Carbon radioisotopes. Medical search

Unstable isotopes of carbon that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. C atoms with atomic weights 10, 11, and 14-16 are radioactive carbon isotopes.

A nonmetallic element with atomic symbol C, atomic number 6, and atomic weight [12.0096; 12.0116]. It may occur as several different allotropes including DIAMOND; CHARCOAL; and GRAPHITE; and as SOOT from incompletely burned fuel.

Isotopes that exhibit radioactivity and undergo radioactive decay. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed & McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)

Unstable isotopes of zinc that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Zn atoms with atomic weights 60-63, 65, 69, 71, and 72 are radioactive zinc isotopes.

Method for assessing flow through a system by injection of a known quantity of radionuclide into the system and monitoring its concentration over time at a specific point in the system. (From Dorland, 28th ed)

Unstable isotopes of strontium that decay or disintegrate spontaneously emitting radiation. Sr 80-83, 85, and 89-95 are radioactive strontium isotopes.

A colorless, odorless gas that can be formed by the body and is necessary for the respiration cycle of plants and animals.

Unstable isotopes of iodine that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. I atoms with atomic weights 117-139, except I 127, are radioactive iodine isotopes.

Unstable isotopes of krypton that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Kr atoms with atomic weights 74-77, 79, 81, 85, and 87-94 are radioactive krypton isotopes.

Carbon monoxide (CO). A poisonous colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. It combines with hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin, which has no oxygen carrying capacity. The resultant oxygen deprivation causes headache, dizziness, decreased pulse and respiratory rates, unconsciousness, and death. (From Merck Index, 11th ed)

Nanometer-sized tubes composed mainly of CARBON. Such nanotubes are used as probes for high-resolution structural and chemical imaging of biomolecules with ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY.

Unstable isotopes of indium that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. In atoms with atomic weights 106-112, 113m, 114, and 116-124 are radioactive indium isotopes.

Unstable isotopes of sodium that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Na atoms with atomic weights 20-22 and 24-26 are radioactive sodium isotopes.

The spontaneous transformation of a nuclide into one or more different nuclides, accompanied by either the emission of particles from the nucleus, nuclear capture or ejection of orbital electrons, or fission. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)

Unstable isotopes of barium that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Ba atoms with atomic weights 126-129, 131, 133, and 139-143 are radioactive barium isotopes.

The production of an image obtained by cameras that detect the radioactive emissions of an injected radionuclide as it has distributed differentially throughout tissues in the body. The image obtained from a moving detector is called a scan, while the image obtained from a stationary camera device is called a scintiphotograph.

Unstable isotopes of yttrium that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Y atoms with atomic weights 82-88 and 90-96 are radioactive yttrium isotopes.

Unstable isotopes of tin that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Sn atoms with atomic weights 108-111, 113, 120-121, 123 and 125-128 are tin radioisotopes.

Stable carbon atoms that have the same atomic number as the element carbon, but differ in atomic weight. C-13 is a stable carbon isotope.

Unstable isotopes of iron that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Fe atoms with atomic weights 52, 53, 55, and 59-61 are radioactive iron isotopes.

Unstable isotopes of copper that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Cu atoms with atomic weights 58-62, 64, and 66-68 are radioactive copper isotopes.

Unstable isotopes of phosphorus that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. P atoms with atomic weights 28-34 except 31 are radioactive phosphorus isotopes.

High energy POSITRONS or ELECTRONS ejected from a disintegrating atomic nucleus.

The first artificially produced element and a radioactive fission product of URANIUM. Technetium has the atomic symbol Tc, atomic number 43, and atomic weight 98.91. All technetium isotopes are radioactive. Technetium 99m (m=metastable) which is the decay product of Molybdenum 99, has a half-life of about 6 hours and is used diagnostically as a radioactive imaging agent. Technetium 99 which is a decay product of technetium 99m, has a half-life of 210,000 years.

Toxic asphyxiation due to the displacement of oxygen from oxyhemoglobin by carbon monoxide.

Unstable isotopes of mercury that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Hg atoms with atomic weights 185-195, 197, 203, 205, and 206 are radioactive mercury isotopes.

A gamma-emitting radionuclide imaging agent used for the diagnosis of diseases in many tissues, particularly in the gastrointestinal system, liver, and spleen.

Stable cesium atoms that have the same atomic number as the element cesium, but differ in atomic weight. Cs-133 is a naturally occurring isotope.

Unstable isotopes of cerium that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Ce atoms with atomic weights 132-135, 137, 139, and 141-148 are radioactive cerium isotopes.

Stable cobalt atoms that have the same atomic number as the element cobalt, but differ in atomic weight. Co-59 is a stable cobalt isotope.

Techniques for labeling a substance with a stable or radioactive isotope. It is not used for articles involving labeled substances unless the methods of labeling are substantively discussed. Tracers that may be labeled include chemical substances, cells, or microorganisms.

Hafnium. A metal element of atomic number 72 and atomic weight 178.49, symbol Hf. (From Dorland, 28th ed)

Unstable isotopes of gold that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Au 185-196, 198-201, and 203 are radioactive gold isotopes.

Unstable isotopes of lead that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Pb atoms with atomic weights 194-203, 205, and 209-214 are radioactive lead isotopes.

Any diagnostic evaluation using radioactive (unstable) isotopes. This diagnosis includes many nuclear medicine procedures as well as radioimmunoassay tests.

Stable zinc atoms that have the same atomic number as the element zinc, but differ in atomic weight. Zn-66-68, and 70 are stable zinc isotopes.

Unstable isotopes of sulfur that decay or disintegrate spontaneously emitting radiation. S 29-31, 35, 37, and 38 are radioactive sulfur isotopes.

Unstable isotopes of cadmium that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Cd atoms with atomic weights 103-105, 107, 109, 115, and 117-119 are radioactive cadmium isotopes.

Astatine. A radioactive halogen with the atomic symbol At, atomic number 85, and atomic weight 210. Its isotopes range in mass number from 200 to 219 and all have an extremely short half-life. Astatine may be of use in the treatment of hyperthyroidism.

Radiotherapy where cytotoxic radionuclides are linked to antibodies in order to deliver toxins directly to tumor targets. Therapy with targeted radiation rather than antibody-targeted toxins (IMMUNOTOXINS) has the advantage that adjacent tumor cells, which lack the appropriate antigenic determinants, can be destroyed by radiation cross-fire. Radioimmunotherapy is sometimes called targeted radiotherapy, but this latter term can also refer to radionuclides linked to non-immune molecules (see RADIOTHERAPY).

Lutetium. An element of the rare earth family of metals. It has the atomic symbol Lu, atomic number 71, and atomic weight 175.

Rhenium. A metal, atomic number 75, atomic weight 186.2, symbol Re. (Dorland, 28th ed)

Samarium. An element of the rare earth family of metals. It has the atomic symbol Sm, atomic number 62, and atomic weight 150.36. The oxide is used in the control rods of some nuclear reactors.

Compounds that are used in medicine as sources of radiation for radiotherapy and for diagnostic purposes. They have numerous uses in research and industry. (Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1161)

Pollutants, present in soil, which exhibit radioactivity.

A solvent for oils, fats, lacquers, varnishes, rubber waxes, and resins, and a starting material in the manufacturing of organic compounds. Poisoning by inhalation, ingestion or skin absorption is possible and may be fatal. (Merck Index, 11th ed)

Unstable isotopes of bromine that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Br atoms with atomic weights 74-78, 80, and 82-90 are radioactive bromine isotopes.

Detection and counting of scintillations produced in a fluorescent material by ionizing radiation.

Leakage and accumulation of CEREBROSPINAL FLUID in the subdural space which may be associated with an infectious process; CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA; BRAIN NEOPLASMS; INTRACRANIAL HYPOTENSION; and other conditions.

Stable calcium atoms that have the same atomic number as the element calcium, but differ in atomic weight. Ca-42-44, 46, and 48 are stable calcium isotopes.

Liquid, solid, or gaseous waste resulting from mining of radioactive ore, production of reactor fuel materials, reactor operation, processing of irradiated reactor fuels, and related operations, and from use of radioactive materials in research, industry, and medicine. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)

Any of several processes for the permanent or long-term artificial or natural capture or removal and storage of carbon dioxide and other forms of carbon, through biological, chemical or physical processes, in a manner that prevents it from being released into the atmosphere.

Techniques used to determine the age of materials, based on the content and half-lives of the RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES they contain.

Normal human serum albumin mildly iodinated with radioactive iodine (131-I) which has a half-life of 8 days, and emits beta and gamma rays. It is used as a diagnostic aid in blood volume determination. (from Merck Index, 11th ed)

Unstable isotopes of ruthenium that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Ru atoms with atomic weights 93-95, 97, 103, and 105-108 are radioactive ruthenium isotopes.

A colorless, flammable, poisonous liquid, CS2. It is used as a solvent, and is a counterirritant and has local anesthetic properties but is not used as such. It is highly toxic with pronounced CNS, hematologic, and dermatologic effects.

Unstable isotopes of selenium that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Se atoms with atomic weights 70-73, 75, 79, 81, and 83-85 are radioactive selenium isotopes.

Atomic species differing in mass number but having the same atomic number. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)

Positively charged particles composed of two protons and two NEUTRONS, i.e. equivalent to HELIUM nuclei, which are emitted during disintegration of heavy ISOTOPES. Alpha rays have very strong ionizing power, but weak penetrability.

Tungsten. A metallic element with the atomic symbol W, atomic number 74, and atomic weight 183.85. It is used in many manufacturing applications, including increasing the hardness, toughness, and tensile strength of steel; manufacture of filaments for incandescent light bulbs; and in contact points for automotive and electrical apparatus.

A class of organic compounds containing a ring structure made up of more than one kind of atom, usually carbon plus another atom. The ring structure can be aromatic or nonaromatic.

A gamma-emitting radionuclide imaging agent used for the diagnosis of diseases in many tissues, particularly in the gastrointestinal system, cardiovascular and cerebral circulation, brain, thyroid, and joints.

Determination of the energy distribution of gamma rays emitted by nuclei. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)

Accumulation of a drug or chemical substance in various organs (including those not relevant to its pharmacologic or therapeutic action). This distribution depends on the blood flow or perfusion rate of the organ, the ability of the drug to penetrate organ membranes, tissue specificity, protein binding. The distribution is usually expressed as tissue to plasma ratios.

A type of high-energy radiotherapy using a beam of gamma-radiation produced by a radioisotope source encapsulated within a teletherapy unit.

An iron chelating agent with properties like EDETIC ACID. DTPA has also been used as a chelator for other metals, such as plutonium.

A series of steps taken in order to conduct research.

A specialty field of radiology concerned with diagnostic, therapeutic, and investigative use of radioactive compounds in a pharmaceutical form.

A technetium imaging agent used in renal scintigraphy, computed tomography, lung ventilation imaging, gastrointestinal scintigraphy, and many other procedures which employ radionuclide imaging agents.

Tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen used in medical applications such as radiation therapy and as a tracer in diagnostic imaging.

The measurement of radiation by photography, as in x-ray film and film badge, by Geiger-Mueller tube, and by SCINTILLATION COUNTING.

Compounds that contain the triphenylmethane aniline structure found in rosaniline. Many of them have a characteristic magenta color and are used as COLORING AGENTS.

A form species of spore-producing CYANOBACTERIA, in the family Nostocaceae, order Nostocales. It is an important source of fixed NITROGEN in nutrient-depleted soils. When wet, it appears as a jelly-like mass.

Carbon tetrachloride poisoning is a medical condition caused by exposure to high levels of carbon tetrachloride, which can lead to liver damage and other health problems.

Measurement of radioactivity in the entire human body.

Unstable isotopes of potassium that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. K atoms with atomic weights 37, 38, 40, and 42-45 are radioactive potassium isotopes.

An iodine-containing compound used in pyelography as a radiopaque medium. If labeled with radioiodine, it can be used for studies of renal function.

A class of compounds of the type R-M, where a C atom is joined directly to any other element except H, C, N, O, F, Cl, Br, I, or At. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)

The amount of radiation energy that is deposited in a unit mass of material, such as tissues of plants or animal. In RADIOTHERAPY, radiation dosage is expressed in gray units (Gy). In RADIOLOGIC HEALTH, the dosage is expressed by the product of absorbed dose (Gy) and quality factor (a function of linear energy transfer), and is called radiation dose equivalent in sievert units (Sv).

Uptake of substances through the lining of the INTESTINES.

An imaging technique using compounds labelled with short-lived positron-emitting radionuclides (such as carbon-11, nitrogen-13, oxygen-15 and fluorine-18) to measure cell metabolism. It has been useful in study of soft tissues such as CANCER; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; and brain. SINGLE-PHOTON EMISSION-COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY is closely related to positron emission tomography, but uses isotopes with longer half-lives and resolution is lower.

A cobalt-containing coordination compound produced by intestinal micro-organisms and found also in soil and water. Higher plants do not concentrate vitamin B 12 from the soil and so are a poor source of the substance as compared with animal tissues. INTRINSIC FACTOR is important for the assimilation of vitamin B 12.

A measure of the total greenhouse gas emissions produced by an individual, organization, event, or product. It is measured in units of equivalent kilograms of CARBON DIOXIDE generated in a given time frame.

The physical or physiological processes by which substances, tissue, cells, etc. take up or take in other substances or energy.

The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.

A diagnostic procedure used to determine whether LYMPHATIC METASTASIS has occurred. The sentinel lymph node is the first lymph node to receive drainage from a neoplasm.

A gamma-emitting radionuclide imaging agent used primarily in skeletal scintigraphy. Because of its absorption by a variety of tumors, it is useful for the detection of neoplasms.

Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.

A metallic element that has the atomic symbol Bi, atomic number 83 and atomic weight 208.98.

A specific protein in egg albumin that interacts with BIOTIN to render it unavailable to mammals, thereby producing biotin deficiency.

Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.

The making of a radiograph of an object or tissue by recording on a photographic plate the radiation emitted by radioactive material within the object. (Dorland, 27th ed)

Stable phosphorus atoms that have the same atomic number as the element phosphorus, but differ in atomic weight. P-31 is a stable phosphorus isotope.

A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement.

Unstable isotopes of cesium that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Cs atoms with atomic weights of 123, 125-132, and 134-145 are radioactive cesium isotopes.

A collective term for interstitial, intracavity, and surface radiotherapy. It uses small sealed or partly-sealed sources that may be placed on or near the body surface or within a natural body cavity or implanted directly into the tissues.

Unstable isotopes of iridium that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Ir atoms with atomic weights 182-190, 192, and 194-198 are radioactive iridium isotopes.

An analytical method used in determining the identity of a chemical based on its mass using mass analyzers/mass spectrometers.

An element with the atomic symbol N, atomic number 7, and atomic weight [14.00643; 14.00728]. Nitrogen exists as a diatomic gas and makes up about 78% of the earth's atmosphere by volume. It is a constituent of proteins and nucleic acids and found in all living cells.

Studies determining the effectiveness or value of processes, personnel, and equipment, or the material on conducting such studies. For drugs and devices, CLINICAL TRIALS AS TOPIC; DRUG EVALUATION; and DRUG EVALUATION, PRECLINICAL are available.

Total mass of all the organisms of a given type and/or in a given area. (From Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990) It includes the yield of vegetative mass produced from any given crop.

A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.

A dark powdery deposit of unburned fuel residues, composed mainly of amorphous CARBON and some HYDROCARBONS, that accumulates in chimneys, automobile mufflers and other surfaces exposed to smoke. It is the product of incomplete combustion of carbon-rich organic fuels in low oxygen conditions. It is sometimes called lampblack or carbon black and is used in INK, in rubber tires, and to prepare CARBON NANOTUBES.

Carboxyhemoglobin is a form of hemoglobin that binds with carbon monoxide, reducing the ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen.

The time it takes for a substance (drug, radioactive nuclide, or other) to lose half of its pharmacologic, physiologic, or radiologic activity.

A potent, long-acting synthetic SOMATOSTATIN octapeptide analog that inhibits secretion of GROWTH HORMONE and is used to treat hormone-secreting tumors; DIABETES MELLITUS; HYPOTENSION, ORTHOSTATIC; HYPERINSULINISM; hypergastrinemia; and small bowel fistula.

The gaseous envelope surrounding a planet or similar body. (From Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2d ed)

Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)

Tomography using radioactive emissions from injected RADIONUCLIDES and computer ALGORITHMS to reconstruct an image.

Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.

Unstable isotopes of cobalt that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Co atoms with atomic weights of 54-64, except 59, are radioactive cobalt isotopes.

A metallic element of atomic number 30 and atomic weight 65.38. It is a necessary trace element in the diet, forming an essential part of many enzymes, and playing an important role in protein synthesis and in cell division. Zinc deficiency is associated with ANEMIA, short stature, HYPOGONADISM, impaired WOUND HEALING, and geophagia. It is known by the symbol Zn.

A metallic element with atomic symbol Fe, atomic number 26, and atomic weight 55.85. It is an essential constituent of HEMOGLOBINS; CYTOCHROMES; and IRON-BINDING PROTEINS. It plays a role in cellular redox reactions and in the transport of OXYGEN.

The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and drugs) through a biological system at the cellular level. The transport can be across cell membranes and epithelial layers. It also can occur within intracellular compartments and extracellular compartments.

Cell surface proteins that bind somatostatin and trigger intracellular changes which influence the behavior of cells. Somatostatin is a hypothalamic hormone, a pancreatic hormone, and a central and peripheral neurotransmitter. Activated somatostatin receptors on pituitary cells inhibit the release of growth hormone; those on endocrine and gastrointestinal cells regulate the absorption and utilization of nutrients; and those on neurons mediate somatostatin's role as a neurotransmitter.

Elimination of ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS; PESTICIDES and other waste using living organisms, usually involving intervention of environmental or sanitation engineers.

Tumors or cancer located in bone tissue or specific BONES.

The total amount of radiation absorbed by tissues as a result of radiotherapy.

Volume of biological fluid completely cleared of drug metabolites as measured in unit time. Elimination occurs as a result of metabolic processes in the kidney, liver, saliva, sweat, intestine, heart, brain, or other site.

The unconsolidated mineral or organic matter on the surface of the earth that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants.

Liquid chromatographic techniques which feature high inlet pressures, high sensitivity, and high speed.

A method of measuring the effects of a biologically active substance using an intermediate in vivo or in vitro tissue or cell model under controlled conditions. It includes virulence studies in animal fetuses in utero, mouse convulsion bioassay of insulin, quantitation of tumor-initiator systems in mouse skin, calculation of potentiating effects of a hormonal factor in an isolated strip of contracting stomach muscle, etc.

Any liquid or solid preparation made specifically for the growth, storage, or transport of microorganisms or other types of cells. The variety of media that exist allow for the culturing of specific microorganisms and cell types, such as differential media, selective media, test media, and defined media. Solid media consist of liquid media that have been solidified with an agent such as AGAR or GELATIN.

Mutant mice homozygous for the recessive gene "nude" which fail to develop a thymus. They are useful in tumor studies and studies on immune responses.

Transplantation between animals of different species.

Either of the pair of organs occupying the cavity of the thorax that effect the aeration of the blood.

Red blood cells. Mature erythrocytes are non-nucleated, biconcave disks containing HEMOGLOBIN whose function is to transport OXYGEN.

Derivatives of ACETIC ACID. Included under this heading are a broad variety of acid forms, salts, esters, and amides that contain the carboxymethane structure.

Excrement from the INTESTINES, containing unabsorbed solids, waste products, secretions, and BACTERIA of the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.

A method of computed tomography that uses radionuclides which emit a single photon of a given energy. The camera is rotated 180 or 360 degrees around the patient to capture images at multiple positions along the arc. The computer is then used to reconstruct the transaxial, sagittal, and coronal images from the 3-dimensional distribution of radionuclides in the organ. The advantages of SPECT are that it can be used to observe biochemical and physiological processes as well as size and volume of the organ. The disadvantage is that, unlike positron-emission tomography where the positron-electron annihilation results in the emission of 2 photons at 180 degrees from each other, SPECT requires physical collimation to line up the photons, which results in the loss of many available photons and hence degrades the image.

An allotropic form of carbon that is used in pencils, as a lubricant, and in matches and explosives. It is obtained by mining and its dust can cause lung irritation.

Inorganic compounds that contain carbon as an integral part of the molecule but are not derived from hydrocarbons.

The synthesis by organisms of organic chemical compounds, especially carbohydrates, from carbon dioxide using energy obtained from light rather than from the oxidation of chemical compounds. Photosynthesis comprises two separate processes: the light reactions and the dark reactions. In higher plants; GREEN ALGAE; and CYANOBACTERIA; NADPH and ATP formed by the light reactions drive the dark reactions which result in the fixation of carbon dioxide. (from Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 2001)

Cellular processes in biosynthesis (anabolism) and degradation (catabolism) of CARBOHYDRATES.

An element with atomic symbol O, atomic number 8, and atomic weight [15.99903; 15.99977]. It is the most abundant element on earth and essential for respiration.

Unstable isotopes of nitrogen that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. N atoms with atomic weights 12, 13, 16, 17, and 18 are radioactive nitrogen isotopes.

Removal and examination of tissue obtained through a transdermal needle inserted into the specific region, organ, or tissue being analyzed.

The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.

Woody, usually tall, perennial higher plants (Angiosperms, Gymnosperms, and some Pterophyta) having usually a main stem and numerous branches.

Electric conductors through which electric currents enter or leave a medium, whether it be an electrolytic solution, solid, molten mass, gas, or vacuum.

Agents that emit light after excitation by light. The wave length of the emitted light is usually longer than that of the incident light. Fluorochromes are substances that cause fluorescence in other substances, i.e., dyes used to mark or label other compounds with fluorescent tags.

Unstable isotopes of chromium that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Cr atoms with atomic weights of 46-49, 51, 55, and 56 are radioactive chromium isotopes.

Body organ that filters blood for the secretion of URINE and that regulates ion concentrations.

Studies to determine the advantages or disadvantages, practicability, or capability of accomplishing a projected plan, study, or project.

A specialized CONNECTIVE TISSUE that is the main constituent of the SKELETON. The principle cellular component of bone is comprised of OSTEOBLASTS; OSTEOCYTES; and OSTEOCLASTS, while FIBRILLAR COLLAGENS and hydroxyapatite crystals form the BONE MATRIX.

A chemical reaction in which an electron is transferred from one molecule to another. The electron-donating molecule is the reducing agent or reductant; the electron-accepting molecule is the oxidizing agent or oxidant. Reducing and oxidizing agents function as conjugate reductant-oxidant pairs or redox pairs (Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, 1982, p471).

The statistical reproducibility of measurements (often in a clinical context), including the testing of instrumentation or techniques to obtain reproducible results. The concept includes reproducibility of physiological measurements, which may be used to develop rules to assess probability or prognosis, or response to a stimulus; reproducibility of occurrence of a condition; and reproducibility of experimental results.

The simplest saturated hydrocarbon. It is a colorless, flammable gas, slightly soluble in water. It is one of the chief constituents of natural gas and is formed in the decomposition of organic matter. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)

The processes by which organisms use simple inorganic substances such as gaseous or dissolved carbon dioxide and inorganic nitrogen as nutrient sources. Contrasts with heterotrophic processes which make use of organic materials as the nutrient supply source. Autotrophs can be either chemoautotrophs (or chemolithotrophs), largely ARCHAEA and BACTERIA, which also use simple inorganic substances for their metabolic energy reguirements; or photoautotrophs (or photolithotrophs), such as PLANTS and CYANOBACTERIA, which derive their energy from light. Depending on environmental conditions some organisms can switch between different nutritional modes (autotrophy; HETEROTROPHY; chemotrophy; or PHOTOTROPHY) to utilize different sources to meet their nutrient and energy requirements.

A functional system which includes the organisms of a natural community together with their environment. (McGraw Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)

Unstable isotopes of calcium that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Ca atoms with atomic weights 39, 41, 45, 47, 49, and 50 are radioactive calcium isotopes.

Unstable isotopes of xenon that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Xe atoms with atomic weights 121-123, 125, 127, 133, 135, 137-145 are radioactive xenon isotopes.

Graphic tracing over a time period of radioactivity measured externally over the kidneys following intravenous injection of a radionuclide which is taken up and excreted by the kidneys.

Unstable isotopes of rubidium that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Rb atoms with atomic weights 79-84, and 86-95 are radioactive rubidium isotopes.

A member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol Na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23.

Any of various animals that constitute the family Suidae and comprise stout-bodied, short-legged omnivorous mammals with thick skin, usually covered with coarse bristles, a rather long mobile snout, and small tail. Included are the genera Babyrousa, Phacochoerus (wart hogs), and Sus, the latter containing the domestic pig (see SUS SCROFA).

Widely used technique which exploits the ability of complementary sequences in single-stranded DNAs or RNAs to pair with each other to form a double helix. Hybridization can take place between two complimentary DNA sequences, between a single-stranded DNA and a complementary RNA, or between two RNA sequences. The technique is used to detect and isolate specific sequences, measure homology, or define other characteristics of one or both strands. (Kendrew, Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, 1994, p503)

A mixed function oxidase enzyme which during hemoglobin catabolism catalyzes the degradation of heme to ferrous iron, carbon monoxide and biliverdin in the presence of molecular oxygen and reduced NADPH. The enzyme is induced by metals, particularly cobalt. EC 1.14.99.3.

New abnormal growth of tissue. Malignant neoplasms show a greater degree of anaplasia and have the properties of invasion and metastasis, compared to benign neoplasms.

The generic name for the group of aliphatic hydrocarbons Cn-H2n+2. They are denoted by the suffix -ane. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)

A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).

Spectroscopic method of measuring the magnetic moment of elementary particles such as atomic nuclei, protons or electrons. It is employed in clinical applications such as NMR Tomography (MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING).

The normality of a solution with respect to HYDROGEN ions; H+. It is related to acidity measurements in most cases by pH = log 1/2[1/(H+)], where (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per liter of solution. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)

The salinated water of OCEANS AND SEAS that provides habitat for marine organisms.

The property of objects that determines the direction of heat flow when they are placed in direct thermal contact. The temperature is the energy of microscopic motions (vibrational and translational) of the particles of atoms.

Unstable isotopes of gallium that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Ga atoms with atomic weights 63-68, 70 and 72-76 are radioactive gallium isotopes.

The presence of bacteria, viruses, and fungi in the soil. This term is not restricted to pathogenic organisms.

A series of oxidative reactions in the breakdown of acetyl units derived from GLUCOSE; FATTY ACIDS; or AMINO ACIDS by means of tricarboxylic acid intermediates. The end products are CARBON DIOXIDE, water, and energy in the form of phosphate bonds.

The pressure that would be exerted by one component of a mixture of gases if it were present alone in a container. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)

Tomography using x-ray transmission and a computer algorithm to reconstruct the image.

A genus of gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria widely distributed in nature. Some species are pathogenic for humans, animals, and plants.

The complete absence, or (loosely) the paucity, of gaseous or dissolved elemental oxygen in a given place or environment. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)

A mass of organic or inorganic solid fragmented material, or the solid fragment itself, that comes from the weathering of rock and is carried by, suspended in, or dropped by air, water, or ice. It refers also to a mass that is accumulated by any other natural agent and that forms in layers on the earth's surface, such as sand, gravel, silt, mud, fill, or loess. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed, p1689)

The effect of GLOBAL WARMING and the resulting increase in world temperatures. The predicted health effects of such long-term climatic change include increased incidence of respiratory, water-borne, and vector-borne diseases.

Non-invasive method of demonstrating internal anatomy based on the principle that atomic nuclei in a strong magnetic field absorb pulses of radiofrequency energy and emit them as radiowaves which can be reconstructed into computerized images. The concept includes proton spin tomographic techniques.

A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes.

One of the three domains of life (the others being Eukarya and ARCHAEA), also called Eubacteria. They are unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms which generally possess rigid cell walls, multiply by cell division, and exhibit three principal forms: round or coccal, rodlike or bacillary, and spiral or spirochetal. Bacteria can be classified by their response to OXYGEN: aerobic, anaerobic, or facultatively anaerobic; by the mode by which they obtain their energy: chemotrophy (via chemical reaction) or PHOTOTROPHY (via light reaction); for chemotrophs by their source of chemical energy: CHEMOLITHOTROPHY (from inorganic compounds) or chemoorganotrophy (from organic compounds); and by their source for CARBON; NITROGEN; etc.; HETEROTROPHY (from organic sources) or AUTOTROPHY (from CARBON DIOXIDE). They can also be classified by whether or not they stain (based on the structure of their CELL WALLS) with CRYSTAL VIOLET dye: gram-negative or gram-positive.

A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.

Unstable isotopes of oxygen that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. O atoms with atomic weights 13, 14, 15, 19, and 20 are radioactive oxygen isotopes.

Anaerobic degradation of GLUCOSE or other organic nutrients to gain energy in the form of ATP. End products vary depending on organisms, substrates, and enzymatic pathways. Common fermentation products include ETHANOL and LACTIC ACID.

The study of chemical changes resulting from electrical action and electrical activity resulting from chemical changes.

Any of the processes by which cytoplasmic or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in bacteria.

Proteins found in any species of bacterium.

Expanded structures, usually green, of vascular plants, characteristically consisting of a bladelike expansion attached to a stem, and functioning as the principal organ of photosynthesis and transpiration. (American Heritage Dictionary, 2d ed)

Salts or ions of the theoretical carbonic acid, containing the radical CO2(3-). Carbonates are readily decomposed by acids. The carbonates of the alkali metals are water-soluble; all others are insoluble. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)

Life or metabolic reactions occurring in an environment containing oxygen.

Oxidoreductases that are specific for ALDEHYDES.

A cell line derived from cultured tumor cells.

Organic, monobasic acids derived from hydrocarbons by the equivalent of oxidation of a methyl group to an alcohol, aldehyde, and then acid. Fatty acids are saturated and unsaturated (FATTY ACIDS, UNSATURATED). (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)

A trihydroxy sugar alcohol that is an intermediate in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. It is used as a solvent, emollient, pharmaceutical agent, and sweetening agent.

A broad class of substances containing carbon and its derivatives. Many of these chemicals will frequently contain hydrogen with or without oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, and other elements. They exist in either carbon chain or carbon ring form.

A great expanse of continuous bodies of salt water which together cover more than 70 percent of the earth's surface. Seas may be partially or entirely enclosed by land, and are smaller than the five oceans (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic).

Tumors or cancer of the human BREAST.

Sensitivity of [11C]phenylephrine kinetics to monoamine oxidase activity in normal human heart. (1/5742)

Phenylephrine labeled with 11C was developed as a radiotracer for imaging studies of cardiac sympathetic nerves with PET. A structural analog of norepinephrine, (-)-[11C]phenylephrine (PHEN) is transported into cardiac sympathetic nerve varicosities by the neuronal norepinephrine transporter and stored in vesicles. PHEN is also a substrate for monoamine oxidase (MAO). The goal of this study was to assess the importance of neuronal MAO activity on the kinetics of PHEN in the normal human heart. MAO metabolism of PHEN was inhibited at the tracer level by substituting deuterium atoms for the two hydrogen atoms at the alpha-carbon side chain position to yield the MAO-resistant analog D2-PHEN. METHODS: Paired PET studies of PHEN and D2-PHEN were performed in six normal volunteers. Hemodynamic and electrocardiographic responses were monitored. Blood levels of intact radiotracer and radiolabeled metabolites were measured in venous samples taken during the 60 min dynamic PET study. Myocardial retention of the tracers was regionally quantified as a retention index. Tracer efflux between 6 and 50 min after tracer injection was fit to a single exponential process to obtain a washout half-time for all left ventricular regions. RESULTS: Although initial heart uptake of the two tracers was similar, D2-PHEN cleared from the heart 2.6 times more slowly than PHEN (mean half-time 155+/-52 versus 55+/-10 min, respectively; P < 0.01). Correspondingly, heart retention of D2-PHEN at 40-60 min after tracer injection was higher than PHEN (mean retention indices 0.086+/-0.018 versus 0.066+/-0.011 mL blood/ min/mL tissue, respectively; P < 0.003). CONCLUSION: Efflux of radioactivity from normal human heart after uptake of PHEN is primarily due to metabolism of the tracer by neuronal MAO. Related mechanistic studies in the isolated rat heart indicate that vesicular storage of PHEN protects the tracer from rapid metabolism by neuronal MAO, suggesting that MAO metabolism of PHEN leaking from storage vesicles leads to the gradual loss of PHEN from the neurons. Thus, although MAO metabolism influences the rate of clearance of PHEN from the neurons, MAO metabolism is not the rate-determining step in the observed efflux rate under normal conditions. Rather, the rate at which PHEN leaks from storage vesicles is likely to be the rate-limiting step in the observed efflux rate. (+info)

Reproducibility studies with 11C-DTBZ, a monoamine vesicular transporter inhibitor in healthy human subjects. (2/5742)

The reproducibility of (+/-)-alpha-[11C] dihydrotetrabenazine (DTBZ) measures in PET was studied in 10 healthy human subjects, aged 22-76 y. METHODS: The scan-to-scan variation of several measures used in PET data analysis was determined, including the radioactivity ratio (target-to-reference), plasma-input Logan total distribution volume (DV), plasma-input Logan Bmax/Kd and tissue-input Logan Bmax/Kd values. RESULTS: The radioactivity ratios, plasma-input Bmax/Kd and tissue-input Bmax/Kd all have higher reliability than plasma-input total DV values. In addition, measures using the occipital cortex as the reference region have higher reliability than the same measures using the cerebellum as the reference region. CONCLUSION: Our results show that DTBZ is a reliable PET tracer that provides reproducible in vivo measurement of striatal vesicular monoamine transporter density. In the selection of reference regions for DTBZ PET data analysis, caution must be exercised in circumstances when DTBZ binding in the occipital cortex or the cerebellum may be altered. (+info)

Influence of vesicular storage and monoamine oxidase activity on [11C]phenylephrine kinetics: studies in isolated rat heart. (3/5742)

[11C]Phenylephrine (PHEN) is a radiolabeled analogue of norepinephrine that is transported into cardiac sympathetic nerve varicosities by the neuronal norepinephrine transporter and taken up into storage vesicles localized within the nerve varicosities by the vesicular monoamine transporter. PHEN is structurally related to two previously developed sympathetic nerve markers: [11C]-meta-hydroxyephedrine and [11C]epinephrine. To better characterize the neuronal handling of PHEN, particularly its sensitivity to neuronal monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity, kinetic studies in an isolated working rat heart system were performed. METHODS: Radiotracer was administered to the isolated working heart as a 10-min constant infusion followed by a 110-min washout period. Two distinctly different approaches were used to assess the sensitivity of the kinetics of PHEN to MAO activity. In the first approach, oxidation of PHEN by MAO was inhibited at the enzymatic level with the MAO inhibitor pargyline. In the second approach, the two hydrogen atoms on the a-carbon of the side chain of PHEN were replaced with deuterium atoms ([11C](-)-alpha-alpha-dideutero-phenylephrine [D2-PHEN]) to inhibit MAO activity at the tracer level. The importance of vesicular uptake on the kinetics of PHEN and D2-PHEN was assessed by inhibiting vesicular monoamine transporter-mediated storage into vesicles with reserpine. RESULTS: Under control conditions, PHEN initially accumulated into the heart at a rate of 0.72+/-0.15 mL/min/g wet. Inhibition of MAO activity with either pargyline or di-deuterium substitution did not significantly alter this rate. However, MAO inhibition did significantly slow the clearance of radioactivity from the heart during the washout phase of the study. Blocking vesicular uptake with reserpine reduced the initial uptake rates of PHEN and D2-PHEN, as well as greatly accelerated the clearance of radioactivity from the heart during washout. CONCLUSION: These studies indicate that PHEN kinetics are sensitive to neuronal MAO activity. Under normal conditions, efficient vesicular storage of PHEN serves to protect the tracer from rapid metabolism by neuronal MAO. However, it is likely that leakage of PHEN from the storage vesicles and subsequent metabolism by MAO lead to an appreciable clearance of radioactivity from the heart. (+info)

Regional patterns of myocardial sympathetic denervation in dilated cardiomyopathy: an analysis using carbon-11 hydroxyephedrine and positron emission tomography. (4/5742)

OBJECTIVE: To assess presynaptic function of cardiac autonomic innervation in patients with advanced congestive heart failure using positron emission tomography (PET) and the recently developed radiolabelled catecholamine analogue carbon-11 hydroxyephedrine (HED) as a marker for neuronal catecholamine uptake function. DESIGN AND PATIENTS: 29 patients suffering from dilated cardiomyopathy with moderate to severe heart failure were compared with eight healthy controls. Perfusion scan was followed by HED dynamic PET imaging of cardiac sympathetic innervation. The scintigraphic results were compared with markers of disease severity and the degree of sympathetic dysfunction assessed by means of heart rate variability. RESULTS: In contrast to nearly normal perfusions, mean (SD) HED retention in dilated cardiomyopathy patients was abnormal in 64 (32)% of the left ventricle. Absolute myocardial HED retention was 10.7 (1.0)%/min in controls v 6.2 (1.6)%/min in dilated cardiomyopathy patients (p < 0.001). Moreover, significant regional reduction of HED retention was demonstrated in apical and inferoapical segments. HED retention was significantly correlated with New York Heart Association functional class (r = -0.55, p = 0. 002) and ejection fraction (r = 0.63, p < 0.001), but not, however, with plasma noradrenaline concentrations as well as parameters of heart rate variability. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, using PET in combination with HED in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy, not only global reduction but also regional abnormalities of cardiac sympathetic tracer uptake were demonstrated. The degree of abnormality was positively correlated to markers of severity of heart failure. The pathogenetic mechanisms leading to the regional differences of neuronal damage as well as the prognostic significance of these findings remain to be defined. (+info)

Measurement of striatal D2 dopamine receptor density and affinity with [11C]-raclopride in vivo: a test-retest analysis. (5/5742)

Subacute and long-term stability of measurements of D2 dopamine receptor density (Bmax), affinity (Kd) was studied with positron emission tomography in eight healthy male volunteers. [11C]-Raclopride and the transient equilibrium method were used to measure D2 receptor characteristics. The interval between measurements (scan pairs) was 3 to 7 weeks (subacute) for four subjects and 6 to 11 months (long-term) for four subjects. A test-retest analysis of quantitative measurements of D2 receptor Bmax and Kd was compared with that done on binding potential (BP, Bmax/Kd) measures. In addition, the effect of error in defining the transient equilibrium time (tmax) in the parameter estimation procedure was explored with simulations. The subacute test-retest indicates good reproducibility of D2 receptor density, affinity, and BP ratio measurements with intraclass correlation coefficients of 0.90, 0.96, and 0.86, respectively. The variability of the measurements after 6 to 11 months was slightly higher than that seen in a subacute testing for Kd and more clearly so for binding potential and Bmax. The absolute variability in Bmax (14.5%) measurements was consistently higher than that of Kd (8.4%) or BP (7.9%) both in subacute and long-term measurements. Simulations indicated that the Bmax and Kd estimation procedure is more sensitive to error in the tmax than that for the BP. The results indicate a good overall stability of the equilibrium method with [11C]raclopride for measuring dopamine D2 receptor binding characteristics in the striatum. The BP approach is more stable than Kd and especially Bmax measurements. Error in defining the tmax in particular in the low specific radioactivity scan may be one source of greater variability in Bmax versus BP. However, a higher intraindividual variability in measurements of the D2 receptor Bmax also may include a component of continuous regulation of this parameter over time. These methodologic aspects should be considered in the design and interpretation of longitudinal studies on D2 dopamine receptor characteristics with [11C]-raclopride. (+info)

Novel, highly lipophilic antioxidants readily diffuse across the blood-brain barrier and access intracellular sites. (6/5742)

In an accompanying article, an in vitro assay for permeability predicts that membrane-protective, antioxidant 2,4-diamino-pyrrolo[2, 3-d]pyrimidines should have improved blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeation over previously described lipophilic antioxidants. Using a first-pass extraction method and brain/plasma quantification, we show here that two of the pyrrolopyrimidines, one of which is markedly less permeable, readily partition into rat brain. The efficiency of extraction was dependent on serum protein binding, and in situ efflux confirms the in vitro data showing that PNU-87663 is retained in brain longer than PNU-89843. By exploiting inherent fluorescence properties of PNU-87663, its distribution within brain and within cells in culture was demonstrated using confocal scanning laser microscopy. PNU-87663 rapidly partitioned into the cell membrane and equilibrates with cytoplasmic compartments via passive diffusion. Although partitioning of PNU-87663 favors intracytoplasmic lipid storage droplets, the compound was readily exchangeable as shown by efflux of compound from cells to buffer when protein was present. The results demonstrated that pyrrolopyrimidines were well suited for quickly accessing target cells within the central nervous system as well as in other target tissues. (+info)

Absorption, metabolism, and excretion of 14C-temozolomide following oral administration to patients with advanced cancer. (7/5742)

The purpose of this study is to characterize the absorption, metabolism, and excretion of carbon 14-labeled temozolomide (14C-TMZ) administered p.o. to adult patients with advanced solid malignancies. On day 1 of cycle 1, six patients received a single oral 200-mg dose of 14C-TMZ (70.2 microCi). Whole blood, plasma, urine, and feces were collected from days 1-8 and on day 14 of cycle 1. Total radioactivity was measured in all samples. TMZ, 5-(3-methyltriazen-1-yl)imidazole-4-carboxamide (MTIC), and 4-amino-5-imidazole-carboxamide (AIC) concentrations were determined in plasma, and urine and plasma samples were profiled for metabolite/degradation products. Maximum TMZ plasma concentrations were achieved between 0.33 to 2 h (mean, 1.2 h), and half-life, apparent volume of distribution, and oral clearance values averaged 1.9 h, 17 liters/m2, and 104 ml/min/m2, respectively. A first-order absorption, one-compartment linear model, which included first-order formation of MTIC from TMZ and elimination of MTIC via degradation to AIC, and a peripheral distribution compartment for AIC, adequately described the plasma TMZ, MTIC, and AIC concentrations. MTIC systemic clearance was estimated to be 5384 ml/min/m2, and the half-life was calculated to be 2.5 min. Metabolite profiles of plasma at 1 and 4 h after treatment showed that 14C-derived radioactivity was primarily associated with TMZ, and a smaller amount was attributed to AIC. Profiles of urine samples from 0-24 h revealed that 14C-TMZ-derived urinary radioactivity was primarily associated with unchanged drug (5.6%), AIC (12%), or 3-methyl-2,3-dihydro-4-oxoimidazo[5,1-d]tetrazine-8-carboxyl ic acid (2.3%). The recovered radioactive dose (39%) was principally eliminated in the urine (38%), and a small amount (0.8%) was excreted in the feces. TMZ exhibits rapid oral absorption and high systemic availability. The primary elimination pathway for TMZ is by pH-dependent degradation to MTIC and further degradation to AIC. Incomplete recovery of radioactivity may be explained by the incorporation of AIC into nucleic acids. (+info)

Genetic evidence for ATP-dependent endoplasmic reticulum-to-Golgi apparatus trafficking of ceramide for sphingomyelin synthesis in Chinese hamster ovary cells. (8/5742)

LY-A strain is a Chinese hamster ovary cell mutant resistant to sphingomyelin (SM)-directed cytolysin and has a defect in de novo SM synthesis. Metabolic labeling experiments with radioactive serine, sphingosine, and choline showed that LY-A cells were defective in synthesis of SM from these precursors, but not syntheses of ceramide (Cer), glycosphingolipids, or phosphatidylcholine, indicating a specific defect in the conversion of Cer to SM in LY-A cells. In vitro experiments showed that the specific defect of SM formation in LY-A cells was not due to alterations in enzymatic activities responsible for SM synthesis or degradation. When cells were treated with brefeldin A, which causes fusion of the Golgi apparatus with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), de novo SM synthesis in LY-A cells was restored to the wild-type level. Pulse-chase experiments with a fluorescent Cer analogue, N-(4,4-difluoro-5,7-dimethyl-4-bora-3a, 4a-diaza-s-indacene-3-pentanoyl)-D-erythro-sphingosine (C5-DMB-Cer), revealed that in wild-type cells C5-DMB-Cer was redistributed from intracellular membranes to the Golgi apparatus in an intracellular ATP-dependent manner, and that LY-A cells were defective in the energy-dependent redistribution of C5-DMB-Cer. Under ATP-depleted conditions, conversion of C5-DMB-Cer to C5-DMB-SM and of [3H]sphingosine to [3H]SM in wild-type cells decreased to the levels in LY-A cells, which were not affected by ATP depletion. ER-to-Golgi apparatus trafficking of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored or membrane-spanning proteins in LY-A cells appeared to be normal. These results indicate that the predominant pathway of ER-to-Golgi apparatus trafficking of Cer for de novo SM synthesis is ATP dependent and that this pathway is almost completely impaired in LY-A cells. In addition, the specific defect of SM synthesis in LY-A cells suggests different pathways of Cer transport for glycosphingolipids versus SM synthesis. (+info)

In the medical field, carbon radioisotopes are isotopes of carbon that emit radiation. These isotopes are often used in medical imaging techniques, such as positron emission tomography (PET), to visualize and diagnose various diseases and conditions. One commonly used carbon radioisotope in medical imaging is carbon-11, which is produced by bombarding nitrogen-14 with neutrons in a nuclear reactor. Carbon-11 is then incorporated into various molecules, such as glucose, which can be injected into the body and taken up by cells that are metabolically active. The emitted radiation from the carbon-11 can then be detected by a PET scanner, allowing doctors to visualize and diagnose conditions such as cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and heart disease. Other carbon radioisotopes used in medicine include carbon-13, which is used in breath tests to diagnose various digestive disorders, and carbon-14, which is used in radiocarbon dating to determine the age of organic materials.

In the medical field, the term "carbon" typically refers to the chemical element with the atomic number 6, which is a vital component of all living organisms. Carbon is the building block of organic molecules, including proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, which are essential for the structure and function of cells and tissues. In medicine, carbon is also used in various diagnostic and therapeutic applications. For example, carbon-13 (13C) is a stable isotope of carbon that is used in metabolic studies to investigate the function of enzymes and pathways in the body. Carbon-14 (14C) is a radioactive isotope of carbon that is used in radiocarbon dating to determine the age of organic materials, including human remains. Additionally, carbon dioxide (CO2) is a gas that is produced by the body during respiration and is exhaled. It is also used in medical applications, such as in carbon dioxide laser therapy, which uses the energy of CO2 lasers to treat various medical conditions, including skin disorders, tumors, and eye diseases.

Radioisotopes are isotopes of an element that emit radiation, such as alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays. In the medical field, radioisotopes are used in a variety of diagnostic and therapeutic applications. In diagnostic imaging, radioisotopes are used to create images of the body's internal structures. For example, a radioisotope such as technetium-99m can be injected into the bloodstream and then detected by a gamma camera to create an image of the heart, lungs, or other organs. This type of imaging is commonly used to diagnose conditions such as cancer, heart disease, and bone disorders. Radioisotopes are also used in therapeutic applications, such as radiation therapy for cancer. In this treatment, a radioisotope is introduced into the body, usually by injection or inhalation, and then targeted to a specific area of the body where it emits radiation that destroys cancer cells. Radioisotopes are also used in targeted radionuclide therapy, where a radioisotope is attached to a molecule that specifically targets cancer cells, allowing for more precise delivery of radiation. Overall, radioisotopes play a critical role in medical imaging and therapy, allowing for the diagnosis and treatment of a wide range of conditions.

Zinc radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element zinc that are used in medical applications. These isotopes are typically produced by bombarding zinc targets with high-energy particles, such as protons or neutrons, in a nuclear reactor or particle accelerator. There are several different zinc radioisotopes that are used in medicine, including: * 67Zn: This isotope is used in positron emission tomography (PET) scans to image the brain and other organs. It is taken up by cells in the body and emits positrons, which can be detected by a PET scanner to create detailed images of the tissue. * 64Zn: This isotope is used in nuclear medicine to diagnose and treat certain types of cancer. It is taken up by cancer cells and can be used to image the tumor or to deliver radiation therapy to the cancer cells. * 70Zn: This isotope is used in research to study the metabolism and function of zinc in the body. It can be administered to animals or humans and then monitored to see how the zinc is distributed and used in the body. Zinc radioisotopes are typically administered to patients through injection or inhalation, and the amount of radiation exposure is carefully controlled to minimize any potential risks. They are an important tool in medical imaging and cancer treatment, and are used by healthcare professionals around the world.

Strontium radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element strontium that are used in medical applications. These isotopes emit radiation that can be detected and measured, and they are used in a variety of medical procedures, including: 1. Bone scanning: Strontium-89 and strontium-90 are used in bone scanning to detect bone metastases (cancer that has spread to the bones) and to monitor the effectiveness of treatment. 2. Cardiac imaging: Strontium-82 is used in cardiac imaging to assess blood flow to the heart and to diagnose and monitor heart disease. 3. Cancer treatment: Strontium-89 and strontium-90 are also used in cancer treatment, particularly for bone metastases, by delivering targeted radiation to the affected area. Strontium radioisotopes are typically produced in nuclear reactors and are then purified and formulated for medical use. They are administered to patients through intravenous injection or inhalation, and the radiation they emit is detected using specialized imaging equipment.

In the medical field, carbon dioxide (CO2) is a gas that is produced as a byproduct of cellular respiration and is exhaled by the body. It is also used in medical applications such as carbon dioxide insufflation during colonoscopy and laparoscopic surgery, and as a component of medical gases used in anesthesia and respiratory therapy. High levels of CO2 in the blood (hypercapnia) can be a sign of respiratory or metabolic disorders, while low levels (hypocapnia) can be caused by respiratory failure or metabolic alkalosis.

Iodine radioisotopes are radioactive forms of the element iodine that are used in medical imaging and treatment procedures. These isotopes have a nucleus that contains an odd number of neutrons, which makes them unstable and causes them to emit radiation as they decay back to a more stable form of iodine. There are several different iodine radioisotopes that are commonly used in medical applications, including iodine-123, iodine-125, and iodine-131. Each of these isotopes has a different half-life, which is the amount of time it takes for half of the radioactive material to decay. The half-life of an iodine radioisotope determines how long it will remain in the body and how much radiation will be emitted during that time. Iodine radioisotopes are often used in diagnostic imaging procedures, such as thyroid scans, to help doctors visualize the structure and function of the thyroid gland. They may also be used in therapeutic procedures, such as radiation therapy, to treat thyroid cancer or other thyroid disorders. In these cases, the radioactive iodine is administered to the patient and selectively absorbed by the thyroid gland, where it emits radiation that damages or destroys cancerous cells.

In the medical field, Krypton radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element Krypton that are used for various medical applications. These isotopes emit radiation that can be detected and measured by medical equipment, allowing doctors to diagnose and treat various medical conditions. One common use of Krypton radioisotopes in medicine is in the treatment of cancer. For example, the isotope Krypton-81m is used in a procedure called "Krypton-81m ventilation imaging," which is used to diagnose lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and lung cancer. The isotope is inhaled by the patient, and the radiation emitted by the isotope is detected by a gamma camera, which creates an image of the lungs. Krypton radioisotopes are also used in other medical applications, such as in the diagnosis of bone disorders, the treatment of thyroid disorders, and the detection of blood clots in the lungs. In each of these cases, the radioisotope is administered to the patient in a controlled manner, and the radiation emitted by the isotope is detected and measured to diagnose or treat the medical condition.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is produced when fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas are burned incompletely. In the medical field, carbon monoxide poisoning is a serious condition that occurs when a person inhales high levels of the gas, which can interfere with the body's ability to transport oxygen to the tissues. Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, forming carboxyhemoglobin, which reduces the amount of oxygen that can be carried by the blood. This can lead to symptoms such as headache, dizziness, nausea, confusion, and shortness of breath. In severe cases, carbon monoxide poisoning can cause unconsciousness, seizures, and even death. The medical treatment for carbon monoxide poisoning involves removing the person from the source of the gas and providing oxygen therapy to help restore normal oxygen levels in the blood. In some cases, additional medical treatment may be necessary to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical structures made of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice. They are typically only a few nanometers in diameter and can be several micrometers long. In the medical field, carbon nanotubes have been studied for their potential use in a variety of applications, including drug delivery, imaging, and tissue engineering. For example, carbon nanotubes can be functionalized with drugs and used to deliver them directly to specific cells or tissues in the body. They can also be used as contrast agents in medical imaging, and their unique mechanical and electrical properties make them attractive for use in tissue engineering scaffolds. However, the use of carbon nanotubes in medicine is still in the early stages of development, and more research is needed to fully understand their potential benefits and risks.

Indium radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element indium that are used in medical imaging and therapy. These isotopes emit radiation that can be detected by medical imaging equipment, such as single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) or positron emission tomography (PET) scanners. Indium radioisotopes are used in a variety of medical applications, including: 1. Diagnostic imaging: Indium-111 is commonly used in diagnostic imaging to detect infections, tumors, and other abnormalities in the body. It is often used in conjunction with antibodies or other targeting agents to help locate specific cells or tissues. 2. Radiation therapy: Indium-111 is also used in radiation therapy to treat certain types of cancer. It is administered to the patient in the form of a radioactive compound that is taken up by cancer cells, where it emits radiation that damages the cancer cells and slows their growth. Overall, indium radioisotopes play an important role in medical imaging and therapy, allowing doctors to diagnose and treat a wide range of conditions with greater accuracy and effectiveness.

Sodium radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element sodium that are used in medical imaging and treatment. These isotopes have a nucleus that contains an odd number of neutrons, which makes them unstable and prone to decay. During this decay process, the nucleus emits radiation in the form of gamma rays or beta particles. In medical imaging, sodium radioisotopes are often used in positron emission tomography (PET) scans. These scans involve injecting a small amount of a radioactive tracer, such as sodium fluoride-18, into the patient's bloodstream. The tracer accumulates in areas of the body where bone metabolism is active, such as in tumors or areas of bone disease. The PET scanner then detects the gamma rays emitted by the tracer and creates detailed images of the body's internal structures. In medical treatment, sodium radioisotopes are used in radiation therapy to treat certain types of cancer. For example, sodium iodide-131 is used to treat thyroid cancer by delivering targeted radiation to the thyroid gland. Other sodium radioisotopes, such as sodium meta-iodobenzylguanidine (MIBG), are used to treat neuroblastoma, a type of cancer that affects children. Overall, sodium radioisotopes play an important role in medical imaging and treatment, allowing doctors to diagnose and treat a wide range of conditions with greater accuracy and precision.

Barium radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element barium that are used in medical imaging procedures, particularly in the field of radiology. These isotopes are typically used in diagnostic imaging studies, such as barium X-rays or barium swallow tests, to visualize the digestive system and diagnose conditions such as ulcers, inflammation, or blockages in the esophagus, stomach, or small intestine. Barium radioisotopes are usually administered orally or through an enema, and they emit low-energy gamma rays that can be detected by a gamma camera or other imaging device. The gamma rays produce images of the digestive system that can be used by radiologists to diagnose and monitor a variety of medical conditions. Some common barium radioisotopes used in medical imaging include barium-133, barium-137, and barium-140. These isotopes have relatively short half-lives, ranging from a few hours to a few days, which means that they decay quickly and emit relatively low levels of radiation. As a result, they are generally considered safe for use in medical imaging procedures.

Yttrium radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element yttrium that are used in medical imaging and cancer treatment. Yttrium-90 (90Y) is a commonly used radioisotope in these applications. It is produced by bombarding a target with neutrons, and it emits beta particles that can be detected by imaging equipment. In medical imaging, 90Y is often used in conjunction with a radiopharmaceutical, which is a compound that contains 90Y and is designed to target specific cells or tissues in the body. For example, 90Y-labeled antibodies can be used to image and diagnose certain types of cancer, such as non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and multiple myeloma. The beta particles emitted by 90Y can also be used to destroy cancer cells through a process called radioimmunotherapy. In cancer treatment, 90Y is often used in conjunction with a radiopharmaceutical to deliver targeted radiation therapy to cancer cells. This can be particularly useful in cases where the cancer has spread to multiple sites in the body and is difficult to treat with traditional chemotherapy or radiation therapy. The radiopharmaceutical is designed to target the cancer cells specifically, minimizing damage to healthy cells and tissues.

Tin radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element tin that are used in various medical applications. These isotopes are typically produced by bombarding stable tin isotopes with high-energy particles, such as protons or neutrons, in a nuclear reactor or particle accelerator. Some common tin radioisotopes used in medicine include tin-117m, tin-119m, and tin-120m. These isotopes emit low-energy gamma rays that can be detected by gamma cameras, allowing doctors to create detailed images of the body's internal structures. Tin radioisotopes are used in a variety of medical applications, including: 1. Diagnostic imaging: Tin radioisotopes are used in nuclear medicine imaging techniques, such as single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), to detect and diagnose various diseases and conditions, such as cancer, heart disease, and neurological disorders. 2. Radiation therapy: Tin radioisotopes are used in targeted radionuclide therapy to treat certain types of cancer. These isotopes are attached to molecules that specifically target cancer cells, delivering a high dose of radiation to the cancer cells while minimizing damage to healthy tissue. 3. Research: Tin radioisotopes are used in research to study the biology and chemistry of the element tin, as well as to investigate the mechanisms of various diseases and conditions.

In the medical field, carbon isotopes are atoms of carbon that have a different number of neutrons than the most common isotope, carbon-12. There are two stable isotopes of carbon, carbon-12 and carbon-13, and several unstable isotopes that are used in medical applications. Carbon-13, in particular, is used in medical imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) and positron emission tomography (PET). In MRS, carbon-13 is used to study the metabolism of certain compounds in the body, such as glucose and amino acids. In PET, carbon-13 is used to create images of the body's metabolism by tracing the movement of a radioactive tracer through the body. Carbon-11, another unstable isotope of carbon, is used in PET imaging to study various diseases, including cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and heart disease. Carbon-11 is produced in a cyclotron and then attached to a molecule that is specific to a particular target in the body. The tracer is then injected into the patient and imaged using a PET scanner to detect the location and extent of the disease. Overall, carbon isotopes play an important role in medical imaging and research, allowing doctors and researchers to better understand the functioning of the body and diagnose and treat various diseases.

Iron radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of iron that are used in medical imaging and treatment. These isotopes are typically produced by bombarding iron targets with high-energy particles, such as protons or neutrons. The resulting radioisotopes have a short half-life, meaning that they decay quickly and emit radiation that can be detected by medical imaging equipment. Iron radioisotopes are used in a variety of medical applications, including: 1. Diagnostic imaging: Iron radioisotopes can be used to create images of the body's organs and tissues. For example, iron-59 is often used to study the liver and spleen, while iron-62 is used to study the bone marrow. 2. Radiation therapy: Iron radioisotopes can also be used to treat certain types of cancer. For example, iron-59 is used to treat liver cancer, while iron-62 is used to treat multiple myeloma. 3. Research: Iron radioisotopes are also used in research to study the metabolism and distribution of iron in the body. Overall, iron radioisotopes play an important role in the diagnosis and treatment of various medical conditions, and are a valuable tool in the field of nuclear medicine.

Copper radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element copper that are used in medical imaging and therapy. These isotopes have specific properties that make them useful for certain medical applications, such as their ability to emit gamma rays or positrons, which can be detected by medical imaging equipment. One common copper radioisotope used in medical imaging is copper-64 (64Cu), which is often used in positron emission tomography (PET) scans to study the function of organs and tissues in the body. Copper-64 is taken up by cells in the body and emits positrons, which are detected by the PET scanner. This allows doctors to visualize the distribution of the isotope in the body and get information about the function of the organs and tissues. Copper radioisotopes are also used in targeted radionuclide therapy, a type of cancer treatment that involves delivering a radioactive substance directly to cancer cells. Copper-67 (67Cu) is one example of a copper radioisotope that is used in this way. It is taken up by cancer cells and emits gamma rays, which can damage the cancer cells and kill them. This type of therapy is often used to treat certain types of cancer, such as non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and multiple myeloma. Overall, copper radioisotopes play an important role in medical imaging and therapy, allowing doctors to diagnose and treat a variety of medical conditions.

Phosphorus radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element phosphorus that are used in medical imaging and treatment. These isotopes emit radiation that can be detected by medical imaging equipment, such as positron emission tomography (PET) scanners, to create images of the body's internal structures and functions. One commonly used phosphorus radioisotope in medical imaging is fluorine-18, which is produced by bombarding a target with protons. Fluorine-18 is then incorporated into a compound, such as fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG), which is taken up by cells in the body. The PET scanner detects the radiation emitted by the fluorine-18 in the FDG and creates an image of the areas of the body where the FDG is concentrated, which can help diagnose conditions such as cancer, heart disease, and neurological disorders. Phosphorus radioisotopes are also used in radiation therapy to treat certain types of cancer. For example, strontium-89 is a phosphorus radioisotope that emits beta particles that can destroy cancer cells. It is often used to treat bone metastases, which are cancerous tumors that have spread to the bones.

Beta particles are high-energy electrons or positrons that are emitted from the nucleus of an atom during a nuclear decay process. In the medical field, beta particles are commonly used in radiation therapy to treat cancerous tumors. They can be targeted directly at the tumor, delivering a high dose of radiation to kill cancer cells while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissue. Beta particles can also be used in diagnostic imaging, such as in positron emission tomography (PET) scans, to visualize and measure the activity of certain organs or tissues in the body.

Technetium is a radioactive element that is used in the medical field for diagnostic imaging procedures. It is often combined with other elements to form compounds that can be used to create radiopharmaceuticals, which are drugs that contain a small amount of radioactive material. One common use of technetium in medicine is in bone scans, which are used to detect bone abnormalities such as fractures, infections, and tumors. Technetium compounds are injected into the bloodstream and then absorbed by the bones, allowing doctors to see where the bone is healthy and where it is not. Technetium is also used in other types of imaging procedures, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) scans. In these cases, technetium compounds are used to enhance the contrast of the images, making it easier for doctors to see details in the body. Overall, technetium plays an important role in medical imaging and is used to help diagnose a wide range of conditions.

Carbon monoxide poisoning is a medical emergency that occurs when a person inhales carbon monoxide (CO), a colorless, odorless gas that is produced when fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas are burned incompletely. When inhaled, carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin in the blood, which is responsible for carrying oxygen to the body's tissues. This binding prevents oxygen from being transported to the body's cells, leading to a lack of oxygen (hypoxia) and potentially causing damage to the brain, heart, and other organs. Symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning can include headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, confusion, and loss of consciousness. In severe cases, carbon monoxide poisoning can lead to death. Treatment for carbon monoxide poisoning typically involves removing the person from the source of the gas and providing oxygen therapy to increase the amount of oxygen in the blood. In some cases, additional medical treatment may be necessary to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Mercury radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element mercury that are used in medical imaging and therapy. These isotopes emit radiation that can be detected by medical imaging equipment, allowing doctors to visualize and diagnose various medical conditions. The most commonly used mercury radioisotopes in medicine are: 1. Mercury-197 (197Hg): This isotope is used in nuclear medicine to diagnose and treat various conditions, including liver disease, kidney disease, and cancer. 2. Mercury-199 (199Hg): This isotope is used in nuclear medicine to diagnose and treat various conditions, including bone disorders, liver disease, and cancer. 3. Mercury-203 (203Hg): This isotope is used in nuclear medicine to diagnose and treat various conditions, including prostate cancer and breast cancer. Mercury radioisotopes are typically administered to patients through intravenous injection or inhalation. The radiation emitted by these isotopes is detected by medical imaging equipment, such as a gamma camera or a positron emission tomography (PET) scanner. The information obtained from these imaging studies can help doctors diagnose and treat various medical conditions.

Technetium Tc 99m Sulfur Colloid is a radiopharmaceutical used in medical imaging to detect and diagnose certain conditions, particularly liver and spleen disorders. It is a radioactive tracer that is injected into a patient's bloodstream and travels to the liver and spleen, where it binds to red blood cells. The radiopharmaceutical emits gamma rays that can be detected by a gamma camera, allowing doctors to create images of the liver and spleen and assess their function. This test is commonly used to diagnose liver and spleen diseases, such as liver cancer, cirrhosis, and splenomegaly, as well as to monitor the effectiveness of treatments.

Cesium isotopes are radioactive forms of the element cesium that are used in medical imaging and treatment. There are several isotopes of cesium, including cesium-131, cesium-134, cesium-137, and cesium-141, but cesium-137 is the most commonly used in medical applications. Cesium-137 is a beta-emitter, which means that it releases beta particles when it decays. These particles can be used to destroy cancer cells or to treat certain types of cancer. Cesium-137 is also used in medical imaging, such as in bone scans, to help doctors diagnose and treat bone disorders. Cesium-137 is typically administered to patients in the form of a solution or a capsule. The patient then ingests the cesium-137, which is absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to the affected area. The beta particles emitted by the cesium-137 destroy the cancer cells or help to diagnose the bone disorder. It is important to note that cesium isotopes are radioactive and can be harmful if not used properly. They must be handled and administered by trained medical professionals to ensure the safety of the patient.

Cerium radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element cerium that are used in various medical applications. These isotopes are typically produced by bombarding cerium targets with high-energy particles, such as protons or neutrons, in a nuclear reactor or particle accelerator. Cerium radioisotopes have a variety of uses in medicine, including: 1. Diagnostic imaging: Some cerium radioisotopes, such as cerium-144, are used as tracers in diagnostic imaging studies. These isotopes can be attached to molecules that are specific to certain organs or tissues in the body, allowing doctors to visualize the distribution of the tracer and diagnose various medical conditions. 2. Radiation therapy: Cerium radioisotopes can also be used in radiation therapy to treat cancer. For example, cerium-144 has been used in the treatment of bone metastases, a condition in which cancer has spread to the bones. 3. Nuclear medicine: Cerium radioisotopes can be used in nuclear medicine to treat a variety of conditions, including hyperthyroidism, thyroid cancer, and certain types of bone disease. These isotopes can be administered to the body in the form of a radioactive pill or injection, and they work by emitting radiation that destroys cancer cells or slows down the overactivity of certain organs. Overall, cerium radioisotopes play an important role in medical imaging and treatment, and they are widely used in hospitals and clinics around the world.

Cobalt isotopes are radioactive forms of the element cobalt that are used in medical applications. There are several isotopes of cobalt that are used in medicine, including cobalt-57, cobalt-58, cobalt-60, and cobalt-67. Cobalt-57 is commonly used in the diagnosis and treatment of thyroid disorders. It is also used in the treatment of certain types of cancer, such as non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and leukemia. Cobalt-58 is used in the treatment of certain types of cancer, such as prostate cancer and breast cancer. It is also used in the diagnosis of bone disorders and in the treatment of certain types of infections. Cobalt-60 is used in radiation therapy to treat cancer. It is also used in the sterilization of medical equipment and in the treatment of certain types of eye disorders. Cobalt-67 is used in the diagnosis and treatment of certain types of cancer, such as multiple myeloma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. It is also used in the diagnosis of certain types of bone disorders and in the treatment of certain types of infections. Overall, cobalt isotopes play an important role in the diagnosis and treatment of various medical conditions, and are widely used in the medical field.

Hafnium is a chemical element with the symbol Hf and atomic number 72. It is a lustrous, silvery-gray metal that is highly resistant to corrosion and has a high melting point. In the medical field, hafnium is not commonly used. However, it has been studied for its potential use in medical applications. For example, hafnium oxide (HfO2) has been investigated as a material for dental implants and as a coating for medical devices to improve their biocompatibility and reduce the risk of infection. Additionally, hafnium has been studied as a potential radiosensitizer for cancer treatment, as it can enhance the effectiveness of radiation therapy by increasing the sensitivity of cancer cells to radiation. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential medical applications of hafnium.

Gold radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of gold that are used in medical applications, particularly in the field of nuclear medicine. These isotopes are typically produced by bombarding gold atoms with high-energy particles, such as protons or neutrons, in a nuclear reactor or particle accelerator. There are several different gold radioisotopes that are used in medical applications, including gold-195m, gold-197m, and gold-198. These isotopes emit low-energy gamma rays, which can be detected by specialized imaging equipment, such as a gamma camera or a positron emission tomography (PET) scanner. Gold radioisotopes are used in a variety of medical applications, including diagnostic imaging and radiation therapy. For example, gold-198 is often used as a radiopharmaceutical in nuclear medicine to help diagnose and treat certain types of cancer, such as liver cancer. Gold-195m and gold-197m are also used in diagnostic imaging to help visualize the distribution of gold particles within the body, which can be useful for studying the function of certain organs or tissues. Overall, gold radioisotopes play an important role in the field of medical imaging and therapy, and are widely used in hospitals and clinics around the world.

Lead radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element lead that are used in medical imaging and therapy. These isotopes emit radiation that can be detected by medical imaging equipment, such as gamma cameras, to create images of the body's internal structures. One commonly used lead radioisotope in medical imaging is lead-203, which emits low-energy gamma rays that can be detected by gamma cameras to create high-resolution images of the body's organs and tissues. Lead-203 is often used in diagnostic imaging of the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. Lead radioisotopes are also used in radiation therapy to treat certain types of cancer. For example, lead-212 is a short-lived alpha-emitting radioisotope that can be used to treat small tumors in the head and neck. The alpha particles emitted by lead-212 are highly ionizing and can damage cancer cells, while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissue. Overall, lead radioisotopes play an important role in medical imaging and therapy, allowing doctors to diagnose and treat a wide range of medical conditions.

Zinc isotopes are different forms of the element zinc that have different atomic weights due to the number of neutrons in their nuclei. In the medical field, zinc isotopes are used in various diagnostic and therapeutic applications. One common use of zinc isotopes in medicine is in nuclear medicine imaging. For example, the isotope zinc-67 is used to label antibodies and other molecules for imaging purposes. When injected into the body, the labeled molecules can be tracked using a gamma camera, allowing doctors to visualize the distribution of the molecules in the body and diagnose various diseases. Zinc isotopes are also used in radiation therapy for cancer treatment. For example, the isotope zinc-70 has been shown to be effective in killing cancer cells while minimizing damage to healthy tissue. In this application, zinc isotopes are used to target cancer cells specifically, allowing for more precise and effective treatment. Overall, zinc isotopes play an important role in medical imaging and cancer treatment, and ongoing research is exploring new applications for these isotopes in the field of medicine.

Sulfur radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of sulfur, which are used in various medical applications. These isotopes are typically produced by bombarding stable sulfur atoms with high-energy particles, such as protons or neutrons. One commonly used sulfur radioisotope in medicine is sulfur-35 (35S), which has a half-life of approximately 87 days. It is used in a variety of diagnostic and therapeutic applications, including: * Radiolabeling of biomolecules: 35S can be used to label proteins, peptides, and other biomolecules, allowing researchers to study their structure, function, and interactions with other molecules. * Imaging of tumors: 35S-labeled compounds can be used to image tumors in animals or humans, allowing doctors to monitor the growth and spread of tumors. * Radioimmunotherapy: 35S can be used to label antibodies, which can then be targeted to specific cells or tissues in the body, delivering a dose of radiation to kill cancer cells or other diseased cells. Other sulfur radioisotopes, such as sulfur-32 (32S) and sulfur-33 (33S), are also used in medical applications, although they are less commonly used than 35S.

Cadmium radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element cadmium that are used in medical imaging and therapy. These isotopes emit radiation that can be detected by medical imaging equipment, such as gamma cameras, to create images of the body's internal structures and functions. One commonly used cadmium radioisotope in medical imaging is cadmium-109, which has a half-life of 462 days and emits low-energy gamma radiation. It is used in nuclear medicine to diagnose and treat various conditions, such as bone disorders, liver disease, and cancer. Another cadmium radioisotope used in medical imaging is cadmium-113m, which has a half-life of 11.7 hours and emits high-energy gamma radiation. It is used in nuclear medicine to diagnose and treat various conditions, such as bone disorders, liver disease, and cancer. Cadmium radioisotopes are also used in radiation therapy to treat cancer. In this application, the radioactive isotopes are introduced into the body, usually through injection or inhalation, and then targeted to specific areas of the body where cancer cells are present. The radiation emitted by the isotopes damages the DNA of the cancer cells, leading to their death.

Astatine is a radioactive element that is not commonly used in the medical field. It has atomic number 85 and is a member of the halogen group. Astatine is highly toxic and has a very short half-life, which means that it decays rapidly into other elements. As a result, it is not used in medical treatments or diagnostic procedures. However, astatine has been studied for its potential use in cancer therapy, as it has been shown to be highly effective in killing cancer cells.

Lutetium is a chemical element with the symbol Lu and atomic number 71. It is a rare earth element and is not commonly used in the medical field. However, there is one medical application of lutetium that has gained some attention in recent years. Lutetium-177 (Lu-177) is a radioactive isotope of lutetium that has been used in targeted radionuclide therapy (TRT) for the treatment of certain types of cancer. TRT involves the use of radioactive isotopes to target and destroy cancer cells while minimizing damage to healthy tissue. Lu-177 is typically attached to a molecule that is specific to a particular type of cancer cell, allowing it to be selectively delivered to the cancer cells. Once inside the cancer cells, the radioactive decay of Lu-177 releases energy that damages the cancer cells and causes them to die. Lu-177 has been used to treat several types of cancer, including neuroendocrine tumors, prostate cancer, and multiple myeloma. It has shown promise as a treatment option for patients who have not responded to other forms of therapy or who are not eligible for surgery or radiation therapy.

Rhenium is a chemical element with the symbol Re and atomic number 75. It is a rare, silvery-white, transition metal that is found in the Earth's crust in small amounts. In the medical field, rhenium has been studied for its potential use in cancer treatment. It has been shown to have anti-tumor properties and may be effective in treating certain types of cancer, such as prostate cancer and lung cancer. Rhenium has also been used in the development of medical imaging agents, such as radiolabeled rhenium complexes, which can be used to detect and diagnose certain diseases. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential uses and safety of rhenium in medicine.

Samarium is a rare earth element that is used in the medical field as a radioactive tracer in nuclear medicine. It is typically used in the treatment of certain types of cancer, such as bone metastases, by delivering targeted radiation to cancer cells. Samarium is also used in the diagnosis of certain medical conditions, such as bone disorders, by imaging the bones and identifying areas of abnormal activity. Samarium is administered to the patient in the form of a radioactive compound, which is then taken up by the cancer cells or bones and emits radiation that can be detected by medical imaging equipment.

Soil pollutants, radioactive, refer to radioactive substances that are present in soil and can pose a risk to human health and the environment. These pollutants can come from a variety of sources, including nuclear accidents, nuclear weapons testing, and the disposal of radioactive waste. Radioactive soil pollutants can pose a risk to human health through ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact. They can also contaminate groundwater and crops, leading to further exposure through the food chain. In the medical field, the presence of radioactive soil pollutants may be detected through environmental monitoring and testing. Treatment options for exposure to radioactive soil pollutants may include medical interventions such as decontamination, medication, and radiation therapy. Prevention measures may include avoiding exposure to contaminated areas and proper disposal of radioactive waste.

Carbon tetrachloride is a colorless, dense liquid with a sweet, chlorinated smell. It is a commonly used solvent in the medical field, particularly in the preparation of medications and in the sterilization of medical equipment. However, carbon tetrachloride is also a known neurotoxin and can cause serious health problems if inhaled or ingested in large quantities. It has been linked to liver damage, kidney damage, and even death in severe cases. As a result, its use in the medical field has been largely phased out in favor of safer alternatives.

Bromine radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element bromine that are used in medical imaging and treatment. These isotopes are typically produced in a nuclear reactor or cyclotron and are then used in various medical applications, such as: 1. Diagnostic Imaging: Bromine radioisotopes are used in nuclear medicine to image the body's organs and tissues. For example, bromine-75 is used to image the thyroid gland, while bromine-82 is used to image the heart. 2. Cancer Treatment: Bromine radioisotopes are also used in cancer treatment, particularly in targeted radionuclide therapy. In this approach, a radioactive isotope is attached to a molecule that selectively targets cancer cells, allowing the radiation to be delivered directly to the tumor while minimizing damage to healthy tissue. Some common bromine radioisotopes used in medical applications include bromine-75, bromine-76, bromine-77, bromine-78, bromine-80, bromine-81, bromine-82, and bromine-84.

Subdural effusion is a medical condition in which there is a collection of fluid between the dura mater (the outermost layer of the brain) and the arachnoid mater (the middle layer of the brain). This fluid is called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which normally surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. Subdural effusion can occur due to various reasons, including head injury, bleeding, infection, or inflammation. It can also be a complication of certain medical conditions, such as meningitis or hydrocephalus. Symptoms of subdural effusion may include headache, nausea, vomiting, confusion, seizures, and loss of consciousness. In severe cases, it can lead to brain swelling, which can be life-threatening. Treatment for subdural effusion depends on the underlying cause and the severity of the condition. In some cases, it may require surgical intervention to remove the excess fluid and relieve pressure on the brain. In other cases, it may be treated with medications or supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Calcium isotopes refer to the different forms of the element calcium that have different atomic weights due to the presence of different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. In the medical field, calcium isotopes are often used in diagnostic and therapeutic procedures related to bone health and metabolism. One commonly used calcium isotope in medicine is calcium-47, which is a radioactive isotope that can be used to measure bone turnover and bone mineral density. Calcium-47 is produced by bombarding a calcium-46 target with high-energy protons, and it decays by emitting a positron, which can be detected using positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. Another calcium isotope that is used in medicine is calcium-82, which is a radioactive isotope that can be used to treat certain types of cancer. Calcium-82 is produced by bombarding a zinc-68 target with high-energy protons, and it decays by emitting a positron, which can be used to target and destroy cancer cells. Overall, calcium isotopes play an important role in the diagnosis and treatment of bone and cancer-related conditions in the medical field.

In the medical field, radioactive waste refers to any material that has been contaminated with radioactive substances and is no longer useful for its intended purpose. This can include a wide range of materials, such as used medical equipment, contaminated clothing, and disposable items like gloves and masks. Radioactive waste is typically generated during medical procedures that involve the use of radioactive isotopes, such as diagnostic imaging tests or radiation therapy treatments. These isotopes emit ionizing radiation, which can be harmful to living tissue if not properly managed. To ensure the safe disposal of radioactive waste, healthcare facilities must follow strict guidelines and regulations set by government agencies. This typically involves separating the waste into different categories based on its level of radioactivity and then storing it in secure containers until it can be transported to a licensed disposal facility.

I'm sorry, but "Carbon Sequestration" is not typically used in the medical field. It is a term related to environmental science and engineering, specifically the process of capturing and storing carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases from the atmosphere to reduce their impact on climate change. In the medical field, terms related to carbon sequestration may include topics such as carbon footprint reduction, sustainable healthcare practices, and the use of renewable energy sources in medical facilities. However, the term "Carbon Sequestration" itself is not commonly used in medical contexts.

Serum Albumin, Radio-Iodinated is a radiopharmaceutical used in medical imaging to diagnose and monitor liver and kidney function. It is a modified form of serum albumin, a protein found in the blood, that has been labeled with radioactive iodine. The radioactive iodine allows the serum albumin to be detected by medical imaging equipment, such as a gamma camera or a PET scanner. When injected into the bloodstream, the serum albumin, radio-iodinated travels through the body and is taken up by the liver and kidneys. The amount of serum albumin that is taken up by these organs can be measured using medical imaging equipment, which can provide information about the function of the liver and kidneys. Serum albumin, radio-iodinated is often used to diagnose liver and kidney diseases, such as cirrhosis, hepatitis, and kidney failure. It can also be used to monitor the effectiveness of treatment for these conditions.

Ruthenium radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element ruthenium that are used in medical applications. Ruthenium is a chemical element with the symbol Ru and atomic number 44. It is a hard, blue-gray metal that is resistant to corrosion and has a high melting point. There are several different radioisotopes of ruthenium that are used in medicine, including ruthenium-97, ruthenium-99m, and ruthenium-106. These radioisotopes are used in a variety of medical applications, including diagnostic imaging, radiation therapy, and as sources of radiation for certain types of medical equipment. Ruthenium-97 is a short-lived radioisotope that is used in diagnostic imaging to help doctors visualize the inside of the body. It is typically produced by bombarding a target with high-energy protons, and is then used in a technique called positron emission tomography (PET) to create detailed images of the body's organs and tissues. Ruthenium-99m is a more stable radioisotope that is used in diagnostic imaging to help doctors diagnose a wide range of conditions, including bone disorders, heart disease, and cancer. It is typically produced by bombarding a target with neutrons, and is then used in a technique called single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) to create detailed images of the body's organs and tissues. Ruthenium-106 is a long-lived radioisotope that is used in radiation therapy to treat certain types of cancer. It is typically produced by bombarding a target with high-energy protons, and is then used to deliver a high dose of radiation to the cancer cells, while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissue. Overall, ruthenium radioisotopes play an important role in the medical field, and are used in a variety of diagnostic and therapeutic applications to help doctors diagnose and treat a wide range of conditions.

Carbon disulfide (CS2) is a colorless, highly toxic gas that is used in various industrial processes, including the production of rayon and certain types of plastics. In the medical field, carbon disulfide is primarily associated with its toxic effects on the nervous system and the lungs. Exposure to carbon disulfide can cause a range of symptoms, including headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and confusion. In severe cases, exposure to high levels of carbon disulfide can lead to respiratory failure, coma, and death. In addition to its acute toxic effects, carbon disulfide has also been linked to long-term health effects, including damage to the liver, kidneys, and nervous system. Chronic exposure to low levels of carbon disulfide has been associated with an increased risk of certain types of cancer, including lung cancer and bladder cancer. Overall, carbon disulfide is a highly toxic substance that should be handled with extreme caution in the workplace and other settings where it is used. Medical professionals should be aware of the potential health effects of carbon disulfide and take appropriate precautions to protect themselves and others from exposure.

Selenium radioisotopes are radioactive forms of the element selenium that are used in medical applications. Selenium is a trace element that is essential for human health, and it is found in many foods and supplements. Selenium radioisotopes are used in a variety of medical procedures, including: 1. Diagnostic imaging: Selenium-75 is a commonly used radioisotope for diagnostic imaging of the thyroid gland. It is taken up by the thyroid gland and emits gamma radiation that can be detected by a gamma camera to create an image of the gland. 2. Cancer treatment: Selenium-75 is also used in the treatment of certain types of cancer, such as non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and thyroid cancer. It is administered as a pill or injection and works by damaging the DNA of cancer cells, leading to their death. 3. Cardiac imaging: Selenium-75 is also used in cardiac imaging to assess the function of the heart muscle. It is injected into the bloodstream and taken up by the heart muscle, where it emits gamma radiation that can be detected by a gamma camera to create an image of the heart. Selenium radioisotopes are generally considered safe when used in medical applications, but they can be harmful if they are ingested or inhaled in large quantities. As with any medical procedure, it is important to carefully follow the instructions of your healthcare provider and to report any side effects or concerns.

In the medical field, isotopes are atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. These isotopes have the same atomic number (number of protons) but different atomic masses due to the difference in the number of neutrons. Isotopes are used in medical imaging and treatment because they can be used to track the movement of molecules within the body or to deliver targeted radiation therapy. For example, in positron emission tomography (PET) scans, a radioactive isotope is injected into the body and emits positrons, which are detected by a scanner to create images of the body's tissues and organs. In radiation therapy, isotopes such as iodine-131 or cobalt-60 are used to target and destroy cancer cells. There are many different isotopes used in medicine, and their properties are carefully chosen to suit the specific application. Some isotopes are naturally occurring, while others are produced in nuclear reactors or particle accelerators.

Alpha particles are high-energy, positively charged particles that are emitted by certain radioactive substances. In the medical field, alpha particles are often used in radiation therapy to treat certain types of cancer. They are particularly effective at damaging cancer cells because they have a high rate of ionization, which means they can cause significant damage to the DNA of cells they pass through. This can lead to the death of cancer cells or prevent them from dividing and growing. Alpha particles are also used in some diagnostic imaging procedures, such as bone scans, to detect and locate areas of the body that may be affected by cancer or other diseases.

Tungsten is a chemical element with the symbol W and atomic number 74. It is a hard, dense, and lustrous transition metal that is often used in medical applications due to its unique properties. One of the main uses of tungsten in medicine is in the production of medical devices such as surgical instruments, dental tools, and prosthetic implants. Tungsten is used because of its high melting point, which allows it to withstand the high temperatures generated during surgical procedures. It is also highly resistant to corrosion, which makes it ideal for use in medical devices that are exposed to bodily fluids. Tungsten is also used in radiation therapy for cancer treatment. Tungsten-based shielding materials are used to protect medical personnel and patients from the harmful effects of radiation during treatment. Tungsten is also used in the production of radiation therapy equipment, such as linear accelerators and brachytherapy sources. In addition, tungsten is used in the production of medical imaging equipment, such as X-ray machines and computed tomography (CT) scanners. Tungsten is used in the construction of X-ray targets, which are used to produce high-energy X-rays that are used to create images of the inside of the body. Overall, tungsten is an important material in the medical field due to its unique properties, which make it ideal for use in a wide range of medical applications.

In the medical field, "Heterocyclic Compounds, 1-Ring" refers to a class of organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom (or other heteroatom such as oxygen, sulfur, or phosphorus) in a ring of six or fewer carbon atoms. These compounds are often used as pharmaceuticals, as they can interact with biological molecules in various ways to produce therapeutic effects. Examples of heterocyclic compounds include pyridine, imidazole, and thiazole, which are commonly used as anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-bacterial agents, respectively.

Sodium Pertechnetate Tc 99m is a radiopharmaceutical used in medical imaging to diagnose various conditions. It is a compound that contains the radioactive isotope Technetium-99m (Tc-99m) and Sodium Pertechnetate (Na99mTcO4). When injected into the body, the Tc-99m is taken up by cells and tissues, and the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive isotope can be detected by a gamma camera to create images of the body's internal structures. Sodium Pertechnetate Tc 99m is commonly used in nuclear medicine scans, such as bone scans, heart scans, and brain scans, to diagnose conditions such as bone disorders, heart disease, and neurological disorders. It is a safe and effective diagnostic tool that has been used for many years in medical imaging.

Pentetic acid is a chemical compound that is used in the medical field as a chelating agent. It is a synthetic derivative of the amino acid cysteine and is used to treat heavy metal poisoning, such as lead poisoning, by binding to the heavy metal ions and facilitating their excretion from the body. Pentetic acid is also used to treat Wilson's disease, a genetic disorder that causes the body to accumulate excess copper, by binding to the excess copper and helping to remove it from the body. In addition, pentetic acid has been studied for its potential use in treating other conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease and cancer.

Technetium Tc 99m Pentetate is a radiopharmaceutical used in medical imaging to diagnose various conditions, particularly in the field of nuclear medicine. It is a radioactive tracer that is injected into the body and travels to specific organs or tissues, where it can be detected by a gamma camera to create images of the body's internal structures. Pentetate is a chelating agent that binds to the Technetium-99m (Tc-99m) isotope, which is a short-lived radioactive form of Technetium. The resulting compound, Tc-99m Pentetate, is a water-soluble complex that can be easily injected into the bloodstream and taken up by cells in the body. Tc-99m Pentetate is commonly used to diagnose conditions such as bone disorders, heart disease, and kidney problems. It can also be used to evaluate blood flow to the brain, heart, and other organs. The radiopharmaceutical is safe and has a low risk of side effects, as the amount of radiation exposure is carefully controlled.

Tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen with the atomic number 3 and the symbol T. It is a beta emitter with a half-life of approximately 12.3 years. In the medical field, tritium is used in a variety of applications, including: 1. Medical imaging: Tritium is used in nuclear medicine to label molecules and track their movement within the body. For example, tritium can be used to label antibodies, which can then be injected into the body to track the movement of specific cells or tissues. 2. Radiation therapy: Tritium is used in radiation therapy to treat certain types of cancer. It is typically combined with other isotopes, such as carbon-14 or phosphorus-32, to create a radioactive tracer that can be injected into the body and targeted to specific areas of cancerous tissue. 3. Research: Tritium is also used in research to study the behavior of molecules and cells. For example, tritium can be used to label DNA, which can then be used to study the process of DNA replication and repair. It is important to note that tritium is a highly radioactive isotope and requires careful handling to minimize the risk of exposure to radiation.

Rosaniline dyes are a class of synthetic organic compounds that are used as dyes in various applications, including in the medical field. They are derived from aniline, which is an aromatic amine, and are characterized by the presence of a rosaniline group, which is a substituted aniline group with a hydroxyl group attached to the nitrogen atom. In the medical field, rosaniline dyes are used as stains for histological and cytological preparations. They are particularly useful for staining certain types of cells and tissues, such as neurons, muscle fibers, and connective tissue. Rosaniline dyes are also used as indicators in various diagnostic tests, such as the Gram stain, which is used to differentiate between different types of bacteria. Some common examples of rosaniline dyes used in the medical field include methylene blue, azure B, and azure A. These dyes are generally considered safe for use in medical applications, but they can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions in some individuals.

Carbon tetrachloride poisoning is a medical condition that occurs when a person is exposed to high levels of carbon tetrachloride, a colorless, sweet-smelling liquid that was once commonly used as a solvent in various industrial and household products. The symptoms of carbon tetrachloride poisoning can vary depending on the level and duration of exposure, but they may include headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, confusion, and difficulty breathing. In severe cases, carbon tetrachloride poisoning can lead to liver damage, kidney failure, and even death. The treatment for carbon tetrachloride poisoning typically involves supportive care, such as oxygen therapy, fluid replacement, and medications to manage symptoms. In some cases, activated charcoal may be given to help absorb the carbon tetrachloride from the body. Prevention of carbon tetrachloride poisoning involves avoiding exposure to the chemical, especially in its pure form, and using safer alternatives whenever possible. If you suspect that you or someone else may have been exposed to carbon tetrachloride, seek medical attention immediately.

Potassium radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element potassium that are used in medical imaging and treatment. Potassium is a naturally occurring element that is essential for many bodily functions, including the regulation of fluid balance, nerve function, and muscle contractions. There are several different potassium radioisotopes that are used in medical applications, including potassium-40, potassium-39, and potassium-42. These isotopes are typically produced in a nuclear reactor or cyclotron and then purified and concentrated for use in medical procedures. Potassium radioisotopes are used in a variety of medical applications, including: 1. Cardiac imaging: Potassium-40 is used to image the heart and assess its function. It is injected into the bloodstream and taken up by the heart muscle, where it emits gamma rays that can be detected by a gamma camera. 2. Kidney imaging: Potassium-42 is used to image the kidneys and assess their function. It is injected into the bloodstream and taken up by the kidneys, where it emits gamma rays that can be detected by a gamma camera. 3. Cancer treatment: Potassium-40 and potassium-39 are used in cancer treatment as part of a process called targeted radionuclide therapy. These isotopes are attached to molecules that are specific to cancer cells, and then delivered directly to the tumor. The radiation emitted by the isotopes damages the cancer cells, leading to their destruction. Overall, potassium radioisotopes play an important role in medical imaging and treatment, allowing doctors to diagnose and treat a wide range of conditions with greater accuracy and effectiveness.

Iodohippuric acid is a radiopharmaceutical compound that is commonly used in medical imaging procedures, particularly in the diagnosis of kidney function. It is a derivative of hippuric acid, which is a naturally occurring compound produced by the metabolism of proteins in the body. When administered to a patient, iodohippuric acid is taken up by the kidneys and concentrated in the urine. By measuring the amount of radioactivity in the urine over time, doctors can determine how well the kidneys are functioning and whether there are any abnormalities or blockages in the urinary system. Iodohippuric acid is typically administered as a solution that contains a small amount of radioactive iodine, which allows it to be detected by medical imaging equipment such as a gamma camera. The radioactive iodine is used to create images of the kidneys and urinary system, which can help doctors diagnose a variety of conditions, including kidney disease, urinary tract infections, and kidney stones.

In the medical field, organometallic compounds are compounds that contain a metal atom bonded to a carbon atom of an organic molecule. These compounds have a wide range of applications in medicine, including as drugs, diagnostic agents, and catalysts for various chemical reactions. One example of an organometallic compound used in medicine is cisplatin, which is a chemotherapy drug used to treat various types of cancer. Cisplatin contains a platinum atom bonded to two carbon atoms from organic molecules, and its mechanism of action involves binding to DNA and inhibiting its replication. Another example is ferrocene, which is an organometallic compound containing a ferrocene moiety. Ferrocene has been studied for its potential as a treatment for various diseases, including cancer and Alzheimer's disease, due to its ability to modulate cellular signaling pathways. Overall, organometallic compounds have a significant impact on the medical field, and ongoing research is exploring their potential for new therapeutic applications.

Vitamin B12, also known as cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin that plays a crucial role in the normal functioning of the nervous system and the production of red blood cells. It is essential for the metabolism of homocysteine, a sulfur-containing amino acid that can build up in the blood if vitamin B12 levels are low, leading to a range of health problems. Vitamin B12 is found naturally in animal products such as meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and dairy products. It is also available as a dietary supplement and can be synthesized in the laboratory. In the medical field, vitamin B12 deficiency is a common nutritional disorder that can cause a range of symptoms, including fatigue, weakness, numbness or tingling in the extremities, difficulty walking, and cognitive impairment. It can also lead to anemia, which is a condition characterized by a low red blood cell count. Vitamin B12 deficiency can be caused by a variety of factors, including poor diet, certain digestive disorders, and certain medications. Treatment typically involves vitamin B12 supplementation, either orally or intravenously, depending on the severity of the deficiency and the underlying cause.

In the medical field, the term "carbon footprint" is not commonly used. However, it can be applied to the healthcare industry in the context of its environmental impact. The carbon footprint of the healthcare industry refers to the total amount of greenhouse gases (primarily carbon dioxide) emitted as a result of the production, distribution, and use of healthcare services and products. This includes emissions from the construction and operation of healthcare facilities, the use of medical equipment and supplies, and the transportation of patients and medical staff. Reducing the carbon footprint of the healthcare industry is important for several reasons. First, healthcare facilities are major consumers of energy and resources, which can contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. Second, the healthcare industry has a significant impact on public health, and reducing its carbon footprint can help to mitigate the effects of climate change on human health. Finally, reducing the carbon footprint of the healthcare industry can help to reduce healthcare costs by improving energy efficiency and reducing waste.

In the medical field, absorption refers to the process by which a substance is taken up into the bloodstream or lymphatic system from the site of administration, such as the digestive tract, lungs, or skin. Absorption can occur through various mechanisms, including passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, and endocytosis. The rate and extent of absorption depend on various factors, such as the chemical properties of the substance, the route of administration, the presence of other substances in the body, and the health status of the individual. Absorption is an important concept in pharmacology, as it determines the bioavailability of a drug, which is the proportion of the drug that reaches the systemic circulation and is available to exert its therapeutic effect. Poor absorption can result in reduced drug efficacy or increased toxicity, while excessive absorption can lead to adverse effects or overdose.

Technetium Tc 99m Medronate is a radiopharmaceutical used in nuclear medicine for imaging bone metabolism. It is also known as Tc-99m HEDP (hydroxyethylidenediphosphonate) or Tc-99m MDP (methylenediphosphonate). The compound is composed of Technetium-99m (Tc-99m), a short-lived radioactive isotope of Technetium, and Medronate (also known as alpha-Diphosphonate), a bone-seeking agent that binds to bone tissue. When injected into the bloodstream, Tc-99m Medronate accumulates in areas of increased bone turnover, such as fractures, infections, and tumors. The radiopharmaceutical is commonly used in bone scans, which are diagnostic tests that help detect bone abnormalities and evaluate bone health. The scan involves injecting Tc-99m Medronate into a vein and then using a gamma camera to capture images of the distribution of the radiopharmaceutical in the body. The images produced by the scan can help identify areas of bone disease and guide treatment decisions.

Bismuth is a chemical element that is used in the medical field as an active ingredient in certain medications. It is most commonly used in combination with other medications to treat stomach ulcers and acid reflux. Bismuth also has antidiarrheal properties and has been used to treat bacterial infections, such as salmonellosis and shigellosis. In addition, bismuth has been used in the treatment of certain skin conditions, such as acne and rosacea. It is usually taken as a medication in the form of a tablet or capsule.

Avidin is a glycoprotein found in the egg whites of birds and some reptiles. It is a high-affinity binder of biotin, a water-soluble vitamin that is essential for the metabolism of fatty acids and amino acids. In the medical field, avidin is used as a research tool to study the binding of biotin to proteins and to develop diagnostic tests for biotin deficiency. It is also used in the development of biotinylated reagents for immunohistochemistry and other laboratory assays. In addition, avidin has been investigated for its potential therapeutic applications, including as a carrier molecule for drug delivery and as a component of gene therapy vectors.

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are laboratory-made proteins that can mimic the immune system's ability to fight off harmful pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria. They are produced by genetically engineering cells to produce large quantities of a single type of antibody, which is specific to a particular antigen (a molecule that triggers an immune response). In the medical field, monoclonal antibodies are used to treat a variety of conditions, including cancer, autoimmune diseases, and infectious diseases. They can be administered intravenously, intramuscularly, or subcutaneously, depending on the condition being treated. Monoclonal antibodies work by binding to specific antigens on the surface of cells or pathogens, marking them for destruction by the immune system. They can also block the activity of specific molecules involved in disease processes, such as enzymes or receptors. Overall, monoclonal antibodies have revolutionized the treatment of many diseases, offering targeted and effective therapies with fewer side effects than traditional treatments.

Autoradiography is a technique used in the medical field to visualize the distribution of radioactive substances within a biological sample. It involves exposing a sample to a small amount of a radioactive tracer, which emits radiation as it decays. The emitted radiation is then detected and recorded using a special film or imaging device, which produces an image of the distribution of the tracer within the sample. Autoradiography is commonly used in medical research to study the metabolism and distribution of drugs, hormones, and other substances within the body. It can also be used to study the growth and spread of tumors, as well as to investigate the structure and function of cells and tissues. In some cases, autoradiography can be used to visualize the distribution of specific proteins or other molecules within cells and tissues.

Phosphorus isotopes are different forms of the element phosphorus that have different atomic weights due to the presence of different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. In the medical field, phosphorus isotopes are used in a variety of diagnostic and therapeutic applications, including: 1. Bone scans: Phosphorus-32 is used in bone scans to detect bone abnormalities, such as fractures, infections, and tumors. 2. Cancer treatment: Phosphorus-32 is also used in cancer treatment as a form of targeted radiation therapy. It is administered to cancer cells, where it emits radiation that damages the DNA of the cancer cells, leading to their death. 3. Imaging: Phosphorus-31 is used in magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) to image the metabolism of tissues in the body, including the brain, heart, and liver. 4. Research: Phosphorus isotopes are also used in research to study the metabolism and function of the phosphorus-containing molecules in the body, such as DNA, RNA, and ATP. Overall, phosphorus isotopes play an important role in the medical field, providing valuable diagnostic and therapeutic tools for the detection and treatment of various diseases and conditions.

Glucose is a simple sugar that is a primary source of energy for the body's cells. It is also known as blood sugar or dextrose and is produced by the liver and released into the bloodstream by the pancreas. In the medical field, glucose is often measured as part of routine blood tests to monitor blood sugar levels in people with diabetes or those at risk of developing diabetes. High levels of glucose in the blood, also known as hyperglycemia, can lead to a range of health problems, including heart disease, nerve damage, and kidney damage. On the other hand, low levels of glucose in the blood, also known as hypoglycemia, can cause symptoms such as weakness, dizziness, and confusion. In severe cases, it can lead to seizures or loss of consciousness. In addition to its role in energy metabolism, glucose is also used as a diagnostic tool in medical testing, such as in the measurement of blood glucose levels in newborns to detect neonatal hypoglycemia.

Cesium radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element cesium that are used in medical imaging and treatment. These isotopes emit gamma rays, which can be detected by medical imaging equipment such as gamma cameras or PET scanners. One commonly used cesium radioisotope in medical imaging is cesium-137 (Cs-137), which is used in bone scans to detect bone abnormalities such as fractures, tumors, and infections. Cs-137 is also used in nuclear medicine to treat certain types of cancer, such as leukemia and lymphoma, by delivering targeted radiation to cancer cells. Another cesium radioisotope used in medical imaging is cesium-131 (Cs-131), which is used in thyroid scans to detect thyroid abnormalities such as nodules or cancer. Cs-131 is also used in the treatment of hyperthyroidism, a condition in which the thyroid gland produces too much thyroid hormone. Cesium radioisotopes are typically produced in nuclear reactors or cyclotrons and are then purified and formulated into radiopharmaceuticals for medical use. However, due to the potential risks associated with radiation exposure, the use of cesium radioisotopes in medical imaging and treatment is tightly regulated and requires careful consideration of the benefits and risks involved.

Brachytherapy is a type of radiation therapy that involves placing radioactive sources directly into or near a tumor or cancerous tissue. The sources are usually small pellets or seeds that are inserted into the body using a catheter or other device. The radiation emitted by the sources kills cancer cells and slows the growth of tumors. Brachytherapy is often used in combination with other types of cancer treatment, such as surgery or chemotherapy. It can be used to treat a variety of cancers, including breast cancer, prostate cancer, cervical cancer, and head and neck cancer. There are two main types of brachytherapy: low-dose rate (LDR) brachytherapy and high-dose rate (HDR) brachytherapy. LDR brachytherapy involves the placement of a single radioactive source that emits a low dose of radiation over a longer period of time. HDR brachytherapy involves the use of a remote-controlled afterloader that can deliver a high dose of radiation in a shorter period of time. Brachytherapy is generally considered to be a safe and effective treatment for cancer, but it can have side effects, such as skin irritation, fatigue, and nausea. The specific risks and benefits of brachytherapy will depend on the type and stage of cancer being treated, as well as the individual patient's overall health.

Iridium radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element iridium that are used in various medical applications. These isotopes are typically produced by bombarding iridium targets with high-energy particles, such as protons or neutrons, in a nuclear reactor or particle accelerator. One commonly used iridium radioisotope in medicine is iridium-192 (Ir-192), which has a half-life of approximately 74 days and emits low-energy gamma rays. Ir-192 is often used in radiation therapy to treat cancer, as it can be placed directly into or near a tumor to deliver a high dose of radiation to the cancer cells while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissue. Another iridium radioisotope used in medicine is iridium-191 (Ir-191), which has a half-life of approximately 27 hours and emits beta particles. Ir-191 has been used in research to study the metabolism of certain drugs and to develop new imaging agents for use in diagnostic procedures. Overall, iridium radioisotopes have a number of potential applications in medicine, including cancer treatment, drug research, and diagnostic imaging. However, they must be handled with care due to their radioactivity, and appropriate safety measures must be taken to minimize the risk of exposure to radiation.

In the medical field, nitrogen is a chemical element that is commonly used in various medical applications. Nitrogen is a non-metallic gas that is essential for life and is found in the air we breathe. It is also used in the production of various medical gases, such as nitrous oxide, which is used as an anesthetic during medical procedures. Nitrogen is also used in the treatment of certain medical conditions, such as nitrogen narcosis, which is a condition that occurs when a person breathes compressed air that contains high levels of nitrogen. Nitrogen narcosis can cause symptoms such as dizziness, confusion, and disorientation, and it is typically treated by reducing the amount of nitrogen in the air that the person is breathing. In addition, nitrogen is used in the production of various medical devices and equipment, such as medical imaging equipment and surgical instruments. It is also used in the production of certain medications, such as nitroglycerin, which is used to treat heart conditions. Overall, nitrogen plays an important role in the medical field and is used in a variety of medical applications.

In the medical field, biomass refers to the total mass of living organisms in a particular area or ecosystem. This can include plants, animals, and microorganisms, and is often used as a measure of the health and productivity of an ecosystem. Biomass can also be used to refer to the energy that can be derived from living organisms, such as through the burning of wood or the fermentation of plant materials to produce biofuels. In this context, biomass is often seen as a renewable energy source, as it can be replenished through natural processes such as photosynthesis.

In the medical field, soot is a type of fine black or brown particulate matter that is produced by incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels, such as coal, wood, and oil. Soot particles can be inhaled into the lungs and can cause a range of health problems, including respiratory irritation, inflammation, and damage to lung tissue. Long-term exposure to soot has been linked to an increased risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer, and cardiovascular disease. In some cases, soot exposure can also cause skin irritation and other dermatological problems.

Carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) is a type of hemoglobin (the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen) that has bound to carbon monoxide (CO) molecules. When carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin, it prevents the hemoglobin from binding to oxygen, which can lead to a decrease in the amount of oxygen that is delivered to the body's tissues. This can cause symptoms such as headache, dizziness, confusion, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness and death. Carboxyhemoglobin levels can be measured in the blood using a blood gas test.

Octreotide is a synthetic hormone that is used in the medical field to treat various conditions related to the endocrine system. It is a somatostatin analog, which means that it is similar in structure to the natural hormone somatostatin, which is produced by the pancreas and other glands in the body. Octreotide is primarily used to treat acromegaly, a hormonal disorder that occurs when the pituitary gland produces too much growth hormone. It is also used to treat carcinoid tumors, which are tumors that produce excessive amounts of hormones, and to control diarrhea caused by certain medical conditions, such as inflammatory bowel disease or radiation therapy. Octreotide is usually administered as a subcutaneous injection, which means that it is injected just under the skin. It can also be administered as an intravenous infusion or as a nasal spray. The dosage and frequency of administration depend on the specific condition being treated and the individual patient's response to the medication.

In the medical field, the term "atmosphere" typically refers to the physical environment or conditions in a particular setting, such as a hospital room or a surgical suite. The atmosphere can have a significant impact on the patient's experience, comfort, and overall well-being. For example, a calm and peaceful atmosphere can help reduce anxiety and promote relaxation, while a noisy and chaotic atmosphere can increase stress and discomfort. Similarly, a clean and well-lit atmosphere can promote healing and prevent infections, while a dirty or poorly lit atmosphere can have the opposite effect. In addition to the physical environment, the atmosphere can also refer to the emotional or social environment. For example, a supportive and caring atmosphere can help patients feel more comfortable and confident in their care, while a or dismissive atmosphere can have the opposite effect. Overall, creating a positive atmosphere is an important aspect of patient-centered care, and healthcare providers strive to create an environment that is safe, comfortable, and conducive to healing.

Cobalt radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element cobalt that are used in medical applications. These isotopes are typically produced by bombarding cobalt-59 with neutrons in a nuclear reactor or by using a cyclotron to accelerate protons onto a cobalt-59 target. There are several different cobalt radioisotopes that are used in medicine, including cobalt-57, cobalt-58, cobalt-60, and cobalt-67. Each of these isotopes has a different half-life (the time it takes for half of the atoms in a sample to decay) and emits different types of radiation. Cobalt radioisotopes are used in a variety of medical applications, including diagnostic imaging and radiation therapy. For example, cobalt-60 is often used as a source of gamma radiation in radiation therapy to treat cancer. Cobalt-57 is used in a diagnostic test called a "bone scan" to detect bone abnormalities, such as fractures or tumors. Cobalt-58 is used in a similar test called a "lung scan" to detect lung abnormalities. Overall, cobalt radioisotopes play an important role in the diagnosis and treatment of a variety of medical conditions.

Zinc is a chemical element that is essential for human health. In the medical field, zinc is used in a variety of ways, including as a supplement to treat and prevent certain health conditions. Zinc is involved in many important bodily functions, including immune system function, wound healing, and DNA synthesis. It is also important for the proper functioning of the senses of taste and smell. Zinc deficiency can lead to a range of health problems, including impaired immune function, delayed wound healing, and impaired growth and development in children. Zinc supplements are often recommended for people who are at risk of zinc deficiency, such as pregnant and breastfeeding women, people with certain medical conditions, and people who follow a vegetarian or vegan diet. In addition to its use as a supplement, zinc is also used in some medications, such as those used to treat acne and the common cold. It is also used in some over-the-counter products, such as antacids and nasal sprays. Overall, zinc is an important nutrient that plays a vital role in maintaining good health.

In the medical field, "iron" refers to a mineral that is essential for the production of red blood cells, which carry oxygen throughout the body. Iron is also important for the proper functioning of the immune system, metabolism, and energy production. Iron deficiency is a common condition that can lead to anemia, a condition in which the body does not have enough red blood cells to carry oxygen to the body's tissues. Symptoms of iron deficiency anemia may include fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath, and pale skin. Iron supplements are often prescribed to treat iron deficiency anemia, and dietary changes may also be recommended to increase iron intake. However, it is important to note that excessive iron intake can also be harmful, so it is important to follow the recommended dosage and consult with a healthcare provider before taking any iron supplements.

Biological transport refers to the movement of molecules, such as nutrients, waste products, and signaling molecules, across cell membranes and through the body's various transport systems. This process is essential for maintaining homeostasis, which is the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment. There are several mechanisms of biological transport, including passive transport, active transport, facilitated diffusion, and endocytosis. Passive transport occurs when molecules move down a concentration gradient, from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Active transport, on the other hand, requires energy to move molecules against a concentration gradient. Facilitated diffusion involves the use of transport proteins to move molecules across the cell membrane. Endocytosis is a process by which cells take in molecules from the extracellular environment by engulfing them in vesicles. In the medical field, understanding the mechanisms of biological transport is important for understanding how drugs and other therapeutic agents are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted by the body. This knowledge can be used to design drugs that are more effective and have fewer side effects. It is also important for understanding how diseases, such as cancer and diabetes, affect the body's transport systems and how this can be targeted for treatment.

Receptors, Somatostatin are proteins found on the surface of cells that bind to the hormone somatostatin and trigger a response within the cell. Somatostatin is a hormone produced by the pancreas and the hypothalamus in the brain, and it plays a role in regulating various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, and the digestive process. The receptors for somatostatin are found in many different tissues throughout the body, including the pancreas, the liver, the gallbladder, and the gastrointestinal tract. Activation of these receptors can lead to a variety of effects, including inhibition of cell growth and division, reduction of inflammation, and slowing of the digestive process.

Biodegradation, Environmental in the medical field refers to the process by which microorganisms break down and consume organic matter in the environment. This process is important in the management of medical waste, as it helps to reduce the amount of waste that is sent to landfills and reduces the risk of environmental contamination. Biodegradation can occur naturally, through the action of microorganisms in the environment, or it can be accelerated through the use of biodegradable materials or biodegradation agents. In the medical field, biodegradation is often used to dispose of medical waste, such as bandages, gauze, and other materials that are contaminated with bodily fluids or other potentially infectious materials.

Bone neoplasms are abnormal growths or tumors that develop in the bones. They can be either benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign bone neoplasms are usually slow-growing and do not spread to other parts of the body, while malignant bone neoplasms can be invasive and spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. There are several types of bone neoplasms, including osteosarcoma, Ewing's sarcoma, chondrosarcoma, and multiple myeloma. These tumors can affect any bone in the body, but they are most commonly found in the long bones of the arms and legs, such as the femur and tibia. Symptoms of bone neoplasms may include pain, swelling, and tenderness in the affected bone, as well as bone fractures that do not heal properly. Diagnosis typically involves imaging tests such as X-rays, MRI scans, and CT scans, as well as a biopsy to examine a sample of the tumor tissue. Treatment for bone neoplasms depends on the type and stage of the tumor, as well as the patient's overall health. Options may include surgery to remove the tumor, radiation therapy to kill cancer cells, chemotherapy to shrink the tumor, and targeted therapy to block the growth of cancer cells. In some cases, a combination of these treatments may be used.

In the medical field, "soil" typically refers to the microorganisms and other biological material that can be found in soil. These microorganisms can include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites, and can be present in various forms, such as in soil particles or as free-living organisms. Soil can also refer to the physical and chemical properties of the soil, such as its texture, pH, nutrient content, and water-holding capacity. These properties can affect the growth and health of plants, and can also impact the spread of soil-borne diseases and infections. In some cases, soil can also be used as a medium for growing plants in a controlled environment, such as in a greenhouse or laboratory setting. In these cases, the soil may be specially formulated to provide the necessary nutrients and conditions for optimal plant growth.

High-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a technique used in the medical field to separate and analyze complex mixtures of compounds. It involves the use of a liquid mobile phase that is forced through a column packed with a stationary phase under high pressure. The compounds in the mixture interact with the stationary phase to different extents, causing them to separate as they pass through the column. The separated compounds are then detected and quantified using a detector, such as a UV detector or a mass spectrometer. HPLC is commonly used in the analysis of drugs, biological samples, and other complex mixtures in the medical field.

A biological assay is a laboratory technique used to measure the biological activity of a substance, such as a drug or a protein. It involves exposing a biological system, such as cells or tissues, to the substance and measuring the resulting response. The response can be anything from a change in cell growth or survival to a change in gene expression or protein activity. Biological assays are used in a variety of fields, including pharmacology, toxicology, and biotechnology, to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of drugs, to study the function of genes and proteins, and to develop new therapeutic agents.

In the medical field, culture media refers to a nutrient-rich substance used to support the growth and reproduction of microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Culture media is typically used in diagnostic laboratories to isolate and identify microorganisms from clinical samples, such as blood, urine, or sputum. Culture media can be classified into two main types: solid and liquid. Solid media is usually a gel-like substance that allows microorganisms to grow in a three-dimensional matrix, while liquid media is a broth or solution that provides nutrients for microorganisms to grow in suspension. The composition of culture media varies depending on the type of microorganism being cultured and the specific needs of that organism. Culture media may contain a variety of nutrients, including amino acids, sugars, vitamins, and minerals, as well as antibiotics or other agents to inhibit the growth of unwanted microorganisms. Overall, culture media is an essential tool in the diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases, as it allows healthcare professionals to identify the specific microorganisms causing an infection and select the most appropriate treatment.

In the medical field, acetates refer to compounds that contain the acetate ion (CH3COO-). Acetates are commonly used in the treatment of various medical conditions, including: 1. Hyperkalemia: Acetate is used to treat high levels of potassium (hyperkalemia) in the blood. It works by binding to potassium ions and preventing them from entering cells, which helps to lower potassium levels in the blood. 2. Acidosis: Acetate is used to treat acidosis, a condition in which the blood becomes too acidic. It works by increasing the production of bicarbonate ions, which helps to neutralize excess acid in the blood. 3. Respiratory failure: Acetate is used to treat respiratory failure, a condition in which the lungs are unable to provide enough oxygen to the body. It works by providing an alternative source of energy for the body's cells, which helps to support the respiratory system. 4. Metabolic acidosis: Acetate is used to treat metabolic acidosis, a condition in which the body produces too much acid. It works by increasing the production of bicarbonate ions, which helps to neutralize excess acid in the body. 5. Hyperammonemia: Acetate is used to treat hyperammonemia, a condition in which the blood contains too much ammonia. It works by providing an alternative source of energy for the body's cells, which helps to reduce the production of ammonia. Overall, acetates are a useful tool in the treatment of various medical conditions, and their use is closely monitored by healthcare professionals to ensure their safe and effective use.

Graphite is not typically used in the medical field. Graphite is a naturally occurring mineral that is composed of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice structure. It is commonly used in pencils, as a lubricant, and in the production of electrodes for electrochemical cells. In the medical field, graphite is not commonly used for any medical purposes.

In the medical field, "Carbon Compounds, Inorganic" refers to compounds that contain carbon but do not contain hydrogen. These compounds are typically formed by the reaction of carbon with other elements, such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, or halogens. Examples of inorganic carbon compounds include carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and calcium carbonate (CaCO3). These compounds can play important roles in various physiological processes, such as respiration, metabolism, and bone formation. In some cases, inorganic carbon compounds can also be toxic or harmful to the body if they are present in high concentrations or if they are not properly metabolized.

Carbohydrate metabolism refers to the series of chemical reactions that occur within cells to break down carbohydrates (such as glucose) into energy that can be used by the body. This process involves several metabolic pathways, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation. During glycolysis, glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate, which can then enter the citric acid cycle to produce energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). The citric acid cycle also produces carbon dioxide and other metabolic intermediates that can be used in other metabolic pathways. Oxidative phosphorylation is the final stage of carbohydrate metabolism, in which the energy produced by the citric acid cycle is used to generate ATP through a process called chemiosmosis. This process occurs in the mitochondria of cells and is essential for the production of large amounts of energy that the body needs to function properly. Carbohydrate metabolism is closely regulated by hormones such as insulin and glucagon, which help to maintain blood glucose levels within a narrow range. Disorders of carbohydrate metabolism, such as diabetes, can result from defects in these regulatory mechanisms or from problems with the enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism.

In the medical field, oxygen is a gas that is essential for the survival of most living organisms. It is used to treat a variety of medical conditions, including respiratory disorders, heart disease, and anemia. Oxygen is typically administered through a mask, nasal cannula, or oxygen tank, and is used to increase the amount of oxygen in the bloodstream. This can help to improve oxygenation of the body's tissues and organs, which is important for maintaining normal bodily functions. In medical settings, oxygen is often used to treat patients who are experiencing difficulty breathing due to conditions such as pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or asthma. It may also be used to treat patients who have suffered from a heart attack or stroke, as well as those who are recovering from surgery or other medical procedures. Overall, oxygen is a critical component of modern medical treatment, and is used in a wide range of clinical settings to help patients recover from illness and maintain their health.

In the medical field, nitrogen radioisotopes are isotopes of nitrogen that have unstable nuclei and emit radiation. These isotopes are used in various medical applications, including: 1. Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Nitrogen-13 is a commonly used radioisotope in PET imaging. It is produced by bombarding oxygen-18 with neutrons in a cyclotron. Nitrogen-13 is then incorporated into molecules such as ammonia or amino acids, which are taken up by cells in the body. The emitted positrons can be detected by a PET scanner, allowing for the visualization of metabolic activity in the body. 2. Radiation Therapy: Nitrogen-14 is a radioisotope that can be used in radiation therapy for cancer treatment. It is produced by bombarding nitrogen-15 with protons in a cyclotron. Nitrogen-14 decays by emitting alpha particles, which can damage cancer cells and shrink tumors. 3. Drug Development: Nitrogen-15 is also used in drug development to study the metabolism and distribution of drugs in the body. It is incorporated into the drug molecule, and the emitted gamma radiation can be detected by a gamma camera. Overall, nitrogen radioisotopes play an important role in medical imaging and therapy, allowing for the non-invasive detection and treatment of diseases.

A biopsy, needle is a medical procedure in which a small sample of tissue is removed from a patient's body using a thin needle. The needle is inserted into the tissue and a small amount of tissue is removed, which is then sent to a laboratory for analysis. This procedure is often used to diagnose cancer or other diseases, as well as to monitor the effectiveness of treatment. Biopsy, needle is a minimally invasive procedure that is generally safe and well-tolerated by patients. It is typically performed in a doctor's office or an outpatient clinic, and patients are usually able to return to their normal activities soon after the procedure.

Chromium radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element chromium that are used in medical applications. These isotopes are typically produced by bombarding stable chromium nuclei with high-energy particles, such as protons or neutrons. Chromium radioisotopes are used in a variety of medical applications, including diagnostic imaging and radiation therapy. For example, the isotope chromium-51 is often used in bone scans to detect bone abnormalities, such as fractures or tumors. The isotope chromium-52 is also used in radiation therapy to treat certain types of cancer. Chromium radioisotopes are typically administered to patients in the form of a solution or a pill, and they are absorbed into the body where they can be detected and measured using specialized imaging equipment. Because they are radioactive, chromium radioisotopes must be handled with care and administered by trained medical professionals.

In the medical field, "bone and bones" typically refers to the skeletal system, which is made up of bones, cartilage, ligaments, tendons, and other connective tissues. The skeletal system provides support and structure to the body, protects vital organs, and allows for movement through the use of muscles. Bones are the main component of the skeletal system and are responsible for providing support and protection to the body. There are 206 bones in the human body, which are classified into four types: long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. Long bones, such as the femur and humerus, are cylindrical in shape and are found in the arms and legs. Short bones, such as the carpals and tarsals, are cube-shaped and are found in the wrists and ankles. Flat bones, such as the skull and ribs, are thin and flat and provide protection to vital organs. Irregular bones, such as the vertebrae and pelvis, have complex shapes that allow for specific functions. Overall, the bone and bones of the skeletal system play a crucial role in maintaining the health and function of the human body.

Methane is not typically used in the medical field. It is a colorless, odorless gas that is the main component of natural gas and is also produced by the digestive processes of some animals, including humans. In the medical field, methane is not used for any therapeutic or diagnostic purposes. However, it can be used as a marker for certain digestive disorders, such as small intestinal bacterial overgrowth, as it is produced by certain types of bacteria in the gut.

Autotrophic processes refer to the metabolic processes that occur in organisms that are capable of producing their own food from inorganic sources, such as carbon dioxide and water, using energy from the sun or chemical reactions. In the medical field, autotrophic processes are important for the growth and survival of certain types of bacteria and algae, which are capable of synthesizing their own organic compounds through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. These processes are also important for the production of certain drugs and other bioactive compounds, as well as for the treatment of certain medical conditions, such as metabolic disorders and infections.

Calcium radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element calcium that are used in medical imaging and treatment. Calcium is an essential mineral for the human body, and its radioisotopes can be used to study bone density, diagnose and treat various bone diseases, and monitor the effectiveness of treatments for these conditions. The most commonly used calcium radioisotopes in medical applications are calcium-45 and calcium-85. Calcium-45 is a short-lived isotope with a half-life of about 14 days, and it is typically used for short-term studies of bone metabolism. Calcium-85, on the other hand, has a longer half-life of about 85 days, and it is often used for longer-term studies of bone density and metabolism. Calcium radioisotopes can be administered to patients in a variety of ways, including intravenous injection, oral ingestion, or inhalation. The radioisotopes are then detected using imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) or single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), which allow doctors to visualize the distribution of the radioisotopes in the body and assess the health of bones and other tissues.

Xenon radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the noble gas xenon that are used in medical imaging techniques, particularly in nuclear medicine. These isotopes are typically produced by bombarding stable xenon atoms with high-energy particles, such as protons or neutrons, in a nuclear reactor or particle accelerator. There are several different xenon radioisotopes that are used in medical imaging, including: * Xenon-133: This is the most commonly used xenon radioisotope in medical imaging. It is produced by bombarding a stable xenon-132 atom with a neutron, which results in the emission of a gamma ray. Xenon-133 is used in a technique called xenon computed tomography (Xe-CT), which is used to measure lung function and diagnose conditions such as emphysema and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). * Xenon-129: This radioisotope is produced by bombarding a stable xenon-128 atom with a proton, which results in the emission of a gamma ray. Xenon-129 is used in a technique called xenon-enhanced computed tomography (Xe-CT), which is used to measure blood flow in the brain and diagnose conditions such as stroke and brain tumors. * Xenon-128: This radioisotope is produced by bombarding a stable xenon-127 atom with a neutron, which results in the emission of a gamma ray. Xenon-128 is used in a technique called xenon-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (Xe-MRI), which is used to measure blood flow in the brain and diagnose conditions such as stroke and brain tumors. Xenon radioisotopes are typically administered to patients intravenously, and the gamma rays emitted by the radioisotope are detected by a gamma camera or PET scanner. The images produced by these techniques can provide valuable information about the function and structure of organs and tissues in the body, and can be used to diagnose and monitor a wide range of medical conditions.

In the medical field, Rubidium Radioisotopes refer to radioactive isotopes of the chemical element Rubidium. These isotopes are used in various medical applications, including diagnostic imaging and radiation therapy. One commonly used Rubidium Radioisotope in medical imaging is Rubidium-82 (82Rb), which is produced by bombarding a target with neutrons. 82Rb is taken up by the heart muscle and can be imaged using a gamma camera to assess blood flow and detect areas of ischemia or infarction. This technique is known as Rubidium-82 myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) and is used to diagnose coronary artery disease. Another Rubidium Radioisotope used in medical imaging is Rubidium-86 (86Rb), which is used in positron emission tomography (PET) scans to study blood flow in the brain. 86Rb is taken up by the brain and can be imaged using PET to detect areas of reduced blood flow, which may indicate the presence of neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease or stroke. In radiation therapy, Rubidium Radioisotopes such as Rubidium-86 and Rubidium-87 (87Rb) are used as sources of beta radiation to treat certain types of cancer. These isotopes emit beta particles that can damage cancer cells and shrink tumors. However, they are also toxic to normal cells and can cause side effects, so their use in radiation therapy is carefully controlled and monitored.

Sodium is an essential mineral that plays a crucial role in various bodily functions. In the medical field, sodium is often measured in the blood and urine to assess its levels and monitor its balance in the body. Sodium is primarily responsible for regulating the body's fluid balance, which is essential for maintaining blood pressure and proper functioning of the heart, kidneys, and other organs. Sodium is also involved in nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and the production of stomach acid. Abnormal levels of sodium in the body can lead to various medical conditions, including hyponatremia (low sodium levels), hypernatremia (high sodium levels), and dehydration. Sodium levels can be affected by various factors, including diet, medications, and underlying medical conditions. In the medical field, sodium levels are typically measured using a blood test called a serum sodium test or a urine test called a urine sodium test. These tests can help diagnose and monitor various medical conditions related to sodium levels, such as kidney disease, heart failure, and electrolyte imbalances.

In the medical field, neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors of cells that can occur in any part of the body. These growths can be either benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign neoplasms are usually slow-growing and do not spread to other parts of the body. They can cause symptoms such as pain, swelling, or difficulty moving the affected area. Examples of benign neoplasms include lipomas (fatty tumors), hemangiomas (vascular tumors), and fibromas (fibrous tumors). Malignant neoplasms, on the other hand, are cancerous and can spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. They can cause a wide range of symptoms, depending on the location and stage of the cancer. Examples of malignant neoplasms include carcinomas (cancers that start in epithelial cells), sarcomas (cancers that start in connective tissue), and leukemias (cancers that start in blood cells). The diagnosis of neoplasms typically involves a combination of physical examination, imaging tests (such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRI scans), and biopsy (the removal of a small sample of tissue for examination under a microscope). Treatment options for neoplasms depend on the type, stage, and location of the cancer, as well as the patient's overall health and preferences.

In the medical field, alkanes are a group of organic compounds that consist of only carbon and hydrogen atoms. They are the simplest type of hydrocarbon and are often used as solvents, lubricants, and in the production of various medical products. Alkanes are typically classified based on the number of carbon atoms they contain, with the simplest alkane being methane (CH4) and the most complex being undecane (C11H24). Some common alkanes used in medicine include ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10), and pentane (C5H12). Alkanes can be used in a variety of medical applications, including as solvents for medications, as components in medical devices, and as precursors for the production of other medical compounds. However, it is important to note that some alkanes can also be toxic and may cause adverse effects when inhaled or ingested in large quantities.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that carries genetic information in living organisms. It is composed of four types of nitrogen-containing molecules called nucleotides, which are arranged in a specific sequence to form the genetic code. In the medical field, DNA is often studied as a tool for understanding and diagnosing genetic disorders. Genetic disorders are caused by changes in the DNA sequence that can affect the function of genes, leading to a variety of health problems. By analyzing DNA, doctors and researchers can identify specific genetic mutations that may be responsible for a particular disorder, and develop targeted treatments or therapies to address the underlying cause of the condition. DNA is also used in forensic science to identify individuals based on their unique genetic fingerprint. This is because each person's DNA sequence is unique, and can be used to distinguish one individual from another. DNA analysis is also used in criminal investigations to help solve crimes by linking DNA evidence to suspects or victims.

Gallium radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element gallium that are used in medical imaging and diagnostics. These isotopes are typically produced by bombarding a target material with high-energy particles, such as protons or neutrons, in a nuclear reactor or particle accelerator. There are several different gallium radioisotopes that are used in medical imaging, including gallium-67 (Ga-67), gallium-68 (Ga-68), and gallium-72 (Ga-72). Ga-67 is the most commonly used gallium radioisotope in medical imaging, and it is typically used to diagnose and monitor a variety of conditions, including infections, tumors, and inflammatory diseases. Ga-68 is a newer radioisotope that is used in positron emission tomography (PET) imaging, which is a type of medical imaging that uses small amounts of radioactive material to create detailed images of the body's internal structures. Ga-68 is typically used to diagnose and monitor cancer, as well as to evaluate the effectiveness of certain treatments. Ga-72 is a radioisotope that is currently being studied for its potential use in medical imaging, but it has not yet been widely used in clinical practice.

The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle, is a series of chemical reactions that occur in the mitochondria of cells. It is a central metabolic pathway that generates energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and also serves as a precursor for the synthesis of other important molecules such as amino acids, lipids, and nucleotides. During the citric acid cycle, a molecule of glucose is broken down into two carbon dioxide molecules, releasing energy in the process. This energy is used to generate ATP through a process called oxidative phosphorylation. The cycle also produces reducing equivalents in the form of NADH and FADH2, which are used in the electron transport chain to generate even more ATP. The citric acid cycle involves a series of eight enzyme-catalyzed reactions, each of which consumes one molecule of an intermediate compound and produces one or more molecules of another intermediate compound. The cycle begins with the conversion of acetyl-CoA, a molecule derived from the breakdown of fatty acids and carbohydrates, into citrate. Citrate is then converted through a series of reactions into oxaloacetate, which is converted back into citrate and the cycle repeats. Disruptions in the citric acid cycle can lead to a variety of metabolic disorders, including diabetes, obesity, and certain forms of cancer. Understanding the mechanisms of the citric acid cycle is important for developing new treatments for these conditions.

Anaerobiosis is a condition in which an organism cannot survive in the presence of oxygen. In the medical field, anaerobiosis is often associated with infections caused by anaerobic bacteria, which are bacteria that do not require oxygen to grow and survive. These bacteria are commonly found in the human body, particularly in areas such as the mouth, gut, and female reproductive tract, where oxygen levels are low. Anaerobic bacteria can cause a range of infections, including dental caries, periodontitis, and pelvic inflammatory disease. Treatment for anaerobic infections typically involves the use of antibiotics that are effective against anaerobic bacteria.

Calcium is a chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It is a vital mineral for the human body and is essential for many bodily functions, including bone health, muscle function, nerve transmission, and blood clotting. In the medical field, calcium is often used to diagnose and treat conditions related to calcium deficiency or excess. For example, low levels of calcium in the blood (hypocalcemia) can cause muscle cramps, numbness, and tingling, while high levels (hypercalcemia) can lead to kidney stones, bone loss, and other complications. Calcium supplements are often prescribed to people who are at risk of developing calcium deficiency, such as older adults, vegetarians, and people with certain medical conditions. However, it is important to note that excessive calcium intake can also be harmful, and it is important to follow recommended dosages and consult with a healthcare provider before taking any supplements.

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that are found in almost every environment on Earth, including soil, water, and the human body. In the medical field, bacteria are often studied and classified based on their characteristics, such as their shape, size, and genetic makeup. Bacteria can be either beneficial or harmful to humans. Some bacteria are essential for human health, such as the bacteria that live in the gut and help digest food. However, other bacteria can cause infections and diseases, such as strep throat, pneumonia, and meningitis. In the medical field, bacteria are often identified and treated using a variety of methods, including culturing and identifying bacteria using specialized laboratory techniques, administering antibiotics to kill harmful bacteria, and using vaccines to prevent bacterial infections.

In the medical field, oxygen radioisotopes are isotopes of the element oxygen that have an unstable nucleus and emit radiation. These isotopes are used in various medical applications, such as: 1. Oxygen-15 (15O): This isotope is used in Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans to study blood flow and metabolism in the brain and other organs. It is produced by bombarding nitrogen-14 with neutrons in a cyclotron. 2. Oxygen-18 (18O): This isotope is used in stable isotope labeling techniques to study metabolic pathways and the fate of molecules in the body. It is also used in breath tests to diagnose certain medical conditions, such as lactose intolerance and celiac disease. 3. Oxygen-13 (13O): This isotope is used in PET scans to study the function of the heart and lungs. It is produced by bombarding nitrogen-14 with protons in a cyclotron. Oxygen radioisotopes are typically administered to patients intravenously or inhaled as a gas, and their radioactivity is monitored using specialized equipment. They are used in a variety of medical applications, including the diagnosis and treatment of cancer, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases.

Bacterial proteins are proteins that are synthesized by bacteria. They are essential for the survival and function of bacteria, and play a variety of roles in bacterial metabolism, growth, and pathogenicity. Bacterial proteins can be classified into several categories based on their function, including structural proteins, metabolic enzymes, regulatory proteins, and toxins. Structural proteins provide support and shape to the bacterial cell, while metabolic enzymes are involved in the breakdown of nutrients and the synthesis of new molecules. Regulatory proteins control the expression of other genes, and toxins can cause damage to host cells and tissues. Bacterial proteins are of interest in the medical field because they can be used as targets for the development of antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents. They can also be used as diagnostic markers for bacterial infections, and as vaccines to prevent bacterial diseases. Additionally, some bacterial proteins have been shown to have therapeutic potential, such as enzymes that can break down harmful substances in the body or proteins that can stimulate the immune system.

In the medical field, carbonates refer to compounds that contain the carbonate ion (CO3^2-), which is formed by combining a carbon atom with three oxygen atoms. Carbonates are commonly found in minerals and rocks, and they can also be produced synthetically. In medicine, carbonates are used as antacids to neutralize stomach acid and relieve heartburn and indigestion. They work by binding to the hydrogen ions in stomach acid, reducing its acidity and making it less irritating to the lining of the esophagus and stomach. Some common examples of carbonates used in medicine include sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), potassium carbonate (K2CO3), and calcium carbonate (CaCO3). These compounds are often combined with other ingredients, such as magnesium hydroxide or aluminum hydroxide, to create more effective antacids. It's worth noting that while carbonates can be effective at relieving symptoms of acid reflux and heartburn, they should not be used as a long-term solution for these conditions. If you experience frequent or persistent heartburn or acid reflux, it's important to speak with a healthcare provider to determine the underlying cause and develop a more effective treatment plan.

Aerobiosis is a type of respiration that occurs in the presence of oxygen. In the medical field, aerobiosis is the process by which cells in the body use oxygen to produce energy through a series of chemical reactions called cellular respiration. This process is essential for the survival of most living organisms, as it provides the energy needed for growth, repair, and other vital functions. During aerobiosis, glucose (a type of sugar) is broken down into carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the primary energy currency of the cell. Oxygen is required for this process to occur, as it acts as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain, which is the final step in cellular respiration. Aerobic exercise, such as running or cycling, is a type of physical activity that relies on aerobiosis to produce energy. During aerobic exercise, the body uses oxygen to break down glucose and other nutrients, producing energy that can be used to power the muscles and other organs. Regular aerobic exercise has been shown to have numerous health benefits, including improved cardiovascular health, increased endurance, and weight loss.

Aldehyde oxidoreductases (ALDHs) are a group of enzymes that play a crucial role in the metabolism of aldehydes, which are toxic compounds that can be produced during normal cellular metabolism or as a result of environmental exposure. ALDHs are found in many tissues throughout the body, including the liver, lungs, and kidneys, and they help to detoxify aldehydes by converting them into less toxic compounds. There are several different types of ALDHs, each with its own specific substrate and activity. Some ALDHs are involved in the metabolism of ethanol, while others are involved in the metabolism of other aldehydes, such as acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, and acrolein. ALDHs are also involved in the metabolism of certain drugs and toxins, and they have been implicated in the development of certain diseases, such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders. In the medical field, ALDHs are often studied as potential targets for the development of new drugs and therapies. For example, drugs that inhibit ALDH activity have been shown to be effective in the treatment of certain types of cancer, and ALDHs are also being studied as potential biomarkers for the early detection of certain diseases. Additionally, ALDHs are being investigated as potential targets for the development of new therapies for the treatment of alcoholism and other addictions.

A cell line, tumor is a type of cell culture that is derived from a cancerous tumor. These cell lines are grown in a laboratory setting and are used for research purposes, such as studying the biology of cancer and testing potential new treatments. They are typically immortalized, meaning that they can continue to divide and grow indefinitely, and they often exhibit the characteristics of the original tumor from which they were derived, such as specific genetic mutations or protein expression patterns. Cell lines, tumor are an important tool in cancer research and have been used to develop many of the treatments that are currently available for cancer patients.

Fatty acids are organic compounds that are composed of a long chain of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms attached to them. They are a type of lipid, which are molecules that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Fatty acids are an important source of energy for the body and are also used to synthesize other important molecules, such as hormones and cell membranes. In the medical field, fatty acids are often studied in relation to their role in various diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity. They are also used in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Glycerol, also known as glycerin, is a simple sugar alcohol that is commonly used in the medical field as a lubricant, a moisturizer, and a preservative. It is a clear, odorless, and tasteless liquid that is derived from fats and oils. In the medical field, glycerol is used in a variety of applications, including: 1. As a lubricant: Glycerol is used as a lubricant in various medical procedures, such as colonoscopies, cystoscopies, and endoscopies, to reduce friction and discomfort. 2. As a moisturizer: Glycerol is used as a moisturizer in skin care products, such as lotions and creams, to hydrate and soothe dry, irritated skin. 3. As a preservative: Glycerol is used as a preservative in some medical products, such as eye drops and nasal sprays, to prevent the growth of bacteria and other microorganisms. 4. As an antifreeze: Glycerol is used as an antifreeze in some medical equipment, such as dialysis machines, to prevent the equipment from freezing during cold weather. Overall, glycerol is a safe and effective ingredient that is widely used in the medical field for a variety of purposes.

In the medical field, organic chemicals refer to compounds that are composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms, and may also contain other elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and halogens. These compounds are often used in the development of drugs, medical devices, and other medical products. Organic chemicals can be further classified into various categories based on their chemical structure and properties. For example, some organic chemicals are used as antioxidants, while others are used as anti-inflammatory agents, analgesics, or antibiotics. Some organic chemicals are also used as solvents, plasticizers, or dyes. In the medical field, organic chemicals are often synthesized in the laboratory and tested for their efficacy and safety before being used in medical products. They may also be extracted from natural sources, such as plants or animals, and used in their natural form or modified to enhance their therapeutic properties. It is important to note that not all organic chemicals are safe or effective for medical use, and some may even be toxic or carcinogenic. Therefore, the use of organic chemicals in the medical field is closely regulated by government agencies and requires careful evaluation and testing to ensure their safety and efficacy.

Breast neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the breast tissue. These growths can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign breast neoplasms are usually not life-threatening, but they can cause discomfort or cosmetic concerns. Malignant breast neoplasms, on the other hand, can spread to other parts of the body and are considered a serious health threat. Some common types of breast neoplasms include fibroadenomas, ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS), invasive ductal carcinoma, and invasive lobular carcinoma.

"Appendix B: The Characteristics of Common Radioisotopes". Radiation Safety Manual for Laboratory Users. Princeton University. ... Carbon-12 and carbon-13 are both stable, while carbon-14 is unstable and has a half-life of 5700±30 years. Carbon-14 has a ... carbon-12 (12 C), which makes up 99% of all carbon on Earth; carbon-13 (13 C), which makes up 1%; and carbon-14 (14 C), which ... Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio Diamond battery Isotopes of carbon Isotopic labeling Radiocarbon dating "Carbon-14: Dating, Mass & ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-14

Although carbon-14 was previously known, the discovery of the synthesis of carbon-14 occurred at Berkeley in 1940 when Kamen ... Creager, Angela N. H. (October 2, 2013). Life Atomic: A History of Radioisotopes in Science and Medicine. University of Chicago ... By bombarding matter with particles in the cyclotron, radioactive isotopes such as carbon-14 were generated. Using carbon-14, ... "Carbon-14 discoverer who was harassed as communist". The Irish Times. September 21, 2002. Retrieved August 15, 2022. Report of ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Kamen

Some of these radioisotopes are tritium, carbon-14 and phosphorus-32. Here is a list of radioisotopes formed by the action of ... of nitrogen-14 forms carbon-14. This radioisotope can be released from the nuclear fuel cycle; this is the radioisotope ... In addition some natural radioisotopes are present. A recent paper reports the levels of long-lived radioisotopes in the ... Just because a radioisotope lands on the surface of the soil, does not mean it will enter the human food chain. After release ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity

Tin also has four radioisotopes that occur as the result of the radioactive decay of uranium. These isotopes are tin-121, tin- ... Carbon also forms many oxides such as carbon monoxide, carbon suboxide, and carbon dioxide. Carbon forms disulfides and ... Carbon is present in the atmosphere in the form of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and methane. Carbon is a key constituent of ... Carbon is most commonly used in its amorphous form. In this form, carbon is used for steelmaking, as carbon black, as a filling ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_group

Carbon in the form of diamond can be more expensive than rhodium. Per-kilogram prices of some synthetic radioisotopes range to ... Chlorine, sulfur and carbon (as coal) are cheapest by mass. Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and chlorine are cheapest by volume at ... The price listing for radioisotopes is not exhaustive. 2000s commodities boom Density for 0 °C, 101.325 kPa. For individual ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prices_of_chemical_elements

He used radioisotopes like Carbon-14 to study the mechanism of catalytic reactions. In the 1950s, Emmett's research ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Hugh_Emmett

In 2017, Norilsk produced 1.798 million tons of carbon pollutants-nearly six times more than the 304,600 tons that was ... The list cites air pollution by particulates, including radioisotopes strontium-90, and caesium-137; the metals nickel, copper ... cobalt, and lead; selenium; and by gases (such as nitrogen and carbon oxides, sulfur dioxide, phenols and hydrogen sulfide). ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norilsk

The radioisotopes used in clinics are normally 18F (fluoride), 11C (carbon) and 15O (oxygen). The labeled compound, called a ... 57 The positron emitting radioisotopes used are usually produced by a cyclotron, and chemicals are labeled with these ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_positron_emission_tomography

Some of the well-known naturally-occurring radioisotopes are tritium, carbon-14, and phosphorus-32. The timing of their ... In addition to the above light elements, tritium and isotopes of aluminium, carbon (carbon-14), phosphorus (phosphorus-32), ... Starrfield, Sumner (27 May 2020). "Carbon-Oxygen Classical Novae Are Galactic 7Li Producers as well as Potential Supernova Ia ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray_spallation

... s have also been measured in humans using the non-radioactive, carbon monoxide (CO) rebreathing technique for more ... Park, Junki; Puri, Sonika; Mattoo, Aditya; Modersitzki, Frank; Goldfarb, David (2012). "Radioisotope Blood Volume Measurement ... The assessment of total hemoglobin mass by carbon monoxide rebreathing". Journal of Applied Physiology. 123 (3): 645-654. doi: ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_volume

... use of radioisotope tracers are sometimes called radioisotope feeding experiments. Radioisotopes of hydrogen, carbon, ... 99mTc is a very versatile radioisotope, and is the most commonly used radioisotope tracer in medicine. It is easy to produce in ... The commonly used radioisotopes have short half lives and so do not occur in nature in large amounts. They are produced by ... Instead it is made by neutron irradiation of the isotope 13C which occurs naturally in carbon at about the 1.1% level. 14C has ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_tracer

High levels of carbon dioxide (CO 2) may indicate a fire, and can be detected by a carbon dioxide sensor. Such sensors are ... An ionization smoke detector uses a radioisotope, typically americium-241, to ionize air; a difference due to smoke is detected ... Carbon monoxide sensors detect potentially fatal concentrations of carbon monoxide, which may build up due to faulty ... Fire without smoke can be detected by sensing carbon dioxide. Incomplete burning can be detected by sensing carbon monoxide. A ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_detector

While cyclotron produced radioisotopes are widely used for diagnostic purposes, therapeutic uses are still largely in ... Positron and gamma emitting isotopes, such as fluorine-18, carbon-11, and technetium-99m are used for PET and SPECT imaging. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclotron

Labeled with the radioisotope carbon-11, it can be used for positron emission tomography. Bengt Andree; et al. (August 1998). " ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Methylspiperone

Labeled with the radioisotope carbon-11, it can be used for positron emission tomography. Zheng LT, Hwang J, Ock J, Lee MG, Lee ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiperone

Radioisotopes can be transformed directly through changes in valence state by acting as acceptors or by acting as cofactors to ... In these particular cases, a carbon source such as ethanol is added to the medium to promote the reduction of nitrate at first ... The radioisotope interact with binding sites of metabolically active cells and is used as terminal electron acceptor in the ... Several radioisotopes of strontium, for example, are recognized as analogs of calcium and incorporated within Micrococcus ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste

Additionally, carbon-11 can also be made using a cyclotron; boron in the form of boric oxide is reacted with protons in a (p,n ... 3H (tritium), the radioisotope of hydrogen, is available at very high specific activities, and compounds with this isotope in ... 14C, carbon-14 can be made (as above), and it is possible to convert the target material into simple inorganic and organic ... 11C, carbon-11 is usually produced by cyclotron bombardment of 14N with protons. The resulting nuclear reaction is 14N(p,α)11C ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry

Cosmic rays may also produce radioisotopes on Earth (for example, carbon-14), which in turn decay and emit ionizing radiation. ... Measurements of carbon-14, can be used to date the remains of long-dead organisms (such as wood that is thousands of years old ... As humans, plants, and animals consume food, air, and water, an inventory of radioisotopes builds up within the organism (see ... "Gas Filled Detectors" (PDF). Lecture notes for MED PHYS 4R06/6R03 - Radiation & Radioisotope Methodology. MacMaster University ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizing_radiation

Radioisotopes with half-lives shorter than one million years are also produced: for example, carbon-14 by cosmic ray production ... Short-lived radioisotopes that are found in nature are continuously generated or replenished by natural processes, such as ... Uranium-236 is produced in uranium ores by neutrons from other radioisotopes. Iodine-129 is produced from tellurium-130 by ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_radionuclide

The X-10 reactor at Oak Ridge was used to produce radioisotopes such as cobalt-60, phosphorus-32, sulfur-35, and carbon-14. As ... A History of Radioisotopes in Science and Medicine (University of Chicago Press, 2013) on the use of radioisotopes in science ... Natural radioisotopes were used as tracers to track atoms and illuminate biological processes in living creatures and ... Bud, Robert (August 2015). "Angela N. H. Creager, Life Atomic: A History of Radioisotopes in Science and Medicine". Social ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_N._H._Creager

The most common radioisotopes for medical imaging agents, carbon-11 and fluorine-18, have a half-lives of 20.4 and 109.8 ... He has contributed major advances on the entire spectrum of research from fundamental chemistry methodology with radioisotopes ... Hooker and Stephen Buchwald (MIT) developed a strategy for labeling molecules with carbon-11 using cyanide nearly ... valproic acid and 4-phenylbutyric acid measured with carbon-11 labeled analogs by PET". Nuclear Medicine and Biology. 40 (7): ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Hooker

Subsequent shipments of radioisotopes, primarily iodine-131, phosphorus-32, carbon-14, and molybdenum-99/technetium-99m, were ... A radioisotope building, a steam plant, and other structures were added in April 1946 to support the laboratory's peacetime ... They would be the last major air-cooled plutonium-producing reactors; the UK's follow-on Magnox and AGR designs used carbon ... "Peacetime use of radioisotopes at Oak Ridge cited as Chemical Landmark". American Chemical Society. February 25, 2008. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor

Some radioisotopes occur in nature with a half-life of less than 7×107 years (carbon-14: 5,730 ± 40 years, tritium: 12.32 years ... A practical use is radiocarbon dating with carbon-14. Stable isotope Environmental isotopes "Natural Isotopes". www.soest. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_isotopes

Carbon dioxide removal#Artificial trees List of geophysicists Julie Ann Wrigley Global Institute of Sustainability - Arizona ... including oceanic mixing based on stable and radioisotope distribution. This included research on the biogeochemical cycles of ... However, his contributions stretch far beyond the "conveyor"; his work is the foundation of carbon cycle science, and his ... linking the circulation of the global ocean and made major contributions to the science of the carbon cycle and the use of ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_Smith_Broecker

... in contrast to other medical radioisotopes like carbon-11. Due to transport regulations for radioactive compounds, delivery is ... Israel's oxygen-18 facility had shut down due to the Gulf War, and the U.S. government had shut down its Isotopes of Carbon, ... Subsequently, a "nucleophilic synthesis" was devised with the same radioisotope. As with all radioactive 18F-labeled ... this molecule can soon be metabolized to carbon dioxide and water, after nuclear transmutation of the fluorine to oxygen ceases ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorodeoxyglucose_(18F)

Thus, this is an attractive mission for use of the Advanced Stirling Radioisotope Generator (ASRG) with a mass of 126 kilograms ... 2012 as a NASA design reference mission for a Discovery-class spacecraft concept that would investigate the springtime carbon ... The power technology that MGH proposed to use was the Advanced Stirling radioisotope generator (ASRG). NASA finished the ASRG ... Advanced Stirling radioisotope generator, Extraterrestrial aircraft, Hopping spacecraft). ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Geyser_Hopper

The decay of radioisotopes may limit the shelf life of a reagent, requiring its replacement and thus increasing expenses. ... For example, substituting a H-3 for a hydrogen atom or C-14 for a carbon atom does not change the conformation, structure, or ... Carbon-14 labeling is common in drug development to do ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion) studies in ... In the case of the hydrogen isotope tritium (half-life = 12.3 years) and carbon-14 (half-life = 5,730 years), these isotopes ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactivity_in_the_life_sciences

Isotopes of other elements (not exhaustive): Tritium Beryllium-7 Beryllium-10 Carbon-14 Fluorine-18 Sodium-22 Sodium-24 ... A trace radioisotope is a radioisotope that occurs naturally in trace amounts (i.e. extremely small). Generally speaking, trace ... Trace radioisotopes are therefore present only because they are continually produced on Earth by natural processes. Natural ... radioisotopes have half-lives that are short in comparison with the age of the Earth, since primordial nuclides tend to occur ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_radioisotope

Carbon-14, the radioisotope of carbon, is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all ... The radioisotope carbon-14 is constantly formed from nitrogen-14 (14N) in the higher atmosphere by incoming cosmic rays which ... Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms. Doubling of the concentration of 14C ... The radioisotope 14C thus becomes part of the biosphere so that all living organisms contain a certain amount of 14C. Nuclear ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomb_pulse

Other labels can be used, such as affinity, photochemical or radioisotope tags. These labels are attached to the probe itself ... Therefore, a number of label free detection methods are available, such as surface plasmon resonance (SPR), carbon nanotubes, ... carbon nanowire sensors (where detection occurs via changes in conductance) and microelectromechanical system (MEMS) ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_microarray

Carbon Radioisotopes * Cerebral Cortex / chemistry * Cerebral Cortex / diagnostic imaging* * Cerebral Cortex / physiopathology ...

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18786637/?dopt=Abstract

Medical radioisotopes Nuclear technology High-level Group on the Security of Supply of Medical Radioisotopes HLG-MR Medical ... Countries around the world use it to reliably generate low-carbon electricity, process heat and hydrogen as part of their... ... The Supply of Medical Radioisotopes: Final Report of the Fourth Mandate of the High-level Group on the Security of Supply of ... Market design for financing capital intensive low carbon technologies Presentation by Fabien Roques, Associate Professor, ...

https://www.oecd-nea.org/jcms/j_231/portail-application?cids=tro_8016&jsp=plugins%2FMainPlugin%2Fjsp%2Fsearch%2FcustomQuery.jsp&start=20&pageSize=10&pagerAll=false&sort=relevance&reverse=false

A piece of ancient charcoal contains only 15% as much of the radioactive carbon as a piece of modern charcoal. How long ago was ... the tree burned to make the ancient charcoal? (The half-life of Carbon-14 is 5715 years.) and find homework help for other ... Carbon-14 dating assumes that the carbon dioxide on Earth today has the same radioactive content as it did centuries ago. If ... Therefore, given a sample of a particular radioisotope, the number of decay events `−dN` expected to occur in a small interval ...

https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/carbon-14-dating-assumes-that-carbon-dioxide-earth-764074

Other fleeting elements are carbon, sodium and potassium. The calcium and phosphorus in bones and teeth stay put longer,... To ... Aebersold based his conclusion on experiments with radioisotopes, which trace the movements of chemical elements in and out of ...

https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936455,00.html

The ARICE funded NoTAC project (Novel Tracers of Arctic Carbon and water exchange in the Fram Strait) is an international ... Those tracers are, for example, dissolved organic matter composition, lignin phenols, radioisotopes, optical properties of ... the project also has another component focused on the cycling of carbon and nutrients in the region, which are assessed through ...

https://iasc.info/news/arctic-community-news/894-apecs-arice-webinar-how-to-measure-water-exchange-in-the-fram-strait-using-novel-tracers

... called radioisotope, that shows up on scans. The dose of radiation from the radioisotope is not dangerous. The scan measures ... breath samples are taken to measure the presence of the isotope in carbon dioxide, which is expelled when a person exhales. The ...

https://www.healthyplace.com/diabetes/complications/diabetes-complications-gastroparesis

Dating and sex rules Radiometric dating, radioactive dating or radioisotope dating is a technique which is used to date ... materials such as rocks or carbon, in which ... Radiometric dating, radioactive dating or radioisotope dating ... is a technique which is used to date materials such as rocks or carbon, in which trace radioactive ‎Accuracy of radiometric · ‎ ...

https://sierranorte.com/noticias/notis/nh-hook-up/

5A and B). Finally, using a carbon radioisotope-labeled AMP substrate, CD73 enzymatic activity was measured within the total ...

https://aacrjournals.org/mct/article/21/6/948/699196/Targeting-CD73-with-AB680-Quemliclustat-a-Novel

Carbon Radioisotopes; Catecholamines / pharmacology; Drug Implants; Fatty Acids / metabolism; Fatty Acids, Nonesterified / ...

https://ci.lib.ncsu.edu/units/48/citations?page=2&year=1995

Carbon Radioisotopes (MeSH) * Climate (MeSH) * Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (MeSH) * Soil Microbiology (MeSH) ... indicating that endoliths are using atmospheric carbon as a primary carbon source and are also cycling carbon quickly. However ... the rate of carbon cycling within these microbial communities remains unknown. We address this issue by characterizing the ... indicating a decadal rate of carbon cycling. At the driest site (Yungay), based on the relative abundance and (14)C content of ...

https://experts.mcmaster.ca/display/publication762558

Carbon Radioisotopes. Unstable isotopes of carbon that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. C atoms with atomic weights 10 ... Carbon-Carbon Lyases. Enzymes that catalyze the cleavage of a carbon-carbon bond by means other than hydrolysis or oxidation. ... Carbon Isotopes. Stable carbon atoms that have the same atomic number as the element carbon, but differ in atomic weight. C-13 ... DrugCarbon RadioisotopesCyclohexanecarboxylic AcidsHydrolysisAlkenesLucanthoneCarboxylic Ester HydrolasesChromatography, Thin ...

https://lookformedical.com/en/search/carboxylic-acids

36. CARBON RADIOISOTOPES [ԱԾԽԱԾԻՆ, ՌԱԴԻՈԱԿՏԻՎ ԻԶՈՏՈՊՆԵՐ] 86. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES [ԿԵՆՏՐՈՆԱԿԱՆ ՆՅԱՐԴԱՅԻՆ ՀԱՄԱԿԱՐԳԻ] ... 32. CARBON DIOXIDE [ԱԾԽԱԾՆԻ ԴԻՕՔՍԻԴ] 82. CELLULITIS [ՖԼԵԳՄՈՆ] 33. CARBON ISOTOPES [ԱԾԽԱԾԻՆ,ԻԶՈՏՈՊՆԵՐ] 83. CENTRAL NERVOUS ... 8. CADMIUM RADIOISOTOPES [ԿԱԴՄԻՈՒՄ, ՌԱԴԻՈԿԱՏԻՎ ԻԶՈՏՈՊՆԵՐ] 58. CASSAVA [ՄԱՆԻՈԿԱ] 9. CAFFEIC ACIDS [ԿՈՖԵԻՆԱԹԹՈՒ] 59. CASTS, ... 34. CARBON MONOXIDE [ԱԾԽԱԾՆԻ ՄՈՆՕՔՍԻԴ] 84. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AGENTS [ԿԵՆՏՐՈՆԱԿԱՆ ՆՅԱՐԴԱՅԻՆ ՀԱՄԱԿԱՐԳ, ՆՅՈՒԹԵՐ, ԱԶԴՈՂ ԿՆՀ-Ի ...

https://www.medindex.am/glossary/index.php/list/English-Armenian+Medical/,C.xhtml

Radioisotope carbon-14 is used to study and estimate the age of ancient artifacts. This method is named as the radiocarbon ... 4. Carbon-14 is used to study the passage of carbon during photosynthesis in plants. ... ii) State the uses of Carbon-14 in Diagram 1.2. [1 mark]. (iii) State one effect of nuclear explosion to human being. [1 mark] ... 2. Unstable isotopes go through radioactive decay and emit radiation and they are known as radioisotopes. ...

https://content.myhometuition.com/category/spm-science/nuclear-energy/

carbon radioisotopes 49% * Red Sea 43% * organisms 39% * refuge habitats 39% * sea level 38% ...

https://experts.nau.edu/en/publications/alleged-lessepsian-foraminifera-prove-native-and-suggest-pleistoc/fingerprints/

Carbon 14. Carbon Radioisotopes. Chemical Analysis. Chemical Phenomena. Construction. Construction Industry. Contamination. ...

https://decs2020.bvsalud.org/I/del_i2020.htm

Carbon 14. Carbon Radioisotopes. Chemical Analysis. Chemical Phenomena. Construction. Construction Industry. Contamination. ...

https://decs.bvsalud.org/I/del_i2020.htm

This objective is addressed using (i) thorium radioisotopes… ... Scavenging and Transport of Thorium Radioisotopes in the North ... Understanding the Ocean Carbon and Sulfur Cycles in the Context of a Variable Ocean: A Study of Anthropogenic Carbon Storage ... Carbon Transformations in Seafloor Serpentinization Systems. *An Investigation of Basin-Scale Controls on Upper Ocean Export ... Understanding Terrestrial Organic Carbon Export: A Time-Series Approach. *Novel Analytical Strategies for Tracing the Organic ...

https://mit.whoi.edu/academics/fields/chemical-oceanography/co-theses/scavenging-and-transport-of-thorium-radioisotopes-in-the-north-atlantic-ocean/

Atmospheric levels in the amount of carbon-14 dating a maximum in trees around 10, vol. Radioisotopes for decades to organic ... Once carbon-14 is used by archaeologists use for determining the atmosphere from 1952 through the nuclear chemistry. Carbon 14 ... Other articles where carbon-14 is. News all the 1950s and 1963 dramatically increased the radioactive carbon dating. Which ... During the radioactive isotope carbon-14 to nuclear bomb tests in nuclear tests and early 1960s. Analysis of carbon-14 spiked ...

https://jadorendr.de/nuclear-tests-radiocarbon-dating/

NPs: nanoparticles; CNTs: carbon nanotubes; Move: graphene oxide. Pictures of quantum dots carbon nanotube and graphene had ... Tagging imaging comparison agencies like fluorescent dyes optical or magnetic nanoparticles and different radioisotopes to ...

https://www.immune-source.com/2016/05/theranostic-nanoparticles-hold-the-potential-to-revolutionize-long-term-disease-management/

A few of those are: Radiometric Isotope Dating, Carbon Dating, Radio Isotopes, and others. The basics of radiometric dating is ... Carbon based life forms metabolize carbon and absorb radioactive carbon-14 into their living cells. When the life form dies the ... carbon dioxide from bottom muds and carbonate carbon from dissolving limestones, makes the initial carbon-14-activity of ... How Carbon 14 gets into samples. Carbon-14 is a form of radiometric dating that is unique because it is the only method used to ...

https://www.evolutionisamyth.com/dating-methods/problems-with-carbon-14-dating-method/

Which radioisotope is used to determine the age of once-living organisms?* (1) carbon-14 ... Which phrase describes a risk of using the radioisotope Co-60 in treating cancer?* (1) production of acid rain ... Which radioisotope requires long-term storage as the method of disposal, to protect living things from radiation exposure over ... An external beam of the radiation emitted from a radioisotope can be directed on a small area of a person to destroy cancer ...

https://edusofttech.com/regents/chemistry/preparation-practice/benefits-and-risks-associated-with-fission-and-fusion-reactions/

As part of this effort, Calvin discovers that carbon-14 can be used as a molecular tracer, and uses it to reveal the path of ... In the first use of radioisotopes to control disease, Lawrence treats individuals suffering from polycythemia vera (over- ... After a long and complex search, Calvin revealed the complete path of carbon in photosynthesis to explain how plants convert ... Chemist Melvin Calvin explored lifes processes using the carbon-14 isotope discovered in Lawrences cyclotron. ...

https://www.berkeley.edu/about/history-discoveries/

Carbon (as coke or coal gas[o]) is added to the molten charge along with fluxing agents. The lead monoxide is thereby reduced ... In total, 43 lead isotopes have been synthesized, with mass numbers 178-220.[29] Lead-205 is the most stable radioisotope, with ... Lead, like carbon, is predominantly tetravalent in such compounds.[53] There is a relatively large difference in the ... Leads lighter carbon group congeners form stable or metastable allotropes with the tetrahedrally coordinated and covalently ...

https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/WikiJournal_of_Science/Lead:_properties,_history,_and_applications

Seasonal cycle of the gametophytic form of Porphyra umbilicalis: nitrogen and carbon MEPS 99:301-311 , Full text in pdf format ... Radioisotope and chemical inhibitor measurements of dimethyl sulfide consumption rates and kinetics in estuarine waters MEPS 99 ...

https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v99/

Absolute dating by radioisotope methods including the one using carbon isotope 14C are widely applicable in geology, ... The ratio of carbon-14 in the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere is very low.. American Geophysical Union in 2011 and 2012, the ... Carbon-14 is continually formed in nature by the interaction of neutrons with. Carbon-14 (C-14) dating of multiple samples of ... Carbon 14 Dating. As shown in the diagram above, the radioactive isotope carbon-14 originates in the Earths. Fusion, Fission, ...

https://10patch.com/geology-carbon-dating.html

A radioisotope into the brain can swell in ways that increase resistance in the blood vessels minimizing! They are not brain ... The apnea test involves giving the patient oxygen but turning off the ventilator to allow carbon dioxide to build up in the ... Computed Tomographic Angiography with Nuclear Medicine involves the injection of a radioisotope into brain! Is no coming back ... either because the patient is too unstable or because they have built up a tolerance for carbon dioxide, as is seen in some ...

http://dinpoker.se/8kkrgyw/brain-death-test-66e9e7

Sugihara, J.; Sato, Y. 1971: Biological fate of carbon 14 l dopa in mice. Radioisotopes 20(12): 671-674 ... Ratcliff, M.W.; Colter, C.E.; Woods, A.R.; Kilburn, T.T. 1976: Biological oxygen demand chemical oxygen demand and total carbon ... Rodman, C.A.; Shunney, E.L.; Perrotti, A.E. 1978: Biological regeneration of activated carbon. Cheremisinoff, Paul N And Fred ... Biological oxygen demand chemical oxygen demand and total organic carbon values for liquid wastes from selected blue crab pilot ...

https://eurekamag.com/research/026/162/

Carbon-14 dating assumes that the carbon dioxide on Earth today has the same radioactive content as it did centuries ago. (enotes.com)
2016, https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/carbon-14-dating-assumes-that-carbon-dioxide-earth-764074. (enotes.com)
Fictitious Results with Mollusk Shells: carbon dioxide from bottom muds and carbonate carbon from dissolving limestones, makes the initial carbon-14-activity of ancient fresh-water shell indeterminate…" Known ages are false by thousands of years. (evolutionisamyth.com)
The ratio of carbon-14 in the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere is very low. (10patch.com)
In some patients, it may be impossible to do an apnea test, either because the patient is too unstable or because they have built up a tolerance for carbon dioxide, as is seen in some patients with a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or severe sleep apnea. (dinpoker.se)

A piece of ancient charcoal contains only 15% as much of the radioactive carbon as a piece of modern charcoal. (enotes.com)
Radiometric dating, radioactive dating or radioisotope dating is a technique which is used to date materials such as rocks or carbon, in which trace radioactive ‎Accuracy of radiometric · ‎Modern dating methods · ‎Radiocarbon dating. (sierranorte.com)
This test involves eating a bland meal, such as eggs or egg substitute, that contains a small amount of a radioactive substance, called radioisotope, that shows up on scans. (healthyplace.com)
During the radioactive isotope carbon-14 to nuclear bomb tests in nuclear tests and early 1960s. (jadorendr.de)
News all the 1950s and 1963 dramatically increased the radioactive carbon dating. (jadorendr.de)
Did nuclear weapons testing led to sign a doubling of nuclear bombs, researchers carbon-dated the use radioactive dating see nuclear weapons testing effect. (jadorendr.de)
Sr ratios u-th dating is tested during the radioactive than the smithsonian provide the small pieces of carbon. (jadorendr.de)
Carbon based life forms metabolize carbon and absorb radioactive carbon-14 into their living cells. (evolutionisamyth.com)
When the life form dies the metabolism, process stops and therefore the remaining radioactive carbon-14 begins to decay. (evolutionisamyth.com)
As shown in the diagram above, the radioactive isotope carbon-14 originates in the Earths. (10patch.com)
Radiometric dating, radioactive dating or radioisotope dating is a technique used to date. (10patch.com)

The ARICE funded NoTAC project (Novel Tracers of Arctic Carbon and water exchange in the Fram Strait) is an international collaboration across several institutions from Denmark, Finland, Poland and USA with a diverse team varying from early career (ECS) to senior scientists. (iasc.info)
Those tracers are, for example, dissolved organic matter composition, lignin phenols, radioisotopes, optical properties of water masses and microbial community (with focus on phytoplankton and bacteria). (iasc.info)
Some of the SLN tracers that have been identified include radioisotope, nano-carbon, indocyanine green (ICG), and methylene blue (MB). (bvsalud.org)

Radiometric dating could shift the probability of carbon dating lab is helping scientists in the right. (jadorendr.de)
Radiometric dating used to test results are helping scientists have been one of carbon-14, these sharks live at least 272 years. (jadorendr.de)
Carbon-14 is a form of radiometric dating that is unique because it is the only method used to date once living carbon-based organisms. (evolutionisamyth.com)
Using relative and radiometric dating methods, geologists are able to answer the question: how old is geology carbon dating fossil? (10patch.com)
Scientists use carbon dating in geology which radiometric dating is a few. (10patch.com)
Geologists do not use carbon-based radiometric dating to determine the age of rocks. (10patch.com)
Analysis geology carbon dating Evaluation of Radiometric Cxrbon. (10patch.com)

Most Δ(14)C signatures of PLFA and GLFA were consistent with modern atmospheric CO2, indicating that endoliths are using atmospheric carbon as a primary carbon source and are also cycling carbon quickly. (mcmaster.ca)
However, at one site the PLFA contained (14)C from atmospheric nuclear weapons testing that occurred during the 1950s and 1960s, indicating a decadal rate of carbon cycling. (mcmaster.ca)
Atmospheric levels in the amount of carbon-14 dating a maximum in trees around 10, vol. (jadorendr.de)

Atomic bombs testing changed the use carbon dating is a living organisms. (jadorendr.de)
Which radioisotope is used to determine the age of once-living organisms? (edusofttech.com)

Home geology carbon dating Glacial Geology » Dating geology carbon dating sediments » Radiocarbon dating. (10patch.com)

Other fleeting elements are carbon, sodium and potassium. (time.com)
potassium 40 and carbon 14 (which undergoes 8,000 disintegrations per second). (eu.com)

The other two isotopes in comparison are more common than carbon-14 in the. (10patch.com)

Similarly, carbon and early 1960s, and. (jadorendr.de)

Once carbon-14 is used by archaeologists use for determining the atmosphere from 1952 through the nuclear chemistry. (jadorendr.de)
Analysis of carbon-14 spiked in the 1950s and the 1950s and after major flaw discovery by archaeologists and created a game that labeled. (jadorendr.de)
Discover how archaeologists have been able to use carbon dating to pinpoint the. (10patch.com)

ii) State the uses of Carbon-14 in Diagram 1.2. (myhometuition.com)

however, the rate of carbon cycling within these microbial communities remains unknown. (mcmaster.ca)

Dr. Aebersold based his conclusion on experiments with radioisotopes, which trace the movements of chemical elements in and out of the body. (time.com)

Carbon-14 for age determinations in archaeology, geology, geophysics. (10patch.com)
Although in dating a temperamental woman this term could be applied to estimation of relative geology carbon dating according to. (10patch.com)
Department of Geology and Geochemistry at the Geology carbon dating. (10patch.com)
Absolute dating by radioisotope methods including the one using carbon isotope 14C are widely applicable in geology, geomorphology, palaeogeography. (10patch.com)
The technique, which measures materials content of carbon-14, quickly made an impact on archaeology and geology. (10patch.com)

Carbon 14 c/c in 1963 dramatically increased the first nuclear tests were found its true age estimates for dating also. (jadorendr.de)

Therefore, given a sample of a particular radioisotope, the number of decay events `−dN` expected to occur in a small interval of time `dt` is proportional to the number of atoms present `N,` i.e. (enotes.com)
We can now calculate decay constant `lambda` for carbon-14 using the given half-life. (enotes.com)
Carbon-14 stabilizes quickly and thus has a short decay cycle. (evolutionisamyth.com)

Countries around the world use it to reliably generate low-carbon electricity, process heat and hydrogen as part of their. (oecd-nea.org)

Carbon-14 to the upper atmosphere. (jadorendr.de)
As a result, the groundwater which fed the spring and in which the snails lived was significantly deficient in carbon-14 relative to what is found in the atmosphere. (evolutionisamyth.com)
When the snails made their shells, they incorporated an excess amount of "dead carbon," relative to modern atmosphere, into their shells, which resulted in the excessively old apparent date. (evolutionisamyth.com)
Today only about 21 pounds of Carbon 14 is made per year in the atmosphere. (evolutionisamyth.com)

Carbon-14 measurements from stalagmites takes carbon dating back as. (10patch.com)

Carbon 14 abundant in Dinosaur fossils reveal these specimens are mere thousands of years old-not millions. (evolutionisamyth.com)

Radioisotopes for decades to organic material. (jadorendr.de)

As it turns out Carbon-14 dating on shells has been found to be completely unreliable even found dating living Mollusk shells as being thousands of years old! (evolutionisamyth.com)

Compounds of lead are usually found in the +2 oxidation state rather than the +4 state common with lighter members of the carbon group . (wikiversity.org)

Carbon-14 (C-14) dating of multiple samples of bone from 8 dinosaurs found in. (10patch.com)

An external beam of the radiation emitted from a radioisotope can be directed on a small area of a person to destroy cancer cells within the body. (edusofttech.com)

This means there were lower levels of carbon 14 in the past which would equate to false older ages of samples when compared to modern day carbon 14 levels. (evolutionisamyth.com)

Enzymes that catalyze the cleavage of a carbon-carbon bond by means other than hydrolysis or oxidation. (lookformedical.com)
This means that if Carbon-14 remains in any sample it is only thousands of years old and never millions of years old because all Carbon-14 would have decayed within thousands of years. (evolutionisamyth.com)
Carbon dating definition is - the determination of the age of old material (such as an archaeological or paleontological specimen) by means of. (10patch.com)

As the total amount of carbon-14 decreases over time the remaining carbon-14 can be used to estimate how long the specimen died. (evolutionisamyth.com)

Recommendations include better housekeeping practices for radioisotopes, improved hood ventilation to increase air flow, and maintenance of an inventory of hazardous substances in each laboratory. (cdc.gov)

This error is due to unique chemical reactions that add "dead carbon" into younger samples which give false older ages. (evolutionisamyth.com)

The half-life of Carbon-14 is 5715 years. (enotes.com)
Carbon-14 dating can go no further back than about 70,000 years, because the half-life of. (10patch.com)

Which radioisotope requires long-term storage as the method of disposal, to protect living things from radiation exposure over time? (edusofttech.com)

Radio-carbon dating is a method of obtaining age estimates on organic. (10patch.com)

The graph below shows how the carbon-14, 1949. (jadorendr.de)

Collectively, my findings suggest that spatial variations in Th radioisotope activities observed in the North Atlantic partly reflect variations in the rate at which Th is removed from the water column. (whoi.edu)

The combined first and second ionization energies -the total energy required to remove the two 6p electrons-is close to that of tin , lead's upper neighbor in the carbon group . (wikiversity.org)

Tagging imaging comparison agencies like fluorescent dyes optical or magnetic nanoparticles and different radioisotopes to existing healing nanoparticles is certainly another choice. (immune-source.com)

The inhaled NP were chain aggregates (and agglomerates) of either iridium or carbon, with primary particle sizes of 2-4 nm (Ir) and 5-10 nm (C) and aggregate sizes (mean mobility diameters) between 20 and 80 nm. (cdc.gov)

Carbon dating is the most frequently used dating technique. (10patch.com)

Spaulding 1958 discussed statistical tests, as carbon-14 dating used scientific dating tests naysmith et al. (jadorendr.de)

State one risk to human tissue associated with the use of radioisotopes to treat cancer. (edusofttech.com)

Anatomy8

Organisms8

Diseases6

Chemicals and Drugs99

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment37

Phenomena and Processes36

Disciplines and Occupations3

Technology, Industry, Agriculture1

Information Science1

Health Care16

Geographicals1

Sensitivity of [11C]phenylephrine kinetics to monoamine oxidase activity in normal human heart. (1/5742)

Reproducibility studies with 11C-DTBZ, a monoamine vesicular transporter inhibitor in healthy human subjects. (2/5742)

Influence of vesicular storage and monoamine oxidase activity on [11C]phenylephrine kinetics: studies in isolated rat heart. (3/5742)

Regional patterns of myocardial sympathetic denervation in dilated cardiomyopathy: an analysis using carbon-11 hydroxyephedrine and positron emission tomography. (4/5742)

Measurement of striatal D2 dopamine receptor density and affinity with [11C]-raclopride in vivo: a test-retest analysis. (5/5742)

Novel, highly lipophilic antioxidants readily diffuse across the blood-brain barrier and access intracellular sites. (6/5742)

Absorption, metabolism, and excretion of 14C-temozolomide following oral administration to patients with advanced cancer. (7/5742)

Genetic evidence for ATP-dependent endoplasmic reticulum-to-Golgi apparatus trafficking of ceramide for sphingomyelin synthesis in Chinese hamster ovary cells. (8/5742)

Carbon Radioisotopes

Carbon

Radioisotopes

Zinc Radioisotopes

Radioisotope Dilution Technique

Strontium Radioisotopes

Carbon Dioxide

Iodine Radioisotopes

Krypton Radioisotopes

Carbon Monoxide

Nanotubes, Carbon

Indium Radioisotopes

Sodium Radioisotopes

Radioactivity

Barium Radioisotopes

Radionuclide Imaging

Yttrium Radioisotopes

Tin Radioisotopes

Carbon Isotopes

Iron Radioisotopes

Copper Radioisotopes

Phosphorus Radioisotopes

Beta Particles

Technetium

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

Mercury Radioisotopes

Technetium Tc 99m Sulfur Colloid

Cesium Isotopes

Cerium Radioisotopes

Cobalt Isotopes

Isotope Labeling

Hafnium

Gold Radioisotopes

Lead Radioisotopes

Diagnostic Techniques, Radioisotope

Zinc Isotopes

Sulfur Radioisotopes

Cadmium Radioisotopes

Astatine

Radioimmunotherapy

Lutetium

Rhenium

Samarium

Radiopharmaceuticals

Soil Pollutants, Radioactive

Carbon Tetrachloride

Bromine Radioisotopes

Scintillation Counting

Subdural Effusion

Calcium Isotopes

Radioactive Waste

Carbon Sequestration

Radiometric Dating

Serum Albumin, Radio-Iodinated

Ruthenium Radioisotopes

Carbon Disulfide

Selenium Radioisotopes

Isotopes

Alpha Particles

Tungsten

Heterocyclic Compounds, 1-Ring

Sodium Pertechnetate Tc 99m

Spectrometry, Gamma

Tissue Distribution

Radioisotope Teletherapy

Pentetic Acid

Methods

Nuclear Medicine

Technetium Tc 99m Pentetate

Tritium

Radiometry

Rosaniline Dyes

Nostoc commune

Carbon Tetrachloride Poisoning

Whole-Body Counting

Potassium Radioisotopes

Iodohippuric Acid

Organometallic Compounds

Radiation Dosage

Intestinal Absorption