausea and vomiting
* Shortness of breath (dyspnea)
* Pain in the back, flank, or abdomen

Diagnosis of Renal Insufficiency is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Laboratory tests may include urinalysis, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine levels, and a 24-hour urine protein collection. Imaging studies, such as ultrasound or CT scans, may be used to evaluate the kidneys and rule out other possible causes of the patient's symptoms.

Treatment of Renal Insufficiency depends on the underlying cause and the severity of the condition. Treatment may include medications to control blood pressure, manage fluid balance, and reduce proteinuria (excess protein in the urine). In some cases, dialysis or a kidney transplant may be necessary.

Prevention of Renal Insufficiency includes managing underlying conditions such as diabetes and hypertension, avoiding nephrotoxic medications and substances, and maintaining a healthy diet and lifestyle. Early detection and treatment of acute kidney injury can also help prevent the development of chronic renal insufficiency.

In conclusion, Renal Insufficiency is a common condition that can have significant consequences if left untreated. It is important for healthcare providers to be aware of the causes, symptoms, and diagnosis of Renal Insufficiency, as well as the treatment and prevention strategies available. With appropriate management, many patients with Renal Insufficiency can recover and maintain their kidney function over time.

A condition in which the kidneys gradually lose their function over time, leading to the accumulation of waste products in the body. Also known as chronic kidney disease (CKD).

Prevalence:

Chronic kidney failure affects approximately 20 million people worldwide and is a major public health concern. In the United States, it is estimated that 1 in 5 adults has CKD, with African Americans being disproportionately affected.

Causes:

The causes of chronic kidney failure are numerous and include:

1. Diabetes: High blood sugar levels can damage the kidneys over time.
2. Hypertension: Uncontrolled high blood pressure can cause damage to the blood vessels in the kidneys.
3. Glomerulonephritis: An inflammation of the glomeruli, the tiny blood vessels in the kidneys that filter waste and excess fluids from the blood.
4. Interstitial nephritis: Inflammation of the tissue between the kidney tubules.
5. Pyelonephritis: Infection of the kidneys, usually caused by bacteria or viruses.
6. Polycystic kidney disease: A genetic disorder that causes cysts to grow on the kidneys.
7. Obesity: Excess weight can increase blood pressure and strain on the kidneys.
8. Family history: A family history of kidney disease increases the risk of developing chronic kidney failure.

Symptoms:

Early stages of chronic kidney failure may not cause any symptoms, but as the disease progresses, symptoms can include:

1. Fatigue: Feeling tired or weak.
2. Swelling: In the legs, ankles, and feet.
3. Nausea and vomiting: Due to the buildup of waste products in the body.
4. Poor appetite: Loss of interest in food.
5. Difficulty concentrating: Cognitive impairment due to the buildup of waste products in the brain.
6. Shortness of breath: Due to fluid buildup in the lungs.
7. Pain: In the back, flank, or abdomen.
8. Urination changes: Decreased urine production, dark-colored urine, or blood in the urine.
9. Heart problems: Chronic kidney failure can increase the risk of heart disease and heart attack.

Diagnosis:

Chronic kidney failure is typically diagnosed based on a combination of physical examination findings, medical history, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Laboratory tests may include:

1. Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine: Waste products in the blood that increase with decreased kidney function.
2. Electrolyte levels: Imbalances in electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, and phosphorus can indicate kidney dysfunction.
3. Kidney function tests: Measurement of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) to determine the level of kidney function.
4. Urinalysis: Examination of urine for protein, blood, or white blood cells.

Imaging studies may include:

1. Ultrasound: To assess the size and shape of the kidneys, detect any blockages, and identify any other abnormalities.
2. Computed tomography (CT) scan: To provide detailed images of the kidneys and detect any obstructions or abscesses.
3. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): To evaluate the kidneys and detect any damage or scarring.

Treatment:

Treatment for chronic kidney failure depends on the underlying cause and the severity of the disease. The goals of treatment are to slow progression of the disease, manage symptoms, and improve quality of life. Treatment may include:

1. Medications: To control high blood pressure, lower cholesterol levels, reduce proteinuria, and manage anemia.
2. Diet: A healthy diet that limits protein intake, controls salt and water intake, and emphasizes low-fat dairy products, fruits, and vegetables.
3. Fluid management: Monitoring and control of fluid intake to prevent fluid buildup in the body.
4. Dialysis: A machine that filters waste products from the blood when the kidneys are no longer able to do so.
5. Transplantation: A kidney transplant may be considered for some patients with advanced chronic kidney failure.

Complications:

Chronic kidney failure can lead to several complications, including:

1. Heart disease: High blood pressure and anemia can increase the risk of heart disease.
2. Anemia: A decrease in red blood cells can cause fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath.
3. Bone disease: A disorder that can lead to bone pain, weakness, and an increased risk of fractures.
4. Electrolyte imbalance: Imbalances of electrolytes such as potassium, phosphorus, and sodium can cause muscle weakness, heart arrhythmias, and other complications.
5. Infections: A decrease in immune function can increase the risk of infections.
6. Nutritional deficiencies: Poor appetite, nausea, and vomiting can lead to malnutrition and nutrient deficiencies.
7. Cardiovascular disease: High blood pressure, anemia, and other complications can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease.
8. Pain: Chronic kidney failure can cause pain, particularly in the back, flank, and abdomen.
9. Sleep disorders: Insomnia, sleep apnea, and restless leg syndrome are common complications.
10. Depression and anxiety: The emotional burden of chronic kidney failure can lead to depression and anxiety.

Proteinuria is usually diagnosed by a urine protein-to-creatinine ratio (P/C ratio) or a 24-hour urine protein collection. The amount and duration of proteinuria can help distinguish between different underlying causes and predict prognosis.

Proteinuria can have significant clinical implications, as it is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease, kidney damage, and malnutrition. Treatment of the underlying cause can help reduce or eliminate proteinuria.

There are several types of diabetic nephropathy, including:

1. Mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis: This is the most common type of diabetic nephropathy and is characterized by an overgrowth of cells in the mesangium, a part of the glomerulus (the blood-filtering unit of the kidney).
2. Segmental sclerosis: This type of diabetic nephropathy involves the hardening of some parts of the glomeruli, leading to decreased kidney function.
3. Fibrotic glomerulopathy: This is a rare form of diabetic nephropathy that is characterized by the accumulation of fibrotic tissue in the glomeruli.
4. Membranous nephropathy: This type of diabetic nephropathy involves the deposition of immune complexes (antigen-antibody complexes) in the glomeruli, leading to inflammation and damage to the kidneys.
5. Minimal change disease: This is a rare form of diabetic nephropathy that is characterized by minimal changes in the glomeruli, but with significant loss of kidney function.

The symptoms of diabetic nephropathy can be non-specific and may include proteinuria (excess protein in the urine), hematuria (blood in the urine), and decreased kidney function. Diagnosis is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, laboratory tests, and imaging studies such as ultrasound or CT scans.

Treatment for diabetic nephropathy typically involves managing blood sugar levels through lifestyle changes (such as diet and exercise) and medication, as well as controlling high blood pressure and other underlying conditions. In severe cases, dialysis or kidney transplantation may be necessary. Early detection and management of diabetic nephropathy can help slow the progression of the disease and improve outcomes for patients with this condition.

The symptoms of chronic renal insufficiency can be subtle and may develop gradually over time. They may include fatigue, weakness, swelling in the legs and ankles, nausea, vomiting, and difficulty concentrating. As the disease progresses, patients may experience shortness of breath, heart failure, and peripheral artery disease.

Chronic renal insufficiency is diagnosed through blood tests that measure the level of waste products in the blood, such as creatinine and urea. Imaging studies, such as ultrasound and CT scans, may also be used to evaluate the kidneys and detect any damage or scarring.

Treatment for chronic renal insufficiency focuses on slowing the progression of the disease and managing its symptoms. This may include medications to control high blood pressure, diabetes, and anemia, as well as dietary changes and fluid restrictions. In severe cases, dialysis or kidney transplantation may be necessary.

Prevention of chronic renal insufficiency involves managing underlying conditions such as diabetes and hypertension, maintaining a healthy diet and exercise routine, and avoiding substances that can damage the kidneys, such as tobacco and excessive alcohol consumption. Early detection and treatment of kidney disease can help prevent the progression to chronic renal insufficiency.

In this answer, we will explore the definition of 'Kidney Tubular Necrosis, Acute' in more detail, including its causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment options.

What is Kidney Tubular Necrosis, Acute?
------------------------------------------

Kidney Tubular Necrosis, Acute (ATN) is a condition that affects the tubules of the kidneys, leading to inflammation and damage. The condition is often caused by various factors such as sepsis, shock, toxins, or medications.

The term "acute" refers to the sudden and severe nature of the condition, which can progress rapidly within hours or days. The condition can be life-threatening if left untreated, and it is important to seek medical attention immediately if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

Causes of Kidney Tubular Necrosis, Acute
--------------------------------------

There are various factors that can cause Kidney Tubular Necrosis, Acute, including:

### 1. Sepsis

Sepsis is a systemic inflammatory response to an infection, which can lead to damage to the tubules of the kidneys.

### 2. Shock

Shock can cause a decrease in blood flow to the kidneys, leading to damage and inflammation.

### 3. Toxins

Exposure to certain toxins, such as heavy metals or certain medications, can damage the tubules of the kidneys.

### 4. Medications

Certain medications, such as antibiotics and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), can cause damage to the tubules of the kidneys.

### 5. Infection

Infections such as pyelonephritis or perinephric abscess can spread to the kidneys and cause inflammation and damage to the tubules.

### 6. Radiation necrosis

Radiation therapy can cause damage to the kidneys, leading to inflammation and scarring.

### 7. Kidney transplant rejection

Rejection of a kidney transplant can lead to inflammation and damage to the tubules of the transplanted kidney.

Symptoms of Kidney Tubular Necrosis, Acute
------------------------------------------

The symptoms of acute tubular necrosis can vary depending on the severity of the condition and the underlying cause. Some common symptoms include:

### 1. Fatigue

Fatigue is a common symptom of acute tubular necrosis, as the condition can lead to a decrease in the kidneys' ability to filter waste products from the blood.

### 2. Nausea and vomiting

Nausea and vomiting can occur due to electrolyte imbalances and changes in fluid levels in the body.

### 3. Decreased urine output

Acute tubular necrosis can cause a decrease in urine production, as the damaged tubules are unable to filter waste products from the blood effectively.

### 4. Swelling (edema)

Swelling in the legs, ankles, and feet can occur due to fluid buildup in the body.

### 5. Abdominal pain

Abdominal pain can be a symptom of acute tubular necrosis, as the condition can cause inflammation and scarring in the kidneys.

### 6. Fever

Fever can occur due to infection or inflammation in the kidneys.

### 7. Blood in urine (hematuria)

Hematuria, or blood in the urine, can be a symptom of acute tubular necrosis, as the damaged tubules can leak blood into the urine.

## Causes and risk factors

The exact cause of acute tubular necrosis is not fully understood, but it is believed to be due to damage to the kidney tubules, which can occur for a variety of reasons. Some possible causes and risk factors include:

1. Sepsis: Bacterial infections can spread to the kidneys and cause inflammation and damage to the tubules.
2. Toxins: Exposure to certain toxins, such as heavy metals or certain medications, can damage the kidney tubules.
3. Medications: Certain medications, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and antibiotics, can cause kidney damage and increase the risk of acute tubular necrosis.
4. Hypotension: Low blood pressure can reduce blood flow to the kidneys and increase the risk of acute tubular necrosis.
5. Shock: Severe shock can lead to damage to the kidney tubules.
6. Burns: Severe burns can cause damage to the kidneys and increase the risk of acute tubular necrosis.
7. Trauma: Traumatic injuries, such as those caused by car accidents or falls, can damage the kidneys and increase the risk of acute tubular necrosis.
8. Surgery: Major surgery can cause damage to the kidneys and increase the risk of acute tubular necrosis.
9. Kidney disease: People with pre-existing kidney disease are at increased risk of developing acute tubular necrosis.
10. Chronic conditions: Certain chronic conditions, such as diabetes and high blood pressure, can increase the risk of developing acute tubular necrosis.

It is important to note that acute tubular necrosis can occur in people with no underlying medical conditions or risk factors, and it is often a diagnosis of exclusion, meaning that other potential causes of the person's symptoms must be ruled out before the diagnosis can be made.

Anuria is often associated with other conditions such as chronic kidney disease, sepsis, or bladder outlet obstruction. The symptoms of anuria may include decreased urine output, swelling in the legs and abdomen, nausea, vomiting, and electrolyte imbalances.

Treatment of anuria depends on the underlying cause, and may involve medications to relieve symptoms, drainage of obstructions, or other interventions such as hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis. In severe cases, anuria can lead to uremia, a buildup of waste products in the blood that can be life-threatening. Therefore, prompt medical attention is essential for effective management and prevention of complications.

Treatment for uremia typically involves dialysis or kidney transplantation to remove excess urea from the blood and restore normal kidney function. In some cases, medications may be prescribed to help manage symptoms such as high blood pressure, anemia, or electrolyte imbalances.

The term "uremia" is derived from the Greek words "oura," meaning "urea," and "emia," meaning "in the blood." It was first used in the medical literature in the late 19th century to describe a condition caused by excess urea in the blood. Today, it remains an important diagnostic term in nephrology and is often used interchangeably with the term "uremic syndrome."

GN IGA is one of the most common forms of idiopathic membranous nephropathy, which means it has no known cause. It can occur at any age but is more common in adults between the ages of 20 and 40. The disease often progresses slowly over several years, and some people may experience no symptoms at all.

The diagnosis of GN IGA is based on a combination of clinical findings, laboratory tests, and kidney biopsy. Laboratory tests may show abnormal levels of proteins in the urine, such as albumin, and a high level of IgA in the blood. A kidney biopsy is often necessary to confirm the diagnosis and to rule out other kidney diseases.

There is no cure for GN IGA, but treatment can help slow the progression of the disease. Treatment options may include medications to control high blood pressure, reduce proteinuria (excess protein in the urine), and suppress the immune system. In severe cases, dialysis or a kidney transplant may be necessary.

Preventive measures for GN IGA are not well established, but maintaining a healthy lifestyle, including a balanced diet, regular exercise, and avoiding exposure to toxins, may help reduce the risk of developing the disease. It is also important to manage any underlying medical conditions, such as high blood pressure or diabetes, which can increase the risk of kidney damage.

There are two types of hypertension:

1. Primary Hypertension: This type of hypertension has no identifiable cause and is also known as essential hypertension. It accounts for about 90% of all cases of hypertension.
2. Secondary Hypertension: This type of hypertension is caused by an underlying medical condition or medication. It accounts for about 10% of all cases of hypertension.

Some common causes of secondary hypertension include:

* Kidney disease
* Adrenal gland disorders
* Hormonal imbalances
* Certain medications
* Sleep apnea
* Cocaine use

There are also several risk factors for hypertension, including:

* Age (the risk increases with age)
* Family history of hypertension
* Obesity
* Lack of exercise
* High sodium intake
* Low potassium intake
* Stress

Hypertension is often asymptomatic, and it can cause damage to the blood vessels and organs over time. Some potential complications of hypertension include:

* Heart disease (e.g., heart attacks, heart failure)
* Stroke
* Kidney disease (e.g., chronic kidney disease, end-stage renal disease)
* Vision loss (e.g., retinopathy)
* Peripheral artery disease

Hypertension is typically diagnosed through blood pressure readings taken over a period of time. Treatment for hypertension may include lifestyle changes (e.g., diet, exercise, stress management), medications, or a combination of both. The goal of treatment is to reduce the risk of complications and improve quality of life.

Renal artery obstruction can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

1. Atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries): This is the most common cause of renal artery obstruction and occurs when plaque builds up in the arteries, leading to narrowing or blockages.
2. Stenosis (narrowing of the arteries): This can be caused by inflammation or scarring of the arteries, which can lead to a decrease in blood flow to the kidneys.
3. Fibromuscular dysplasia: This is a rare condition that causes abnormal growth of muscle tissue in the renal arteries, leading to narrowing or blockages.
4. Embolism (blood clot): A blood clot can break loose and travel to the kidneys, causing a blockage in the renal artery.
5. Renal vein thrombosis: This is a blockage of the veins that drain blood from the kidneys, which can lead to decreased blood flow and oxygenation of the kidneys.

Symptoms of renal artery obstruction may include:

1. High blood pressure
2. Decreased kidney function
3. Swelling in the legs or feet
4. Pain in the flank or back
5. Fatigue
6. Nausea and vomiting
7. Weight loss

Diagnosis of renal artery obstruction is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as:

1. Ultrasound: This can help identify any blockages or narrowing in the renal arteries.
2. Computed tomography (CT) scan: This can provide detailed images of the renal arteries and any blockages or narrowing.
3. Magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA): This is a non-invasive test that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the renal arteries.
4. Angiography: This is a minimally invasive test that involves inserting a catheter into the renal artery to visualize any blockages or narrowing.

Treatment for renal artery obstruction depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. Some possible treatment options include:

1. Medications: Drugs such as blood thinners, blood pressure medication, and anticoagulants may be prescribed to manage symptoms and slow the progression of the disease.
2. Endovascular therapy: This is a minimally invasive procedure in which a catheter is inserted into the renal artery to open up any blockages or narrowing.
3. Surgery: In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove any blockages or repair any damage to the renal arteries.
4. Dialysis: This is a procedure in which waste products are removed from the blood when the kidneys are no longer able to do so.
5. Kidney transplantation: In severe cases of renal artery obstruction, a kidney transplant may be necessary.

It is important to note that early detection and treatment of renal artery obstruction can help prevent complications and improve outcomes for patients.

The symptoms of glomerulonephritis can vary depending on the underlying cause of the disease, but may include:

* Blood in the urine (hematuria)
* Proteinuria (excess protein in the urine)
* Reduced kidney function
* Swelling in the legs and ankles (edema)
* High blood pressure

Glomerulonephritis can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

* Infections such as staphylococcal or streptococcal infections
* Autoimmune disorders such as lupus or rheumatoid arthritis
* Allergic reactions to certain medications
* Genetic defects
* Certain diseases such as diabetes, high blood pressure, and sickle cell anemia

The diagnosis of glomerulonephritis typically involves a physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as urinalysis, blood tests, and kidney biopsy.

Treatment for glomerulonephritis depends on the underlying cause of the disease and may include:

* Antibiotics to treat infections
* Medications to reduce inflammation and swelling
* Diuretics to reduce fluid buildup in the body
* Immunosuppressive medications to suppress the immune system in cases of autoimmune disorders
* Dialysis in severe cases

The prognosis for glomerulonephritis depends on the underlying cause of the disease and the severity of the inflammation. In some cases, the disease may progress to end-stage renal disease, which requires dialysis or a kidney transplant. With proper treatment, however, many people with glomerulonephritis can experience a good outcome and maintain their kidney function over time.

Body weight is an important health indicator, as it can affect an individual's risk for certain medical conditions, such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Maintaining a healthy body weight is essential for overall health and well-being, and there are many ways to do so, including a balanced diet, regular exercise, and other lifestyle changes.

There are several ways to measure body weight, including:

1. Scale: This is the most common method of measuring body weight, and it involves standing on a scale that displays the individual's weight in kg or lb.
2. Body fat calipers: These are used to measure body fat percentage by pinching the skin at specific points on the body.
3. Skinfold measurements: This method involves measuring the thickness of the skin folds at specific points on the body to estimate body fat percentage.
4. Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA): This is a non-invasive method that uses electrical impulses to measure body fat percentage.
5. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA): This is a more accurate method of measuring body composition, including bone density and body fat percentage.

It's important to note that body weight can fluctuate throughout the day due to factors such as water retention, so it's best to measure body weight at the same time each day for the most accurate results. Additionally, it's important to use a reliable scale or measuring tool to ensure accurate measurements.

The burden of chronic diseases is significant, with over 70% of deaths worldwide attributed to them, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). In addition to the physical and emotional toll they take on individuals and their families, chronic diseases also pose a significant economic burden, accounting for a large proportion of healthcare expenditure.

In this article, we will explore the definition and impact of chronic diseases, as well as strategies for managing and living with them. We will also discuss the importance of early detection and prevention, as well as the role of healthcare providers in addressing the needs of individuals with chronic diseases.

What is a Chronic Disease?

A chronic disease is a condition that lasts for an extended period of time, often affecting daily life and activities. Unlike acute diseases, which have a specific beginning and end, chronic diseases are long-term and persistent. Examples of chronic diseases include:

1. Diabetes
2. Heart disease
3. Arthritis
4. Asthma
5. Cancer
6. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
7. Chronic kidney disease (CKD)
8. Hypertension
9. Osteoporosis
10. Stroke

Impact of Chronic Diseases

The burden of chronic diseases is significant, with over 70% of deaths worldwide attributed to them, according to the WHO. In addition to the physical and emotional toll they take on individuals and their families, chronic diseases also pose a significant economic burden, accounting for a large proportion of healthcare expenditure.

Chronic diseases can also have a significant impact on an individual's quality of life, limiting their ability to participate in activities they enjoy and affecting their relationships with family and friends. Moreover, the financial burden of chronic diseases can lead to poverty and reduce economic productivity, thus having a broader societal impact.

Addressing Chronic Diseases

Given the significant burden of chronic diseases, it is essential that we address them effectively. This requires a multi-faceted approach that includes:

1. Lifestyle modifications: Encouraging healthy behaviors such as regular physical activity, a balanced diet, and smoking cessation can help prevent and manage chronic diseases.
2. Early detection and diagnosis: Identifying risk factors and detecting diseases early can help prevent or delay their progression.
3. Medication management: Effective medication management is crucial for controlling symptoms and slowing disease progression.
4. Multi-disciplinary care: Collaboration between healthcare providers, patients, and families is essential for managing chronic diseases.
5. Health promotion and disease prevention: Educating individuals about the risks of chronic diseases and promoting healthy behaviors can help prevent their onset.
6. Addressing social determinants of health: Social determinants such as poverty, education, and employment can have a significant impact on health outcomes. Addressing these factors is essential for reducing health disparities and improving overall health.
7. Investing in healthcare infrastructure: Investing in healthcare infrastructure, technology, and research is necessary to improve disease detection, diagnosis, and treatment.
8. Encouraging policy change: Policy changes can help create supportive environments for healthy behaviors and reduce the burden of chronic diseases.
9. Increasing public awareness: Raising public awareness about the risks and consequences of chronic diseases can help individuals make informed decisions about their health.
10. Providing support for caregivers: Chronic diseases can have a significant impact on family members and caregivers, so providing them with support is essential for improving overall health outcomes.

Conclusion

Chronic diseases are a major public health burden that affect millions of people worldwide. Addressing these diseases requires a multi-faceted approach that includes lifestyle changes, addressing social determinants of health, investing in healthcare infrastructure, encouraging policy change, increasing public awareness, and providing support for caregivers. By taking a comprehensive approach to chronic disease prevention and management, we can improve the health and well-being of individuals and communities worldwide.

Disease progression can be classified into several types based on the pattern of worsening:

1. Chronic progressive disease: In this type, the disease worsens steadily over time, with a gradual increase in symptoms and decline in function. Examples include rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and Parkinson's disease.
2. Acute progressive disease: This type of disease worsens rapidly over a short period, often followed by periods of stability. Examples include sepsis, acute myocardial infarction (heart attack), and stroke.
3. Cyclical disease: In this type, the disease follows a cycle of worsening and improvement, with periodic exacerbations and remissions. Examples include multiple sclerosis, lupus, and rheumatoid arthritis.
4. Recurrent disease: This type is characterized by episodes of worsening followed by periods of recovery. Examples include migraine headaches, asthma, and appendicitis.
5. Catastrophic disease: In this type, the disease progresses rapidly and unpredictably, with a poor prognosis. Examples include cancer, AIDS, and organ failure.

Disease progression can be influenced by various factors, including:

1. Genetics: Some diseases are inherited and may have a predetermined course of progression.
2. Lifestyle: Factors such as smoking, lack of exercise, and poor diet can contribute to disease progression.
3. Environmental factors: Exposure to toxins, allergens, and other environmental stressors can influence disease progression.
4. Medical treatment: The effectiveness of medical treatment can impact disease progression, either by slowing or halting the disease process or by causing unintended side effects.
5. Co-morbidities: The presence of multiple diseases or conditions can interact and affect each other's progression.

Understanding the type and factors influencing disease progression is essential for developing effective treatment plans and improving patient outcomes.

Reperfusion injury can cause inflammation, cell death, and impaired function in the affected tissue or organ. The severity of reperfusion injury can vary depending on the duration and severity of the initial ischemic event, as well as the promptness and effectiveness of treatment to restore blood flow.

Reperfusion injury can be a complicating factor in various medical conditions, including:

1. Myocardial infarction (heart attack): Reperfusion injury can occur when blood flow is restored to the heart muscle after a heart attack, leading to inflammation and cell death.
2. Stroke: Reperfusion injury can occur when blood flow is restored to the brain after an ischemic stroke, leading to inflammation and damage to brain tissue.
3. Organ transplantation: Reperfusion injury can occur when a transplanted organ is subjected to ischemia during harvesting or preservation, and then reperfused with blood.
4. Peripheral arterial disease: Reperfusion injury can occur when blood flow is restored to a previously occluded peripheral artery, leading to inflammation and damage to the affected tissue.

Treatment of reperfusion injury often involves medications to reduce inflammation and oxidative stress, as well as supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent further complications. In some cases, experimental therapies such as stem cell transplantation or gene therapy may be used to promote tissue repair and regeneration.

Rhabdomyolysis can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

1. Physical trauma or injury to the muscles
2. Overuse or strain of muscles
3. Poor physical conditioning or training
4. Infections such as viral or bacterial infections that affect the muscles
5. Certain medications or drugs, such as statins and antibiotics
6. Alcohol or drug poisoning
7. Heat stroke or other forms of extreme heat exposure
8. Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid)
9. Genetic disorders that affect muscle function.

Symptoms of rhabdomyolysis can include:

1. Muscle weakness or paralysis
2. Muscle pain or cramping
3. Confusion or disorientation
4. Dark urine or decreased urine output
5. Fever, nausea, and vomiting
6. Shortness of breath or difficulty breathing
7. Abnormal heart rhythms or cardiac arrest.

If you suspect that someone has rhabdomyolysis, it is important to seek medical attention immediately. Treatment typically involves supportive care, such as fluids and electrolyte replacement, as well as addressing any underlying causes of the condition. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and treat complications such as kidney failure or cardiac problems.

The term "segmental" refers to the fact that the scarring or hardening occurs in a specific segment of the glomerulus. Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis can be caused by a variety of factors, including diabetes, high blood pressure, and certain infections or injuries.

Symptoms of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis may include proteinuria (excess protein in the urine), hematuria (blood in the urine), and decreased kidney function. Treatment options vary depending on the underlying cause, but may include medications to control high blood pressure or diabetes, as well as immunosuppressive drugs in cases where the condition is caused by an autoimmune disorder. In severe cases, dialysis or kidney transplantation may be necessary.

Type 2 diabetes can be managed through a combination of diet, exercise, and medication. In some cases, lifestyle changes may be enough to control blood sugar levels, while in other cases, medication or insulin therapy may be necessary. Regular monitoring of blood sugar levels and follow-up with a healthcare provider are important for managing the condition and preventing complications.

Common symptoms of type 2 diabetes include:

* Increased thirst and urination
* Fatigue
* Blurred vision
* Cuts or bruises that are slow to heal
* Tingling or numbness in the hands and feet
* Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections

If left untreated, type 2 diabetes can lead to a range of complications, including:

* Heart disease and stroke
* Kidney damage and failure
* Nerve damage and pain
* Eye damage and blindness
* Foot damage and amputation

The exact cause of type 2 diabetes is not known, but it is believed to be linked to a combination of genetic and lifestyle factors, such as:

* Obesity and excess body weight
* Lack of physical activity
* Poor diet and nutrition
* Age and family history
* Certain ethnicities (e.g., African American, Hispanic/Latino, Native American)
* History of gestational diabetes or delivering a baby over 9 lbs.

There is no cure for type 2 diabetes, but it can be managed and controlled through a combination of lifestyle changes and medication. With proper treatment and self-care, people with type 2 diabetes can lead long, healthy lives.

A type of inflammatory kidney disease that affects the interstitial tissue surrounding the tubules of the kidney. It is characterized by inflammation and fibrosis (scarring) of the interstitium, leading to impaired kidney function. The exact cause of interstitial nephritis is not always known, but it can be triggered by a variety of factors, including infections, allergic reactions, and certain medications. Symptoms may include fever, joint pain, and loss of appetite, and the condition can progress to end-stage renal disease if left untreated. Treatment typically involves medication to reduce inflammation and manage symptoms, as well as supportive care to help the kidneys function properly.

1. Infection: Bacterial or viral infections can develop after surgery, potentially leading to sepsis or organ failure.
2. Adhesions: Scar tissue can form during the healing process, which can cause bowel obstruction, chronic pain, or other complications.
3. Wound complications: Incisional hernias, wound dehiscence (separation of the wound edges), and wound infections can occur.
4. Respiratory problems: Pneumonia, respiratory failure, and atelectasis (collapsed lung) can develop after surgery, particularly in older adults or those with pre-existing respiratory conditions.
5. Cardiovascular complications: Myocardial infarction (heart attack), cardiac arrhythmias, and cardiac failure can occur after surgery, especially in high-risk patients.
6. Renal (kidney) problems: Acute kidney injury or chronic kidney disease can develop postoperatively, particularly in patients with pre-existing renal impairment.
7. Neurological complications: Stroke, seizures, and neuropraxia (nerve damage) can occur after surgery, especially in patients with pre-existing neurological conditions.
8. Pulmonary embolism: Blood clots can form in the legs or lungs after surgery, potentially causing pulmonary embolism.
9. Anesthesia-related complications: Respiratory and cardiac complications can occur during anesthesia, including respiratory and cardiac arrest.
10. delayed healing: Wound healing may be delayed or impaired after surgery, particularly in patients with pre-existing medical conditions.

It is important for patients to be aware of these potential complications and to discuss any concerns with their surgeon and healthcare team before undergoing surgery.

Membranous nephropathy is a specific type of glomerulonephritis that is characterized by the deposition of immune complexes in the glomerular basement membrane. This leads to inflammation and damage to the glomeruli, which can progress to end-stage renal disease if left untreated.

The exact cause of membranous nephropathy is not fully understood, but it is believed to be an autoimmune disorder, meaning that the immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue in the kidneys. Factors such as genetics, environmental triggers, and certain medical conditions may contribute to the development of the disease.

Symptoms of membranous nephropathy can include proteinuria, hematuria, high blood pressure, swelling, fatigue, and weight loss. The disease is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, and kidney biopsy.

Treatment for membranous nephropathy typically involves a combination of medications to control proteinuria, hematuria, and high blood pressure, as well as immunosuppressive drugs to suppress the immune system and prevent further damage to the kidneys. In severe cases, dialysis or kidney transplantation may be necessary.

A type of hypertension that is caused by a problem with the kidneys. It can be acute or chronic and may be associated with other conditions such as glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis, or polycystic kidney disease. Symptoms include proteinuria, hematuria, and elevated blood pressure. Treatment options include diuretics, ACE inhibitors, and angiotensin II receptor blockers.

Note: Renal hypertension is also known as renal artery hypertension.

Etiology and Pathophysiology:
HRS is caused by a complex interplay of hemodynamic, metabolic, and neurohormonal derangements that occur in patients with advanced liver disease. The underlying mechanisms include:

1. Portosystemic shunting: Increased blood flow through the portasystemic shunt can lead to a decrease in effective circulating blood volume and renal perfusion, causing hypoxia and acidosis.
2. Vasopressin release: Elevated levels of vasopressin (ADH) can cause vasoconstriction and decreased GFR.
3. Sepsis: Bacterial infections can lead to systemic inflammation, which can impair renal function and worsen HRS.
4. Metabolic derangements: Hypoglycemia, hyperkalemia, and metabolic acidosis can contribute to the development of HRS.

Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis:
Patients with HRS may present with nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue, malaise, and edema. Laboratory tests may reveal hypovolemia, hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, metabolic acidosis, and elevated serum creatinine levels. Urinalysis may show proteinuria and hematuria. The diagnosis of HRS is based on the presence of oliguria (urine output < 400 mL/day) and/or anuria (urine output < 100 mL/day), in the absence of obstructive uropathy or other causes of acute kidney injury.

Treatment:
The primary goals of HRS treatment are to address the underlying cause, correct fluid and electrolyte imbalances, and prevent further renal damage. Treatment may include:

1. Fluid management: Administering intravenous fluids to correct hypovolemia and maintain urine output.
2. Electrolyte replacement: Correcting hypokalemia and hyperkalemia with potassium supplements and monitoring serum potassium levels.
3. Vasopressor support: Using vasopressors such as dopamine or norepinephrine to maintain mean arterial pressure (MAP) ≥ 65 mmHg.
4. Antibiotics: Administering broad-spectrum antibiotics for suspected sepsis.
5. Dialysis: Initiating dialysis in patients with severe HRS who have failed conservative management or have signs of uremic crisis (e.g., pericarditis, seizures, coma).

Prognosis and Complications:
The prognosis of HRS is highly dependent on the underlying cause and the severity of the condition. In general, the mortality rate for HRS is high, ranging from 20% to 80%. Potential complications include:

1. Uremic crisis: A life-threatening condition characterized by seizures, coma, and multisystem organ failure.
2. Sepsis: A systemic inflammatory response to infection that can lead to septic shock and death.
3. Cardiovascular complications: Such as heart failure, myocardial infarction, and cardiac arrest.
4. Respiratory complications: Such as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).
5. Neurological complications: Such as seizures, stroke, and coma.

Prevention:
Preventing HRS requires identifying and addressing the underlying causes of hypovolemia and electrolyte imbalances. Key prevention strategies include:

1. Proper fluid management: Ensuring that patients receive adequate fluids to maintain hydration and avoid hypovolemia.
2. Electrolyte monitoring: Regularly measuring electrolyte levels and correcting any imbalances promptly.
3. Avoiding nephrotoxic medications: Minimizing the use of medications that can harm the kidneys, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
4. Monitoring for signs of volume overload: Closely monitoring patients for signs of volume overload, such as edema or weight gain.
5. Addressing underlying conditions: Managing underlying conditions, such as diabetes, high blood pressure, and heart disease, to reduce the risk of developing HRS.

Treatment:
The goal of HRS treatment is to correct electrolyte imbalances, manage fluid overload, and address any underlying conditions that may have contributed to the development of the condition. Treatment strategies include:

1. Fluid and electrolyte replacement: Administering intravenous fluids and electrolytes to restore balance and correct hypovolemia and electrolyte imbalances.
2. Diuretics: Using diuretics to help remove excess fluid and reduce pressure on the heart and kidneys.
3. Vasopressors: Administering vasopressors to help raise blood pressure and improve perfusion of vital organs.
4. Hemodialysis: In severe cases, hemodialysis may be necessary to remove waste products from the blood.
5. Addressing underlying conditions: Managing underlying conditions, such as diabetes, high blood pressure, and heart disease, to reduce the risk of developing HRS.

Prognosis:
The prognosis for HRS is generally poor, with a mortality rate of up to 80%. However, with early recognition and aggressive treatment, some patients may recover partially or fully. Factors that influence prognosis include:

1. Timeliness of diagnosis and treatment
2. Severity of electrolyte imbalances and fluid overload
3. Presence of underlying conditions
4. Response to treatment
5. Degree of organ dysfunction and failure

Complications:
HRS can lead to a number of complications, including:

1. Cardiac arrest
2. Heart failure
3. Renal failure
4. Respiratory failure
5. Neurological damage
6. Septic shock
7. Multi-organ failure

Prevention:
Preventing HRS involves managing underlying conditions, such as diabetes and high blood pressure, and avoiding medications that can cause electrolyte imbalances or fluid overload. Additionally, monitoring for early signs of HRS and prompt treatment can help prevent the development of severe complications.

There are several types of lupus nephritis, each with its own unique characteristics and symptoms. The most common forms include:

* Class I (mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis): This type is characterized by the growth of abnormal cells in the glomeruli (blood-filtering units of the kidneys).
* Class II (active lupus nephritis): This type is characterized by widespread inflammation and damage to the kidneys, with or without the presence of antibodies.
* Class III (focal lupus nephritis): This type is characterized by localized inflammation in certain areas of the kidneys.
* Class IV (lupus nephritis with crescentic glomerulonephritis): This type is characterized by widespread inflammation and damage to the kidneys, with crescent-shaped tissue growth in the glomeruli.
* Class V (lupus nephritis with sclerotic changes): This type is characterized by hardening and shrinkage of the glomeruli due to scarring.

Lupus Nephritis can cause a range of symptoms, including:

* Proteinuria (excess protein in the urine)
* Hematuria (blood in the urine)
* Reduced kidney function
* Swelling (edema)
* Fatigue
* Fever
* Joint pain

Lupus Nephritis can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, laboratory tests, and kidney biopsy. Treatment options for lupus nephritis include medications to suppress the immune system, control inflammation, and prevent further damage to the kidneys. In severe cases, dialysis or a kidney transplant may be necessary.

DGF can occur in various types of transplantations, including kidney, liver, heart, and lung transplants. The symptoms of DGF may include decreased urine production, decreased respiratory function, and abnormal liver enzymes. Treatment for DGF typically involves supportive care such as fluid and electrolyte replacement, management of infections, and immunosuppressive medications to prevent rejection. In some cases, additional surgical interventions may be necessary.

The diagnosis of DGF is based on clinical evaluation and laboratory tests such as blood chemistry, urinalysis, and biopsy findings. The prognosis for DGF varies depending on the underlying cause and the severity of the condition. In general, prompt recognition and treatment of DGF can improve outcomes and reduce the risk of complications.

In summary, delayed graft function is a common complication in transplantation that can result from various factors. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are essential to prevent long-term damage and improve outcomes for the transplanted organ or tissue.

Here are some possible causes of myoglobinuria:

1. Muscle injury or trauma: This can cause myoglobin to leak into the bloodstream and then into the urine.
2. Muscle disease: Certain muscle diseases, such as muscular dystrophy, can cause myoglobinuria.
3. Kidney damage: Myoglobin can accumulate in the kidneys and cause damage if the kidneys are not functioning properly.
4. Sepsis: Sepsis is a systemic infection that can cause muscle breakdown and myoglobinuria.
5. Burns: Severe burns can cause muscle damage and lead to myoglobinuria.
6. Heart attack: A heart attack can cause muscle damage and myoglobinuria.
7. Rhabdomyolysis: This is a condition where the muscles break down and release myoglobin into the bloodstream. It can be caused by various factors such as medication, infection, or injury.

Symptoms of myoglobinuria may include dark urine, proteinuria (excess protein in the urine), and kidney damage. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may involve supportive care, medication, or dialysis to remove waste products from the blood.

Causes of Hyperkalemia:

1. Kidney dysfunction: When the kidneys are not able to excrete excess potassium, it can build up in the bloodstream and lead to hyperkalemia.
2. Medications: Certain drugs, such as ACE inhibitors, potassium-sparing diuretics, and NSAIDs, can increase potassium levels by blocking the excretion of potassium in the urine.
3. Diabetic ketoacidosis: High levels of potassium can occur in people with uncontrolled diabetes who have diabetic ketoacidosis.
4. Acute kidney injury: This condition can cause a rapid increase in potassium levels as the kidneys are unable to remove excess potassium from the blood.
5. Heart disease: Potassium levels can rise in people with heart failure or other cardiac conditions, leading to hyperkalemia.

Symptoms of Hyperkalemia:

1. Muscle weakness and fatigue
2. Abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias)
3. Palpitations
4. Constipation
5. Nausea and vomiting
6. Abdominal cramps
7. Fatigue
8. Confusion
9. Headaches
10. Weakness in the legs and feet

Treatment of Hyperkalemia:

The treatment of hyperkalemia depends on the underlying cause and the severity of the condition. Some of the common methods for lowering potassium levels include:

1. Diuretics: These medications help remove excess fluid and electrolytes, including potassium, from the body.
2. Calcium gluconate: This medication can help stabilize cardiac function and reduce the risk of arrhythmias.
3. Insulin and glucose: Giving insulin and glucose to someone with diabetic ketoacidosis can help lower potassium levels by increasing glucose uptake in the cells.
4. Hemodialysis: This is a process that uses a machine to filter waste products, including excess potassium, from the blood.
5. Potassium-binding resins: These medications can bind to potassium ions in the gut and prevent their absorption into the bloodstream.
6. Sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate): This medication can help lower potassium levels by binding to excess potassium in the gut and causing it to be eliminated in the stool.
7. Activated charcoal: This medication can help bind to potassium ions in the gut and prevent their absorption into the bloodstream.

In severe cases of hyperkalemia, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and treat the condition. In some instances, dialysis may be required to remove excess potassium from the blood. It is important to note that the treatment for hyperkalemia should only be done under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as some medications or procedures can worsen the condition if not properly managed.

Examples of acute diseases include:

1. Common cold and flu
2. Pneumonia and bronchitis
3. Appendicitis and other abdominal emergencies
4. Heart attacks and strokes
5. Asthma attacks and allergic reactions
6. Skin infections and cellulitis
7. Urinary tract infections
8. Sinusitis and meningitis
9. Gastroenteritis and food poisoning
10. Sprains, strains, and fractures.

Acute diseases can be treated effectively with antibiotics, medications, or other therapies. However, if left untreated, they can lead to chronic conditions or complications that may require long-term care. Therefore, it is important to seek medical attention promptly if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

Some common examples of critical illnesses include:

1. Sepsis: a systemic inflammatory response to an infection that can lead to organ failure and death.
2. Cardiogenic shock: a condition where the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs, leading to serious complications such as heart failure and death.
3. Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): a condition where the lungs are severely inflamed and unable to provide sufficient oxygen to the body.
4. Multi-system organ failure: a condition where multiple organs in the body fail simultaneously, leading to serious complications and death.
5. Trauma: severe physical injuries sustained in an accident or other traumatic event.
6. Stroke: a sudden interruption of blood flow to the brain that can lead to permanent brain damage and death.
7. Myocardial infarction (heart attack): a blockage of coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart, leading to damage or death of heart muscle cells.
8. Pulmonary embolism: a blockage of the pulmonary artery, which can lead to respiratory failure and death.
9. Pancreatitis: inflammation of the pancreas that can lead to severe abdominal pain, bleeding, and organ failure.
10. Hypovolemic shock: a condition where there is a severe loss of blood or fluid from the body, leading to hypotension, organ failure, and death.

The diagnosis and treatment of critical illnesses require specialized knowledge and skills, and are typically handled by intensive care unit (ICU) teams consisting of critical care physicians, nurses, and other healthcare professionals. The goal of critical care is to provide life-sustaining interventions and support to patients who are critically ill until they recover or until their condition stabilizes.

The presence of blood in urine is typically detected during a urinalysis, which is a routine test performed during a physical examination or when a patient is admitted to the hospital. The amount and color of blood can vary depending on the cause of hematuria, ranging from microscopic (not visible to the naked eye) to gross (visible).

Hematuria can be classified into two main types:

1. Gross hematuria: This type of hematuria is characterized by visible blood in urine, which can range from pink to bright red. It is usually caused by trauma, kidney stones, or tumors.
2. Microscopic hematuria: This type of hematuria is characterized by the presence of red blood cells in urine that are not visible to the naked eye. It can be caused by various factors, including infections, inflammation, and kidney damage.

Hematuria can be a sign of an underlying medical condition, and it is important to consult a healthcare professional if blood is present in urine. A proper diagnosis is essential to determine the cause of hematuria and provide appropriate treatment.

Nephrosclerosis can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

1. Diabetes: High blood sugar levels over an extended period can damage the kidney tissues and lead to nephrosclerosis.
2. Hypertension: Uncontrolled high blood pressure can cause damage to the kidney blood vessels, leading to scarring and hardening of the tissues.
3. Glomerulonephritis: An inflammation of the glomeruli, the tiny blood vessels in the kidneys that filter waste and excess fluids from the blood, can lead to nephrosclerosis.
4. Obesity: Excess weight can increase the risk of developing diabetes and hypertension, both of which are leading causes of nephrosclerosis.
5. Family history: A family history of kidney disease increases the risk of developing nephrosclerosis.
6. Certain medications: Long-term use of certain medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and certain antibiotics can damage the kidneys and lead to nephrosclerosis.
7. Infections: Certain infections, such as pyelonephritis, can spread to the kidneys and cause inflammation and scarring that leads to nephrosclerosis.
8. Kidney stones: Recurring kidney stones can cause chronic inflammation and damage to the kidney tissues, leading to nephrosclerosis.
9. Certain medical conditions: Certain medical conditions, such as systemic lupus erythematosus and vasculitis, can increase the risk of developing nephrosclerosis.

Symptoms of nephrosclerosis may include:

1. Proteinuria: Excess protein in the urine.
2. Hematuria: Blood in the urine.
3. Reduced kidney function: Decreased ability of the kidneys to filter waste and excess fluids from the blood.
4. High blood pressure: Hypertension is common in people with nephrosclerosis.
5. Swelling: Fluid retention in the legs, ankles, and feet.
6. Fatigue: Weakness and tiredness due to the buildup of waste products in the body.
7. Nausea and vomiting: Due to the buildup of waste products in the body.
8. Skin rash: Some people with nephrosclerosis may develop a skin rash.

Nephrosclerosis can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, urine and blood tests, and imaging studies such as ultrasound and CT scans. Treatment for nephrosclerosis depends on the underlying cause and may include medications to control high blood pressure, reduce proteinuria, and slow the progression of the disease. In severe cases, dialysis or kidney transplantation may be necessary.

It is essential to seek medical attention if you experience any symptoms of nephrosclerosis, as early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent complications and improve outcomes. A healthcare professional can perform a physical examination, take a medical history, and order diagnostic tests to determine the underlying cause of your symptoms. Based on the severity and underlying cause of your condition, a treatment plan will be developed that may include medications, lifestyle modifications, or dialysis. With proper treatment, many people with nephrosclerosis can manage their symptoms and improve their quality of life.

Nephritis is often diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as urinalysis and blood tests. Treatment for nephritis depends on the underlying cause, but may include antibiotics, corticosteroids, and immunosuppressive medications. In severe cases, dialysis may be necessary to remove waste products from the blood.

Some common types of nephritis include:

1. Acute pyelonephritis: This is a type of bacterial infection that affects the kidneys and can cause sudden and severe symptoms.
2. Chronic pyelonephritis: This is a type of inflammation that occurs over a longer period of time, often as a result of recurrent infections or other underlying conditions.
3. Lupus nephritis: This is a type of inflammation that occurs in people with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), an autoimmune disorder that can affect multiple organs.
4. IgA nephropathy: This is a type of inflammation that occurs when an antibody called immunoglobulin A (IgA) deposits in the kidneys and causes damage.
5. Mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis: This is a type of inflammation that affects the mesangium, a layer of tissue in the kidney that helps to filter waste products from the blood.
6. Minimal change disease: This is a type of nephrotic syndrome (a group of symptoms that include proteinuria, or excess protein in the urine) that is caused by inflammation and changes in the glomeruli, the tiny blood vessels in the kidneys that filter waste products from the blood.
7. Membranous nephropathy: This is a type of inflammation that occurs when there is an abnormal buildup of antibodies called immunoglobulin G (IgG) in the glomeruli, leading to damage to the kidneys.
8. Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis: This is a type of inflammation that affects one or more segments of the glomeruli, leading to scarring and loss of function.
9. Post-infectious glomerulonephritis: This is a type of inflammation that occurs after an infection, such as streptococcal infections, and can cause damage to the kidneys.
10. Acute tubular necrosis (ATN): This is a type of inflammation that occurs when there is a sudden loss of blood flow to the kidneys, causing damage to the tubules, which are tiny tubes in the kidneys that help to filter waste products from the blood.

There are two main types of heart failure:

1. Left-sided heart failure: This occurs when the left ventricle, which is the main pumping chamber of the heart, becomes weakened and is unable to pump blood effectively. This can lead to congestion in the lungs and other organs.
2. Right-sided heart failure: This occurs when the right ventricle, which pumps blood to the lungs, becomes weakened and is unable to pump blood effectively. This can lead to congestion in the body's tissues and organs.

Symptoms of heart failure may include:

* Shortness of breath
* Fatigue
* Swelling in the legs, ankles, and feet
* Swelling in the abdomen
* Weight gain
* Coughing up pink, frothy fluid
* Rapid or irregular heartbeat
* Dizziness or lightheadedness

Treatment for heart failure typically involves a combination of medications and lifestyle changes. Medications may include diuretics to remove excess fluid from the body, ACE inhibitors or beta blockers to reduce blood pressure and improve blood flow, and aldosterone antagonists to reduce the amount of fluid in the body. Lifestyle changes may include a healthy diet, regular exercise, and stress reduction techniques. In severe cases, heart failure may require hospitalization or implantation of a device such as an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) or a left ventricular assist device (LVAD).

It is important to note that heart failure is a chronic condition, and it requires ongoing management and monitoring to prevent complications and improve quality of life. With proper treatment and lifestyle changes, many people with heart failure are able to manage their symptoms and lead active lives.

* Nausea and vomiting
* Abdominal pain
* Diarrhea
* Fatigue
* Weakness
* Headache
* Dizziness
* Renal damage

In severe cases, cadmium poisoning can cause:

* Respiratory failure
* Cardiovascular collapse
* Seizures
* Coma
* Death

Treatment of cadmium poisoning usually involves supportive care, such as fluid replacement and management of symptoms. In cases of severe poisoning, hospitalization may be necessary and chelation therapy may be administered to remove the heavy metal from the body. Prevention of cadmium poisoning is key and this can be achieved through proper handling, storage and disposal of cadmium-containing materials, as well as using personal protective equipment during work with cadmium.

If you suspect that you or someone else has been exposed to cadmium, it is important to seek medical attention immediately. A healthcare professional will be able to assess the level and severity of exposure and provide appropriate treatment.

1. Coronary artery disease: The narrowing or blockage of the coronary arteries, which supply blood to the heart.
2. Heart failure: A condition in which the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs.
3. Arrhythmias: Abnormal heart rhythms that can be too fast, too slow, or irregular.
4. Heart valve disease: Problems with the heart valves that control blood flow through the heart.
5. Heart muscle disease (cardiomyopathy): Disease of the heart muscle that can lead to heart failure.
6. Congenital heart disease: Defects in the heart's structure and function that are present at birth.
7. Peripheral artery disease: The narrowing or blockage of blood vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients to the arms, legs, and other organs.
8. Deep vein thrombosis (DVT): A blood clot that forms in a deep vein, usually in the leg.
9. Pulmonary embolism: A blockage in one of the arteries in the lungs, which can be caused by a blood clot or other debris.
10. Stroke: A condition in which there is a lack of oxygen to the brain due to a blockage or rupture of blood vessels.

One mg/dL of creatinine is 88.4 μmol/L. The typical human reference ranges for serum creatinine are 0.5 mg/dL to 1.0 mg/dL ( ... BUN-to-creatinine ratio (the ratio of blood urea nitrogen to creatinine) can indicate other problems besides those intrinsic to ... Serum creatinine is the most commonly used indicator (but not direct measure) of renal function. Elevated creatinine is not ... An expected creatinine concentration indicates the test sample is undiluted, whereas low amounts of creatinine in the urine ...
In enzymology, a creatinine deaminase (EC 3.5.4.21) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction creatinine + H2O ⇌ {\ ... The systematic name of this enzyme class is creatinine iminohydrolase. Other names in common use include creatinine hydrolase, ... Szulmajster J (October 1958). "Bacterial degradation of creatinine. II. Creatinine desimidase". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. ... displaystyle \rightleftharpoons } N-methylhydantoin + NH3 Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are creatinine and H2O, ...
Morgan DB, Carver ME, Payne RB (October 1977). "Plasma creatinine and urea: creatinine ratio in patients with raised plasma ... One of these, an automated dry-slide enzymatic method, measures ammonia generated when creatinine is hydrolyzed by creatinine ... whereas creatinine reabsorption remains the same (minimal reabsorption). Urea and creatinine are nitrogenous end products of ... The normal serum creatinine (sCr) varies with the subject's body muscle mass and with the technique used to measure it. For the ...
... and creatinine. Blood tests, complete blood count (CBC) and electrolytes. Imaging studies of the ureters and renal pelvis. ...
Serum creatinine - Also measured using a BMP or CMP, creatinine is one of the most important indicators of current kidney ... "Creatinine Blood Test". MedlinePlus. July 15, 2017. Retrieved January 22, 2020. "BUN - blood test". MedlinePlus. April 29, 2019 ... Blurred vision Azotemia (increased plasma Urea and Creatinine) Oliguria (low urine output 50% decline in glomerular filtration ... function and is used to calculate the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). An elevated creatinine level is considered abnormal and ...
... creatinine > 1.6 mg/dl, creatinine clearance < 50 ml/min, kidney failure, thromboembolic phenomena, and ARDS. Physicians can ... Criteria for severe OHSS include enlarged ovary, ascites, hematocrit > 45%, WBC > 15,000, oliguria, creatinine 1.0-1.5 mg/dl, ... creatinine clearance > 50 ml/min, liver dysfunction, and anasarca. Critical OHSS includes enlarged ovary, tense ascites with ...
Wyss M, Kaddurah-Daouk R (July 2000). "Creatine and creatinine metabolism". Physiol. Rev. 80 (3): 1107-213. doi:10.1152/physrev ...
Wyss M, Kaddurah-Daouk R (July 2000). "Creatine and creatinine metabolism". Physiological Reviews. 80 (3): 1107-213. doi: ...
Wyss M, Kaddurah-Daouk R (2000). "Creatine and creatinine metabolism". Physiol. Rev. 80 (3): 1107-213. doi:10.1152/physrev. ...
They utilized serum creatinine, creatinine clearance, and serum urea levels as a measure of renal damage. While in general ... The most prevalent of these contaminants was creatinine, a breakdown product of creatine also produced by the body. Creatinine ... Cannan RK, Shore A (1928). "The creatine-creatinine equilibrium. The apparent dissociation constants of creatine and creatinine ... Creatinine loss averages approximately 2 g (14.6 mmol) for 70 kg males in the 20- to 39-year age group. ... Table 1 Comparison ...
Wyss M, Kaddurah-Daouk R (July 2000). "Creatine and creatinine metabolism". Physiol. Rev. 80 (3): 1107-213. doi:10.1152/physrev ... "Guanidinoacetate and creatine plus creatinine assessment in physiologic fluids: an effective diagnostic tool for the ...
Creatinine present in urine inhibits bacterial growth but permits yeast or fungus growth. The separated sludge can be used as ... McDonald, Thomas; Drescher, Kristen M.; Weber, Annika; Tracy, Steven (2012). "Creatinine inhibits bacterial replication". The ...
Pazin, George J. (1 June 1976). "Penicillin Dose and Creatinine Clearance". Annals of Internal Medicine. 84 (6): 754. doi: ...
Creatinine might not be a direct indicator of protein toxicity; however, it is important to mention that creatinine could ... Increased creatinine levels in the blood can also be a sign of kidney damage and inability to excrete protein waste by-products ... Also, high serum creatinine levels could indicate decreased renal filtration rate due to kidney disease, increase byproduct as ... Under normal conditions in the body, ammonia, urea, uric acid, and creatinine are produced by protein metabolism and excreted ...
Creatinine Clearence [sic] Calculator "Carboplatin". Drug Information Portal. U.S. National Library of Medicine. Portal: ... It takes under consideration the creatinine clearance and the desired area under curve. After 24 hours, close to 70% of ...
"Creatinine Direct Procedure, on CimaScientific". Archived from the original on 2020-08-06. Retrieved 2011-03-26. Quantification ... Clinical chemistry laboratory testing utilizes picric acid for the Jaffe reaction to test for creatinine. It forms a colored ...
Pazin, George J. (1 June 1976). "Penicillin Dose and Creatinine Clearance". Annals of Internal Medicine. 84 (6): 754. doi: ...
Creatinine transporter 1 (CT1; SLC6A8) Taurine transporter (TauT; SLC6A6) GAT1 and GAT3 are the major GABA transporters in the ...
creatinine + H2O ⇌ {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons } creatine Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are creatinine and H2O ... The systematic name of this enzyme class is creatinine amidohydrolase. This enzyme is also called creatinine hydrolase. This ... In enzymology, a creatininase (EC 3.5.2.10) is an enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of creatinine to creatine, which can ... Tsuru D, Oka I, Yoshimoto T (1976). "Creatinine decomposing enzymes in Pseudomonas putida". Agric. Biol. Chem. 40 (5): 1011- ...
Basic lab tests may include a complete blood count, chemiestries (look for creatinine), creatine phosphokinase level, liver ... or serum creatinine (> 1.5 mg/dL) Hepatitis B infection Arteriographic abnormalities Arterial biopsy showing polymorphonuclear ...
"Creatinine blood test: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". NLM.NIH.gov. 2013-08-04. Retrieved 2015-04-29. Labsonline.org: ... Serum glucose Calcium Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) Creatinine Electrolyte levels and the balance among them are tightly regulated ...
... levels of creatinine in the blood. UNOS requires that the various medical results must be current, i.e. obtained within the ...
The Excretion of Creatinine and Creatine" (1936, with Ida Genther and Corinne Hogden) "Basal Metabolism and Preformed and Total ... The Excretion of Creatinine and Creatine". American Journal of Diseases of Children. 51 (6): 1268. doi:10.1001/archpedi. ... Wang, Chi Che (1939-04-01). "Basal Metabolism and Preformed and Total Creatinine in Urine of Seventy Children". Archives of ... Urinary Nitrogen with Special Reference to Creatinine" (1926, with Ruth Kern and Margaret Frank) "Metabolism of Undernourished ...
"Phenyl ureas of creatinine as mGluR5 antagonists. A structure-activity relationship study of fenobam analogues". Bioorganic & ...
Creatine is converted to creatinine during cooking. Consumption of red meat, and especially processed red meat, is known to ...
The serum creatinine is raised.[vague] Acid maltase deficiency Danon disease This disorder was described in 1988 by Kalimo et ...
Severe depression, severe kidney failure (creatinine clearance ...
Cockcroft, Donald W.; Gault, Henry (1976). "Prediction of Creatinine Clearance from Serum Creatinine". Nephron. 16 (1): 31-41. ... In many cases, it is observed as a measured creatinine clearance above that which is expected given the patient's age, gender, ... Beginning in the late 1970s, an increase in the creatinine clearance had been observed in burn patients. This led to the ... Commonly, ARC is defined as a creatinine clearance of greater than 130 mL/min, but the effects of increased clearance on ...
... is defined as a protein/creatinine ratio greater than 45 mg/mmol (which is equivalent to albumin/creatinine ratio ... This is termed the protein/creatinine ratio. The 2005 UK Chronic Kidney Disease guidelines state that protein/creatinine ratio ... Alternatively, the concentration of protein in the urine may be compared to the creatinine level in a spot urine sample. ...
Renal abnormalities, sterile leukocyturia, and reduced creatinine clearance. Impairs endothelial function in healthy HIV- ...
URXUCR - Creatinine, urine (mg/dL). Variable Name: URXUCR SAS Label: Creatinine, urine (mg/dL). English Text: Creatinine, urine ... URXCRS - Creatinine, urine (umol/L). Variable Name: URXCRS SAS Label: Creatinine, urine (umol/L). English Text: Creatinine, ... URDACT - Albumin creatinine ratio (mg/g). Variable Name: URDACT SAS Label: Albumin creatinine ratio (mg/g). English Text: ... Urinary Creatinine using the Roche/Hitachi Modular P Chemistry Analyzer In this enzymatic method creatinine is converted to ...
URXUCR - Creatinine, urine (mg/dL). Variable Name: URXUCR. SAS Label: Creatinine, urine (mg/dL). English Text: Creatinine, ... URXCRS - Creatinine, urine (umol/L). Variable Name: URXCRS. SAS Label: Creatinine, urine (umol/L). English Text: Creatinine, ... Second creatinine (mg/dL). English Text: Second creatinine (mg/dL). Target: Both males and females 6 YEARS - 150 YEARS. Code or ... URDACT - First albumin creatinine ratio (mg/g). Variable Name: URDACT. SAS Label: First albumin creatinine ratio (mg/g). ...
This test measures creatinine levels in the blood or urine. Abnormal levels in blood or urine can be a sign of kidney disease. ... Creatinine is a waste product made by your muscles. ... Creatinine can be tested in blood or urine.. For a creatinine ... A creatinine clearance test compares the level of creatinine in blood with the level of creatinine in urine. A creatinine ... What is a creatinine test?. This test measures creatinine levels in blood and/or urine. Creatinine is a waste product made by ...
... Forum. 1 reply to 2015-07-11. ... reducing creatinine level in the blood. i am 56 years woman having diabatis of 77 fasing and 186 pp. creatinine level is 5.2 ...
LOINC Code 22692-8 Valine/Creatinine [Molar ratio] in Urine ... LP32035-5 Creatinine. Creatinine or creatine anhydride, is a ... Valine/Creatinine (U) [Molar ratio]. Consumer Name Alpha Get Info. Valine/Creatinine, Urine. Basic Attributes. Class. CHEM. ... Source: Human Metabolome Database, Creatinine. Fully-Specified Name. Component. Valine/Creatinine. Property. SRto. Time. Pt. ... Valine/Creatinine [Molar ratio] in Urine Active Part Descriptions. LP15946-4 Valine. Valine, one of the 20 proteinogenic amino ...
Evaluating urinary flow and solute excretion from urinary creatinine in the first week of life ... Evaluating urinary flow and solute excretion from urinary creatinine in the first week of life ... Evaluating urinary flow and solute excretion from urinary creatinine in the first week of life ...
Short communication: Creatinine, blood urea nitrogen and thyroid hormone levels before and after haemodialysis ... The aim of this study was to compare the serum levels of thyroid hormones T3 and T4 with BUN and creatinine levels in patients ... The data were analysed using Epi-Info, version 6. The relationship between creatinine or BUN and thyroid hormone levels was ... Standard methods were used to measure serum levels of creatinine, BUN, T3 and T4 by routine biochemical and radioimmunoassay ...
Human Creatinine Elisa. Lab Reagents Creatinine Elisa Laboratories manufactures the human creatinine elisa reagents distributed ... please contact creatinine elisa. Other Human products are available in stock. Specificity: Human Category: Creatinine Group: ... This CD Creatinine ELISA kit is a 1.5 hour solid-phase ELISA designed for the quantitative determination of Mouse Creatinine. ... The Human Creatinine Elisa reagent is RUO (Research Use Only) to test human serum or cell culture lab samples. To purchase ...
Correction: Creatinine‑to‑cystatin C ratio as a marker of sarcopenia for identifying osteoporosis in male patients with type 2 ... Correction: Creatinine‑to‑cystatin C ratio as a marker of sarcopenia for identifying osteoporosis in male patients with type 2 ... Dai H, Xu J. Creatinine-to-cystatin C ratio as a marker of sarcopenia for identifying osteoporosis in male patients with type 2 ... Dai, H., Xu, J. Correction: Creatinine‑to‑cystatin C ratio as a marker of sarcopenia for identifying osteoporosis in male ...
The level of creatinine in the blood should remain stable.. When the creatinine starts to rise it usually means that the ... Creatinine (Cr). Creatinine is a simple blood test that is used to measure how well your kidneys are functioning. ... Creatinine can be higher during dehydration. If you are sick and not eating or hydrating properly then creatinine may increase. ... Creatinine is released from muscles. People with more muscle release more creatinine and their blood levels will be higher. Men ...
Get all details on Creatinine test such as : procedure, preparation, benefits, price, TAT and more. ... Book Creatinine test online on Bloodoxy at best price. ... Details of Creatinine What is a creatinine test?. This test ... Creatinine - Body Fluid. Creatinine Clearance 24 hrs Urine. Creatinine Clearance 6 hrs Urine. Creatinine Kinase MB/ Creatinine ... Details of Creatinine What is a creatinine test?. This test measures creatinine levels in the blood and/or urine. Creatinine is ...
Protein creatinine ratio calculator Utilize our online protein creatinine ratio calculator to determine the urine protein-to- ... creatinine ratio based on the specified protein and creatinine readings. Using the protein-to-creatinine ratio calculator, you ... Simply enter the protein and creatinine numbers into our calculator to get the ratio and take the necessary action to prevent ... may use urine concentration to diagnose the urine protein-to-creatinine ratio in adults. ...
BUN and creatinine level. For evaluation of renal status. Calcium level. If patient has renal failure (because hypocalcemia can ...
Visit Vijaya Diagnostic Centre for affordable and accurate CREATININE testing. Book an appointment today! ... Looking for the best CREATININE test price in ? ... What is Creatinine Test?. Creatinine Testis a blood test that ... What is creatinine a test for?. The concentration of creatinine in the bloodstream can be determined through the creatinine ... A standard creatinine blood test is commonly used to measure the level of creatinine in the bloodstream (serum creatinine). ...
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I got my blood test done and found serum creatinine level 1.9. What is it e... ... How can I reduce my creatinine levels?. There are many ways that you can help you to reduce your creatinine levels, including ... Creatinine is a waste product that comes from the wear and tear of muscles of the body. Normally creatinine remains in the ... Creatinine has been found to be a reliable indicator of kidney function. Elevated creatinine level signifies impaired kidney ...
A kidney or urinary tract disorder reduces the excretion of creatinine and thus raises the creatinine levels. Therefore, ... Creatinine (CREAT). How does it work?. You collect a dried blood spot sample from the comfort of your home, send it to our lab ... 2.) CREATININE. Your kidneys are a vital part of your health. They remove wastes from the body and clean it. Your kidney ... Creatinine (CREAT) is another waste product. It is formed by the breakdown of creatine, a key molecule in muscular metabolism. ...
Creatinine is the end product of Creatine Phosphate in your lean mass. This substance is produced by your body and its rate ... From WebMD Creatinine and Creatinine Clearance. The blood creatinine level shows (rather: approximates) how well your kidneys ... If the Creatinine levels went back to normal, then your kidneys are fine and elevated blood Creatinine levels are due to heavy ... From Medicine.net Medical Definition of Creatinine. Creatinine: A chemical waste molecule that is generated from muscle ...
Creatinine is an integral part of our muscles, one of its main functions is nourishing them. When it is degraded, it releases ... When it is degraded, it releases creatinine, which in turn is mainly filtered by the kidneys. Therefore, the creatinine level ... The blood creatinine range for men is 0.7 to 1.3mg/dL and 0.6 to 1.1 mg/dL for women. But more important than the absolute ... Low levels of creatinine may be indicative of insufficient protein intake, so treatment will be focused on a diet rich in ...
Calculate the Creatinine Clearance by the input parameters. ... Online calculator for finding the Creatinine Clearance by ... Creatinine clearance is a measure of how well the kidneys are doing in clearing creatinine from the blood. The Cockcroft-Gault ... The creatinine ratio is a measurement of kidney function. The ratio is ... ...
Is a BUN creatinine ratio of 26 high?. What does BUN creatinine ratio of 22 mean?. A better measure is the ratio of BUN to ... Is BUN creatinine ratio of 28 bad?. The ideal ratio of BUN to creatinine falls between 10-to-1 and 20-to-1. Having a ratio ... What is a high BUN creatinine ratio?. High BUN-to-creatinine ratios occur with sudden (acute) kidney problems, which may be ... What is considered a bad creatinine level?. What are considered high creatinine levels? A person with only one kidney may have ...
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Meet the Experts Transporter Conferences. As a pioneer in the drug transporter field for 20 years, SOLVO is dedicated to exploring the science of transporters and their role in xenobiotic efficacy and safety.. ...
Book Creatinine, Serum test online from the most trusted pathology lab from the comfort of your home and get the test reports ... A s creatinine test is done to ascertain the renal function. If the kidneys ability to filter out the creatinine is affected, ... Serum creatinine test is a vital test that determines how well your kidneys are working. Creatinine is the waste product ... High creatinine levels in the s creatinine test indicate that the kidneys are not functioning properly. This needs proper ...
Glucosuria and interference of urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio. Glucosuria and interference of urinary albumin-to- ... creatinine ratio. Delanghe, Joris; Oyaert, Matthijs; De Buyzere, Marc; Delanghe, Sigurd; Speeckaert, Marijn. Afiliação * ...
After first morning void collect 24 hour urine. Last sample collected should be first morning void at the same time as the previous mornings first void. Mix urine well and send a 10.0 mL aliquot no preservatives in a screw capped urine cup. Record 24 hour volume on cup. Keep urine refrigerated during collection ...
  • Note: See Analytical Note on comparing the urine albumin-creatinine ratio of the random urine (first collection) and the follow-up first-morning void urine (second collection). (cdc.gov)
  • Urine albumin-creatinine ratio is used to classify stages of chronic kidney disease. (cdc.gov)
  • Therefore, measurement of urinary albumin and creatinine concentrations are performed and an albumin:creatinine ratio (ACR) was determined from both a random urine and a first morning void. (cdc.gov)
  • The ratio of urine albumin to urine creatinine is used to predict nephropathy risk in diabetic patients. (cdc.gov)
  • Utilize our online protein creatinine ratio calculator to determine the urine protein-to-creatinine ratio based on the specified protein and creatinine readings. (aha.io)
  • Using the protein-to-creatinine ratio calculator, you may use urine concentration to diagnose the urine protein-to-creatinine ratio in adults. (aha.io)
  • Simply enter the protein and creatinine numbers into our calculator to get the ratio and take the necessary action to prevent further issues. (aha.io)
  • Glucosuria and interference of urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio. (bvsalud.org)
  • Is 25 high for BUN creatinine ratio? (nbccomedyplayground.com)
  • The BUN/creatinine ratio is a good measurement of kidney and liver function. (nbccomedyplayground.com)
  • What is a high BUN creatinine ratio? (nbccomedyplayground.com)
  • A very high BUN-to-creatinine ratio may be caused by bleeding in the digestive tract or respiratory tract. (nbccomedyplayground.com)
  • What does BUN creatinine ratio of 30 mean? (nbccomedyplayground.com)
  • Is BUN creatinine ratio of 28 bad? (nbccomedyplayground.com)
  • The ideal ratio of BUN to creatinine falls between 10-to-1 and 20-to-1. (nbccomedyplayground.com)
  • A better measure is the ratio of BUN to creatinine found in your blood. (nbccomedyplayground.com)
  • IMSEAR at SEARO: Quantitation of proteinuria in nephrotic syndrome by spot urine protein creatinine ratio estimation in children. (who.int)
  • Biswas A, Kumar R, Chaterjee A, Ghosh JK, Basu K. Quantitation of proteinuria in nephrotic syndrome by spot urine protein creatinine ratio estimation in children. (who.int)
  • Recent studies have shown that calculation of protein/creatinine ratio in a spot urine sample correlates well with the 24-hour urine protein (24-HUP) excretion. (who.int)
  • A study was conducted to compare the accuracy of a spot urinary protein/creatinine ratio (P/C ratio) and urinary dipstick with the 24-hour urine protein. (who.int)
  • The protein/creatinine ratio was calculated and dipstick was performed on the spot sample. (who.int)
  • The normal value of protein/creatinine ratio in Indian children was also estimated on 50 normal children admitted in the ward without any renal diseases calculated to be 0.053 (SE of mean +/-0.003). (who.int)
  • A creatinine clearance test compares the level of creatinine in blood with the level of creatinine in urine. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Since the ACR depends not only on urinary albumin but also on urinary creatinine excretion, it will be affected by gender and age because muscle mass is lower in females than in males and decreases with age. (cdc.gov)
  • A kidney or urinary tract disorder reduces the excretion of creatinine and thus raises the creatinine levels. (verisana.com)
  • Urinary albumin and urinary creatinine are measured in a random urine collected in the MEC. (cdc.gov)
  • Urinary albumin and urinary creatinine are measured in a random urine collected in the MEC (first collection) and a first morning void urine collected by the participant at home (second collection). (cdc.gov)
  • Urinary creatinine is useful as part of the creatinine clearance and to assess completeness of 24 hour urinary collections. (diagnear.com)
  • In a normal situation creatinine is continuously released from the muscle and continuously removed by the kidneys. (rheuminfo.com)
  • Sometimes creatinine can increase temporarily during times of illness or dehydration and does not reflect kidney problems. (rheuminfo.com)
  • Creatinine can be higher during dehydration. (rheuminfo.com)
  • Dehydration can cause your creatinine levels to increase, so staying hydrated is important. (drshikhasharma.com)
  • High levels of creatinine may indicate dehydration . (onehowto.com)
  • High BUN-to-creatinine ratios occur with sudden (acute) kidney problems, which may be caused by shock or severe dehydration. (nbccomedyplayground.com)
  • The Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) group published the RIFLE classification, which is based on changes from the patient's baseline either in serum creatinine level, glomerular filtration rate (GFR), or urine output (UO). (medscape.com)
  • Since baseline serum creatinine level and GFRs may not be readily available, the consensus committee recommended the use of the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) equation to estimate the patient's GFR/1.73 mm based on serum creatinine level, age, gender, and race. (medscape.com)
  • I got my blood test done and found serum creatinine level 1.9. (drshikhasharma.com)
  • Health care professionals use the creatinine test to provide an estimate of the glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) which is a calculated measure of kidney function. (rheuminfo.com)
  • Glomerular filtration rate is estimated based on a formula that uses the creatinine test result and takes into account age, gender, and ethnicity. (rheuminfo.com)
  • Acute kidney injury (AKI), formerly called acute renal failure (ARF), is commonly defined as an abrupt decline in renal function, clinically manifesting as a reversible acute increase in nitrogen waste products (measured by blood urea nitrogen [BUN] and serum creatinine levels) over the course of hours to weeks. (medscape.com)
  • Therefore, the creatinine level is an indicator of muscle mass in the body and renal function . (onehowto.com)
  • an increasing level indicates a possible kidney damage, whereas a decreasing creatinine level indicates improved renal function . (onehowto.com)
  • A s creatinine test is done to ascertain the renal function. (apollo247.com)
  • The amount of creatinine in the blood depends partly on the amount of muscle tissue you have. (mevolv.com)
  • A standard creatinine blood test is commonly used to measure the level of creatinine in the bloodstream (serum creatinine). (vijayadiagnostic.com)
  • Normally creatinine remains in the bloodstream. (drshikhasharma.com)
  • Creatinine is transported through the bloodstream to the kidneys. (mevolv.com)
  • Creatinine measurement is useful in the diagnosis and treatment of renal diseases, in monitoring renal dialysis, and is used to standardize other urinary analytes (e.g. environmental chemicals). (cdc.gov)
  • Description: A competitive ELISA for quantitative measurement of Rat Creatinine in samples from blood, plasma, serum, cell culture supernatant and other biological fluids. (mugen-noe.org)
  • A creatinine clearance test may provide more accurate information on kidney function than a blood or urine test alone. (medlineplus.gov)
  • For the creatinine urine test, the clinic may provide you with containers to collect urine over a 24-hour period. (vijayadiagnostic.com)
  • Men generally have more muscle mass than women and therefore they usually have a higher creatinine. (rheuminfo.com)
  • Men generally have higher creatinine levels than women. (mevolv.com)
  • Why creatinine level goes to high in Nephrotic Syndrome? (kidney-treatment.org)
  • As one of the most advanced treatments of nephrotic syndrome, it can reduce the high creatinine level by providing nutritions for kidney, repairing renal damage and recovering renal functions. (kidney-treatment.org)
  • If you want to know more details about the treatment of Nephrotic Syndrome, or want to lower the high creatinine level, you can send email to us or leave message below, we will try our best to help you. (kidney-treatment.org)
  • Creatinine is produced by creatine and creatine phosphate as a result of muscle metabolic processes. (cdc.gov)
  • Creatinine or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. (loinc.org)
  • Creatinine is the end product of Creatine Phosphate in your lean mass. (mevolv.com)
  • The Cleveland Clinic Foundation (CCF) laboratory analyzed the serum creatinine specimens using a Roche coupled enzymatic assay (creatininase, creatinase, sarcosine oxidase, kits # 1775677 and 1775766) performed on a Roche P Module instrument. (cdc.gov)
  • The Roche method calibrators were traceable to an isotope dilution mass spectrometric method for serum creatinine using standard references methods (NIST SRM 967) and confirmed by analysis of CAP LN-24 linearity set based on NIST assigned values. (cdc.gov)
  • Creatinine has been found to be a reliable indicator of kidney function. (drshikhasharma.com)
  • Therefore, creatinine levels are a good indicator to evaluate kidney function. (verisana.com)
  • When the creatinine starts to rise it usually means that the kidneys are not getting rid of it effectively. (rheuminfo.com)
  • As the kidneys are not functioning properly for any reason, the creatinine level in the blood will increase due to poor clearance of creatinine by the kidneys. (drshikhasharma.com)
  • Creatinine is a waste product made by your muscles as part of regular, everyday activity. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Creatinine is released from muscles. (rheuminfo.com)
  • Creatinine is a waste product that comes from the wear and tear of muscles of the body. (drshikhasharma.com)
  • This leads to the breakdown of muscles thus there will be a rise of creatinine in the blood. (drshikhasharma.com)
  • Creatinine is produced from creatine, a molecule of major importance for energy production in muscles. (mevolv.com)
  • Creatinine is an integral part of our muscles, one of its main functions is nourishing them. (onehowto.com)
  • What is a creatinine test? (medlineplus.gov)
  • This test measures creatinine levels in blood and/or urine. (medlineplus.gov)
  • A creatinine test is used to see if your kidneys are working normally. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Why do I need a creatinine test? (medlineplus.gov)
  • What happens during a creatinine test? (medlineplus.gov)
  • Is there anything else I need to know about a creatinine test? (medlineplus.gov)
  • Your health care provider may also order a creatinine clearance test. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate and measuring its serum level is a simple test. (loinc.org)
  • The Human Creatinine Elisa reagent is RUO (Research Use Only) to test human serum or cell culture lab samples. (mugen-noe.org)
  • Creatinine is a simple blood test that is used to measure how well your kidneys are functioning. (rheuminfo.com)
  • If your creatinine is elevated it is important to repeat the test. (rheuminfo.com)
  • Book CREATININE Test in at Best Price. (vijayadiagnostic.com)
  • Creatinine Test is performed in combination with other tests like BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen) and is used largely as a screening test to assess the function of kidneys. (vijayadiagnostic.com)
  • Creatinine Test is a blood test that measures the level of creatine in your blood. (vijayadiagnostic.com)
  • Why is Creatinine Test Done? (vijayadiagnostic.com)
  • What is the Creatinine Test Used for? (vijayadiagnostic.com)
  • How to Prepare for Creatinine Test in Hyderabad? (vijayadiagnostic.com)
  • What You can Expect from Creatinine Test? (vijayadiagnostic.com)
  • When you get a serum creatinine test, the healthcare professional will need to get a blood sample. (vijayadiagnostic.com)
  • What is Creatinine Test Cost in Hyderabad? (vijayadiagnostic.com)
  • The creatinine test cost in Hyderabad at Vijaya Diagnostics Centre is ₹220. (vijayadiagnostic.com)
  • When you get your blood test results with high creatinine levels, it doesn't associate with your creatine consumption. (mevolv.com)
  • If you are seeking accurate results on your Creatinine, you will need to stop any kind of workout for 7 days and take the blood test again. (mevolv.com)
  • A creatinine clearance test measures how well creatinine is removed from your blood by your kidneys. (mevolv.com)
  • This test gives better information than a blood creatinine test on how well your kidneys are working. (mevolv.com)
  • Serum creatinine test is a vital test that determines how well your kidneys are working. (apollo247.com)
  • 7's serum creatinine test prices are kept competitive. (apollo247.com)
  • Who should get the creatinine test done? (apollo247.com)
  • What other tests can be advised along with the creatinine test? (apollo247.com)
  • The other tests which can be advised along with creatinine test include blood urea nitrogen and urine albumin test especially if a person has known kidney disorder or a disease. (apollo247.com)
  • What preparation is required before giving a blood sample for a creatinine test? (apollo247.com)
  • This is why a serum creatinine test at regular intervals becomes necessary. (apollo247.com)
  • You'll be dealing with slightly high creatinine levels with intense training and heavy lifting. (mevolv.com)
  • Studies have shown that cooked meat can temporarily raise creatinine levels. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Creatinine levels can increase temporarily from rigorous exercise or using certain medications for chemotherapy drugs. (drshikhasharma.com)
  • In this enzymatic method creatinine is converted to creatine under the activity of creatininase. (cdc.gov)
  • Another reason is to determine how well your kidneys work by measuring how much creatinine-a waste product of muscle metabolism-is filtered through your kidneys and passed out in your urine. (vijayadiagnostic.com)
  • Serum creatinine assays on 190, 196, 194 and 190 stored specimens from NHANES III, 1999-2000, 2001-2002, and 2003-2004, respectively, were used to determine if serum creatinine needed to be adjusted when compared to a method traceable to a "gold" standard reference method. (cdc.gov)
  • There were significant differences in results between the original and standardized serum creatinine for NHANES III and NHANES 1999-2000. (cdc.gov)
  • Creatinine is the waste product derived from muscle creatinine and is released into the blood at a relatively constant rate. (cdc.gov)
  • Creatinine (CREAT) is another waste product. (verisana.com)
  • Creatinine is the waste product produced through the breakdown of muscle and protein. (apollo247.com)
  • When you are dealing with high creatinine levels in your blood, this means you have kidney problems. (mevolv.com)
  • Creatinine is a kind of metabolic wastes and toxins which depends on kidney to be removed them out of the body in the form of urine. (kidney-treatment.org)
  • Serum creatinine is not standardized in many laboratories. (cdc.gov)
  • Education Program is attempting to have all laboratories standardize serum creatinine to reference methods (Myers, GL, et al . (cdc.gov)
  • Creatinine Elisa Laboratories manufactures the human creatinine elisa reagents distributed by Genprice. (mugen-noe.org)
  • If blood and/or urine creatinine levels are not normal, it can be a sign of kidney disease . (medlineplus.gov)
  • What is the normal creatinine level? (vijayadiagnostic.com)
  • Normal ranges for creatinine are between 0.7 and 1.3 mg/dL (61.9 to 114.9 µmol/L) for men and 0.6 to 1.1 mg/dL (53 to 97.2 µmol/L) for women. (vijayadiagnostic.com)
  • The normal levels of creatinine depending on the gender of a person. (drshikhasharma.com)
  • If the Creatinine levels went back to normal, then your kidneys are fine and elevated blood Creatinine levels are due to heavy lifting. (mevolv.com)
  • Remember that a by-product of the heavy lifting is creatinine which is created when creatine is broken down in the muscle to produce energy, what's left is creatinine which is passed through the kidneys and excreted. (mevolv.com)
  • Reduce your protein intake from meats a s red meat contains creatine that after cooking converted into creatinine. (drshikhasharma.com)
  • It is advised to fast overnight and avoid eating cooked meat as the consumption of cooked meat can cause an increase in levels of creatinine. (apollo247.com)
  • Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver and pancreas. (loinc.org)
  • If you need to lower creatinine levels, you should decrease the intake of the ingredients listed above, as this may be causing high level of creatinine. (onehowto.com)
  • The aim of this study was to compare the serum levels of thyroid hormones T3 and T4 with blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine serum levels in patients with chronic renal failure, before and after haemodialysis. (who.int)
  • Creatinine was a significant covariate when used as an independent variable along with dermal and respirator-adjusted inhalation exposure. (cdc.gov)
  • Pesticide exposure and creatinine variation among young children. (cdc.gov)
  • What are considered high creatinine levels? (nbccomedyplayground.com)
  • You would require doctor consultation and treatment, which may include dialysis, if the creatinine levels are high. (apollo247.com)
  • With the disease developed, the creatinine level also will goes to high level. (kidney-treatment.org)
  • In general, for patient with so high creatinine level, their doctor will recommend dialysis to them. (kidney-treatment.org)
  • Because dialysis just can relieve the high creatinine level in a period but cannot repair the damaged kidneys. (kidney-treatment.org)
  • Evaluation of Creatinine levels in the blood will help the doctor to take measures to improve your kidneys' health. (apollo247.com)
  • In addition, the urine creatinine is used to standardize the collection of urine analytes such as environmental chemicals. (cdc.gov)
  • If you are sick and not eating or hydrating properly then creatinine may increase. (rheuminfo.com)
  • If a slight increase in Creatinine identified up to 1.5 and you are doing heavy lifting, then it's probably because of your lifting. (mevolv.com)
  • Which conditions can cause an increase in levels of creatinine? (apollo247.com)
  • Creatinine and its clearance are the main measures of kidney function. (mevolv.com)
  • Creatinine clearance is a measure of how well the kidneys are doing in clearing creatinine from the blood. (calchub.xyz)
  • The Cockcroft-Gault equation is a widely used formula to calculate creatinine clearance. (calchub.xyz)
  • The loss of water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. (loinc.org)
  • Creatinine is released from muscle tissue in the body. (rheuminfo.com)
  • People with more muscle release more creatinine and their blood levels will be higher. (rheuminfo.com)
  • If creatinine is low it usually means that the muscle mass is low. (rheuminfo.com)
  • Creatine Monohydrate and Creatinine: Muscle Growth Results! (mevolv.com)
  • Creatinine can be higher in people taking certain medications such as water pills (diuretics) or certain blood pressure medications. (rheuminfo.com)

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