Serologic tests based on inactivation of complement by the antigen-antibody complex (stage 1). Binding of free complement can be visualized by addition of a second antigen-antibody system such as red cells and appropriate red cell antibody (hemolysin) requiring complement for its completion (stage 2). Failure of the red cells to lyse indicates that a specific antigen-antibody reaction has taken place in stage 1. If red cells lyse, free complement is present indicating no antigen-antibody reaction occurred in stage 1.
A disease of cattle caused by bacteria of the genus BRUCELLA leading to abortion in late pregnancy. BRUCELLA ABORTUS is the primary infective agent.
Histoplasmin is an antigen extracted from the histoplasmoma fungus (Histoplasma capsulatum), used in skin tests to detect previous exposure or infection to this pathogen that causes histoplasmosis.
Technique involving the diffusion of antigen or antibody through a semisolid medium, usually agar or agarose gel, with the result being a precipitin reaction.
Sensitive tests to measure certain antigens, antibodies, or viruses, using their ability to agglutinate certain erythrocytes. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to BACTERIAL ANTIGENS.
A species of the genus BRUCELLA whose natural hosts are cattle and other bovidae. Abortion and placentitis are frequently produced in the pregnant animal. Other mammals, including humans, may be infected.
Infection caused by bacteria of the genus BRUCELLA mainly involving the MONONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTE SYSTEM. This condition is characterized by fever, weakness, malaise, and weight loss.
Tests that are dependent on the clumping of cells, microorganisms, or particles when mixed with specific antiserum. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
A genus of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria that causes BRUCELLOSIS. Its cells are nonmotile coccobacilli and are animal parasites and pathogens. The bacterium is transmissible to humans through contact with infected dairy products or tissue.
Diagnostic procedures involving immunoglobulin reactions.
Serum glycoproteins participating in the host defense mechanism of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION that creates the COMPLEMENT MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX. Included are glycoproteins in the various pathways of complement activation (CLASSICAL COMPLEMENT PATHWAY; ALTERNATIVE COMPLEMENT PATHWAY; and LECTIN COMPLEMENT PATHWAY).
Serum that contains antibodies. It is obtained from an animal that has been immunized either by ANTIGEN injection or infection with microorganisms containing the antigen.
The sequential activation of serum COMPLEMENT PROTEINS to create the COMPLEMENT MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX. Factors initiating complement activation include ANTIGEN-ANTIBODY COMPLEXES, microbial ANTIGENS, or cell surface POLYSACCHARIDES.
A glycoprotein that is central in both the classical and the alternative pathway of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION. C3 can be cleaved into COMPLEMENT C3A and COMPLEMENT C3B, spontaneously at low level or by C3 CONVERTASE at high level. The smaller fragment C3a is an ANAPHYLATOXIN and mediator of local inflammatory process. The larger fragment C3b binds with C3 convertase to form C5 convertase.
Studies determining the effectiveness or value of processes, personnel, and equipment, or the material on conducting such studies. For drugs and devices, CLINICAL TRIALS AS TOPIC; DRUG EVALUATION; and DRUG EVALUATION, PRECLINICAL are available.
A mitosporic fungal genus which causes COCCIDIOIDOMYCOSIS.
A bright bluish pink compound that has been used as a dye, biological stain, and diagnostic aid.
Diseases of domestic and mountain sheep of the genus Ovis.
Infection resulting from inhalation or ingestion of spores of the fungus of the genus HISTOPLASMA, species H. capsulatum. It is worldwide in distribution and particularly common in the midwestern United States. (From Dorland, 27th ed)
A bacterial vaccine for the prevention of brucellosis in man and animal. Brucella abortus vaccine is used for the immunization of cattle, sheep, and goats.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
Interstitial pneumonia caused by extensive infection of the lungs (LUNG) and BRONCHI, particularly the lower lobes of the lungs, by MYCOPLASMA PNEUMONIAE in humans. In SHEEP, it is caused by MYCOPLASMA OVIPNEUMONIAE. In CATTLE, it may be caused by MYCOPLASMA DISPAR.
Infection with a fungus of the genus COCCIDIOIDES, endemic to the SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES. It is sometimes called valley fever but should not be confused with RIFT VALLEY FEVER. Infection is caused by inhalation of airborne, fungal particles known as arthroconidia, a form of FUNGAL SPORES. A primary form is an acute, benign, self-limited respiratory infection. A secondary form is a virulent, severe, chronic, progressive granulomatous disease with systemic involvement. It can be detected by use of COCCIDIOIDIN.
The classic form of typhus, caused by RICKETTSIA PROWAZEKII, which is transmitted from man to man by the louse Pediculus humanus corporis. This disease is characterized by the sudden onset of intense headache, malaise, and generalized myalgia followed by the formation of a macular skin eruption and vascular and neurologic disturbances.
A class of immunoglobulin bearing mu chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN MU-CHAINS). IgM can fix COMPLEMENT. The name comes from its high molecular weight and originally being called a macroglobulin.
Short filamentous organism of the genus Mycoplasma, which binds firmly to the cells of the respiratory epithelium. It is one of the etiologic agents of non-viral primary atypical pneumonia in man.
Serological reactions in which an antiserum against one antigen reacts with a non-identical but closely related antigen.
Inflammation of the EPIDIDYMIS. Its clinical features include enlarged epididymis, a swollen SCROTUM; PAIN; PYURIA; and FEVER. It is usually related to infections in the URINARY TRACT, which likely spread to the EPIDIDYMIS through either the VAS DEFERENS or the lymphatics of the SPERMATIC CORD.
An acute infectious disease caused by COXIELLA BURNETII. It is characterized by a sudden onset of FEVER; HEADACHE; malaise; and weakness. In humans, it is commonly contracted by inhalation of infected dusts derived from infected domestic animals (ANIMALS, DOMESTIC).
A contagious disease of horses that can be transmitted to humans. It is caused by BURKHOLDERIA MALLEI and characterized by ulceration of the respiratory mucosa and an eruption of nodules on the skin.
Immunoglobulins produced in response to VIRAL ANTIGENS.
A genus of gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that is widely distributed in TICKS and various mammals throughout the world. Infection with this genus is particularly prevalent in CATTLE; SHEEP; and GOATS.
Any of the ruminant mammals with curved horns in the genus Ovis, family Bovidae. They possess lachrymal grooves and interdigital glands, which are absent in GOATS.
A mitosporic Onygenales fungal genus causing HISTOPLASMOSIS in humans and animals. Its single species is Histoplasma capsulatum which has two varieties: H. capsulatum var. capsulatum and H. capsulatum var. duboisii. Its teleomorph is AJELLOMYCES capsulatus.
The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.
Serologic tests in which a known quantity of antigen is added to the serum prior to the addition of a red cell suspension. Reaction result is expressed as the smallest amount of antigen which causes complete inhibition of hemagglutination.
Substances elaborated by bacteria that have antigenic activity.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to FUNGAL ANTIGENS.
A technique that combines protein electrophoresis and double immunodiffusion. In this procedure proteins are first separated by gel electrophoresis (usually agarose), then made visible by immunodiffusion of specific antibodies. A distinct elliptical precipitin arc results for each protein detectable by the antisera.
Substances of fungal origin that have antigenic activity.
Substances elaborated by viruses that have antigenic activity.
A glycoprotein that is important in the activation of CLASSICAL COMPLEMENT PATHWAY. C4 is cleaved by the activated COMPLEMENT C1S into COMPLEMENT C4A and COMPLEMENT C4B.
Passive agglutination tests in which antigen is adsorbed onto latex particles which then clump in the presence of antibody specific for the adsorbed antigen. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
A species of gram-negative bacteria parasitic on HORSES and DONKEYS causing GLANDERS, which can be transmitted to humans.
Test for tissue antigen using either a direct method, by conjugation of antibody with fluorescent dye (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, DIRECT) or an indirect method, by formation of antigen-antibody complex which is then labeled with fluorescein-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin antibody (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, INDIRECT). The tissue is then examined by fluorescence microscopy.
A species of the genus BRUCELLA whose natural hosts are sheep and goats. Other mammals, including humans, may be infected. In general, these organisms tend to be more virulent for laboratory animals than BRUCELLA ABORTUS and may cause fatal infections.
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
The measurement of infection-blocking titer of ANTISERA by testing a series of dilutions for a given virus-antiserum interaction end-point, which is generally the dilution at which tissue cultures inoculated with the serum-virus mixtures demonstrate cytopathology (CPE) or the dilution at which 50% of test animals injected with serum-virus mixtures show infectivity (ID50) or die (LD50).
Immunoelectrophoresis in which immunoprecipitation occurs when antigen at the cathode is caused to migrate in an electric field through a suitable medium of diffusion against a stream of antibody migrating from the anode as a result of endosmotic flow.
Any of numerous agile, hollow-horned RUMINANTS of the genus Capra, in the family Bovidae, closely related to the SHEEP.
Diseases of domestic cattle of the genus Bos. It includes diseases of cows, yaks, and zebus.
A genus of the family CHLAMYDIACEAE whose species cause a variety of diseases in vertebrates including humans, mice, and swine. Chlamydia species are gram-negative and produce glycogen. The type species is CHLAMYDIA TRACHOMATIS.
Immunologic techniques based on the use of: (1) enzyme-antibody conjugates; (2) enzyme-antigen conjugates; (3) antienzyme antibody followed by its homologous enzyme; or (4) enzyme-antienzyme complexes. These are used histologically for visualizing or labeling tissue specimens.
A subcomponent of complement C1, composed of six copies of three polypeptide chains (A, B, and C), each encoded by a separate gene (C1QA; C1QB; C1QC). This complex is arranged in nine subunits (six disulfide-linked dimers of A and B, and three disulfide-linked homodimers of C). C1q has binding sites for antibodies (the heavy chain of IMMUNOGLOBULIN G or IMMUNOGLOBULIN M). The interaction of C1q and immunoglobulin activates the two proenzymes COMPLEMENT C1R and COMPLEMENT C1S, thus initiating the cascade of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION via the CLASSICAL COMPLEMENT PATHWAY.
A species of gram-negative bacteria that grows preferentially in the vacuoles of the host cell. It is the etiological agent of Q FEVER.
The process in certain BACTERIA; FUNGI; and CYANOBACTERIA converting free atmospheric NITROGEN to biologically usable forms of nitrogen, such as AMMONIA; NITRATES; and amino compounds.
Diseases of the domestic or wild goat of the genus Capra.
Complement activation initiated by the interaction of microbial ANTIGENS with COMPLEMENT C3B. When COMPLEMENT FACTOR B binds to the membrane-bound C3b, COMPLEMENT FACTOR D cleaves it to form alternative C3 CONVERTASE (C3BBB) which, stabilized by COMPLEMENT FACTOR P, is able to cleave multiple COMPLEMENT C3 to form alternative C5 CONVERTASE (C3BBB3B) leading to cleavage of COMPLEMENT C5 and the assembly of COMPLEMENT MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX.
C5 plays a central role in both the classical and the alternative pathway of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION. C5 is cleaved by C5 CONVERTASE into COMPLEMENT C5A and COMPLEMENT C5B. The smaller fragment C5a is an ANAPHYLATOXIN and mediator of inflammatory process. The major fragment C5b binds to the membrane initiating the spontaneous assembly of the late complement components, C5-C9, into the MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX.
Molecules on the surface of some B-lymphocytes and macrophages, that recognize and combine with the C3b, C3d, C1q, and C4b components of complement.
The larger fragment generated from the cleavage of COMPLEMENT C3 by C3 CONVERTASE. It is a constituent of the ALTERNATIVE PATHWAY C3 CONVERTASE (C3bBb), and COMPLEMENT C5 CONVERTASES in both the classical (C4b2a3b) and the alternative (C3bBb3b) pathway. C3b participates in IMMUNE ADHERENCE REACTION and enhances PHAGOCYTOSIS. It can be inactivated (iC3b) or cleaved by various proteases to yield fragments such as COMPLEMENT C3C; COMPLEMENT C3D; C3e; C3f; and C3g.
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the ANTIGEN (or a very similar shape) that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially PLASMA CELLS).
The positioning and accommodation of eyes that allows the image to be brought into place on the FOVEA CENTRALIS of each eye.
A common name used for the genus Cavia. The most common species is Cavia porcellus which is the domesticated guinea pig used for pets and biomedical research.
The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.
A 63-kDa serum glycoprotein encoded by gene C9. Monomeric C9 (mC9) binds the C5b-8 complex to form C5b-9 which catalyzes the polymerization of C9 forming C5b-p9 (MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX) and transmembrane channels leading to lysis of the target cell. Patients with C9 deficiency suffer from recurrent bacterial infections.
Complement activation initiated by the binding of COMPLEMENT C1 to ANTIGEN-ANTIBODY COMPLEXES at the COMPLEMENT C1Q subunit. This leads to the sequential activation of COMPLEMENT C1R and COMPLEMENT C1S subunits. Activated C1s cleaves COMPLEMENT C4 and COMPLEMENT C2 forming the membrane-bound classical C3 CONVERTASE (C4B2A) and the subsequent C5 CONVERTASE (C4B2A3B) leading to cleavage of COMPLEMENT C5 and the assembly of COMPLEMENT MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX.
The production of ANTIBODIES by proliferating and differentiated B-LYMPHOCYTES under stimulation by ANTIGENS.
Large, hoofed mammals of the family EQUIDAE. Horses are active day and night with most of the day spent seeking and consuming food. Feeding peaks occur in the early morning and late afternoon, and there are several daily periods of rest.
The first complement component to act in the activation of CLASSICAL COMPLEMENT PATHWAY. It is a calcium-dependent trimolecular complex made up of three subcomponents: COMPLEMENT C1Q; COMPLEMENT C1R; and COMPLEMENT C1S at 1:2:2 ratios. When the intact C1 binds to at least two antibodies (involving C1q), C1r and C1s are sequentially activated, leading to subsequent steps in the cascade of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION.
A series of steps taken in order to conduct research.
A product of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION cascade, regardless of the pathways, that forms transmembrane channels causing disruption of the target CELL MEMBRANE and cell lysis. It is formed by the sequential assembly of terminal complement components (COMPLEMENT C5B; COMPLEMENT C6; COMPLEMENT C7; COMPLEMENT C8; and COMPLEMENT C9) into the target membrane. The resultant C5b-8-poly-C9 is the "membrane attack complex" or MAC.
Serum proteins that negatively regulate the cascade process of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION. Uncontrolled complement activation and resulting cell lysis is potentially dangerous for the host. The complement system is tightly regulated by inactivators that accelerate the decay of intermediates and certain cell surface receptors.
A genus of the family HERPESVIRIDAE, subfamily BETAHERPESVIRINAE, infecting the salivary glands, liver, spleen, lungs, eyes, and other organs, in which they produce characteristically enlarged cells with intranuclear inclusions. Infection with Cytomegalovirus is also seen as an opportunistic infection in AIDS.
The use of metallic devices inserted into or through bone to hold a fracture in a set position and alignment while it heals.
A component of the CLASSICAL COMPLEMENT PATHWAY. C2 is cleaved by activated COMPLEMENT C1S into COMPLEMENT C2B and COMPLEMENT C2A. C2a, the COOH-terminal fragment containing a SERINE PROTEASE, combines with COMPLEMENT C4B to form C4b2a (CLASSICAL PATHWAY C3 CONVERTASE) and subsequent C4b2a3b (CLASSICAL PATHWAY C5 CONVERTASE).
A glycine-rich, heat-labile serum glycoprotein that contains a component of the C3 CONVERTASE ALTERNATE PATHWAY (C3bBb). Bb, a serine protease, is generated when factor B is cleaved by COMPLEMENT FACTOR D into Ba and Bb.
Classic quantitative assay for detection of antigen-antibody reactions using a radioactively labeled substance (radioligand) either directly or indirectly to measure the binding of the unlabeled substance to a specific antibody or other receptor system. Non-immunogenic substances (e.g., haptens) can be measured if coupled to larger carrier proteins (e.g., bovine gamma-globulin or human serum albumin) capable of inducing antibody formation.
The property of antibodies which enables them to react with some ANTIGENIC DETERMINANTS and not with others. Specificity is dependent on chemical composition, physical forces, and molecular structure at the binding site.
An important soluble regulator of the alternative pathway of complement activation (COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION PATHWAY, ALTERNATIVE). It is a 139-kDa glycoprotein expressed by the liver and secreted into the blood. It binds to COMPLEMENT C3B and makes iC3b (inactivated complement 3b) susceptible to cleavage by COMPLEMENT FACTOR I. Complement factor H also inhibits the association of C3b with COMPLEMENT FACTOR B to form the C3bB proenzyme, and promotes the dissociation of Bb from the C3bBb complex (COMPLEMENT C3 CONVERTASE, ALTERNATIVE PATHWAY).
Compounds that negatively regulate the cascade process of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION. Uncontrolled complement activation and resulting cell lysis is potentially dangerous for the host.
The smaller fragment generated from the cleavage of complement C3 by C3 CONVERTASE. C3a, a 77-amino acid peptide, is a mediator of local inflammatory process. It induces smooth MUSCLE CONTRACTION, and HISTAMINE RELEASE from MAST CELLS and LEUKOCYTES. C3a is considered an anaphylatoxin along with COMPLEMENT C4A; COMPLEMENT C5A; and COMPLEMENT C5A, DES-ARGININE.
The minor fragment formed when C5 convertase cleaves C5 into C5a and COMPLEMENT C5B. C5a is a 74-amino-acid glycopeptide with a carboxy-terminal ARGININE that is crucial for its spasmogenic activity. Of all the complement-derived anaphylatoxins, C5a is the most potent in mediating immediate hypersensitivity (HYPERSENSITIVITY, IMMEDIATE), smooth MUSCLE CONTRACTION; HISTAMINE RELEASE; and migration of LEUKOCYTES to site of INFLAMMATION.
A 105-kDa serum glycoprotein with significant homology to the other late complement components, C7-C9. It is a polypeptide chain cross-linked by 32 disulfide bonds. C6 is the next complement component to bind to the membrane-bound COMPLEMENT C5B in the assembly of MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX. It is encoded by gene C6.
Molecular sites on or in some B-lymphocytes and macrophages that recognize and combine with COMPLEMENT C3B. The primary structure of these receptors reveal that they contain transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains, with their extracellular portion composed entirely of thirty short consensus repeats each having 60 to 70 amino acids.
The processes triggered by interactions of ANTIBODIES with their ANTIGENS.
Enzymes that activate one or more COMPLEMENT PROTEINS in the complement system leading to the formation of the COMPLEMENT MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX, an important response in host defense. They are enzymes in the various COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION pathways.
The large fragment formed when COMPLEMENT C4 is cleaved by COMPLEMENT C1S. The membrane-bound C4b binds COMPLEMENT C2A, a SERINE PROTEASE, to form C4b2a (CLASSICAL PATHWAY C3 CONVERTASE) and subsequent C4b2a3b (CLASSICAL PATHWAY C5 CONVERTASE).
Antibodies which elicit IMMUNOPRECIPITATION when combined with antigen.
The technique of using FIXATIVES in the preparation of cytologic, histologic, or pathologic specimens for the purpose of maintaining the existing form and structure of all the constituent elements.
A 302-amino-acid fragment in the alpha chain (672-1663) of C3b. It is generated when C3b is inactivated (iC3b) and its alpha chain is cleaved by COMPLEMENT FACTOR I into C3c, and C3dg (955-1303) in the presence COMPLEMENT FACTOR H. Serum proteases further degrade C3dg into C3d (1002-1303) and C3g (955-1001).
Antibodies found in adult RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS patients that are directed against GAMMA-CHAIN IMMUNOGLOBULINS.
Serine proteases that cleave COMPLEMENT C3 into COMPLEMENT C3A and COMPLEMENT C3B, or cleave COMPLEMENT C5 into COMPLEMENT C5A and COMPLEMENT C5B. These include the different forms of C3/C5 convertases in the classical and the alternative pathways of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION. Both cleavages take place at the C-terminal of an ARGININE residue.
A suborder of PRIMATES consisting of six families: CEBIDAE (some New World monkeys), ATELIDAE (some New World monkeys), CERCOPITHECIDAE (Old World monkeys), HYLOBATIDAE (gibbons and siamangs), CALLITRICHINAE (marmosets and tamarins), and HOMINIDAE (humans and great apes).
Substances that are recognized by the immune system and induce an immune reaction.
Any of various animals that constitute the family Suidae and comprise stout-bodied, short-legged omnivorous mammals with thick skin, usually covered with coarse bristles, a rather long mobile snout, and small tail. Included are the genera Babyrousa, Phacochoerus (wart hogs), and Sus, the latter containing the domestic pig (see SUS SCROFA).
The study of serum, especially of antigen-antibody reactions in vitro.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
A 93-kDa serum glycoprotein encoded by C7 gene. It is a polypeptide chain with 28 disulfide bridges. In the formation of MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX; C7 is the next component to bind the C5b-6 complex forming a trimolecular complex C5b-7 which is lipophilic, resembles an integral membrane protein, and serves as an anchor for the late complement components, C8 and C9.
A 150-kDa serum glycoprotein composed of three subunits with each encoded by a different gene (C8A; C8B; and C8G). This heterotrimer contains a disulfide-linked C8alpha-C8gamma heterodimer and a noncovalently associated C8beta chain. C8 is the next component to bind the C5-7 complex forming C5b-8 that binds COMPLEMENT C9 and acts as a catalyst in the polymerization of C9.

Complement fixation titers in cattle following intranasal inoculation of Hemophilus somnus. (1/1682)

Five bulls were inoculated intranasally with a live culture of Hemophilus somnus originally isolated from a clinical case of Hemophilus septicemia. Preinoculation and postinoculation blood samples were taken at weekly intervals for nine weeks for measuring complement fixation titers and daily postinoculation temperatures were taken for one week. Three animals had transient fever and slight lethargy was observed in two animals had a transitory rise in complement fixation titers in the second to fifth weeks postexposure while one animal which had been seronegative on preinoculation testing produced little serological response to the organism. The experiment demonstrated that the nasal instillation of young cattle using an originally pathogenic H. somnus isolate is capable of stimulating only transitory complement fixation antibody titer.  (+info)

Complement fixing hepatitis B core antigen immune complexes in the liver of patients with HBs antigen positive chronic disease. (2/1682)

One hundred and fifty-two biopsies from serologically HBsAg positive and negative patients with liver disease were studied in immunofluorescence: for the presence of the surface (HBs) and the core (HBc) antigenic determinants foeterminants of the hepatitis B virus, of immunoglobulins and complement (C) deposits, and for the capacity to fix human C. Circumstantial evidence is presented suggesting that HBc immune-complexes are a relevant feature in the establishment and progression of chronic HBSAg liver disease. C fixation by liver cells was shown in all HBC positive patients with chronic hepatitis; an active form was present in every case, except two with a persistent hepatitis, an inverse ratio of HBc to C binding fluorescence being noted between active chronic hepatitis and cirrhotic patients. HBc without C fixation was observed in only three patients in the incubation phase of infectious hepatitis. IgG deposits were often found in HBc containing, C fixing nuclei. No C binding or IgG deposits were observed in acute self-limited type B hepatitis, in serologically positive patients with normal liver or minimal histological lesions, with and without HBs cytoplasmic fluorescence in their biopsy, or in serologically negative individuals.  (+info)

Serum dilution neutralization test for California group virus identification and serology. (3/1682)

The serum dilution neutralization test was evaluated for serological diagnosis of California group arbovirus infections and identification of virus isolates. The technical advantages and the degree of subtype specificity of the serum dilution neutralization test over the hemagglutination inhibition test and the complement fixation test were demonstrated with paired specimens from human cases, single human survey sera, and sentinel rabbit sera. Twenty-one virus isolates from various geographical areas of the United States were also used to evaluate the efficacy of the serum dilution neutralization test for specific virus identification.  (+info)

Chagas' disease diagnosis: comparative analysis of parasitologic, molecular, and serologic methods. (4/1682)

During the course of chronic chagasic infection, low parasitemia levels prevent parasite detection by current techniques such as hemoculture and xenodiagnosis. Since serologic tests have sensitivity but lack specificity, molecular assays based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) have been proposed as alternative tools for parasite detection in individuals with chronic Chagas' disease. A variable degree of PCR efficiency has been reported in the literature and illustrates the need for further evaluation of large numbers of chagasic patients. In this study, we compared an optimized PCR technique with hemoculture and complement-mediated lysis (CoML) in 113 individuals from or living in endemic areas of Brazil who had conventional serologic results that were either positive, negative, or inconclusive. The PCR amplification yielded positive results in 83.5% (66 of 79) of individuals with positive serology, 47.6% (10 of 21) with negative serology, and 46.2% (6 of 13) with inconclusive serology. Of 10 patients with negative serology and positive PCR result, eight (80%) had positive CoML, indicating that they could have been chagasic but were not mounting immune responses. The PCR results were also positive for all individuals who had positive hemoculture, for 37 individuals with negative hemoculture and positive serology, and for two of six individuals with inconclusive serology and negative hemoculture. Thirteen individuals living in nonendemic areas who had negative serology were used as a negative control group: 100% had negative PCR results. Our results show that the optimized PCR protocol used here was very sensitive in detecting the presence of Trypanosoma cruzi in chronic chagasic patients. The PCR and CoML results were well correlated in all of the groups studied, which suggests that our PCR protocol may be effective in the evaluation of cure in patients who receive anti-parasite treatment.  (+info)

Inhibition of K cell function by human breast cancer sera. (5/1682)

Sera from breast cancer patients and from female controls were tested for inhibition of lysis of antibody-coated target cells by human leukocytes (K cells). Sera from 39% of breast cancer patients, but from only 8% of controls, inhibited lysis by more than 30%. This inhibition was unrelated to the stage of the disease, the patient's age or whether the patient was pre- or post-operative. Inhibition was apparently not due to anti-HLA antibodies and did not correlate with the IgG level or anti-complementary activity of the serum. On fractionation by gel-filtration, inhibitory activity was found in fractions of higher molecular weight than IgG. As no IgG could be detected in these fractions, inhibition is probably not due to immune complexes containing IgG antibody. The inhibitory factor may well contribute to the immunosuppressed status of a proportion of breast cancer patients.  (+info)

Immune complexes and complement hypercatabolism in patients with leprosy. (6/1682)

The occurrence of immune complexes in the serum and the level of the C3 breakdown product C3d in the plasma from patients with leprosy were studied by quantitative methods and the results were compared in various forms of the disease. These studies were performed on sixty-two samples from twenty-six patients. The serum 125I-C1q binding activity was found to be increased by more than 2 s.d., as compared to the normal values, in most of the sera from patients with erythema nodosum leprosum (ENL) (80%) and uncomplicated lepromatous leprosy (82%), but also in the sera from patients with tuberculoid leprosy (58%). In vitro studies suggested that immune complexes involving mycobacterial antigens were present in leprosy sera. An increased C3d level (greater than 2s.d.) was also found in most of the plasma from patients with ENL (70%), but rarely in the plasma from patients with uncomplicated lepromatous leprosy (18%) and never in tuberculoid leprosy patients' plasma. The absence of a significant correlation between the 125I-C1q binding activity and the C3d level in leprosy patients may suggest that extravascular immune complexes are involved in the complement activation occurring in ENL. The quantitation of C3d in plasma may be of some practical interest in the early diagnosis of ENL complications of leprosy.  (+info)

Studies on the immunogenicity of protamines in humans and experimental animals by means of a micro-complement fixation test. (7/1682)

A complement fixation study with human, monkey and rabbit sera, using purified sperm nuclear basic proteins as antigens, led to the following conclusions. (1) Protamines, the sperm-specific basic nuclear proteins, may be immunogenic in mammalians. (2) Antibodies detected in the indirect immunofluorescence test on human swollen sperm heads in sera from infertile and vasectomized men, are directed primarily against human protamines. (3) The results obtained suggested that differences in the immunization site and/or in the configuration of the immunizing protamine, may lead to the formation of antibodies directed against different antigenic determinants. Autoimmunity to protamines, following vasectomy or in infertile men, is accompanied by the formation of antibodies cross-reacting with common antigenic determinants present in protamines of other species. Induction of immunity to protamines by means of immunization with protamines-RNA complexes (in rabbits), or protamine-insulin complexes (in humans), leads to the formation of antibodies reacting more specifically with the immunizing protamine, showing only slight cross-reaction with other protamines. (4) The histone-like fraction present in mature human spermatozoa is composed mainly of histone fraction H2B.  (+info)

Detection of core antibody in hepatitis B infection. (8/1682)

Hepatitis B core antigen (HBcAg) is found on the decoated Dane particle and on a morphologically similar particle detected mainly in the nucleus of hepatocytes of patients with hepatitis B. HBcAg prepared from the liver of a chimpanzee infected with hepatitis B virus was used to test human serum for core antibody (anti-HBc) by complement fixation. Anti-HBc was found in serum collected from patients with hepatitis B in both the acute and convalescent stages, from carriers of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and from patients with chronic liver or renal disease who were carriers of HBsAg. It was not found in patients with hepatitis A or infectious mononucleosis, or in healthy persons who were not carriers of HBsAg.  (+info)

Complement fixation tests are a type of laboratory test used in immunology and serology to detect the presence of antibodies in a patient's serum. These tests are based on the principle of complement activation, which is a part of the immune response. The complement system consists of a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens from the body.

In a complement fixation test, the patient's serum is mixed with a known antigen and complement proteins. If the patient has antibodies against the antigen, they will bind to it and activate the complement system. This results in the consumption or "fixation" of the complement proteins, which are no longer available to participate in a secondary reaction.

A second step involves adding a fresh source of complement proteins and a dye-labeled antibody that recognizes a specific component of the complement system. If complement was fixed during the first step, it will not be available for this secondary reaction, and the dye-labeled antibody will remain unbound. Conversely, if no antibodies were present in the patient's serum, the complement proteins would still be available for the second reaction, leading to the binding of the dye-labeled antibody.

The mixture is then examined under a microscope or using a spectrophotometer to determine whether the dye-labeled antibody has bound. If it has not, this indicates that the patient's serum contains antibodies specific to the antigen used in the test, and a positive result is recorded.

Complement fixation tests have been widely used for the diagnosis of various infectious diseases, such as syphilis, measles, and influenza. However, they have largely been replaced by more modern serological techniques, like enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs), due to their increased sensitivity, specificity, and ease of use.

Brucellosis, bovine is a bacterial infection caused by Brucella abortus that primarily affects cattle. It can also spread to other animals and humans through direct contact with infected animals or ingestion of contaminated food or drink. In animals, it causes abortion, reduced milk production, and weight loss. In humans, it can cause fever, sweats, headaches, joint pain, and weakness. Human infections are rare in countries where milk is pasteurized and proper sanitation measures are in place. It is also known as undulant fever or Malta fever.

Histoplasmin is not a medical condition or diagnosis itself, but it's a term related to a skin test used in medicine. Histoplasmin is an antigen extract derived from the histoplasmoma (a form of the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum) used in the histoplasmin skin test. This test is utilized to determine whether a person has been infected with the histoplasmosis fungus, which causes the disease histoplasmosis.

The histoplasmin skin test involves injecting a small amount of histoplasmin under the surface of the skin, usually on the forearm. If the person has previously been exposed to Histoplasma capsulatum, their immune system will recognize the antigen and produce a reaction (a hard, red, swollen area) at the injection site within 24-72 hours. The size of this reaction helps healthcare professionals determine if the person has developed an immune response to the fungus, indicating past or current infection with histoplasmosis.

It's important to note that a positive histoplasmin skin test does not necessarily mean that the person is currently sick with histoplasmosis. Instead, it shows that they have been exposed to the fungus at some point in their life and have developed an immune response to it.

Immunodiffusion is a laboratory technique used in immunology to detect and measure the presence of specific antibodies or antigens in a sample. It is based on the principle of diffusion, where molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until they reach equilibrium. In this technique, a sample containing an unknown quantity of antigen or antibody is placed in a gel or agar medium that contains a known quantity of antibody or antigen, respectively.

The two substances then diffuse towards each other and form a visible precipitate at the point where they meet and reach equivalence, which indicates the presence and quantity of the specific antigen or antibody in the sample. There are several types of immunodiffusion techniques, including radial immunodiffusion (RID) and double immunodiffusion (Ouchterlony technique). These techniques are widely used in diagnostic laboratories to identify and measure various antigens and antibodies, such as those found in infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and allergic reactions.

Hemagglutination tests are laboratory procedures used to detect the presence of antibodies or antigens in a sample, typically in blood serum. These tests rely on the ability of certain substances, such as viruses or bacteria, to agglutinate (clump together) red blood cells.

In a hemagglutination test, a small amount of the patient's serum is mixed with a known quantity of red blood cells that have been treated with a specific antigen. If the patient has antibodies against that antigen in their serum, they will bind to the antigens on the red blood cells and cause them to agglutinate. This clumping can be observed visually, indicating a positive test result.

Hemagglutination tests are commonly used to diagnose infectious diseases caused by viruses or bacteria that have hemagglutinating properties, such as influenza, parainfluenza, and HIV. They can also be used in blood typing and cross-matching before transfusions.

Bacterial antibodies are a type of antibodies produced by the immune system in response to an infection caused by bacteria. These antibodies are proteins that recognize and bind to specific antigens on the surface of the bacterial cells, marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Bacterial antibodies can be classified into several types based on their structure and function, including IgG, IgM, IgA, and IgE. They play a crucial role in the body's defense against bacterial infections and provide immunity to future infections with the same bacteria.

'Brucella abortus' is a gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic coccobacillus that is the causative agent of brucellosis, also known as Bang's disease in cattle. It is a zoonotic disease, meaning it can be transmitted from animals to humans, and is typically acquired through contact with infected animal tissues or bodily fluids, consumption of contaminated food or drink, or inhalation of infectious aerosols.

In cattle, 'Brucella abortus' infection can cause abortion, stillbirths, and reduced fertility. In humans, it can cause a systemic illness characterized by fever, sweats, malaise, headache, and muscle and joint pain. If left untreated, brucellosis can lead to serious complications such as endocarditis, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, and neurological symptoms.

Prevention measures include vaccination of cattle, pasteurization of dairy products, and implementation of strict hygiene practices in occupational settings where exposure to infected animals or their tissues is possible. Treatment typically involves a prolonged course of antibiotics, such as doxycycline and rifampin, and may require hospitalization in severe cases.

Brucellosis is a bacterial infection caused by the Brucella species, which are gram-negative coccobacilli. It is a zoonotic disease, meaning it can be transmitted from animals to humans. The most common way for humans to contract brucellosis is through consumption of contaminated animal products, such as unpasteurized milk or undercooked meat, from infected animals like goats, sheep, and cattle.

Humans can also acquire the infection through direct contact with infected animals, their tissues, or bodily fluids, especially in occupational settings like farming, veterinary medicine, or slaughterhouses. In rare cases, inhalation of contaminated aerosols or laboratory exposure can lead to brucellosis.

The onset of symptoms is usually insidious and may include fever, chills, night sweats, headache, muscle and joint pain, fatigue, and loss of appetite. The infection can disseminate to various organs, causing complications such as endocarditis, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, orchitis, and epididymoorchitis.

Diagnosis is confirmed through blood cultures, serological tests, or molecular methods like PCR. Treatment typically involves a long course of antibiotics, such as doxycycline combined with rifampin or streptomycin. Prevention measures include pasteurization of dairy products and cooking meat thoroughly before consumption. Vaccination is available for high-risk populations but not for general use due to the risk of adverse reactions and potential interference with serodiagnosis.

Agglutination tests are laboratory diagnostic procedures used to detect the presence of antibodies or antigens in a sample, such as blood or serum. These tests work by observing the clumping (agglutination) of particles, like red blood cells or bacteriophages, coated with specific antigens or antibodies when mixed with a patient's sample.

In an agglutination test, the sample is typically combined with a reagent containing known antigens or antibodies on the surface of particles, such as latex beads, red blood cells, or bacteriophages. If the sample contains the corresponding antibodies or antigens, they will bind to the particles, forming visible clumps or agglutinates. The presence and strength of agglutination are then assessed visually or with automated equipment to determine the presence and quantity of the target antigen or antibody in the sample.

Agglutination tests are widely used in medical diagnostics for various applications, including:

1. Bacterial and viral infections: To identify specific bacterial or viral antigens in a patient's sample, such as group A Streptococcus, Legionella pneumophila, or HIV.
2. Blood typing: To determine the ABO blood group and Rh type of a donor or recipient before a blood transfusion or organ transplantation.
3. Autoimmune diseases: To detect autoantibodies in patients with suspected autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, or Hashimoto's thyroiditis.
4. Allergies: To identify specific IgE antibodies in a patient's sample to determine allergic reactions to various substances, such as pollen, food, or venom.
5. Drug monitoring: To detect and quantify the presence of drug-induced antibodies, such as those developed in response to penicillin or hydralazine therapy.

Agglutination tests are simple, rapid, and cost-effective diagnostic tools that provide valuable information for clinical decision-making and patient management. However, they may have limitations, including potential cross-reactivity with other antigens, false-positive results due to rheumatoid factors or heterophile antibodies, and false-negative results due to the prozone effect or insufficient sensitivity. Therefore, it is essential to interpret agglutination test results in conjunction with clinical findings and other laboratory data.

'Brucella' is a genus of gram-negative, facultatively intracellular bacteria that are causative agents of brucellosis, a zoonotic disease with various clinical manifestations in humans and animals. The bacteria are primarily hosted by domestic and wild animals, such as cattle, goats, pigs, and dogs, and can be transmitted to humans through direct contact with infected animals or consumption of contaminated animal products, such as unpasteurized milk and cheese.

There are several species of Brucella, including B. abortus, B. melitensis, B. suis, and B. canis, which primarily infect different animal hosts but can also cause disease in humans. The bacteria have a unique ability to survive and replicate within host cells, such as macrophages, allowing them to evade the immune system and establish chronic infection.

Human brucellosis is characterized by nonspecific symptoms, such as fever, fatigue, joint pain, and sweats, which can make diagnosis challenging. Treatment typically involves a long course of antibiotics, such as doxycycline and rifampin, to eradicate the infection. Prevention measures include pasteurization of dairy products, vaccination of animals, and use of personal protective equipment when handling animals or their products.

Serologic tests are laboratory tests that detect the presence or absence of antibodies or antigens in a patient's serum (the clear liquid that separates from clotted blood). These tests are commonly used to diagnose infectious diseases, as well as autoimmune disorders and other medical conditions.

In serologic testing for infectious diseases, a sample of the patient's blood is collected and allowed to clot. The serum is then separated from the clot and tested for the presence of antibodies that the body has produced in response to an infection. The test may be used to identify the specific type of infection or to determine whether the infection is active or has resolved.

Serologic tests can also be used to diagnose autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus, by detecting the presence of antibodies that are directed against the body's own tissues. These tests can help doctors confirm a diagnosis and monitor the progression of the disease.

It is important to note that serologic tests are not always 100% accurate and may produce false positive or false negative results. Therefore, they should be interpreted in conjunction with other clinical findings and laboratory test results.

The complement system is a group of proteins found in the blood and on the surface of cells that when activated, work together to help eliminate pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi from the body. The proteins are normally inactive in the bloodstream. When they encounter an invading microorganism or foreign substance, a series of reactions take place leading to the activation of the complement system. Activation results in the production of effector molecules that can punch holes in the cell membranes of pathogens, recruit and activate immune cells, and help remove debris and dead cells from the body.

There are three main pathways that can lead to complement activation: the classical pathway, the lectin pathway, and the alternative pathway. Each pathway involves a series of proteins that work together in a cascade-like manner to amplify the response and generate effector molecules. The three main effector molecules produced by the complement system are C3b, C4b, and C5b. These molecules can bind to the surface of pathogens, marking them for destruction by other immune cells.

Complement proteins also play a role in the regulation of the immune response. They help to prevent excessive activation of the complement system, which could damage host tissues. Dysregulation of the complement system has been implicated in a number of diseases, including autoimmune disorders and inflammatory conditions.

In summary, Complement System Proteins are a group of proteins that play a crucial role in the immune response by helping to eliminate pathogens and regulate the immune response. They can be activated through three different pathways, leading to the production of effector molecules that mark pathogens for destruction. Dysregulation of the complement system has been linked to various diseases.

'Immune sera' refers to the serum fraction of blood that contains antibodies produced in response to an antigenic stimulus, such as a vaccine or an infection. These antibodies are proteins known as immunoglobulins, which are secreted by B cells (a type of white blood cell) and can recognize and bind to specific antigens. Immune sera can be collected from an immunized individual and used as a source of passive immunity to protect against infection or disease. It is often used in research and diagnostic settings to identify or measure the presence of specific antigens or antibodies.

Complement activation is the process by which the complement system, a part of the immune system, is activated to help eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body. The complement system consists of a group of proteins that work together to recognize and destroy foreign substances.

Activation of the complement system can occur through three different pathways: the classical pathway, the lectin pathway, and the alternative pathway. Each pathway involves a series of proteolytic reactions that ultimately result in the formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC), which creates a pore in the membrane of the target cell, leading to its lysis and removal.

The classical pathway is typically activated by the binding of antibodies to antigens on the surface of a pathogen or damaged cell. The lectin pathway is activated by the recognition of specific carbohydrate structures on the surface of microorganisms. The alternative pathway can be spontaneously activated and serves as an amplification loop for both the classical and lectin pathways.

Complement activation plays a crucial role in the immune response, but uncontrolled or excessive activation can also lead to tissue damage and inflammation. Dysregulation of complement activation has been implicated in various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, inflammatory conditions, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Complement C3 is a protein that plays a central role in the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to clear pathogens and damaged cells from the body. Complement C3 can be activated through three different pathways: the classical pathway, the lectin pathway, and the alternative pathway. Once activated, it breaks down into two fragments, C3a and C3b.

C3a is an anaphylatoxin that helps to recruit immune cells to the site of infection or injury, while C3b plays a role in opsonization, which is the process of coating pathogens or damaged cells with proteins to make them more recognizable to the immune system. Additionally, C3b can also activate the membrane attack complex (MAC), which forms a pore in the membrane of target cells leading to their lysis or destruction.

In summary, Complement C3 is an important protein in the complement system that helps to identify and eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body through various mechanisms.

"Evaluation studies" is a broad term that refers to the systematic assessment or examination of a program, project, policy, intervention, or product. The goal of an evaluation study is to determine its merits, worth, and value by measuring its effects, efficiency, and impact. There are different types of evaluation studies, including formative evaluations (conducted during the development or implementation of a program to provide feedback for improvement), summative evaluations (conducted at the end of a program to determine its overall effectiveness), process evaluations (focusing on how a program is implemented and delivered), outcome evaluations (assessing the short-term and intermediate effects of a program), and impact evaluations (measuring the long-term and broad consequences of a program).

In medical contexts, evaluation studies are often used to assess the safety, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness of new treatments, interventions, or technologies. These studies can help healthcare providers make informed decisions about patient care, guide policymakers in developing evidence-based policies, and promote accountability and transparency in healthcare systems. Examples of evaluation studies in medicine include randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that compare the outcomes of a new treatment to those of a standard or placebo treatment, observational studies that examine the real-world effectiveness and safety of interventions, and economic evaluations that assess the costs and benefits of different healthcare options.

'Coccidioides' is a genus of fungi that are commonly found in the soil in certain geographical areas, including the southwestern United States and parts of Mexico and Central and South America. The two species of this genus, C. immitis and C. posadasii, can cause a serious infection known as coccidioidomycosis (also called Valley Fever) in humans and animals who inhale the spores of the fungi.

The infection typically begins in the lungs and can cause symptoms such as cough, fever, chest pain, fatigue, and weight loss. In some cases, the infection can spread to other parts of the body, leading to more severe and potentially life-threatening complications. People with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or who are receiving immunosuppressive therapy, are at higher risk for developing severe coccidioidomycosis.

Rose Bengal is not a medical term per se, but a chemical compound that is used in various medical applications. It's a dye that is primarily used as a diagnostic stain to test for damaged or denatured cells, particularly in the eye and mouth. In ophthalmology, a Rose Bengal stain is used to identify damage to the cornea's surface, while in dentistry, it can help detect injured oral mucosa or lesions.

The dye works by staining dead or damaged cells more intensely than healthy ones, allowing healthcare professionals to visualize and assess any abnormalities or injuries. However, it is important to note that Rose Bengal itself is not a treatment for these conditions; rather, it is a diagnostic tool used to inform appropriate medical interventions.

I'm happy to help, but I want to clarify that the term "sheep diseases" refers to a wide range of health issues that can affect sheep populations. It's not a single medical condition with a specific definition. Here are some examples of common diseases that can affect sheep:

1. Ovine Johne's Disease (OJD): A chronic, infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. It affects the intestines and can cause weight loss, diarrhea, and death.
2. Footrot: A highly contagious bacterial infection that affects the feet of sheep, causing lameness, swelling, and pain. It's caused by the bacteria Dichelobacter nodosus.
3. Caseous Lymphadenitis (CL): A chronic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis. It affects the lymph nodes and can cause abscesses, weight loss, and death.
4. Contagious Ecthyma (Orf): A highly contagious viral infection that affects the skin and mucous membranes of sheep, causing sores and lesions.
5. Mastitis: An inflammation of the mammary gland in sheep, usually caused by a bacterial infection. It can cause decreased milk production, fever, and loss of appetite.
6. Pneumonia: A respiratory infection that can affect sheep, causing coughing, difficulty breathing, and fever. It can be caused by various bacteria or viruses.
7. Enterotoxemia: A potentially fatal disease caused by the overproduction of toxins in the intestines of sheep, usually due to a bacterial infection with Clostridium perfringens.
8. Polioencephalomalacia (PEM): A neurological disorder that affects the brain of sheep, causing symptoms such as blindness, circling, and seizures. It's often caused by a thiamine deficiency or excessive sulfur intake.
9. Toxoplasmosis: A parasitic infection that can affect sheep, causing abortion, stillbirth, and neurological symptoms.
10. Blue tongue: A viral disease that affects sheep, causing fever, respiratory distress, and mouth ulcers. It's transmitted by insect vectors and is often associated with climate change.

Histoplasmosis is a pulmonary and systemic disease caused by the dimorphic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum. It is typically acquired through the inhalation of microconidia from contaminated soil, particularly in areas associated with bird or bat droppings. The infection can range from asymptomatic to severe, depending on factors like the individual's immune status and the quantity of inhaled spores.

In acute histoplasmosis, symptoms may include fever, cough, fatigue, chest pain, and headache. Chronic or disseminated forms of the disease can affect various organs, such as the liver, spleen, adrenal glands, and central nervous system, leading to more severe complications. Diagnosis often involves serological tests, cultures, or histopathological examination of tissue samples. Treatment depends on the severity and dissemination of the disease, with antifungal medications like itraconazole or amphotericin B being commonly used for moderate to severe cases.

A Brucella vaccine is a type of immunization used to protect against brucellosis, an infectious disease caused by bacteria of the genus Brucella. The most commonly used vaccine is the Brucella melitensis Rev-1 strain, which is administered to sheep and goats to prevent the spread of the disease to humans through contaminated food and animal contact.

The Brucella vaccine works by stimulating the immune system to produce a protective response against the bacteria. When the vaccinated animal encounters the actual bacterial infection, their immune system is better prepared to fight it off and prevent the development of clinical disease.

It's important to note that the Brucella vaccine is not approved for use in humans due to the risk of severe side effects and the possibility of causing a false positive result on brucellosis diagnostic tests. Therefore, it should only be administered to animals under the supervision of a veterinarian.

An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a type of analytical biochemistry assay used to detect and quantify the presence of a substance, typically a protein or peptide, in a liquid sample. It takes its name from the enzyme-linked antibodies used in the assay.

In an ELISA, the sample is added to a well containing a surface that has been treated to capture the target substance. If the target substance is present in the sample, it will bind to the surface. Next, an enzyme-linked antibody specific to the target substance is added. This antibody will bind to the captured target substance if it is present. After washing away any unbound material, a substrate for the enzyme is added. If the enzyme is present due to its linkage to the antibody, it will catalyze a reaction that produces a detectable signal, such as a color change or fluorescence. The intensity of this signal is proportional to the amount of target substance present in the sample, allowing for quantification.

ELISAs are widely used in research and clinical settings to detect and measure various substances, including hormones, viruses, and bacteria. They offer high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility, making them a reliable choice for many applications.

Mycoplasma pneumonia is a type of atypical pneumonia, which is caused by the bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae. This organism is not a true bacterium, but rather the smallest free-living organisms known. They lack a cell wall and have a unique mode of reproduction.

Mycoplasma pneumonia infection typically occurs in small outbreaks or sporadically, often in crowded settings such as schools, colleges, and military barracks. It can also be acquired in the community. The illness is often mild and self-limiting, but it can also cause severe pneumonia and extra-pulmonary manifestations.

The symptoms of Mycoplasma pneumonia are typically less severe than those caused by typical bacterial pneumonia and may include a persistent cough that may be dry or produce small amounts of mucus, fatigue, fever, headache, sore throat, and chest pain. The infection can also cause extrapulmonary manifestations such as skin rashes, joint pain, and neurological symptoms.

Diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumonia is often challenging because the organism is difficult to culture, and serological tests may take several weeks to become positive. PCR-based tests are now available and can provide a rapid diagnosis.

Treatment typically involves antibiotics such as macrolides (e.g., azithromycin), tetracyclines (e.g., doxycycline), or fluoroquinolones (e.g., levofloxacin). However, because Mycoplasma pneumonia is often self-limiting, antibiotic treatment may not shorten the duration of illness but can help prevent complications and reduce transmission.

Coccidioidomycosis is a fungal infection caused by the inhalation of spores of the Coccidioides species, mainly C. immitis and C. posadasii. These fungi are commonly found in the soil of dry regions such as the southwestern United States, Mexico, and Central and South America.

The infection often begins when a person inhales the microscopic spores, which can lead to respiratory symptoms resembling a common cold or pneumonia. Some people may develop more severe symptoms, especially those with weakened immune systems. The infection can disseminate to other parts of the body, causing skin lesions, bone and joint inflammation, meningitis, or other complications in rare cases.

Diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies, and laboratory tests such as fungal cultures, histopathological examination, or serological tests to detect antibodies against Coccidioides antigens. Treatment depends on the severity of the infection and the patient's immune status. Antifungal medications like fluconazole, itraconazole, or amphotericin B are commonly used for treating coccidioidomycosis. Preventive measures include avoiding inhaling dust in endemic areas, especially during excavation or construction activities.

Epidemic Typhus, also known as Louse-Born Typhus, is a severe, infectious disease caused by the bacterium Rickettsia prowazekii. The disease is primarily transmitted to humans through the infected body lice (Pediculus humanus corporis) or their feces.

The typical symptoms of Epidemic Typhus include sudden onset of fever, severe headache, muscle pain, and a rash that usually appears around day 5 of illness. The rash starts on the trunk and then spreads to the arms and legs, but it does not typically affect the face, palms, or soles. Other possible symptoms are cough, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. Complications can be severe and include delirium, seizures, pneumonia, and inflammation of the heart, lungs, or brain.

Epidemic Typhus is a serious disease that requires prompt medical attention and treatment with antibiotics, such as doxycycline or tetracycline. If left untreated, Epidemic Typhus can be fatal in up to 30% of cases. It is more common in areas of poor hygiene, overcrowding, and where there is a lack of access to medical care. Outbreaks of Epidemic Typhus have occurred during wars, natural disasters, and other situations that lead to large-scale population displacement.

Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is a type of antibody that is primarily found in the blood and lymph fluid. It is the first antibody to be produced in response to an initial exposure to an antigen, making it an important part of the body's primary immune response. IgM antibodies are large molecules that are composed of five basic units, giving them a pentameric structure. They are primarily found on the surface of B cells as membrane-bound immunoglobulins (mlgM), where they function as receptors for antigens. Once an mlgM receptor binds to an antigen, it triggers the activation and differentiation of the B cell into a plasma cell that produces and secretes large amounts of soluble IgM antibodies.

IgM antibodies are particularly effective at agglutination (clumping) and complement activation, which makes them important in the early stages of an immune response to help clear pathogens from the bloodstream. However, they are not as stable or long-lived as other types of antibodies, such as IgG, and their levels tend to decline after the initial immune response has occurred.

In summary, Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is a type of antibody that plays a crucial role in the primary immune response to antigens by agglutination and complement activation. It is primarily found in the blood and lymph fluid, and it is produced by B cells after they are activated by an antigen.

"Mycoplasma pneumoniae" is a type of bacteria that lacks a cell wall and can cause respiratory infections, particularly bronchitis and atypical pneumonia. It is one of the most common causes of community-acquired pneumonia. Infection with "M. pneumoniae" typically results in mild symptoms, such as cough, fever, and fatigue, although more severe complications can occur in some cases. The bacteria can also cause various extrapulmonary manifestations, including skin rashes, joint pain, and neurological symptoms. Diagnosis of "M. pneumoniae" infection is typically made through serological tests or PCR assays. Treatment usually involves antibiotics such as macrolides or tetracyclines.

Cross reactions, in the context of medical diagnostics and immunology, refer to a situation where an antibody or a immune response directed against one antigen also reacts with a different antigen due to similarities in their molecular structure. This can occur in allergy testing, where a person who is allergic to a particular substance may have a positive test result for a different but related substance because of cross-reactivity between them. For example, some individuals who are allergic to birch pollen may also have symptoms when eating certain fruits, such as apples, due to cross-reactive proteins present in both.

Epididymitis is defined as the inflammation of the epididymis, a curved tube-like structure located at the back of the testicle that stores and transports sperm. The inflammation can result from infection, trauma, or other causes, and may cause symptoms such as pain, swelling, and tenderness in the scrotum. In some cases, epididymitis may also be associated with urinary tract infections, sexually transmitted infections, or other medical conditions. Treatment typically involves antibiotics to treat any underlying infection, as well as pain relief measures and supportive care to help reduce symptoms and promote healing.

Q fever is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium Coxiella burnetii. It is characterized by acute or chronic flu-like symptoms, pneumonia, and hepatitis. The bacteria are primarily transmitted to humans through inhalation of contaminated dust or aerosols from infected animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats. Q fever can also be transmitted through consumption of unpasteurized milk or direct contact with infected animals. It is often asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic in animals but can cause severe disease in humans.

The acute form of Q fever typically presents with sudden onset of high fever, severe headache, fatigue, muscle pain, and cough. Some patients may also develop pneumonia or hepatitis. The chronic form of the disease is less common but more serious, often affecting people with compromised immune systems. Chronic Q fever can lead to endocarditis, an infection of the inner lining of the heart, which can be life-threatening if left untreated.

Diagnosis of Q fever typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, serological testing, and PCR (polymerase chain reaction) assays. Treatment usually involves antibiotics such as doxycycline or fluoroquinolones for several weeks to months, depending on the severity and duration of the illness. Prevention measures include avoiding contact with infected animals, wearing protective clothing and masks when handling animal products, and pasteurizing milk before consumption.

Glanders is a rare and serious disease caused by the bacterium Burkholderia mallei. It primarily affects horses, donkeys, and mules, but can also infect humans who come into contact with infected animals or contaminated materials. The disease is characterized by the formation of multiple abscesses in various organs, particularly the lungs, liver, spleen, and skin. In humans, glanders can cause fever, cough, chest pain, muscle aches, and pustules on the skin. It is a highly infectious disease and can be fatal if not treated promptly with appropriate antibiotics. Historically, it has been a concern in military settings due to its potential use as a biological weapon.

Antibodies, viral are proteins produced by the immune system in response to an infection with a virus. These antibodies are capable of recognizing and binding to specific antigens on the surface of the virus, which helps to neutralize or destroy the virus and prevent its replication. Once produced, these antibodies can provide immunity against future infections with the same virus.

Viral antibodies are typically composed of four polypeptide chains - two heavy chains and two light chains - that are held together by disulfide bonds. The binding site for the antigen is located at the tip of the Y-shaped structure, formed by the variable regions of the heavy and light chains.

There are five classes of antibodies in humans: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each class has a different function and is distributed differently throughout the body. For example, IgG is the most common type of antibody found in the bloodstream and provides long-term immunity against viruses, while IgA is found primarily in mucous membranes and helps to protect against respiratory and gastrointestinal infections.

In addition to their role in the immune response, viral antibodies can also be used as diagnostic tools to detect the presence of a specific virus in a patient's blood or other bodily fluids.

'Coxiella' is a genus of intracellular bacteria that includes the species C. burnetii, which is the causative agent of Q fever in humans and animals. These bacteria are known for their ability to survive and replicate within host cells by avoiding lysosomal degradation and manipulating the host cell's signaling pathways. C. burnetii infection can cause a wide range of symptoms, from mild flu-like illness to severe pneumonia or hepatitis. It is typically transmitted to humans through contact with infected animals or their environments, such as inhalation of contaminated dust or consumption of unpasteurized dairy products.

I apologize, but "sheep" is not a term that has a medical definition. It is a common animal with the scientific name Ovis aries. If you have any medical or health-related questions, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you.

Histoplasma is a genus of dimorphic fungi that can cause the infectious disease histoplasmosis in humans and animals. The two species that are most commonly associated with disease are Histoplasma capsulatum and Histoplasma duboisii. These fungi are found worldwide, but are particularly prevalent in certain regions such as the Ohio and Mississippi River Valleys in the United States and parts of Central and South America.

Histoplasma exists in two forms: a mold that grows in soil and other environments, and a yeast form that infects human and animal hosts. The fungi are typically inhaled into the lungs, where they can cause respiratory symptoms such as cough, fever, and shortness of breath. In severe cases, histoplasmosis can disseminate throughout the body and affect other organs, leading to more serious complications.

Histoplasma is often found in soil enriched with bird or bat droppings, and exposure can occur through activities such as digging, gardening, or cleaning chicken coops. While histoplasmosis can be a serious disease, it is usually treatable with antifungal medications. However, some people may develop chronic or severe forms of the disease, particularly those with weakened immune systems.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of antibody, which is a protective protein produced by the immune system in response to foreign substances like bacteria or viruses. IgG is the most abundant type of antibody in human blood, making up about 75-80% of all antibodies. It is found in all body fluids and plays a crucial role in fighting infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and toxins.

IgG has several important functions:

1. Neutralization: IgG can bind to the surface of bacteria or viruses, preventing them from attaching to and infecting human cells.
2. Opsonization: IgG coats the surface of pathogens, making them more recognizable and easier for immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages to phagocytose (engulf and destroy) them.
3. Complement activation: IgG can activate the complement system, a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens from the body. Activation of the complement system leads to the formation of the membrane attack complex, which creates holes in the cell membranes of bacteria, leading to their lysis (destruction).
4. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC): IgG can bind to immune cells like natural killer (NK) cells and trigger them to release substances that cause target cells (such as virus-infected or cancerous cells) to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).
5. Immune complex formation: IgG can form immune complexes with antigens, which can then be removed from the body through various mechanisms, such as phagocytosis by immune cells or excretion in urine.

IgG is a critical component of adaptive immunity and provides long-lasting protection against reinfection with many pathogens. It has four subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4) that differ in their structure, function, and distribution in the body.

Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) tests are a type of serological assay used in medical laboratories to detect and measure the amount of antibodies present in a patient's serum. These tests are commonly used to diagnose viral infections, such as influenza or HIV, by identifying the presence of antibodies that bind to specific viral antigens and prevent hemagglutination (the agglutination or clumping together of red blood cells).

In an HI test, a small amount of the patient's serum is mixed with a known quantity of the viral antigen, which has been treated to attach to red blood cells. If the patient's serum contains antibodies that bind to the viral antigen, they will prevent the antigen from attaching to the red blood cells and inhibit hemagglutination. The degree of hemagglutination inhibition can be measured and used to estimate the amount of antibody present in the patient's serum.

HI tests are relatively simple and inexpensive to perform, but they have some limitations. For example, they may not detect early-stage infections before the body has had a chance to produce antibodies, and they may not be able to distinguish between different strains of the same virus. Nonetheless, HI tests remain an important tool for diagnosing viral infections and monitoring immune responses to vaccination or infection.

Bacterial antigens are substances found on the surface or produced by bacteria that can stimulate an immune response in a host organism. These antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, teichoic acids, lipopolysaccharides, or other molecules that are recognized as foreign by the host's immune system.

When a bacterial antigen is encountered by the host's immune system, it triggers a series of responses aimed at eliminating the bacteria and preventing infection. The host's immune system recognizes the antigen as foreign through the use of specialized receptors called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which are found on various immune cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils.

Once a bacterial antigen is recognized by the host's immune system, it can stimulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses. The innate immune response involves the activation of inflammatory pathways, the recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection, and the production of antimicrobial peptides.

The adaptive immune response, on the other hand, involves the activation of T cells and B cells, which are specific to the bacterial antigen. These cells can recognize and remember the antigen, allowing for a more rapid and effective response upon subsequent exposures.

Bacterial antigens are important in the development of vaccines, as they can be used to stimulate an immune response without causing disease. By identifying specific bacterial antigens that are associated with virulence or pathogenicity, researchers can develop vaccines that target these antigens and provide protection against infection.

Fungal antibodies are a type of protein called immunoglobulins that are produced by the immune system in response to the presence of fungi in the body. These antibodies are specifically designed to recognize and bind to antigens on the surface of fungal cells, marking them for destruction by other immune cells.

There are several types of fungal antibodies, including IgA, IgG, IgM, and IgE, each with a specific role in the immune response. For example, IgG antibodies are the most common type of antibody found in the blood and provide long-term immunity to fungi, while IgE antibodies are associated with allergic reactions to fungi.

Fungal antibodies can be measured in the blood or other bodily fluids to help diagnose fungal infections, monitor the effectiveness of treatment, or assess immune function in individuals who are at risk for fungal infections, such as those with weakened immune systems due to HIV/AIDS, cancer, or organ transplantation.

Immunoelectrophoresis (IEP) is a laboratory technique used in the field of clinical pathology and immunology. It is a method for separating and identifying proteins, particularly immunoglobulins or antibodies, in a sample. This technique combines the principles of electrophoresis, which separates proteins based on their electric charge and size, with immunological reactions, which detect specific proteins using antigen-antibody interactions.

In IEP, a protein sample is first separated by electrophoresis in an agarose or agar gel matrix on a glass slide or in a test tube. After separation, an antibody specific to the protein of interest is layered on top of the gel and allowed to diffuse towards the separated proteins. This creates a reaction between the antigen (protein) and the antibody, forming a visible precipitate at the point where they meet. The precipitate line's position and intensity can then be analyzed to identify and quantify the protein of interest.

Immunoelectrophoresis is particularly useful in diagnosing various medical conditions, such as immunodeficiency disorders, monoclonal gammopathies (like multiple myeloma), and other plasma cell dyscrasias. It can help detect abnormal protein patterns, quantify specific immunoglobulins, and identify the presence of M-proteins or Bence Jones proteins, which are indicative of monoclonal gammopathies.

Fungal antigens are substances found on or produced by fungi that can stimulate an immune response in a host organism. They can be proteins, polysaccharides, or other molecules that are recognized as foreign by the host's immune system. Fungal antigens can be used in diagnostic tests to identify fungal infections, and they can also be targets of immune responses during fungal infections. In some cases, fungal antigens may contribute to the pathogenesis of fungal diseases by inducing inflammatory or allergic reactions. Examples of fungal antigens include the cell wall components of Candida albicans and the extracellular polysaccharide galactomannan produced by Aspergillus fumigatus.

An antigen is any substance that can stimulate an immune response, particularly the production of antibodies. Viral antigens are antigens that are found on or produced by viruses. They can be proteins, glycoproteins, or carbohydrates present on the surface or inside the viral particle.

Viral antigens play a crucial role in the immune system's recognition and response to viral infections. When a virus infects a host cell, it may display its antigens on the surface of the infected cell. This allows the immune system to recognize and target the infected cells for destruction, thereby limiting the spread of the virus.

Viral antigens are also important targets for vaccines. Vaccines typically work by introducing a harmless form of a viral antigen to the body, which then stimulates the production of antibodies and memory T-cells that can recognize and respond quickly and effectively to future infections with the actual virus.

It's worth noting that different types of viruses have different antigens, and these antigens can vary between strains of the same virus. This is why there are often different vaccines available for different viral diseases, and why flu vaccines need to be updated every year to account for changes in the circulating influenza virus strains.

Complement C4 is a protein that plays a crucial role in the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to clear pathogens and damaged cells from the body. Complement C4 is involved in the early stages of the complement activation cascade, where it helps to identify and tag foreign or abnormal cells for destruction by other components of the immune system.

Specifically, Complement C4 can be cleaved into two smaller proteins, C4a and C4b, during the complement activation process. C4b then binds to the surface of the target cell and helps to initiate the formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC), which creates a pore in the cell membrane and leads to lysis or destruction of the target cell.

Deficiencies or mutations in the Complement C4 gene can lead to various immune disorders, including certain forms of autoimmune diseases and susceptibility to certain infections.

Latex fixation tests are diagnostic procedures used to detect the presence of certain antigens or antibodies in a patient's sample, such as blood or serum. These tests use latex particles that are coated with specific antigens or antibodies that can bind to complementary antigens or antibodies present in the sample. When the sample is added to the latex reagent, if the specific antigen or antibody is present, they will bind to the latex particles, forming an agglutination reaction that can be seen as a visible clumping or agglutination of the latex particles.

Latex fixation tests are commonly used in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and genetic disorders. For example, a latex fixation test may be used to detect the presence of Streptococcus pneumoniae antigens in a patient's sputum sample or to identify the presence of rheumatoid factor (RF) antibodies in a patient's blood sample. These tests are known for their simplicity, speed, and sensitivity, making them a valuable tool in clinical laboratories.

Burkholderia mallei is a gram-negative, non-motile, rod-shaped bacterium that causes the disease glanders in horses, donkeys, and other solipeds. It can also cause severe and often fatal illness in humans who come into contact with infected animals or contaminated materials. Glanders is rare in developed countries but still occurs in parts of Asia, Africa, and Central and South America.

Human infection with Burkholderia mallei typically occurs through inhalation of infectious aerosols, direct contact with broken skin or mucous membranes, or ingestion of contaminated food or water. The bacterium can cause a range of symptoms, including fever, chills, headache, muscle and joint pain, cough, chest pain, and pneumonia. In severe cases, it can spread to other organs, such as the skin, bones, brain, and spleen, leading to sepsis and death if left untreated.

Burkholderia mallei is highly infectious and resistant to environmental degradation, making it a potential agent of bioterrorism. It is classified as a Tier 1 select agent by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States, meaning that it poses a high risk to national security and public health.

Prevention and control measures include avoiding contact with infected animals or contaminated materials, using personal protective equipment when handling suspect specimens, and implementing strict biosecurity measures in laboratories and animal facilities. Treatment typically involves a combination of antibiotics, such as ceftazidime, meropenem, or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, for at least 3 weeks to ensure complete eradication of the bacterium.

The Fluorescent Antibody Technique (FAT) is a type of immunofluorescence assay used in laboratory medicine and pathology for the detection and localization of specific antigens or antibodies in tissues, cells, or microorganisms. In this technique, a fluorescein-labeled antibody is used to selectively bind to the target antigen or antibody, forming an immune complex. When excited by light of a specific wavelength, the fluorescein label emits light at a longer wavelength, typically visualized as green fluorescence under a fluorescence microscope.

The FAT is widely used in diagnostic microbiology for the identification and characterization of various bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. It has also been applied in the diagnosis of autoimmune diseases and certain cancers by detecting specific antibodies or antigens in patient samples. The main advantage of FAT is its high sensitivity and specificity, allowing for accurate detection and differentiation of various pathogens and disease markers. However, it requires specialized equipment and trained personnel to perform and interpret the results.

'Brucella melitensis' is a gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic coccobacillus that is the primary cause of brucellosis in humans. It is a zoonotic pathogen, meaning it can be transmitted from animals to humans, and is typically found in goats, sheep, and cattle.

Humans can become infected with 'Brucella melitensis' through direct contact with infected animals or their bodily fluids, consumption of contaminated food or drink (such as unpasteurized milk or cheese), or inhalation of infectious aerosols.

The infection can cause a range of symptoms including fever, headache, muscle and joint pain, fatigue, and swelling of the lymph nodes. In severe cases, it can lead to complications such as endocarditis, hepatitis, and neurological disorders.

Prevention measures include pasteurization of dairy products, cooking meat thoroughly, wearing protective clothing when handling animals or their tissues, and vaccination of at-risk populations. Treatment typically involves a long course of antibiotics, such as doxycycline and rifampin, and may require hospitalization in severe cases.

"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.

Neutralization tests are a type of laboratory assay used in microbiology and immunology to measure the ability of a substance, such as an antibody or antitoxin, to neutralize the activity of a toxin or infectious agent. In these tests, the substance to be tested is mixed with a known quantity of the toxin or infectious agent, and the mixture is then incubated under controlled conditions. After incubation, the mixture is tested for residual toxicity or infectivity using a variety of methods, such as cell culture assays, animal models, or biochemical assays.

The neutralization titer is then calculated based on the highest dilution of the test substance that completely neutralizes the toxin or infectious agent. Neutralization tests are commonly used in the diagnosis and evaluation of immune responses to vaccines, as well as in the detection and quantification of toxins and other harmful substances.

Examples of neutralization tests include the serum neutralization test for measles antibodies, the plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) for dengue virus antibodies, and the cytotoxicity neutralization assay for botulinum neurotoxins.

Counterimmunoelectrophoresis (CIEP) is a laboratory technique used in the field of immunology and serology for the identification and detection of antigens or antibodies in a sample. It is a type of electrophoretic technique that involves the migration of antigens and antibodies in an electric field towards each other, resulting in the formation of a precipitin line at the point where they meet and react.

In CIEP, the antigen is placed in the gel matrix in a trough or well, while the antibody is placed in a separate trough located perpendicularly to the antigen trough. An electric current is then applied, causing both the antigens and antibodies to migrate towards each other through the gel matrix. When they meet, they form a precipitin line, which can be visualized as a white band or line in the gel.

CIEP is a rapid and sensitive technique that can be used to detect and identify specific antigens or antibodies in a sample. It is often used in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and other medical conditions where the presence of specific antigens or antibodies needs to be detected.

It's important to note that CIEP has been largely replaced by more modern techniques such as ELISA and Western blotting, which offer greater sensitivity and specificity. However, it is still used in some research and diagnostic settings due to its simplicity and cost-effectiveness.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "goats" is not a term commonly used in medical definitions. It is a common noun referring to the domesticated animal species Capra aegagrus hircus. If you have any questions about a specific medical condition or term, please provide that and I would be happy to help.

Cattle diseases are a range of health conditions that affect cattle, which include but are not limited to:

1. Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD): Also known as "shipping fever," BRD is a common respiratory illness in feedlot cattle that can be caused by several viruses and bacteria.
2. Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD): A viral disease that can cause a variety of symptoms, including diarrhea, fever, and reproductive issues.
3. Johne's Disease: A chronic wasting disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. It primarily affects the intestines and can cause severe diarrhea and weight loss.
4. Digital Dermatitis: Also known as "hairy heel warts," this is a highly contagious skin disease that affects the feet of cattle, causing lameness and decreased productivity.
5. Infectious Bovine Keratoconjunctivitis (IBK): Also known as "pinkeye," IBK is a common and contagious eye infection in cattle that can cause blindness if left untreated.
6. Salmonella: A group of bacteria that can cause severe gastrointestinal illness in cattle, including diarrhea, dehydration, and septicemia.
7. Leptospirosis: A bacterial disease that can cause a wide range of symptoms in cattle, including abortion, stillbirths, and kidney damage.
8. Blackleg: A highly fatal bacterial disease that causes rapid death in young cattle. It is caused by Clostridium chauvoei and vaccination is recommended for prevention.
9. Anthrax: A serious infectious disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Cattle can become infected by ingesting spores found in contaminated soil, feed or water.
10. Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD): A highly contagious viral disease that affects cloven-hooved animals, including cattle. It is characterized by fever and blisters on the feet, mouth, and teats. FMD is not a threat to human health but can have serious economic consequences for the livestock industry.

It's important to note that many of these diseases can be prevented or controlled through good management practices, such as vaccination, biosecurity measures, and proper nutrition. Regular veterinary care and monitoring are also crucial for early detection and treatment of any potential health issues in your herd.

Chlamydia is a bacterial infection caused by the species Chlamydia trachomatis. It is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections (STIs) worldwide. The bacteria can infect the genital tract, urinary tract, eyes, and rectum. In women, it can also infect the reproductive organs and cause serious complications such as pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, and ectopic pregnancy.

Chlamydia is often asymptomatic, especially in women, which makes it easy to spread unknowingly. When symptoms do occur, they may include abnormal vaginal or penile discharge, burning sensation during urination, pain during sexual intercourse, and painful testicular swelling in men. Chlamydia can be diagnosed through a variety of tests, including urine tests and swab samples from the infected site.

The infection is easily treated with antibiotics, but if left untreated, it can lead to serious health complications. It's important to get tested regularly for STIs, especially if you are sexually active with multiple partners or have unprotected sex. Prevention methods include using condoms during sexual activity and practicing good personal hygiene.

Immunoenzyme techniques are a group of laboratory methods used in immunology and clinical chemistry that combine the specificity of antibody-antigen reactions with the sensitivity and amplification capabilities of enzyme reactions. These techniques are primarily used for the detection, quantitation, or identification of various analytes (such as proteins, hormones, drugs, viruses, or bacteria) in biological samples.

In immunoenzyme techniques, an enzyme is linked to an antibody or antigen, creating a conjugate. This conjugate then interacts with the target analyte in the sample, forming an immune complex. The presence and amount of this immune complex can be visualized or measured by detecting the enzymatic activity associated with it.

There are several types of immunoenzyme techniques, including:

1. Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA): A widely used method for detecting and quantifying various analytes in a sample. In ELISA, an enzyme is attached to either the capture antibody or the detection antibody. After the immune complex formation, a substrate is added that reacts with the enzyme, producing a colored product that can be measured spectrophotometrically.
2. Immunoblotting (Western blot): A method used for detecting specific proteins in a complex mixture, such as a protein extract from cells or tissues. In this technique, proteins are separated by gel electrophoresis and transferred to a membrane, where they are probed with an enzyme-conjugated antibody directed against the target protein.
3. Immunohistochemistry (IHC): A method used for detecting specific antigens in tissue sections or cells. In IHC, an enzyme-conjugated primary or secondary antibody is applied to the sample, and the presence of the antigen is visualized using a chromogenic substrate that produces a colored product at the site of the antigen-antibody interaction.
4. Immunofluorescence (IF): A method used for detecting specific antigens in cells or tissues by employing fluorophore-conjugated antibodies. The presence of the antigen is visualized using a fluorescence microscope.
5. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): A method used for detecting and quantifying specific antigens or antibodies in liquid samples, such as serum or culture supernatants. In ELISA, an enzyme-conjugated detection antibody is added after the immune complex formation, and a substrate is added that reacts with the enzyme to produce a colored product that can be measured spectrophotometrically.

These techniques are widely used in research and diagnostic laboratories for various applications, including protein characterization, disease diagnosis, and monitoring treatment responses.

Complement C1q is a protein that is part of the complement system, which is a group of proteins in the blood that help to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body. C1q is the first component of the classical complement pathway, which is activated by the binding of C1q to antibodies that are attached to the surface of a pathogen or damaged cell.

C1q is composed of six identical polypeptide chains, each containing a collagen-like region and a globular head region. The globular heads can bind to various structures, including the Fc regions of certain antibodies, immune complexes, and some types of cells. When C1q binds to an activating surface, it triggers a series of proteolytic reactions that lead to the activation of other complement components and the formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC), which can punch holes in the membranes of pathogens or damaged cells, leading to their destruction.

In addition to its role in the immune system, C1q has also been found to have roles in various physiological processes, including tissue remodeling, angiogenesis, and the clearance of apoptotic cells. Dysregulation of the complement system, including abnormalities in C1q function, has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including autoimmune disorders, inflammatory diseases, and neurodegenerative conditions.

Coxiella burnetii is a gram-negative, intracellular bacterium that causes Q fever, a zoonotic disease with various clinical manifestations ranging from asymptomatic seroconversion to acute and chronic forms. The bacterium is highly infectious and can be transmitted to humans through inhalation of contaminated aerosols or direct contact with infected animals or their products. C. burnetii has a unique ability to survive and replicate within host cells, particularly within phagocytic vacuoles, by inhibiting phagosome-lysosome fusion and altering the intracellular environment to promote its survival.

The bacterium exhibits a biphasic developmental cycle, consisting of small cell variants (SCVs) and large cell variants (LCVs). SCVs are metabolically inactive and highly resistant to environmental stressors, including heat, desiccation, and disinfectants. LCVs, on the other hand, are metabolically active and undergo replication within host cells. C. burnetii can form persistent infections, which may contribute to chronic Q fever and its associated complications, such as endocarditis and vascular infection.

Q fever is a worldwide distributed disease, with a higher incidence in rural areas where livestock farming is prevalent. The primary reservoirs for C. burnetii are domestic animals, including cattle, sheep, and goats, although wild animals and arthropods can also serve as potential hosts. Effective antibiotic treatment options for Q fever include doxycycline and fluoroquinolones, while vaccination with the phase I whole-cell vaccine is available in some countries to prevent infection in high-risk populations.

Nitrogen fixation is a process by which nitrogen gas (N2) in the air is converted into ammonia (NH3) or other chemically reactive forms, making it available to plants and other organisms for use as a nutrient. This process is essential for the nitrogen cycle and for the growth of many types of plants, as most plants cannot utilize nitrogen gas directly from the air.

In the medical field, nitrogen fixation is not a commonly used term. However, in the context of microbiology and infectious diseases, some bacteria are capable of fixing nitrogen and this ability can contribute to their pathogenicity. For example, certain species of bacteria that colonize the human body, such as those found in the gut or on the skin, may be able to fix nitrogen and use it for their own growth and survival. In some cases, these bacteria may also release fixed nitrogen into the environment, which can have implications for the ecology and health of the host and surrounding ecosystems.

I believe there may be a misunderstanding in your question. "Goat diseases" refers to illnesses that affect goats specifically. It does not mean diseases that are caused by goats or related to them in some way. Here are some examples of goat diseases:

1. Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis (CAE): A viral disease that affects goats, causing arthritis, pneumonia, and sometimes encephalitis.
2. Caseous Lymphadenitis (CL): A bacterial disease that causes abscesses in the lymph nodes of goats.
3. Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP): A contagious respiratory disease caused by mycoplasma bacteria.
4. Johne's Disease: A chronic wasting disease caused by a type of bacterium called Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis.
5. Pasteurellosis: A bacterial disease that can cause pneumonia, septicemia, and other infections in goats.
6. Salmonellosis: A bacterial disease caused by Salmonella bacteria, which can cause diarrhea, fever, and septicemia in goats.
7. Soremouth (Orf): A viral disease that causes sores and scabs around the mouth and nose of goats.

These are just a few examples of diseases that can affect goats. If you have any specific questions about goat health or diseases, I would recommend consulting with a veterinarian who specializes in small ruminants.

The alternative complement pathway is one of the three initiating pathways of the complement system, which is a part of the innate immune system that helps to clear pathogens and damaged cells from the body. The other two pathways are the classical and lectin pathways.

The alternative pathway is continuously activated at a low level, even in the absence of infection or injury, through the spontaneous cleavage of complement component C3 into C3a and C3b by the protease factor D in the presence of magnesium ions. The generated C3b can then bind covalently to nearby surfaces, including pathogens and host cells.

On self-surfaces, regulatory proteins like decay-accelerating factor (DAF) or complement receptor 1 (CR1) help to prevent the formation of the alternative pathway convertase and thus further activation of the complement system. However, on foreign surfaces, the C3b can recruit more complement components, forming a complex called the alternative pathway convertase (C3bBb), which cleaves additional C3 molecules into C3a and C3b.

The generated C3b can then bind to the surface and participate in the formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC), leading to the lysis of the target cell. The alternative pathway plays a crucial role in the defense against gram-negative bacteria, fungi, and parasites, as well as in the clearance of immune complexes and apoptotic cells. Dysregulation of the alternative complement pathway has been implicated in several diseases, including autoimmune disorders and atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome (aHUS).

Complement C5 is a protein that plays a crucial role in the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body. The complement system is a complex series of biochemical reactions that help to identify and destroy foreign substances, such as bacteria and viruses.

Complement C5 is one of several proteins in the complement system that are activated in a cascading manner in response to an activating event, such as the binding of an antibody to a pathogen. Once activated, Complement C5 can be cleaved into two smaller proteins, C5a and C5b.

C5a is a powerful anaphylatoxin, which means it can cause the release of histamine from mast cells and basophils, leading to inflammation and increased vascular permeability. It also acts as a chemoattractant, drawing immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

C5b, on the other hand, plays a role in the formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC), which is a protein structure that can punch holes in the membranes of pathogens, leading to their lysis and destruction.

Overall, Complement C5 is an important component of the immune system's response to infection and injury, helping to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body.

Complement receptors are proteins found on the surface of various cells in the human body, including immune cells and some non-immune cells. They play a crucial role in the complement system, which is a part of the innate immune response that helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body. Complement receptors bind to complement proteins or fragments that are generated during the activation of the complement system. This binding triggers various intracellular signaling events that can lead to diverse cellular responses, such as phagocytosis, inflammation, and immune regulation.

There are several types of complement receptors, including:

1. CR1 (CD35): A receptor found on erythrocytes, B cells, neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, and glomerular podocytes. It functions in the clearance of immune complexes and regulates complement activation.
2. CR2 (CD21): Expressed mainly on B cells and follicular dendritic cells. It facilitates antigen presentation, B-cell activation, and immune regulation.
3. CR3 (CD11b/CD18, Mac-1): Present on neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, and some T cells. It mediates cell adhesion, phagocytosis, and intracellular signaling.
4. CR4 (CD11c/CD18, p150,95): Expressed on neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells. It is involved in cell adhesion, phagocytosis, and intracellular signaling.
5. C5aR (CD88): Found on various immune cells, including neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, mast cells, eosinophils, and dendritic cells. It binds to the complement protein C5a and mediates chemotaxis, degranulation, and inflammation.
6. C5L2 (GPR77): Present on various cell types, including immune cells. Its function is not well understood but may involve regulating C5a-mediated responses or acting as a receptor for other ligands.

These receptors play crucial roles in the immune response and inflammation by mediating various functions such as chemotaxis, phagocytosis, cell adhesion, and intracellular signaling. Dysregulation of these receptors has been implicated in several diseases, including autoimmune disorders, infections, and cancer.

Complement C3b is a protein fragment that plays a crucial role in the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to clear pathogens and damaged cells from the body. C3b is generated during the activation of the complement system, particularly via the classical, lectin, and alternative pathways.

Once formed, C3b can bind covalently to the surface of microbes or other target particles, marking them for destruction by other components of the immune system. Additionally, C3b can interact with other proteins in the complement system to generate the membrane attack complex (MAC), which forms pores in the membranes of targeted cells, leading to their lysis and removal.

In summary, Complement C3b is a vital protein fragment involved in the recognition, tagging, and elimination of pathogens and damaged cells during the immune response.

Sensitivity and specificity are statistical measures used to describe the performance of a diagnostic test or screening tool in identifying true positive and true negative results.

* Sensitivity refers to the proportion of people who have a particular condition (true positives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true positive rate" or "recall." A highly sensitive test will identify most or all of the people with the condition, but may also produce more false positives.
* Specificity refers to the proportion of people who do not have a particular condition (true negatives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true negative rate." A highly specific test will identify most or all of the people without the condition, but may also produce more false negatives.

In medical testing, both sensitivity and specificity are important considerations when evaluating a diagnostic test. High sensitivity is desirable for screening tests that aim to identify as many cases of a condition as possible, while high specificity is desirable for confirmatory tests that aim to rule out the condition in people who do not have it.

It's worth noting that sensitivity and specificity are often influenced by factors such as the prevalence of the condition in the population being tested, the threshold used to define a positive result, and the reliability and validity of the test itself. Therefore, it's important to consider these factors when interpreting the results of a diagnostic test.

Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence of a foreign substance, such as a bacterium or virus. They are capable of identifying and binding to specific antigens (foreign substances) on the surface of these invaders, marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Antibodies are also known as immunoglobulins and come in several different types, including IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM, each with a unique function in the immune response. They are composed of four polypeptide chains, two heavy chains and two light chains, that are held together by disulfide bonds. The variable regions of the heavy and light chains form the antigen-binding site, which is specific to a particular antigen.

Ocular fixation is a term used in ophthalmology and optometry to refer to the ability of the eyes to maintain steady gaze or visual focus on an object. It involves the coordinated movement of the extraocular muscles that control eye movements, allowing for clear and stable vision.

In medical terminology, fixation specifically refers to the state in which the eyes are aligned and focused on a single point in space. This is important for maintaining visual perception and preventing blurring or double vision. Ocular fixation can be affected by various factors such as muscle weakness, nerve damage, or visual processing disorders.

Assessment of ocular fixation is often used in eye examinations to evaluate visual acuity, eye alignment, and muscle function. Abnormalities in fixation may indicate the presence of underlying eye conditions or developmental delays that require further investigation and treatment.

I must clarify that the term "Guinea Pigs" is not typically used in medical definitions. However, in colloquial or informal language, it may refer to people who are used as the first to try out a new medical treatment or drug. This is known as being a "test subject" or "in a clinical trial."

In the field of scientific research, particularly in studies involving animals, guinea pigs are small rodents that are often used as experimental subjects due to their size, cost-effectiveness, and ease of handling. They are not actually pigs from Guinea, despite their name's origins being unclear. However, they do not exactly fit the description of being used in human medical experiments.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Rabbits" is a common name used to refer to the Lagomorpha species, particularly members of the family Leporidae. They are small mammals known for their long ears, strong legs, and quick reproduction.

However, if you're referring to "rabbits" in a medical context, there is a term called "rabbit syndrome," which is a rare movement disorder characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements of the fingers, resembling those of a rabbit chewing. It is also known as "finger-chewing chorea." This condition is usually associated with certain medications, particularly antipsychotics, and typically resolves when the medication is stopped or adjusted.

Complement C9 is a protein that plays a crucial role in the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body. Specifically, C9 is one of the components of the membrane attack complex (MAC), which is a protein structure that forms pores in the membranes of target cells, leading to their lysis or destruction.

When activated, C9 polymerizes and inserts itself into the cell membrane, forming a transmembrane pore that disrupts the membrane's integrity and causes the cell to lyse. This process is an essential part of the complement system's ability to destroy pathogens and clear damaged cells from the body.

Defects in the C9 gene can lead to a rare genetic disorder called complement component 9 deficiency, which is characterized by recurrent bacterial infections and immune complex-mediated diseases. Additionally, mutations in the C9 gene have been associated with an increased risk of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a leading cause of blindness in older adults.

The "Classical Complement Pathway" is one of the three pathways that make up the complement system, which is a part of the immune system in humans and other animals. The complement system helps to enhance the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear pathogens from the body.

The Classical Complement Pathway is initiated by the binding of the first component of the complement system, C1, to an activator surface, such as an antigen-antibody complex. Activation of C1 results in the sequential activation of other components of the complement system, including C4 and C2, which form the C3 convertase (C4b2a). The C3 convertase cleaves the third component of the complement system, C3, into C3a and C3b. C3b then binds to the activator surface and forms a complex with other components of the complement system, leading to the formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC), which creates a pore in the membrane of the target cell, causing its lysis.

The Classical Complement Pathway plays an important role in the immune response to pathogens and can also contribute to inflammation and tissue damage in certain diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and allergies.

Antibody formation, also known as humoral immune response, is the process by which the immune system produces proteins called antibodies in response to the presence of a foreign substance (antigen) in the body. This process involves several steps:

1. Recognition: The antigen is recognized and bound by a type of white blood cell called a B lymphocyte or B cell, which then becomes activated.
2. Differentiation: The activated B cell undergoes differentiation to become a plasma cell, which is a type of cell that produces and secretes large amounts of antibodies.
3. Antibody production: The plasma cells produce and release antibodies, which are proteins made up of four polypeptide chains (two heavy chains and two light chains) arranged in a Y-shape. Each antibody has two binding sites that can recognize and bind to specific regions on the antigen called epitopes.
4. Neutralization or elimination: The antibodies bind to the antigens, neutralizing them or marking them for destruction by other immune cells. This helps to prevent the spread of infection and protect the body from harmful substances.

Antibody formation is an important part of the adaptive immune response, which allows the body to specifically recognize and respond to a wide variety of pathogens and foreign substances.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "horses" is not a medical term. It is the common name given to the species *Equus ferus caballus*, which are large domesticated mammals used for transportation, work, and recreation. If you have any questions about horses or a related topic that you would like a medical perspective on, please let me know and I'd be happy to help!

Complement C1 is a protein complex that plays a crucial role in the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body. The complement system consists of a group of proteins that work together to destroy microbes and remove debris.

Complement C1 is composed of three subunits: C1q, C1r, and C1s. When activated, C1q binds to the surface of a pathogen or damaged cell, leading to the activation of C1r and C1s. Activated C1r then cleaves and activates C1s, which in turn cleaves and activates other complement components, ultimately resulting in the formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC), a protein structure that forms a pore in the membrane of the target cell, leading to its lysis and destruction.

Defects in the complement component C1 can lead to immune disorders, such as hereditary angioedema, which is characterized by recurrent episodes of swelling in various parts of the body.

In the context of medical research, "methods" refers to the specific procedures or techniques used in conducting a study or experiment. This includes details on how data was collected, what measurements were taken, and what statistical analyses were performed. The methods section of a medical paper allows other researchers to replicate the study if they choose to do so. It is considered one of the key components of a well-written research article, as it provides transparency and helps establish the validity of the findings.

The Complement Membrane Attack Complex (MAC), also known as the Terminal Complement Complex (TCC), is a protein structure that forms in the final stages of the complement system's immune response. The complement system is a part of the innate immune system that helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body.

The MAC is composed of several proteins, including C5b, C6, C7, C8, and multiple subunits of C9, which assemble on the surface of target cells. The formation of the MAC creates a pore-like structure in the cell membrane, leading to disruption of the membrane's integrity and ultimately causing cell lysis or damage.

The MAC plays an important role in the immune response by helping to eliminate pathogens that have evaded other immune defenses. However, uncontrolled activation of the complement system and formation of the MAC can also contribute to tissue damage and inflammation in various diseases, such as autoimmune disorders, age-related macular degeneration, and ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Complement inactivator proteins are a group of regulatory proteins that help to control and limit the activation of the complement system, which is a part of the immune system. The complement system is a complex series of biochemical reactions that help to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body. However, if not properly regulated, the complement system can also cause damage to healthy tissues and contribute to the development of various diseases.

Complement inactivator proteins work by inhibiting specific components of the complement system, preventing them from activating and causing an immune response. Some examples of complement inactivator proteins include:

1. C1 inhibitor (C1INH): This protein regulates the activation of the classical pathway of the complement system by inhibiting the C1 complex, which is a group of proteins that initiate this pathway.
2. Decay-accelerating factor (DAF or CD55): This protein regulates the activation of both the classical and alternative pathways of the complement system by accelerating the decay of the C3/C5 convertases, which are enzymes that activate the complement components C3 and C5.
3. Membrane cofactor protein (MCP or CD46): This protein regulates the activation of the alternative pathway of the complement system by serving as a cofactor for the cleavage and inactivation of C3b, a component of the C3 convertase.
4. Factor H: This protein also regulates the activation of the alternative pathway of the complement system by acting as a cofactor for the cleavage and inactivation of C3b, and by preventing the formation of the C3 convertase.

Deficiencies or dysfunction of complement inactivator proteins can lead to various diseases, including hereditary angioedema (C1INH deficiency), atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome (factor H deficiency or dysfunction), and age-related macular degeneration (complement component overactivation).

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a type of herpesvirus that can cause infection in humans. It is characterized by the enlargement of infected cells (cytomegaly) and is typically transmitted through close contact with an infected person, such as through saliva, urine, breast milk, or sexual contact.

CMV infection can also be acquired through organ transplantation, blood transfusions, or during pregnancy from mother to fetus. While many people infected with CMV experience no symptoms, it can cause serious complications in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those undergoing cancer treatment or those who have HIV/AIDS.

In newborns, congenital CMV infection can lead to hearing loss, vision problems, and developmental delays. Pregnant women who become infected with CMV for the first time during pregnancy are at higher risk of transmitting the virus to their unborn child. There is no cure for CMV, but antiviral medications can help manage symptoms and reduce the risk of complications in severe cases.

Fracture fixation is a surgical procedure in orthopedic trauma surgery where a fractured bone is stabilized using various devices and techniques to promote proper healing and alignment. The goal of fracture fixation is to maintain the broken bone ends in correct anatomical position and length, allowing for adequate stability during the healing process.

There are two main types of fracture fixation:

1. Internal fixation: In this method, metal implants like plates, screws, or intramedullary rods are inserted directly into the bone to hold the fragments in place. These implants can be either removed or left in the body once healing is complete, depending on the type and location of the fracture.

2. External fixation: This technique involves placing pins or screws through the skin and into the bone above and below the fracture site. These pins are then connected to an external frame that maintains alignment and stability. External fixators are typically used when there is significant soft tissue damage, infection, or when internal fixation is not possible due to the complexity of the fracture.

The choice between internal and external fixation depends on various factors such as the type and location of the fracture, patient's age and overall health, surgeon's preference, and potential complications. Both methods aim to provide a stable environment for bone healing while minimizing the risk of malunion, nonunion, or deformity.

Complement C2 is a protein that plays a crucial role in the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body. Specifically, C2 is a component of the classical complement pathway, which is activated by the binding of antibodies to antigens on the surface of foreign particles or cells.

When the classical pathway is activated, C2 is cleaved into two fragments: C2a and C2b. C2a then binds to C4b to form the C3 convertase (C4b2a), which cleaves C3 into C3a and C3b. C3b can then go on to form the membrane attack complex, which creates a pore in the membrane of the target cell, leading to its lysis.

In summary, Complement C2 is a protein that helps to activate the complement system and destroy foreign particles or cells through the formation of the C3 convertase and the membrane attack complex.

Complement Factor B is a protein that plays a crucial role in the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body. Specifically, Factor B is a component of the alternative pathway of the complement system, which provides a rapid and amplified response to microbial surfaces.

Factor B is cleaved by another protease called Factor D into two fragments, Ba and Bb. The formation of the C3 convertase (C3bBb) is essential for the activation of the alternative pathway. This complex can cleave and activate more C3 molecules, leading to a cascade of reactions that result in the formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC), which forms pores in the membranes of target cells, causing their lysis and elimination.

Deficiencies or mutations in Complement Factor B can lead to various complement-mediated diseases, such as atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome (aHUS) and age-related macular degeneration (AMD).

Radioimmunoassay (RIA) is a highly sensitive analytical technique used in clinical and research laboratories to measure concentrations of various substances, such as hormones, vitamins, drugs, or tumor markers, in biological samples like blood, urine, or tissues. The method relies on the specific interaction between an antibody and its corresponding antigen, combined with the use of radioisotopes to quantify the amount of bound antigen.

In a typical RIA procedure, a known quantity of a radiolabeled antigen (also called tracer) is added to a sample containing an unknown concentration of the same unlabeled antigen. The mixture is then incubated with a specific antibody that binds to the antigen. During the incubation period, the antibody forms complexes with both the radiolabeled and unlabeled antigens.

After the incubation, the unbound (free) radiolabeled antigen is separated from the antibody-antigen complexes, usually through a precipitation or separation step involving centrifugation, filtration, or chromatography. The amount of radioactivity in the pellet (containing the antibody-antigen complexes) is then measured using a gamma counter or other suitable radiation detection device.

The concentration of the unlabeled antigen in the sample can be determined by comparing the ratio of bound to free radiolabeled antigen in the sample to a standard curve generated from known concentrations of unlabeled antigen and their corresponding bound/free ratios. The higher the concentration of unlabeled antigen in the sample, the lower the amount of radiolabeled antigen that will bind to the antibody, resulting in a lower bound/free ratio.

Radioimmunoassays offer high sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy, making them valuable tools for detecting and quantifying low levels of various substances in biological samples. However, due to concerns about radiation safety and waste disposal, alternative non-isotopic immunoassay techniques like enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) have become more popular in recent years.

Antibody specificity refers to the ability of an antibody to bind to a specific epitope or antigenic determinant on an antigen. Each antibody has a unique structure that allows it to recognize and bind to a specific region of an antigen, typically a small portion of the antigen's surface made up of amino acids or sugar residues. This highly specific binding is mediated by the variable regions of the antibody's heavy and light chains, which form a pocket that recognizes and binds to the epitope.

The specificity of an antibody is determined by its unique complementarity-determining regions (CDRs), which are loops of amino acids located in the variable domains of both the heavy and light chains. The CDRs form a binding site that recognizes and interacts with the epitope on the antigen. The precise fit between the antibody's binding site and the epitope is critical for specificity, as even small changes in the structure of either can prevent binding.

Antibody specificity is important in immune responses because it allows the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self antigens. This helps to prevent autoimmune reactions where the immune system attacks the body's own cells and tissues. Antibody specificity also plays a crucial role in diagnostic tests, such as ELISA assays, where antibodies are used to detect the presence of specific antigens in biological samples.

Complement Factor H is a protein involved in the regulation of the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to clear pathogens and damaged cells from the body. Specifically, Complement Factor H helps to regulate the activation and deactivation of the complement component C3b, preventing excessive or unwanted activation of the complement system and protecting host tissues from damage.

Complement Factor H is a crucial protein in maintaining the balance between the protective effects of the complement system and the potential for harm to the body's own cells and tissues. Deficiencies or mutations in Complement Factor H have been associated with several diseases, including age-related macular degeneration (AMD), atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome (aHUS), and C3 glomerulopathy.

Complement inactivating agents are substances or drugs that inhibit the complement system, which is a part of the immune system responsible for the recognition and elimination of foreign substances and microorganisms. The complement system consists of a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens from the body.

Complement inactivating agents are used in medical settings to prevent or treat various conditions associated with excessive or unwanted activation of the complement system, such as inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and transplant rejection. These agents can inhibit different components of the complement pathway, including C1 esterase inhibitors, C3 convertase inhibitors, and C5a receptor antagonists.

Examples of complement inactivating agents include eculizumab, ravulizumab, and Alexion's Ultomiris, which are monoclonal antibodies that target C5, a protein involved in the final steps of the complement pathway. These drugs have been approved for the treatment of paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH), atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome (aHUS), and other complement-mediated diseases.

Other complement inactivating agents include C1 esterase inhibitors, such as Berinert and Ruconest, which are used to treat hereditary angioedema (HAE). These drugs work by inhibiting the activation of the classical pathway of the complement system, thereby preventing the release of inflammatory mediators that can cause swelling and pain.

Overall, complement inactivating agents play an important role in the treatment of various complement-mediated diseases, helping to reduce inflammation, prevent tissue damage, and improve patient outcomes.

Complement C3a is a protein fragment that is generated during the activation of the complement system, which is a part of the immune system. The complement system helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body by marking them for destruction and attracting immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

C3a is produced when the third component of the complement system (C3) is cleaved into two smaller fragments, C3a and C3b, during the complement activation cascade. C3a is a potent anaphylatoxin, which means it can cause the release of histamine and other mediators from mast cells and basophils, leading to inflammation, increased vascular permeability, and smooth muscle contraction.

C3a also has chemotactic properties, meaning it can attract immune cells such as neutrophils and monocytes to the site of complement activation. Additionally, C3a can modulate the activity of various immune cells, including dendritic cells, T cells, and B cells, and play a role in the regulation of the adaptive immune response.

It's important to note that while C3a has important functions in the immune response, uncontrolled or excessive activation of the complement system can lead to tissue damage and inflammation, contributing to the pathogenesis of various diseases such as autoimmune disorders, inflammatory diseases, and allergies.

Complement C5a is a protein fragment that is generated during the activation of the complement system, which is a part of the immune system. The complement system helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body by tagging them for destruction and attracting immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

C5a is formed when the fifth component of the complement system (C5) is cleaved into two smaller fragments, C5a and C5b, during the complement activation cascade. C5a is a potent pro-inflammatory mediator that can attract and activate various immune cells, such as neutrophils, monocytes, and eosinophils, to the site of infection or injury. It can also increase vascular permeability, promote the release of histamine, and induce the production of reactive oxygen species, all of which contribute to the inflammatory response.

However, excessive or uncontrolled activation of the complement system and generation of C5a can lead to tissue damage and inflammation, contributing to the pathogenesis of various diseases, such as sepsis, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and autoimmune disorders. Therefore, targeting C5a or its receptors has been explored as a potential therapeutic strategy for these conditions.

Complement C6 is a protein that plays a crucial role in the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body. Specifically, C6 is a component of the membrane attack complex (MAC), which is a group of proteins that work together to form a pore in the membrane of target cells, leading to their lysis or destruction.

The complement system is activated through several different pathways, including the classical pathway, the lectin pathway, and the alternative pathway. Once activated, these pathways converge at the level of C3, which is cleaved into C3a and C3b fragments. C3b can then bind to the surface of target cells and initiate the formation of the MAC.

C6 is one of several proteins that are required for the formation of the MAC. When C6 binds to C7, it undergoes a conformational change that allows it to interact with C8 and form a stable complex. This complex then recruits additional C9 molecules, which polymerize to form the pore in the target cell membrane.

Deficiencies in complement components, including C6, can lead to increased susceptibility to certain types of infections, as well as autoimmune disorders and other medical conditions.

Complement receptor 3b (CR3b or CD11b/CD18) is not a medical definition itself, but I can provide you with the relevant information regarding this term.

Complement receptor 3 (CR3) is a heterodimeric receptor consisting of two subunits, CD11b (also known as Mac-1 or CR3 alpha) and CD18 (also known as beta2 integrin). There are two forms of the CD11b/CD18 heterodimer: CR3a (CD11b/CD18) and CR3b (CD11b/CD18'). The difference between these two forms lies in the conformation of the CD11b subunit.

Complement receptor 3b (CR3b or CD11b/CD18') is a less common form of the CR3 receptor, which is primarily expressed on myeloid cells such as monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils. CR3b has a higher affinity for complement component C3b and its fragments iC3b and C3dg compared to CR3a.

CR3b plays a role in various immune functions, including:

1. Phagocytosis: Binding of C3b or its fragments to CR3b facilitates the recognition and uptake of opsonized pathogens by phagocytes.
2. Adhesion: The integrin component of CR3b mediates cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, contributing to leukocyte migration and recruitment to sites of inflammation or infection.
3. Intracellular signaling: Activation of CR3b can lead to intracellular signaling events that modulate immune responses, such as the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species.

In summary, Complement receptor 3b (CR3b or CD11b/CD18') is a less common form of CR3 primarily expressed on myeloid cells that binds complement component C3b and its fragments with high affinity, mediating phagocytosis, adhesion, and intracellular signaling.

An antigen-antibody reaction is a specific immune response that occurs when an antigen (a foreign substance, such as a protein or polysaccharide on the surface of a bacterium or virus) comes into contact with a corresponding antibody (a protective protein produced by the immune system in response to the antigen). The antigen and antibody bind together, forming an antigen-antibody complex. This interaction can neutralize the harmful effects of the antigen, mark it for destruction by other immune cells, or activate complement proteins to help eliminate the antigen from the body. Antigen-antibody reactions are a crucial part of the adaptive immune response and play a key role in the body's defense against infection and disease.

Complement activating enzymes are proteins that play a crucial role in the activation of the complement system, which is a part of the immune system. The complement system is a complex series of biochemical reactions that help to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body.

There are several types of complement activating enzymes, including:

1. Classical pathway activators: These include the C1, C4, and C2 components of the complement system. When activated, they trigger a series of reactions that lead to the formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC), which creates a pore in the membrane of the target cell, leading to its lysis.
2. Alternative pathway activators: These include factors B, D, and P. They are constantly active at low levels and can be activated by surfaces that are not normally found in the body, such as bacterial cell walls. Once activated, they also trigger the formation of the MAC.
3. Lectin pathway activators: These include mannose-binding lectin (MBL) and ficolins. They bind to carbohydrates on the surface of microbes and activate the complement system through the MBL-associated serine proteases (MASPs).

Overall, complement activating enzymes play a critical role in the immune response by helping to identify and eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body.

Complement C4b is a protein fragment that is formed during the activation of the complement system, which is a part of the immune system. The complement system helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body by tagging them for destruction and attracting immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

C4b is generated when the C4 protein is cleaved into two smaller fragments, C4a and C4b, during the activation of the classical or lectin pathways of the complement system. C4b then binds covalently to the surface of the target cell or pathogen, forming a complex with other complement proteins that can create a membrane attack complex (MAC) and cause cell lysis.

C4b can also act as an opsonin, coating the surface of the target cell or pathogen and making it easier for immune cells to recognize and phagocytose them. Additionally, C4b can activate the alternative pathway of the complement system, leading to further amplification of the complement response.

Precipitins are antibodies (usually of the IgG class) that, when combined with their respective antigens in vitro, result in the formation of a visible precipitate. They are typically produced in response to the presence of insoluble antigens, such as bacterial or fungal cell wall components, and can be detected through various immunological techniques such as precipitation tests (e.g., Ouchterlony double diffusion, radial immunodiffusion).

Precipitins are often used in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and allergies to identify the presence and specificity of antibodies produced against certain antigens. However, it's worth noting that the term "precipitin" is not commonly used in modern medical literature, and the more general term "antibody" is often preferred.

Tissue fixation is a process in histology (the study of the microscopic structure of tissues) where fixed tissue samples are prepared for further examination, typically through microscopy. The goal of tissue fixation is to preserve the original three-dimensional structure and biochemical composition of tissues and cells as much as possible, making them stable and suitable for various analyses.

The most common method for tissue fixation involves immersing the sample in a chemical fixative, such as formaldehyde or glutaraldehyde. These fixatives cross-link proteins within the tissue, creating a stable matrix that maintains the original structure and prevents decay. Other methods of tissue fixation may include freezing or embedding samples in various media to preserve their integrity.

Properly fixed tissue samples can be sectioned, stained, and examined under a microscope, allowing pathologists and researchers to study cellular structures, diagnose diseases, and understand biological processes at the molecular level.

Complement C3d is a protein fragment that is formed during the activation of the complement system, which is a part of the immune system. The complement system helps to eliminate pathogens such as bacteria and viruses from the body by tagging them for destruction and attracting immune cells to the site of infection.

C3d is a cleavage product of complement component C3, which is one of the central proteins in the complement system. When C3 is activated, it is cleaved into two fragments: C3a and C3b. C3b can then be further cleaved into C3d and C3c.

C3d plays a role in the activation of the immune system by helping to link the complement system with the adaptive immune response. It does this by binding to receptors on B cells, which are a type of white blood cell that produces antibodies. This interaction can help to stimulate the production of antibodies and enhance the immune response to pathogens.

C3d has also been implicated in the development of certain autoimmune diseases, as it can contribute to the formation of immune complexes that can cause tissue damage.

Rheumatoid factor (RF) is an autoantibody, specifically an immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibody, that can be detected in the blood serum of some people with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), other inflammatory conditions, and infectious diseases. RF targets the Fc portion of IgG, leading to immune complex formation and subsequent inflammation, which contributes to the pathogenesis of RA. However, not all patients with RA test positive for RF, and its presence does not necessarily confirm a diagnosis of RA. Other conditions can also lead to elevated RF levels, such as infections, liver diseases, and certain malignancies. Therefore, the interpretation of RF results should be considered alongside other clinical, laboratory, and imaging findings for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate management.

Complement C3-C5 convertases are proteins that play a crucial role in the activation of the complement system, which is a part of the immune system. The complement system helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body by marking them for destruction and attracting immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

The C3-C5 convertases are formed during the activation of the complement component 3 (C3) protein, which is a central player in the complement system. The formation of the C3-C5 convertase involves two main steps:

1. C3 convertase formation: In this step, a complex of proteins called the C3 convertase is formed by the cleavage of C3 into C3a and C3b fragments. This complex can then cleave additional C3 molecules into C3a and C3b fragments, amplifying the complement response.
2. C5 convertase formation: In this step, the C3b fragment from the C3 convertase binds to another protein called C4b2a, forming a new complex called the C5 convertase. The C5 convertase can then cleave the C5 protein into C5a and C5b fragments.

The C5b fragment goes on to form the membrane attack complex (MAC), which creates a pore in the membrane of the target cell, leading to its lysis or destruction. The C3a and C5a fragments are small proteins called anaphylatoxins that can cause inflammation and attract immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

Overall, the formation of Complement C3-C5 convertases is a critical step in the activation of the complement system and plays a key role in the body's defense against pathogens and damaged cells.

Haplorhini is a term used in the field of primatology and physical anthropology to refer to a parvorder of simian primates, which includes humans, apes (both great and small), and Old World monkeys. The name "Haplorhini" comes from the Greek words "haploos," meaning single or simple, and "rhinos," meaning nose.

The defining characteristic of Haplorhini is the presence of a simple, dry nose, as opposed to the wet, fleshy noses found in other primates, such as New World monkeys and strepsirrhines (which include lemurs and lorises). The nostrils of haplorhines are located close together at the tip of the snout, and they lack the rhinarium or "wet nose" that is present in other primates.

Haplorhini is further divided into two infraorders: Simiiformes (which includes apes and Old World monkeys) and Tarsioidea (which includes tarsiers). These groups are distinguished by various anatomical and behavioral differences, such as the presence or absence of a tail, the structure of the hand and foot, and the degree of sociality.

Overall, Haplorhini is a group of primates that share a number of distinctive features related to their sensory systems, locomotion, and social behavior. Understanding the evolutionary history and diversity of this group is an important area of research in anthropology, biology, and psychology.

An antigen is a substance (usually a protein) that is recognized as foreign by the immune system and stimulates an immune response, leading to the production of antibodies or activation of T-cells. Antigens can be derived from various sources, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and tumor cells. They can also come from non-living substances such as pollen, dust mites, or chemicals.

Antigens contain epitopes, which are specific regions on the antigen molecule that are recognized by the immune system. The immune system's response to an antigen depends on several factors, including the type of antigen, its size, and its location in the body.

In general, antigens can be classified into two main categories:

1. T-dependent antigens: These require the help of T-cells to stimulate an immune response. They are typically larger, more complex molecules that contain multiple epitopes capable of binding to both MHC class II molecules on antigen-presenting cells and T-cell receptors on CD4+ T-cells.
2. T-independent antigens: These do not require the help of T-cells to stimulate an immune response. They are usually smaller, simpler molecules that contain repetitive epitopes capable of cross-linking B-cell receptors and activating them directly.

Understanding antigens and their properties is crucial for developing vaccines, diagnostic tests, and immunotherapies.

"Swine" is a common term used to refer to even-toed ungulates of the family Suidae, including domestic pigs and wild boars. However, in a medical context, "swine" often appears in the phrase "swine flu," which is a strain of influenza virus that typically infects pigs but can also cause illness in humans. The 2009 H1N1 pandemic was caused by a new strain of swine-origin influenza A virus, which was commonly referred to as "swine flu." It's important to note that this virus is not transmitted through eating cooked pork products; it spreads from person to person, mainly through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes.

Serology is a branch of medical laboratory science that involves the identification and measurement of antibodies or antigens in a serum sample. Serum is the liquid component of blood that remains after clotting and removal of cells. Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to an antigen, which can be a foreign substance such as bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms.

Serological tests are used to diagnose infectious diseases, monitor the progression of an infection, and determine the effectiveness of treatment. These tests can also help identify the presence of immune disorders or allergies. The results of serological tests are typically reported as a titer, which is the highest dilution of the serum that still shows a positive reaction to the antigen. Higher titers indicate a stronger immune response and may suggest a more recent infection or a greater severity of illness.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Complement C7 is a protein that plays a role in the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to clear pathogens and damaged cells from the body. Specifically, C7 is a component of the membrane attack complex (MAC), which is a group of proteins that forms a pore in the membrane of target cells, leading to their lysis or destruction.

C7 is activated when it binds to the C5b-7 complex, which is formed by the cleavage of C5 and C6 by the C5 convertase. Once bound to the C5b-7 complex, C7 undergoes a conformational change that allows it to insert into the target cell membrane. This forms the basis for the formation of the MAC and subsequent lysis of the target cell.

Deficiencies in complement components, including C7, can lead to increased susceptibility to certain infections and autoimmune disorders. Additionally, abnormal regulation of the complement system has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including inflammatory and degenerative conditions.

Complement C8 is a protein component of the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body. Specifically, C8 is a part of the membrane attack complex (MAC), which forms a pore in the membrane of target cells, leading to their lysis or destruction.

C8 is composed of three subunits: alpha, beta, and gamma. It is activated when it binds to the complement component C5b67 complex on the surface of a target cell. Once activated, C8 undergoes a conformational change that allows it to insert into the target cell membrane and form a pore, which disrupts the cell's membrane integrity and can lead to its death.

Deficiencies in complement components, including C8, can make individuals more susceptible to certain infections and autoimmune diseases. Additionally, mutations in the genes encoding complement proteins have been associated with various inherited disorders, such as atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome (aHUS), which is characterized by thrombotic microangiopathy and kidney failure.

The complement fixation test is an immunological medical test that can be used to detect the presence of either specific ... Complement+Fixation+Tests at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) (All articles with unsourced ... The basic steps of a complement fixation test are as follows: Serum is separated from the patient. Patients naturally have ... This dilution factor corresponds to the titer.[citation needed] "Animation Quiz 4 - Complement Fixation Test". highered. ...
These tests include ELISAs and complement fixation tests. Orbiviruses listed by serogroup Lebombo virus Pata virus African ... The serogroups are differentiated on the basis of a fourfold or greater difference in antibody based tests. ...
Alternatively diagnosis can be made by complement fixation tests. As of 2012[update] commercial serological tests have included ... Kinkel HF, Dittrich S, Bäumer B, Weitzel T (2012). "Evaluation of eight serological tests for diagnosis of imported ... Historically, antimonials and trichlorphon were tested against visceral schistosome infection in cattle.: 245-248, 265-273 ... Exposure to any Schistosoma eggs or cercariae can cause false positive serological test results for individual Schistosoma ...
Alternatively diagnosis can be made by complement fixation tests. As of 2012[update], commercial blood tests included ELISA and ... Kinkel HF, Dittrich S, Bäumer B, Weitzel T (2012). "Evaluation of eight serological tests for diagnosis of imported ... an Indirect immunofluorescence test, but these have low sensitivity ranging from 21% to 71%. The main cause of schistomiasis is ...
This is the principle of the complement fixation test. Excessive complement activity contributes to severe Covid-19 symptoms ... Polymorphisms of complement component 3, complement factor B, and complement factor I, as well as deletion of complement factor ... The end result of this complement activation or complement fixation cascade is stimulation of phagocytes to clear foreign and ... Diagnostic tools to measure complement activity include the total complement activity test. The presence or absence of ...
Older methods included complement fixation tests, hemagglutination inhibition and virus neutralisation. Newer methods use ... Swack NS, Gahan TF, Hausler WJ (August 1992). "The present status of the complement fixation test in viral serodiagnosis". ... The so-called "home" or "self"-testing gadgets are usually lateral flow tests, which detect the virus using a tagged monoclonal ... The invention of microfluidic tests as allowed for most of these tests to be automated, Despite its specificity and sensitivity ...
Other methods of diagnosis included hemagglutination inhibition (HI), complement fixation, neutralization tests. However, new ... This study also found using immune response tests that birds and humans in the region appeared to have been exposed to the ...
Kelser, R. A. (1936). "A Complement-Fixation Test for Chagas' Disease employing an Artificial Culture Antigen". American ... At the Army Medical School he developed a test for Clostridium botulinum toxin in canned foods. He worked in Harvard from 1933 ... He developed a diagnostic test for Trypanosoma cruzi. When he retired in 1946 his rank was that of Brigadier General. For his ... He developed vaccines and diagnostic tests for several diseases of animals and humans. He developed a vaccine serum using ...
Many traditional serological tests such as hemagglutination or complement fixation employ this principle. Such tests can ... This means that the patient's serum gives a positive indirect Coombs test at any dilution down to 1/16 (1 part serum to 15 ... It is conventionally expressed as the inverse of the greatest dilution level that still gives a positive result on some test. ... For example, the indirect Coombs test detects the presence of anti-Rh antibodies in a pregnant woman's blood serum. A patient ...
August von Wassermann develops a complement fixation test for the diagnosis of syphilis. Walther Nernst presents a formulation ...
Antibody titers can also be measured with complement fixation tests, hemagglutination assays, and neutralization tests. In ... "Amylase Test". Lab Tests Online. Archived from the original on 29 March 2009. Retrieved 30 October 2020. "Mumps Clinical ... Sensitivity to IgM testing is variable, ranging from as low as 24-51% to 75% in the first week and 100% thereafter. Throughout ... In laboratory tests on rodents, MuV appears to enter the CNS first through cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), then spreading to the ...
Complement fixation, precipitin, adhesion, mercuric chloride and Wassermann tests in equine trypanosomiasis of Panama (murrina ... They traveled three times to Panama to study malaria and on other trips they worked on a precipitin test for malaria and tests ... A precipitin test in malaria. J. Prev. Med., 1:343-57. Trypanosomiasis. In: A Textbook of Medicine, 2d ed., ed. R. L. Cecil, pp ... A precipitin test in malaria; Second report. J. Prev. Med., 2:147-67. 1929 With W. H. Taliaferro. Acquired immunity in avian ...
However, some authors note that such complement-fixation tests are insensitive and should not be used for diagnosis. Dr. Clare ... Blood samples were obtained and tested for LCMV antibodies. Of the 82 workers that were tested, seven had definite serologic ... Serologic testing is not recommended for pet rodents, as it has been unreliable in detecting antibodies in animals with active ... The island of Vir in Croatia is one of the biggest described endemic places of origin of LCMV in the world, with IFA testing ...
... and a revolutionary test called the complement fixation test. This test led to findings in regards to detecting the ...
Double diffusion in agar gel and complement fixation test, are amongst the most commonly used tests in serodiagnosis. Culture ... which might provide a basis for the development of a diagnostic test. Tests targeting the presence of serum antibodies to P. ... A number of serologic tests have been employed for the diagnosis of paracoccidioidomycosis. ... "Rapid and reliable method for production of a specific Paracoccidioides brasiliensis immunodiffucsion test antigen". J. Clin. ...
The available tests include the tube-precipitin (TP) assays, complement fixation assays, and enzyme immunoassays. TP antibody ... Inmates Should Be Tested for Valley Fever Immunity". California HealthLine. July 28, 2014. Shehab, Ziad M. (2010). " ... Presently, Meridian Bioscience manufactures the so-called EIA test to diagnose the Valley fever, which however is known for ... and a serum precipitin test was developed by Charles E. Smith that was able to detect an acute form of the infection. In ...
Ante mortem diagnosis may be made with the use of dermal sensitivity testing or complement fixation tests. Muscle biopsy is ...
Antiechinococcus antibodies can be detected with serodiagnostic tests - indirect fluorescent antibody, complement fixation, ...
Bacterial culture, immunofluorescent antibody testing (IFAT), complement fixation test and haemagglutination can all be used to ...
August von Wassermann: Developed a complement fixation test for the diagnosis of syphilis in 1906 Felix Wankel: Inventor of the ...
Electron microscopy, PCR, complement fixation, antibody fluorescence, neutralization test, and haemagglutination can be used to ...
... cells such as erythrocytes in advance of performing an immunological test such as a complement-fixation test or a Coombs test. ... to appropriate biological entities such as erythrocytes or particles made of gelatin or latex for passive aggregation tests. ...
A microtechnique for application of the SN test has been described. Immunodiffusion, a modified direct complement-fixation test ... Tests The HI test is frequently used for detection and quantitation of humoral antibody for PPV. Antibody sometimes can be ... Moreover, levels of antibody too low to be detected by the HI test may be detected by the SN test. The primary significance of ... Parameters of the HI test have been studied in detail. The SN test is occasionally used for detection and quantitation of ...
... complement fixation test) in 1944. She observed that different strains had varying degree of virulence, and that the antibodies ... strains have been established in humans based on antigenic variation using serological tests such as complement fixation and ... More sensitive tests such as rapid immunochromatographic test (RICT), immunofluorescence assays (IFA), ELISA, and DNA analysis ... Weil-Felix is the simplest and most rapid test, but it is not sensitive or specific, as it detects any kind of rickettsial ...
Canada used serological tests such as complement fixation tests to detect trypanosomes, and have been very successful. Other ... Detection with this method is approx 85 trypanosomes per millilitre.[citation needed] Rather than using live animals as test ... tests used look at detecting antibodies generated by the host species against T. evansi antigens. This is done using the enzyme ...
... direct and indirect fluorescent antibody tests, complement fixation tests (CFT), indirect haemagglutination test (IHA), ELISA ... Other procedures used for diagnosis include growth inhibition disc tests (GI), ...
... so Fairley developed a complement fixation test for the disease along the lines of the Wassermann test. He studied its ... where Fairley worked on developing a test for echinococcosis along the lines of the test that he had already developed for ... In London he encountered patients with filariasis and devised a test to diagnose the disease at an early stage; but when he ... The LHQ Medical Research Unit used human test subjects, all volunteers drawn from the Australian Army, including a small but ...
Diagnosis requires laboratory tests. Serological methods such as complement fixation, serum neutralization and PCR are ...
These studies became the basis for complement-fixation testing methods that enabled the development of serological tests for ... The same technique is used today in serologic testing for countless other diseases. With Octave Gengou, he isolated Bordetella ... but which are now known as complement). Four years later, in 1899, he described a similar destructive process involving ... and continued to work extensively on the mechanisms involved in the action of complement. ...
... complement fixation test). The bacteria can be recovered from the person only during the first three weeks of illness, ... This sample can then be tested either by culture or by polymerase chain reaction. Prevention is mainly by vaccination with the ...
The complement fixation test is an immunological medical test that can be used to detect the presence of either specific ... Complement+Fixation+Tests at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) (All articles with unsourced ... The basic steps of a complement fixation test are as follows: Serum is separated from the patient. Patients naturally have ... This dilution factor corresponds to the titer.[citation needed] "Animation Quiz 4 - Complement Fixation Test". highered. ...
CSF coccidioides complement fixation is a test that checks for infection due to the fungus Coccidioides in the cerebrospinal ( ... CSF coccidioides complement fixation is a test that checks for infection due to the fungus Coccidioides in the cerebrospinal ( ... There, it is examined for Coccidioides antibodies using a laboratory method called complement fixation. This technique checks ... For this reason, this test may be repeated several weeks after the first test. ...
A total of 278 sera samples from five dairy herds were collected and tested. Each serum sample was subjected to the three tests ... The three test-one population Bayesian model was modified and applied using WinBug software with the assumption that the dairy ... obtained were recorded and the test outcomes were cross-classified to estimate the sensitivity and specificity of the tests ... gold standard test was conducted for the diagnosis and screening of bovine brucellosis using three commercially available tests ...
Articles Cardiolipins Cholesterol Complement Fixation Tests Flocculation Humans Phosphatidylcholines Serologic Tests Sexually ... Dickman, Albert "Experience with VDRL flocculation antigen in the Kolmer complement fixation test" 76, no. 9 (1961). Dickman, ... Title : Experience with VDRL flocculation antigen in the Kolmer complement fixation test Personal Author(s) : Dickman, Albert ... Dickman, Albert (1961). Experience with VDRL flocculation antigen in the Kolmer complement fixation test. 76(9). ...
Paired specimens of serum from patients from whom Bacteroides fragilis had been isolated were tested by complement fixation ...
The Complement fixation test Cite CITE. Title : The Complement fixation test Corporate Authors(s) : Communicable Disease Center ... The Complement fixation test. 1951(10). Communicable Disease Center (U.S.) "The Complement fixation test" 1951, no. 10 (1951). ... Title : Reiter protein complement fixation test for syphilis Personal Author(s) : Cannefax, George R.;Garson, Warfield; ... Cannefax, George R. and Garson, Warfield "Reiter protein complement fixation test for syphilis" vol. 72, no. 4, 1957. Export ...
Heldens JG, Hannant D, Cullinane AA, Prendergast MJ, Mumford JA, Nelly M, Kydd JH, Weststrate MW, van den Hoven R. Clinical and virological evaluation of the efficacy of an inactivated EHV1 and EHV4 whole virus vaccine (Duvaxyn EHV1,4). Vaccination/challenge experiments in foals and pregnant mares. Vaccine. 2001 Jul 20;19(30):4307-17. doi: 10.1016/s0264-410x(01)00131-1. PMID: 11457558 ...
Complement-fixation test: Ascitic fluid Antigens Ntaya ArB 209 * Maximum titer of antibody/optimum titer of antigen. ... CF test - homologous = 128/16. Institut Pasteur (Dakar) Y. Robin: ArB 209 gives positive results with the following sera; Group ...
Complement fixation tests in pertussis. J Clin Invest 1937;16:15--22. ... Other Diagnostic Tests Direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) tests provide rapid results (within hours), but sensitivity (10%--50 ... licensed PCR test kit is available. The analytical sensitivity, accuracy, and quality control of PCR-based B. pertussis tests ... Although PCR testing for pertussis has been available for nearly 20 years (115), no U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-- ...
Complement levels, interleukin levels, circulating immune complexes. * Chlamydial complement-fixation test. * AIDS tests (ELISA ... Specific clinical laboratory tests. See the list below:. * Bacterial antibody testing (toxocariasis, toxoplasmosis, B henselae ... specific and nonspecific laboratory tests, specialty consultations, therapeutic tests, and diagnosis and treatment. ... Lyme disease testing is not applicable to patients who have not been to endemic areas. Fungal titers are rarely applicable, ...
Complement fixation tests, numbers refer to reciprocal of serum titer/reciprocal of antigen titer; 0, negative reaction at ,8/, ... not tested. Hemagglutination test, numbers are reciprocal of serum dilution inhibiting 4 units of antigen; 0 = negative ... Plaque-reduction neutralization test, numbers refer to neutralizing antibody titers with a 90% cutoff value: titers , positive ... Complement fixation test. Pt1a. NT. NT. NT. 64/8. NT. NT. NT. NT. 64/8. NT. NT. NT. NT. NT. NT. ...
Direct Complement-Fixation (CF) Test Direct CF is more sensitive to antibody activity than are agglutination methods. No ... Tests for Antibody A major problem with serologic testing is the interpretation of results. A positive serologic test result is ... Moreover, some tests may be falsely positive because of cross-reaction with other bacteria. The test results must be evaluated ... Additional Tests Additional diagnostic techniques are in use or under development, including polymerase chain reaction tests. ...
Complement Fixation Test. - Agar gel immunodiffusion Test. - Haemaglutination inhibition Test. Ms Mpho Molefe ... Molecular development of improved diagnostic tests. - Development and validation of FMD diagnostic tests for small ruminants ... Testing reagents for use as diagnostic tools. * Producing potential reagents for diagnostic tools (purified virus, DNA, RNA). ... Development, testing and evaluation of irrigation equipment;. * In-field evaluations of performance of irrigation systems;. * ...
Categories: Complement Fixation Tests Image Types: Photo, Illustrations, Video, Color, Black&White, PublicDomain, ...
Furthermore, a complement fixation test (CFT) at that time was negative.. No specific treatment for Chagas disease has been ... test in 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2006. All of these tests produced negative results. In 2004, flow cytometry and polymerase chain ... ergometric test and electrocardiographic test for cardiac dysautonomy. ... Other conventional serological tests have been performed on several occasions since then: CFT in 1949, 1951, 1955, 1963, 1964, ...
In Bulgaria, a complement-fixation test was occasionally used.. Type-specific serological testing was available in 86% of ... For testing purposes, depending on the test availability, either type-non-specific or type-specific serological tests or PCR ... Populations mandatorily tested for genital herpes. Of 14 counties surveyed, seven (50%) had initiated mandatory testing for ... However, for several different reasons these tests were not widely used: firstly, the number of testing and/or point-of-care ...
Complement fixation tests may be of value; a titer greater than 1:32 indicates infection, but several other serological tests ... or particularly complement fixation, is useful in epidemiologic studies. Reliable skin tests are not available. ... capsular polysaccharide antigen testing). However, serodiagnosis is not adequate without the other tests mentioned, which are ... General laboratory testing can include the following:. * Comprehensive metabolic panel (eg, to evaluate for diabetes or ...
Serologic testing for LGV is not widely available in the United States. The chlamydial complement fixation test (CFT), which ... As with any diagnostic test, if there is a clinical or laboratory reason to question a test result, a repeat test should be ... The complement fixation test was classically used for this purpose but has been replaced by the more sensitive species-specific ... This assay should not be used for routine testing of genital tract specimens. Rather, DFA tests are the only FDA-cleared tests ...
The complement fixation test in syphilis, commonly known as the Wessermann test ... Ministry of health, v 1. 1920 HMSO. PDF ...
Complement fixation test (CFT). Test sera is added to self-antibody coated sheep erythrocytes with a known concentration of ... The HAI test is based on the fact that many viruses agglutinate erythrocytes in vitro. Antibodies present in test sera prevent ... If antibody is present in the test sera, antigen-antibody complexes will form and bind complement preventing erythrocyte lysis ... Plaque reduction neutralisation test (PRNT). This is the gold standard test to demonstrate the presence of specific ...
Indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA), complement fixation test (CFT) and enzyme linked immunoassay (ELISA) *Detection of ... Serological tests were positive for antiphase II IgG and IgM with high titers. Q fever is suspected and a transjugular liver ... Antismooth muscle antibody testing *Donor specific antibody assay *Serology for antiphase I and antiphase II IgM and IgG * ... Which of the following laboratory tests would help confirm the most likely remaining diagnosis? * ...
The serum is often tested by complement fixation, AGID, or one of several Elisa techniques. The AGID test can detect antibodies ... Testing diagnostically for BTV can be difficult. Two types of viral antigen are used for BTV testing. All Bluetongue serotypes ... complement fixation is still used to determine BTV exposure status for export since it can detect shorter-lived antibodies. ... The PCR tests have proven to be very sensitive and specific for BTV RNA. A positive PCR is not always indicative of infection, ...
Serological diagnosis of human melioidosis with indirect hemagglutination and complement fixation tests. Appl Microbiol. 1970; ... The utility of the IHA is further limited by the fact that its results may vary depending on the population being tested and ... The indirect haemagglutination test in the diagnosis of melioidosis in goats. Br Vet J. 1965;121:164-170. ... Paired pre- and post-deployment sera were evaluated with a paired 2-tailed t test using GraphPad Prism version 6.0 (2013, ...
1979) Comparison of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique and complement-fixation test for estimation of ... 1982) Comparison of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, radioimmunoassay, complement fixation, anticomplement immunofluorescence ... 1973) Complement-fixing antibodies against cytomegalovirus in different parts of the world. Bull WHO 49:103-106. ... There was no overall trend for incident cases to have higher optical densities than controls (χ2 test for linear trend across ...
Automatic apparatus for Wassermann and Reiter complement-fixation tests utilizing the discrete-analysis principle. (1 July, ... New syringe type of microtitre apparatus for virus and other serological tests. (1 July, 1969) Free J G Alexander, J Teal ... Evaluation in clinical practice of the fluorescent amoebic antibody test (1 July, 1969) Free A. L. Jeanes ...
  • The serum is heated in such a way that all of the complement proteins-but none of the antibodies-within it are destroyed. (wikipedia.org)
  • This is possible because complement proteins are much more susceptible to destruction by heat than antibodies. (wikipedia.org)
  • However, if no antibodies against the antigen of interest are present, the complement will not be depleted and it will react with the sRBC-antibody complexes added in step 4, lysing the sRBCs and spilling their contents into the solution, thereby turning the solution pink. (wikipedia.org)
  • While detection of antibodies is the most common test format, it is equally possible to test for the presence of antigen. (wikipedia.org)
  • There, it is examined for Coccidioides antibodies using a laboratory method called complement fixation. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Some of the advantages and disadvantages of two serologic tests for antibodies are described in the following paragraphs. (cdc.gov)
  • METHODS Plasma specimens collected during 1979-83 from men in Caerphilly, south Wales, were analysed for IgG antibodies to CMV by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay and latex tests. (bmj.com)
  • The AGID test can detect antibodies that have persisted for years in BTV-exposed animals and can cross-react with related orbiviruses, thereby producing high numbers of false negatives (low sensitivity and specificity). (purdue.edu)
  • While difficult to perform, complement fixation is still used to determine BTV exposure status for export since it can detect shorter-lived antibodies. (purdue.edu)
  • The test was based on the detection of IgG antibodies to Pseudomonas mallei antigens bound to nitrocellulose coated on plastic strips (dipsticks), the reaction being amplified by an avidinbiotin system with biotinylated anti-horse IgG and horseradish peroxidase-avidin D. Sera from 810 normal, six naturally infected and 48 sensitized equines were tested by this assay and results were compared with complement fixation, indirect haemagglutination and counter-immunoelectrophoresis tests. (edu.in)
  • Dot ELISA had the highest sensitivity and was superior to other tests in that it was rapid and easy to perform, the results were easy to interpret, the assay was not influenced by anti-completement activity and it was able to detect antibodies at an early stage. (edu.in)
  • Immunodiffusion (ID) for the detection of IgG and IgM specific antibodies is a preferred test for detection of exposure to C. immitis , with high specificity. (ucdavis.edu)
  • Mumps would also cause a 4-fold rise in antibodies detected by complement fixation or indirect haemagglutination or neutralisation tests on acute and convalescent sera. (healthengine.com.au)
  • Laboratory tests may identify organisms directly (eg, visually, using a microscope, growing the organism in culture) or indirectly (eg, identifying antibodies to the organism). (msdmanuals.com)
  • Immune adherence hemagglutination was compared with the complement fixation test as a means of measuring antibodies to varicella-zoster virus. (mcmaster.ca)
  • There were 35 cases where antibodies were detected by immune adherence hemagglutination but not by complement fixation, whereas in five cases the converse was found. (mcmaster.ca)
  • The complement fixation test is an immunological medical test that can be used to detect the presence of either specific antibody or specific antigen in a patient's serum, based on whether complement fixation occurs. (wikipedia.org)
  • The complement system is a system of serum proteins that react with antigen-antibody complexes. (wikipedia.org)
  • The basic steps of a complement fixation test are as follows: Serum is separated from the patient. (wikipedia.org)
  • Patients naturally have different levels of complement proteins in their serum. (wikipedia.org)
  • To negate any effects this might have on the test, the complement proteins in the patient's serum must be destroyed and replaced by a known amount of standardized complement proteins. (wikipedia.org)
  • A known amount of standard complement proteins are added to the serum. (wikipedia.org)
  • Thus when the sRBC-antibody complexes are added in step 4, there will be no complement left in the serum. (wikipedia.org)
  • citation needed] The test can be made quantitative by setting up a series of dilutions of patient serum and determining the highest dilution factor that will still yield a positive CF test. (wikipedia.org)
  • Each serum sample was subjected to the three tests and the results obtained were recorded and the test outcomes were cross-classified to estimate the sensitivity and specificity of the tests using Bayesian model. (hindawi.com)
  • Paired specimens of serum from patients from whom Bacteroides fragilis had been isolated were tested by complement fixation against a crude B. fragilis antigen. (bmj.com)
  • The serum is often tested by complement fixation, AGID, or one of several Elisa techniques. (purdue.edu)
  • Testing of serum at 1:200 dilution is proposed for epidemiological screening. (edu.in)
  • The civilian hospital collected a serum specimen on 5 March 2018 for a C. psittaci microimmunofluorescence (MIF) immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibody test. (health.mil)
  • Coccidioides galactomannan antigen testing and serum (1→3)-β-D-glucan are available in some reference laboratories and undergoing further evaluation for their role in patient diagnosis or management (15). (ucdavis.edu)
  • While it is desirable that the specimen for immunological study be refrigerated in transportation, serum for agglutination and complement fixation test may be preserved with 0. (malaimare.ro)
  • Complement, also known as alexin, cytase, or addiment, is generally defined as the portion of fresh blood serum or plasma which is not increased on immunization and which, when added to certain sensitized cells, combines with these sensitized cells and, under appropriate conditions, results in their destruction or death. (datapdf.com)
  • In terms of test, the global virus diagnostic test kits market can be categorized into traditional tests (cell culture test, complement fixation test (CFT), Haemagglutination inhibition test, and others) and rapid tests (nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT), immunoassay test, next generation sequencing (NGS), and mass spectrometry). (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • The objective of this studywas to evaluate diagnostic performance and discriminative ability of Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT), complement fixation test (CFT), and indirect enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (I-ELISA) tests used for screening and confirmatory diagnosis of bovine brucellosis in Ethiopia using Bayesian method. (hindawi.com)
  • High titers may persist after treatment and complicate interpretation of subsequent tests. (cdc.gov)
  • Serological tests were positive for antiphase II IgG and IgM with high titers. (pathologyoutlines.com)
  • Complement fixation titers greater than 1:16 increase the possibility of disseminated disease. (ucdavis.edu)
  • Previous studies carried out in Ethiopia on bovine brucellosis using Rose Bengal and complement fixation tests described higher prevalence in intensive and semi-intensive dairy farms than extensive farms [ 1 , 7 , 8 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • Sera were tested using the Rose Bengal plate test and complement fixation test. (who.int)
  • The steps involved in the workup of a patient include naming, meshing, office testing, specific and nonspecific laboratory tests, specialty consultations, therapeutic tests, and diagnosis and treatment. (medscape.com)
  • Laboratory evaluation includes a variety of techniques, including complement fixation, latex agglutination, or microagglutination tests. (elastizell.com)
  • In such cases, clinicians should request tests specific for the suspected pathogen (eg, special stains or culture media) or advise the laboratory of the suspected organism(s) so that it may select more specific tests. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Due to delays in transport, test duration may take longer for tests which are carried out by a partner laboratory. (laboklin.com)
  • Agglutination and complement fixation tests in man and laboratory animals. (arccjournals.com)
  • Automatic apparatus for Wassermann and Reiter complement-fixation tests utilizing the 'discrete-analysis' principle. (bmj.com)
  • Test evaluation in the absence of a gold standard test was conducted for the diagnosis and screening of bovine brucellosis using three commercially available tests including RBPT, CFT, and I-ELISA in National Animal Health Diagnostic and Investigation Center (NAHDIC) Ethiopia. (hindawi.com)
  • The competitive ELISA (C-ELISA) has proven to be the best serologic test for BTV antibody detection. (purdue.edu)
  • When specimens are obtained from a single bird, serologic testing is most useful when a) signs of disease and the history of the flock or aviary are considered and b) serologic results are compared with the white blood cell counts and liver-enzyme activities. (cdc.gov)
  • Analysis of acute- and convalescent-phase sera from patients infected with varicella-zoster or with herpes simplex virus showed the immune adherence hemagglutination test to be more sensitive than the complement fixation test, and greater cross-reactivity between the two viruses appeared to be associated with the increased sensitivity. (mcmaster.ca)
  • However, the diagnostic performance and discriminative ability of a test could be evaluated by comparing the sensitivity and specificity of several tests analytically [ 14 , 16 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • When used with cloacal or fecal smears, the sensitivity and specificity of the test are questioned by some authorities. (cdc.gov)
  • Effect of incubation temperature on the diagnostic sensitivity of the glanders complement fixation test. (arccjournals.com)
  • Two types of viral antigen are used for BTV testing. (purdue.edu)
  • Health care providers are constantly engaged in the development of accurate and rapid diagnostic test kits for viral infections. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • There has been a gradual shift toward new techniques and methods of diagnosis of viral infections, including nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT), which have shown promising results with improved accuracy and reduced time of diagnosis. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • This has led to the development of new and advanced viral diagnostic test kits. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • Rise in incidence of viral infections such as hepatitis, respiratory syncytial virus, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) worldwide is expected to boost the viral diagnostic test kits market. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • Moreover, outbreak of new viral infections in the recent past such as Ebola, hemorrhagic fever, and swine influenza a virus is driving demand for new and innovative virus diagnostic test kits across the world. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • Introduction of new and rapid test kits, regulatory approvals for these kits, and rise in prevalence of viral infections among the general population are some of the major factors driving the virus diagnostic test kits market in North America in 2018. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • CFT is considered to be a suitable screening test for the diagnosis of glanders in field conditions in Bangladesh. (arccjournals.com)
  • Therefore, the use of a combination of antibody- and antigen-detection methods for the diagnosis of chlamydiosis is recommended, particularly when only one bird is tested. (cdc.gov)
  • However, high price of new test kits is a major restraining factor for the adoption of these kits in emerging countries, which are currently relying on traditional and time consuming test kits for virus detection. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • The radioimmunoassay of the group-specific antigen seems to be well suited to complement the COFAL (complement fixation avian leukosis) and RIF (resistance inducing factor) tests in the detection of leukosis virus in infected material. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • This study is one of a kind in the context of field diagnostic test evaluation for bovine brucellosis in Ethiopia which has significant importance for disease surveillance and future control endeavors. (hindawi.com)
  • Serological diagnosis of Bacteroides fragilis infections by a complement fixation test. (bmj.com)
  • Serological tests are widely used to conduct several epidemiological studies and diagnostic purposes, but there is no perfect serological test [ 14 , 15 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • An endocervical swab specimen for N. gonorrhoeae culture should be obtained and evaluated for antibiotic susceptibility in patients that have received CDC recommended antimicrobial regimen as treatment, and subsequently had a positive N. gonorrhoeae test result (positive NAAT ≥7 days after treatment), and did not engage in sexual activity after treatment. (cdc.gov)
  • Some tests (eg, Gram stain, routine aerobic culture) can detect a large variety of pathogens and are commonly done for many suspected infectious illnesses. (msdmanuals.com)
  • A positive serologic test result is evidence that the bird was infected by C. psittaci in the past, but it does not prove that the bird currently has active disease. (cdc.gov)
  • When legal actions may result from chlamydiosis cases, use of culture is recommended to avoid limitations associated with other tests. (cdc.gov)
  • However, because some pathogens are missed on these tests, clinicians must be aware of the limitations of each test for each suspected pathogen. (msdmanuals.com)
  • New syringe type of microtitre apparatus for virus and other serological tests. (bmj.com)
  • Rabbit, guinea pig, rat, mouse, hamster, ferret and other small mammals which are being kept as pets In individual cases, tests for small mammals may also be applicable for small wild mammals (e.g. hedgehogs). (laboklin.com)
  • Existing views on the chemical nature and the functions of each component of guinea pig complement are summarized. (datapdf.com)
  • It is the purpose of this review to consider complement as a chemical system composed of multiple components and to summarize, in the light of recent advances, existing views on the chemical nature and the function of each ofthe components of guinea pig ~omplement. (datapdf.com)
  • However, following Pap screening, there should be a clinical indication for reflex additional testing of liquid cytology specimens for chlamydia and gonorrhea since these specimen types are more widely used in older populations at low risk for infection. (cdc.gov)
  • Test not widely available in clinical practice. (msdmanuals.com)
  • The main objective of this network is to facilitate improvement in reproductive healthcare in Eastern Europe, firstly via the improvement, harmonization and assurance of quality of diagnostic testing and management of STIs and other reproductive tract infections (RTIs). (medicaljournals.se)
  • A total of 278 sera samples from five dairy herds were collected and tested. (hindawi.com)
  • These cross-reactions were detected in complement fixation tests (CFT), not in neutralization tests. (biomedcentral.com)
  • This is leading to a rise in demand for virus diagnostic test kits. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • Additionally, new techniques and recent developments in the methods applied for virus testing have led to the introduction of new rapid diagnostic test kits. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • This is projected to further fuel the expansion of the global virus diagnostic test kits market from 2018 to 2026. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • The global virus diagnostic test kits market can be segmented based on type, test, end- user, and region. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • Based on type, the global virus diagnostic test kits market can be classified into influenza test kits, hepatitis test kits, human immunodeficiency virus test kits, respiratory syncytial virus test kits, and others. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • Based on end-user, the global virus diagnostic test kits market can be segmented into diagnostic & clinical laboratories, academic & research institutes, contract research organizations, and others. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • In terms of region, the global virus diagnostic test kits market can be categorized into North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, Latin America, and Middle East & Africa. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • used as a diagnostic test. (wordinn.com)
  • Identify populations clinicians should consider testing for blastomycosis, coccidioidomycosis, and histoplasmosis. (cdc.gov)
  • Describe diagnostic tests clinicians should consider initially and after a negative test for blastomycosis, coccidioidomycosis, and histoplasmosis. (cdc.gov)
  • Culture is normally the gold standard for identification of organisms, but results may not be available for days or weeks, and not all pathogens can be cultured, making alternative tests useful. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Although there are no recommendations to screen heterosexual men, it USPSTF suggests testing to test sexually active heterosexual men in clinical settings with a high prevalence of C. trachomatis (e.g. (cdc.gov)
  • However, because of BTV s wide pathogenic variability and the fact that cross-reaction may occur between other orbiviruses (especially EHD), a positive result on Bluetongue group test does not mean clinical signs seen were caused by BTV itself. (purdue.edu)
  • In forms of disease with a more benign clinical course, such as patients with isolated pulmonary nodules confirmed by culture or histopathology, serologic testing may often be negative. (ucdavis.edu)
  • Data accumulated over a number of years from several sources indicate that complement plays a major r81e in the destruction of certain microorganisms, The bacteriologist and immunologist have made important strides in the elucidation of the biological significance of complement. (datapdf.com)
  • The test is considered negative if the solution turns pink at this point and positive otherwise. (wikipedia.org)
  • If the test is positive for fungus, there may be an active infection in the central nervous system. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Serologic assays are less reliable in immunosuppressed patients with 20-50% of patients testing negative with these methods. (ucdavis.edu)
  • Although chemists and physicists have been reluctant to enter into investigations on complement, the need of a closer cooperation between these workers and the immunologists is desirable, since the application of exact physical and chemical methods to this problem gives promise that it may be eventually solved. (datapdf.com)
  • CSF coccidioides complement fixation is a test that checks for infection due to the fungus Coccidioides in the cerebrospinal (CSF) fluid. (medlineplus.gov)
  • This test checks if your central nervous system has an active infection from Coccidioides. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The aim of this study was to collect data regarding the availability of diagnostic services and diagnostic tests used, as well as the relative importance of genital HSV infection in 14 EE SRH countries, in order better to understand the diagnostic needs of Eastern Europe. (medicaljournals.se)
  • test or examine for the presence of disease or infection. (wordinn.com)
  • A single testing method may not be adequate because of the diversity of reactions with immunoglobulins from the various avian species. (cdc.gov)
  • Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) are the recommended test method. (cdc.gov)
  • A major problem with serologic testing is the interpretation of results. (cdc.gov)
  • Subsequent studies resulted in the practical use of complement in important diagnostic tests (complement fixation). (datapdf.com)
  • A lipid profile, also known as a lipid panel or lipid profile test, is a blood test that measures various types of lipids (fats) in the bloodstream. (wordinn.com)
  • The PCR tests have proven to be very sensitive and specific for BTV RNA. (purdue.edu)
  • Susceptibility Testing Susceptibility tests determine a microbe's vulnerability to antimicrobial drugs by exposing a standardized concentration of organism to specific concentrations of antimicrobial drugs. (msdmanuals.com)