Chloroplasts. Medical search

Plant cell inclusion bodies that contain the photosynthetic pigment CHLOROPHYLL, which is associated with the membrane of THYLAKOIDS. Chloroplasts occur in cells of leaves and young stems of plants. They are also found in some forms of PHYTOPLANKTON such as HAPTOPHYTA; DINOFLAGELLATES; DIATOMS; and CRYPTOPHYTA.

Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of CHLOROPLASTS.

Proteins encoded by the CHLOROPLAST GENOME or proteins encoded by the nuclear genome that are imported to and resident in the CHOROPLASTS.

The genetic complement of CHLOROPLASTS as represented in their DNA.

Ribonucleic acid in chloroplasts having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.

Those nucleic acid sequences that function as units of heredity which are located within the CHLOROPLAST DNA.

Multicellular, eukaryotic life forms of kingdom Plantae (sensu lato), comprising the VIRIDIPLANTAE; RHODOPHYTA; and GLAUCOPHYTA; all of which acquired chloroplasts by direct endosymbiosis of CYANOBACTERIA. They are characterized by a mainly photosynthetic mode of nutrition; essentially unlimited growth at localized regions of cell divisions (MERISTEMS); cellulose within cells providing rigidity; the absence of organs of locomotion; absence of nervous and sensory systems; and an alternation of haploid and diploid generations.

Proteins found in plants (flowers, herbs, shrubs, trees, etc.). The concept does not include proteins found in vegetables for which VEGETABLE PROTEINS is available.

A species of fresh-water, flagellated EUKARYOTES in the phylum EUGLENIDA.

A variable annual leguminous vine (Pisum sativum) that is cultivated for its rounded smooth or wrinkled edible protein-rich seeds, the seed of the pea, and the immature pods with their included seeds. (From Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, 1973)

The synthesis by organisms of organic chemical compounds, especially carbohydrates, from carbon dioxide using energy obtained from light rather than from the oxidation of chemical compounds. Photosynthesis comprises two separate processes: the light reactions and the dark reactions. In higher plants; GREEN ALGAE; and CYANOBACTERIA; NADPH and ATP formed by the light reactions drive the dark reactions which result in the fixation of carbon dioxide. (from Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 2001)

A widely cultivated plant, native to Asia, having succulent, edible leaves eaten as a vegetable. (From American Heritage Dictionary, 1982)

Membranous cisternae of the CHLOROPLAST containing photosynthetic pigments, reaction centers, and the electron-transport chain. Each thylakoid consists of a flattened sac of membrane enclosing a narrow intra-thylakoid space (Lackie and Dow, Dictionary of Cell Biology, 2nd ed). Individual thylakoids are interconnected and tend to stack to form aggregates called grana. They are found in cyanobacteria and all plants.

A species of GREEN ALGAE. Delicate, hairlike appendages arise from the flagellar surface in these organisms.

Self-replicating cytoplasmic organelles of plant and algal cells that contain pigments and may synthesize and accumulate various substances. PLASTID GENOMES are used in phylogenetic studies.

Proton-translocating ATPases which produce ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE in plants. They derive energy from light-driven reactions that develop high concentrations of protons within the membranous cisternae (THYLAKOIDS) of the CHLOROPLASTS.

Porphyrin derivatives containing magnesium that act to convert light energy in photosynthetic organisms.

A plant genus of the family BRASSICACEAE that contains ARABIDOPSIS PROTEINS and MADS DOMAIN PROTEINS. The species A. thaliana is used for experiments in classical plant genetics as well as molecular genetic studies in plant physiology, biochemistry, and development.

A subtype of thioredoxins found primarily in CHLOROPLASTS.

Expanded structures, usually green, of vascular plants, characteristically consisting of a bladelike expansion attached to a stem, and functioning as the principal organ of photosynthesis and transpiration. (American Heritage Dictionary, 2d ed)

Proteins that originate from plants species belonging to the genus ARABIDOPSIS. The most intensely studied species of Arabidopsis, Arabidopsis thaliana, is commonly used in laboratory experiments.

That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared range.

A carboxy-lyase that plays a key role in photosynthetic carbon assimilation in the CALVIN-BENSON CYCLE by catalyzing the formation of 3-phosphoglycerate from ribulose 1,5-biphosphate and CARBON DIOXIDE. It can also utilize OXYGEN as a substrate to catalyze the synthesis of 2-phosphoglycolate and 3-phosphoglycerate in a process referred to as photorespiration.

Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.

A genus GREEN ALGAE in the order VOLVOCIDA. It consists of solitary biflagellated organisms common in fresh water and damp soil.

A phylum of photosynthetic EUKARYOTA bearing double membrane-bound plastids containing chlorophyll a and b. They comprise the classical green algae, and represent over 7000 species that live in a variety of primarily aquatic habitats. Only about ten percent are marine species, most live in freshwater.

Protein complexes that take part in the process of PHOTOSYNTHESIS. They are located within the THYLAKOID MEMBRANES of plant CHLOROPLASTS and a variety of structures in more primitive organisms. There are two major complexes involved in the photosynthetic process called PHOTOSYSTEM I and PHOTOSYSTEM II.

The use of light to convert ADP to ATP without the concomitant reduction of dioxygen to water as occurs during OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION in MITOCHONDRIA.

A large multisubunit protein complex found in the THYLAKOID MEMBRANE. It uses light energy derived from LIGHT-HARVESTING PROTEIN COMPLEXES to catalyze the splitting of WATER into DIOXYGEN and of reducing equivalents of HYDROGEN.

Plants whose roots, leaves, seeds, bark, or other constituent parts possess therapeutic, tonic, purgative, curative or other pharmacologic attributes, when administered to man or animals.

The functional hereditary units of PLANTS.

The large family of plants characterized by pods. Some are edible and some cause LATHYRISM or FAVISM and other forms of poisoning. Other species yield useful materials like gums from ACACIA and various LECTINS like PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS from PHASEOLUS. Many of them harbor NITROGEN FIXATION bacteria on their roots. Many but not all species of "beans" belong to this family.

A plant genus of the family SOLANACEAE. Members contain NICOTINE and other biologically active chemicals; its dried leaves are used for SMOKING.

A group of GLYCOLIPIDS in which the sugar group is GALACTOSE. They are distinguished from GLYCOSPHINGOLIPIDS in lacking nitrogen. They constitute the majority of MEMBRANE LIPIDS in PLANTS.

A genus of EUKARYOTES, in the phylum EUGLENIDA, found mostly in stagnant water. Characteristics include a pellicle usually marked by spiral or longitudinal striations.

Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in plants.

The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.

The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.

Proteins found in any species of algae.

The absence of light.

PLANTS, or their progeny, whose GENOME has been altered by GENETIC ENGINEERING.

Complexes containing CHLOROPHYLL and other photosensitive molecules. They serve to capture energy in the form of PHOTONS and are generally found as components of the PHOTOSYSTEM I PROTEIN COMPLEX or the PHOTOSYSTEM II PROTEIN COMPLEX.

A protein complex that includes CYTOCHROME B6 and CYTOCHROME F. It is found in the THYLAKOID MEMBRANE and plays an important role in process of PHOTOSYNTHESIS by transferring electrons from PLASTOQUINONE to PLASTOCYANIN or CYTOCHROME C6. The transfer of electrons is coupled to the transport of PROTONS across the membrane.

Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of plants.

Ribonucleic acid in plants having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.

Thin structures that encapsulate subcellular structures or ORGANELLES in EUKARYOTIC CELLS. They include a variety of membranes associated with the CELL NUCLEUS; the MITOCHONDRIA; the GOLGI APPARATUS; the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM; LYSOSOMES; PLASTIDS; and VACUOLES.

A plant species of the family POACEAE. It is a tall grass grown for its EDIBLE GRAIN, corn, used as food and animal FODDER.

The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.

One of the three domains of life (the others being BACTERIA and ARCHAEA), also called Eukarya. These are organisms whose cells are enclosed in membranes and possess a nucleus. They comprise almost all multicellular and many unicellular organisms, and are traditionally divided into groups (sometimes called kingdoms) including ANIMALS; PLANTS; FUNGI; and various algae and other taxa that were previously part of the old kingdom Protista.

Multisubunit enzymes that reversibly synthesize ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE. They are coupled to the transport of protons across a membrane.

Cytochromes f are found as components of the CYTOCHROME B6F COMPLEX. They play important role in the transfer of electrons from PHOTOSYSTEM I to PHOTOSYSTEM II.

Plants or plant parts which are harmful to man or other animals.

The genetic complement of a plant (PLANTS) as represented in its DNA.

Large and highly vacuolated cells possessing many chloroplasts occuring in the interior cross-section of leaves, juxtaposed between the epidermal layers.

A pre-emergent herbicide.

An organism of the vegetable kingdom suitable by nature for use as a food, especially by human beings. Not all parts of any given plant are edible but all parts of edible plants have been known to figure as raw or cooked food: leaves, roots, tubers, stems, seeds, buds, fruits, and flowers. The most commonly edible parts of plants are FRUIT, usually sweet, fleshy, and succulent. Most edible plants are commonly cultivated for their nutritional value and are referred to as VEGETABLES.

Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.

The degree of similarity between sequences of amino acids. This information is useful for the analyzing genetic relatedness of proteins and species.

A large multisubunit protein complex that is found in the THYLAKOID MEMBRANE. It uses light energy derived from LIGHT-HARVESTING PROTEIN COMPLEXES to drive electron transfer reactions that result in either the reduction of NADP to NADPH or the transport of PROTONS across the membrane.

A genus of green algae found in the Mediterranean and other warm seas.

A plant genus of the family POACEAE. The EDIBLE GRAIN, barley, is widely used as food.

A process that changes the nucleotide sequence of mRNA from that of the DNA template encoding it. Some major classes of RNA editing are as follows: 1, the conversion of cytosine to uracil in mRNA; 2, the addition of variable number of guanines at pre-determined sites; and 3, the addition and deletion of uracils, templated by guide-RNAs (RNA, GUIDE).

Protein precursors are the building blocks of proteins that are synthesized in the body from amino acids.

Polyunsaturated side-chain quinone derivative which is an important link in the electron transport chain of green plants during the photosynthetic conversion of light energy by photophosphorylation into the potential energy of chemical bonds.

The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.

Members of the group of vascular plants which bear flowers. They are differentiated from GYMNOSPERMS by their production of seeds within a closed chamber (OVARY, PLANT). The Angiosperms division is composed of two classes, the monocotyledons (Liliopsida) and dicotyledons (Magnoliopsida). Angiosperms represent approximately 80% of all known living plants.

The process of moving proteins from one cellular compartment (including extracellular) to another by various sorting and transport mechanisms such as gated transport, protein translocation, and vesicular transport.

Ribonucleic acid in algae having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.

An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of D-fructose 1,6-bisphosphate and water to D-fructose 6-phosphate and orthophosphate. EC 3.1.3.11.

A copper-containing plant protein that is a fundamental link in the electron transport chain of green plants during the photosynthetic conversion of light energy by photophosphorylation into the potential energy of chemical bonds.

A subcategory of chaperonins found in MITOCHONDRIA; CHLOROPLASTS; and BACTERIA. Group I chaperonins form into a barrel-shaped macromolecular structure that is enclosed by a separate lid-like protein component.

The arrangement of two or more amino acid or base sequences from an organism or organisms in such a way as to align areas of the sequences sharing common properties. The degree of relatedness or homology between the sequences is predicted computationally or statistically based on weights assigned to the elements aligned between the sequences. This in turn can serve as a potential indicator of the genetic relatedness between the organisms.

The process by which ELECTRONS are transported from a reduced substrate to molecular OXYGEN. (From Bennington, Saunders Dictionary and Encyclopedia of Laboratory Medicine and Technology, 1984, p270)

A class of plants within the Bryophyta comprising the mosses, which are found in both damp (including freshwater) and drier situations. Mosses possess erect or prostrate leafless stems, which give rise to leafless stalks bearing capsules. Spores formed in the capsules are released and grow to produce new plants. (Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990). Many small plants bearing the name moss are in fact not mosses. The "moss" found on the north side of trees is actually a green alga (CHLOROPHYTA). Irish moss is really a red alga (RHODOPHYTA). Beard lichen (beard moss), Iceland moss, oak moss, and reindeer moss are actually LICHENS. Spanish moss is a common name for both LICHENS and an air plant (TILLANDSIA usneoides) of the pineapple family. Club moss is an evergreen herb of the family LYCOPODIACEAE.

A photo-active pigment localized in prolamellar bodies occurring within the proplastids of dark-grown bean leaves. In the process of photoconversion, the highly fluorescent protochlorophyllide is converted to chlorophyll.

The most abundant form of RNA. Together with proteins, it forms the ribosomes, playing a structural role and also a role in ribosomal binding of mRNA and tRNAs. Individual chains are conventionally designated by their sedimentation coefficients. In eukaryotes, four large chains exist, synthesized in the nucleolus and constituting about 50% of the ribosome. (Dorland, 28th ed)

Proteins which are found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. They consist of two types, peripheral and integral proteins. They include most membrane-associated enzymes, antigenic proteins, transport proteins, and drug, hormone, and lectin receptors.

The process of cumulative change at the level of DNA; RNA; and PROTEINS, over successive generations.

Iron-containing proteins that transfer electrons, usually at a low potential, to flavoproteins; the iron is not present as in heme. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 5th ed)

Plants of the division Rhodophyta, commonly known as red algae, in which the red pigment (PHYCOERYTHRIN) predominates. However, if this pigment is destroyed, the algae can appear purple, brown, green, or yellow. Two important substances found in the cell walls of red algae are AGAR and CARRAGEENAN. Some rhodophyta are notable SEAWEED (macroalgae).

The biosynthesis of PEPTIDES and PROTEINS on RIBOSOMES, directed by MESSENGER RNA, via TRANSFER RNA that is charged with standard proteinogenic AMINO ACIDS.

The physiological processes, properties, and states characteristic of plants.

Hydrogen-donating proteins that participates in a variety of biochemical reactions including ribonucleotide reduction and reduction of PEROXIREDOXINS. Thioredoxin is oxidized from a dithiol to a disulfide when acting as a reducing cofactor. The disulfide form is then reduced by NADPH in a reaction catalyzed by THIOREDOXIN REDUCTASE.

A phylum of oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria comprised of unicellular to multicellular bacteria possessing CHLOROPHYLL a and carrying out oxygenic PHOTOSYNTHESIS. Cyanobacteria are the only known organisms capable of fixing both CARBON DIOXIDE (in the presence of light) and NITROGEN. Cell morphology can include nitrogen-fixing heterocysts and/or resting cells called akinetes. Formerly called blue-green algae, cyanobacteria were traditionally treated as ALGAE.

The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.

An enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation and reduction of FERREDOXIN or ADRENODOXIN in the presence of NADP. EC 1.18.1.2 was formerly listed as EC 1.6.7.1 and EC 1.6.99.4.

A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.

Blue-light receptors that regulate a range of physiological responses in PLANTS. Examples include: PHOTOTROPISM, light-induced stomatal opening, and CHLOROPLAST movements in response to changes in light intensity.

Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of algae.

Proteins found in ribosomes. They are believed to have a catalytic function in reconstituting biologically active ribosomal subunits.

Within a eukaryotic cell, a membrane-limited body which contains chromosomes and one or more nucleoli (CELL NUCLEOLUS). The nuclear membrane consists of a double unit-type membrane which is perforated by a number of pores; the outermost membrane is continuous with the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM. A cell may contain more than one nucleus. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)

Basic functional unit of plants.

Any of several BRASSICA species that are commonly called mustard. Brassica alba is white mustard, B. juncea is brown or Chinese mustard, and B. nigra is black, brown, or red mustard. The plant is grown both for mustard seed from which oil is extracted or used as SPICES, and for its greens used as VEGETABLES or ANIMAL FEED. There is no relationship to MUSTARD COMPOUNDS.

Any of a group of polysaccharides of the general formula (C6-H10-O5)n, composed of a long-chain polymer of glucose in the form of amylose and amylopectin. It is the chief storage form of energy reserve (carbohydrates) in plants.

A chemical reaction in which an electron is transferred from one molecule to another. The electron-donating molecule is the reducing agent or reductant; the electron-accepting molecule is the oxidizing agent or oxidant. Reducing and oxidizing agents function as conjugate reductant-oxidant pairs or redox pairs (Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, 1982, p471).

Semiautonomous, self-reproducing organelles that occur in the cytoplasm of all cells of most, but not all, eukaryotes. Each mitochondrion is surrounded by a double limiting membrane. The inner membrane is highly invaginated, and its projections are called cristae. Mitochondria are the sites of the reactions of oxidative phosphorylation, which result in the formation of ATP. They contain distinctive RIBOSOMES, transfer RNAs (RNA, TRANSFER); AMINO ACYL T RNA SYNTHETASES; and elongation and termination factors. Mitochondria depend upon genes within the nucleus of the cells in which they reside for many essential messenger RNAs (RNA, MESSENGER). Mitochondria are believed to have arisen from aerobic bacteria that established a symbiotic relationship with primitive protoeukaryotes. (King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)

Cytochromes (electron-transporting proteins) with protoheme (HEME B) as the prosthetic group.

Peroxidases that utilize ASCORBIC ACID as an electron donor to reduce HYDROGEN PEROXIDE to WATER. The reaction results in the production of monodehydroascorbic acid and DEHYDROASCORBIC ACID.

The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.

The sum of the weight of all the atoms in a molecule.

RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.

A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).

Very young plant after GERMINATION of SEEDS.

Electrophoresis in which a polyacrylamide gel is used as the diffusion medium.

Sequences of DNA in the genes that are located between the EXONS. They are transcribed along with the exons but are removed from the primary gene transcript by RNA SPLICING to leave mature RNA. Some introns code for separate genes.

The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.

Amino acid sequences found in transported proteins that selectively guide the distribution of the proteins to specific cellular compartments.

The sequential correspondence of nucleotides in one nucleic acid molecule with those of another nucleic acid molecule. Sequence homology is an indication of the genetic relatedness of different organisms and gene function.

A category of nucleic acid sequences that function as units of heredity and which code for the basic instructions for the development, reproduction, and maintenance of organisms.

A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.

A division of the plant kingdom. Bryophyta contains the subdivision, Musci, which contains the classes: Andreaeopsida, BRYOPSIDA, and SPHAGNOPSIDA.

An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter.

Multisubunit enzyme complexes that synthesize ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE from energy sources such as ions traveling through channels.

The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and drugs) through a biological system at the cellular level. The transport can be across cell membranes and epithelial layers. It also can occur within intracellular compartments and extracellular compartments.

The directional growth of organisms in response to light. In plants, aerial shoots usually grow towards light. The phototropic response is thought to be controlled by auxin (= AUXINS), a plant growth substance. (From Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990)

A plant genus of the family Pteridaceae. Members contain TRITERPENES. Some species in this genus are called maidenhair fern which is also a common name occasionally used for Lygodium (FERNS) and POLYPODIUM.

Magnesium ion-induced changes in the binding mode of adenylates to chloroplast coupling factor 1. (1/4503)

The effect of Mg2+ on the binding of adenylates to isolated chloroplast coupling factor 1 (CF1) was studied using CD spectrometry and ultrafiltration. At adenylate concentrations smaller than 100 muM, one mole of CF1 binds three moles of ATP (or ADP) regardless of the presence of Mg2+. In the presence of Mg2+, the first two ATP's bind to CF1 independently with the same binding constant of 2.5 X 10(-1) muM-1, then the third ATP binds with a much higher affinity of 10 muM-1. In the absence of Mg2+, the first ATP binds to CF1 with a binding constant of 2.5 X 10(-1) muM-1 then the other two ATP's bind less easily with the same binding constant of 4.0 X 10(-2) muM-1. The binding mode of ADP to CF1 is quite similar to that of ATP. In the presence of Mg2+, the binding constants of the first two ADP's are both 7.6 X 10(-2) muM-1, that of the third ADP being 4.0 muM-1. In the absence of Mg2+, the binding constant of the first ADP is 7.6 X 10(-2) muM-1, the constants of the other two ADP's both being 4.0 X 10(-2) muM-1. AMP caused a negligible change in CD. (+info)

Role of a novel photosystem II-associated carbonic anhydrase in photosynthetic carbon assimilation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. (2/4503)

Intracellular carbonic anhydrases (CA) in aquatic photosynthetic organisms are involved in the CO2-concentrating mechanism (CCM), which helps to overcome CO2 limitation in the environment. In the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, this CCM is initiated and maintained by the pH gradient created across the chloroplast thylakoid membranes by photosystem (PS) II-mediated electron transport. We show here that photosynthesis is stimulated by a novel, intracellular alpha-CA bound to the chloroplast thylakoids. It is associated with PSII on the lumenal side of the thylakoid membranes. We demonstrate that PSII in association with this lumenal CA operates to provide an ample flux of CO2 for carboxylation. (+info)

The localisation of 2-carboxy-D-arabinitol 1-phosphate and inhibition of Rubisco in leaves of Phaseolus vulgaris L. (3/4503)

A recent controversial report suggests that the nocturnal inhibitor of Rubisco, 2-carboxy-D-arabinitol 1-phosphate (CAIP), does not bind to Rubisco in vivo and therefore that CA1P has no physiological relevance to photosynthetic regulation. It is now proved that a direct rapid assay can be used to distinguish between Rubisco-bound and free CA1P, as postulated in the controversial report. Application of this direct assay demonstrates that CA1P is bound to Rubisco in vivo in dark-adapted leaves. Furthermore, CA1P is shown to be in the chloroplasts of mesophyll cells. Thus, CA1P does play a physiological role in the regulation of Rubisco. (+info)

Overexpression of the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry2Aa2 protein in chloroplasts confers resistance to plants against susceptible and Bt-resistant insects. (4/4503)

Evolving levels of resistance in insects to the bioinsecticide Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) can be dramatically reduced through the genetic engineering of chloroplasts in plants. When transgenic tobacco leaves expressing Cry2Aa2 protoxin in chloroplasts were fed to susceptible, Cry1A-resistant (20,000- to 40,000-fold) and Cry2Aa2-resistant (330- to 393-fold) tobacco budworm Heliothis virescens, cotton bollworm Helicoverpa zea, and the beet armyworm Spodoptera exigua, 100% mortality was observed against all insect species and strains. Cry2Aa2 was chosen for this study because of its toxicity to many economically important insect pests, relatively low levels of cross-resistance against Cry1A-resistant insects, and its expression as a protoxin instead of a toxin because of its relatively small size (65 kDa). Southern blot analysis confirmed stable integration of cry2Aa2 into all of the chloroplast genomes (5, 000-10,000 copies per cell) of transgenic plants. Transformed tobacco leaves expressed Cry2Aa2 protoxin at levels between 2% and 3% of total soluble protein, 20- to 30-fold higher levels than current commercial nuclear transgenic plants. These results suggest that plants expressing high levels of a nonhomologous Bt protein should be able to overcome or at the very least, significantly delay, broad spectrum Bt-resistance development in the field. (+info)

EPR spectroscopy of VO2+-ATP bound to catalytic site 3 of chloroplast F1-ATPase from Chlamydomonas reveals changes in metal ligation resulting from mutations to the phosphate-binding loop threonine (betaT168). (5/4503)

Site-directed mutations were made to the phosphate-binding loop threonine in the beta-subunit of the chloroplast F1-ATPase in Chlamydomonas (betaT168). Rates of photophosphorylation and ATPase-driven proton translocation measured in coupled thylakoids purified from betaT168D, betaT168C, and betaT168L mutants had <10% of the wild type rates, as did rates of Mg2+-ATPase activity of purified chloroplast F1-ATPase (CF1). The EPR spectra of VO2+-ATP bound to Site 3 of CF1 from wild type and mutants showed that EPR species C, formed exclusively upon activation, was altered in CF1 from each mutant in both signal intensity and in 51V hyperfine parameters that depend on the equatorial VO2+ ligands. These data provide the first direct evidence that Site 3 is a catalytic site. No significant differences between wild type and mutants were observed in EPR species B, the predominant form of the latent enzyme. Thus, the phosphate-binding loop threonine is an equatorial metal ligand in the activated conformation but not in the latent conformation of Site 3. The metal-nucleotide conformation that gives rise to species B is consistent with the Mg2+-ADP complex that becomes entrapped in a catalytic site in a manner that regulates enzymatic activity. The lack of catalytic function of CF1 with entrapped Mg2+-ADP may be explained in part by the absence of the phosphate-binding loop threonine as a metal ligand. (+info)

The chloroplast infA gene with a functional UUG initiation codon. (6/4503)

All chloroplast genes reported so far possess ATG start codons and sometimes GTGs as an exception. Sequence alignments suggested that the chloroplast infA gene encoding initiation factor 1 in the green alga Chlorella vulgaris has TTG as a putative initiation codon. This gene was shown to be transcribed by RT-PCR analysis. The infA mRNA was translated accurately from the UUG codon in a tobacco chloroplast in vitro translation system. Mutation of the UUG codon to AUG increased translation efficiency approximately 300-fold. These results indicate that the UUG is functional for accurate translation initiation of Chlorella infA mRNA but it is an inefficient initiation codon. (+info)

Rapid purification of membrane extrinsic F1-domain of chloroplast ATP synthase in monodisperse form suitable for 3D-crystallization. (7/4503)

A new chromatographic procedure for purification of the membrane extrinsic F1-domain of chloroplast ATP synthase is presented. The purification is achieved by a single anion exchange chromatography step. Determination of the enzyme-bound nucleotides reveals only 1 mole of ADP per complex. The purified enzyme shows a latent Ca(2+)-dependent ATPase activity of 1.0 mumol.mg-1 min-1 and a Mg(2+)-dependent activity of 4.4 mumol.mg-1 .min-1. Both activities are increased up to 8-10-fold after dithiothreitol activation. Analysis of the purified F1-complex by SDS/PAGE, silver staining and immunoblotting revealed that the preparation is uncontaminated by fragmented subunits or ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase. Gel filtration experiments indicate that the preparation is homogenous and monodisperse. In order to determine the solubility minimum of the purified F1-complex the isoelectric point of the preparation was calculated from pH mapping on ion exchange columns. In agreement with calculations based on the amino acid sequence, a slightly acidic pI of 5.7 was found. Using ammonium sulphate as a precipitant the purified CF1-complex could be crystallized by MicroBatch. (+info)

Isolation of pigment-binding early light-inducible proteins from pea. (8/4503)

The early light-inducible proteins (ELIPs) in chloroplasts possess a high sequence homology with the chlorophyll a/b-binding proteins but differ from those proteins by their substoichiometric and transient appearance. In the present study ELIPs of pea were isolated by a two-step purification strategy: perfusion chromatography in combination with preparative isoelectric focussing. Two heterogeneous populations of ELIPs were obtained after chromatographic separation of solubilized thylakoid membranes using a weak anion exchange column. One of these populations contained ELIPs in a free form providing the first isolation of these proteins. To prove whether the isolated and pure forms of ELIP bind pigments, spectroscopic and chromatographic analysis were performed. Absorption spectra and TLC revealed the presence of chlorophyll a and lutein. Measurements of steady-state fluorescence emission spectra at 77 K exhibited a major peak at 674 nm typical for chlorophyll a bound to the protein matrix. The action spectrum of the fluorescence emission measured at 674 nm showed several peaks originating mainly from chlorophyll a. It is proposed that ELIPs are transient chlorophyll-binding proteins not involved in light-harvesting but functioning as scavengers for chlorophyll molecules during turnover of pigment-binding proteins. (+info)

Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells that are responsible for photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, a green pigment that absorbs light energy, and use this energy to power the chemical reactions of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are also responsible for producing oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis. In the medical field, chloroplasts are not typically studied or treated directly, but understanding the process of photosynthesis and the role of chloroplasts in this process is important for understanding plant biology and the role of plants in the environment.

DNA, chloroplast refers to the genetic material found within the chloroplasts of plant cells. Chloroplasts are organelles responsible for photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy. The DNA within chloroplasts is circular and contains genes that are involved in the production of proteins necessary for photosynthesis. Chloroplast DNA is inherited maternally, meaning that it is passed down from the mother to the offspring. Mutations in chloroplast DNA can affect the ability of plants to carry out photosynthesis and can lead to various genetic disorders.

Chloroplast proteins are proteins that are synthesized within the chloroplasts of plant cells. Chloroplasts are organelles that contain chlorophyll, which is responsible for photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy. Chloroplast proteins play a crucial role in this process, as they are involved in the various steps of photosynthesis, including the absorption of light, the conversion of light energy into chemical energy, and the transport of energy and nutrients throughout the plant cell. Chloroplast proteins are essential for the survival and growth of plants, and they are also of interest to researchers studying plant biology and biotechnology.

RNA, Chloroplast refers to the ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules that are synthesized in the chloroplasts of plant cells. Chloroplasts are organelles responsible for photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy. RNA molecules play a crucial role in the process of photosynthesis by carrying genetic information from the chloroplast DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized. There are several types of RNA molecules found in chloroplasts, including ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and messenger RNA (mRNA). In addition to their role in photosynthesis, chloroplast RNA molecules have also been implicated in other cellular processes, such as gene expression and regulation. Understanding the function and regulation of chloroplast RNA molecules is important for understanding plant biology and developing strategies for improving crop productivity and resilience to environmental stress.

Plant proteins are proteins that are derived from plants. They are an important source of dietary protein for many people and are a key component of a healthy diet. Plant proteins are found in a wide variety of plant-based foods, including legumes, nuts, seeds, grains, and vegetables. They are an important source of essential amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins and are necessary for the growth and repair of tissues in the body. Plant proteins are also a good source of fiber, vitamins, and minerals, and are generally lower in saturated fat and cholesterol than animal-based proteins. In the medical field, plant proteins are often recommended as part of a healthy diet for people with certain medical conditions, such as heart disease, diabetes, and high blood pressure.

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is a unicellular green alga that is commonly used as a model organism in the field of biology. It is not typically used in the medical field, as it is not a human or animal pathogen. However, it has been used in research to study various biological processes, such as photosynthesis, cell division, and gene expression. It is also used in the development of new technologies, such as biofuels and bioremediation.

Chloroplast proton-translocating ATPases are a group of enzymes that are responsible for generating ATP in chloroplasts, which are organelles found in plant cells that are responsible for photosynthesis. These enzymes are also known as ATP synthases and are located in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts. The chloroplast proton-translocating ATPases work by using the energy from the proton gradient that is generated by the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis to produce ATP. This process is known as chemiosmosis and is a key step in the production of energy in plant cells. There are two types of chloroplast proton-translocating ATPases: the F-type ATPase and the V-type ATPase. The F-type ATPase is responsible for generating ATP in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, while the V-type ATPase is responsible for generating ATP in the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis. Chloroplast proton-translocating ATPases play a crucial role in the energy metabolism of plant cells and are essential for the survival and growth of plants. Mutations in the genes encoding these enzymes can lead to a variety of plant disorders, including chlorosis, stunted growth, and reduced photosynthetic efficiency.

Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in plants, algae, and some bacteria. It plays a crucial role in photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy to fuel their growth and metabolism. In the medical field, chlorophyll has been studied for its potential health benefits. Some research suggests that chlorophyll may have antioxidant properties, which could help protect against damage from free radicals and reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease. Chlorophyll has also been studied for its potential to support liver health, improve digestion, and boost energy levels. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential health benefits of chlorophyll, and it is not currently used as a medical treatment. It is typically consumed as a dietary supplement or found in foods that are rich in chlorophyll, such as leafy green vegetables, broccoli, and parsley.

Arabidopsis is a small flowering plant species that is widely used as a model organism in the field of plant biology. It is a member of the mustard family and is native to Europe and Asia. Arabidopsis is known for its rapid growth and short life cycle, which makes it an ideal model organism for studying plant development, genetics, and molecular biology. In the medical field, Arabidopsis is used to study a variety of biological processes, including plant growth and development, gene expression, and signaling pathways. Researchers use Arabidopsis to study the genetic basis of plant diseases, such as viral infections and bacterial blight, and to develop new strategies for crop improvement. Additionally, Arabidopsis is used to study the effects of environmental factors, such as light and temperature, on plant growth and development. Overall, Arabidopsis is a valuable tool for advancing our understanding of plant biology and has important implications for agriculture and medicine.

Chloroplast thioredoxins are a group of small, soluble proteins that are found in the chloroplasts of plants and algae. They are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including photosynthesis, the regulation of gene expression, and the detoxification of reactive oxygen species. Thioredoxins are a type of antioxidant that contain a disulfide bond, which can be reduced or oxidized depending on the cellular redox state. In the reduced state, thioredoxins are able to donate electrons to other molecules, while in the oxidized state, they can accept electrons from other molecules. Chloroplast thioredoxins are thought to play a role in the regulation of photosynthesis by controlling the activity of enzymes involved in the process. They may also be involved in the response of plants to environmental stress, such as exposure to high levels of light or drought. Overall, chloroplast thioredoxins are important for the proper functioning of chloroplasts and the overall health of plants and algae.

Arabidopsis Proteins refer to proteins that are encoded by genes in the genome of the plant species Arabidopsis thaliana. Arabidopsis is a small flowering plant that is widely used as a model organism in plant biology research due to its small size, short life cycle, and ease of genetic manipulation. Arabidopsis proteins have been extensively studied in the medical field due to their potential applications in drug discovery, disease diagnosis, and treatment. For example, some Arabidopsis proteins have been found to have anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-viral properties, making them potential candidates for the development of new drugs. In addition, Arabidopsis proteins have been used as tools for studying human diseases. For instance, researchers have used Arabidopsis to study the molecular mechanisms underlying human diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's disease. Overall, Arabidopsis proteins have become an important resource for medical research due to their potential applications in drug discovery and disease research.

Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (RuBisCO) is an enzyme that plays a central role in the process of photosynthesis in plants, algae, and some bacteria. It catalyzes the reaction between carbon dioxide and ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), a 5-carbon sugar, to form two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA), a 3-carbon compound. This reaction is the first step in the Calvin cycle, which is the primary pathway for carbon fixation in photosynthesis. RuBisCO is the most abundant enzyme on Earth and is responsible for fixing approximately 60% of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. However, it is also a slow enzyme and is often limited by the availability of carbon dioxide in the environment. This can lead to a phenomenon known as photorespiration, in which RuBisCO instead catalyzes the reaction between RuBP and oxygen, leading to the loss of carbon dioxide and the production of a variety of byproducts. In the medical field, RuBisCO has been studied as a potential target for the development of new drugs to treat a variety of conditions, including cancer, diabetes, and obesity. Some researchers have also explored the use of RuBisCO as a biosensor for detecting carbon dioxide levels in the environment or as a tool for producing biofuels.

Chlamydomonas is a genus of single-celled green algae that are commonly found in freshwater environments. They are not typically associated with the medical field, as they are not known to cause any human diseases or health problems. However, Chlamydomonas is an important model organism in the field of biology, particularly in the study of cell biology and genetics. Researchers have used Chlamydomonas to study a wide range of topics, including photosynthesis, cell division, and the regulation of gene expression. In addition, some species of Chlamydomonas have been used in the development of bioremediation technologies, which involve using living organisms to remove pollutants from the environment. For example, certain strains of Chlamydomonas have been shown to be effective at removing heavy metals and other toxic substances from contaminated water.

Chlorophyta is a phylum of green algae that are photosynthetic organisms. They are characterized by the presence of chlorophyll a and b, which allows them to convert sunlight into energy through photosynthesis. Chlorophyta includes a diverse range of species, such as seaweeds, freshwater algae, and land plants. In the medical field, Chlorophyta are not typically studied for their direct medical applications, but they are important for their role in the ecosystem and as a source of food and bioactive compounds. Some species of Chlorophyta have been used in traditional medicine for their anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-bacterial properties.

Photosynthetic reaction center complex proteins are a group of proteins that play a crucial role in the process of photosynthesis in plants, algae, and some bacteria. These proteins are responsible for capturing light energy and converting it into chemical energy that can be used by the organism to fuel its metabolic processes. The photosynthetic reaction center complex is a complex of pigments and proteins that is embedded in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts in plants and algae. When light energy is absorbed by the pigments in the complex, it is transferred to the reaction center complex proteins, which then use this energy to split water molecules into oxygen, protons, and electrons. The electrons are then passed through a series of electron transport chains, which use the energy from the electrons to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane, creating a proton gradient. This gradient is then used to drive the synthesis of ATP, which is the energy currency of the cell. Photosynthetic reaction center complex proteins are essential for the process of photosynthesis, and any disruption to their function can have a significant impact on the health and productivity of plants and algae. In the medical field, understanding the structure and function of these proteins is important for developing new treatments for diseases that affect photosynthesis, such as chlorosis and photosynthetic inhibition.

Photosystem II protein complex is a large protein complex found in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts in plants, algae, and some bacteria. It is responsible for the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, which convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. Photosystem II protein complex consists of several subunits, including the D1 and D2 proteins, which form the core of the complex, and the CP47, CP43, and CP29 proteins, which are peripheral to the core. The complex contains a number of cofactors, including chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids, which absorb light energy and transfer it to the reaction center. The reaction center of Photosystem II protein complex contains a special pair of chlorophyll molecules, called P680 and P700, which are capable of accepting high-energy electrons from water molecules. These electrons are then passed through a series of electron carriers, ultimately ending up in the electron transport chain, where they are used to generate ATP and NADPH. Photosystem II protein complex plays a critical role in the process of photosynthesis, as it is responsible for the conversion of light energy into chemical energy, which is used to fuel the growth and development of plants and other photosynthetic organisms.

Galactolipids are a type of lipid molecule that contains a galactose (a type of sugar) and a fatty acid. They are found in the cell membranes of plants, algae, and some bacteria, and are important components of the structure and function of these membranes. In the medical field, galactolipids are of interest because they have been shown to have a number of potential health benefits, including anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer effects. They are also being studied as potential therapeutic agents for a variety of diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, and cancer.

In the medical field, an amino acid sequence refers to the linear order of amino acids in a protein molecule. Proteins are made up of chains of amino acids, and the specific sequence of these amino acids determines the protein's structure and function. The amino acid sequence is determined by the genetic code, which is a set of rules that specifies how the sequence of nucleotides in DNA is translated into the sequence of amino acids in a protein. Each amino acid is represented by a three-letter code, and the sequence of these codes is the amino acid sequence of the protein. The amino acid sequence is important because it determines the protein's three-dimensional structure, which in turn determines its function. Small changes in the amino acid sequence can have significant effects on the protein's structure and function, and this can lead to diseases or disorders. For example, mutations in the amino acid sequence of a protein involved in blood clotting can lead to bleeding disorders.

In the medical field, a base sequence refers to the specific order of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine) that make up the genetic material (DNA or RNA) of an organism. The base sequence determines the genetic information encoded within the DNA molecule and ultimately determines the traits and characteristics of an individual. The base sequence can be analyzed using various techniques, such as DNA sequencing, to identify genetic variations or mutations that may be associated with certain diseases or conditions.

In the medical field, algal proteins refer to proteins that are derived from algae, which are photosynthetic microorganisms that are found in aquatic environments. Algal proteins are a rich source of essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, and they have been studied for their potential health benefits. Some of the potential health benefits of algal proteins include their ability to lower cholesterol levels, improve heart health, and reduce the risk of certain types of cancer. They may also be beneficial for people with diabetes, as they have been shown to help regulate blood sugar levels. Algal proteins are used in a variety of medical applications, including as a source of nutrition for people with certain medical conditions, as a dietary supplement, and as an ingredient in food products. They are also being studied for their potential use in the development of new drugs and therapies.

In the medical field, "darkness" generally refers to a lack of light or visual perception. This can be caused by a variety of factors, including: 1. Retinal detachment: A condition in which the retina, the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye, separates from the underlying tissue. 2. Retinitis pigmentosa: A genetic disorder that causes progressive damage to the retina, leading to vision loss and eventually blindness. 3. Macular degeneration: A condition in which the central part of the retina, called the macula, deteriorates, leading to vision loss. 4. Cataracts: A clouding of the lens in the eye that can cause vision loss. 5. Glaucoma: A group of eye diseases that can damage the optic nerve and lead to vision loss. 6. Optic nerve damage: Damage to the optic nerve can cause vision loss or blindness. 7. Brain injury: Damage to the brain, particularly the visual cortex, can cause blindness or vision loss. In some cases, darkness may also be a symptom of a more serious underlying medical condition, such as a brain tumor or stroke.

Light-harvesting protein complexes are a group of proteins that play a crucial role in photosynthesis, the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy. These complexes are responsible for capturing light energy and transferring it to the reaction center, where it is used to power the chemical reactions that produce ATP and NADPH, two energy-rich molecules that are essential for the growth and survival of these organisms. There are several different types of light-harvesting protein complexes, each with its own unique structure and function. The most well-known of these is the chlorophyll a/b binding protein complex, which is found in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts in plants and algae. This complex is responsible for capturing light energy and transferring it to the reaction center, where it is used to power the chemical reactions of photosynthesis. Other types of light-harvesting protein complexes include the phycobilisome, which is found in some photosynthetic bacteria and algae, and the reaction center complex, which is found in all photosynthetic organisms. These complexes play important roles in the process of photosynthesis, and their dysfunction can lead to a range of health problems in plants and other photosynthetic organisms.

The cytochrome b6f complex is a large protein complex found in the inner membrane of the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells. It is a key component of the electron transport chain, which is responsible for generating ATP (adenosine triphosphate) through oxidative phosphorylation. The cytochrome b6f complex is involved in the transfer of electrons from the electron donors NADH and FADH2 to the electron acceptor oxygen. This process generates a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane, which is used to drive the synthesis of ATP by ATP synthase. Mutations in the genes encoding the subunits of the cytochrome b6f complex can lead to a variety of mitochondrial disorders, including Leigh syndrome, myopathy, and encephalopathy with lactic acidosis and stroke-like episodes (MELAS).

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that contains the genetic information of living organisms, including plants. In plants, DNA is found in the nucleus of cells and in organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria. Plant DNA is composed of four types of nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). These bases pair up in a specific way to form the rungs of the DNA ladder, with adenine always pairing with thymine and cytosine always pairing with guanine. The sequence of these bases in DNA determines the genetic information that is passed down from parent plants to offspring. This information includes traits such as plant height, leaf shape, flower color, and resistance to diseases and pests. In the medical field, plant DNA is often studied for its potential to be used in biotechnology applications such as crop improvement, biofuels production, and the development of new medicines. For example, scientists may use genetic engineering techniques to modify the DNA of plants to make them more resistant to pests or to produce higher yields.

RNA, Plant refers to the type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that is found in plants. RNA is a molecule that plays a crucial role in the expression of genes in cells, and there are several types of RNA, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). In plants, RNA plays a critical role in various biological processes, including photosynthesis, growth and development, and defense against pathogens. Plant RNA is also important for the production of proteins, which are essential for the structure and function of plant cells. RNA, Plant can be studied using various techniques, including transcriptomics, which involves the analysis of RNA molecules in a cell or tissue to identify the genes that are being expressed. This information can be used to better understand plant biology and to develop new strategies for improving crop yields, increasing plant resistance to diseases and pests, and developing new plant-based products.

Proton-translocating ATPases are a group of enzymes that use the energy from ATP hydrolysis to pump protons across a membrane. These enzymes are found in various cellular compartments, including the inner mitochondrial membrane, the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells, and the plasma membrane of bacteria. In the context of the medical field, proton-translocating ATPases are important because they play a crucial role in maintaining the proton gradient across cellular membranes. This gradient is essential for many cellular processes, including the production of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria, the regulation of intracellular pH, and the transport of ions across cell membranes. Proton-translocating ATPases can be classified into two main types: primary and secondary. Primary proton pumps, such as the ATP synthase in mitochondria, use the energy from ATP hydrolysis to directly pump protons across a membrane. Secondary proton pumps, such as the vacuolar ATPase in plant cells, use the energy from ATP hydrolysis to pump protons indirectly by coupling the proton gradient to the transport of other ions or molecules. Disruptions in the function of proton-translocating ATPases can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including metabolic disorders, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. For example, mutations in the ATP synthase gene can cause Leigh syndrome, a rare inherited disorder that affects the brain and muscles. Similarly, disruptions in the function of the vacuolar ATPase can lead to a variety of diseases, including osteoporosis, cataracts, and cancer.

Cytochromes f are a group of electron transport proteins that are found in the inner mitochondrial membrane. They are involved in the electron transport chain, which is a series of protein complexes that transfer electrons from one molecule to another, ultimately leading to the production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the energy currency of the cell. Cytochromes f are unique among the cytochromes because they contain a heme group that is coordinated to a histidine residue. This heme group is able to bind and transfer electrons, allowing cytochromes f to participate in the electron transport chain. In the medical field, cytochromes f are of interest because they play a role in the regulation of cellular respiration, which is the process by which cells generate energy from nutrients. Abnormalities in the function of cytochromes f have been linked to a number of diseases, including diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

Diuron is a herbicide that is commonly used to control broadleaf weeds and grasses in a variety of crops, including rice, sugarcane, and corn. It works by inhibiting photosynthesis in plants, which ultimately leads to their death. In the medical field, diuron is not typically used as a treatment for any medical condition. However, it has been associated with some potential health effects in humans, including skin irritation, eye irritation, and respiratory problems. In some cases, exposure to diuron has been linked to an increased risk of cancer, although the evidence for this is not yet conclusive. It is important to note that diuron is a restricted-use pesticide, meaning that it can only be used by licensed applicators and under certain conditions. Farmers and other users of diuron should follow all safety guidelines and precautions to minimize the risk of exposure to this chemical.

Photosystem I protein complex is a large protein complex found in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. It is responsible for the first step of photosynthesis, which is the conversion of light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. Photosystem I consists of several subunits, including the reaction center, which contains the chlorophyll pigments that absorb light energy. The complex also contains several other pigments, such as carotenoids, that help to dissipate excess energy and protect the complex from damage. In the medical field, understanding the structure and function of photosystem I is important for developing new treatments for diseases related to photosynthesis, such as photosynthetic disorders in plants and algae. Additionally, photosystem I has been studied as a potential target for cancer therapy, as it is expressed at high levels in some types of cancer cells.

Acetabularia is a genus of green algae that is commonly used in the medical field as a model organism for studying cell division and development. The cells of Acetabularia are large and columnar, and they grow in a single layer on the surface of a stalk. The cells are connected by a network of cytoplasmic bridges, which allows them to communicate with each other and coordinate their activities. One of the key features of Acetabularia is its ability to undergo synchronous cell division, in which all of the cells in a colony divide at the same time. This makes it an ideal model for studying the regulation of cell division and the coordination of cellular activities. In addition, the large size of the cells and the ease with which they can be manipulated make Acetabularia a useful tool for studying a wide range of biological processes, including cell signaling, gene expression, and the effects of drugs and other chemicals on cellular function.

Protein precursors are molecules that are converted into proteins through a process called translation. In the medical field, protein precursors are often referred to as amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. There are 20 different amino acids that can be combined in various ways to form different proteins, each with its own unique function in the body. Protein precursors are essential for the proper functioning of the body, as proteins are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including metabolism, cell signaling, and immune function. They are also important for tissue repair and growth, and for maintaining the structure and function of organs and tissues. Protein precursors can be obtained from the diet through the consumption of foods that are rich in amino acids, such as meat, fish, eggs, and dairy products. In some cases, protein precursors may also be administered as supplements or medications to individuals who are unable to obtain sufficient amounts of these nutrients through their diet.

Plastoquinone is a coenzyme that plays a crucial role in the electron transport chain of photosynthesis in plants and some microorganisms. It is a lipophilic molecule that is bound to the thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. In the electron transport chain, plastoquinone accepts electrons from the primary electron donor, plastocyanin, and passes them on to the electron acceptor, cytochrome b6f complex. This process generates a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane, which is used to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Plastoquinone is also involved in the regulation of photosynthesis by modulating the flow of electrons through the electron transport chain. It can be reduced or oxidized depending on the redox state of the photosynthetic apparatus, and this change in redox state can affect the rate of photosynthesis. In the medical field, plastoquinone has been studied for its potential therapeutic effects. Some studies have suggested that plastoquinone may have antioxidant properties and may be useful in treating conditions such as neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential benefits and risks of plastoquinone supplementation.

Cloning, molecular, in the medical field refers to the process of creating identical copies of a specific DNA sequence or gene. This is achieved through a technique called polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which amplifies a specific DNA sequence to produce multiple copies of it. Molecular cloning is commonly used in medical research to study the function of specific genes, to create genetically modified organisms for therapeutic purposes, and to develop new drugs and treatments. It is also used in forensic science to identify individuals based on their DNA. In the context of human cloning, molecular cloning is used to create identical copies of a specific gene or DNA sequence from one individual and insert it into the genome of another individual. This technique has been used to create transgenic animals, but human cloning is currently illegal in many countries due to ethical concerns.

In the medical field, angiosperms are a group of plants that produce seeds enclosed in an ovary, which develops into a fruit after fertilization. Angiosperms are also known as flowering plants or dicots, and they are the most diverse group of plants on Earth, with over 300,000 species. Angiosperms are important in medicine because many of them produce useful compounds, such as medicinal plants, that have been used for centuries to treat a variety of ailments. For example, aspirin is derived from the bark of the willow tree, which is an angiosperm, and digitalis, a heart medication, is derived from the foxglove plant, another angiosperm. In addition to their medicinal uses, angiosperms are also important in agriculture, as they provide food, fiber, and other resources for humans and animals. Many crops, such as wheat, rice, and corn, are angiosperms, and they are also used to produce biofuels and other industrial products. Overall, angiosperms play a crucial role in the functioning of ecosystems and have significant economic and medicinal value.

RNA, Algal refers to RNA molecules that are derived from algae, which are a diverse group of photosynthetic organisms that include plants, seaweeds, and cyanobacteria. Algal RNA can be used in various medical applications, such as in the development of new drugs and therapies, as well as in the study of gene expression and regulation in algae. Algal RNA can also be used as a source of RNA for research purposes, such as in the study of gene function and the development of new diagnostic tests.

Fructose-bisphosphatase (FBP) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the regulation of glycolysis, the metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce energy. It catalyzes the hydrolysis of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP) to fructose-6-phosphate (F6P) and inorganic phosphate (Pi), which is an important step in the glycolytic pathway. FBP is found in most tissues, but it is particularly abundant in liver and red blood cells. In the liver, FBP is involved in the regulation of blood glucose levels by controlling the rate of glycolysis. When blood glucose levels are high, FBP activity increases, which slows down glycolysis and prevents the overproduction of glucose. Conversely, when blood glucose levels are low, FBP activity decreases, which speeds up glycolysis and helps to maintain normal blood glucose levels. FBP is also important in the regulation of gluconeogenesis, the process by which the liver produces glucose from non-carbohydrate sources such as amino acids and glycerol. In gluconeogenesis, FBP is the first enzyme in the pathway, and its activity is regulated by hormones such as insulin and glucagon. In summary, fructose-bisphosphatase is a key enzyme in the regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, and plays an important role in maintaining normal blood glucose levels.

Plastocyanin is a small, water-soluble protein that plays a crucial role in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. It is a blue copper protein that acts as an electron carrier, shuttling electrons from the cytochrome b6f complex to the photosystem I complex in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts. In the medical field, plastocyanin has been studied for its potential use in the treatment of certain diseases. For example, it has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, which may make it useful in the treatment of conditions such as cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and cardiovascular disease. Additionally, plastocyanin has been proposed as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of certain types of blindness, as it may be able to help restore vision by promoting the regeneration of photoreceptor cells in the retina.

Group I chaperonins are a class of molecular chaperones that are found in all domains of life, including bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes. They are large, multisubunit protein complexes that function to assist in the folding of newly synthesized polypeptides, as well as the refolding of misfolded proteins. Group I chaperonins are composed of two stacked rings of protein subunits, with the inner ring forming a hydrophobic cavity that is thought to provide a protected environment for the folding of polypeptides. The outer ring of the chaperonin contains ATPase activity, which is thought to drive the conformational changes that allow the polypeptide to fold properly. Group I chaperonins play an important role in maintaining cellular protein homeostasis and are involved in a number of cellular processes, including protein synthesis, protein degradation, and the assembly of large macromolecular complexes.

I'm sorry, but "Bryopsida" is not a term commonly used in the medical field. In the field of botany, Bryopsida is a division of non-vascular plants known as mosses. Mosses are small, non-vascular plants that typically grow in damp environments and are often found in forests, on rocks, and on the ground. They are important components of many ecosystems and play a role in nutrient cycling and soil formation. If you have any other questions or if there is something else I can help you with, please let me know.

Protochlorophyllide is a green pigment that is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of chlorophyll, the green pigment found in plants and some bacteria. It is synthesized in the chloroplasts of plant cells and is converted to chlorophyll by the enzyme chlorophyllase. Protochlorophyllide is important in the process of photosynthesis, as it is the precursor to chlorophyll and is necessary for the conversion of light energy into chemical energy. In the medical field, protochlorophyllide is sometimes used as a supplement to treat certain types of anemia, as it can help increase the production of red blood cells.

RNA, Ribosomal (rRNA) is a type of RNA that is essential for protein synthesis in cells. It is a major component of ribosomes, which are the cellular structures responsible for translating the genetic information stored in messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. rRNA is synthesized in the nucleolus of the cell and is composed of several distinct regions, including the 18S, 5.8S, and 28S subunits in eukaryotic cells, and the 16S and 23S subunits in prokaryotic cells. These subunits come together to form the ribosomal subunits, which then assemble into a complete ribosome. The rRNA molecules within the ribosome serve several important functions during protein synthesis. They provide a platform for the mRNA molecule to bind and serve as a template for the assembly of the ribosome's protein synthesis machinery. They also participate in the catalytic steps of protein synthesis, including the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids. In summary, RNA, Ribosomal (rRNA) is a critical component of ribosomes and plays a central role in the process of protein synthesis in cells.

Membrane proteins are proteins that are embedded within the lipid bilayer of a cell membrane. They play a crucial role in regulating the movement of substances across the membrane, as well as in cell signaling and communication. There are several types of membrane proteins, including integral membrane proteins, which span the entire membrane, and peripheral membrane proteins, which are only in contact with one or both sides of the membrane. Membrane proteins can be classified based on their function, such as transporters, receptors, channels, and enzymes. They are important for many physiological processes, including nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and cell growth and division.

Ferredoxins are small, soluble electron transfer proteins that play a crucial role in cellular respiration and photosynthesis. They are found in a wide range of organisms, including bacteria, plants, and animals. In the context of cellular respiration, ferredoxins are involved in the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another, ultimately leading to the production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the energy currency of the cell. They are also involved in the detoxification of harmful molecules, such as hydrogen peroxide. In photosynthesis, ferredoxins are involved in the transfer of electrons from water to carbon dioxide, ultimately leading to the production of glucose and oxygen. They are also involved in the regulation of photosynthesis by controlling the flow of electrons through the photosynthetic electron transport chain. Ferredoxins are typically composed of four to eight alpha-helices and have a molecular weight of around 10-15 kDa. They are often found in association with other proteins, such as ferredoxin reductases, which are involved in the reduction of ferredoxins to their reduced form.

Thioredoxins are a family of small, redox-active proteins that are found in all living organisms. They are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including the regulation of gene expression, the detoxification of reactive oxygen species, and the maintenance of cellular redox homeostasis. Thioredoxins contain a conserved active site that contains a disulfide bond, which can be reduced or oxidized depending on the cellular redox state. This allows thioredoxins to participate in redox reactions, in which they transfer electrons from one molecule to another. In the medical field, thioredoxins have been studied for their potential therapeutic applications. For example, they have been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer effects, and they may be useful in the treatment of a variety of diseases, including cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer.

Cyanobacteria are a group of photosynthetic bacteria that are commonly found in aquatic environments such as freshwater, saltwater, and soil. They are also known as blue-green algae or blue-green bacteria. In the medical field, cyanobacteria are of interest because some species can produce toxins that can cause illness in humans and animals. These toxins can be harmful when ingested, inhaled, or come into contact with the skin. Exposure to cyanobacterial toxins can cause a range of symptoms, including skin irritation, respiratory problems, and gastrointestinal issues. In addition to their potential to cause illness, cyanobacteria are also being studied for their potential medical applications. Some species of cyanobacteria produce compounds that have been shown to have anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-bacterial properties. These compounds are being investigated as potential treatments for a variety of medical conditions, including cancer, diabetes, and infectious diseases.

Ferredoxin-NADP reductase (FNR) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the electron transport chain of photosynthesis and respiration in plants, algae, and some bacteria. It catalyzes the transfer of electrons from ferredoxin, a small iron-sulfur protein, to NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate), reducing it to NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen). In photosynthesis, FNR is involved in the light-dependent reactions, where it receives electrons from the photosystem I complex and passes them on to the photosystem II complex, which uses them to split water molecules and produce oxygen. In respiration, FNR is involved in the light-independent reactions, where it receives electrons from the cytochrome b6f complex and passes them on to the NADP+ pool, which is used in the Calvin cycle to fix carbon dioxide into organic compounds. FNR is a key enzyme in the regulation of photosynthesis and respiration, and its activity is influenced by various factors such as light intensity, temperature, and nutrient availability. Mutations in the FNR gene can lead to defects in photosynthesis and respiration, which can affect plant growth and development.

Phototropins are a type of photoreceptor protein found in plants, algae, and some bacteria. They are responsible for mediating the plant's response to light, particularly in the regulation of growth and development. There are two main types of phototropins: phototropin 1 (phot1) and phototropin 2 (phot2). Both phot1 and phot2 contain a light-sensitive domain called the LOV (Light, Oxygen, or Voltage) domain, which undergoes a conformational change in response to blue light. This change triggers a signaling cascade that ultimately leads to changes in the plant's growth and development. Phototropins play a crucial role in regulating plant growth and development, including phototropism (the bending of plant shoots towards light), chloroplast movement, and leaf expansion. They also play a role in the regulation of flowering time and seedling development. In the medical field, phototropins have been studied for their potential therapeutic applications. For example, they have been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer effects, and they may be useful in the treatment of skin diseases and other conditions. Additionally, phototropins have been used as a model system for studying protein-protein interactions and signal transduction pathways.

DNA, Algal refers to the genetic material of algae, which is a diverse group of photosynthetic organisms that includes plants, seaweeds, and other aquatic plants. In the medical field, DNA from algae is sometimes used in research or as a source of therapeutic compounds. For example, some algae contain pigments called carotenoids that have antioxidant properties and may have potential health benefits. Additionally, algae are being studied as a source of biofuels, which could have implications for the medical field as a potential alternative to fossil fuels.

Ribosomal proteins are a group of proteins that are essential components of ribosomes, which are the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. Ribosomes are composed of both ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and ribosomal proteins, and together they form the machinery that translates messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. There are over 80 different types of ribosomal proteins, each with a specific function within the ribosome. Some ribosomal proteins are located in the ribosome's core, where they help to stabilize the structure of the ribosome and facilitate the binding of mRNA and transfer RNA (tRNA). Other ribosomal proteins are located on the surface of the ribosome, where they play a role in the catalytic activity of the ribosome during protein synthesis. In the medical field, ribosomal proteins are of interest because they are involved in a number of important biological processes, including cell growth, division, and differentiation. Abnormalities in the expression or function of ribosomal proteins have been linked to a variety of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and infectious diseases. As such, ribosomal proteins are the subject of ongoing research in the fields of molecular biology, genetics, and medicine.

The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells that contains the cell's genetic material, or DNA. It is typically located in the center of the cell and is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nucleus is responsible for regulating gene expression and controlling the cell's activities. It contains a dense, irregularly shaped mass of chromatin, which is made up of DNA and associated proteins. The nucleus also contains a small body called the nucleolus, which is responsible for producing ribosomes, the cellular structures that synthesize proteins.

In the medical field, starch refers to a type of carbohydrate that is found in plants, particularly in grains such as wheat, corn, and potatoes. Starch is a complex carbohydrate that is made up of long chains of glucose molecules. Starch is an important source of energy for the body and is broken down into glucose during digestion. It is also used in the production of various medical products, such as intravenous fluids, medications, and medical devices. In some cases, starch may be used as a thickening agent in medical products, such as eye drops or nasal sprays. It can also be used as a filler in certain medications to help with their texture or consistency. However, it is important to note that not all starches are created equal. Some types of starch, such as amylose, are more easily digested than others, such as amylopectin. Additionally, some people may have difficulty digesting certain types of starches, which can lead to digestive issues such as bloating or diarrhea.

In the medical field, the term "Cytochrome b Group" refers to a family of electron transport proteins that are involved in the electron transport chain (ETC) in mitochondria. The cytochrome b group is a component of the respiratory chain, which is responsible for generating ATP (adenosine triphosphate) from the energy released during the oxidation of nutrients. The cytochrome b group consists of several subunits, including cytochrome b, cytochrome c1, and Rieske iron-sulfur protein. These subunits work together to transfer electrons from one molecule to another, ultimately transferring them to oxygen to form water. Mutations in the genes encoding the cytochrome b group can lead to a variety of mitochondrial disorders, including Leigh syndrome, myopathy, and encephalopathy. These disorders are characterized by muscle weakness, developmental delays, and neurological problems.

Ascorbate Peroxidases (APXs) are a group of enzymes that play a crucial role in the detoxification of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plants and animals. They are members of the peroxidase family of enzymes and are found in various tissues and organelles, including chloroplasts, mitochondria, and the cytosol. In plants, APXs are involved in the protection against oxidative stress caused by environmental factors such as drought, salinity, and high light intensity. They catalyze the reduction of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to water (H2O) using ascorbic acid (vitamin C) as a reducing agent. This reaction helps to prevent the accumulation of H2O2, which can cause damage to cellular components such as proteins, lipids, and DNA. In animals, APXs are also involved in the detoxification of ROS, but their role is less well understood. They have been implicated in the regulation of redox signaling and the protection against oxidative stress caused by various factors, including aging, inflammation, and exposure to toxins. Overall, APXs are important enzymes that help to maintain cellular homeostasis by protecting against oxidative stress and preventing damage to cellular components.

In the medical field, RNA, Messenger (mRNA) refers to a type of RNA molecule that carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus of a cell to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized. During the process of transcription, the DNA sequence of a gene is copied into a complementary RNA sequence called messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA molecule then leaves the nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm of the cell, where it binds to ribosomes and serves as a template for the synthesis of a specific protein. The sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule determines the sequence of amino acids in the protein that is synthesized. Therefore, changes in the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule can result in changes in the amino acid sequence of the protein, which can affect the function of the protein and potentially lead to disease. mRNA molecules are often used in medical research and therapy as a way to introduce new genetic information into cells. For example, mRNA vaccines work by introducing a small piece of mRNA that encodes for a specific protein, which triggers an immune response in the body.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that carries genetic information in living organisms. It is composed of four types of nitrogen-containing molecules called nucleotides, which are arranged in a specific sequence to form the genetic code. In the medical field, DNA is often studied as a tool for understanding and diagnosing genetic disorders. Genetic disorders are caused by changes in the DNA sequence that can affect the function of genes, leading to a variety of health problems. By analyzing DNA, doctors and researchers can identify specific genetic mutations that may be responsible for a particular disorder, and develop targeted treatments or therapies to address the underlying cause of the condition. DNA is also used in forensic science to identify individuals based on their unique genetic fingerprint. This is because each person's DNA sequence is unique, and can be used to distinguish one individual from another. DNA analysis is also used in criminal investigations to help solve crimes by linking DNA evidence to suspects or victims.

Protein sorting signals are specific amino acid sequences within a protein that serve as instructions for directing the protein to its proper location within a cell or to a specific organelle within the cell. These signals are recognized by receptors or chaperones within the cell, which then guide the protein to its destination. Protein sorting signals are critical for proper protein function and localization within the cell, and defects in these signals can lead to a variety of diseases and disorders. Examples of protein sorting signals include the signal peptide, which directs proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum for processing and secretion, and the nuclear localization signal, which directs proteins to the nucleus for gene regulation.

Bryophyta is a division of non-vascular plants that includes mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. These plants are characterized by their small size, simple structure, and lack of true roots, stems, and leaves. In the medical field, bryophytes have been used for various purposes, including as traditional medicines, food sources, and ornamental plants. Some species of mosses and liverworts have been found to have antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties, and are being studied for their potential use in treating various diseases. Additionally, bryophytes are important indicators of environmental health, as they are sensitive to changes in air and water quality.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a molecule that serves as the primary energy currency in living cells. It is composed of three phosphate groups attached to a ribose sugar and an adenine base. In the medical field, ATP is essential for many cellular processes, including muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and the synthesis of macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. ATP is produced through cellular respiration, which involves the breakdown of glucose and other molecules to release energy that is stored in the bonds of ATP. Disruptions in ATP production or utilization can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including muscle weakness, fatigue, and neurological disorders. In addition, ATP is often used as a diagnostic tool in medical testing, as levels of ATP can be measured in various bodily fluids and tissues to assess cellular health and function.

ATP synthetase complexes are a group of enzymes that play a crucial role in cellular energy metabolism. These complexes are responsible for the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the primary energy currency of the cell. ATP synthetase complexes are found in the inner mitochondrial membrane, the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts, and in the plasma membrane of some bacteria. The ATP synthetase complex is a large, multi-subunit enzyme that uses a proton gradient to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. The proton gradient is generated by the electron transport chain, which is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotic cells and in the plasma membrane of bacteria. The energy from the proton gradient is used to drive the synthesis of ATP by the ATP synthetase complex. ATP synthetase complexes are essential for the survival of cells, as they provide the energy needed for cellular processes such as metabolism, growth, and reproduction. Dysfunction of ATP synthetase complexes can lead to a variety of diseases, including metabolic disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer.

Biological transport refers to the movement of molecules, such as nutrients, waste products, and signaling molecules, across cell membranes and through the body's various transport systems. This process is essential for maintaining homeostasis, which is the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment. There are several mechanisms of biological transport, including passive transport, active transport, facilitated diffusion, and endocytosis. Passive transport occurs when molecules move down a concentration gradient, from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Active transport, on the other hand, requires energy to move molecules against a concentration gradient. Facilitated diffusion involves the use of transport proteins to move molecules across the cell membrane. Endocytosis is a process by which cells take in molecules from the extracellular environment by engulfing them in vesicles. In the medical field, understanding the mechanisms of biological transport is important for understanding how drugs and other therapeutic agents are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted by the body. This knowledge can be used to design drugs that are more effective and have fewer side effects. It is also important for understanding how diseases, such as cancer and diabetes, affect the body's transport systems and how this can be targeted for treatment.

In the medical field, "Adiantum" typically refers to a type of fern commonly known as maidenhair fern. The scientific name for maidenhair fern is Adiantum capillus-veneris, and it is a popular ornamental plant that is often used in gardens and indoor spaces. Maidenhair ferns are known for their delicate, feathery fronds that can grow up to several feet long. They are also known for their ability to thrive in a variety of environments, including humid tropical forests, temperate forests, and even in urban areas. In traditional medicine, maidenhair fern has been used to treat a variety of conditions, including respiratory problems, digestive issues, and skin conditions. However, there is limited scientific evidence to support these uses, and more research is needed to determine the safety and effectiveness of maidenhair fern as a medicinal plant.

Some chloroplasts contain a structure called the chloroplast peripheral reticulum. It is often found in the chloroplasts of C4 ... Almost all chloroplasts in a cell divide, rather than a small group of rapidly dividing chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have no ... All chloroplasts have at least three membrane systems-the outer chloroplast membrane, the inner chloroplast membrane, and the ... Most dinophyte chloroplasts are secondary red algal derived chloroplasts. Many other dinophytes have lost the chloroplast ( ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast

... a histone-like chloroplast protein (HC) coded by the chloroplast DNA that tightly packs each chloroplast DNA ring into a ... Most chloroplasts have their entire chloroplast genome combined into a single large ring, though those of dinophyte algae are a ... Chloroplast DNA has long been thought to have a circular structure, but some evidence suggests that chloroplast DNA more ... Protein synthesis within chloroplasts relies on an RNA polymerase coded by the chloroplast's own genome, which is related to ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast_DNA

Chloroplasts contain several important membranes, vital for their function. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have a double- ... membrane envelope, called the chloroplast envelope, but unlike mitochondria, chloroplasts also have internal membrane ... The chloroplasts come via endosymbiosis by engulfment of a photosynthetic cyanobacterium by the eukaryotic, already ... The outer membrane is permeable to most ions and metabolites, but the inner membrane of the chloroplast is highly specialised ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast_membrane

Chloroplast DNA variation within and among genera of the Heuchera group: evidence for extensive chloroplast capture and the ... Chloroplast capture is an evolutionary process through which inter-species hybridization and subsequent backcrosses yield a ... Chloroplast evolution in the Pinus montezumae complex: a coalescent approach to hybridization. Evolution 54: 1218-1233 ... For instance, 1) species A's (having chloroplast genome a and nuclear genome AA) pollen hybridizes (backcross) to species B's ( ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast_capture

... (CSK) is a protein in chloroplasts and cyanobacteria, bacteria from which chloroplasts evolved by ... CSK is intrinsic to chloroplasts, targeted to chloroplast genes, and may have been required for the retention, in evolution, of ... Allen JF (1993) Control of gene expression by redox potential and the requirement for chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes. ... Journal of Theoretical Biology 165: 609-631 Allen JF (2015) Why chloroplasts and mitochondria retain their own genomes and ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast_sensor_kinase

In enzymology, a chloroplast protein-transporting ATPase (EC 3.6.3.52) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction ATP + ... Nakai M, Goto A, Nohara T, Sugita D, Endo T (1994). "Identification of the SecA protein homolog in pea chloroplasts and its ... The systematic name of this enzyme class is ATP phosphohydrolase (chloroplast protein-importing). Cline K, Ettinger WF, Theg SM ... Scott SV, Theg SM (1996). "A new chloroplast protein import intermediate reveals distinct translocation machineries in the two ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast_protein-transporting_ATPase

Instead, chloroplast genes encoded in chloroplast DNA are found on numerous 2-3 kbp minicircles, analogous to plasmids. Most ... have chloroplasts. The Amphidinium chloroplast genome is unusual in not having a single contiguous circular genome. ... Clade C3 chloroplast genome. Minicircle-derived transcripts can be processed in ways not typical of eukaryotes, including the ... There are reports of minicircles that do not have known transcripts, like in the Amphidinium carterae chloroplast genome, ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphidinium

Mitochondria were found to be most closely related to the α-purple subdivision of Gram negative bacteria and chloroplasts were ... Hsp10 and hsp60 are present in all eubacteria and organelles of eukaryotes (mitochondria and chloroplasts), but not in ... and chloroplasts. Any two hsp60 amino acid sequences share at least 40% similarity, with 18-20% of differences coming from ... support the current endosymbiosis model of the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_molecular_chaperones

Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic bacteria that adapted to life inside plant cells. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts ... DNA in chloroplasts codes for redox proteins such as photosynthetic reaction centers. The CoRR hypothesis proposes this co- ... Alberts B (2002). "Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis". Molecular Biology of the Cell (4. ed.). New York [u.a.]: Garland. ISBN 978 ... Primary chloroplasts are cell organelles found in some eukaryotic lineages, where they are specialized in performing ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria

Gillham, Nicholas W. (14 January 2014). "Chloroplasts and Mitochondria". In Reeve, Eric C.R. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Genetics. ... The descent of mitochondria from bacteria and of chloroplasts from cyanobacteria was experimentally demonstrated in 1978 by ... Margulis, L (2005). "Hans Ris (1914-2004). Genophore, chromosomes and the bacterial origin of chloroplasts". International ... Schwartz, R.; Dayhoff, M. (1978). "Origins of prokaryotes, eukaryotes, mitochondria, and chloroplasts". Science. 199 (4327): ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Margulis

... each chloroplast is saucer-shaped when young and divided into multiple segments when older. Chloroplasts lack pyrenoids. Cells ... Young cells have a single nucleus, but mature cells have nuclei (i.e. are multinucleate). Each cell has multiple chloroplasts ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomuriella

The chloroplast is net-like, parietal when young, developing into an irregular three-dimensional network. Chloroplasts lack ... The genus is morphologically similar to Dictyochloropsis, which also has chloroplasts in the form of an irregular, three- ... which is in reference to the net-like chloroplast present in this genus. The medial "-chloro-" is from "χλωρός" or "chloros" ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictyochloris

"Chloroplast Replication and Chloroplast DNA Synthesis in Spinach Leaves". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological ... have unique organelles known as chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are thought to be descended from cyanobacteria that formed ... Chloroplasts and cyanobacteria contain the blue-green pigment chlorophyll a. Chlorophyll a (as well as its plant and green ... Chloroplasts are inherited through the male parent in gymnosperms but often through the female parent in flowering plants. A ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany

Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic bacteria that adapted to life inside plant cells. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts ... A typical plant cell contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts. The chloroplast is enclosed by a membrane. This membrane is ... An even closer form of symbiosis may explain the origin of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have many similarities with ... DNA in chloroplasts codes for redox proteins such as those found in the photosynthetic reaction centers. The CoRR Hypothesis ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis

Stellate chloroplasts also exist. The tubes rise in groups from the center. It thalli grow as clusters which carry cylindrical ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blidingia_minima

Daniel I. Arnon demonstrates in the laboratory the chemical function of photosynthesis in chloroplasts. Heinz Sielmann makes ... Arnon, Daniel I.; Allen, Mary B.; Whatley, F. R. (1954). "Photosynthesis by Isolated Chloroplasts". Nature. 174 (4426): 394-6. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1954_in_science

Chloroplasts are similar to mitochondria in that they contain their own DNA for production of some of their components. However ... Further intra-chloroplast sorting depends on additional target sequences such as those designated to the thylakoid membrane or ... Where Toc is an abbreviation for the translocase of the outer chloroplast envelope and Tic is the translocase of the inner ... Proteins may be targeted to several sites of the chloroplast depending on their sequences such as the outer envelope, inner ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_targeting

In the 1950s, Arnon performed research with Mary Belle Allen and F. Robert Whatley on chloroplasts and their role in ... Allen, M. B.; Whatley, F. R.; Arnon, Daniel I. (1 January 1958). "Photosynthesis by isolated chloroplasts: VI. Rates of ... "Photosynthesis by Isolated Chloroplasts. II. Photosynthetic Phosphorylation, the Conversion of Light into Phosphate Bond Energy ... "Photosynthesis by Isolated Chloroplasts. III. Evidence for Complete Photosynthesis1". Journal of the American Chemical Society ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_I._Arnon

When young, the cells have a single parietal lobed chloroplast; at maturity, cells have many small chloroplasts, both lining ... Chloroplasts lack sheathed pyrenoids. Mature cells are multinucleate; that is, they have multiple nuclei. Old cells may be ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bracteamorpha

Blair, G. E.; Ellis, R. J. (1973). "Protein synthesis in chloroplasts. I. Light-driven synthesis of the large subunit of ... Highfield, P. E.; Ellis, R. J. (1978). "Synthesis and transport of the small subunit of chloroplast ribulose bisphosphate ... Barraclough, R.; Ellis, R. J. (1980). "Protein synthesis in chloroplasts IX. Assembly of newly-synthesised large subunits into ... 1973: First identification of a product of protein synthesis by chloroplast ribosomes. 1978: First demonstration of in vitro ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R._John_Ellis

Atkins, K.A. & Dodd, A.N. (2014). "Circadian Regulation of Chloroplasts". Current Opinion in Plant Biology. 21: 43-50. doi: ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_A._Kay

were the first to publish a demonstration of the synthesis of ATP in light by chloroplasts in 1954, followed by a more detailed ... Allen, M. B.; Whatley, F. R.; Arnon, Daniel I. (1 January 1958). "Photosynthesis by isolated chloroplasts: VI. Rates of ... Allen, M. B.; Whatley, F. R.; Arnon, Daniel I. (1 January 1958). "Photosynthesis by isolated chloroplasts: VI. Rates of ... Arnon, Daniel I.; Whatley, F. R.; Allen, M. B. (1 December 1954). "Photosynthesis by Isolated Chloroplasts. II. Photosynthetic ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Belle_Allen

Member species possess chloroplasts. Reñé, Albert; de Salas, Miguel; Camp, Jordi; Balagué, Vanessa; Garcés, Esther (September ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceratoperidiniaeceae

When the chloroplast runs low on ATP for the Calvin cycle, NADPH will accumulate and the plant may shift from noncyclic to ... This creates a H+ gradient, making H+ ions flow back into the stroma of the chloroplast, providing the energy for the (re) ... discovered photophosphorylation in vitro in isolated chloroplasts with the help of P32. His first review on the early research ... The concentration of NADPH in the chloroplast may help regulate which pathway electrons take through the light reactions. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photophosphorylation

Despite this, chloroplasts can be found in an extremely wide set of organisms, some not even directly related to each other-a ... A chloroplast is a type of organelle known as a plastid, characterized by its two membranes and a high concentration of ... Chloroplasts cannot be made by the plant cell and must be inherited by each daughter cell during cell division. Most ... Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, contain their own DNA, which is thought to be inherited from their ancestor-a photosynthetic ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_primary_production

... chloroplast." National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine. (retrieved 23 Oct 2011) v t e ( ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loxopterygium

Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). "Energy Conversion: Mitochondria and Chloroplasts". ... which uses their energy to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast. These protons move back through the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism

Walker, D. A.; Hill, R (1967). "The relation of oxygen evolution to carbon assimilation with isolated chloroplasts". Biochimica ... Hill, R.; Bendall, F. (1960). "Function of the Two Cytochrome Components in Chloroplasts: A Working Hypothesis". Nature. 186 ( ... Hill, R. (1939). "Oxygen Produced by Isolated Chloroplasts". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 127 (847 ... Hill, R. (1937). "Oxygen Evolved by Isolated Chloroplasts". Nature. 139 (3525): 881-882. Bibcode:1937Natur.139..881H. doi: ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Hill_(biochemist)

Highfield, PE; Ellis, RJ (2 Feb 1978). "Synthesis and transport of the small subunit of chloroplast ribulose bisphosphate ... Lubben, TH; Theg, SM; Keegstra, K (1988). "Transport of proteins into chloroplasts". Photosynthesis Research. 17 (1-2): 173-194 ... The soluble precursor protein is subsequently processed and imported into chloroplasts. At Rockefeller University, Cashmore ... Light-inducible and chloroplast-associated expression of a chimaeric gene introduced into Nicotiana tabacum using a Ti plasmid ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Cashmore

Hill's observation of chloroplasts in dark conditions and in the absence of CO2, showed that the artificial electron acceptor ... Isolated chloroplasts placed under light conditions but in the absence of CO2, reduce and then oxidize artificial electron ... Oxygen (O2) is released as a byproduct, but not sugar (CH2O). Chloroplasts placed under dark conditions and in the absence of ... He demonstrated that isolated chloroplasts would make oxygen (O2) but not fix carbon dioxide (CO2). This is evidence that the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_reaction

Chloroplasts in the leaf cells of Elodea canadensis (Canadian waterweed) ... Chloroplasts in the leaf cells of Elodea canadensis (Canadian waterweed). Dr. Ales Kladnik Affiliation. University of Ljubljana ...

https://www.nikonsmallworld.com/galleries/2008-photomicrography-competition/chloroplasts-in-the-leaf-cells-of-elodea-canadensis-canadian-waterweed

Plant growth in elevated CO2 alters mitochondrial number and chloroplast fine structure. Publication Status is Submitted Or ... the number in control plants grown in lower CO2 and produced a statistically significant increase in the amount of chloroplast ...

https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/node/11250

Using the expression of E. coli β-glucuronidase (gus) in C. reinhardtii chloroplast, the overall aim of the project was to ... Recombinant protein production in the chloroplast of microalgae : a systems biology approach ...

https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.668571

This summer research project involves studying the effects of chloroplast membrane saturation on the maintenance of chloroplast ... UAFS Professor, Students, Awarded Research Grant to Study Chloroplast DNA. Dr. Jeff Shaver, associate professor of biology at ... Desaturation and Biotic Stress on Chloroplast DNA Integrity." The project will take place in collaboration with Dr. Fiona ...

https://uafs.edu/news/5267.php

The proteins CHLOROPLAST UNUSUAL POSITIONING 1 (CHUP1), KINESIN-LIKE PROTEIN FOR ACTIN-BASED CHLOROPLAST MOVEMENT 1 (KAC1) and ... are essential for chloroplast movement and positioning. Furthermore, cp-actin-filament-mediated chloroplast movement is ... The chloroplast movement in kac1kac2 depended on phototropin 2, CHUP1 and two other regulators for cp-actin filaments, PLASTID ... Measurement of chloroplast photorelocation movement indicated that kac1kac2, but not chup1, exhibited a clear strong-light- ...

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0157429

Directed chloroplast transformation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii: insertional inactivation of the psaC gene encoding the iron ... The chloroplast gene psaC encoding the iron sulfur protein of photosystem I (PSI) from the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii ... Directed chloroplast transformation in ,i,Chlamydomonas reinhardtii,/i,: insertional inactivation of the ,i,psaC,/i, gene ... The present study suggests that any chloroplast gene encoding a component of the photosynthetic apparatus can be disrupted in C ...

https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:141167

... solution to separate intact and broken chloroplasts. The intact chloroplasts enriched between the two Percoll steps were ... 2016Testing the Role of the N-Terminal Tail of D1 in the Maintenance of Photosystem II in Tobacco ChloroplastsFront Plant Sci. ... Chloroplasts were isolated from 3-week-old plants of WT and var2 (SAIL_253_A03) grown under continuous light (80 µmol photons m ... 2000Mutations in the Arabidopsis VAR2 locus cause leaf variegation due to the loss of a chloroplast FtsH proteasePlant J. 22: ...

https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/88822

Plaza : Plant Resource For Comparative Genomics

https://bioinformatics.psb.ugent.be/plaza/versions/plaza_v3_dicots/mapman/view/29.2.1.1.1.2.33

Chloroplast solar engines l3949 The heart of the Chloroplast is the Motorola MC34164-3 Micro power Undervoltage Sensing Circuit ... The heart of the Chloroplast is the Motorola MC34164-3 Micro power Undervoltage Sensing Circuit (U1 in the following diagram). ...

https://www.next.gr/automations/motor-control-circuits/Chloroplast-solar-engines-l3949.html

CHLOROPLAST DIVISION IN THE GAMETOPHYTE OF THE FERN MATTEUCCIA STRUTHIOPTERIS (L.) TODARO , Journal of Cell Biology, Volume 1 ... CHLOROPLAST DIVISION IN THE GAMETOPHYTE OF THE FERN MATTEUCCIA STRUTHIOPTERIS (L.) TODARO Elisabeth Gantt, Elisabeth Gantt ... Elisabeth Gantt, Howard J. Arnott; CHLOROPLAST DIVISION IN THE GAMETOPHYTE OF THE FERN MATTEUCCIA STRUTHIOPTERIS (L.) TODARO . ...

https://rupress.org/jcb/article/19/2/446/1263/CHLOROPLAST-DIVISION-IN-THE-GAMETOPHYTE-OF-THE

CO2 -induced chloroplast movement in one cell-layer moss leaves. * A chloroplast-localized pentatricopeptide repeat protein ... OsPPR11 encoding P-type PPR protein that affects group II intron splicing and chloroplast developmen… ... The nuclear-localized RNA helicase 13 is essential for chloroplast development in Arabidopsis thalia… ...

https://accounts.public.ce.basespace.illumina.com/b/search/ov/chloroplasts

... chloroplasts are similar to mitochondria but chloroplasts are found only in plants and protista. The chloroplast is surrounded ... Chloroplasts are members of a class of organelles known as plastids. Evolutionary origin. Chloroplasts are one of the many ... Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis. Chloroplasts absorb light ... Chloroplasts capture light energy to conserve free energy in the form of ATP and reduce NADP to NADPH through a complex set of ...

https://fr.wikidoc.org/index.php/Chloroplasts

Home › Biology Revision › Edexcel (B) A-Level › Practical Skills › Chloroplast Pigments Flashcards ...

https://www.physicsandmathstutor.com/biology-revision/a-level-edexcel-b/practical-skills/chloroplast-pigments-flashcards/

https://chloroplastgames.com/client_apple/

In chloroplast isolation method, first the cell wall is broken mechanically using a blender or homogenizer and then subjected ... Protocol of chloroplast isolation. August 3, 2023. by Sagar Aryal *The chloroplast is an important organelle found in plant ... Carefully remove the upper layer of the chloroplast suspension leaving only the pellet containing the intact chloroplast. ... 1x Chloroplast isolation buffer with BSA (0.1%w/v). *40% percoll : 4ml percoll and 6 ml 1x CIB buffer with BSA to make 10 ml of ...

https://microbenotes.com/protocol-of-chloroplast-isolation/

Chloroplast Lipstick for the Sims 4. HQ mod compatible, but the previews were taken WITHOUT HQ mod!. 15 colours with and ...

https://d2kkl4buashh8c.cloudfront.net/downloads/details/category/sims4-makeup-female-lipstick/title/chloroplast-lipstick/id/1401867/

... Mitochondria and chloroplasts are two important organelles found within ... Similarities Between Mitochondria and Chloroplast. Mitochondria and chloroplasts share some similarities in their structure and ... Difference Between Mitochondria and Chloroplast. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are two important organelles found within ... Relationship Between Mitochondria and Chloroplast. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are both organelles found within eukaryotic ...

https://www.transkerja.com/2023/03/difference-between-mitochondria-and.html

Fewer chloroplasts in the spongy mesophyll because most of the light energy is absorbed by the chloroplasts of the palisade ... 2 How many chloroplasts are present in each leaf cell? Mossberg Pump Shotgun, how many chloroplasts are in a palisade mesophyll ... Why is chloroplast important in photosynthesis? Why root hair has no chloroplast? 2 Photoautotrophs is the term used for plants ... Sunlight reaching the chloroplasts in the wild type, giving rise to large spaces! The presence of chloroplasts is variable, ...

http://www.dubplatemusicpublishers.com/logs/termux-bluetooth/how-many-chloroplasts-are-in-a-palisade-mesophyll-cell

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *. ...

https://botanystudies.com/chloroplast-structure-and-function/outer-membrane-of-chloroplast/

NH2OH-treated, non-water oxidizing chloroplasts are shown to be capable of oxidizing ferrocyanide and I- via Photosystem II at ... Photooxidation of ferrocyanide and iodide ions and associated phosphorylation in NH2OH-treated chloroplasts. / Izawa, S.; Ort, ... N2 - NH2OH-treated, non-water oxidizing chloroplasts are shown to be capable of oxidizing ferrocyanide and I- via Photosystem ... AB - NH2OH-treated, non-water oxidizing chloroplasts are shown to be capable of oxidizing ferrocyanide and I- via Photosystem ...

https://experts.illinois.edu/en/publications/photooxidation-of-ferrocyanide-and-iodide-ions-and-associated-pho

How light-farming chloroplasts morph into defensive warriors By Jeremy Rehm. January 28, 2019. ...

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/protein-power-solar-cell-produces-electricity-spinach-and-bacterial-proteins

Answer- Chloroplast are called "kitchens of the cell" because chloroplast are the sites of photosynthesis and photosynthesis is ... why are the chloroplasts called kitchen of the cell. June 7, 2023. by Shoaib ...

https://freneticknowledge.com/why-are-the-chloroplasts-called-kitchen-of-the-cell

Engineering α-carboxysomes into plant chloroplasts to support autotrophic photosynthesis *Taiyu Chen ...

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-19280-0?error=cookies_not_supported&code=13ca2406-8617-436a-a2da-acbf782e40d7

Chlorophyll is found in the leaves, chloroplasts are found in ... Chlorophyll and chloroplast are two of the many types of ... Chloroplasts are similar to chlorophyll, but they are in cells in the plants leaves and flowers. Chloroplasts help plants to ... Chlorophyll Vs Chloroplast: Whats the Difference?. Chlorophyll and chloroplast are two of the many types of photosynthesis ... Second, chloroplasts play a role in the transfer of photosynthate between different parts of the plant. Finally, chloroplasts ...

https://differencess.com/chlorophyll-vs-chloroplast-whats-the-difference/

Under cold conditions, not only the mother plant but also the father plant can pass on its chloroplasts to the offspring ...

https://www.mpg.de/17707121/reproduction-how-can-the-division-of-labor-of-cells-prevail

... but apparently too much damage is done to the chloroplasts as they travels through the gut of the slug, and the chloroplasts ... Its simply not true that the double membranes of bacteria and chloroplasts were the result of endocytosis. ... Chloroplasts are the machines of life, upon which we heterotrophs (organisms which cant create their own food, but instead ... Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own, circular DNA that replicates independently from the DNA in the cells nucleus. ...

http://www.growingpassion.org/2010/04/evolution-of-chloroplasts-endosymbiosis.html?showComment=1285941482437

Subpopulations of chloroplast ribosomes change during photoregulated development of Zea mays leaves: Ribosomal proteins L2, L21 ... Subpopulations of chloroplast ribosomes change during photoregulated development of Zea mays leaves: Ribosomal proteins L2, L21 ... Zhao YY, Xu T, Zucchi P, Bogorad L. Subpopulations of chloroplast ribosomes change during photoregulated development of Zea ... Subpopulations of chloroplast ribosomes change during photoregulated development of Zea mays leaves : Ribosomal proteins L2, ...

https://www.scholars.northwestern.edu/en/publications/subpopulations-of-chloroplast-ribosomes-change-during-photoregula

035-20]The Nitrogen Content of Oat Chloroplasts. Posted on April 28, 2016 by Transactions Editor Webmaster ... This entry was posted in 1942, Transactions and tagged Galston, The Nitrogen content of Oat Chloroplasts. Bookmark the ...

https://ilacadofsci.com/archives/11084

Huntingtons Aggregates May Be Prevented by Chloroplast Enzyme Nobel Winner Katalin Karikó Shared mRNA Vaccine Story with GEN, ...

https://www.genengnews.com/companies/mdxhealth/

Homework for Lesson 1. The Cell: Endomembrane System, Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, Cytoskeleton, and Extracellular Components. ... Homework for Lesson 1. The Cell: Endomembrane System, Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, Cytoskeleton, and Extracellular Components ... Assignments for lesson "1. The Cell: Endomembrane System, Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, Cytoskeleton, and Extracellular ...

https://pct-davao.com/namaste-homework/homework-for-lesson-1-the-cell-endomembrane-system-mitochondria-chloroplasts-cytoskeleton-and-extracellular-components/

Chloroplasts, on the other hand, are responsible for photosynthesis, converting light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose. (transkerja.com)
Mitochondria are responsible for energy conversion in cells, while chloroplasts are responsible for photosynthesis. (transkerja.com)
Chloroplasts are organelles within cells that contain chlorophyll and are responsible for photosynthesis. (differencess.com)

Growth in elevated CO2 increased numbers of mitochondria per unit cell area by 1.3-2.4 times the number in control plants grown in lower CO2 and produced a statistically significant increase in the amount of chloroplast stroma (nonappressed) thylakoid membranes compared with those in lower CO2 treatments. (columbia.edu)
[3] In that they derive from an endosymbiotic event, chloroplasts are similar to mitochondria but chloroplasts are found only in plants and protista . (wikidoc.org)
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are two important organelles found within eukaryotic cells that play critical roles in energy conversion and photosynthesis, respectively. (transkerja.com)
Despite their similarities in origin and structure, mitochondria and chloroplasts differ significantly in their functions and cellular roles. (transkerja.com)
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are two important organelles found within eukaryotic cells. (transkerja.com)
Reproduction: Mitochondria and chloroplasts can both reproduce independently of the host cell through a process known as binary fission. (transkerja.com)
In conclusion, while mitochondria and chloroplasts share some similarities in their origin and structure, they have distinct differences in their function, cellular roles, and evolutionary history. (transkerja.com)
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are both organelles found within eukaryotic cells, and they share some similarities in their structure and evolutionary history. (transkerja.com)
This is supported by the fact that both mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA, which is separate from the nuclear DNA of the host cell. (transkerja.com)
However, the functions of mitochondria and chloroplasts are distinct from one another. (transkerja.com)
Mitochondria are found in all eukaryotic cells, while chloroplasts are only found in photosynthetic organisms such as plants and algae. (transkerja.com)
Mitochondria are essential for cellular respiration and energy metabolism, while chloroplasts are crucial for providing energy to plants and for the oxygenation of the atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis. (transkerja.com)
Although only green plants possess chloroplasts in their cells, all animal and plant cells have mitochondria, a specialised organelle that oxidises (burns) sugar and provides energy for cells to work. (growingpassion.org)
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own, circular DNA that replicates independently from the DNA in the cell's nucleus. (growingpassion.org)
Over the course of plant evolution since the original endosymbiotic events, interactions have occurred between genes in the chloroplasts, nucleii and mitochondria. (growingpassion.org)

Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis . (wikidoc.org)
Chloroplasts capture light energy to conserve free energy in the form of ATP and reduce NADP to NADPH through a complex set of processes called photosynthesis. (wikidoc.org)
The chloroplast is an important organelle found in plant cells that conduct photosynthesis. (microbenotes.com)
Because the roots are underground, so they cannot get light which is what chloroplasts need to carry out photosynthesis. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
Chlorophyll and chloroplast are two of the many types of photosynthesis that occur in plants. (differencess.com)
Chlorophyll is found in the leaves, chloroplasts are found in the cells of chlorophyll, and they perform different roles in photosynthesis. (differencess.com)
Chloroplasts are organelles within cells that perform photosynthesis. (differencess.com)
Overall, the difference between chlorophyll and chloroplasts is mostly minor and impacts the way they perform photosynthesis relatively little. (differencess.com)
Chlorophyll and chloroplast are two types of photosynthesis. (differencess.com)
Chloroplasts play an important role in photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert sunlight into glucose. (differencess.com)

In some algae (such as the heterokonts and other protists such as Euglenozoa and Cercozoa ), chloroplasts seem to have evolved through a secondary event of endosymbiosis, in which a eukaryotic cell engulfed a second eukaryotic cell containing chloroplasts, forming chloroplasts with three or four membrane layers. (wikidoc.org)
Chloroplasts are believed to have originated from a photosynthetic bacterium that was also engulfed by a eukaryotic cell through endosymbiosis. (transkerja.com)
Below is a graphic I've put together to show the two crucial stages in the incorporation of photosynthesising prokaryotes into proto-eukaryotic cells, leading to a true eukaryotic cell with both a mitochondrion and a chloroplast. (growingpassion.org)

The material within the chloroplast is called the stroma, corresponding to the cytosol of the original bacterium, and contains one or more molecules of small circular DNA. (wikidoc.org)
The chloroplast fraction can be further extracted to obtain membrane, stroma, or thylakoid proteins as well as chloroplastic DNA and RNA. (microbenotes.com)

Shaver will use the $39,750 grant to fund an investigation of the "Influence of Membrane Desaturation and Biotic Stress on Chloroplast DNA Integrity. (uafs.edu)
This summer research project involves studying the effects of chloroplast membrane saturation on the maintenance of chloroplast DNA and susceptibility to aphid infestation using wild-type and mutant Arabidopsis and tomato plants. (uafs.edu)
The chloroplast is contained by an envelope that consists of an inner and an outer phospholipid membrane. (wikidoc.org)
Chloroplasts are usually disk-shaped and have a double membrane, with an additional internal membrane system known as thylakoids. (transkerja.com)

Using the expression of E. coli β-glucuronidase (gus) in C. reinhardtii chloroplast, the overall aim of the project was to address if the low recombinant gus yield in C. reinhardtii was due to limitations that affect growth and protein production, and if the fluxes for recombinant gus production were suboptimal (limiting). (bl.uk)
The chloroplast gene psaC encoding the iron sulfur protein of photosystem I (PSI) from the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii has been cloned and characterized. (unige.ch)
Further characterization of Trp-14 using chloroplast transformation in Chlamydomonas indicated that substitution of D1 Trp-14 to Phe, mimicking Trp oxidation enhanced FtsH-mediated D1 degradation under high light, although the substitution did not affect protein stability and PSII activity. (elifesciences.org)
It also contains ribosomes , although most of its proteins are encoded by genes contained in the host cell nucleus, with the protein products transported to the chloroplast. (wikidoc.org)
Chloroplasts are the best starting material for studies of chloroplastic processes such as carbon assimilation, electron flow and phosphorylation, metabolic transport, or protein targeting. (microbenotes.com)
Chloroplasts have a special protein called chloroplast ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase that helps the plant convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose. (differencess.com)

In green plants, chloroplasts are surrounded by two lipid-bilayer membranes . (wikidoc.org)
Isolation of Chloroplast Inner and Outer Envelope Membranes. (microbenotes.com)
Chloroplasts use a proton gradient to transport molecules across their thylakoid membranes. (transkerja.com)
L JV We concluded that maceration methods were unsuccessful due to lignification of mesophyll cell walls detected histochemically (Fig. 6 How many membranes surround each chloroplast? (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)

Chloroplasts absorb light and use it in conjunction with water and carbon dioxide to produce sugars, the raw material for energy and biomass production in all green plants and the animals that depend on them, directly or indirectly, for food. (wikidoc.org)
Chloroplasts help plants to convert carbon dioxide into glucose and other nutrients. (differencess.com)
The primary function of chloroplasts is to convert light energy into chemical energy that can be used by the plant to create glucose from carbon dioxide and water. (differencess.com)
All green plants contain chloroplasts, amazing molecular machines which use carbon dioxide, water and photons from sunlight to create sugar and oxygen. (growingpassion.org)
Chloroplasts, able to perform feats well beyond human technology--the efficient splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen, and the synthesis of sugars from water and carbon dioxide to chemically store energy--are extremely complex structures. (growingpassion.org)

Chloroplasts are only found in photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and algae. (transkerja.com)

The chloroplasts contain the pigment chlorophyll. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
NH 2 OH-treated, non-water oxidizing chloroplasts are shown to be capable of oxidizing ferrocyanide and I - via Photosystem II at appreciable rates (≥ 200 μequiv/h per mg chlorophyll). (illinois.edu)
Chlorophyll Vs Chloroplast: What's The Difference? (differencess.com)
In this article, we'll explore the differences between chlorophyll and chloroplast, and what they contribute to plant health. (differencess.com)
Chloroplasts are organelles in plants that use chlorophyll to make food. (differencess.com)
The main difference between chlorophyll and chloroplast is that chlorophyll allows light to pass through it while chloroplasts protect the plant from oxidative damage. (differencess.com)
For example, chloroplasts are larger than chlorophyll and have more complex structures. (differencess.com)
Chloroplasts are similar to chlorophyll, but they are in cells in the plant's leaves and flowers. (differencess.com)
Chloroplasts are cells in plants that contain chlorophyll. (differencess.com)
Chlorophyll is the primary pigment in plant cells, while chloroplast is an organelle in plants that uses sunlight to create energy. (differencess.com)
In general, chlorophyll helps plants extract oxygen from the air, while chloroplast helps plants create their own food sources. (differencess.com)
Chloroplasts are organelles within plants that contain chlorophyll. (differencess.com)
Chloroplasts are organelles within cells that are responsible for the synthesis of chlorophyll. (differencess.com)

Chloroplasts have their own genome, which is considerably reduced compared to that of free-living cyanobacteria, but the parts that are still present show clear similarities with the cyanobacterial genome. (wikidoc.org)
Phylogenetic analysis using a total chloroplast genome DNA sequence of 28 species revealed a close relationship between A. tsao-ko and A. paratsaoko with 100% bootstrap value. (bvsalud.org)

[2] All eukaryote chloroplasts are thought to derive directly or indirectly from a single endosymbiotic event (in the Archaeplastida ), except for Paulinella chromatophora , which has recently acquired a photosynthetic cyanobacterial endosymbiont which is not closely related to chloroplasts of other eukaryotes. (wikidoc.org)

Comments 'Whereas wild-type plants have 80 to 120 chloroplasts per mesophyll cell, the accumulation and regulation of chloroplast (arc) mutants used in this study have between one and about 30 chloroplasts per mesophyll cell (Table III). (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
Chloroplasts help the plant photosynthesize, which is the process by which plants make their own food from sunlight and water. (differencess.com)

In chloroplast isolation method, first the cell wall is broken mechanically using a blender or homogenizer and then subjected to filtration to remove the unbroken leaf tissue and the cellular debris. (microbenotes.com)
The tissue chlorenchymahas chloroplast in cells. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
Which tissue has chloroplast in cell? (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)

In algae, chromatophores refer to CHLOROPLASTS. (bvsalud.org)

Izawa, S & Ort, DR 1974, ' Photooxidation of ferrocyanide and iodide ions and associated phosphorylation in NH 2 OH-treated chloroplasts ', BBA - Bioenergetics , vol. 357, no. 1, pp. 127-143. (illinois.edu)

How would that change the amount of sunlight reaching the chloroplasts in the palisade layer? (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
This is why chloroplasts help us live longer because they allow us to produce food from sunlight. (differencess.com)

Another method frequently used for the estimation of chloroplast number per mesophyll cell in 2D is based on counting chloroplast profiles in semi-thin (14 m thick) physical sections of a leaf using transmission electron and light microscopy (Boffey et al. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)

These cells have more chloroplasts than other mesophyll cells, and their chloroplasts are arranged in long, thin stacks. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)

Using a particle gun, wild type C. reinhardtii cells have been transformed with a plasmid carrying the psaC gene disrupted by an aadA gene cassette designed to express spectinomycin/streptomycin resistance in the chloroplast. (unige.ch)
The present study suggests that any chloroplast gene encoding a component of the photosynthetic apparatus can be disrupted in C. reinhardtii using the strategy described. (unige.ch)
Maintenance of chloroplast structure and function by overexpression of the rice MONOGALACTOSYLDIACYLGLYCEROL SYNTHASE gene leads to enhanced salt tolerance in tobacco. (microbenotes.com)

Chloroplasts are observable morphologically as flat discs usually 2 to 10 micrometer in diameter and 1 micrometer thick. (wikidoc.org)

Chloroplasts are inherited maternally in some species, but can also be inherited paternally in others. (transkerja.com)

Plant cells with visible chloroplasts. (wikidoc.org)
7 Can We estimate the number of chloroplast cells in 3D? (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
Probes a, CF ), confocal microscopy chloroplast counting in separated spruce mesophyll cells sub-tissues. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
In addition to the nucleus, guard cells contain chloroplasts, which are not present in other epidermal cells. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
Chloroplasts also play an important role in the transfer of photosynthate between photosynthetic cells and the rest of the plant. (differencess.com)

The intact chloroplast sediments to the bottom of the tube after Percoll centrifugation as a green pellet. (microbenotes.com)
The round green organelles are chloroplasts. (growingpassion.org)

Fewer chloroplasts in the spongy mesophyll because most of the light energy is absorbed by the chloroplasts of the palisade mesophyll. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)
Chloroplast can also store energy from the sun and use it to create glucose, which is then used by the plant to create food. (differencess.com)

There are a few reasons why chloroplasts are so important to plant biology. (differencess.com)

Chloroplasts also have their own DNA, which is similar to that of bacterial DNA. (transkerja.com)
Chloroplasts also have ribosomes, but they are more similar to bacterial ribosomes. (transkerja.com)

Is the Subject Area "Chloroplasts" applicable to this article? (plos.org)

Chloroplasts are the machines of life, upon which we heterotrophs (organisms which can't create their own food, but instead rely on eating other organisms) depend. (growingpassion.org)

The shape of chloroplasts is variable, from round to ellipsoid, or much more complex. (dubplatemusicpublishers.com)

Anatomy10

Organisms27

Chemicals and Drugs44

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment4

Phenomena and Processes31

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Magnesium ion-induced changes in the binding mode of adenylates to chloroplast coupling factor 1. (1/4503)

Role of a novel photosystem II-associated carbonic anhydrase in photosynthetic carbon assimilation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. (2/4503)

The localisation of 2-carboxy-D-arabinitol 1-phosphate and inhibition of Rubisco in leaves of Phaseolus vulgaris L. (3/4503)

Overexpression of the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry2Aa2 protein in chloroplasts confers resistance to plants against susceptible and Bt-resistant insects. (4/4503)

EPR spectroscopy of VO2+-ATP bound to catalytic site 3 of chloroplast F1-ATPase from Chlamydomonas reveals changes in metal ligation resulting from mutations to the phosphate-binding loop threonine (betaT168). (5/4503)

The chloroplast infA gene with a functional UUG initiation codon. (6/4503)

Rapid purification of membrane extrinsic F1-domain of chloroplast ATP synthase in monodisperse form suitable for 3D-crystallization. (7/4503)

Isolation of pigment-binding early light-inducible proteins from pea. (8/4503)

Chloroplasts

DNA, Chloroplast

Chloroplast Proteins

Genome, Chloroplast

RNA, Chloroplast

Genes, Chloroplast

Plants

Plant Proteins

Euglena gracilis

Peas

Photosynthesis

Spinacia oleracea

Thylakoids

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Plastids

Chloroplast Proton-Translocating ATPases

Chlorophyll

Arabidopsis

Chloroplast Thioredoxins

Plant Leaves

Arabidopsis Proteins

Light

Ribulose-Bisphosphate Carboxylase

Molecular Sequence Data

Chlamydomonas

Chlorophyta

Photosynthetic Reaction Center Complex Proteins

Photophosphorylation

Photosystem II Protein Complex

Plants, Medicinal

Genes, Plant

Fabaceae

Tobacco

Galactolipids

Euglena

Gene Expression Regulation, Plant

Amino Acid Sequence

Base Sequence

Algal Proteins

Darkness

Plants, Genetically Modified

Light-Harvesting Protein Complexes

Cytochrome b6f Complex

DNA, Plant

RNA, Plant

Intracellular Membranes

Zea mays

Phylogeny

Eukaryota

Proton-Translocating ATPases

Cytochromes f

Plants, Toxic

Genome, Plant

Mesophyll Cells

Diuron

Plants, Edible

Mutation

Sequence Homology, Amino Acid

Photosystem I Protein Complex

Acetabularia

Hordeum

RNA Editing

Protein Precursors

Plastoquinone

Cloning, Molecular

Angiosperms

Protein Transport

RNA, Algal

Fructose-Bisphosphatase

Plastocyanin

Group I Chaperonins

Sequence Alignment

Electron Transport

Bryopsida

Protochlorophyllide

RNA, Ribosomal

Membrane Proteins

Evolution, Molecular

Ferredoxins

Rhodophyta