Cholestasis extrahepatic. Medical search

Impairment of bile flow due to obstruction in small bile ducts (INTRAHEPATIC CHOLESTASIS) or obstruction in large bile ducts (EXTRAHEPATIC CHOLESTASIS).

Impairment of bile flow due to injury to the HEPATOCYTES; BILE CANALICULI; or the intrahepatic bile ducts (BILE DUCTS, INTRAHEPATIC).

Passages external to the liver for the conveyance of bile. These include the COMMON BILE DUCT and the common hepatic duct (HEPATIC DUCT, COMMON).

Impairment of bile flow in the large BILE DUCTS by mechanical obstruction or stricture due to benign or malignant processes.

The channels that collect and transport the bile secretion from the BILE CANALICULI, the smallest branch of the BILIARY TRACT in the LIVER, through the bile ductules, the bile ducts out the liver, and to the GALLBLADDER for storage.

Tumors or cancer of the BILE DUCTS.

Progressive destruction or the absence of all or part of the extrahepatic BILE DUCTS, resulting in the complete obstruction of BILE flow. Usually, biliary atresia is found in infants and accounts for one third of the neonatal cholestatic JAUNDICE.

Gastrointestinal agents that stimulate the flow of bile into the duodenum (cholagogues) or stimulate the production of bile by the liver (choleretic).

A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.

An epimer of chenodeoxycholic acid. It is a mammalian bile acid found first in the bear and is apparently either a precursor or a product of chenodeoxycholate. Its administration changes the composition of bile and may dissolve gallstones. It is used as a cholagogue and choleretic.

Passages within the liver for the conveyance of bile. Includes right and left hepatic ducts even though these may join outside the liver to form the common hepatic duct.

A tool for the study of liver damage which causes bile stasis and hyperbilirubinemia acutely and bile duct hyperplasia and biliary cirrhosis chronically, with changes in hepatocyte function. It may cause skin and kidney damage.

Steroid acids and salts. The primary bile acids are derived from cholesterol in the liver and usually conjugated with glycine or taurine. The secondary bile acids are further modified by bacteria in the intestine. They play an important role in the digestion and absorption of fat. They have also been used pharmacologically, especially in the treatment of gallstones.

The BILE DUCTS and the GALLBLADDER.

A bile pigment that is a degradation product of HEME.

A malignant tumor arising from the epithelium of the BILE DUCTS.

An emulsifying agent produced in the LIVER and secreted into the DUODENUM. Its composition includes BILE ACIDS AND SALTS; CHOLESTEROL; and ELECTROLYTES. It aids DIGESTION of fats in the duodenum.

Yellow discoloration of the SKIN; MUCOUS MEMBRANE; and SCLERA in the NEWBORN. It is a sign of NEONATAL HYPERBILIRUBINEMIA. Most cases are transient self-limiting (PHYSIOLOGICAL NEONATAL JAUNDICE) occurring in the first week of life, but some can be a sign of pathological disorders, particularly LIVER DISEASES.

Jaundice, the condition with yellowish staining of the skin and mucous membranes, that is due to impaired BILE flow in the BILIARY TRACT, such as INTRAHEPATIC CHOLESTASIS, or EXTRAHEPATIC CHOLESTASIS.

Minute intercellular channels that occur between liver cells and carry bile towards interlobar bile ducts. Also called bile capillaries.

Predominantly extrahepatic bile duct which is formed by the junction of the right and left hepatic ducts, which are predominantly intrahepatic, and, in turn, joins the cystic duct to form the common bile duct.

A clinical manifestation of HYPERBILIRUBINEMIA, characterized by the yellowish staining of the SKIN; MUCOUS MEMBRANE; and SCLERA. Clinical jaundice usually is a sign of LIVER dysfunction.

Blood tests that are used to evaluate how well a patient's liver is working and also to help diagnose liver conditions.

Inflammation of the biliary ductal system (BILE DUCTS); intrahepatic, extrahepatic, or both.

The largest bile duct. It is formed by the junction of the CYSTIC DUCT and the COMMON HEPATIC DUCT.

Pathological processes of the LIVER.

An intense itching sensation that produces the urge to rub or scratch the skin to obtain relief.

Application of a ligature to tie a vessel or strangulate a part.

A subfamily of transmembrane proteins from the superfamily of ATP-BINDING CASSETTE TRANSPORTERS that are closely related in sequence to P-GLYCOPROTEIN. When overexpressed, they function as ATP-dependent efflux pumps able to extrude lipophilic drugs, especially ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS, from cells causing multidrug resistance (DRUG RESISTANCE, MULTIPLE). Although P-Glycoproteins share functional similarities to MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE-ASSOCIATED PROTEINS they are two distinct subclasses of ATP-BINDING CASSETTE TRANSPORTERS, and have little sequence homology.

Tumors or cancer of the LIVER.

FIBROSIS of the hepatic parenchyma due to obstruction of BILE flow (CHOLESTASIS) in the intrahepatic or extrahepatic bile ducts (BILE DUCTS, INTRAHEPATIC; BILE DUCTS, EXTRAHEPATIC). Primary biliary cirrhosis involves the destruction of small intra-hepatic bile ducts and bile secretion. Secondary biliary cirrhosis is produced by prolonged obstruction of large intrahepatic or extrahepatic bile ducts from a variety of causes.

Tumors or cancer in the BILIARY TRACT including the BILE DUCTS and the GALLBLADDER.

Abnormal increase of resistance to blood flow within the hepatic PORTAL SYSTEM, frequently seen in LIVER CIRRHOSIS and conditions with obstruction of the PORTAL VEIN.

A short thick vein formed by union of the superior mesenteric vein and the splenic vein.

A bile salt formed in the liver by conjugation of chenodeoxycholate with taurine, usually as the sodium salt. It acts as detergent to solubilize fats in the small intestine and is itself absorbed. It is used as a cholagogue and choleretic.

Adenocarcinoma of the common hepatic duct bifurcation. These tumors are generally small, sharply localized, and seldom metastasizing. G. Klatskin's original review of 13 cases was published in 1965. Once thought to be relatively uncommon, tumors of the bifurcation of the bile duct now appear to comprise more than one-half of all bile duct cancers. (From Holland et al., Cancer Medicine, 3d ed, p1457)

The main structural component of the LIVER. They are specialized EPITHELIAL CELLS that are organized into interconnected plates called lobules.

An imaging test of the BILIARY TRACT in which a contrast dye (RADIOPAQUE MEDIA) is injected into the BILE DUCT and x-ray pictures are taken.

A semisynthetic alkylated ESTRADIOL with a 17-alpha-ethinyl substitution. It has high estrogenic potency when administered orally, and is often used as the estrogenic component in ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES.

INFLAMMATION of the LIVER.

A benign tumor of the intrahepatic bile ducts.

Operation for biliary atresia by anastomosis of the bile ducts into the jejunum or duodenum.

A bile acid formed from chenodeoxycholate by bacterial action, usually conjugated with glycine or taurine. It acts as a detergent to solubilize fats for absorption and is itself absorbed. It is used as cholagogue and choleretic.

Diseases in any part of the BILIARY TRACT including the BILE DUCTS and the GALLBLADDER.

Fiberoptic endoscopy designed for duodenal observation and cannulation of VATER'S AMPULLA, in order to visualize the pancreatic and biliary duct system by retrograde injection of contrast media. Endoscopic (Vater) papillotomy (SPHINCTEROTOMY, ENDOSCOPIC) may be performed during this procedure.

Excision of all or part of the liver. (Dorland, 28th ed)

A major primary bile acid produced in the liver and usually conjugated with glycine or taurine. It facilitates fat absorption and cholesterol excretion.

Examination of the portal circulation by the use of X-ray films after injection of radiopaque material.

Conditions or pathological processes associated with pregnancy. They can occur during or after pregnancy, and range from minor discomforts to serious diseases that require medical interventions. They include diseases in pregnant females, and pregnancies in females with diseases.

A multisystem disorder that is characterized by aplasia of intrahepatic bile ducts (BILE DUCTS, INTRAHEPATIC), and malformations in the cardiovascular system, the eyes, the vertebral column, and the facies. Major clinical features include JAUNDICE, and congenital heart disease with peripheral PULMONARY STENOSIS. Alagille syndrome may result from heterogeneous gene mutations, including mutations in JAG1 on CHROMOSOME 20 (Type 1) and NOTCH2 on CHROMOSOME 1 (Type 2).

A condition characterized by an abnormal increase of BILIRUBIN in the blood, which may result in JAUNDICE. Bilirubin, a breakdown product of HEME, is normally excreted in the BILE or further catabolized before excretion in the urine.

A plant genus of the family Lamiaceae. The species of Coleus should be distinguished from PLECTRANTHUS BARBATUS - which is also known as Coleus forskohlii.

A system of vessels in which blood, after passing through one capillary bed, is conveyed through a second set of capillaries before it returns to the systemic circulation. It pertains especially to the hepatic portal system.

Any surgical procedure performed on the biliary tract.

A family of MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROTEINS that require ATP hydrolysis for the transport of substrates across membranes. The protein family derives its name from the ATP-binding domain found on the protein.

Tumors or cancer of the gallbladder.

Diseases in any part of the ductal system of the BILIARY TRACT from the smallest BILE CANALICULI to the largest COMMON BILE DUCT.

A branch of the celiac artery that distributes to the stomach, pancreas, duodenum, liver, gallbladder, and greater omentum.

A storage reservoir for BILE secretion. Gallbladder allows the delivery of bile acids at a high concentration and in a controlled manner, via the CYSTIC DUCT to the DUODENUM, for degradation of dietary lipid.

Liver disease in which the normal microcirculation, the gross vascular anatomy, and the hepatic architecture have been variably destroyed and altered with fibrous septa surrounding regenerated or regenerating parenchymal nodules.

A group of diseases related to a deficiency of the enzyme ARGININOSUCCINATE SYNTHASE which causes an elevation of serum levels of CITRULLINE. In neonates, clinical manifestations include lethargy, hypotonia, and SEIZURES. Milder forms also occur. Childhood and adult forms may present with recurrent episodes of intermittent weakness, lethargy, ATAXIA, behavioral changes, and DYSARTHRIA. (From Menkes, Textbook of Child Neurology, 5th ed, p49)

An infant during the first month after birth.

Solid crystalline precipitates in the BILIARY TRACT, usually formed in the GALLBLADDER, resulting in the condition of CHOLELITHIASIS. Gallstones, derived from the BILE, consist mainly of calcium, cholesterol, or bilirubin.

Surgical venous shunt between the portal and systemic circulation to effect decompression of the portal circulation. It is performed primarily in the treatment of bleeding esophageal varices resulting from portal hypertension. Types of shunt include portacaval, splenorenal, mesocaval, splenocaval, left gastric-caval (coronary-caval), portarenal, umbilicorenal, and umbilicocaval.

Surgical removal of the GALLBLADDER.

A spectrum of clinical liver diseases ranging from mild biochemical abnormalities to ACUTE LIVER FAILURE, caused by drugs, drug metabolites, and chemicals from the environment.

Chronic inflammatory disease of the BILIARY TRACT. It is characterized by fibrosis and hardening of the intrahepatic and extrahepatic biliary ductal systems leading to bile duct strictures, CHOLESTASIS, and eventual BILIARY CIRRHOSIS.

Proteins involved in the transport of organic anions. They play an important role in the elimination of a variety of endogenous substances, xenobiotics and their metabolites from the body.

An enzyme, sometimes called GGT, with a key role in the synthesis and degradation of GLUTATHIONE; (GSH, a tripeptide that protects cells from many toxins). It catalyzes the transfer of the gamma-glutamyl moiety to an acceptor amino acid.

A primary malignant neoplasm of epithelial liver cells. It ranges from a well-differentiated tumor with EPITHELIAL CELLS indistinguishable from normal HEPATOCYTES to a poorly differentiated neoplasm. The cells may be uniform or markedly pleomorphic, or form GIANT CELLS. Several classification schemes have been suggested.

The product of conjugation of cholic acid with taurine. Its sodium salt is the chief ingredient of the bile of carnivorous animals. It acts as a detergent to solubilize fats for absorption and is itself absorbed. It is used as a cholagogue and cholerectic.

A congenital anatomic malformation of a bile duct, including cystic dilatation of the extrahepatic bile duct or the large intrahepatic bile duct. Classification is based on the site and type of dilatation. Type I is most common.

Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.

A subclass of ORGANIC ANION TRANSPORTERS whose transport of organic anions is driven either directly or indirectly by a gradient of sodium ions.

An abnormal lipoprotein present in large amounts in patients with obstructive liver diseases such as INTRAHEPATIC CHOLESTASIS. LP-X derives from the reflux of BILE lipoproteins into the bloodstream. LP-X is a low-density lipoprotein rich in free CHOLESTEROL and PHOSPHOLIPIDS but poor in TRIGLYCERIDES; CHOLESTEROL ESTERS; and protein.

A synthetic hormone with anabolic and androgenic properties and moderate progestational activity.

Persistent flexure or contracture of a joint.

A tricyclic antidepressant with some tranquilizing action.

The administering of nutrients for assimilation and utilization by a patient who cannot maintain adequate nutrition by enteral feeding alone. Nutrients are administered by a route other than the alimentary canal (e.g., intravenously, subcutaneously).

Severe inability of the LIVER to perform its normal metabolic functions, as evidenced by severe JAUNDICE and abnormal serum levels of AMMONIA; BILIRUBIN; ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE; ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE; LACTATE DEHYDROGENASES; and albumin/globulin ratio. (Blakiston's Gould Medical Dictionary, 4th ed)

Tumor or cancer of the COMMON BILE DUCT including the AMPULLA OF VATER and the SPHINCTER OF ODDI.

A phenolphthalein that is used as a diagnostic aid in hepatic function determination.

An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of L-alanine and 2-oxoglutarate to pyruvate and L-glutamate. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.6.1.2.

The 3 alpha,7 alpha,12 alpha-trihydroxy-5 beta-cholanic acid family of bile acids in man, usually conjugated with glycine or taurine. They act as detergents to solubilize fats for intestinal absorption, are reabsorbed by the small intestine, and are used as cholagogues and choleretics.

Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body.

A bile salt formed in the liver from lithocholic acid conjugation with taurine, usually as the sodium salt. It solubilizes fats for absorption and is itself absorbed. It is a cholagogue and choleretic.

A bile salt formed in the liver from chenodeoxycholate and glycine, usually as the sodium salt. It acts as a detergent to solubilize fats for absorption and is itself absorbed. It is a cholagogue and choleretic.

The delivery of nutrients for assimilation and utilization by a patient whose sole source of nutrients is via solutions administered intravenously, subcutaneously, or by some other non-alimentary route. The basic components of TPN solutions are protein hydrolysates or free amino acid mixtures, monosaccharides, and electrolytes. Components are selected for their ability to reverse catabolism, promote anabolism, and build structural proteins.

Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.

Presence or formation of GALLSTONES in the BILIARY TRACT, usually in the gallbladder (CHOLECYSTOLITHIASIS) or the common bile duct (CHOLEDOCHOLITHIASIS).

Dilated blood vessels in the ESOPHAGUS or GASTRIC FUNDUS that shunt blood from the portal circulation (PORTAL SYSTEM) to the systemic venous circulation. Often they are observed in individuals with portal hypertension (HYPERTENSION, PORTAL).

A metabolite of 17-ALPHA-HYDROXYPROGESTERONE, normally produced in small quantities by the GONADS and the ADRENAL GLANDS, found in URINE. An elevated urinary pregnanetriol is associated with CONGENITAL ADRENAL HYPERPLASIA with a deficiency of STEROID 21-HYDROXYLASE.

An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of an orthophosphoric monoester and water to an alcohol and orthophosphate. EC 3.1.3.1.

Vein formed by the union (at the hilus of the spleen) of several small veins from the stomach, pancreas, spleen and mesentery.

Enzymes of the transferase class that catalyze the conversion of L-aspartate and 2-ketoglutarate to oxaloacetate and L-glutamate. EC 2.6.1.1.

A bile acid, usually conjugated with either glycine or taurine. It acts as a detergent to solubilize fats for intestinal absorption and is reabsorbed by the small intestine. It is used as cholagogue, a choleretic laxative, and to prevent or dissolve gallstones.

Non-invasive diagnostic technique for visualizing the PANCREATIC DUCTS and BILE DUCTS without the use of injected CONTRAST MEDIA or x-ray. MRI scans provide excellent sensitivity for duct dilatation, biliary stricture, and intraductal abnormalities.

Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.

A chlorinated epoxy compound used as an industrial solvent. It is a strong skin irritant and carcinogen.

A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.

A family of enzymes accepting a wide range of substrates, including phenols, alcohols, amines, and fatty acids. They function as drug-metabolizing enzymes that catalyze the conjugation of UDPglucuronic acid to a variety of endogenous and exogenous compounds. EC 2.4.1.17.

A radiopharmaceutical used extensively in cholescintigraphy for the evaluation of hepatobiliary diseases. (From Int Jrnl Rad Appl Inst 1992;43(9):1061-4)

Emulsions of fats or lipids used primarily in parenteral feeding.

The glycine conjugate of CHOLIC ACID. It acts as a detergent to solubilize fats for absorption and is itself absorbed.

Enlargement of the liver.

A gamma-emitting radionuclide imaging agent used for the diagnosis of diseases in many tissues, particularly in cardiovascular and cerebral circulation.

RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.

Intracellular receptors that can be found in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus. They bind to extracellular signaling molecules that migrate through or are transported across the CELL MEMBRANE. Many members of this class of receptors occur in the cytoplasm and are transported to the CELL NUCLEUS upon ligand-binding where they signal via DNA-binding and transcription regulation. Also included in this category are receptors found on INTRACELLULAR MEMBRANES that act via mechanisms similar to CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS.

A condition characterized by the presence of abnormal quantities of CRYOGLOBULINS in the blood. Upon cold exposure, these abnormal proteins precipitate into the microvasculature leading to restricted blood flow in the exposed areas.

A sequence-related subfamily of ATP-BINDING CASSETTE TRANSPORTERS that actively transport organic substrates. Although considered organic anion transporters, a subset of proteins in this family have also been shown to convey drug resistance to neutral organic drugs. Their cellular function may have clinical significance for CHEMOTHERAPY in that they transport a variety of ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS. Overexpression of proteins in this class by NEOPLASMS is considered a possible mechanism in the development of multidrug resistance (DRUG RESISTANCE, MULTIPLE). Although similar in function to P-GLYCOPROTEINS, the proteins in this class share little sequence homology to the p-glycoprotein family of proteins.

Death resulting from the presence of a disease in an individual, as shown by a single case report or a limited number of patients. This should be differentiated from DEATH, the physiological cessation of life and from MORTALITY, an epidemiological or statistical concept.

A liver microsomal cytochrome P450 enzyme that catalyzes the 12-alpha-hydroxylation of a broad spectrum of sterols in the presence of molecular oxygen and NADPH-FERRIHEMOPROTEIN REDUCTASE. This enzyme, encoded by CYP8B1gene, converts 7-alpha-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one to 7-alpha-12-alpha-dihydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one and is required in the synthesis of BILE ACIDS from cholesterol.

Body organ that filters blood for the secretion of URINE and that regulates ion concentrations.

The transference of a part of or an entire liver from one human or animal to another.

Accumulation of a drug or chemical substance in various organs (including those not relevant to its pharmacologic or therapeutic action). This distribution depends on the blood flow or perfusion rate of the organ, the ability of the drug to penetrate organ membranes, tissue specificity, protein binding. The distribution is usually expressed as tissue to plasma ratios.

Veins which return blood from the intestines; the inferior mesenteric vein empties into the splenic vein, the superior mesenteric vein joins the splenic vein to form the portal vein.

Agents, usually topical, that relieve itching (pruritus).

Surgical formation of an opening (stoma) into the COMMON BILE DUCT for drainage or for direct communication with a site in the small intestine, primarily the DUODENUM or JEJUNUM.

The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils.

The circulation of BLOOD through the LIVER.

Diseases of newborn infants present at birth (congenital) or developing within the first month of birth. It does not include hereditary diseases not manifesting at birth or within the first 30 days of life nor does it include inborn errors of metabolism. Both HEREDITARY DISEASES and METABOLISM, INBORN ERRORS are available as general concepts.

Administration of antineoplastic agents together with an embolizing vehicle. This allows slow release of the agent as well as obstruction of the blood supply to the neoplasm.

Tomography using x-ray transmission and a computer algorithm to reconstruct the image.

Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.

Surgical formation of an opening through the ABDOMINAL WALL into the JEJUNUM, usually for enteral hyperalimentation.

The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (EMBRYOS or FETUSES) in utero before birth, beginning from FERTILIZATION to BIRTH.

A 21-carbon steroid that is converted from PREGNENOLONE by STEROID 17-ALPHA-HYDROXYLASE. It is an intermediate in the delta-5 pathway of biosynthesis of GONADAL STEROID HORMONES and the adrenal CORTICOSTEROIDS.

Abnormal passage in any organ of the biliary tract or between biliary organs and other organs.

A benign neoplasm derived from glandular epithelium, in which cystic accumulations of retained secretions are formed. In some instances, considerable portions of the neoplasm, or even the entire mass, may be cystic. (Stedman, 25th ed)

One of the CEPHALOSPORINS that has a broad spectrum of activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative microorganisms.

The removal of fluids or discharges from the body, such as from a wound, sore, or cavity.

Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.

Ethyl ester of iodinated fatty acid of poppyseed oil. It contains 37% organically bound iodine and has been used as a diagnostic aid (radiopaque medium) and as an antineoplastic agent when part of the iodine is 131-I. (From Merck Index, 11th ed)

Effects of chronic nitric oxide activation or inhibition on early hepatic fibrosis in rats with bile duct ligation. (1/191)

Hepatic fibrosis or increased liver collagen contents drive functional abnormalities that, when extensive, may be life threatening. The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of the chronic stimulation or inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis in rats with hepatic fibrosis induced by permanent common bile duct ligation (3 weeks) and the role of expression of the different nitric oxide synthase isoforms. Bile duct ligation led to an important accumulation of collagen in the hepatic parenchyma, as shown both histologically and by the hydroxyproline contents of livers. Bilirubin and serum enzyme activities (measured as markers of cholestasis) increased several-fold after bile duct ligation. The area of fibrotic tissue, liver hydroxyproline content and serum markers of cholestasis were clearly related in obstructed rats. The absence of modifications in haemodynamic parameters excludes circulatory changes from being responsible for the development of liver alterations. In animals treated with NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) the area of fibrosis was similar to that of untreated animals, the signs of cholestasis and cellular injury being more evident. In rats treated with L-arginine the area of fibrosis was almost three times larger than that found in bile duct ligated rats and in L-NAME-treated bile duct ligated rats, although the observed biochemical changes were similar to those seen in rats treated with L-NAME. Our results with inducible nitric oxide synthase, obtained by Western blots and immunohistochemistry, indicate a greater expression of the inducible enzyme in bile duct ligated and L-arginine-treated animals and a lower expression in the L-NAME and control groups. Constitutive nitric oxide synthase expression, obtained by Western blots, was very similar in all groups, except for the L-arginine-treated rats in which it was lower. These results suggest that nitric oxide production may be a key factor in the development of fibrosis in bile duct ligated rats. They also support the hypothesis of a dual role for nitric oxide; one beneficial, mediated by its circulatory effects, and the second negative, through its local toxic effects. (+info)

Carcinoids of the common bile duct: a case report and literature review. (2/191)

Carcinoids of the extrahepatic bile ducts and particularly the common bile duct are extremely rare. A 65-year-old woman presented with obstructive jaundice. Laboratory and imaging studies gave results that were consistent with an obstructing lesion in the common bile duct. In this case, a stent was inserted initially to decompress the bile ducts. Subsequently a laparotomy and pancreaticoduodenectomy were performed and a tissue diagnosis of carcinoid of the common bile duct was made. The patient was well with no evidence of recurrence 17 months postoperatively. The authors believe this is the 19th reported case of an extrahepatic bile duct carcinoid. (+info)

Biliary obstruction in hematopoietic cell transplant recipients: an uncommon diagnosis with specific causes. (3/191)

Jaundice is a common problem in marrow transplant recipients. The incidence of bile duct obstruction in this setting is unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine the incidence of biliary obstruction, the causes, and outcomes following marrow transplant. Consecutive cases were reviewed at two major transplant centers in the United States from 1969 to 1996 at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center and 1989 to 1996 at the City of Hope National Medical Center. Nine cases of biliary obstruction were identified as a cause of jaundice in 7412 marrow transplant recipients, an incidence of 0.12%. The presentation was bimodal, with seven cases occurring prior to day 100 and two occurring 2 to 4 years after transplantation. The age distribution was 15 to 50 years and all patients had received allogeneic transplants. The causes of obstruction included gallbladder sludge (n=1), a duodenal hematoma (n=1), choledocholithiasis with biliary pancreatitis (n=1), bile duct infection (n=2), recurrent malignancy (n=1), choledocholithiasis associated with a benign stricture (n=1), Epstein-Barr virus-related lymphoproliferative disorder (n=1), and a benign stricture of unknown etiology (n=1). Biliary obstruction is a rare cause of jaundice in the post-transplant period. The presentation was similar to that of other post-transplant hepatobiliary problems, but with disparate causes. (+info)

Biliary stenting versus bypass surgery for the palliation of malignant distal bile duct obstruction: a meta-analysis. (4/191)

The objective of this analysis is to compare endoscopic stenting with surgical bypass in patients with unresectable, malignant, distal common bile duct obstruction using the technique of meta-analysis. The inclusion criteria for the studies were randomized patient assignment, publication in the English language, 20 or more patients per group, all patients followed up until death, and follow-up and complications reported in an equivalent way for both treatment arms. Data extraction was performed independently by 2 of the authors. The number of treatment failures, serious complications, requirement for additional treatment sessions, and 30-day mortality were extracted. Three existing trials met the inclusion criteria, all of which compared surgery with the use of plastic stents. There were no studies identified that used metallic expandable stents. For the rate of treatment failure and serious complications, the odds ratios (ORs) of the 3 trials were heterogeneous, and no summary ORs were calculated. More treatment sessions were required after stent placement than after surgery, and a common OR was estimated to be 7.23 (95% confidence interval [CI], 3.73 to 13.98). Thirty-day mortality was not significantly different (OR = 0.522; 95% CI, 0.263 to 1.036). Although surgical bypass required fewer additional treatment sessions, existing data do not allow a definitive conclusion on which treatment is preferable. A larger randomized controlled trial using newer metallic stents and proper quality-of-life instruments is required. (+info)

Manometric changes during retrograde biliary infusion in mice. (5/191)

The manometric, ultrastructural, radiographic, and physiological consequences of retrograde biliary infusion were determined in normostatic and cholestatic mice. Intraluminal biliary pressure changed as a function of infusion volume, rate, and viscosity. Higher rates of constant infusion resulted in higher peak intraluminal biliary pressures. The pattern of pressure changes observed was consistent with biliary ductular and/or canalicular filling followed by leakage at a threshold pressure. Retrograde infusion with significant elevations in pressure led to paracellular leakage of lanthanum chloride, radiopaque dye, and [(14)C]sucrose with rapid systemic redistribution via sinusoidal and subsequent hepatic venous drainage. Chronic extrahepatic bile duct obstruction resulted in significantly smaller peak intrabiliary pressures and lower levels of paracellular leakage. These findings indicate that under both normostatic and cholestatic conditions elevated intrabiliary volumes/pressures result in an acute pressure-dependent physical opening of tight junctions, permitting the movement of infusate from the intrabiliary space into the subepithelial tissue compartment. Control of intraluminal pressure may potentially permit the selective delivery of macromolecules >18-20 A in diameter to specific histological compartments. (+info)

Extrahepatic biliary obstruction due to post-laparoscopic cholecystectomy biloma. (6/191)

BACKGROUND: Jaundice presenting after cholecystectomy may be the initial manifestation of a serious surgical misadventure and requires rigorous diagnostic pursuit and therapeutic intervention. Biloma is a well recognized postcholecystectomy complication that often accompanies biliary ductal injury. CASE REPORT: A 23-year-old female underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy for symptomatic gallstones and three weeks postoperatively developed painless jaundice. Radiographic and endoscopic studies revealed a subhepatic biloma causing extrinsic compression and obstruction of the common hepatic duct. RESULTS: Percutaneous catheter drainage of the biloma combined with endoscopic sphincterotomy successfully relieved the extrahepatic biliary obstruction and resolved the intrahepatic ductal leak responsible for the biloma. CONCLUSION: Although heretofore undescribed, postcholecystectomy jaundice due to extrahepatic bile duct obstruction caused by biloma may occur and can be successfully treated by means of standard radiologic and endoscopic interventions. (+info)

Detection of Ki-ras gene point mutations in bile specimens for the differential diagnosis of malignant and benign biliary strictures. (7/191)

BACKGROUND AND AIM: The present study was undertaken to determine if detection of Ki-ras gene point mutations in bile specimens could differentiate between benign and malignant biliary strictures. PATIENTS: Bile specimens were obtained from 117 patients exhibiting a stricture of the main bile duct, the nature of which was assessed by cholangiography, histology, and follow up. METHODS: DNA from frozen bile specimens was extracted, amplified, and tested for codon 12 point mutations of Ki-ras gene using sequence specific oligonucleotide hybridisation and mutant allele specific amplification. RESULTS: DNA amplification was successful in 110/117 bile specimens (94%). Detection of Ki-ras gene mutations in bile specimens was positive in 24.4% (22/90) of patients with malignant strictures, in 31.4% (22/70) when only primary malignant tumours were considered, and in 4% (1/25) of patients with benign strictures. Of the 49 patients with histological specimens obtained before surgery, the sensitivity of histology, Ki-ras mutation analysis, and combined methods was 59.2%, 28.6%, and 73.5% respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our study showed that Ki-ras mutations may be detected in about one third of bile specimens from patients with primary tumours invading the main bile duct. Detection of such mutations appears to be specific and may help to differentiate between benign and malignant biliary strictures. (+info)

Postoperative bile duct strictures: management and outcome in the 1990s. (8/191)

OBJECTIVE: To describe the management and outcome after surgical reconstruction of 156 patients with postoperative bile duct strictures managed in the 1990s. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: The management of postoperative bile duct strictures and major bile duct injuries remains a challenge for even the most skilled biliary tract surgeon. The 1990s saw a dramatic increase in the incidence of bile duct strictures and injuries from the introduction and widespread use of laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Although the management of these injuries and short-term outcome have been reported, long-term follow-up is limited. METHODS: Data were collected prospectively on 156 patients treated at the Johns Hopkins Hospital with major bile duct injuries or postoperative bile duct strictures between January 1990 and December 1999. With the exception of bile duct injuries discovered and repaired during surgery, all patients underwent preoperative percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography and placement of transhepatic biliary catheters before surgical repair. Follow-up was conducted by medical record review or telephone interview during January 2000. RESULTS: Of the 156 patients undergoing surgical reconstruction, 142 had completed treatment with a mean follow-up of 57.5 months. Two patients died of reasons unrelated to biliary tract disease before the completion of treatment. Twelve patients (7.9%) had not completed treatment and still had biliary stents in place at the time of this report. Of patients who had completed treatment, 90. 8% were considered to have a successful outcome without the need for follow-up invasive, diagnos tic, or therapeutic interventional procedures. Patients with reconstruction after injury or stricture after laparoscopic cholecystectomy had a better overall outcome than patients whose postoperative stricture developed after other types of surgery. Presenting symptoms, number of stents, interval to referral, prior repair, and length of postoperative stenting were not significant predictors of outcome. Overall, a successful outcome, without the need for biliary stents, was obtained in 98% of patients, including those requiring a secondary procedure for recurrent stricture. CONCLUSIONS: Major bile duct injuries and postoperative bile duct strictures remain a considerable surgical challenge. Management with preoperative cholangiography to delineate the anatomy and placement of percutaneous biliary catheters, followed by surgical reconstruction with a Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy, is associated with a successful outcome in up to 98% of patients. (+info)

There are several types of cholestasis, including:

1. Obstructive cholestasis: This occurs when there is a blockage in the bile ducts, preventing bile from flowing freely from the liver.
2. Metabolic cholestasis: This is caused by a problem with the metabolism of bile acids in the liver.
3. Inflammatory cholestasis: This occurs when there is inflammation in the liver, which can cause scarring and impair bile flow.
4. Idiopathic cholestasis: This type of cholestasis has no identifiable cause.

Treatment for cholestasis depends on the underlying cause, but may include medications to improve bile flow, dissolve gallstones, or reduce inflammation. In severe cases, a liver transplant may be necessary. Early diagnosis and treatment can help to manage symptoms and prevent complications of cholestasis.

The term "extrahepatic" refers to the fact that the obstruction occurs outside of the liver, as opposed to intrahepatic cholestasis, which occurs within the liver. Extrahepatic cholestasis can be caused by a variety of factors, including gallstones, pancreatitis, and cancer.

Treatment for extrahepatic cholestasis typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the obstruction. In some cases, this may involve surgery to remove the blockage or other procedures such as stent placement or biliary bypass surgery. Medications such as bile salts and ursodeoxycholic acid may also be used to help improve liver function and reduce symptoms.

In summary, extrahepatic cholestasis is a type of bile duct obstruction that occurs outside of the liver, leading to bile buildup in the bloodstream and potentially causing a range of symptoms. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the obstruction.

Bile duct neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors that occur in the bile ducts, which are the tubes that carry bile from the liver and gallbladder to the small intestine. Bile duct neoplasms can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).

Types of Bile Duct Neoplasms:

There are several types of bile duct neoplasms, including:

1. Bile duct adenoma: A benign tumor that grows in the bile ducts.
2. Bile duct carcinoma: A malignant tumor that grows in the bile ducts and can spread to other parts of the body.
3. Cholangiocarcinoma: A rare type of bile duct cancer that originates in the cells lining the bile ducts.
4. Gallbladder cancer: A type of cancer that occurs in the gallbladder, which is a small organ located under the liver that stores bile.

Causes and Risk Factors:

The exact cause of bile duct neoplasms is not known, but there are several risk factors that may increase the likelihood of developing these tumors, including:

1. Age: Bile duct neoplasms are more common in people over the age of 50.
2. Gender: Women are more likely to develop bile duct neoplasms than men.
3. Family history: People with a family history of bile duct cancer or other liver diseases may be at increased risk.
4. Previous exposure to certain chemicals: Exposure to certain chemicals, such as thorium, has been linked to an increased risk of developing bile duct neoplasms.

Symptoms:

The symptoms of bile duct neoplasms can vary depending on the location and size of the tumor. Some common symptoms include:

1. Yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice)
2. Fatigue
3. Loss of appetite
4. Nausea and vomiting
5. Abdominal pain or discomfort
6. Weight loss
7. Itching all over the body
8. Dark urine
9. Pale stools

Diagnosis:

Diagnosis of bile duct neoplasms typically involves a combination of imaging tests and biopsy. The following tests may be used to diagnose bile duct neoplasms:

1. Ultrasound: This non-invasive test uses high-frequency sound waves to create images of the liver and bile ducts.
2. Computed tomography (CT) scan: This imaging test uses X-rays and computer technology to create detailed images of the liver and bile ducts.
3. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): This test uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed images of the liver and bile ducts.
4. Endoscopic ultrasound: This test involves inserting an endoscope (a thin, flexible tube with a small ultrasound probe) into the bile ducts through the mouth or stomach to obtain images and samples of the bile ducts.
5. Biopsy: A biopsy may be performed during an endoscopic ultrasound or during surgery to remove the tumor. The sample is then examined under a microscope for cancer cells.

Treatment:

The treatment of bile duct neoplasms depends on several factors, including the type and stage of the cancer, the patient's overall health, and the patient's preferences. The following are some common treatment options for bile duct neoplasms:

1. Surgery: Surgery may be performed to remove the tumor or a portion of the bile duct. This may involve a Whipple procedure (a surgical procedure to remove the head of the pancreas, the gallbladder, and a portion of the bile duct), a bile duct resection, or a liver transplant.
2. Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy may be used before or after surgery to shrink the tumor and kill any remaining cancer cells.
3. Radiation therapy: Radiation therapy may be used to destroy cancer cells that cannot be removed by surgery or to relieve symptoms such as pain or blockage of the bile duct.
4. Stent placement: A stent may be placed in the bile duct to help keep it open and improve blood flow to the liver.
5. Ablation therapy: Ablation therapy may be used to destroy cancer cells by freezing or heating them with a probe inserted through an endoscope.
6. Targeted therapy: Targeted therapy may be used to treat certain types of bile duct cancer, such as cholangiocarcinoma, by targeting specific molecules that promote the growth and spread of the cancer cells.
7. Clinical trials: Clinical trials are research studies that evaluate new treatments for bile duct neoplasms. These may be an option for patients who have not responded to other treatments or who have advanced cancer.

The exact cause of Biliary Atresia is unknown, but it is thought to be related to genetic mutations or environmental factors during fetal development. Symptoms include jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), poor feeding, and a large liver size. If left untreated, Biliary Atresia can lead to long-term complications such as liver cirrhosis, liver failure, and an increased risk of liver cancer.

Treatment for Biliary Atresia usually involves a surgical procedure called the Kasai procedure, where the damaged bile ducts are removed and replaced with a section of the small intestine. In some cases, a liver transplant may be necessary if the disease is advanced or if there are complications such as liver cirrhosis.

Overall, Biliary Atresia is a rare and complex condition that requires early diagnosis and treatment to prevent long-term complications and improve outcomes for affected individuals.

The exact cause of cholangiocarcinoma is not known, but there are several risk factors that have been linked to the development of the disease. These include:

1. Chronic inflammation of the bile ducts (cholangitis)
2. Infection with certain viruses, such as hepatitis B and C
3. Genetic conditions, such as inherited syndromes that affect the liver and bile ducts
4. Exposure to certain chemicals, such as thorium dioxide
5. Obesity and metabolic disorders

The symptoms of cholangiocarcinoma can vary depending on the location and size of the tumor. Common symptoms include:

1. Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
2. Itching all over the body
3. Fatigue
4. Loss of appetite
5. Abdominal pain and swelling
6. Weight loss
7. Nausea and vomiting

If cholangiocarcinoma is suspected, a doctor may perform several tests to confirm the diagnosis. These may include:

1. Imaging tests, such as CT scans, MRI scans, or PET scans
2. Blood tests to check for certain liver enzymes and bilirubin levels
3. Endoscopic ultrasound to examine the bile ducts
4. Biopsy to collect a sample of tissue from the suspected tumor

Treatment for cholangiocarcinoma depends on the stage and location of the cancer, as well as the patient's overall health. Surgery is often the first line of treatment, and may involve removing the tumor and a portion of the bile ducts. In more advanced cases, chemotherapy or radiation therapy may be used to shrink the tumor before surgery or to relieve symptoms.

It's important for patients with cholangiocarcinoma to work closely with their healthcare team to develop a personalized treatment plan and to monitor their condition regularly. With prompt and appropriate treatment, some patients with cholangiocarcinoma may experience long-term survival and a good quality of life.

Neonatal jaundice can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

* Immaturity of the liver and biliary system, which can lead to an inability to process bilirubin properly
* Infection or sepsis
* Breastfeeding difficulties or poor milk intake
* Blood type incompatibility between the baby and mother
* Genetic disorders such as Crigler-Najjar syndrome
* Other medical conditions such as hypothyroidism or anemia

Symptoms of neonatal jaundice may include:

* Yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes
* Dark-colored urine
* Pale or clay-colored stools
* Lack of appetite or poor feeding
* Lethargy or irritability

Treatment for neonatal jaundice may include:

* Phototherapy, which involves exposure to blue light to help break down bilirubin in the blood
* Exchange transfusion, which involves replacing some of the baby's blood with fresh blood to lower bilirubin levels
* Medication to stimulate bowel movements and increase the elimination of bilirubin
* Intravenous fluids to prevent dehydration

In some cases, neonatal jaundice may be a sign of a more serious underlying condition, such as a liver or gallbladder disorder. It is important for parents to seek medical attention if they notice any signs of jaundice in their newborn baby, particularly if the baby is feeding poorly or appears lethargic or irritable.

Jaundice is typically diagnosed through physical examination and laboratory tests such as blood tests to measure bilirubin levels. Treatment depends on the underlying cause, but may include medications to reduce bilirubin production or increase its excretion, or surgery to remove blockages in the bile ducts.

Here are some of the synonyms for Jaundice:

1. Yellow fever
2. Yellow jaundice
3. Hepatitis
4. Gallstones
5. Cholestasis
6. Obstruction of the bile ducts
7. Biliary tract disease
8. Hemochromatosis
9. Sickle cell anemia
10. Crigler-Najjar syndrome

Here are some of the antonyms for Jaundice:

1. Pinkness
2. Normal skin color
3. Healthy liver function
4. Bilirubin levels within normal range
5. No signs of liver disease or obstruction of bile ducts.

Types of Cholangitis:
There are two types of cholangitis:

1. Acute cholangitis: This type of cholangitis occurs suddenly and is usually caused by a blockage in the bile ducts, such as a gallstone or a tumor.
2. Chronic cholangitis: This type of cholangitis develops gradually over time and can be caused by recurring inflammation or scarring of the bile ducts.

Causes and Risk Factors:
The most common cause of cholangitis is a blockage in the bile ducts, which allows bacteria to grow and multiply, leading to infection. Other causes include:

* Gallstones
* Tumors
* Pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas)
* Trauma to the abdomen
* Inflammatory bowel disease
* HIV/AIDS
* Cancer

Symptoms:
The symptoms of cholangitis can vary depending on the severity of the infection, but may include:

* Fever
* Chills
* Abdominal pain
* Yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice)
* Dark urine
* Pale stools
* Nausea and vomiting

Diagnosis:
Cholangitis is diagnosed through a combination of imaging tests, such as CT scans or endoscopic ultrasound, and laboratory tests to determine the presence of infection. A liver biopsy may also be performed to confirm the diagnosis.

Treatment:
The treatment of cholangitis depends on the cause and severity of the infection, but may include:

* Antibiotics to treat bacterial or fungal infections
* Supportive care, such as fluids and nutrition, to manage symptoms
* Surgical drainage of the bile ducts to relieve blockages
* Endoscopic therapy, such as stent placement or laser lithotripsy, to remove gallstones or other obstructions
* Liver transplantation in severe cases

Prognosis:
The prognosis for cholangitis depends on the severity of the infection and the underlying cause. If treated promptly and effectively, the prognosis is generally good. However, if left untreated or if there are complications, the prognosis can be poor.

Prevention:
Preventing cholangitis involves managing any underlying conditions that may increase the risk of infection, such as gallstones or liver disease. Other preventive measures include:

* Practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands regularly
* Avoiding sharing of needles or other drug paraphernalia
* Avoiding close contact with people who are sick
* Getting vaccinated against infections that can cause cholangitis
* Managing any underlying medical conditions, such as diabetes or liver disease

Complications:
Cholangitis can lead to several complications, including:

* Bile duct damage, which can lead to bile leaking into the abdomen and causing an infection called peritonitis
* Spread of the infection to other parts of the body, such as the bloodstream or lungs
* Sepsis, a severe and life-threatening reaction to the infection
* Organ failure, particularly liver and kidney failure
* Death

It is important to seek medical attention promptly if you experience any symptoms of cholangitis, as early treatment can help prevent complications and improve outcomes.

There are many different types of liver diseases, including:

1. Alcoholic liver disease (ALD): A condition caused by excessive alcohol consumption that can lead to inflammation, scarring, and cirrhosis.
2. Viral hepatitis: Hepatitis A, B, and C are viral infections that can cause inflammation and damage to the liver.
3. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): A condition where there is an accumulation of fat in the liver, which can lead to inflammation and scarring.
4. Cirrhosis: A condition where the liver becomes scarred and cannot function properly.
5. Hemochromatosis: A genetic disorder that causes the body to absorb too much iron, which can damage the liver and other organs.
6. Wilson's disease: A rare genetic disorder that causes copper to accumulate in the liver and brain, leading to damage and scarring.
7. Liver cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma): Cancer that develops in the liver, often as a result of cirrhosis or viral hepatitis.

Symptoms of liver disease can include fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, abdominal pain, dark urine, pale stools, and swelling in the legs. Treatment options for liver disease depend on the underlying cause and may include lifestyle changes, medication, or surgery. In severe cases, a liver transplant may be necessary.

Prevention of liver disease includes maintaining a healthy diet and lifestyle, avoiding excessive alcohol consumption, getting vaccinated against hepatitis A and B, and managing underlying medical conditions such as obesity and diabetes. Early detection and treatment of liver disease can help to prevent long-term damage and improve outcomes for patients.

Pruritus can be acute or chronic, depending on its duration and severity. Acute pruritus is usually caused by a specific trigger, such as an allergic reaction or insect bite, and resolves once the underlying cause is treated or subsides. Chronic pruritus, on the other hand, can persist for months or even years and may be more challenging to diagnose and treat.

Some common causes of pruritus include:

1. Skin disorders such as atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, eczema, and contact dermatitis.
2. Allergic reactions to medications, insect bites, or food.
3. Certain systemic diseases such as kidney disease, liver disease, and thyroid disorders.
4. Pregnancy-related itching (obstetric pruritus).
5. Cancer and its treatment, particularly chemotherapy-induced itching.
6. Nerve disorders such as peripheral neuropathy and multiple sclerosis.
7. Infections such as fungal, bacterial, or viral infections.
8. Parasitic infestations such as scabies and lice.

Managing pruritus can be challenging, as it often leads to a vicious cycle of scratching and skin damage, which can exacerbate the itching sensation. Treatment options for pruritus depend on the underlying cause, but may include topical corticosteroids, oral antihistamines, immunomodulatory drugs, and other medications. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to address the underlying condition and provide symptomatic relief.

In conclusion, pruritus is a common symptom with many possible causes, ranging from skin disorders to systemic diseases and infections. Diagnosis and management of pruritus require a comprehensive approach, involving both physical examination and laboratory tests to identify the underlying cause, as well as appropriate treatment options to provide relief and prevent complications.

Liver neoplasms, also known as liver tumors or hepatic tumors, are abnormal growths of tissue in the liver. These growths can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Malignant liver tumors can be primary, meaning they originate in the liver, or metastatic, meaning they spread to the liver from another part of the body.

There are several types of liver neoplasms, including:

1. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC): This is the most common type of primary liver cancer and arises from the main cells of the liver (hepatocytes). HCC is often associated with cirrhosis and can be caused by viral hepatitis or alcohol abuse.
2. Cholangiocarcinoma: This type of cancer arises from the cells lining the bile ducts within the liver (cholangiocytes). Cholangiocarcinoma is rare and often diagnosed at an advanced stage.
3. Hemangiosarcoma: This is a rare type of cancer that originates in the blood vessels of the liver. It is most commonly seen in dogs but can also occur in humans.
4. Fibromas: These are benign tumors that arise from the connective tissue of the liver (fibrocytes). Fibromas are usually small and do not spread to other parts of the body.
5. Adenomas: These are benign tumors that arise from the glandular cells of the liver (hepatocytes). Adenomas are usually small and do not spread to other parts of the body.

The symptoms of liver neoplasms vary depending on their size, location, and whether they are benign or malignant. Common symptoms include abdominal pain, fatigue, weight loss, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). Diagnosis is typically made through a combination of imaging tests such as CT scans, MRI scans, and ultrasound, and a biopsy to confirm the presence of cancer cells.

Treatment options for liver neoplasms depend on the type, size, location, and stage of the tumor, as well as the patient's overall health. Surgery may be an option for some patients with small, localized tumors, while others may require chemotherapy or radiation therapy to shrink the tumor before surgery can be performed. In some cases, liver transplantation may be necessary.

Prognosis for liver neoplasms varies depending on the type and stage of the cancer. In general, early detection and treatment improve the prognosis, while advanced-stage disease is associated with a poorer prognosis.

The condition is often caused by gallstones or other blockages that prevent the normal flow of bile from the liver to the small intestine. Over time, the scarring can lead to the formation of cirrhosis, which is characterized by the replacement of healthy liver tissue with scar tissue.

Symptoms of liver cirrhosis, biliary may include:

* Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
* Itching
* Fatigue
* Abdominal pain
* Dark urine
* Pale stools

The diagnosis of liver cirrhosis, biliary is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as ultrasound, CT scans, and blood tests.

Treatment for liver cirrhosis, biliary depends on the underlying cause of the condition. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove gallstones or repair damaged bile ducts. Medications such as antioxidants and anti-inflammatory drugs may also be prescribed to help manage symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. In severe cases, a liver transplant may be necessary.

Prognosis for liver cirrhosis, biliary is generally poor, as the condition can lead to complications such as liver failure, infection, and cancer. However, with early diagnosis and appropriate treatment, it is possible to manage the symptoms and slow the progression of the disease.

Biliary tract neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors that occur in the biliary tract, which includes the liver, gallbladder, and bile ducts. These tumors can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).

There are several types of biliary tract neoplasms, including:

1. Cholangiocarcinoma: This is a rare type of cancer that originates in the cells lining the bile ducts. It can occur in the liver or outside the liver.
2. Gallbladder cancer: This type of cancer occurs in the gallbladder and is relatively rare.
3. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC): This is the most common type of primary liver cancer, which means it originates in the liver rather than spreading from another part of the body.
4. Bile duct cancer: This type of cancer occurs in the bile ducts that carry bile from the liver and gallbladder to the small intestine.

Biliary tract neoplasms can cause a variety of symptoms, including abdominal pain, jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), weight loss, fatigue, and itching. These symptoms can be non-specific and may resemble those of other conditions, making diagnosis challenging.

Diagnosis of biliary tract neoplasms usually involves a combination of imaging tests such as ultrasound, CT scans, MRI, and PET scans, as well as biopsies to confirm the presence of cancer cells. Treatment options for biliary tract neoplasms depend on the type, size, location, and stage of the tumor, and may include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of these.

Note: Portal hypertension is a common complication of liver disease, especially cirrhosis. It is characterized by elevated pressure within the portal vein system, which can lead to splanchnic vasodilation, increased blood flow, and edema in the splanchnic organ.

Symptoms: Symptoms of portal hypertension may include ascites (fluid accumulation in the abdomen), encephalopathy (mental confusion or disorientation), gastrointestinal bleeding, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes).

Diagnosis: The diagnosis of portal hypertension is based on a combination of clinical findings, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Laboratory tests may include liver function tests, blood counts, and coagulation studies. Imaging studies may include ultrasonography, computed tomography (CT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

Treatment: Treatment of portal hypertension depends on the underlying cause and may include medications to control symptoms, such as beta blockers to reduce portal pressure, antibiotics to treat infection, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to relieve pain. In severe cases, surgery or shunt procedures may be necessary.

Prognosis: The prognosis for patients with portal hypertension is generally poor, as it is often associated with advanced liver disease. The 5-year survival rate for patients with cirrhosis and portal hypertension is approximately 50%.

The symptoms of Klatskin's tumor can vary depending on the location and size of the tumor, but may include abdominal pain, weight loss, fatigue, and diabetes. The tumor is often diagnosed by imaging studies such as CT or MRI scans, and a biopsy may be performed to confirm the diagnosis.

Treatment for Klatskin's tumor typically involves surgery to remove the affected portion of the pancreas, followed by chemotherapy or radiation therapy to destroy any remaining cancer cells. The prognosis for this type of cancer is generally poor, with a five-year survival rate of less than 5%.

Klatskin's tumor is named after the American surgeon and pancreatic cancer researcher, Leo Klatskin. It is also sometimes referred to as Klatskin's neuroendocrine carcinoma or islet cell carcinoma of the pancreas.

There are several types of hepatitis, including:

1. Hepatitis A: This type is caused by the hepatitis A virus (HAV) and is usually transmitted through contaminated food or water or through close contact with someone who has the infection.
2. Hepatitis B: This type is caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV) and can be spread through sexual contact, sharing of needles, or mother-to-child transmission during childbirth.
3. Hepatitis C: This type is caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV) and is primarily spread through blood-to-blood contact, such as sharing of needles or receiving a tainted blood transfusion.
4. Alcoholic hepatitis: This type is caused by excessive alcohol consumption and can lead to inflammation and scarring in the liver.
5. Drug-induced hepatitis: This type is caused by certain medications, such as antidepressants, anti-seizure drugs, or chemotherapy agents.
6. Autoimmune hepatitis: This type is caused by an abnormal immune response and can lead to inflammation in the liver.

Symptoms of hepatitis may include fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dark urine, pale stools, and yellowing of the skin (jaundice). In severe cases, it can lead to liver failure or even death.

Diagnosis of hepatitis is typically made through a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests such as blood tests and imaging studies like ultrasound or CT scans. Treatment options vary depending on the cause and severity of the condition, but may include medications to manage symptoms, antiviral therapy, or in severe cases, liver transplantation. Prevention measures for hepatitis include vaccination against certain types of the disease, practicing safe sex, avoiding sharing needles or other drug paraphernalia, and following proper hygiene practices.

In conclusion, hepatitis is a serious condition that affects millions of people worldwide. It is important to be aware of the different types of hepatitis and their causes in order to prevent and manage this condition effectively. By taking appropriate measures such as getting vaccinated and practicing safe sex, individuals can reduce their risk of contracting hepatitis. In severe cases, early diagnosis and treatment can help to minimize damage to the liver and improve outcomes for patients.

Prevalence: Adenomas account for approximately 10% to 20% of all primary liver tumors.

Risk Factors: Risk factors for developing adenoma include age (>60 years old), cirrhosis, and a family history of hepatocellular carcinoma or polycystic liver disease.

Pathology: Adenomas are typically slow-growing and may not cause symptoms in the early stages. They can grow large enough to obstruct bile flow and cause abdominal pain, jaundice, and pruritus.

Diagnosis: Adenomas are diagnosed via imaging studies such as ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Endoscopic ultrasound may also be used to evaluate the tumor and assess for invasive features.

Treatment: Surgical resection is the primary treatment for adenomas. In some cases, liver transplantation may be considered if the tumor is large or multiple and surgical resection is not feasible. Ablation therapies such as radiofrequency ablation or chemoembolization may also be used to control symptoms and slow tumor growth.

Prognosis: The prognosis for patients with adenoma is generally good, with a 5-year survival rate of approximately 90%. However, the risk of malignant transformation (cancer) is present, particularly in cases where there are multiple adenomas or invasive features.

In conclusion, adenoma of the bile ducts is a benign tumor that can occur within the liver. While the prognosis is generally good, early detection and treatment are important to prevent complications and minimize the risk of malignant transformation.

There are several types of biliary tract diseases, including:

1. Gallstones: Small, pebble-like deposits that form in the gallbladder and can cause pain and blockages.
2. Cholangitis: An infection of the bile ducts that can cause fever, chills, and abdominal pain.
3. Biliary cirrhosis: Scarring of the liver and bile ducts that can lead to liver failure.
4. Pancreatitis: Inflammation of the pancreas that can cause abdominal pain and digestive problems.
5. Cancer of the biliary tract: Cancer that affects the liver, gallbladder, or bile ducts.

Biliary tract diseases can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetics, obesity, alcohol consumption, and certain medications. Diagnosis is typically made through a combination of imaging tests, such as CT scans and endoscopic ultrasound, and laboratory tests, such as blood tests and liver function tests.

Treatment for biliary tract diseases depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. In some cases, treatment may involve medications to dissolve gallstones or treat infections. In more severe cases, surgery may be necessary to remove the gallbladder or repair damaged bile ducts.

Prevention is key in avoiding biliary tract diseases, and this includes maintaining a healthy diet and lifestyle, managing risk factors such as obesity and alcohol consumption, and getting regular medical check-ups. Early detection and treatment of biliary tract diseases can help to improve outcomes and reduce the risk of complications.

1. Preeclampsia: A condition characterized by high blood pressure during pregnancy, which can lead to complications such as stroke or premature birth.
2. Gestational diabetes: A type of diabetes that develops during pregnancy, which can cause complications for both the mother and the baby if left untreated.
3. Placenta previa: A condition in which the placenta is located low in the uterus, covering the cervix, which can cause bleeding and other complications.
4. Premature labor: Labor that occurs before 37 weeks of gestation, which can increase the risk of health problems for the baby.
5. Fetal distress: A condition in which the fetus is not getting enough oxygen, which can lead to serious health problems or even death.
6. Postpartum hemorrhage: Excessive bleeding after delivery, which can be life-threatening if left untreated.
7. Cesarean section (C-section) complications: Complications that may arise during a C-section, such as infection or bleeding.
8. Maternal infections: Infections that the mother may contract during pregnancy or childbirth, such as group B strep or urinary tract infections.
9. Preterm birth: Birth that occurs before 37 weeks of gestation, which can increase the risk of health problems for the baby.
10. Chromosomal abnormalities: Genetic disorders that may affect the baby's growth and development, such as Down syndrome or Turner syndrome.

It is important for pregnant women to receive regular prenatal care to monitor for any potential complications and ensure a healthy pregnancy outcome. In some cases, pregnancy complications may require medical interventions, such as hospitalization or surgery, to ensure the safety of both the mother and the baby.

The primary features of Alagille syndrome include:

1. Liver problems: The liver is enlarged and may have nodules or cysts. This can lead to liver failure and the need for transplantation.
2. Heart defects: About 75% of individuals with Alagille syndrome have heart defects, such as ventricular septal defect (VSD) or atrial septal defect (ASD).
3. Intestinal involvement: The intestines may be narrowed or blocked, leading to abdominal pain, vomiting, and constipation.
4. Kidney problems: Alagille syndrome can cause kidney disease, including cysts and inflammation.
5. Feeding and growth difficulties: Children with Alagille syndrome may have difficulty gaining weight and growing at a normal rate due to malabsorption of nutrients.
6. Distinctive facial features: Individuals with Alagille syndrome may have distinctive facial features, such as a small head, narrow eyes, and a prominent forehead.
7. Skeletal abnormalities: Some individuals with Alagille syndrome may have skeletal abnormalities, such as short stature or clubfoot.
8. Neurological problems: Alagille syndrome can cause neurological symptoms, such as seizures, developmental delay, and learning disabilities.

There is no cure for Alagille syndrome, but treatment is focused on managing the individual symptoms. Liver transplantation may be necessary in some cases. With proper management, many individuals with Alagille syndrome can lead active and fulfilling lives.

There are several possible causes of hyperbilirubinemia, including:

1. Hemolytic anemia: This is a condition where red blood cells are broken down faster than they can be replaced, leading to an accumulation of bilirubin in the blood.
2. Liver dysfunction: The liver plays a crucial role in processing and eliminating bilirubin from the body. If the liver is not functioning properly, bilirubin levels can become elevated.
3. Sepsis: This is a systemic infection that can cause inflammation throughout the body, including the liver, which can disrupt the normal processing of bilirubin.
4. Neonatal jaundice: This is a condition that affects newborn babies and is caused by an immature liver that is unable to process bilirubin quickly enough.

Symptoms of hyperbilirubinemia can include yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes (jaundice), dark urine, pale or clay-colored stools, and fatigue. In severe cases, hyperbilirubinemia can lead to kernicterus, a condition that can cause brain damage and hearing loss.

Diagnosis of hyperbilirubinemia is typically made through blood tests that measure the level of bilirubin in the blood. Treatment depends on the underlying cause of the condition and may include blood transfusions, liver function tests, and phototherapy (exposure to light) to help break down bilirubin. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and treat the condition.

Types of Gallbladder Neoplasms:

1. Adenoma: A benign tumor that grows in the gallbladder wall and can become malignant over time if left untreated.
2. Cholangiocarcinoma: A rare and aggressive malignant tumor that arises in the gallbladder or bile ducts.
3. Gallbladder cancer: A general term used to describe any type of cancer that develops in the gallbladder, including adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and other rare types.

Causes and Risk Factors:

1. Genetics: A family history of gallbladder disease or certain genetic conditions can increase the risk of developing gallbladder neoplasms.
2. Chronic inflammation: Long-standing inflammation in the gallbladder, such as that caused by gallstones or chronic bile duct obstruction, can increase the risk of developing cancer.
3. Obesity: Being overweight or obese may increase the risk of developing gallbladder neoplasms.
4. Age: The risk of developing gallbladder neoplasms increases with age, with most cases occurring in people over the age of 50.

Symptoms and Diagnosis:

1. Abdominal pain: Pain in the upper right abdomen is a common symptom of gallbladder neoplasms.
2. Jaundice: Yellowing of the skin and eyes can occur if the cancer blocks the bile ducts.
3. Weight loss: Unexplained weight loss can be a symptom of some types of gallbladder neoplasms.
4. Fatigue: Feeling tired or weak can be a symptom of some types of gallbladder neoplasms.

Diagnosis is typically made through a combination of imaging tests such as CT scans, MRI scans, and PET scans, and a biopsy to confirm the presence of cancer cells.

Treatment:

1. Surgery: Surgery is the primary treatment for gallbladder neoplasms. The type of surgery depends on the stage and location of the cancer.
2. Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy may be used in combination with surgery to treat advanced or aggressive cancers.
3. Radiation therapy: Radiation therapy may be used in combination with surgery to treat advanced or aggressive cancers.
4. Watchful waiting: For early-stage cancers, a wait-and-watch approach may be taken, where the patient is monitored regularly with imaging tests to see if the cancer progresses.

Prognosis:
The prognosis for gallbladder neoplasms depends on the stage and location of the cancer at the time of diagnosis. In general, the earlier the cancer is detected and treated, the better the prognosis. For early-stage cancers, the 5-year survival rate is high, while for advanced cancers, the prognosis is poor.

Complications:

1. Bile duct injury: During surgery, there is a risk of damaging the bile ducts, which can lead to complications such as bile leakage or bleeding.
2. Infection: There is a risk of infection after surgery, which can be serious and may require hospitalization.
3. Pancreatitis: Gallbladder cancer can cause inflammation of the pancreas, leading to pancreatitis.
4. Jaundice: Cancer of the gallbladder can block the bile ducts, leading to jaundice and other complications.
5. Spread of cancer: Gallbladder cancer can spread to other parts of the body, such as the liver or lymph nodes, which can reduce the chances of a cure.

Examples of bile duct diseases include:

1. Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC): An inflammatory condition that damages the bile ducts, leading to scarring and narrowing of the ducts.
2. Cholangiocarcinoma: A type of cancer that originates in the bile ducts.
3. Gallstones: Small, pebble-like deposits that form in the gallbladder or bile ducts and can cause blockages and inflammation.
4. Bile duct injuries: Damage to the bile ducts during surgery or other medical procedures.
5. Biliary atresia: A congenital condition where the bile ducts are blocked or absent, leading to jaundice and other symptoms in infants.

Treatment for bile duct diseases depends on the underlying cause and can include medications, endoscopic procedures, surgery, and in some cases, liver transplantation.

The condition can be caused by a variety of factors, including excessive alcohol consumption, viral hepatitis, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and certain medications. It can also be a complication of other diseases such as hemochromatosis and Wilson's disease.

The symptoms of liver cirrhosis can vary depending on the severity of the disease, but may include fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, abdominal swelling, and pain in the upper right side of the abdomen. As the disease progresses, it can lead to complications such as esophageal varices, ascites, and liver failure, which can be life-threatening.

There is no cure for liver cirrhosis, but treatment options are available to manage the symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. These may include medications to control swelling and pain, dietary changes, and in severe cases, liver transplantation. In some cases, a liver transplant may be necessary if the disease has caused significant damage and there is no other option to save the patient's life.

In conclusion, liver cirrhosis is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition that can cause significant damage to the liver and lead to complications such as liver failure. It is important for individuals to be aware of the risk factors and symptoms of the disease in order to seek medical attention if they suspect they may have liver cirrhosis. With proper treatment and management, it is possible to slow the progression of the disease and improve the patient's quality of life.

Without enough citrulline synthase, citrulline builds up in the blood and urine, leading to a range of symptoms including seizures, developmental delays, and abnormal brain function. Citrullinemia can be diagnosed through a combination of blood tests and genetic analysis, and is typically treated with a diet that restricts protein intake and includes supplements to support the urea cycle. In some cases, medication or a liver transplant may also be necessary.

The prognosis for citrullinemia varies depending on the severity of the condition and the effectiveness of treatment. Some individuals with mild forms of the disorder may lead relatively normal lives with proper management, while those with more severe forms may experience significant cognitive and physical impairments. Early diagnosis and intervention are key to improving outcomes for individuals with citrullinemia.

Here are some key points to remember about citrullinemia:

* It is a rare genetic disorder that affects the urea cycle, leading to a build-up of citrulline in the blood and urine.
* Symptoms can include seizures, developmental delays, and abnormal brain function.
* Diagnosis is typically made through a combination of blood tests and genetic analysis.
* Treatment typically involves a protein-restricted diet and supplements to support the urea cycle.
* The prognosis varies depending on the severity of the condition and the effectiveness of treatment.

Overall, citrullinemia is a rare and complex disorder that requires careful management to prevent complications and improve outcomes for individuals affected by the condition.

Gallstones can be made of cholesterol, bilirubin, or other substances found in bile. They can cause a variety of symptoms, including:

* Abdominal pain (often in the upper right abdomen)
* Nausea and vomiting
* Fever
* Yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice)
* Tea-colored urine
* Pale or clay-colored stools

Gallstones can be classified into several types based on their composition, size, and location. The most common types are:

* Cholesterol gallstones: These are the most common type of gallstone and are usually yellow or green in color. They are made of cholesterol and other substances found in bile.
* Pigment gallstones: These stones are made of bilirubin, a yellow pigment found in bile. They are often smaller than cholesterol gallstones and may be more difficult to detect.
* Mixed gallstones: These stones are a combination of cholesterol and pigment gallstones.

Gallstones can cause a variety of complications, including:

* Gallbladder inflammation (cholecystitis)
* Infection of the bile ducts (choledochalitis)
* Pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas)
* Blockage of the common bile duct, which can cause jaundice and infection.

Treatment for gallstones usually involves surgery to remove the gallbladder, although in some cases, medications may be used to dissolve small stones. In severe cases, emergency surgery may be necessary to treat complications such as inflammation or infection.

The definition of DILI has been revised several times over the years, but the most recent definition was published in 2013 by the International Consortium for DILI Research (ICDCR). According to this definition, DILI is defined as:

"A clinically significant alteration in liver function that is caused by a medication or other exogenous substance, and is not related to underlying liver disease. The alteration may be biochemical, morphological, or both, and may be acute or chronic."

The ICDCR definition includes several key features of DILI, including:

1. Clinically significant alteration in liver function: This means that the liver damage must be severe enough to cause symptoms or signs of liver dysfunction, such as jaundice, nausea, vomiting, or abdominal pain.
2. Caused by a medication or other exogenous substance: DILI is triggered by exposure to certain drugs or substances that are not related to underlying liver disease.
3. Not related to underlying liver disease: This means that the liver damage must not be caused by an underlying condition such as hepatitis B or C, alcoholic liver disease, or other genetic or metabolic disorders.
4. May be acute or chronic: DILI can occur as a sudden and severe injury (acute DILI) or as a slower and more insidious process (chronic DILI).

The ICDCR definition provides a standardized way of defining and diagnosing DILI, which is important for clinicians and researchers to better understand the cause of liver damage in patients who are taking medications. It also helps to identify the drugs or substances that are most likely to cause liver injury and to develop strategies for preventing or treating DILI.

The exact cause of sclerosing cholangitis is not known, but it is believed to be an autoimmune condition, meaning that the body's immune system mistakenly attacks healthy bile duct cells, leading to inflammation and scarring.

Symptoms of sclerosing cholangitis can include:

* Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
* Itching all over the body
* Fatigue
* Loss of appetite
* Nausea and vomiting
* Abdominal pain
* Weight loss

If sclerosing cholangitis is not treated, it can lead to complications such as:

* Bile duct cancer
* Intestinal obstruction
* Sepsis (a potentially life-threatening infection of the bloodstream)

Treatment for sclerosing cholangitis typically involves a combination of medications and surgery. Medications used to treat the condition include:

* Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), which helps to dissolve bile stones and reduce inflammation
* Antibiotics, which help to prevent or treat infections
* Immunosuppressive drugs, which help to suppress the immune system and prevent further damage to the bile ducts

Surgery may be necessary to remove damaged or blocked bile ducts. In some cases, a liver transplant may be required if the condition is severe and there is significant liver damage.

There are several risk factors for developing HCC, including:

* Cirrhosis, which can be caused by heavy alcohol consumption, viral hepatitis (such as hepatitis B and C), or fatty liver disease
* Family history of liver disease
* Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
* Diabetes
* Obesity

HCC can be challenging to diagnose, as the symptoms are non-specific and can be similar to those of other conditions. However, some common symptoms of HCC include:

* Yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice)
* Fatigue
* Loss of appetite
* Abdominal pain or discomfort
* Weight loss

If HCC is suspected, a doctor may perform several tests to confirm the diagnosis, including:

* Imaging tests, such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI, to look for tumors in the liver
* Blood tests to check for liver function and detect certain substances that are produced by the liver
* Biopsy, which involves removing a small sample of tissue from the liver to examine under a microscope

Once HCC is diagnosed, treatment options will depend on several factors, including the stage and location of the cancer, the patient's overall health, and their personal preferences. Treatment options may include:

* Surgery to remove the tumor or parts of the liver
* Ablation, which involves destroying the cancer cells using heat or cold
* Chemoembolization, which involves injecting chemotherapy drugs into the hepatic artery to reach the cancer cells
* Targeted therapy, which uses drugs or other substances to target specific molecules that are involved in the growth and spread of the cancer

Overall, the prognosis for HCC is poor, with a 5-year survival rate of approximately 20%. However, early detection and treatment can improve outcomes. It is important for individuals at high risk for HCC to be monitored regularly by a healthcare provider, and to seek medical attention if they experience any symptoms.

The exact cause of choledochal cysts is not well understood, but they are believed to result from developmental abnormalities during fetal life. In some cases, there may be associated genetic mutations or other congenital anomalies. The diagnosis of a choledochal cyst is typically made using imaging studies such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI, and the cyst may be removed surgically if it causes symptoms or if it becomes infected.

There are several types of choledochal cysts, including:

1. Type I: This is the most common type, where the cyst is located near the liver and has a distinctive "dome-shaped" appearance.
2. Type II: This type is located near the pancreas and has a more irregular shape.
3. Type III: This type is located near the gallbladder and has a small opening into the bile duct.
4. Type IV: This type is located further down the bile duct and has no opening into the duct.

Choledochal cysts are relatively rare, occurring in approximately 1 in 250,000 to 1 in 500,000 live births. They can be associated with other congenital anomalies such as polycystic kidney disease, Turner syndrome, and Down syndrome. The surgical removal of a choledochal cyst is typically curative, but long-term follow-up is often necessary to monitor for potential complications such as bile duct stricture or cancer.

The condition is caused by a variety of genetic mutations that can affect the development of the nervous system, muscles, or connective tissue. The symptoms of arthrogryposis can vary widely depending on the specific type and severity of the condition. They may include:

* Joint contractures: The joints become stiff and fixed in place, which can limit movement and cause deformities.
* Muscle weakness: The muscles may be weak or paralyzed, leading to difficulty moving the affected limbs.
* Delayed motor development: Children with arthrogryposis may experience delays in reaching developmental milestones such as sitting, standing, and walking.
* Limited range of motion: The joints may have a limited range of motion, making it difficult to move the affected limbs through their full range of motion.
* Muscle wasting: The muscles may waste away due to lack of use, leading to a weakened appearance.

There is no cure for arthrogryposis, but treatment options are available to help manage the symptoms and improve quality of life. These may include:

* Physical therapy: To maintain or improve muscle strength and range of motion.
* Occupational therapy: To assist with daily activities and fine motor skills.
* Surgery: To release contracted joints and improve mobility.
* Bracing and orthotics: To support weakened joints and improve posture.
* Medications: To manage pain and spasticity.

It is important to note that arthrogryposis is a complex condition, and the specific treatment plan will depend on the type and severity of the condition, as well as the individual needs of the patient. Early diagnosis and intervention are key to improving outcomes for individuals with arthrogryposis.

There are several causes of liver failure, including:

1. Alcohol-related liver disease: Prolonged and excessive alcohol consumption can damage liver cells, leading to inflammation, scarring, and eventually liver failure.
2. Viral hepatitis: Hepatitis A, B, and C are viral infections that can cause inflammation and damage to the liver, leading to liver failure.
3. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): A condition where there is an accumulation of fat in the liver, leading to inflammation and scarring.
4. Drug-induced liver injury: Certain medications can cause liver damage and failure, especially when taken in high doses or for extended periods.
5. Genetic disorders: Certain inherited conditions, such as hemochromatosis and Wilson's disease, can cause liver damage and failure.
6. Acute liver failure: This is a sudden and severe loss of liver function, often caused by medication overdose or other toxins.
7. Chronic liver failure: A gradual decline in liver function over time, often caused by cirrhosis or NAFLD.

Symptoms of liver failure can include:

1. Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
2. Fatigue
3. Loss of appetite
4. Nausea and vomiting
5. Abdominal pain
6. Confusion and altered mental state
7. Easy bruising and bleeding

Diagnosis of liver failure is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests, such as blood tests to check for liver enzymes and bilirubin levels. Imaging tests, such as ultrasound and CT scans, may also be used to evaluate the liver.

Treatment of liver failure depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. In some cases, a liver transplant may be necessary. Other treatments may include medications to manage symptoms, such as nausea and pain, and supportive care to maintain nutrition and hydration. In severe cases, hospitalization may be required to monitor and treat complications.

Prevention of liver failure is important, and this can be achieved by:

1. Avoiding alcohol or drinking in moderation
2. Maintaining a healthy weight and diet
3. Managing underlying medical conditions, such as diabetes and high blood pressure
4. Avoiding exposure to toxins, such as certain medications and environmental chemicals
5. Getting vaccinated against hepatitis A and B
6. Practicing safe sex to prevent the spread of hepatitis B and C.

Cholelithiasis is a common condition that affects millions of people worldwide. It can occur at any age but is more common in adults over 40 years old. Women are more likely to develop cholelithiasis than men, especially during pregnancy or after childbirth.

The symptoms of cholelithiasis can vary depending on the size and location of the gallstones. Some people may not experience any symptoms at all, while others may have:

* Abdominal pain, especially in the upper right side of the abdomen
* Nausea and vomiting
* Fever
* Shaking or chills
* Loss of appetite
* Yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice)

If left untreated, cholelithiasis can lead to complications such as inflammation of the gallbladder (cholangitis), infection of the bile ducts (biliary sepsis), or blockage of the common bile duct. These complications can be life-threatening and require immediate medical attention.

The diagnosis of cholelithiasis is usually made through a combination of imaging tests such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI, and blood tests to check for signs of inflammation and liver function. Treatment options for cholelithiasis include:

* Watchful waiting: If the gallstones are small and not causing any symptoms, doctors may recommend monitoring the condition without immediate treatment.
* Medications: Oral medications such as bile salts or ursodiol can dissolve small gallstones and relieve symptoms.
* Laparoscopic cholecystectomy: A minimally invasive surgical procedure to remove the gallbladder through small incisions.
* Open cholecystectomy: An open surgery to remove the gallbladder, usually performed when the gallstones are large or there are other complications.

It is important to seek medical attention if you experience any symptoms of cholelithiasis, as early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent complications and improve outcomes.

Portal hypertension can be caused by several conditions, such as cirrhosis (scarring of the liver), liver cancer, and congenital heart disease. When the portal vein is blocked or narrowed, blood flow through the veins in the esophagus and stomach increases, leading to enlargement of these vessels and an increased risk of bleeding.

Esophageal varices are the most common type of variceal bleeding and account for about 75% of all cases. Gastric varices are less common and usually occur in conjunction with esophageal varices.

Symptoms of esophageal and gastric varices may include:

* Vomiting blood or passing black stools
* Weakness, dizziness, or fainting due to blood loss
* Chest pain or discomfort
* Difficulty swallowing

Treatment for esophageal and gastric varices usually involves endoscopy, which is a procedure in which a flexible tube with a camera and light on the end is inserted through the mouth to visualize the inside of the esophagus and stomach. During endoscopy, the physician may use medications to shrink the varices or apply heat to seal off the bleeding vessels. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to repair or remove the varices.

Prevention of esophageal and gastric varices involves managing the underlying cause of portal hypertension, such as cirrhosis or liver cancer. This can include medications to reduce portal pressure, lifestyle changes to improve liver function, and in some cases, surgery to remove the affected liver tissue.

In summary, esophageal and gastric varices are enlarged veins in the lower esophagus and stomach that can develop in people with portal hypertension due to cirrhosis or liver cancer. These varices can cause bleeding, which can be life-threatening if not treated promptly. Treatment usually involves endoscopy and may involve medications, heat therapy, or surgery to seal off the bleeding vessels. Prevention involves managing the underlying cause of portal hypertension.

1) They share similarities with humans: Many animal species share similar biological and physiological characteristics with humans, making them useful for studying human diseases. For example, mice and rats are often used to study diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer because they have similar metabolic and cardiovascular systems to humans.

2) They can be genetically manipulated: Animal disease models can be genetically engineered to develop specific diseases or to model human genetic disorders. This allows researchers to study the progression of the disease and test potential treatments in a controlled environment.

3) They can be used to test drugs and therapies: Before new drugs or therapies are tested in humans, they are often first tested in animal models of disease. This allows researchers to assess the safety and efficacy of the treatment before moving on to human clinical trials.

4) They can provide insights into disease mechanisms: Studying disease models in animals can provide valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of a particular disease. This information can then be used to develop new treatments or improve existing ones.

5) Reduces the need for human testing: Using animal disease models reduces the need for human testing, which can be time-consuming, expensive, and ethically challenging. However, it is important to note that animal models are not perfect substitutes for human subjects, and results obtained from animal studies may not always translate to humans.

6) They can be used to study infectious diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study infectious diseases such as HIV, TB, and malaria. These models allow researchers to understand how the disease is transmitted, how it progresses, and how it responds to treatment.

7) They can be used to study complex diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study complex diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. These models allow researchers to understand the underlying mechanisms of the disease and test potential treatments.

8) They are cost-effective: Animal disease models are often less expensive than human clinical trials, making them a cost-effective way to conduct research.

9) They can be used to study drug delivery: Animal disease models can be used to study drug delivery and pharmacokinetics, which is important for developing new drugs and drug delivery systems.

10) They can be used to study aging: Animal disease models can be used to study the aging process and age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. This allows researchers to understand how aging contributes to disease and develop potential treatments.

There are several symptoms associated with hepatomegaly, including:

* Abdominal pain or swelling
* Nausea and vomiting
* Diarrhea or constipation
* Fatigue
* Loss of appetite
* Yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice)
* Dark urine
* Pale stools.

In order to diagnose hepatomegaly, a doctor may perform a physical examination to feel the size of the liver, as well as order imaging tests such as ultrasound or CT scans to confirm the diagnosis. Additional tests may be ordered to determine the underlying cause of the enlarged liver, such as blood tests to check for liver function and liver biopsy to examine liver tissue under a microscope.

Treatment for hepatomegaly depends on the underlying cause of the condition. If the cause is reversible, treatment may involve addressing that condition, such as managing alcohol consumption or treating an infection. In some cases, medications may be prescribed to relieve symptoms or slow the progression of liver damage. In severe cases, a liver transplant may be necessary. It is important for individuals with hepatomegaly to follow their doctor's recommended treatment plan and make lifestyle changes such as maintaining a healthy diet and avoiding alcohol to help manage the condition.

The exact cause of cryoglobulinemia is not known, but it is believed to be related to an autoimmune disorder or a viral infection. Treatment options for the condition include medications to reduce inflammation and improve blood flow, as well as plasmapheresis, a process that removes abnormal proteins from the blood. In some cases, a bone marrow transplant may be recommended.

Cryoglobulinemia is a rare disease, and it can be difficult to diagnose, as the symptoms are similar to those of other conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis or lupus. However, if cryoglobulinemia is suspected, a doctor may perform a range of tests to confirm the diagnosis, including blood tests to look for the presence of cryoglobulins and imaging studies to examine the blood vessels.

Overall, cryoglobulinemia is a rare and complex condition that can have a significant impact on a person's quality of life. While there is no cure for the disease, with proper treatment, many people with cryoglobulinemia are able to manage their symptoms and lead active lives.

1. Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS): This is a breathing disorder that occurs when the baby's lungs are not fully developed, causing difficulty in breathing. RDS can be treated with oxygen therapy and other medical interventions.
2. Jaundice: Jaundice is a yellowish tint to the skin and eyes caused by high levels of bilirubin in the blood. It is a common condition in newborns, but if left untreated, it can lead to brain damage. Treatment may involve phototherapy or blood exchange transfusions.
3. Neonatal jaundice: This is a milder form of jaundice that occurs in the first few days of life. It usually resolves on its own within a week, but if it persists, treatment may be necessary.
4. Premature birth: Premature babies are at risk for various health issues, including respiratory distress syndrome, intraventricular hemorrhage (bleeding in the brain), and retinopathy (eye problems).
5. Congenital heart disease: This is a heart defect that occurs during fetal development. It can range from mild to severe and may require surgical intervention.
6. Infections: Newborns are susceptible to bacterial and viral infections, such as group B strep, pneumonia, and urinary tract infections. These can be treated with antibiotics if caught early.
7. Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar): This is a condition that occurs when the baby's blood sugar levels drop too low. It can cause seizures, lethargy, and other symptoms. Treatment involves feeding or providing glucose supplements.
8. Hyperbilirubinemia (high bilirubin levels): Bilirubin is a yellow pigment produced during the breakdown of red blood cells. High levels can cause jaundice, which can lead to kernicterus, a condition that can cause brain damage and hearing loss.
9. Intracranial hemorrhage (bleeding in the brain): This is a serious condition that occurs when there is bleeding in the baby's brain. It can be caused by various conditions, including premature birth, abruption, and vasculitis.
10. Meconium aspiration: This occurs when the baby inhales a mixture of meconium (a substance produced by the intestines) and amniotic fluid during delivery. It can cause respiratory problems and other complications.

It's important to note that while these conditions can be serious, many babies born at 37 weeks gestation do not experience any complications. Proper prenatal care and a healthy pregnancy can help reduce the risk of these conditions.

The most common types of biliary fistulas are:

1. Bile duct-enteric fistula: This type of fistula connects the bile ducts to the small intestine.
2. Bile duct-skin fistula: This type of fistula connects the bile ducts to the skin, which can lead to a bile leak and infection.
3. Bile duct-liver fistula: This type of fistula connects the bile ducts to the liver, which can cause bleeding and infection.

Symptoms of biliary fistula may include:

* Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes)
* Pale or clay-colored stools
* Dark urine
* Fatigue
* Loss of appetite
* Weight loss

Diagnosis of biliary fistula is typically made through a combination of imaging tests such as endoscopy, CT scan, and MRI. Treatment options for biliary fistula include:

1. Endoscopic therapy: This may involve the use of an endoscope to repair or close off the fistula.
2. Surgery: In some cases, surgery may be necessary to repair or remove the damaged bile ducts.
3. Stent placement: A stent may be placed in the bile ducts to help keep them open and allow for proper drainage.

It is important to seek medical attention if you experience any symptoms of biliary fistula, as it can lead to serious complications such as infection or bleeding.

Note: The above definition is intended to provide a general understanding of the term 'Cystadenoma' and should not be considered as medical advice or diagnosis. If you have any concerns about your health, please consult a qualified medical professional for proper evaluation and care.

Anatomy17

Organisms3

Diseases43

Chemicals and Drugs43

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment25

Phenomena and Processes4

Disciplines and Occupations1

Information Science1

Named Groups1

Health Care3

Effects of chronic nitric oxide activation or inhibition on early hepatic fibrosis in rats with bile duct ligation. (1/191)

Carcinoids of the common bile duct: a case report and literature review. (2/191)

Biliary obstruction in hematopoietic cell transplant recipients: an uncommon diagnosis with specific causes. (3/191)

Biliary stenting versus bypass surgery for the palliation of malignant distal bile duct obstruction: a meta-analysis. (4/191)

Manometric changes during retrograde biliary infusion in mice. (5/191)

Extrahepatic biliary obstruction due to post-laparoscopic cholecystectomy biloma. (6/191)

Detection of Ki-ras gene point mutations in bile specimens for the differential diagnosis of malignant and benign biliary strictures. (7/191)

Postoperative bile duct strictures: management and outcome in the 1990s. (8/191)

Cholestasis

Cholestasis, Intrahepatic

Bile Ducts, Extrahepatic

Cholestasis, Extrahepatic

Bile Ducts

Bile Duct Neoplasms

Biliary Atresia

Cholagogues and Choleretics

Liver

Ursodeoxycholic Acid

Bile Ducts, Intrahepatic

1-Naphthylisothiocyanate

Bile Acids and Salts

Biliary Tract

Bilirubin

Cholangiocarcinoma

Bile

Jaundice, Neonatal

Jaundice, Obstructive

Bile Canaliculi

Hepatic Duct, Common

Jaundice

Liver Function Tests

Cholangitis

Common Bile Duct

Liver Diseases

Pruritus

Ligation

P-Glycoproteins

Liver Neoplasms

Liver Cirrhosis, Biliary

Biliary Tract Neoplasms

Hypertension, Portal

Portal Vein

Taurochenodeoxycholic Acid

Klatskin's Tumor

Hepatocytes

Cholangiography

Ethinyl Estradiol

Hepatitis

Adenoma, Bile Duct

Portoenterostomy, Hepatic

Lithocholic Acid

Biliary Tract Diseases

Cholangiopancreatography, Endoscopic Retrograde

Hepatectomy

Cholic Acid

Portography

Pregnancy Complications

Alagille Syndrome

Hyperbilirubinemia

Coleus

Portal System

Biliary Tract Surgical Procedures

ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters

Gallbladder Neoplasms

Bile Duct Diseases

Hepatic Artery

Gallbladder

Liver Cirrhosis

Imino Acids

Citrullinemia

Infant, Newborn

Gallstones

Portasystemic Shunt, Surgical

Cholecystectomy

Drug-Induced Liver Injury

Cholangitis, Sclerosing

Organic Anion Transporters

gamma-Glutamyltransferase

Carcinoma, Hepatocellular

Taurocholic Acid

Choledochal Cyst

Retrospective Studies

Organic Anion Transporters, Sodium-Dependent

Lipoprotein-X

Norethandrolone

Arthrogryposis

Dothiepin

Parenteral Nutrition