Chloroplasts
Chloroplast Proteins
RNA, Chloroplast
Genes, Chloroplast
Plants
Plant Proteins
Peas
Photosynthesis
Spinacia oleracea
Thylakoids
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
Plastids
Chloroplast Proton-Translocating ATPases
Chlorophyll
Arabidopsis
Plant Leaves
Arabidopsis Proteins
Ribulose-Bisphosphate Carboxylase
Molecular Sequence Data
Chlamydomonas
Chlorophyta
Photosynthetic Reaction Center Complex Proteins
Photophosphorylation
Photosystem II Protein Complex
Plants, Medicinal
Fabaceae
Tobacco
Galactolipids
Euglena
Gene Expression Regulation, Plant
Amino Acid Sequence
Base Sequence
Plants, Genetically Modified
Light-Harvesting Protein Complexes
Cytochrome b6f Complex
RNA, Plant
Intracellular Membranes
Zea mays
Eukaryota
Proton-Translocating ATPases
Cytochromes f
Mesophyll Cells
Plants, Edible
Mutation
Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
Photosystem I Protein Complex
RNA Editing
Protein Precursors
Plastoquinone
Cloning, Molecular
Angiosperms
Protein Transport
RNA, Algal
Fructose-Bisphosphatase
Plastocyanin
Group I Chaperonins
Sequence Alignment
Electron Transport
Bryopsida
Protochlorophyllide
RNA, Ribosomal
Membrane Proteins
Evolution, Molecular
Ferredoxins
Rhodophyta
Protein Biosynthesis
Plant Physiological Phenomena
Thioredoxins
Cyanobacteria
Species Specificity
Ferredoxin-NADP Reductase
Escherichia coli
Phototropins
Ribosomal Proteins
Cell Nucleus
Mustard Plant
Starch
Oxidation-Reduction
Mitochondria
Cytochrome b Group
Ascorbate Peroxidases
RNA, Messenger
DNA
Electrophoresis, Polyacrylamide Gel
Introns
Transcription, Genetic
Protein Sorting Signals
Sequence Homology, Nucleic Acid
Genes
Sequence Analysis, DNA
Bryophyta
Adenosine Triphosphate
ATP Synthetase Complexes
Biological Transport
Phototropism
Magnesium ion-induced changes in the binding mode of adenylates to chloroplast coupling factor 1. (1/4503)
The effect of Mg2+ on the binding of adenylates to isolated chloroplast coupling factor 1 (CF1) was studied using CD spectrometry and ultrafiltration. At adenylate concentrations smaller than 100 muM, one mole of CF1 binds three moles of ATP (or ADP) regardless of the presence of Mg2+. In the presence of Mg2+, the first two ATP's bind to CF1 independently with the same binding constant of 2.5 X 10(-1) muM-1, then the third ATP binds with a much higher affinity of 10 muM-1. In the absence of Mg2+, the first ATP binds to CF1 with a binding constant of 2.5 X 10(-1) muM-1 then the other two ATP's bind less easily with the same binding constant of 4.0 X 10(-2) muM-1. The binding mode of ADP to CF1 is quite similar to that of ATP. In the presence of Mg2+, the binding constants of the first two ADP's are both 7.6 X 10(-2) muM-1, that of the third ADP being 4.0 muM-1. In the absence of Mg2+, the binding constant of the first ADP is 7.6 X 10(-2) muM-1, the constants of the other two ADP's both being 4.0 X 10(-2) muM-1. AMP caused a negligible change in CD. (+info)Role of a novel photosystem II-associated carbonic anhydrase in photosynthetic carbon assimilation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. (2/4503)
Intracellular carbonic anhydrases (CA) in aquatic photosynthetic organisms are involved in the CO2-concentrating mechanism (CCM), which helps to overcome CO2 limitation in the environment. In the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, this CCM is initiated and maintained by the pH gradient created across the chloroplast thylakoid membranes by photosystem (PS) II-mediated electron transport. We show here that photosynthesis is stimulated by a novel, intracellular alpha-CA bound to the chloroplast thylakoids. It is associated with PSII on the lumenal side of the thylakoid membranes. We demonstrate that PSII in association with this lumenal CA operates to provide an ample flux of CO2 for carboxylation. (+info)The localisation of 2-carboxy-D-arabinitol 1-phosphate and inhibition of Rubisco in leaves of Phaseolus vulgaris L. (3/4503)
A recent controversial report suggests that the nocturnal inhibitor of Rubisco, 2-carboxy-D-arabinitol 1-phosphate (CAIP), does not bind to Rubisco in vivo and therefore that CA1P has no physiological relevance to photosynthetic regulation. It is now proved that a direct rapid assay can be used to distinguish between Rubisco-bound and free CA1P, as postulated in the controversial report. Application of this direct assay demonstrates that CA1P is bound to Rubisco in vivo in dark-adapted leaves. Furthermore, CA1P is shown to be in the chloroplasts of mesophyll cells. Thus, CA1P does play a physiological role in the regulation of Rubisco. (+info)Overexpression of the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry2Aa2 protein in chloroplasts confers resistance to plants against susceptible and Bt-resistant insects. (4/4503)
Evolving levels of resistance in insects to the bioinsecticide Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) can be dramatically reduced through the genetic engineering of chloroplasts in plants. When transgenic tobacco leaves expressing Cry2Aa2 protoxin in chloroplasts were fed to susceptible, Cry1A-resistant (20,000- to 40,000-fold) and Cry2Aa2-resistant (330- to 393-fold) tobacco budworm Heliothis virescens, cotton bollworm Helicoverpa zea, and the beet armyworm Spodoptera exigua, 100% mortality was observed against all insect species and strains. Cry2Aa2 was chosen for this study because of its toxicity to many economically important insect pests, relatively low levels of cross-resistance against Cry1A-resistant insects, and its expression as a protoxin instead of a toxin because of its relatively small size (65 kDa). Southern blot analysis confirmed stable integration of cry2Aa2 into all of the chloroplast genomes (5, 000-10,000 copies per cell) of transgenic plants. Transformed tobacco leaves expressed Cry2Aa2 protoxin at levels between 2% and 3% of total soluble protein, 20- to 30-fold higher levels than current commercial nuclear transgenic plants. These results suggest that plants expressing high levels of a nonhomologous Bt protein should be able to overcome or at the very least, significantly delay, broad spectrum Bt-resistance development in the field. (+info)EPR spectroscopy of VO2+-ATP bound to catalytic site 3 of chloroplast F1-ATPase from Chlamydomonas reveals changes in metal ligation resulting from mutations to the phosphate-binding loop threonine (betaT168). (5/4503)
Site-directed mutations were made to the phosphate-binding loop threonine in the beta-subunit of the chloroplast F1-ATPase in Chlamydomonas (betaT168). Rates of photophosphorylation and ATPase-driven proton translocation measured in coupled thylakoids purified from betaT168D, betaT168C, and betaT168L mutants had <10% of the wild type rates, as did rates of Mg2+-ATPase activity of purified chloroplast F1-ATPase (CF1). The EPR spectra of VO2+-ATP bound to Site 3 of CF1 from wild type and mutants showed that EPR species C, formed exclusively upon activation, was altered in CF1 from each mutant in both signal intensity and in 51V hyperfine parameters that depend on the equatorial VO2+ ligands. These data provide the first direct evidence that Site 3 is a catalytic site. No significant differences between wild type and mutants were observed in EPR species B, the predominant form of the latent enzyme. Thus, the phosphate-binding loop threonine is an equatorial metal ligand in the activated conformation but not in the latent conformation of Site 3. The metal-nucleotide conformation that gives rise to species B is consistent with the Mg2+-ADP complex that becomes entrapped in a catalytic site in a manner that regulates enzymatic activity. The lack of catalytic function of CF1 with entrapped Mg2+-ADP may be explained in part by the absence of the phosphate-binding loop threonine as a metal ligand. (+info)The chloroplast infA gene with a functional UUG initiation codon. (6/4503)
All chloroplast genes reported so far possess ATG start codons and sometimes GTGs as an exception. Sequence alignments suggested that the chloroplast infA gene encoding initiation factor 1 in the green alga Chlorella vulgaris has TTG as a putative initiation codon. This gene was shown to be transcribed by RT-PCR analysis. The infA mRNA was translated accurately from the UUG codon in a tobacco chloroplast in vitro translation system. Mutation of the UUG codon to AUG increased translation efficiency approximately 300-fold. These results indicate that the UUG is functional for accurate translation initiation of Chlorella infA mRNA but it is an inefficient initiation codon. (+info)Rapid purification of membrane extrinsic F1-domain of chloroplast ATP synthase in monodisperse form suitable for 3D-crystallization. (7/4503)
A new chromatographic procedure for purification of the membrane extrinsic F1-domain of chloroplast ATP synthase is presented. The purification is achieved by a single anion exchange chromatography step. Determination of the enzyme-bound nucleotides reveals only 1 mole of ADP per complex. The purified enzyme shows a latent Ca(2+)-dependent ATPase activity of 1.0 mumol.mg-1 min-1 and a Mg(2+)-dependent activity of 4.4 mumol.mg-1 .min-1. Both activities are increased up to 8-10-fold after dithiothreitol activation. Analysis of the purified F1-complex by SDS/PAGE, silver staining and immunoblotting revealed that the preparation is uncontaminated by fragmented subunits or ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase. Gel filtration experiments indicate that the preparation is homogenous and monodisperse. In order to determine the solubility minimum of the purified F1-complex the isoelectric point of the preparation was calculated from pH mapping on ion exchange columns. In agreement with calculations based on the amino acid sequence, a slightly acidic pI of 5.7 was found. Using ammonium sulphate as a precipitant the purified CF1-complex could be crystallized by MicroBatch. (+info)Isolation of pigment-binding early light-inducible proteins from pea. (8/4503)
The early light-inducible proteins (ELIPs) in chloroplasts possess a high sequence homology with the chlorophyll a/b-binding proteins but differ from those proteins by their substoichiometric and transient appearance. In the present study ELIPs of pea were isolated by a two-step purification strategy: perfusion chromatography in combination with preparative isoelectric focussing. Two heterogeneous populations of ELIPs were obtained after chromatographic separation of solubilized thylakoid membranes using a weak anion exchange column. One of these populations contained ELIPs in a free form providing the first isolation of these proteins. To prove whether the isolated and pure forms of ELIP bind pigments, spectroscopic and chromatographic analysis were performed. Absorption spectra and TLC revealed the presence of chlorophyll a and lutein. Measurements of steady-state fluorescence emission spectra at 77 K exhibited a major peak at 674 nm typical for chlorophyll a bound to the protein matrix. The action spectrum of the fluorescence emission measured at 674 nm showed several peaks originating mainly from chlorophyll a. It is proposed that ELIPs are transient chlorophyll-binding proteins not involved in light-harvesting but functioning as scavengers for chlorophyll molecules during turnover of pigment-binding proteins. (+info)Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells that are responsible for photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, a green pigment that absorbs light energy, and use this energy to power the chemical reactions of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are also responsible for producing oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis. In the medical field, chloroplasts are not typically studied or treated directly, but understanding the process of photosynthesis and the role of chloroplasts in this process is important for understanding plant biology and the role of plants in the environment.
DNA, chloroplast refers to the genetic material found within the chloroplasts of plant cells. Chloroplasts are organelles responsible for photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy. The DNA within chloroplasts is circular and contains genes that are involved in the production of proteins necessary for photosynthesis. Chloroplast DNA is inherited maternally, meaning that it is passed down from the mother to the offspring. Mutations in chloroplast DNA can affect the ability of plants to carry out photosynthesis and can lead to various genetic disorders.
Chloroplast proteins are proteins that are synthesized within the chloroplasts of plant cells. Chloroplasts are organelles that contain chlorophyll, which is responsible for photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy. Chloroplast proteins play a crucial role in this process, as they are involved in the various steps of photosynthesis, including the absorption of light, the conversion of light energy into chemical energy, and the transport of energy and nutrients throughout the plant cell. Chloroplast proteins are essential for the survival and growth of plants, and they are also of interest to researchers studying plant biology and biotechnology.
RNA, Chloroplast refers to the ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules that are synthesized in the chloroplasts of plant cells. Chloroplasts are organelles responsible for photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy. RNA molecules play a crucial role in the process of photosynthesis by carrying genetic information from the chloroplast DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized. There are several types of RNA molecules found in chloroplasts, including ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and messenger RNA (mRNA). In addition to their role in photosynthesis, chloroplast RNA molecules have also been implicated in other cellular processes, such as gene expression and regulation. Understanding the function and regulation of chloroplast RNA molecules is important for understanding plant biology and developing strategies for improving crop productivity and resilience to environmental stress.
Plant proteins are proteins that are derived from plants. They are an important source of dietary protein for many people and are a key component of a healthy diet. Plant proteins are found in a wide variety of plant-based foods, including legumes, nuts, seeds, grains, and vegetables. They are an important source of essential amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins and are necessary for the growth and repair of tissues in the body. Plant proteins are also a good source of fiber, vitamins, and minerals, and are generally lower in saturated fat and cholesterol than animal-based proteins. In the medical field, plant proteins are often recommended as part of a healthy diet for people with certain medical conditions, such as heart disease, diabetes, and high blood pressure.
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is a unicellular green alga that is commonly used as a model organism in the field of biology. It is not typically used in the medical field, as it is not a human or animal pathogen. However, it has been used in research to study various biological processes, such as photosynthesis, cell division, and gene expression. It is also used in the development of new technologies, such as biofuels and bioremediation.
Chloroplast proton-translocating ATPases are a group of enzymes that are responsible for generating ATP in chloroplasts, which are organelles found in plant cells that are responsible for photosynthesis. These enzymes are also known as ATP synthases and are located in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts. The chloroplast proton-translocating ATPases work by using the energy from the proton gradient that is generated by the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis to produce ATP. This process is known as chemiosmosis and is a key step in the production of energy in plant cells. There are two types of chloroplast proton-translocating ATPases: the F-type ATPase and the V-type ATPase. The F-type ATPase is responsible for generating ATP in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, while the V-type ATPase is responsible for generating ATP in the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis. Chloroplast proton-translocating ATPases play a crucial role in the energy metabolism of plant cells and are essential for the survival and growth of plants. Mutations in the genes encoding these enzymes can lead to a variety of plant disorders, including chlorosis, stunted growth, and reduced photosynthetic efficiency.
Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in plants, algae, and some bacteria. It plays a crucial role in photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy to fuel their growth and metabolism. In the medical field, chlorophyll has been studied for its potential health benefits. Some research suggests that chlorophyll may have antioxidant properties, which could help protect against damage from free radicals and reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease. Chlorophyll has also been studied for its potential to support liver health, improve digestion, and boost energy levels. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential health benefits of chlorophyll, and it is not currently used as a medical treatment. It is typically consumed as a dietary supplement or found in foods that are rich in chlorophyll, such as leafy green vegetables, broccoli, and parsley.
Arabidopsis is a small flowering plant species that is widely used as a model organism in the field of plant biology. It is a member of the mustard family and is native to Europe and Asia. Arabidopsis is known for its rapid growth and short life cycle, which makes it an ideal model organism for studying plant development, genetics, and molecular biology. In the medical field, Arabidopsis is used to study a variety of biological processes, including plant growth and development, gene expression, and signaling pathways. Researchers use Arabidopsis to study the genetic basis of plant diseases, such as viral infections and bacterial blight, and to develop new strategies for crop improvement. Additionally, Arabidopsis is used to study the effects of environmental factors, such as light and temperature, on plant growth and development. Overall, Arabidopsis is a valuable tool for advancing our understanding of plant biology and has important implications for agriculture and medicine.
Chloroplast thioredoxins are a group of small, soluble proteins that are found in the chloroplasts of plants and algae. They are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including photosynthesis, the regulation of gene expression, and the detoxification of reactive oxygen species. Thioredoxins are a type of antioxidant that contain a disulfide bond, which can be reduced or oxidized depending on the cellular redox state. In the reduced state, thioredoxins are able to donate electrons to other molecules, while in the oxidized state, they can accept electrons from other molecules. Chloroplast thioredoxins are thought to play a role in the regulation of photosynthesis by controlling the activity of enzymes involved in the process. They may also be involved in the response of plants to environmental stress, such as exposure to high levels of light or drought. Overall, chloroplast thioredoxins are important for the proper functioning of chloroplasts and the overall health of plants and algae.
Arabidopsis Proteins refer to proteins that are encoded by genes in the genome of the plant species Arabidopsis thaliana. Arabidopsis is a small flowering plant that is widely used as a model organism in plant biology research due to its small size, short life cycle, and ease of genetic manipulation. Arabidopsis proteins have been extensively studied in the medical field due to their potential applications in drug discovery, disease diagnosis, and treatment. For example, some Arabidopsis proteins have been found to have anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-viral properties, making them potential candidates for the development of new drugs. In addition, Arabidopsis proteins have been used as tools for studying human diseases. For instance, researchers have used Arabidopsis to study the molecular mechanisms underlying human diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's disease. Overall, Arabidopsis proteins have become an important resource for medical research due to their potential applications in drug discovery and disease research.
Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (RuBisCO) is an enzyme that plays a central role in the process of photosynthesis in plants, algae, and some bacteria. It catalyzes the reaction between carbon dioxide and ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), a 5-carbon sugar, to form two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA), a 3-carbon compound. This reaction is the first step in the Calvin cycle, which is the primary pathway for carbon fixation in photosynthesis. RuBisCO is the most abundant enzyme on Earth and is responsible for fixing approximately 60% of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. However, it is also a slow enzyme and is often limited by the availability of carbon dioxide in the environment. This can lead to a phenomenon known as photorespiration, in which RuBisCO instead catalyzes the reaction between RuBP and oxygen, leading to the loss of carbon dioxide and the production of a variety of byproducts. In the medical field, RuBisCO has been studied as a potential target for the development of new drugs to treat a variety of conditions, including cancer, diabetes, and obesity. Some researchers have also explored the use of RuBisCO as a biosensor for detecting carbon dioxide levels in the environment or as a tool for producing biofuels.
Chlamydomonas is a genus of single-celled green algae that are commonly found in freshwater environments. They are not typically associated with the medical field, as they are not known to cause any human diseases or health problems. However, Chlamydomonas is an important model organism in the field of biology, particularly in the study of cell biology and genetics. Researchers have used Chlamydomonas to study a wide range of topics, including photosynthesis, cell division, and the regulation of gene expression. In addition, some species of Chlamydomonas have been used in the development of bioremediation technologies, which involve using living organisms to remove pollutants from the environment. For example, certain strains of Chlamydomonas have been shown to be effective at removing heavy metals and other toxic substances from contaminated water.
Chlorophyta is a phylum of green algae that are photosynthetic organisms. They are characterized by the presence of chlorophyll a and b, which allows them to convert sunlight into energy through photosynthesis. Chlorophyta includes a diverse range of species, such as seaweeds, freshwater algae, and land plants. In the medical field, Chlorophyta are not typically studied for their direct medical applications, but they are important for their role in the ecosystem and as a source of food and bioactive compounds. Some species of Chlorophyta have been used in traditional medicine for their anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-bacterial properties.
Photosynthetic reaction center complex proteins are a group of proteins that play a crucial role in the process of photosynthesis in plants, algae, and some bacteria. These proteins are responsible for capturing light energy and converting it into chemical energy that can be used by the organism to fuel its metabolic processes. The photosynthetic reaction center complex is a complex of pigments and proteins that is embedded in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts in plants and algae. When light energy is absorbed by the pigments in the complex, it is transferred to the reaction center complex proteins, which then use this energy to split water molecules into oxygen, protons, and electrons. The electrons are then passed through a series of electron transport chains, which use the energy from the electrons to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane, creating a proton gradient. This gradient is then used to drive the synthesis of ATP, which is the energy currency of the cell. Photosynthetic reaction center complex proteins are essential for the process of photosynthesis, and any disruption to their function can have a significant impact on the health and productivity of plants and algae. In the medical field, understanding the structure and function of these proteins is important for developing new treatments for diseases that affect photosynthesis, such as chlorosis and photosynthetic inhibition.
Photosystem II protein complex is a large protein complex found in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts in plants, algae, and some bacteria. It is responsible for the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, which convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. Photosystem II protein complex consists of several subunits, including the D1 and D2 proteins, which form the core of the complex, and the CP47, CP43, and CP29 proteins, which are peripheral to the core. The complex contains a number of cofactors, including chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids, which absorb light energy and transfer it to the reaction center. The reaction center of Photosystem II protein complex contains a special pair of chlorophyll molecules, called P680 and P700, which are capable of accepting high-energy electrons from water molecules. These electrons are then passed through a series of electron carriers, ultimately ending up in the electron transport chain, where they are used to generate ATP and NADPH. Photosystem II protein complex plays a critical role in the process of photosynthesis, as it is responsible for the conversion of light energy into chemical energy, which is used to fuel the growth and development of plants and other photosynthetic organisms.
Galactolipids are a type of lipid molecule that contains a galactose (a type of sugar) and a fatty acid. They are found in the cell membranes of plants, algae, and some bacteria, and are important components of the structure and function of these membranes. In the medical field, galactolipids are of interest because they have been shown to have a number of potential health benefits, including anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer effects. They are also being studied as potential therapeutic agents for a variety of diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, and cancer.
In the medical field, an amino acid sequence refers to the linear order of amino acids in a protein molecule. Proteins are made up of chains of amino acids, and the specific sequence of these amino acids determines the protein's structure and function. The amino acid sequence is determined by the genetic code, which is a set of rules that specifies how the sequence of nucleotides in DNA is translated into the sequence of amino acids in a protein. Each amino acid is represented by a three-letter code, and the sequence of these codes is the amino acid sequence of the protein. The amino acid sequence is important because it determines the protein's three-dimensional structure, which in turn determines its function. Small changes in the amino acid sequence can have significant effects on the protein's structure and function, and this can lead to diseases or disorders. For example, mutations in the amino acid sequence of a protein involved in blood clotting can lead to bleeding disorders.
In the medical field, a base sequence refers to the specific order of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine) that make up the genetic material (DNA or RNA) of an organism. The base sequence determines the genetic information encoded within the DNA molecule and ultimately determines the traits and characteristics of an individual. The base sequence can be analyzed using various techniques, such as DNA sequencing, to identify genetic variations or mutations that may be associated with certain diseases or conditions.
In the medical field, algal proteins refer to proteins that are derived from algae, which are photosynthetic microorganisms that are found in aquatic environments. Algal proteins are a rich source of essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, and they have been studied for their potential health benefits. Some of the potential health benefits of algal proteins include their ability to lower cholesterol levels, improve heart health, and reduce the risk of certain types of cancer. They may also be beneficial for people with diabetes, as they have been shown to help regulate blood sugar levels. Algal proteins are used in a variety of medical applications, including as a source of nutrition for people with certain medical conditions, as a dietary supplement, and as an ingredient in food products. They are also being studied for their potential use in the development of new drugs and therapies.
In the medical field, "darkness" generally refers to a lack of light or visual perception. This can be caused by a variety of factors, including: 1. Retinal detachment: A condition in which the retina, the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye, separates from the underlying tissue. 2. Retinitis pigmentosa: A genetic disorder that causes progressive damage to the retina, leading to vision loss and eventually blindness. 3. Macular degeneration: A condition in which the central part of the retina, called the macula, deteriorates, leading to vision loss. 4. Cataracts: A clouding of the lens in the eye that can cause vision loss. 5. Glaucoma: A group of eye diseases that can damage the optic nerve and lead to vision loss. 6. Optic nerve damage: Damage to the optic nerve can cause vision loss or blindness. 7. Brain injury: Damage to the brain, particularly the visual cortex, can cause blindness or vision loss. In some cases, darkness may also be a symptom of a more serious underlying medical condition, such as a brain tumor or stroke.
Light-harvesting protein complexes are a group of proteins that play a crucial role in photosynthesis, the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy. These complexes are responsible for capturing light energy and transferring it to the reaction center, where it is used to power the chemical reactions that produce ATP and NADPH, two energy-rich molecules that are essential for the growth and survival of these organisms. There are several different types of light-harvesting protein complexes, each with its own unique structure and function. The most well-known of these is the chlorophyll a/b binding protein complex, which is found in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts in plants and algae. This complex is responsible for capturing light energy and transferring it to the reaction center, where it is used to power the chemical reactions of photosynthesis. Other types of light-harvesting protein complexes include the phycobilisome, which is found in some photosynthetic bacteria and algae, and the reaction center complex, which is found in all photosynthetic organisms. These complexes play important roles in the process of photosynthesis, and their dysfunction can lead to a range of health problems in plants and other photosynthetic organisms.
The cytochrome b6f complex is a large protein complex found in the inner membrane of the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells. It is a key component of the electron transport chain, which is responsible for generating ATP (adenosine triphosphate) through oxidative phosphorylation. The cytochrome b6f complex is involved in the transfer of electrons from the electron donors NADH and FADH2 to the electron acceptor oxygen. This process generates a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane, which is used to drive the synthesis of ATP by ATP synthase. Mutations in the genes encoding the subunits of the cytochrome b6f complex can lead to a variety of mitochondrial disorders, including Leigh syndrome, myopathy, and encephalopathy with lactic acidosis and stroke-like episodes (MELAS).
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that contains the genetic information of living organisms, including plants. In plants, DNA is found in the nucleus of cells and in organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria. Plant DNA is composed of four types of nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). These bases pair up in a specific way to form the rungs of the DNA ladder, with adenine always pairing with thymine and cytosine always pairing with guanine. The sequence of these bases in DNA determines the genetic information that is passed down from parent plants to offspring. This information includes traits such as plant height, leaf shape, flower color, and resistance to diseases and pests. In the medical field, plant DNA is often studied for its potential to be used in biotechnology applications such as crop improvement, biofuels production, and the development of new medicines. For example, scientists may use genetic engineering techniques to modify the DNA of plants to make them more resistant to pests or to produce higher yields.
RNA, Plant refers to the type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that is found in plants. RNA is a molecule that plays a crucial role in the expression of genes in cells, and there are several types of RNA, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). In plants, RNA plays a critical role in various biological processes, including photosynthesis, growth and development, and defense against pathogens. Plant RNA is also important for the production of proteins, which are essential for the structure and function of plant cells. RNA, Plant can be studied using various techniques, including transcriptomics, which involves the analysis of RNA molecules in a cell or tissue to identify the genes that are being expressed. This information can be used to better understand plant biology and to develop new strategies for improving crop yields, increasing plant resistance to diseases and pests, and developing new plant-based products.
Proton-translocating ATPases are a group of enzymes that use the energy from ATP hydrolysis to pump protons across a membrane. These enzymes are found in various cellular compartments, including the inner mitochondrial membrane, the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells, and the plasma membrane of bacteria. In the context of the medical field, proton-translocating ATPases are important because they play a crucial role in maintaining the proton gradient across cellular membranes. This gradient is essential for many cellular processes, including the production of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria, the regulation of intracellular pH, and the transport of ions across cell membranes. Proton-translocating ATPases can be classified into two main types: primary and secondary. Primary proton pumps, such as the ATP synthase in mitochondria, use the energy from ATP hydrolysis to directly pump protons across a membrane. Secondary proton pumps, such as the vacuolar ATPase in plant cells, use the energy from ATP hydrolysis to pump protons indirectly by coupling the proton gradient to the transport of other ions or molecules. Disruptions in the function of proton-translocating ATPases can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including metabolic disorders, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. For example, mutations in the ATP synthase gene can cause Leigh syndrome, a rare inherited disorder that affects the brain and muscles. Similarly, disruptions in the function of the vacuolar ATPase can lead to a variety of diseases, including osteoporosis, cataracts, and cancer.
Cytochromes f are a group of electron transport proteins that are found in the inner mitochondrial membrane. They are involved in the electron transport chain, which is a series of protein complexes that transfer electrons from one molecule to another, ultimately leading to the production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the energy currency of the cell. Cytochromes f are unique among the cytochromes because they contain a heme group that is coordinated to a histidine residue. This heme group is able to bind and transfer electrons, allowing cytochromes f to participate in the electron transport chain. In the medical field, cytochromes f are of interest because they play a role in the regulation of cellular respiration, which is the process by which cells generate energy from nutrients. Abnormalities in the function of cytochromes f have been linked to a number of diseases, including diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.
Diuron is a herbicide that is commonly used to control broadleaf weeds and grasses in a variety of crops, including rice, sugarcane, and corn. It works by inhibiting photosynthesis in plants, which ultimately leads to their death. In the medical field, diuron is not typically used as a treatment for any medical condition. However, it has been associated with some potential health effects in humans, including skin irritation, eye irritation, and respiratory problems. In some cases, exposure to diuron has been linked to an increased risk of cancer, although the evidence for this is not yet conclusive. It is important to note that diuron is a restricted-use pesticide, meaning that it can only be used by licensed applicators and under certain conditions. Farmers and other users of diuron should follow all safety guidelines and precautions to minimize the risk of exposure to this chemical.
Photosystem I protein complex is a large protein complex found in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. It is responsible for the first step of photosynthesis, which is the conversion of light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. Photosystem I consists of several subunits, including the reaction center, which contains the chlorophyll pigments that absorb light energy. The complex also contains several other pigments, such as carotenoids, that help to dissipate excess energy and protect the complex from damage. In the medical field, understanding the structure and function of photosystem I is important for developing new treatments for diseases related to photosynthesis, such as photosynthetic disorders in plants and algae. Additionally, photosystem I has been studied as a potential target for cancer therapy, as it is expressed at high levels in some types of cancer cells.
Acetabularia is a genus of green algae that is commonly used in the medical field as a model organism for studying cell division and development. The cells of Acetabularia are large and columnar, and they grow in a single layer on the surface of a stalk. The cells are connected by a network of cytoplasmic bridges, which allows them to communicate with each other and coordinate their activities. One of the key features of Acetabularia is its ability to undergo synchronous cell division, in which all of the cells in a colony divide at the same time. This makes it an ideal model for studying the regulation of cell division and the coordination of cellular activities. In addition, the large size of the cells and the ease with which they can be manipulated make Acetabularia a useful tool for studying a wide range of biological processes, including cell signaling, gene expression, and the effects of drugs and other chemicals on cellular function.
Protein precursors are molecules that are converted into proteins through a process called translation. In the medical field, protein precursors are often referred to as amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. There are 20 different amino acids that can be combined in various ways to form different proteins, each with its own unique function in the body. Protein precursors are essential for the proper functioning of the body, as proteins are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including metabolism, cell signaling, and immune function. They are also important for tissue repair and growth, and for maintaining the structure and function of organs and tissues. Protein precursors can be obtained from the diet through the consumption of foods that are rich in amino acids, such as meat, fish, eggs, and dairy products. In some cases, protein precursors may also be administered as supplements or medications to individuals who are unable to obtain sufficient amounts of these nutrients through their diet.
Plastoquinone is a coenzyme that plays a crucial role in the electron transport chain of photosynthesis in plants and some microorganisms. It is a lipophilic molecule that is bound to the thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. In the electron transport chain, plastoquinone accepts electrons from the primary electron donor, plastocyanin, and passes them on to the electron acceptor, cytochrome b6f complex. This process generates a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane, which is used to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Plastoquinone is also involved in the regulation of photosynthesis by modulating the flow of electrons through the electron transport chain. It can be reduced or oxidized depending on the redox state of the photosynthetic apparatus, and this change in redox state can affect the rate of photosynthesis. In the medical field, plastoquinone has been studied for its potential therapeutic effects. Some studies have suggested that plastoquinone may have antioxidant properties and may be useful in treating conditions such as neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential benefits and risks of plastoquinone supplementation.
Cloning, molecular, in the medical field refers to the process of creating identical copies of a specific DNA sequence or gene. This is achieved through a technique called polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which amplifies a specific DNA sequence to produce multiple copies of it. Molecular cloning is commonly used in medical research to study the function of specific genes, to create genetically modified organisms for therapeutic purposes, and to develop new drugs and treatments. It is also used in forensic science to identify individuals based on their DNA. In the context of human cloning, molecular cloning is used to create identical copies of a specific gene or DNA sequence from one individual and insert it into the genome of another individual. This technique has been used to create transgenic animals, but human cloning is currently illegal in many countries due to ethical concerns.
In the medical field, angiosperms are a group of plants that produce seeds enclosed in an ovary, which develops into a fruit after fertilization. Angiosperms are also known as flowering plants or dicots, and they are the most diverse group of plants on Earth, with over 300,000 species. Angiosperms are important in medicine because many of them produce useful compounds, such as medicinal plants, that have been used for centuries to treat a variety of ailments. For example, aspirin is derived from the bark of the willow tree, which is an angiosperm, and digitalis, a heart medication, is derived from the foxglove plant, another angiosperm. In addition to their medicinal uses, angiosperms are also important in agriculture, as they provide food, fiber, and other resources for humans and animals. Many crops, such as wheat, rice, and corn, are angiosperms, and they are also used to produce biofuels and other industrial products. Overall, angiosperms play a crucial role in the functioning of ecosystems and have significant economic and medicinal value.
RNA, Algal refers to RNA molecules that are derived from algae, which are a diverse group of photosynthetic organisms that include plants, seaweeds, and cyanobacteria. Algal RNA can be used in various medical applications, such as in the development of new drugs and therapies, as well as in the study of gene expression and regulation in algae. Algal RNA can also be used as a source of RNA for research purposes, such as in the study of gene function and the development of new diagnostic tests.
Fructose-bisphosphatase (FBP) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the regulation of glycolysis, the metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce energy. It catalyzes the hydrolysis of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP) to fructose-6-phosphate (F6P) and inorganic phosphate (Pi), which is an important step in the glycolytic pathway. FBP is found in most tissues, but it is particularly abundant in liver and red blood cells. In the liver, FBP is involved in the regulation of blood glucose levels by controlling the rate of glycolysis. When blood glucose levels are high, FBP activity increases, which slows down glycolysis and prevents the overproduction of glucose. Conversely, when blood glucose levels are low, FBP activity decreases, which speeds up glycolysis and helps to maintain normal blood glucose levels. FBP is also important in the regulation of gluconeogenesis, the process by which the liver produces glucose from non-carbohydrate sources such as amino acids and glycerol. In gluconeogenesis, FBP is the first enzyme in the pathway, and its activity is regulated by hormones such as insulin and glucagon. In summary, fructose-bisphosphatase is a key enzyme in the regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, and plays an important role in maintaining normal blood glucose levels.
Plastocyanin is a small, water-soluble protein that plays a crucial role in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. It is a blue copper protein that acts as an electron carrier, shuttling electrons from the cytochrome b6f complex to the photosystem I complex in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts. In the medical field, plastocyanin has been studied for its potential use in the treatment of certain diseases. For example, it has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, which may make it useful in the treatment of conditions such as cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and cardiovascular disease. Additionally, plastocyanin has been proposed as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of certain types of blindness, as it may be able to help restore vision by promoting the regeneration of photoreceptor cells in the retina.
Group I chaperonins are a class of molecular chaperones that are found in all domains of life, including bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes. They are large, multisubunit protein complexes that function to assist in the folding of newly synthesized polypeptides, as well as the refolding of misfolded proteins. Group I chaperonins are composed of two stacked rings of protein subunits, with the inner ring forming a hydrophobic cavity that is thought to provide a protected environment for the folding of polypeptides. The outer ring of the chaperonin contains ATPase activity, which is thought to drive the conformational changes that allow the polypeptide to fold properly. Group I chaperonins play an important role in maintaining cellular protein homeostasis and are involved in a number of cellular processes, including protein synthesis, protein degradation, and the assembly of large macromolecular complexes.
I'm sorry, but "Bryopsida" is not a term commonly used in the medical field. In the field of botany, Bryopsida is a division of non-vascular plants known as mosses. Mosses are small, non-vascular plants that typically grow in damp environments and are often found in forests, on rocks, and on the ground. They are important components of many ecosystems and play a role in nutrient cycling and soil formation. If you have any other questions or if there is something else I can help you with, please let me know.
Protochlorophyllide is a green pigment that is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of chlorophyll, the green pigment found in plants and some bacteria. It is synthesized in the chloroplasts of plant cells and is converted to chlorophyll by the enzyme chlorophyllase. Protochlorophyllide is important in the process of photosynthesis, as it is the precursor to chlorophyll and is necessary for the conversion of light energy into chemical energy. In the medical field, protochlorophyllide is sometimes used as a supplement to treat certain types of anemia, as it can help increase the production of red blood cells.
RNA, Ribosomal (rRNA) is a type of RNA that is essential for protein synthesis in cells. It is a major component of ribosomes, which are the cellular structures responsible for translating the genetic information stored in messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. rRNA is synthesized in the nucleolus of the cell and is composed of several distinct regions, including the 18S, 5.8S, and 28S subunits in eukaryotic cells, and the 16S and 23S subunits in prokaryotic cells. These subunits come together to form the ribosomal subunits, which then assemble into a complete ribosome. The rRNA molecules within the ribosome serve several important functions during protein synthesis. They provide a platform for the mRNA molecule to bind and serve as a template for the assembly of the ribosome's protein synthesis machinery. They also participate in the catalytic steps of protein synthesis, including the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids. In summary, RNA, Ribosomal (rRNA) is a critical component of ribosomes and plays a central role in the process of protein synthesis in cells.
Membrane proteins are proteins that are embedded within the lipid bilayer of a cell membrane. They play a crucial role in regulating the movement of substances across the membrane, as well as in cell signaling and communication. There are several types of membrane proteins, including integral membrane proteins, which span the entire membrane, and peripheral membrane proteins, which are only in contact with one or both sides of the membrane. Membrane proteins can be classified based on their function, such as transporters, receptors, channels, and enzymes. They are important for many physiological processes, including nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and cell growth and division.
Ferredoxins are small, soluble electron transfer proteins that play a crucial role in cellular respiration and photosynthesis. They are found in a wide range of organisms, including bacteria, plants, and animals. In the context of cellular respiration, ferredoxins are involved in the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another, ultimately leading to the production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the energy currency of the cell. They are also involved in the detoxification of harmful molecules, such as hydrogen peroxide. In photosynthesis, ferredoxins are involved in the transfer of electrons from water to carbon dioxide, ultimately leading to the production of glucose and oxygen. They are also involved in the regulation of photosynthesis by controlling the flow of electrons through the photosynthetic electron transport chain. Ferredoxins are typically composed of four to eight alpha-helices and have a molecular weight of around 10-15 kDa. They are often found in association with other proteins, such as ferredoxin reductases, which are involved in the reduction of ferredoxins to their reduced form.
Thioredoxins are a family of small, redox-active proteins that are found in all living organisms. They are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including the regulation of gene expression, the detoxification of reactive oxygen species, and the maintenance of cellular redox homeostasis. Thioredoxins contain a conserved active site that contains a disulfide bond, which can be reduced or oxidized depending on the cellular redox state. This allows thioredoxins to participate in redox reactions, in which they transfer electrons from one molecule to another. In the medical field, thioredoxins have been studied for their potential therapeutic applications. For example, they have been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer effects, and they may be useful in the treatment of a variety of diseases, including cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer.
Cyanobacteria are a group of photosynthetic bacteria that are commonly found in aquatic environments such as freshwater, saltwater, and soil. They are also known as blue-green algae or blue-green bacteria. In the medical field, cyanobacteria are of interest because some species can produce toxins that can cause illness in humans and animals. These toxins can be harmful when ingested, inhaled, or come into contact with the skin. Exposure to cyanobacterial toxins can cause a range of symptoms, including skin irritation, respiratory problems, and gastrointestinal issues. In addition to their potential to cause illness, cyanobacteria are also being studied for their potential medical applications. Some species of cyanobacteria produce compounds that have been shown to have anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-bacterial properties. These compounds are being investigated as potential treatments for a variety of medical conditions, including cancer, diabetes, and infectious diseases.
Ferredoxin-NADP reductase (FNR) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the electron transport chain of photosynthesis and respiration in plants, algae, and some bacteria. It catalyzes the transfer of electrons from ferredoxin, a small iron-sulfur protein, to NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate), reducing it to NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen). In photosynthesis, FNR is involved in the light-dependent reactions, where it receives electrons from the photosystem I complex and passes them on to the photosystem II complex, which uses them to split water molecules and produce oxygen. In respiration, FNR is involved in the light-independent reactions, where it receives electrons from the cytochrome b6f complex and passes them on to the NADP+ pool, which is used in the Calvin cycle to fix carbon dioxide into organic compounds. FNR is a key enzyme in the regulation of photosynthesis and respiration, and its activity is influenced by various factors such as light intensity, temperature, and nutrient availability. Mutations in the FNR gene can lead to defects in photosynthesis and respiration, which can affect plant growth and development.
Phototropins are a type of photoreceptor protein found in plants, algae, and some bacteria. They are responsible for mediating the plant's response to light, particularly in the regulation of growth and development. There are two main types of phototropins: phototropin 1 (phot1) and phototropin 2 (phot2). Both phot1 and phot2 contain a light-sensitive domain called the LOV (Light, Oxygen, or Voltage) domain, which undergoes a conformational change in response to blue light. This change triggers a signaling cascade that ultimately leads to changes in the plant's growth and development. Phototropins play a crucial role in regulating plant growth and development, including phototropism (the bending of plant shoots towards light), chloroplast movement, and leaf expansion. They also play a role in the regulation of flowering time and seedling development. In the medical field, phototropins have been studied for their potential therapeutic applications. For example, they have been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer effects, and they may be useful in the treatment of skin diseases and other conditions. Additionally, phototropins have been used as a model system for studying protein-protein interactions and signal transduction pathways.
DNA, Algal refers to the genetic material of algae, which is a diverse group of photosynthetic organisms that includes plants, seaweeds, and other aquatic plants. In the medical field, DNA from algae is sometimes used in research or as a source of therapeutic compounds. For example, some algae contain pigments called carotenoids that have antioxidant properties and may have potential health benefits. Additionally, algae are being studied as a source of biofuels, which could have implications for the medical field as a potential alternative to fossil fuels.
Ribosomal proteins are a group of proteins that are essential components of ribosomes, which are the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. Ribosomes are composed of both ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and ribosomal proteins, and together they form the machinery that translates messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. There are over 80 different types of ribosomal proteins, each with a specific function within the ribosome. Some ribosomal proteins are located in the ribosome's core, where they help to stabilize the structure of the ribosome and facilitate the binding of mRNA and transfer RNA (tRNA). Other ribosomal proteins are located on the surface of the ribosome, where they play a role in the catalytic activity of the ribosome during protein synthesis. In the medical field, ribosomal proteins are of interest because they are involved in a number of important biological processes, including cell growth, division, and differentiation. Abnormalities in the expression or function of ribosomal proteins have been linked to a variety of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and infectious diseases. As such, ribosomal proteins are the subject of ongoing research in the fields of molecular biology, genetics, and medicine.
The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells that contains the cell's genetic material, or DNA. It is typically located in the center of the cell and is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nucleus is responsible for regulating gene expression and controlling the cell's activities. It contains a dense, irregularly shaped mass of chromatin, which is made up of DNA and associated proteins. The nucleus also contains a small body called the nucleolus, which is responsible for producing ribosomes, the cellular structures that synthesize proteins.
In the medical field, starch refers to a type of carbohydrate that is found in plants, particularly in grains such as wheat, corn, and potatoes. Starch is a complex carbohydrate that is made up of long chains of glucose molecules. Starch is an important source of energy for the body and is broken down into glucose during digestion. It is also used in the production of various medical products, such as intravenous fluids, medications, and medical devices. In some cases, starch may be used as a thickening agent in medical products, such as eye drops or nasal sprays. It can also be used as a filler in certain medications to help with their texture or consistency. However, it is important to note that not all starches are created equal. Some types of starch, such as amylose, are more easily digested than others, such as amylopectin. Additionally, some people may have difficulty digesting certain types of starches, which can lead to digestive issues such as bloating or diarrhea.
In the medical field, the term "Cytochrome b Group" refers to a family of electron transport proteins that are involved in the electron transport chain (ETC) in mitochondria. The cytochrome b group is a component of the respiratory chain, which is responsible for generating ATP (adenosine triphosphate) from the energy released during the oxidation of nutrients. The cytochrome b group consists of several subunits, including cytochrome b, cytochrome c1, and Rieske iron-sulfur protein. These subunits work together to transfer electrons from one molecule to another, ultimately transferring them to oxygen to form water. Mutations in the genes encoding the cytochrome b group can lead to a variety of mitochondrial disorders, including Leigh syndrome, myopathy, and encephalopathy. These disorders are characterized by muscle weakness, developmental delays, and neurological problems.
Ascorbate Peroxidases (APXs) are a group of enzymes that play a crucial role in the detoxification of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plants and animals. They are members of the peroxidase family of enzymes and are found in various tissues and organelles, including chloroplasts, mitochondria, and the cytosol. In plants, APXs are involved in the protection against oxidative stress caused by environmental factors such as drought, salinity, and high light intensity. They catalyze the reduction of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to water (H2O) using ascorbic acid (vitamin C) as a reducing agent. This reaction helps to prevent the accumulation of H2O2, which can cause damage to cellular components such as proteins, lipids, and DNA. In animals, APXs are also involved in the detoxification of ROS, but their role is less well understood. They have been implicated in the regulation of redox signaling and the protection against oxidative stress caused by various factors, including aging, inflammation, and exposure to toxins. Overall, APXs are important enzymes that help to maintain cellular homeostasis by protecting against oxidative stress and preventing damage to cellular components.
In the medical field, RNA, Messenger (mRNA) refers to a type of RNA molecule that carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus of a cell to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized. During the process of transcription, the DNA sequence of a gene is copied into a complementary RNA sequence called messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA molecule then leaves the nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm of the cell, where it binds to ribosomes and serves as a template for the synthesis of a specific protein. The sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule determines the sequence of amino acids in the protein that is synthesized. Therefore, changes in the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule can result in changes in the amino acid sequence of the protein, which can affect the function of the protein and potentially lead to disease. mRNA molecules are often used in medical research and therapy as a way to introduce new genetic information into cells. For example, mRNA vaccines work by introducing a small piece of mRNA that encodes for a specific protein, which triggers an immune response in the body.
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that carries genetic information in living organisms. It is composed of four types of nitrogen-containing molecules called nucleotides, which are arranged in a specific sequence to form the genetic code. In the medical field, DNA is often studied as a tool for understanding and diagnosing genetic disorders. Genetic disorders are caused by changes in the DNA sequence that can affect the function of genes, leading to a variety of health problems. By analyzing DNA, doctors and researchers can identify specific genetic mutations that may be responsible for a particular disorder, and develop targeted treatments or therapies to address the underlying cause of the condition. DNA is also used in forensic science to identify individuals based on their unique genetic fingerprint. This is because each person's DNA sequence is unique, and can be used to distinguish one individual from another. DNA analysis is also used in criminal investigations to help solve crimes by linking DNA evidence to suspects or victims.
Protein sorting signals are specific amino acid sequences within a protein that serve as instructions for directing the protein to its proper location within a cell or to a specific organelle within the cell. These signals are recognized by receptors or chaperones within the cell, which then guide the protein to its destination. Protein sorting signals are critical for proper protein function and localization within the cell, and defects in these signals can lead to a variety of diseases and disorders. Examples of protein sorting signals include the signal peptide, which directs proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum for processing and secretion, and the nuclear localization signal, which directs proteins to the nucleus for gene regulation.
Bryophyta is a division of non-vascular plants that includes mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. These plants are characterized by their small size, simple structure, and lack of true roots, stems, and leaves. In the medical field, bryophytes have been used for various purposes, including as traditional medicines, food sources, and ornamental plants. Some species of mosses and liverworts have been found to have antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties, and are being studied for their potential use in treating various diseases. Additionally, bryophytes are important indicators of environmental health, as they are sensitive to changes in air and water quality.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a molecule that serves as the primary energy currency in living cells. It is composed of three phosphate groups attached to a ribose sugar and an adenine base. In the medical field, ATP is essential for many cellular processes, including muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and the synthesis of macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. ATP is produced through cellular respiration, which involves the breakdown of glucose and other molecules to release energy that is stored in the bonds of ATP. Disruptions in ATP production or utilization can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including muscle weakness, fatigue, and neurological disorders. In addition, ATP is often used as a diagnostic tool in medical testing, as levels of ATP can be measured in various bodily fluids and tissues to assess cellular health and function.
ATP synthetase complexes are a group of enzymes that play a crucial role in cellular energy metabolism. These complexes are responsible for the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the primary energy currency of the cell. ATP synthetase complexes are found in the inner mitochondrial membrane, the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts, and in the plasma membrane of some bacteria. The ATP synthetase complex is a large, multi-subunit enzyme that uses a proton gradient to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. The proton gradient is generated by the electron transport chain, which is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotic cells and in the plasma membrane of bacteria. The energy from the proton gradient is used to drive the synthesis of ATP by the ATP synthetase complex. ATP synthetase complexes are essential for the survival of cells, as they provide the energy needed for cellular processes such as metabolism, growth, and reproduction. Dysfunction of ATP synthetase complexes can lead to a variety of diseases, including metabolic disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer.
Biological transport refers to the movement of molecules, such as nutrients, waste products, and signaling molecules, across cell membranes and through the body's various transport systems. This process is essential for maintaining homeostasis, which is the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment. There are several mechanisms of biological transport, including passive transport, active transport, facilitated diffusion, and endocytosis. Passive transport occurs when molecules move down a concentration gradient, from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Active transport, on the other hand, requires energy to move molecules against a concentration gradient. Facilitated diffusion involves the use of transport proteins to move molecules across the cell membrane. Endocytosis is a process by which cells take in molecules from the extracellular environment by engulfing them in vesicles. In the medical field, understanding the mechanisms of biological transport is important for understanding how drugs and other therapeutic agents are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted by the body. This knowledge can be used to design drugs that are more effective and have fewer side effects. It is also important for understanding how diseases, such as cancer and diabetes, affect the body's transport systems and how this can be targeted for treatment.
In the medical field, "Adiantum" typically refers to a type of fern commonly known as maidenhair fern. The scientific name for maidenhair fern is Adiantum capillus-veneris, and it is a popular ornamental plant that is often used in gardens and indoor spaces. Maidenhair ferns are known for their delicate, feathery fronds that can grow up to several feet long. They are also known for their ability to thrive in a variety of environments, including humid tropical forests, temperate forests, and even in urban areas. In traditional medicine, maidenhair fern has been used to treat a variety of conditions, including respiratory problems, digestive issues, and skin conditions. However, there is limited scientific evidence to support these uses, and more research is needed to determine the safety and effectiveness of maidenhair fern as a medicinal plant.
Chloroplast
Chloroplast DNA
Chloroplast membrane
Chloroplast capture
Chloroplast sensor kinase
Chloroplast protein-transporting ATPase
Amphidinium
Evolution of molecular chaperones
Cyanobacteria
Lynn Margulis
Pseudomuriella
Dictyochloris
Botany
Photosynthesis
Blidingia minima
1954 in science
Protein targeting
Daniel I. Arnon
Bracteamorpha
R. John Ellis
Steve A. Kay
Mary Belle Allen
Ceratoperidiniaeceae
Photophosphorylation
Marine primary production
Loxopterygium
Metabolism
Robin Hill (biochemist)
Anthony Cashmore
Hill reaction
Chloroplasts in the leaf cells of Elodea canadensis (Canadian waterweed) | Nikon's Small World
Plant growth in elevated CO2 alters mitochondrial number and chloroplast fine structure | Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
British Library EThOS: Recombinant protein production in the chloroplast of microalgae : a systems biology approach
UAFS Professor, Students, Awarded Research Grant to Study Chloroplast DNA
Light-Induced Movements of Chloroplasts and Nuclei Are Regulated in Both Cp-Actin-Filament-Dependent and -Independent Manners...
Directed chloroplast transformati... | Archive ouverte UNIGE
Characterization of Tryptophan Oxidation Affecting D1 Degradation by FtsH in the Photosystem II Quality Control of Chloroplasts
PLAZA 3.0 Dicots MapMan : 29.2.1.1.1.2.33 (protein.synthesis.ribosomal protein.prokaryotic.chloroplast.50S subunit.L33)
Chloroplast solar engines under Motor Control Circuits -3949- : Next.gr
CHLOROPLAST DIVISION IN THE GAMETOPHYTE OF THE FERN MATTEUCCIA STRUTHIOPTERIS (L.) TODARO | Journal of Cell Biology |...
chloroplasts QuickView - Correlation Engine
Chloroplast - wikidoc
Flashcards - CP 11 Chloroplast Pigments - Edexcel (B) Biology A-Level - PMT
client apple | Chloroplast Games
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Difference Between Mitochondria and Chloroplast
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Outer-Membrane-of-Chloroplast - Botany Studies
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Protein Power: Solar cell produces electricity from spinach and bacterial proteins
why are the chloroplasts called 'kitchen of the cell' - FreneticKNOWLEDGE
Reprogramming bacterial protein organelles as a nanoreactor for hydrogen production | Nature Communications
Chlorophyll Vs Chloroplast: What's The Difference? » Differencess
Reproduction: How can the division of labor of cells prevail? | Max-Planck-Gesellschaft
MY GROWING PASSION: The Evolution of Chloroplasts: endosymbiosis and horizontal gene transfer
Subpopulations of chloroplast ribosomes change during photoregulated development of Zea mays leaves: Ribosomal proteins L2, L21...
035-20]The Nitrogen Content of Oat Chloroplasts | Illinois State Academy of Science - since 1907
MDxHealth Archives - GEN - Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News
Homework for Lesson 1. The Cell: Endomembrane System, Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, Cytoskeleton, and Extracellular Components -...
Responsible for photosynthesis3
- Chloroplasts, on the other hand, are responsible for photosynthesis, converting light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose. (transkerja.com)
- Mitochondria are responsible for energy conversion in cells, while chloroplasts are responsible for photosynthesis. (transkerja.com)
- Chloroplasts are organelles within cells that contain chlorophyll and are responsible for photosynthesis. (differencess.com)
Mitochondria15
- Growth in elevated CO2 increased numbers of mitochondria per unit cell area by 1.3-2.4 times the number in control plants grown in lower CO2 and produced a statistically significant increase in the amount of chloroplast stroma (nonappressed) thylakoid membranes compared with those in lower CO2 treatments. (columbia.edu)
- [3] In that they derive from an endosymbiotic event, chloroplasts are similar to mitochondria but chloroplasts are found only in plants and protista . (wikidoc.org)
- Mitochondria and chloroplasts are two important organelles found within eukaryotic cells that play critical roles in energy conversion and photosynthesis, respectively. (transkerja.com)
- Despite their similarities in origin and structure, mitochondria and chloroplasts differ significantly in their functions and cellular roles. (transkerja.com)
- Mitochondria and chloroplasts are two important organelles found within eukaryotic cells. (transkerja.com)
- Reproduction: Mitochondria and chloroplasts can both reproduce independently of the host cell through a process known as binary fission. (transkerja.com)
- In conclusion, while mitochondria and chloroplasts share some similarities in their origin and structure, they have distinct differences in their function, cellular roles, and evolutionary history. (transkerja.com)
- Mitochondria and chloroplasts are both organelles found within eukaryotic cells, and they share some similarities in their structure and evolutionary history. (transkerja.com)
- This is supported by the fact that both mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA, which is separate from the nuclear DNA of the host cell. (transkerja.com)
- However, the functions of mitochondria and chloroplasts are distinct from one another. (transkerja.com)
- Mitochondria are found in all eukaryotic cells, while chloroplasts are only found in photosynthetic organisms such as plants and algae. (transkerja.com)
- Mitochondria are essential for cellular respiration and energy metabolism, while chloroplasts are crucial for providing energy to plants and for the oxygenation of the atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis. (transkerja.com)
- Although only green plants possess chloroplasts in their cells, all animal and plant cells have mitochondria, a specialised organelle that oxidises (burns) sugar and provides energy for cells to work. (growingpassion.org)
- Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own, circular DNA that replicates independently from the DNA in the cell's nucleus. (growingpassion.org)
- Over the course of plant evolution since the original endosymbiotic events, interactions have occurred between genes in the chloroplasts, nucleii and mitochondria. (growingpassion.org)
Photosynthesis10
- Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis . (wikidoc.org)
- Chloroplasts capture light energy to conserve free energy in the form of ATP and reduce NADP to NADPH through a complex set of processes called photosynthesis. (wikidoc.org)
- The chloroplast is an important organelle found in plant cells that conduct photosynthesis. (microbenotes.com)
- Because the roots are underground, so they cannot get light which is what chloroplasts need to carry out photosynthesis. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
- Chlorophyll and chloroplast are two of the many types of photosynthesis that occur in plants. (differencess.com)
- Chlorophyll is found in the leaves, chloroplasts are found in the cells of chlorophyll, and they perform different roles in photosynthesis. (differencess.com)
- Chloroplasts are organelles within cells that perform photosynthesis. (differencess.com)
- Overall, the difference between chlorophyll and chloroplasts is mostly minor and impacts the way they perform photosynthesis relatively little. (differencess.com)
- Chlorophyll and chloroplast are two types of photosynthesis. (differencess.com)
- Chloroplasts play an important role in photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert sunlight into glucose. (differencess.com)
Eukaryotic cell3
- In some algae (such as the heterokonts and other protists such as Euglenozoa and Cercozoa ), chloroplasts seem to have evolved through a secondary event of endosymbiosis, in which a eukaryotic cell engulfed a second eukaryotic cell containing chloroplasts, forming chloroplasts with three or four membrane layers. (wikidoc.org)
- Chloroplasts are believed to have originated from a photosynthetic bacterium that was also engulfed by a eukaryotic cell through endosymbiosis. (transkerja.com)
- Below is a graphic I've put together to show the two crucial stages in the incorporation of photosynthesising prokaryotes into proto-eukaryotic cells, leading to a true eukaryotic cell with both a mitochondrion and a chloroplast. (growingpassion.org)
Stroma2
- The material within the chloroplast is called the stroma, corresponding to the cytosol of the original bacterium, and contains one or more molecules of small circular DNA. (wikidoc.org)
- The chloroplast fraction can be further extracted to obtain membrane, stroma, or thylakoid proteins as well as chloroplastic DNA and RNA. (microbenotes.com)
Membrane4
- Shaver will use the $39,750 grant to fund an investigation of the "Influence of Membrane Desaturation and Biotic Stress on Chloroplast DNA Integrity. (uafs.edu)
- This summer research project involves studying the effects of chloroplast membrane saturation on the maintenance of chloroplast DNA and susceptibility to aphid infestation using wild-type and mutant Arabidopsis and tomato plants. (uafs.edu)
- The chloroplast is contained by an envelope that consists of an inner and an outer phospholipid membrane. (wikidoc.org)
- Chloroplasts are usually disk-shaped and have a double membrane, with an additional internal membrane system known as thylakoids. (transkerja.com)
Protein6
- Using the expression of E. coli β-glucuronidase (gus) in C. reinhardtii chloroplast, the overall aim of the project was to address if the low recombinant gus yield in C. reinhardtii was due to limitations that affect growth and protein production, and if the fluxes for recombinant gus production were suboptimal (limiting). (bl.uk)
- The chloroplast gene psaC encoding the iron sulfur protein of photosystem I (PSI) from the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii has been cloned and characterized. (unige.ch)
- Further characterization of Trp-14 using chloroplast transformation in Chlamydomonas indicated that substitution of D1 Trp-14 to Phe, mimicking Trp oxidation enhanced FtsH-mediated D1 degradation under high light, although the substitution did not affect protein stability and PSII activity. (elifesciences.org)
- It also contains ribosomes , although most of its proteins are encoded by genes contained in the host cell nucleus, with the protein products transported to the chloroplast. (wikidoc.org)
- Chloroplasts are the best starting material for studies of chloroplastic processes such as carbon assimilation, electron flow and phosphorylation, metabolic transport, or protein targeting. (microbenotes.com)
- Chloroplasts have a special protein called chloroplast ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase that helps the plant convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose. (differencess.com)
Membranes4
- In green plants, chloroplasts are surrounded by two lipid-bilayer membranes . (wikidoc.org)
- Isolation of Chloroplast Inner and Outer Envelope Membranes. (microbenotes.com)
- Chloroplasts use a proton gradient to transport molecules across their thylakoid membranes. (transkerja.com)
- L JV We concluded that maceration methods were unsuccessful due to lignification of mesophyll cell walls detected histochemically (Fig. 6 How many membranes surround each chloroplast? (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
Carbon dioxide5
- Chloroplasts absorb light and use it in conjunction with water and carbon dioxide to produce sugars, the raw material for energy and biomass production in all green plants and the animals that depend on them, directly or indirectly, for food. (wikidoc.org)
- Chloroplasts help plants to convert carbon dioxide into glucose and other nutrients. (differencess.com)
- The primary function of chloroplasts is to convert light energy into chemical energy that can be used by the plant to create glucose from carbon dioxide and water. (differencess.com)
- All green plants contain chloroplasts, amazing molecular machines which use carbon dioxide, water and photons from sunlight to create sugar and oxygen. (growingpassion.org)
- Chloroplasts, able to perform feats well beyond human technology--the efficient splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen, and the synthesis of sugars from water and carbon dioxide to chemically store energy--are extremely complex structures. (growingpassion.org)
Photosynthetic organisms1
- Chloroplasts are only found in photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and algae. (transkerja.com)
Chlorophyll13
- The chloroplasts contain the pigment chlorophyll. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
- NH 2 OH-treated, non-water oxidizing chloroplasts are shown to be capable of oxidizing ferrocyanide and I - via Photosystem II at appreciable rates (≥ 200 μequiv/h per mg chlorophyll). (illinois.edu)
- Chlorophyll Vs Chloroplast: What's The Difference? (differencess.com)
- In this article, we'll explore the differences between chlorophyll and chloroplast, and what they contribute to plant health. (differencess.com)
- Chloroplasts are organelles in plants that use chlorophyll to make food. (differencess.com)
- The main difference between chlorophyll and chloroplast is that chlorophyll allows light to pass through it while chloroplasts protect the plant from oxidative damage. (differencess.com)
- For example, chloroplasts are larger than chlorophyll and have more complex structures. (differencess.com)
- Chloroplasts are similar to chlorophyll, but they are in cells in the plant's leaves and flowers. (differencess.com)
- Chloroplasts are cells in plants that contain chlorophyll. (differencess.com)
- Chlorophyll is the primary pigment in plant cells, while chloroplast is an organelle in plants that uses sunlight to create energy. (differencess.com)
- In general, chlorophyll helps plants extract oxygen from the air, while chloroplast helps plants create their own food sources. (differencess.com)
- Chloroplasts are organelles within plants that contain chlorophyll. (differencess.com)
- Chloroplasts are organelles within cells that are responsible for the synthesis of chlorophyll. (differencess.com)
Genome2
- Chloroplasts have their own genome, which is considerably reduced compared to that of free-living cyanobacteria, but the parts that are still present show clear similarities with the cyanobacterial genome. (wikidoc.org)
- Phylogenetic analysis using a total chloroplast genome DNA sequence of 28 species revealed a close relationship between A. tsao-ko and A. paratsaoko with 100% bootstrap value. (bvsalud.org)
Endosymbiotic1
- [2] All eukaryote chloroplasts are thought to derive directly or indirectly from a single endosymbiotic event (in the Archaeplastida ), except for Paulinella chromatophora , which has recently acquired a photosynthetic cyanobacterial endosymbiont which is not closely related to chloroplasts of other eukaryotes. (wikidoc.org)
Plants2
- Comments 'Whereas wild-type plants have 80 to 120 chloroplasts per mesophyll cell, the accumulation and regulation of chloroplast (arc) mutants used in this study have between one and about 30 chloroplasts per mesophyll cell (Table III). (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
- Chloroplasts help the plant photosynthesize, which is the process by which plants make their own food from sunlight and water. (differencess.com)
Tissue3
- In chloroplast isolation method, first the cell wall is broken mechanically using a blender or homogenizer and then subjected to filtration to remove the unbroken leaf tissue and the cellular debris. (microbenotes.com)
- The tissue chlorenchymahas chloroplast in cells. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
- Which tissue has chloroplast in cell? (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
Algae1
- In algae, chromatophores refer to CHLOROPLASTS. (bvsalud.org)
Phosphorylation1
- Izawa, S & Ort, DR 1974, ' Photooxidation of ferrocyanide and iodide ions and associated phosphorylation in NH 2 OH-treated chloroplasts ', BBA - Bioenergetics , vol. 357, no. 1, pp. 127-143. (illinois.edu)
Sunlight2
- How would that change the amount of sunlight reaching the chloroplasts in the palisade layer? (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
- This is why chloroplasts help us live longer because they allow us to produce food from sunlight. (differencess.com)
Leaf1
- Another method frequently used for the estimation of chloroplast number per mesophyll cell in 2D is based on counting chloroplast profiles in semi-thin (14 m thick) physical sections of a leaf using transmission electron and light microscopy (Boffey et al. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
Stacks1
- These cells have more chloroplasts than other mesophyll cells, and their chloroplasts are arranged in long, thin stacks. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
Gene3
- Using a particle gun, wild type C. reinhardtii cells have been transformed with a plasmid carrying the psaC gene disrupted by an aadA gene cassette designed to express spectinomycin/streptomycin resistance in the chloroplast. (unige.ch)
- The present study suggests that any chloroplast gene encoding a component of the photosynthetic apparatus can be disrupted in C. reinhardtii using the strategy described. (unige.ch)
- Maintenance of chloroplast structure and function by overexpression of the rice MONOGALACTOSYLDIACYLGLYCEROL SYNTHASE gene leads to enhanced salt tolerance in tobacco. (microbenotes.com)
Thick1
- Chloroplasts are observable morphologically as flat discs usually 2 to 10 micrometer in diameter and 1 micrometer thick. (wikidoc.org)
Species1
- Chloroplasts are inherited maternally in some species, but can also be inherited paternally in others. (transkerja.com)
Cells5
- Plant cells with visible chloroplasts. (wikidoc.org)
- 7 Can We estimate the number of chloroplast cells in 3D? (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
- Probes a, CF ), confocal microscopy chloroplast counting in separated spruce mesophyll cells sub-tissues. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
- In addition to the nucleus, guard cells contain chloroplasts, which are not present in other epidermal cells. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
- Chloroplasts also play an important role in the transfer of photosynthate between photosynthetic cells and the rest of the plant. (differencess.com)
Green2
- The intact chloroplast sediments to the bottom of the tube after Percoll centrifugation as a green pellet. (microbenotes.com)
- The round green organelles are chloroplasts. (growingpassion.org)
Energy2
- Fewer chloroplasts in the spongy mesophyll because most of the light energy is absorbed by the chloroplasts of the palisade mesophyll. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
- Chloroplast can also store energy from the sun and use it to create glucose, which is then used by the plant to create food. (differencess.com)
Important1
- There are a few reasons why chloroplasts are so important to plant biology. (differencess.com)
Similar2
- Chloroplasts also have their own DNA, which is similar to that of bacterial DNA. (transkerja.com)
- Chloroplasts also have ribosomes, but they are more similar to bacterial ribosomes. (transkerja.com)
Area1
- Is the Subject Area "Chloroplasts" applicable to this article? (plos.org)
Food1
- Chloroplasts are the machines of life, upon which we heterotrophs (organisms which can't create their own food, but instead rely on eating other organisms) depend. (growingpassion.org)
Round1
- The shape of chloroplasts is variable, from round to ellipsoid, or much more complex. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)