Chickens
Chick Embryo
Poultry Diseases
Chicken anemia virus
Bursa of Fabricius
Molecular Sequence Data
Marek Disease
Avian Leukosis
Base Sequence
Amino Acid Sequence
Influenza in Birds
Avian leukosis virus
Gizzard
Ducks
Cloning, Molecular
Species Specificity
Newcastle Disease
Cloaca
Turkeys
Influenza A Virus, H9N2 Subtype
Alpharetrovirus
Oviducts
Avian Sarcoma Viruses
Poultry
Meat
Feathers
Comb and Wattles
DNA
Campylobacter jejuni
Newcastle disease virus
Infectious bursal disease virus
Eggs
Coturnix
Specific Pathogen-Free Organisms
Eimeria
Mardivirus
Salmonella enteritidis
RNA, Messenger
Quail
Cecum
Geese
Erythrocytes
Influenza A Virus, H5N1 Subtype
Genes
Coccidiosis
Food Microbiology
DNA, Complementary
Sequence Homology, Nucleic Acid
Cells, Cultured
Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
Fibroblasts
Liver
Nucleic Acid Hybridization
Monocyte-mediated antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity: a clinical test of monocyte function. (1/18504)
The lack of a simple, rapid, and quantitative test of the functional activity of the monocyte has hampered studies of the contribution of this cell type to host defense and human disease. This report describes an assay of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity, which depends exclusively upon the monocyte as the effector cell and therefore provides a convenient test of monocyte function. In this system, mononuclear leukocytes (MNL) obtained by Ficoll-Hypaque separation of whole blood are cytotoxic for 51Cr-labeled human erythrocyte targets coated with anti-blood group antibody. Removal of phagocytic monocytes from the MNL by iron ingestion, followed by exposure to a magnetic field, completely abolishes all cytotoxic activity from the remaining MNL population. Similarly, in severely mono-cytopenic patients with aplastic anemia, cytotoxic effector activity is absent. In normals and less severely monocytopenic aplastic anemia patients, cytotoxicity correlates significantly (p less than 0.001) with monocyte number. Application of this monocyte-mediated antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity assay to the study of patients with the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome has revealed defective monocyte cytotoxic activity in spite of normal monocyte numbers, suggesting that this test may be useful for the assessment of monocyte function in a variety of clinical situations. (+info)Temperature sensitivity studies on selected strains on Mycoplasma gallisepticum. (2/18504)
Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG324), a tylosin resistant strain of low virulence, was compared with four other strains with respect to their survival at temperatures from 46.1 to 48.9 degrees C. MG324 was found to be more resistant than the other strains tested. (+info)Pathological changes in chickens, ducks and turkeys fed high levels of rapeseed oil. (3/18504)
Rations containing 25% of either regular rapeseed oil (36% erucic acid), Oro rapeseed oil (1.9% erucic acid), soybean oil or a mixture of lard and corn oil were fed to chickens, ducks and turkeys. The regular rapeseed oil ration caused growth depression, increased feed conversion and anemia in all species. All the ducks and some of the chickens fed the regular rapeseed oil ration died. These dead birds were affected with hydropericardium and ascites. No deaths in the turkeys could be attributed to the regular rapeseed oil ration but some turkeys fed this ration had degenerative foci characterized by infiltrations of histiocytic and giant cells in the myocardium. Severe fatty change in the heart, skeletal muscles, spleen and kidney was found at an early age in all birds fed the regular rapeseed oil ration. Less severe fatty change but no other lesions were found in birds fed the Oro rapeseed oil and soybean oil rations. (+info)p50(cdc37) acting in concert with Hsp90 is required for Raf-1 function. (4/18504)
Genetic screens in Drosophila have identified p50(cdc37) to be an essential component of the sevenless receptor/mitogen-activated kinase protein (MAPK) signaling pathway, but neither the function nor the target of p50(cdc37) in this pathway has been defined. In this study, we examined the role of p50(cdc37) and its Hsp90 chaperone partner in Raf/Mek/MAPK signaling biochemically. We found that coexpression of wild-type p50(cdc37) with Raf-1 resulted in robust and dose-dependent activation of Raf-1 in Sf9 cells. In addition, p50(cdc37) greatly potentiated v-Src-mediated Raf-1 activation. Moreover, we found that p50(cdc37) is the primary determinant of Hsp90 recruitment to Raf-1. Overexpression of a p50(cdc37) mutant which is unable to recruit Hsp90 into the Raf-1 complex inhibited Raf-1 and MAPK activation by growth factors. Similarly, pretreatment with geldanamycin (GA), an Hsp90-specific inhibitor, prevented both the association of Raf-1 with the p50(cdc37)-Hsp90 heterodimer and Raf-1 kinase activation by serum. Activation of Raf-1 via baculovirus coexpression with oncogenic Src or Ras in Sf9 cells was also strongly inhibited by dominant negative p50(cdc37) or by GA. Thus, formation of a ternary Raf-1-p50(cdc37)-Hsp90 complex is crucial for Raf-1 activity and MAPK pathway signaling. These results provide the first biochemical evidence for the requirement of the p50(cdc37)-Hsp90 complex in protein kinase regulation and for Raf-1 function in particular. (+info)Conserved domains and lack of evidence for polyglutamine length polymorphism in the chicken homolog of the Machado-Joseph disease gene product ataxin-3. (5/18504)
Ataxin-3 is a protein of unknown function which is mutated in Machado-Joseph disease by expansion of a genetically unstable CAG repeat encoding polyglutamine. By analysis of chicken ataxin-3 we were able to identify four conserved domains of the protein and detected widespread expression in chicken tissues. In the first such analysis in a non-primate species we found that in contrast to primates, the chicken CAG repeat is short and genetically stable. (+info)BLNK required for coupling Syk to PLC gamma 2 and Rac1-JNK in B cells. (6/18504)
Signaling through the B cell receptor (BCR) is essential for B cell function and development. Despite the key role of Syk in BCR signaling, little is known about the mechanism by which Syk transmits downstream effectors. BLNK (B cell LiNKer protein), a substrate for Syk, is now shown to be essential in activating phospholipase C (PLC)gamma 2 and JNK. The BCR-induced PLC gamma 2 activation, but not the JNK activation, was restored by introduction of PLC gamma 2 membrane-associated form into BLNK-deficient B cells. As JNK activation requires both Rac1 and PLC gamma 2, our results suggest that BLNK regulates the Rac1-JNK pathway, in addition to modulating PLC gamma 2 localization. (+info)The DNA binding activity of Translin is mediated by a basic region in the ring-shaped structure conserved in evolution. (7/18504)
DNA binding proteins, for the most part, function as dimers or tetramers which recognize their target sequences. Here we show that Translin, a novel single-stranded DNA end binding protein, forms a ring-shaped structure conserved throughout evolution and that this structure is responsible for its DNA binding activity. Point mutations at Leu184 and Leu191 in the leucine zipper motif of human Translin resulted in loss of the multimeric structure and abrogation of DNA binding. Point mutations at R86, H88, H90 to T86, N88, N90 in one of the basic regions, however, completely inhibited the DNA binding activity without affecting the multimeric structure. These results support the view that the DNA binding domain of Translin is formed in the ring-shaped structure in combination with its basic region (amino acids 86-97) polypeptides. (+info)Regulation of AMP deaminase from chicken erythrocytes. A kinetic study of the allosteric interactions. (8/18504)
The allosteric properties of AMP deaminase [EC 3.5.4.6] from chicken erythrocytes have been qualitatively and quantitatively accounted for by the concerted transition theory of Monod et al., on the assumption that this enzyme has different numbers of binding sites for each ligand. Theoretical curves yield a satisfactory fit for all experimental saturation functions with respect to activation by alkali metals and inhibition by Pi, assuming that the numbers of binding sites for AMP, alkali metals, and Pi are 4, 2, and 4, respectively. The enzyme was inhibited by concentrations of ATP and GTP below 0.1 and 0.25 mM, respectively, whereas activation of the enzyme was observed at ATP and GTP concentrations above 0.4 and 1.5 mM, respectively. These unusual kinetics with respect to ATP and GTP could be also accounted for by assuming 2 inhibitory and 4 activating sites for each ligand. (+info)"Chickens" is a common term used to refer to the domesticated bird, Gallus gallus domesticus, which is widely raised for its eggs and meat. However, in medical terms, "chickens" is not a standard term with a specific definition. If you have any specific medical concern or question related to chickens, such as food safety or allergies, please provide more details so I can give a more accurate answer.
A chick embryo refers to the developing organism that arises from a fertilized chicken egg. It is often used as a model system in biological research, particularly during the stages of development when many of its organs and systems are forming and can be easily observed and manipulated. The study of chick embryos has contributed significantly to our understanding of various aspects of developmental biology, including gastrulation, neurulation, organogenesis, and pattern formation. Researchers may use various techniques to observe and manipulate the chick embryo, such as surgical alterations, cell labeling, and exposure to drugs or other agents.
Poultry diseases refer to a wide range of infectious and non-infectious disorders that affect domesticated birds, particularly those raised for meat, egg, or feather production. These diseases can be caused by various factors including viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites, genetic predisposition, environmental conditions, and management practices.
Infectious poultry diseases are often highly contagious and can lead to significant economic losses in the poultry industry due to decreased production, increased mortality, and reduced quality of products. Some examples of infectious poultry diseases include avian influenza, Newcastle disease, salmonellosis, colibacillosis, mycoplasmosis, aspergillosis, and coccidiosis.
Non-infectious poultry diseases can be caused by factors such as poor nutrition, environmental stressors, and management issues. Examples of non-infectious poultry diseases include ascites, fatty liver syndrome, sudden death syndrome, and various nutritional deficiencies.
Prevention and control of poultry diseases typically involve a combination of biosecurity measures, vaccination programs, proper nutrition, good management practices, and monitoring for early detection and intervention. Rapid and accurate diagnosis of poultry diseases is crucial to implementing effective treatment and prevention strategies, and can help minimize the impact of disease outbreaks on both individual flocks and the broader poultry industry.
Chicken anemia virus (CAV) is a small, non-enveloped DNA virus that belongs to the family *Circoviridae* and genus *Gyrovirus*. It primarily infects chickens and causes a variety of clinical signs, including severe anemia, immunosuppression, and runting in young birds.
The virus is highly contagious and can be spread through horizontal transmission via feces, contaminated equipment, or vertically from infected breeder hens to their offspring. CAV infection can lead to significant economic losses in the poultry industry due to decreased growth rates, increased mortality, and reduced egg production.
In addition to its impact on the poultry industry, CAV has also been used as a vector for gene delivery in biomedical research. Its small genome size and ability to infect a wide range of avian species make it an attractive candidate for vaccine development and gene therapy applications.
The Bursa of Fabricius is a lymphoid organ located in the cloaca of birds. It plays a crucial role in the development of the bird's immune system, specifically in the maturation and differentiation of B cells, which are a type of white blood cell responsible for producing antibodies to fight off infections.
The Bursa of Fabricius is named after the Italian anatomist Hieronymus Fabricius (1537-1619), who first described it in 1621. It is a sac-like structure that is lined with epithelial cells and contains lymphoid follicles, which are clusters of B cells at various stages of development.
In chickens, the Bursa of Fabricius begins to develop around the 5th day of incubation and reaches its maximum size by the time the bird is about 3 weeks old. After this point, it gradually involutes and disappears by the time the bird reaches adulthood.
It's worth noting that the Bursa of Fabricius has no direct equivalent in mammals, including humans. While mammals also have lymphoid organs such as the spleen, lymph nodes, and tonsils, these organs serve different functions and are not directly involved in the maturation of B cells.
I'm not aware of a specific medical definition for "Avian Proteins." The term "avian" generally refers to birds or their characteristics. Therefore, "avian proteins" would likely refer to proteins that are found in birds or are produced by avian cells. These proteins could have various functions and roles, depending on the specific protein in question.
For example, avian proteins might be of interest in medical research if they have similarities to human proteins and can be used as models to study protein function, structure, or interaction with other molecules. Additionally, some avian proteins may have potential applications in therapeutic development, such as using chicken egg-derived proteins for wound healing or as vaccine components.
However, without a specific context or reference, it's difficult to provide a more precise definition of "avian proteins" in a medical context.
Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.
Marek's disease is a highly contagious viral infection that primarily affects chickens and other members of the Galliformes order (which includes turkeys, quails, and pheasants). The disease is caused by the alphaherpesvirus known as Gallid herpesvirus 2 or Marek's disease virus (MDV).
The infection primarily targets the chicken's immune system, leading to various clinical manifestations such as:
1. T-cell lymphomas (cancerous growths) in the peripheral nerves, visceral organs, and skin. These tumors can cause paralysis, especially in the legs, and affect the bird's mobility and overall health.
2. Enlarged, pale, or discolored spleens and livers due to the proliferation of infected lymphocytes.
3. Lesions on the feather follicles, skin, and eyes (such as iritis, conjunctivitis, and blindness) caused by viral replication in these areas.
4. Immunosuppression, which makes affected birds more susceptible to secondary bacterial or viral infections, leading to a decline in overall health and production.
Marek's disease is primarily transmitted through the inhalation of dust particles containing infected dander or feather follicle epithelium. The virus can also be spread via contaminated equipment, clothing, and transportation vehicles.
Vaccination is an effective method to control Marek's disease in commercial poultry operations. However, the continuous evolution of more virulent strains poses a challenge for long-term protection and eradication efforts.
Avian leukosis is a group of viral diseases that primarily affect chickens and other birds. It is caused by retroviruses known as avian leukosis viruses (ALVs) and leads to a variety of clinical signs, including immunosuppression, growth retardation, and the development of tumors in various organs. The disease can be transmitted both horizontally (through direct contact with infected birds or their secretions) and vertically (from infected hens to their offspring through the egg).
There are several subgroups of ALVs, each associated with specific types of tumors and clinical manifestations. For example:
1. ALV-J (Japanese strain): This subgroup is responsible for myelocytomatosis, a condition characterized by the proliferation of immature blood cells in the bone marrow, leading to anemia, leukopenia, and enlarged spleens and livers.
2. ALV-A, ALV-B, and ALV-C (American strains): These subgroups are associated with various types of lymphoid tumors, such as B-cell and T-cell lymphomas, which can affect the bursa of Fabricius, thymus, spleen, and other organs.
3. ALV-E (European strain): This subgroup is linked to erythroblastosis, a condition in which there is an excessive proliferation of red blood cell precursors, resulting in the formation of tumors in the bone marrow and other organs.
Avian leukosis poses significant economic challenges for the poultry industry due to its impact on growth, feed conversion efficiency, and mortality rates. Additionally, some countries have regulations in place to prevent the spread of avian leukosis viruses through the trade of infected birds or their products. Prevention measures include strict biosecurity protocols, vaccination programs, and rigorous screening and eradication strategies for infected flocks.
A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.
An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.
'Avian influenza' refers to the infection caused by avian (bird) influenza A viruses. These viruses occur naturally among wild aquatic birds worldwide and can infect domestic poultry and other bird and animal species. Avian influenza viruses do not normally infect humans, but rare cases of human infection have occurred mainly after close contact with infected birds or heavily contaminated environments.
There are many different subtypes of avian influenza viruses based on two proteins on the surface of the virus: hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). There are 16 known HA subtypes and 9 known NA subtypes, creating a vast number of possible combinations. Some of these combinations cause severe disease and death in birds (e.g., H5N1, H7N9), while others only cause mild illness (e.g., H9N2).
Most avian influenza viruses do not infect humans. However, some forms are zoonotic, meaning they can infect animals and humans. The risk to human health is generally low. When human infections with avian influenza viruses have occurred, most have resulted from direct contact with infected poultry or surfaces contaminated by their feces.
Avian influenza viruses have caused several pandemics in the past, including the 1918 Spanish flu (H1N1), which was an H1N1 virus containing genes of avian origin. The concern is that a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus could mutate to become easily transmissible from human to human, leading to another pandemic. This is one of the reasons why avian influenza viruses are closely monitored by public health authorities worldwide.
Avian leukosis virus (ALV) is a type of retrovirus that primarily affects chickens and other birds. It is responsible for a group of diseases known as avian leukosis, which includes various types of tumors and immunosuppressive conditions. The virus is transmitted horizontally through the shedder's dander, feathers, and vertical transmission through infected eggs.
There are several subgroups of ALV (A, B, C, D, E, and J), each with different host ranges and pathogenicity. Some strains can cause rapid death in young chickens, while others may take years to develop clinical signs. The most common form of the disease is neoplastic, characterized by the development of various types of tumors such as lymphomas, myelomas, and sarcomas.
Avian leukosis virus infection can have significant economic impacts on the poultry industry due to decreased growth rates, increased mortality, and condemnation of infected birds at processing. Control measures include eradication programs, biosecurity practices, vaccination, and breeding for genetic resistance.
In human anatomy, a "gizzard" does not exist as it is not part of the human digestive system. However, in veterinary medicine, the gizzard refers to a part of the stomach in birds and some other animals, such as crocodiles and alligators. It is a muscular, thick-walled portion where food is stored and mechanically broken down by grinding and mixing it with grit that the animal has swallowed. This action helps in the digestion process, especially for birds that do not have teeth to chew their food.
"Ducks" is not a medical term. It is a common name used to refer to a group of birds that belong to the family Anatidae, which also includes swans and geese. Some ducks are hunted for their meat, feathers, or down, but they do not have any specific medical relevance. If you have any questions about a specific medical term or concept, I would be happy to help if you could provide more information!
Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:
1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.
Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.
Medical definitions of terms often come from authoritative sources such as those produced by the US National Institutes of Health (NIH), the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), or the World Health Organization (WHO). However, I couldn't find a specific medical definition for 'poultry products' in these resources. Instead, poultry products are commonly defined by food safety authorities such as the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) or the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
According to the USDA, "Poultry products" are items that are derived from the whole carcasses, parts, or portions of poultry carcasses, such as chicken, turkey, duck, goose, guinea fowl, and ratites (emus and ostriches). These products include, but are not limited to, meat, skin, fat, bones, organs, eggs, and egg products.
It's important to note that poultry products can be a source of various bacteria, parasites, and viruses, including Salmonella, Campylobacter, Listeria, and avian influenza viruses. Proper handling, cooking, and storage are crucial steps in preventing foodborne illnesses associated with the consumption of poultry products.
Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.
For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.
Newcastle Disease is a highly contagious viral disease caused by the Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV). It primarily affects birds and poultry, causing severe respiratory, neurological, and gastrointestinal symptoms. The virus can also infect mammals, including humans, but human cases are relatively rare and usually result in mild or asymptomatic infections.
In birds, the disease can cause significant mortality, especially in young chickens. Symptoms may include respiratory distress, depression, greenish diarrhea, muscle tremors, twisting of the neck (torticollis), paralysis, and decreased egg production. The virus is transmitted through direct contact with infected birds or their feces, as well as through contaminated food, water, and equipment.
In humans, Newcastle Disease typically results in conjunctivitis, mild respiratory symptoms, or influenza-like illness. It is not considered a significant public health concern, but proper biosecurity measures should be taken to prevent transmission between birds and humans. Vaccination programs are widely used to control the disease in poultry populations.
A cloaca is a common cavity or channel in some animals, including many birds and reptiles, that serves as the combined endpoint for the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems. Feces, urine, and in some cases, eggs are all expelled through this single opening. In humans and other mammals, these systems have separate openings. Anatomical anomalies can result in a human born with a cloaca, which is very rare and typically requires surgical correction.
I'm not aware of any recognized medical term or condition specifically referred to as "turkeys." The term "turkey" is most commonly used in a non-medical context to refer to the large, bird-like domesticated fowl native to North America, scientifically known as Meleagris gallopavo.
However, if you are referring to a medical condition called "turkey neck," it is a colloquial term used to describe sagging or loose skin around the neck area, which can resemble a turkey's wattle. This condition is not a formal medical diagnosis but rather a descriptive term for an aesthetic concern some people may have about their appearance.
If you meant something else by "turkeys," please provide more context so I can give you a more accurate answer.
'Influenza A Virus, H9N2 Subtype' is a type of influenza virus that causes respiratory illness in birds and occasionally in humans. It has been found to infect various animal species, including pigs, dogs, and horses. The H9N2 subtype has eight negative-sense RNA segments, encoding several proteins, such as hemagglutinin (H), neuraminidase (N), matrix protein (M), nucleoprotein (NP), nonstructural protein (NS), and three polymerase proteins (PA, PB1, and PB2).
The H9 hemagglutinin and N2 neuraminidase surface glycoproteins define the subtype of this influenza virus. The H9N2 viruses are known to have low pathogenicity in birds but can cause mild to moderate respiratory symptoms in humans, particularly those with occupational exposure to poultry or live bird markets.
H9N2 viruses have sporadically infected humans since their first identification in the 1960s and pose a pandemic threat due to their ability to reassort genetic material with other influenza A viruses, potentially creating new strains with increased transmissibility and pathogenicity for humans.
An alpharetrovirus is a type of retrovirus, which is a group of viruses that integrate their genetic material into the DNA of the host cell. Alpharetroviruses are characterized by their ability to cause persistent infections and are associated with various diseases in animals. One well-known example of an alpharetrovirus is the Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), which was the first retrovirus to be discovered and is known to cause cancer in chickens.
Alpharetroviruses have a complex structure, consisting of an outer envelope that contains glycoprotein spikes, and an inner core that contains the viral RNA genome and associated enzymes. The viral RNA genome contains three main genes: gag, pol, and env, which encode for the structural proteins, enzymes, and envelope proteins of the virus, respectively.
Alpharetroviruses are transmitted through various routes, including horizontal transmission (from host to host) and vertical transmission (from parent to offspring). They can cause a range of diseases, depending on the specific virus and the host species. In addition to RSV, other examples of alpharetroviruses include the avian leukosis virus, which causes tumors and immunosuppression in birds, and the Jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus, which causes a wasting disease in sheep.
It's worth noting that while alpharetroviruses are associated with diseases in animals, there are no known alpharetroviruses that infect humans. However, understanding the biology and behavior of these viruses in animal hosts can provide valuable insights into retroviral replication and pathogenesis, which may have implications for human health.
Oviducts, also known as fallopian tubes in humans, are pair of slender tubular structures that serve as the conduit for the ovum (egg) from the ovaries to the uterus. They are an essential part of the female reproductive system, providing a site for fertilization of the egg by sperm and early embryonic development before the embryo moves into the uterus for further growth.
In medical terminology, the term "oviduct" refers to this functional description rather than a specific anatomical structure in all female organisms. The oviducts vary in length and shape across different species, but their primary role remains consistent: to facilitate the transport of the egg and provide a site for fertilization.
Avian sarcoma viruses (ASVs) are a group of retroviruses that primarily infect birds and cause various types of tumors, particularly sarcomas. These viruses contain an oncogene, which is a gene that has the ability to transform normal cells into cancerous ones. The oncogene in ASVs is often derived from cellular genes called proto-oncogenes, which are normally involved in regulating cell growth and division.
ASVs can be divided into two main types: non-defective and defective. Non-defective ASVs contain a complete set of viral genes that allow them to replicate independently, while defective ASVs lack some of the necessary viral genes and require assistance from other viruses to replicate.
One well-known example of an avian sarcoma virus is the Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), which was first discovered in chickens by Peyton Rous in 1910. RSV causes a highly malignant form of sarcoma in chickens and has been extensively studied as a model system for cancer research. The oncogene in RSV is called v-src, which is derived from the normal cellular gene c-src.
Avian sarcoma viruses have contributed significantly to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying cancer development and have provided valuable insights into the role of oncogenes in tumorigenesis.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "poultry" is not a medical term. It is a agricultural and culinary term that refers to domestic birds (such as chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys) that are kept for their eggs, meat, or feathers. The study and care of these birds would fall under the field of veterinary medicine, but "poultry" itself is not a medical term.
In a medical context, "meat" generally refers to the flesh of animals that is consumed as food. This includes muscle tissue, as well as fat and other tissues that are often found in meat products. However, it's worth noting that some people may have dietary restrictions or medical conditions that prevent them from consuming meat, so it's always important to consider individual preferences and needs when discussing food options.
It's also worth noting that the consumption of meat can have both positive and negative health effects. On the one hand, meat is a good source of protein, iron, vitamin B12, and other essential nutrients. On the other hand, consuming large amounts of red and processed meats has been linked to an increased risk of heart disease, stroke, and certain types of cancer. Therefore, it's generally recommended to consume meat in moderation as part of a balanced diet.
Feathers are not a medical term, but they are a feature found in birds and some extinct theropod dinosaurs. Feathers are keratinous structures that grow from the skin and are used for various functions such as insulation, flight, waterproofing, and display. They have a complex structure consisting of a central shaft with barbs branching off on either side, which further divide into smaller barbules. The arrangement and modification of these feather structures vary widely among bird species to serve different purposes.
"Comb" and "wattles" are terms used to describe fleshy appendages found in some animals, particularly birds. They are composed of skin and connective tissue, and are often brightly colored. While they don't have a direct medical definition, I can provide you with their general definitions:
1. Comb: In animals such as chickens, roosters, and other fowl, the comb is the fleshy, usually red, crown-like structure on top of the head. It varies in size and shape among different breeds and serves as a secondary sexual characteristic in males. The comb helps regulate body temperature and plays a role in courtship displays.
2. Wattles: These are the long, fleshy appendages that hang from either side of an animal's face or throat, often seen in conjunction with combs. Like combs, wattles are more prominent in males than females and serve as secondary sexual characteristics. They also play a role in thermoregulation and courtship displays.
While these structures are not typically associated with medical definitions, they can be subject to various health issues, such as frostbite, injuries, or infections. In those cases, veterinary medicine would address the specific health concerns related to combs and wattles.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material present in the cells of organisms where it is responsible for the storage and transmission of hereditary information. DNA is a long molecule that consists of two strands coiled together to form a double helix. Each strand is made up of a series of four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - that are linked together by phosphate and sugar groups. The sequence of these bases along the length of the molecule encodes genetic information, with A always pairing with T and C always pairing with G. This base-pairing allows for the replication and transcription of DNA, which are essential processes in the functioning and reproduction of all living organisms.
'Campylobacter jejuni' is a gram-negative, spiral-shaped bacterium that is a common cause of foodborne illness worldwide. It is often found in the intestines of warm-blooded animals, including birds and mammals, and can be transmitted to humans through contaminated food or water.
The bacteria are capable of causing an infection known as campylobacteriosis, which is characterized by symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever, and vomiting. In severe cases, the infection can spread to the bloodstream and cause serious complications, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems.
'Campylobacter jejuni' is one of the most common causes of foodborne illness in the United States, with an estimated 1.3 million cases occurring each year. It is often found in undercooked poultry and raw or unpasteurized milk products, as well as in contaminated water supplies. Proper cooking and pasteurization can help reduce the risk of infection, as can good hygiene practices such as washing hands thoroughly after handling raw meat and vegetables.
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus that belongs to the genus Avulavirus in the family Paramyxoviridae. It is the causative agent of Newcastle disease, a highly contagious and often fatal viral infection affecting birds and poultry worldwide. The virus can cause various clinical signs, including respiratory distress, neurological disorders, and decreased egg production, depending on the strain's virulence. NDV has zoonotic potential, but human infections are rare and typically result in mild, flu-like symptoms.
Infectious Bursal Disease Virus (IBDV) is a highly contagious avian virus that primarily affects the bursa of Fabricius in young chickens, leading to an immunosuppressive disease known as Gumboro disease. The bursa of Fabricius is a vital organ for the development and maturation of B cells, which are crucial for the immune system's response to infections.
IBDV is a non-enveloped, double-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Birnaviridae family. It has two serotypes, with serotype 1 being responsible for the majority of outbreaks and being highly pathogenic, while serotype 2 is less virulent and causes mild or asymptomatic infections.
The virus targets and destroys the B cells in the bursa, leading to a weakened immune system that makes the affected chickens more susceptible to secondary bacterial and viral infections. The disease can cause significant economic losses in the poultry industry due to high mortality rates, decreased feed conversion efficiency, and reduced egg production.
Vaccination is an effective prevention strategy against IBDV, with both live and inactivated vaccines available for use in chickens. Good biosecurity measures, such as strict sanitation practices and limiting the movement of birds and people between farms, can also help prevent the spread of the virus.
Campylobacter infections are illnesses caused by the bacterium *Campylobacter jejuni* or other species of the genus *Campylobacter*. These bacteria are commonly found in the intestines of animals, particularly birds, and can be transmitted to humans through contaminated food, water, or contact with infected animals.
The most common symptom of Campylobacter infection is diarrhea, which can range from mild to severe and may be bloody. Other symptoms may include abdominal cramps, fever, nausea, and vomiting. The illness usually lasts about a week, but in some cases, it can lead to serious complications such as bacteremia (bacteria in the bloodstream), meningitis, or Guillain-Barré syndrome, a neurological disorder that can cause muscle weakness and paralysis.
Campylobacter infections are typically treated with antibiotics, but in mild cases, they may resolve on their own without treatment. Prevention measures include cooking meat thoroughly, washing hands and surfaces that come into contact with raw meat, avoiding unpasteurized dairy products and untreated water, and handling pets, particularly birds and reptiles, with care.
In the medical context, the term "eggs" is not typically used as a formal medical definition. However, if you are referring to reproductive biology, an egg or ovum is a female reproductive cell (gamete) that, when fertilized by a male sperm, can develop into a new individual.
In humans, eggs are produced in the ovaries and are released during ovulation, usually once per month. They are much larger than sperm and contain all the genetic information necessary to create a human being, along with nutrients that help support the early stages of embryonic development.
It's worth noting that the term "eggs" is also commonly used in everyday language to refer to chicken eggs or eggs from other birds, which are not relevant to medical definitions.
"Coturnix" is a genus of birds that includes several species of quails. The most common species is the Common Quail (Coturnix coturnix), which is also known as the European Quail or the Eurasian Quail. This small ground-dwelling bird is found throughout Europe, Asia, and parts of Africa, and it is known for its distinctive call and its migratory habits. Other species in the genus Coturnix include the Rain Quail (Coturnix coromandelica), the Stubble Quail (Coturnix pectoralis), and the Harlequin Quail (Coturnix delegorguei). These birds are all similar in appearance and behavior, with small, round bodies, short wings, and strong legs that are adapted for running and scratching in leaf litter. They are also known for their cryptic coloration, which helps them blend in with their surroundings and avoid predators. Quails are popular game birds and are also kept as pets and for ornamental purposes in some parts of the world.
"Specific Pathogen-Free (SPF)" is a term used to describe animals or organisms that are raised and maintained in a controlled environment, free from specific pathogens (disease-causing agents) that could interfere with research outcomes or pose a risk to human or animal health. The "specific" part of the term refers to the fact that the exclusion of pathogens is targeted to those that are relevant to the particular organism or research being conducted.
To maintain an SPF status, animals are typically housed in specialized facilities with strict biosecurity measures, such as air filtration systems, quarantine procedures, and rigorous sanitation protocols. They are usually bred and raised in isolation from other animals, and their health status is closely monitored to ensure that they remain free from specific pathogens.
It's important to note that SPF does not necessarily mean "germ-free" or "sterile," as some microorganisms may still be present in the environment or on the animals themselves, even in an SPF facility. Instead, it means that the animals are free from specific pathogens that have been identified and targeted for exclusion.
In summary, Specific Pathogen-Free Organisms refer to animals or organisms that are raised and maintained in a controlled environment, free from specific disease-causing agents that are relevant to the research being conducted or human/animal health.
'Eimeria' is a genus of protozoan parasites that belong to the phylum Apicomplexa. These microscopic organisms are known to cause a disease called coccidiosis in various animals, including birds, ruminants, and pigs. The life cycle of Eimeria involves both sexual and asexual reproduction, and it typically takes place within the intestinal cells of the host animal.
The infection can lead to a range of symptoms, such as diarrhea, weight loss, dehydration, and even death in severe cases, particularly in young animals. Eimeria species are highly host-specific, meaning that each species tends to infect only one type of animal. For example, Eimeria tenella primarily infects chickens, while Eimeria bovis is known to infect cattle.
Prevention and control measures for coccidiosis include good sanitation practices, such as cleaning and disinfecting animal living areas, as well as the use of anticoccidial drugs in feed or water to prevent infection. Additionally, vaccines are available for some Eimeria species to help protect animals from infection and reduce the severity of clinical signs.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Mardivirus" is not a recognized term in medical or scientific literature. It seems like there might be a spelling mistake or it could be a term that is specific to certain context which I am not aware of. If you have more information or context about where this term came from, I would be happy to help you further.
Birnaviridae is a family of viruses that includes several species known to cause infections in animals, including birds and fish. The most well-known member of this family is the infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), which primarily affects young chickens and causes a highly contagious disease known as Gumboro disease.
Infection with IBDV can result in a range of symptoms, including diarrhea, depression, ruffled feathers, and decreased appetite. In severe cases, the virus can cause significant mortality in infected flocks. Other members of the Birnaviridae family include viruses that infect salmonids (such as infectious pancreatic necrosis virus) and other bird species.
Transmission of Birnaviridae viruses typically occurs through direct contact with infected animals or their feces, as well as through contaminated food and water sources. Prevention and control measures for these infections include good biosecurity practices, vaccination, and proper nutrition and management.
Salmonella Enteritidis is a specific strain of the Salmonella bacterium that primarily infects the intestinal tract, leading to a type of foodborne illness known as salmonellosis. This organism can be found in a variety of animals and their feces, including poultry and cattle. It can contaminate various foods, particularly eggs, raw meat, and unpasteurized dairy products.
Infection with Salmonella Enteritidis typically occurs when an individual ingests contaminated food or water. The bacteria then multiply within the digestive system, causing symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever, nausea, and vomiting. In some cases, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems, Salmonella Enteritidis infection can lead to more severe complications, including bacteremia (bloodstream infection) and invasive diseases affecting other organs.
Preventing Salmonella Enteritidis infection involves proper food handling, cooking, and storage practices, as well as maintaining good hygiene and sanitation standards in both residential and commercial settings.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.
I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Quail" is typically used to refer to a group of small birds that belong to the family Phasianidae and the subfamily Perdicinae. There is no established medical definition for "quail."
However, if you're referring to the verb "to quail," it means to shrink back, draw back, or cower, often due to fear or intimidation. In a medical context, this term could be used metaphorically to describe a patient's psychological response to a threatening situation, such as receiving a difficult diagnosis. But again, "quail" itself is not a medical term.
The cecum is the first part of the large intestine, located at the junction of the small and large intestines. It is a pouch-like structure that connects to the ileum (the last part of the small intestine) and the ascending colon (the first part of the large intestine). The cecum is where the appendix is attached. Its function is to absorb water and electrolytes, and it also serves as a site for the fermentation of certain types of dietary fiber by gut bacteria. However, the exact functions of the cecum are not fully understood.
A Salmonella infection in animals refers to the presence and multiplication of Salmonella enterica bacteria in non-human animals, causing an infectious disease known as salmonellosis. Animals can become infected through direct contact with other infected animals or their feces, consuming contaminated food or water, or vertical transmission (from mother to offspring). Clinical signs vary among species but may include diarrhea, fever, vomiting, weight loss, and sepsis. In some cases, animals can be asymptomatic carriers, shedding the bacteria in their feces and acting as a source of infection for other animals and humans. Regular monitoring, biosecurity measures, and appropriate sanitation practices are crucial to prevent and control Salmonella infections in animals.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "geese" is not a medical term. It refers to various waterbirds constituting the family Anatidae and the genus Branta, characterized by a long neck, wide wings, and a honking call. They are not related to human health or medicine. If you have any medical concerns or questions, I'd be happy to help you with those!
A muscle is a soft tissue in our body that contracts to produce force and motion. It is composed mainly of specialized cells called muscle fibers, which are bound together by connective tissue. There are three types of muscles: skeletal (voluntary), smooth (involuntary), and cardiac. Skeletal muscles attach to bones and help in movement, while smooth muscles are found within the walls of organs and blood vessels, helping with functions like digestion and circulation. Cardiac muscle is the specific type that makes up the heart, allowing it to pump blood throughout the body.
Erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells (RBCs), are the most common type of blood cell in circulating blood in mammals. They are responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.
Erythrocytes are formed in the bone marrow and have a biconcave shape, which allows them to fold and bend easily as they pass through narrow blood vessels. They do not have a nucleus or mitochondria, which makes them more flexible but also limits their ability to reproduce or repair themselves.
In humans, erythrocytes are typically disc-shaped and measure about 7 micrometers in diameter. They contain the protein hemoglobin, which binds to oxygen and gives blood its red color. The lifespan of an erythrocyte is approximately 120 days, after which it is broken down in the liver and spleen.
Abnormalities in erythrocyte count or function can lead to various medical conditions, such as anemia, polycythemia, and sickle cell disease.
"Influenza A Virus, H5N1 Subtype" is a specific subtype of the Influenza A virus that is often found in avian species (birds) and can occasionally infect humans. The "H5N1" refers to the specific proteins (hemagglutinin and neuraminidase) found on the surface of the virus. This subtype has caused serious infections in humans, with high mortality rates, especially in cases where people have had close contact with infected birds. It does not commonly spread from person to person, but there is concern that it could mutate and adapt to efficiently transmit between humans, which would potentially cause a pandemic.
A gene is a specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA that carries genetic information. Genes are the fundamental units of heredity and are responsible for the development and function of all living organisms. They code for proteins or RNA molecules, which carry out various functions within cells and are essential for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs.
Each gene has a specific location on a chromosome, and each person inherits two copies of every gene, one from each parent. Variations in the sequence of nucleotides in a gene can lead to differences in traits between individuals, including physical characteristics, susceptibility to disease, and responses to environmental factors.
Medical genetics is the study of genes and their role in health and disease. It involves understanding how genes contribute to the development and progression of various medical conditions, as well as identifying genetic risk factors and developing strategies for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.
Coccidiosis is a parasitic infection caused by protozoa of the Eimeria genus, which typically affects the intestinal tract of animals, including humans. The infection occurs when a person or animal ingests oocysts (the infective stage of the parasite) through contaminated food, water, or direct contact with infected feces.
In humans, coccidiosis is most commonly found in children living in poor sanitary conditions and in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or organ transplant recipients on immunosuppressive therapy. The infection can cause watery diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and fever. In severe cases, it may lead to dehydration, weight loss, and even death in individuals with compromised immune systems.
In animals, particularly in poultry, swine, and ruminants, coccidiosis can cause significant economic losses due to decreased growth rates, poor feed conversion, and increased mortality. Preventive measures include improving sanitation, reducing overcrowding, and administering anticoccidial drugs or vaccines.
Food microbiology is the study of the microorganisms that are present in food, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. This field examines how these microbes interact with food, how they affect its safety and quality, and how they can be controlled during food production, processing, storage, and preparation. Food microbiology also involves the development of methods for detecting and identifying pathogenic microorganisms in food, as well as studying the mechanisms of foodborne illnesses and developing strategies to prevent them. Additionally, it includes research on the beneficial microbes found in certain fermented foods and their potential applications in improving food quality and safety.
Complementary DNA (cDNA) is a type of DNA that is synthesized from a single-stranded RNA molecule through the process of reverse transcription. In this process, the enzyme reverse transcriptase uses an RNA molecule as a template to synthesize a complementary DNA strand. The resulting cDNA is therefore complementary to the original RNA molecule and is a copy of its coding sequence, but it does not contain non-coding regions such as introns that are present in genomic DNA.
Complementary DNA is often used in molecular biology research to study gene expression, protein function, and other genetic phenomena. For example, cDNA can be used to create cDNA libraries, which are collections of cloned cDNA fragments that represent the expressed genes in a particular cell type or tissue. These libraries can then be screened for specific genes or gene products of interest. Additionally, cDNA can be used to produce recombinant proteins in heterologous expression systems, allowing researchers to study the structure and function of proteins that may be difficult to express or purify from their native sources.
Sequence homology in nucleic acids refers to the similarity or identity between the nucleotide sequences of two or more DNA or RNA molecules. It is often used as a measure of biological relationship between genes, organisms, or populations. High sequence homology suggests a recent common ancestry or functional constraint, while low sequence homology may indicate a more distant relationship or different functions.
Nucleic acid sequence homology can be determined by various methods such as pairwise alignment, multiple sequence alignment, and statistical analysis. The degree of homology is typically expressed as a percentage of identical or similar nucleotides in a given window of comparison.
It's important to note that the interpretation of sequence homology depends on the biological context and the evolutionary distance between the sequences compared. Therefore, functional and experimental validation is often necessary to confirm the significance of sequence homology.
"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.
Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.
It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.
Sequence homology, amino acid, refers to the similarity in the order of amino acids in a protein or a portion of a protein between two or more species. This similarity can be used to infer evolutionary relationships and functional similarities between proteins. The higher the degree of sequence homology, the more likely it is that the proteins are related and have similar functions. Sequence homology can be determined through various methods such as pairwise alignment or multiple sequence alignment, which compare the sequences and calculate a score based on the number and type of matching amino acids.
Molecular weight, also known as molecular mass, is the mass of a molecule. It is expressed in units of atomic mass units (amu) or daltons (Da). Molecular weight is calculated by adding up the atomic weights of each atom in a molecule. It is a useful property in chemistry and biology, as it can be used to determine the concentration of a substance in a solution, or to calculate the amount of a substance that will react with another in a chemical reaction.
Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.
Fibroblasts are specialized cells that play a critical role in the body's immune response and wound healing process. They are responsible for producing and maintaining the extracellular matrix (ECM), which is the non-cellular component present within all tissues and organs, providing structural support and biochemical signals for surrounding cells.
Fibroblasts produce various ECM proteins such as collagens, elastin, fibronectin, and laminins, forming a complex network of fibers that give tissues their strength and flexibility. They also help in the regulation of tissue homeostasis by controlling the turnover of ECM components through the process of remodeling.
In response to injury or infection, fibroblasts become activated and start to proliferate rapidly, migrating towards the site of damage. Here, they participate in the inflammatory response, releasing cytokines and chemokines that attract immune cells to the area. Additionally, they deposit new ECM components to help repair the damaged tissue and restore its functionality.
Dysregulation of fibroblast activity has been implicated in several pathological conditions, including fibrosis (excessive scarring), cancer (where they can contribute to tumor growth and progression), and autoimmune diseases (such as rheumatoid arthritis).
The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:
1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.
Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.
Nucleic acid hybridization is a process in molecular biology where two single-stranded nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) with complementary sequences pair together to form a double-stranded molecule through hydrogen bonding. The strands can be from the same type of nucleic acid or different types (i.e., DNA-RNA or DNA-cDNA). This process is commonly used in various laboratory techniques, such as Southern blotting, Northern blotting, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and microarray analysis, to detect, isolate, and analyze specific nucleic acid sequences. The hybridization temperature and conditions are critical to ensure the specificity of the interaction between the two strands.
'Eimeria tenella' is a species of intracellular parasitic protozoa belonging to the phylum Apicomplexa. It is one of the several Eimeria species that cause coccidiosis, a common and economically significant intestinal disease in poultry.
Eimeria tenella primarily infects the caeca (plural of cecum) of chickens, turkeys, and other birds. The life cycle of this parasite involves several stages, including sporulation, ingestion, excystation, merogony, gametogony, and oocyst shedding.
The oocysts are passed in the feces of infected birds and can survive in the environment for long periods. Once ingested by another bird, the oocysts release sporozoites, which invade the epithelial cells lining the caeca. Here, they undergo asexual reproduction (merogony), producing numerous merozoites that infect neighboring cells.
After several rounds of merogony, the parasite enters the sexual phase of its life cycle (gametogony). Male and female gametes fuse to form zygotes, which develop into oocysts and are shed in the feces, completing the life cycle.
Clinical signs of Eimeria tenella infection include diarrhea, bloody droppings, decreased appetite, weight loss, and decreased egg production. Severe infections can lead to death, particularly in young birds. Coccidiosis is typically treated with anticoccidial drugs, which are added to the feed or water of infected birds. Good management practices, such as proper sanitation and biosecurity, can help prevent the spread of Eimeria tenella and other coccidian species.
Frank Chickens
Shamo chickens
BBQ Chickens
Crested chickens
Chickens Warrups
Headless Chickens
Rumpless chickens
Symbolic chickens
Creeper chickens
Savage Chickens
Philadelphia Chickens
Dear Chickens
Prairie Chickens
Community Chickens
Slim Chickens
Cholwell's Chickens
Chickens (1916 film)
Hollywood Freeway chickens
Chickens (TV series)
Chickens Come Home
Chickens (1921 film)
Chickens in Love
Mother Carey's Chickens
Dwarfism in chickens
Empathy in chickens
Mother Carey's Chickens (novel)
Juice (Headless Chickens song)
Cultural references to chickens
Mother Carey's Chickens (film)
Love Among the Chickens
Frank Chickens - Wikipedia
Chickens - Intelligencer
Chicken paprikash - Wikipedia
Leghorn chicken - Wikipedia
chicken | ScienceBlogs
Petition Allow chickens in Tahitian Village
10 Surprising Facts About Chickens | PETA
Salmonellosis and Chicken | DFWED | CDC
MedlinePlus: Crunchy Chicken Nuggets
Chicken Recipe
chicken | Observer
Urban Dictionary: The Chickens Are Revolting
Tagged: chicken - Steven and Chris
Chicken Invaders 3 on Steam
Slow-Cooker Chicken Tacos Recipe
The chicken, bravely unadorned - Los Angeles Times
Planting a Garden for Chickens | HGTV
Roast chicken - The Jerusalem Post
Chicken Run - Metacritic
The Simplest Prosciutto-Wrapped Chicken Saltimbocca Recipe
Chesapeake Chicken (And Crab) Casserole Recipe
Preserved Lemon Roast Chicken - Panasonic Malaysia
Stuffed Chicken Valentino Recipe
Chicken & Cheesy Garlic Rice
Keralan spiced chicken dhal
Indonesia: chicken stock | Statista
Frost on Chickens | Browse Items
Chicken Industry
Pigeon Forge, TN - Restaurant of Robot Chickens
Marinate a Whole Chicken in Labneh
Boneless2
- [7] While quartered chicken parts are more traditional, modern interpretations of the recipe may call for boneless, skinless chicken thighs. (wikipedia.org)
- There are many different chicken dishes that involve stuffing boneless breasts with anything from herbed compound butter, as in chicken Kiev , to a combination of meat and cheese, as in the more elaborate chicken cordon bleu . (yahoo.com)
Roast Chicken1
- Make your own roast chicken, the perfect dish for parties and gatherings. (panasonic.com)
Recipe8
- The coronation chicken recipe called for a glass of wine. (latimes.com)
- Three simple steps for chicken: a recipe every cook should have for every occasion. (jpost.com)
- Mashed recipe developer Patterson Watkins shares this Chesapeake chicken (and crab) casserole to offer a taste of it for foodies wide and far. (yahoo.com)
- This healthy, low-oil recipe features piquant lemon to accentuate the flavor of chicken. (panasonic.com)
- A rotisserie chicken makes this recipe quick to fix. (nutrition.gov)
- If you want a chicken recipe that is both healthy and full of flavor, the rotisserie chicken is one of the best dishes that are recommended for you. (selfgrowth.com)
- The seasonings that you are going to add to the rotisserie chicken will depend on the recipe that you are cooking . (selfgrowth.com)
- This baked chicken recipe comes from the unlikeliest of places -- my hometown public library . (kqed.org)
Thighs3
- Rub mixture evenly over chicken thighs. (eatright.org)
- For instance, chickens store fat primarily under the skin, and chicken thighs are higher in fat and cholesterol than breast meat. (healthline.com)
- Start out with chicken quarters, separated into drumsticks and thighs. (kqed.org)
Breasts14
- Yields 6-8 wraps Chicken Breast 1 PC Blue Menu Air Chilled Chicken Breasts. (cbc.ca)
- The next trick is making sure the chicken breasts do not sit above the liquor line, where they will turn to sawdust in the intense heat of the steam collecting under the lid. (latimes.com)
- For a streamlined take on classic chicken saltimbocca, the Italian dish that marries tender chicken with rich prosciutto and woodsy sage, we ditched the annoying toothpicks typically required to hold the ham in place and simply wrapped it around the chicken breasts. (yahoo.com)
- Browning the breasts before transferring them to the oven worked to crisp the prosciutto and helped fuse it to the chicken. (yahoo.com)
- Pat the chicken breasts dry with paper towels. (yahoo.com)
- Butterfly the chicken breasts by cutting a slit in the center of each breast, slicing only ¾ of the way through the center meat, and leaving about ½ inch of clearance at the top and bottom of the breast. (yahoo.com)
- Season the prepped chicken breasts with salt, pepper, and the remaining (½ teaspoon) Old Bay seasoning. (yahoo.com)
- Nestle the seasoned chicken breasts into the sauced casserole dish. (yahoo.com)
- Spoon any excess crab mix over the chicken breasts. (yahoo.com)
- Once all the chicken breasts have been stuffed, sprinkle each with a hearty handful of cheese (about ¼ cup per breast). (yahoo.com)
- You might want to check the internal chicken temperature with a meat thermometer at this point because Case notes that smaller, thinner chicken breasts may be done cooking and won't need finishing up in the oven. (yahoo.com)
- Pour Simple Truth Organic Rosemary Honey Mustard Marinade over Simple Truth Organic Chicken Breasts. (buzzfeed.com)
- When hot, add chicken breasts. (buzzfeed.com)
- Butterflying the chicken breasts helps them cook evenly and quickly. (wholefoodsmarket.com)
Whole roastin1
- Serves 4 1 whole roasting chicken, backbone removed, cut into 8 pieces 3 tbsp each extra virgin olive oil and butter 1. (cbc.ca)
Internal temperature of 1653
- Assuming your chicken has not reached an internal temperature of 165 F, you'll now need to cover the pan (foil will work for this) and put it into the oven. (yahoo.com)
- Cover pan with a lid and continue to cook until chicken reaches an internal temperature of 165°F. Remove from heat. (buzzfeed.com)
- Place the chicken on a roasting dish on the middle rack in the oven and bake uncovered for 1 hour and 20 to 30 minutes until the bird reaches an internal temperature of 165° Fahrenheit. (ehow.com)
Salt and pe5
- Trim chicken, pat dry with paper towels, and season with salt and pepper. (yahoo.com)
- Sprinkle the remaining salt and pepper over the chicken and rub it into the skin. (yahoo.com)
- Rub oil all over the chicken and then season with salt and pepper on all sides liberally, including the cavity of the chicken. (ehow.com)
- Season the chicken liberally on both sides with salt and pepper. (ehow.com)
- Season both sides of all the chicken with additional salt and pepper, to taste. (oprah.com)
Bake7
- Bake until crispy and golden brown and chicken is no longer pink inside, about 20 to 25 minutes. (medlineplus.gov)
- In this case, coat the chicken and bake it! (umassmed.edu)
- Bake for 20 minutes or until a thermometer inserted in thickest part of chicken reads 160 degrees. (umassmed.edu)
- Transfer chicken to baking sheet and bake until it registers 160 degrees, 10 to 12 minutes. (yahoo.com)
- Bake the chicken for 12 to 15 minutes, then check it again to see whether it has reached the proper temperature and the flesh no longer appears pink. (yahoo.com)
- With a few simple techniques, you can ensure that every time you bake a chicken it comes out moist on the inside and gets that crispy skin on the outside that everyone loves! (ehow.com)
- Bake for 1 hour and 20 to 30 minutes until the internal temperature of the chicken reaches 165° Fahrenheit and the vegetables are browned slightly. (ehow.com)
Dish7
- paprikás csirke or csirkepaprikás ) or paprika chicken is a popular dish of Hungarian origin and one of the most famous variations on the paprikás preparations common to Hungarian tables. (wikipedia.org)
- Chicken paprikash was adopted as a Sabbath dish by the Jews of Hungary and Czechoslovakia and remains popular today amongst Ashkenazim . (wikipedia.org)
- Chicken paprikasch is also a dish commonly eaten by Danube Swabians . (wikipedia.org)
- Chef Carm cooks up chicken cacciatore, a classic Italian dish and personal comfort food of his growing up. (cbc.ca)
- My own discovery of the startling deliciousness of simple chicken was accidental, an attempt many years ago to cook a famous British dish, coronation chicken. (latimes.com)
- Add the chicken broth to the casserole dish and whisk to combine. (yahoo.com)
- Less familiar but no less tasty is chicken Valentino, a dish created by the chef at an upscale Italian restaurant called Valentino's on the Green that is located in Queens, New York. (yahoo.com)
Preheat2
- Once a full day has elapsed, preheat your oven to 450℉ and remove the chicken from the bag. (lifehacker.com)
- Preheat a skillet that is large enough for the chicken to lay flat over medium high heat. (ehow.com)
Nuggets2
- Do you know what is in your chicken nuggets? (theeconomiccollapseblog.com)
- As early as next summer, chicken nuggets and other chicken products (such as canned soup, frozen chicken wings and breaded chicken patties) made from chicken processed in China could be sold in grocery stores around the country. (theeconomiccollapseblog.com)
Coat8
- Place chicken pieces in the bag, reseal, and toss to coat. (medlineplus.gov)
- Dip a chicken breast into egg, allow excess to drip off, and press each side into flaxseed mixture to coat. (umassmed.edu)
- Coat the spatchcocked chicken evenly with the lemon paste, and leave to rest in the fridge for about half a day. (panasonic.com)
- With freshly-washed, completely clean hands, smear a thick coat of labneh over every inch of the outside of the chicken, making sure to get in-between joints and crevices. (lifehacker.com)
- What you should do however is to rub the mixture of the seasonings on the chicken and then coat it with olive oil to seal in the flavorings. (selfgrowth.com)
- seal tightly, shake to coat chicken and refrigerate at least 1 hour or overnight. (wholefoodsmarket.com)
- Add the chicken and toss to coat. (jamieoliver.com)
- Once the time's up, carefully spoon off any fat from the chicken and add to the potatoes, tossing to coat. (jamieoliver.com)
Ingredients2
- That casserole-coziness comes from that whole 'one-pan, baked, creamy-cheesy' bit, while the upscale elements come from the care-in-prep (butterflying the chicken for even cooking and max stuff-age) and treat-yo-self ingredients (like the lump crab meat). (yahoo.com)
- But Kroger makes it easy to get all the ingredients you'll need for this delicious Chicken & Cheesy Garlic Rice. (buzzfeed.com)
Delicious2
- This is actually one of the best chicken dishes since it is not just delicious but it is also healthy. (selfgrowth.com)
- It is so delicious, if you're in a chicken dinner rut, this is your quick fix. (kqed.org)
Sear the Chicken2
20231
- With a presentation focusing on how research using chicken embryos can help cure an unusual form of childhood cancer, researcher Sofie Mohlin took home the win in this year's final of the Forskar (Researcher) Grand Prix held in Stockholm on November 23rd, 2023. (lu.se)
Pepper1
- Season the chicken by thoroughly rubbing the skin with salt, pepper, and thyme all over including the inside of the bird. (ehow.com)
Marinade1
- Remove chicken from marinade. (foodnetwork.com)
Meat8
- China has started exporting cooked chicken meat to the United States. (observer.com)
- We treat chicken as a landlubbing alternative to fish: a bland meat in need of something to give it flavor. (latimes.com)
- Cut a pocket 4 inches long and 3 inches deep into the thickest part of each chicken breast, leaving about an inch of meat at the bottom. (yahoo.com)
- Turn and cook for another minute until the chicken is cooked through, the juices run clear and there is no pink meat. (waitrose.com)
- Well, for starters Chinese-processed chicken will be allowed to skip the 'Product of China' label in several instances because the country of origin labeling law, or "COOL," does not regulate cooked meat - and at least for now, the U.S. does not import raw chicken raised and/or slaughtered in China. (theeconomiccollapseblog.com)
- in the last months alone, Chinese police discovered an illegal food smuggling plot to sell 46-year-old chicken feet treated with bleach, a criminal ring accused of selling rat and fox meat as lamb and abnormally high levels of cadmium, a metal that can cause cancer and other illnesses, in rice sold in Guangzhou restaurants . (theeconomiccollapseblog.com)
- Moments after I put my labneh chicken in the oven, I discovered the battery in my meat thermometer was completely dead, which caused many swears to exit my mouth. (lifehacker.com)
- When you're eating chicken, eat the white meat only. (healthline.com)
Wikimedia Commons1
- Image of chicken egg from Wikimedia Commons. (scienceblogs.com)
Salmonella6
- We know it is possible to reduce Salmonella contamination of chicken and the resulting illnesses, hospitalizations, and deaths. (cdc.gov)
- In 1993, England and Wales launched a program to vaccinate chickens against both Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Typhimurium and to improve hygiene through measures such as feed and flock testing, and cleaning and sanitizing buildings that held infected birds. (cdc.gov)
- The following year, human infections of Salmonella Enteritidis associated with eating chicken dropped dramatically. (cdc.gov)
- A farm-to-fork quantitative risk assessment model for Salmonella Heidelberg resistant to third-generation cephalosporins in broiler chickens in Canada. (bvsalud.org)
- Salmonella Heidelberg resistant to ceftiofur (a third-generation cephalosporin antimicrobial agent ) in broiler chicken products pose a risk to public health in Canada . (bvsalud.org)
- Norton S, Huhtinen E, Conaty S, Hope K, Campbell B, Tegel M, Boyd R, Cullen B. A large point-source outbreak of Salmonella Typhimurium linked to chicken, pork and salad rolls from a Vietnamese bakery in Sydney. (who.int)
Moist3
- The crisp flaxseed crust keeps the chicken wonderfully moist inside. (umassmed.edu)
- This will also help in keeping the chicken moist during cooking so that the flavor will stay. (selfgrowth.com)
- The chicken is super moist and falling-off-the-bone tender. (kqed.org)
Rotisserie chicken9
- Here are some guidelines on how you can prepare rotisserie chicken. (selfgrowth.com)
- Once you have finished with the washing, cleaning and flavoring, you are now ready to cook your rotisserie chicken. (selfgrowth.com)
- The rotisserie chicken will take about one hour and 30 minutes to cook but this will depend on the size of the chicken and the power of the rotisserie oven. (selfgrowth.com)
- Remove the rotisserie chicken when it is already dark golden brown, making sure that it is not overly done since it will be dry in that case. (selfgrowth.com)
- When it is done, pull the rotisserie chicken off the spit, wait for it to cool for about 10 minutes and you are now ready to carve and serve it. (selfgrowth.com)
- It is not that difficult to cook rotisserie chicken especially if you are already an expert in the kitchen. (selfgrowth.com)
- The roasting process will help in reducing the fat content of the chicken so if you are watching what you eat, you will have no problem with rotisserie chicken. (selfgrowth.com)
- Just keep these guidelines in mind and you will surely be making the best rotisserie chicken. (selfgrowth.com)
- For more information on Food and Recipes, Please visit Rotisserie Chicken Recipes , Grilled Chicken and Recipes for Chicken . (selfgrowth.com)
Scraps2
- Furthermore, chicken poop has nitrogen in it, which produces much better manure than other animals.Chickens eat food scraps, which would largely reduce the amount of garbage waste in the house. (ipetitions.com)
- Of course, chickens will happily dine on scraps from the kitchen but you'd be surprised at how they enjoy parts of vegetable plants that we normally do not consider consuming. (hgtv.com)
Pancakes2
- Teen Makes Teeny Pancakes for Pet Chickens Because 'They Is Good Chickens' "I made my chickens tiny pancakes because I love them. (nymag.com)
- The food is standard breakfast fare, but there's really something special about being serenaded with Sweet Caroline by 100 animatronic chickens while you're eating your pancakes. (roadsideamerica.com)
Recipes1
- Master Italian classic recipes for Grill-Roasted Chicken and Chicken Cacciatore in our Online Cooking School. (yahoo.com)
Roam2
- Therefore, if there are areas where you prefer chickens not roam, it's best to fence them off or try and redirect their interests by tossing a bit of chicken scratch in the opposite direction. (hgtv.com)
- The chickens roam freely over the pastures at Avrom Farm in Ripon, Wisconsin. (chicagoreader.com)
Skillet2
Minutes19
- Cook the chicken on one side for 6 minutes, then turn it over and cook it for 6 more minutes. (yahoo.com)
- Once the chicken is done, take it out of the oven and let it rest for 5 minutes before cutting into it. (yahoo.com)
- Flip chicken and cook for another 4 minutes. (buzzfeed.com)
- Let chicken rest for 5-10 minutes before slicing. (buzzfeed.com)
- Add half the chicken and fry, uncovered, for 3 minutes. (waitrose.com)
- 3. Return the chicken to the pan and heat through for 2 minutes. (waitrose.com)
- We were seated for about 40 minutes and saw the chickens sing twice. (roadsideamerica.com)
- Remove from the oven, and let the chicken rest for 10 minutes (use this time to take photos of your very pretty chicken). (lifehacker.com)
- Working in 2 batches and maintaining oil temperature, fry chicken until golden brown, crisp, and cooked through, about 3 minutes per side. (foodnetwork.com)
- Stir in the chicken and heat through, about 2 minutes. (nutrition.gov)
- Let the chicken rest for 15 minutes before slicing and serving. (ehow.com)
- Alternatively, prepare a grill for medium-high heat cooking and grill chicken until just cooked through, about 5 minutes per side. (wholefoodsmarket.com)
- Place the potato tray on the middle shelf of the oven and the chicken tray on the top shelf to roast for 20 minutes. (jamieoliver.com)
- Return both trays to the oven to roast for a further 25 minutes or until the chicken pulls away easily from the bone, placing the frozen corn straight onto the bars of the bottom shelf to cook alongside. (jamieoliver.com)
- Lay chicken on prepared sheet, skin-side down, and broil for 5 minutes. (oprah.com)
- Flip and continue cooking for 6 to 8 more minutes, until skin is crispy and chicken is cooked through. (oprah.com)
- Continue to cook until chicken is tender, about 50 minutes. (cuisinart.com)
- Add the chicken and curry powder then cook for 5-10 minutes, or until lightly browned. (itv.com)
- Allow the curry to simmer gently for around 15 minutes, until the chicken is cooked through. (itv.com)
Breast3
- Repeat with each chicken breast. (umassmed.edu)
- Repeat that same slicing motion from step 8 on the right side of the chicken breast, gently pulling the left and right sides of the chicken breast outward to reveal a larger pocket in the center. (yahoo.com)
- 1) Place the chicken breast-side down, with the legs towards you. (panasonic.com)
Cavity5
- Remove any giblets or plastic or anything else that may be hanging out inside the chicken cavity from the chicken. (lifehacker.com)
- Season the chicken heavily with salt, making sure to season inside the cavity in addition to the outside. (lifehacker.com)
- At the tail end, check for the kidneys, the dark reddish colored parts at the back side of the chicken cavity. (selfgrowth.com)
- Also, do not forget to put some seasoning inside the cavity of the chicken rotisserie such that the flavor will not just be on the outside. (selfgrowth.com)
- Fill the cavity of the chicken with 1/2 of the onion, both halves of garlic, and lemon slices. (ehow.com)
Embryos1
- C) The white elevated plaques were observed on the chorioallantoic membrane of inoculated specific pathogen free chicken embryos 4 days postinoculation. (cdc.gov)
Heat2
Refrigerate2
Broiler1
- Before a quick turn under the broiler, the chicken takes on bright flavors while marinating. (wholefoodsmarket.com)
Buttermilk2
- Like Samin's buttermilk-marinated chicken, a labneh-coated chicken is exposed to acid, fat, and protein, making for a tender, juicy bird with a gloriously brown skin. (lifehacker.com)
- Unlike a buttermilk-marinated chicken, you do not have to worry about liquid spilling while marinating, so you can be much lazier with your chicken bagging. (lifehacker.com)
Sauce5
- Mix chicken and barbeque sauce in a large bowl. (medlineplus.gov)
- Drizzle sauce over chicken and serve. (yahoo.com)
- As the weather cools down, enjoy this stew made with hominy, red chile sauce, and shredded chicken. (nutrition.gov)
- You'll never guess how easy this is judging from the tender, juicy chicken you get, smothered in roasted tomatoes, melted onions, sweet garlic, rosemary and thyme, and a rich sherry wine sauce. (kqed.org)
- Remove the lid, take out the chicken and simmer the sauce rapidly to reduce the sauce until thick. (itv.com)
20211
- In 2021, chicken stock in Indonesia amounted to approximately 3.48 billion heads. (statista.com)
Healthier2
- The eggs neighborhood chickens would produce would be organic, making the people healthier. (ipetitions.com)
- While people assume that chicken is lower in saturated fat than beef, it doesn't mean it's necessarily healthier. (healthline.com)
Flavor3
- This is all very international, but the thing one almost never sees is chicken served on the merits of its own flavor. (latimes.com)
- It's true chicken flavor. (latimes.com)
- There are endless flavor combinations when it comes to seasoning a chicken. (ehow.com)
Frozen1
- That's no problem, since the leftover stuffed chicken can also be frozen. (yahoo.com)
Backbone2
- Using poultry shears, cut up each side of the backbone to remove it, and open out (spatchcock) the chicken. (panasonic.com)
- Using kitchen shears, cut out the backbone of the chicken by cutting alongside the bone on each side and remove. (ehow.com)
Garlic1
- While the chicken is browning, cut up the onion into half-moon slivers, and peel and smash the garlic. (kqed.org)
Onion2
- 2. Spread onion slices over chicken. (jpost.com)
- A traditional version made with diced chicken and a creamy dressing, with parsley, celery and onion for some crunch. (wholefoodsmarket.com)
Gently2
Food7
- Kinetic Carnival] Clinton Hill: Why go to a food co-op or the farmers' market when you can raise chickens right behind your own brownstone? (nymag.com)
- Chickens lay eggs daily, providing a constant flow of food source. (ipetitions.com)
- While spiced food can be an acquired taste, this simmered chicken amounts to dinner without frontiers. (latimes.com)
- Very silly diner with decent food and singing animatronic chickens. (roadsideamerica.com)
- After their bodies are exhausted and their egg production drops, many are killed and their bodies are used for chicken soup or cat or dog food because their flesh is too bruised and battered to be suitable for much else. (peta.org)
- As part of the live show, Georgie from Jamie's Food Team cooks a gorgeous Cypriot Style Chicken. (jamieoliver.com)
- Don't let Christian-corporate fast food tell you anything different: fried chicken is queer. (chicagoreader.com)
Prosciutto3
Coop2
- In fact, we grow an entirely chicken friendly garden right near their coop for them to enjoy. (hgtv.com)
- One of the birds hatches a plot to fly the coop at Tweedy's Chicken Farm. (metacritic.com)
Remove the chicken1
- Before cooking, remove the chicken from the fridge and allow it to return to room temperature. (panasonic.com)
Temperature1
- Let the chicken stand at room temperature for half an hour. (lifehacker.com)
Juices3
- Baste the chicken in the remaining juices, scraping up any sticky bits from the bottom of the tray. (jamieoliver.com)
- Serve the chicken and potatoes alongside the slaw, rolling the corn in all the lovely chicken tray juices before plating up. (jamieoliver.com)
- Then, the whole thing goes in the oven where the chicken gets braised in its own juices and those of the onions and tomatoes that melt down. (kqed.org)