Carbohydrate metabolism. Medical search

Cellular processes in biosynthesis (anabolism) and degradation (catabolism) of CARBOHYDRATES.

The largest class of organic compounds, including STARCH; GLYCOGEN; CELLULOSE; POLYSACCHARIDES; and simple MONOSACCHARIDES. Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of Cn(H2O)n.

Carbohydrates present in food comprising digestible sugars and starches and indigestible cellulose and other dietary fibers. The former are the major source of energy. The sugars are in beet and cane sugar, fruits, honey, sweet corn, corn syrup, milk and milk products, etc.; the starches are in cereal grains, legumes (FABACEAE), tubers, etc. (From Claudio & Lagua, Nutrition and Diet Therapy Dictionary, 3d ed, p32, p277)

A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement.

Physiological processes in biosynthesis (anabolism) and degradation (catabolism) of LIPIDS.

The chemical reactions involved in the production and utilization of various forms of energy in cells.

A metabolic process that converts GLUCOSE into two molecules of PYRUVIC ACID through a series of enzymatic reactions. Energy generated by this process is conserved in two molecules of ATP. Glycolysis is the universal catabolic pathway for glucose, free glucose, or glucose derived from complex CARBOHYDRATES, such as GLYCOGEN and STARCH.

Any of a group of polysaccharides of the general formula (C6-H10-O5)n, composed of a long-chain polymer of glucose in the form of amylose and amylopectin. It is the chief storage form of energy reserve (carbohydrates) in plants.

The sequence of carbohydrates within POLYSACCHARIDES; GLYCOPROTEINS; and GLYCOLIPIDS.

Salts or esters of LACTIC ACID containing the general formula CH3CHOHCOOR.

Glucose in blood.

A 51-amino acid pancreatic hormone that plays a major role in the regulation of glucose metabolism, directly by suppressing endogenous glucose production (GLYCOGENOLYSIS; GLUCONEOGENESIS) and indirectly by suppressing GLUCAGON secretion and LIPOLYSIS. Native insulin is a globular protein comprised of a zinc-coordinated hexamer. Each insulin monomer containing two chains, A (21 residues) and B (30 residues), linked by two disulfide bonds. Insulin is used as a drug to control insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 1).

A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.

Biosynthesis of GLUCOSE from nonhexose or non-carbohydrate precursors, such as LACTATE; PYRUVATE; ALANINE; and GLYCEROL.

Glycogen stored in the liver. (Dorland, 28th ed)

A monosaccharide in sweet fruits and honey that is soluble in water, alcohol, or ether. It is used as a preservative and an intravenous infusion in parenteral feeding.

The characteristic 3-dimensional shape of a carbohydrate.

A normal intermediate in the fermentation (oxidation, metabolism) of sugar. The concentrated form is used internally to prevent gastrointestinal fermentation. (From Stedman, 26th ed)

A nonreducing disaccharide composed of GLUCOSE and FRUCTOSE linked via their anomeric carbons. It is obtained commercially from SUGARCANE, sugar beet (BETA VULGARIS), and other plants and used extensively as a food and a sweetener.

An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of alpha D-glucose 1-phosphate to alpha D-glucose 6-phosphate. EC 5.4.2.2.

An allosteric enzyme that regulates glycolysis by catalyzing the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to fructose-6-phosphate to yield fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. D-tagatose- 6-phosphate and sedoheptulose-7-phosphate also are acceptors. UTP, CTP, and ITP also are donors. In human phosphofructokinase-1, three types of subunits have been identified. They are PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-1, MUSCLE TYPE; PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-1, LIVER TYPE; and PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-1, TYPE C; found in platelets, brain, and other tissues.

An oxidative decarboxylation process that converts GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE to D-ribose-5-phosphate via 6-phosphogluconate. The pentose product is used in the biosynthesis of NUCLEIC ACIDS. The generated energy is stored in the form of NADPH. This pathway is prominent in tissues which are active in the synthesis of FATTY ACIDS and STEROIDS.

A series of oxidative reactions in the breakdown of acetyl units derived from GLUCOSE; FATTY ACIDS; or AMINO ACIDS by means of tricarboxylic acid intermediates. The end products are CARBON DIOXIDE, water, and energy in the form of phosphate bonds.

Allosteric enzymes that regulate glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. These enzymes catalyze phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to either fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-1 reaction), or to fructose-2,6-bisphosphate (PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-2 reaction).

A test to determine the ability of an individual to maintain HOMEOSTASIS of BLOOD GLUCOSE. It includes measuring blood glucose levels in a fasting state, and at prescribed intervals before and after oral glucose intake (75 or 100 g) or intravenous infusion (0.5 g/kg).

Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.

Stable carbon atoms that have the same atomic number as the element carbon, but differ in atomic weight. C-13 is a stable carbon isotope.

An aldohexose that occurs naturally in the D-form in lactose, cerebrosides, gangliosides, and mucoproteins. Deficiency of galactosyl-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALACTOSE-1-PHOSPHATE URIDYL-TRANSFERASE DEFICIENCY DISEASE) causes an error in galactose metabolism called GALACTOSEMIA, resulting in elevations of galactose in the blood.

A genus of obligately anaerobic ARCHAEA, in the family THERMOPROTEACEAE. They are found in acidic hot springs and water holes.

A chemical reaction in which an electron is transferred from one molecule to another. The electron-donating molecule is the reducing agent or reductant; the electron-accepting molecule is the oxidizing agent or oxidant. Reducing and oxidizing agents function as conjugate reductant-oxidant pairs or redox pairs (Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, 1982, p471).

An enlarged underground root or stem of some plants. It is usually rich in carbohydrates. Some, such as POTATOES, are important human FOOD. They may reproduce vegetatively from buds.

A glycoside hydrolase found primarily in PLANTS and YEASTS. It has specificity for beta-D-fructofuranosides such as SUCROSE.

The determination of the pattern of genes expressed at the level of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION, under specific circumstances or in a specific cell.

ATP:pyruvate 2-O-phosphotransferase. A phosphotransferase that catalyzes reversibly the phosphorylation of pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate in the presence of ATP. It has four isozymes (L, R, M1, and M2). Deficiency of the enzyme results in hemolytic anemia. EC 2.7.1.40.

Complex sets of enzymatic reactions connected to each other via their product and substrate metabolites.

Diphosphoric acid esters of fructose. The fructose-1,6- diphosphate isomer is most prevalent. It is an important intermediate in the glycolysis process.

FATTY ACIDS found in the plasma that are complexed with SERUM ALBUMIN for transport. These fatty acids are not in glycerol ester form.

The rate at which oxygen is used by a tissue; microliters of oxygen STPD used per milligram of tissue per hour; the rate at which oxygen enters the blood from alveolar gas, equal in the steady state to the consumption of oxygen by tissue metabolism throughout the body. (Stedman, 25th ed, p346)

Organic, monobasic acids derived from hydrocarbons by the equivalent of oxidation of a methyl group to an alcohol, aldehyde, and then acid. Fatty acids are saturated and unsaturated (FATTY ACIDS, UNSATURATED). (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)

A nonmetallic element with atomic symbol C, atomic number 6, and atomic weight [12.0096; 12.0116]. It may occur as several different allotropes including DIAMOND; CHARCOAL; and GRAPHITE; and as SOOT from incompletely burned fuel.

Anaerobic degradation of GLUCOSE or other organic nutrients to gain energy in the form of ATP. End products vary depending on organisms, substrates, and enzymatic pathways. Common fermentation products include ETHANOL and LACTIC ACID.

A colorless, odorless gas that can be formed by the body and is necessary for the respiration cycle of plants and animals.

Lengthy and continuous deprivation of food. (Stedman, 25th ed)

Fats present in food, especially in animal products such as meat, meat products, butter, ghee. They are present in lower amounts in nuts, seeds, and avocados.

Expanded structures, usually green, of vascular plants, characteristically consisting of a bladelike expansion attached to a stem, and functioning as the principal organ of photosynthesis and transpiration. (American Heritage Dictionary, 2d ed)

Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in plants.

The chemical reactions that occur within the cells, tissues, or an organism. These processes include both the biosynthesis (ANABOLISM) and the breakdown (CATABOLISM) of organic materials utilized by the living organism.

An intermediate compound in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. In thiamine deficiency, its oxidation is retarded and it accumulates in the tissues, especially in nervous structures. (From Stedman, 26th ed)

The synthesis by organisms of organic chemical compounds, especially carbohydrates, from carbon dioxide using energy obtained from light rather than from the oxidation of chemical compounds. Photosynthesis comprises two separate processes: the light reactions and the dark reactions. In higher plants; GREEN ALGAE; and CYANOBACTERIA; NADPH and ATP formed by the light reactions drive the dark reactions which result in the fixation of carbon dioxide. (from Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 2001)

A 29-amino acid pancreatic peptide derived from proglucagon which is also the precursor of intestinal GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDES. Glucagon is secreted by PANCREATIC ALPHA CELLS and plays an important role in regulation of BLOOD GLUCOSE concentration, ketone metabolism, and several other biochemical and physiological processes. (From Gilman et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th ed, p1511)

The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.

A class of glucosyltransferases that catalyzes the degradation of storage polysaccharides, such as glucose polymers, by phosphorolysis in animals (GLYCOGEN PHOSPHORYLASE) and in plants (STARCH PHOSPHORYLASE).

Abstaining from all food.

A generic term for fats and lipoids, the alcohol-ether-soluble constituents of protoplasm, which are insoluble in water. They comprise the fats, fatty oils, essential oils, waxes, phospholipids, glycolipids, sulfolipids, aminolipids, chromolipids (lipochromes), and fatty acids. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)

A hexose or fermentable monosaccharide and isomer of glucose from manna, the ash Fraxinus ornus and related plants. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed & Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2d ed)

A trihydroxy sugar alcohol that is an intermediate in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. It is used as a solvent, emollient, pharmaceutical agent, and sweetening agent.

An enzyme of the lyase class that catalyzes the cleavage of fructose 1,6-biphosphate to form dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. The enzyme also acts on (3S,4R)-ketose 1-phosphates. The yeast and bacterial enzymes are zinc proteins. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) E.C. 4.1.2.13.

An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of D-fructose 1,6-bisphosphate and water to D-fructose 6-phosphate and orthophosphate. EC 3.1.3.11.

Carbohydrates consisting of between two (DISACCHARIDES) and ten MONOSACCHARIDES connected by either an alpha- or beta-glycosidic link. They are found throughout nature in both the free and bound form.

An element with the atomic symbol N, atomic number 7, and atomic weight [14.00643; 14.00728]. Nitrogen exists as a diatomic gas and makes up about 78% of the earth's atmosphere by volume. It is a constituent of proteins and nucleic acids and found in all living cells.

An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of glycerol 3-phosphate from ATP and glycerol. Dihydroxyacetone and L-glyceraldehyde can also act as acceptors; UTP and, in the case of the yeast enzyme, ITP and GTP can act as donors. It provides a way for glycerol derived from fats or glycerides to enter the glycolytic pathway. EC 2.7.1.30.

Drugs administered orally and sequentially for contraceptive purposes.

Carbohydrate antigens expressed by malignant tissue. They are useful as tumor markers and are measured in the serum by means of a radioimmunoassay employing monoclonal antibodies.

Enzymes that catalyze the transfer of glucose from a nucleoside diphosphate glucose to an acceptor molecule which is frequently another carbohydrate. EC 2.4.1.-.

The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.

Regular course of eating and drinking adopted by a person or animal.

The mass or quantity of heaviness of an individual. It is expressed by units of pounds or kilograms.

Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.

A subtype of striated muscle, attached by TENDONS to the SKELETON. Skeletal muscles are innervated and their movement can be consciously controlled. They are also called voluntary muscles.

Hybridization of a nucleic acid sample to a very large set of OLIGONUCLEOTIDE PROBES, which have been attached individually in columns and rows to a solid support, to determine a BASE SEQUENCE, or to detect variations in a gene sequence, GENE EXPRESSION, or for GENE MAPPING.

Proteins that share the common characteristic of binding to carbohydrates. Some ANTIBODIES and carbohydrate-metabolizing proteins (ENZYMES) also bind to carbohydrates, however they are not considered lectins. PLANT LECTINS are carbohydrate-binding proteins that have been primarily identified by their hemagglutinating activity (HEMAGGLUTININS). However, a variety of lectins occur in animal species where they serve diverse array of functions through specific carbohydrate recognition.

Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.

Diminished effectiveness of INSULIN in lowering blood sugar levels: requiring the use of 200 units or more of insulin per day to prevent HYPERGLYCEMIA or KETOSIS.

Proteins found in plants (flowers, herbs, shrubs, trees, etc.). The concept does not include proteins found in vegetables for which VEGETABLE PROTEINS is available.

Derivatives of ACETIC ACID. Included under this heading are a broad variety of acid forms, salts, esters, and amides that contain the carboxymethane structure.

Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (-COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins.

The dynamic collection of metabolites which represent a cell's or organism's net metabolic response to current conditions.

Any liquid or solid preparation made specifically for the growth, storage, or transport of microorganisms or other types of cells. The variety of media that exist allow for the culturing of specific microorganisms and cell types, such as differential media, selective media, test media, and defined media. Solid media consist of liquid media that have been solidified with an agent such as AGAR or GELATIN.

Total number of calories taken in daily whether ingested or by parenteral routes.

Spectroscopic method of measuring the magnetic moment of elementary particles such as atomic nuclei, protons or electrons. It is employed in clinical applications such as NMR Tomography (MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING).

A plant species of the genus SOLANUM, family SOLANACEAE. The starchy roots are used as food. SOLANINE is found in green parts.

The protein complement of an organism coded for by its genome.

A dextrodisaccharide from malt and starch. It is used as a sweetening agent and fermentable intermediate in brewing. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)

Oligosaccharides containing two monosaccharide units linked by a glycosidic bond.

Unstable isotopes of carbon that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. C atoms with atomic weights 10, 11, and 14-16 are radioactive carbon isotopes.

A status with BODY WEIGHT that is grossly above the acceptable or desirable weight, usually due to accumulation of excess FATS in the body. The standards may vary with age, sex, genetic or cultural background. In the BODY MASS INDEX, a BMI greater than 30.0 kg/m2 is considered obese, and a BMI greater than 40.0 kg/m2 is considered morbidly obese (MORBID OBESITY).

Biological molecules that possess catalytic activity. They may occur naturally or be synthetically created. Enzymes are usually proteins, however CATALYTIC RNA and CATALYTIC DNA molecules have also been identified.

The metabolic substances ACETONE; 3-HYDROXYBUTYRIC ACID; and acetoacetic acid (ACETOACETATES). They are produced in the liver and kidney during FATTY ACIDS oxidation and used as a source of energy by the heart, muscle and brain.

RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.

Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. This also includes animals with a long history of closed colony breeding.

An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of ATP and a D-hexose to ADP and a D-hexose 6-phosphate. D-Glucose, D-mannose, D-fructose, sorbitol, and D-glucosamine can act as acceptors; ITP and dATP can act as donors. The liver isoenzyme has sometimes been called glucokinase. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.7.1.1.

An enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of D-glucose from UDPglucose into 1,4-alpha-D-glucosyl chains. EC 2.4.1.11.

An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of 1,4-alpha-glycosidic linkages in starch, glycogen, and related polysaccharides and oligosaccharides so as to remove successive beta-maltose units from the non-reducing ends of the chains. EC 3.2.1.2.

A 5-carbon keto sugar.

The pattern of GENE EXPRESSION at the level of genetic transcription in a specific organism or under specific circumstances in specific cells.

Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.

An ATP-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the addition of ADP to alpha-D-glucose 1-phosphate to form ADP-glucose and diphosphate. The reaction is the rate-limiting reaction in prokaryotic GLYCOGEN and plant STARCH biosynthesis.

A group of enzymes that catalyzes the conversion of ATP and D-glucose to ADP and D-glucose 6-phosphate. They are found in invertebrates and microorganisms, and are highly specific for glucose. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.7.1.2.

Any of the processes by which cytoplasmic or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in bacteria.

The functional hereditary units of PLANTS.

An aldose-ketose isomerase that catalyzes the reversible interconversion of glucose 6-phosphate and fructose 6-phosphate. In prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms it plays an essential role in glycolytic and gluconeogenic pathways. In mammalian systems the enzyme is found in the cytoplasm and as a secreted protein. This secreted form of glucose-6-phosphate isomerase has been referred to as autocrine motility factor or neuroleukin, and acts as a cytokine which binds to the AUTOCRINE MOTILITY FACTOR RECEPTOR. Deficiency of the enzyme in humans is an autosomal recessive trait, which results in CONGENITAL NONSPHEROCYTIC HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA.

Proteins obtained from foods. They are the main source of the ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS.

The processes whereby the internal environment of an organism tends to remain balanced and stable.

A synthetic progestational hormone used alone or in combination with estrogens as an oral contraceptive.

The chemical or biochemical addition of carbohydrate or glycosyl groups to other chemicals, especially peptides or proteins. Glycosyl transferases are used in this biochemical reaction.

Simple sugars, carbohydrates which cannot be decomposed by hydrolysis. They are colorless crystalline substances with a sweet taste and have the same general formula CnH2nOn. (From Dorland, 28th ed)

The consumption of edible substances.

Treatment process involving the injection of fluid into an organ or tissue.

The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils.

The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.

Proteins found in any species of bacterium.

The usually underground portions of a plant that serve as support, store food, and through which water and mineral nutrients enter the plant. (From American Heritage Dictionary, 1982; Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990)

An ester of glucose with phosphoric acid, made in the course of glucose metabolism by mammalian and other cells. It is a normal constituent of resting muscle and probably is in constant equilibrium with fructose-6-phosphate. (Stedman, 26th ed)

Ribonucleic acid in plants having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.

Life or metabolic reactions occurring in an environment containing oxygen.

Conjugated protein-carbohydrate compounds including mucins, mucoid, and amyloid glycoproteins.

A plant genus of the family ROSACEAE that is the source of an edible fruit. Members contain TRITERPENES.

A synthetic progestational agent with actions similar to those of PROGESTERONE. This racemic or (+-)-form has about half the potency of the levo form (LEVONORGESTREL). Norgestrel is used as a contraceptive, ovulation inhibitor, and for the control of menstrual disorders and endometriosis.

The normality of a solution with respect to HYDROGEN ions; H+. It is related to acidity measurements in most cases by pH = log 1/2[1/(H+)], where (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per liter of solution. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)

An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter.

Liquid chromatographic techniques which feature high inlet pressures, high sensitivity, and high speed.

An enzyme of the oxidoreductase class that catalyzes the reaction 6-phospho-D-gluconate and NADP+ to yield D-ribulose 5-phosphate, carbon dioxide, and NADPH. The reaction is a step in the pentose phosphate pathway of glucose metabolism. (From Dorland, 27th ed) EC 1.1.1.43.

The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.

A polypeptide that is secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Growth hormone, also known as somatotropin, stimulates mitosis, cell differentiation and cell growth. Species-specific growth hormones have been synthesized.

Specialized connective tissue composed of fat cells (ADIPOCYTES). It is the site of stored FATS, usually in the form of TRIGLYCERIDES. In mammals, there are two types of adipose tissue, the WHITE FAT and the BROWN FAT. Their relative distributions vary in different species with most adipose tissue being white.

Parts of plants that usually grow vertically upwards towards the light and support the leaves, buds, and reproductive structures. (From Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990)

The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.

The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.

The unfavorable effect of environmental factors (stressors) on the physiological functions of an organism. Prolonged unresolved physiological stress can affect HOMEOSTASIS of the organism, and may lead to damaging or pathological conditions.

The systematic study of the complete complement of proteins (PROTEOME) of organisms.

A rather large group of enzymes comprising not only those transferring phosphate but also diphosphate, nucleotidyl residues, and others. These have also been subdivided according to the acceptor group. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.7.

A plant genus in the family VITACEAE, order Rhamnales, subclass Rosidae. It is a woody vine cultivated worldwide. It is best known for grapes, the edible fruit and used to make WINE and raisins.

Electrophoresis in which a second perpendicular electrophoretic transport is performed on the separate components resulting from the first electrophoresis. This technique is usually performed on polyacrylamide gels.

Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.

The encapsulated embryos of flowering plants. They are used as is or for animal feed because of the high content of concentrated nutrients like starches, proteins, and fats. Rapeseed, cottonseed, and sunflower seed are also produced for the oils (fats) they yield.

A subclass of enzymes which includes all dehydrogenases acting on primary and secondary alcohols as well as hemiacetals. They are further classified according to the acceptor which can be NAD+ or NADP+ (subclass 1.1.1), cytochrome (1.1.2), oxygen (1.1.3), quinone (1.1.5), or another acceptor (1.1.99).

Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process.

Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.

The chemical alteration of an exogenous substance by or in a biological system. The alteration may inactivate the compound or it may result in the production of an active metabolite of an inactive parent compound. The alterations may be divided into METABOLIC DETOXICATION, PHASE I and METABOLIC DETOXICATION, PHASE II.

The non-genetic biological changes of an organism in response to challenges in its ENVIRONMENT.

A multienzyme complex responsible for the formation of ACETYL COENZYME A from pyruvate. The enzyme components are PYRUVATE DEHYDROGENASE (LIPOAMIDE); dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase; and LIPOAMIDE DEHYDROGENASE. Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is subject to three types of control: inhibited by acetyl-CoA and NADH; influenced by the energy state of the cell; and inhibited when a specific serine residue in the pyruvate decarboxylase is phosphorylated by ATP. PYRUVATE DEHYDROGENASE (LIPOAMIDE)-PHOSPHATASE catalyzes reactivation of the complex. (From Concise Encyclopedia Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 3rd ed)

A diet that contains limited amounts of CARBOHYDRATES. This is in distinction to a regular DIET.

The outermost layer of a cell in most PLANTS; BACTERIA; FUNGI; and ALGAE. The cell wall is usually a rigid structure that lies external to the CELL MEMBRANE, and provides a protective barrier against physical or chemical agents.

A plant genus of the family BRASSICACEAE that contains ARABIDOPSIS PROTEINS and MADS DOMAIN PROTEINS. The species A. thaliana is used for experiments in classical plant genetics as well as molecular genetic studies in plant physiology, biochemistry, and development.

Derivatives of propionic acid. Included under this heading are a broad variety of acid forms, salts, esters, and amides that contain the carboxyethane structure.

The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.

A set of statistical methods used to group variables or observations into strongly inter-related subgroups. In epidemiology, it may be used to analyze a closely grouped series of events or cases of disease or other health-related phenomenon with well-defined distribution patterns in relation to time or place or both.

Abnormally high BLOOD GLUCOSE level.

A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.

A subclass of DIABETES MELLITUS that is not INSULIN-responsive or dependent (NIDDM). It is characterized initially by INSULIN RESISTANCE and HYPERINSULINEMIA; and eventually by GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE; HYPERGLYCEMIA; and overt diabetes. Type II diabetes mellitus is no longer considered a disease exclusively found in adults. Patients seldom develop KETOSIS but often exhibit OBESITY.

Physical activity which is usually regular and done with the intention of improving or maintaining PHYSICAL FITNESS or HEALTH. Contrast with PHYSICAL EXERTION which is concerned largely with the physiologic and metabolic response to energy expenditure.

Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in fungi.

Fixed drug combinations administered orally for contraceptive purposes.

A syndrome of abnormally low BLOOD GLUCOSE level. Clinical hypoglycemia has diverse etiologies. Severe hypoglycemia eventually lead to glucose deprivation of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM resulting in HUNGER; SWEATING; PARESTHESIA; impaired mental function; SEIZURES; COMA; and even DEATH.

The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and drugs) through a biological system at the cellular level. The transport can be across cell membranes and epithelial layers. It also can occur within intracellular compartments and extracellular compartments.

Closed vesicles of fragmented endoplasmic reticulum created when liver cells or tissue are disrupted by homogenization. They may be smooth or rough.

An allosteric enzyme that regulates glycolysis and gluconeogenesis by catalyzing the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to fructose-6-phosphate to yield fructose-2,6-bisphosphate, an allosteric effector for the other 6-phosphofructokinase, PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-1. Phosphofructokinase-2 is bifunctional: the dephosphorylated form is a kinase and the phosphorylated form is a phosphatase that breaks down fructose-2,6-bisphosphate to yield fructose-6-phosphate.

A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.

Contractile tissue that produces movement in animals.

The complete absence, or (loosely) the paucity, of gaseous or dissolved elemental oxygen in a given place or environment. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)

The time span between the beginning of physical activity by an individual and the termination because of exhaustion.

The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.

An element with atomic symbol O, atomic number 8, and atomic weight [15.99903; 15.99977]. It is the most abundant element on earth and essential for respiration.

A superfamily of hundreds of closely related HEMEPROTEINS found throughout the phylogenetic spectrum, from animals, plants, fungi, to bacteria. They include numerous complex monooxygenases (MIXED FUNCTION OXYGENASES). In animals, these P-450 enzymes serve two major functions: (1) biosynthesis of steroids, fatty acids, and bile acids; (2) metabolism of endogenous and a wide variety of exogenous substrates, such as toxins and drugs (BIOTRANSFORMATION). They are classified, according to their sequence similarities rather than functions, into CYP gene families (>40% homology) and subfamilies (>59% homology). For example, enzymes from the CYP1, CYP2, and CYP3 gene families are responsible for most drug metabolism.

The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.

A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts.

A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.

Protein or glycoprotein substances of plant origin that bind to sugar moieties in cell walls or membranes. Some carbohydrate-metabolizing proteins (ENZYMES) from PLANTS also bind to carbohydrates, however they are not considered lectins. Many plant lectins change the physiology of the membrane of BLOOD CELLS to cause agglutination, mitosis, or other biochemical changes. They may play a role in plant defense mechanisms.

The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.

Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in enzyme synthesis.

An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of (S)-malate and NAD+ to oxaloacetate and NADH. EC 1.1.1.37.

Proteins which contain carbohydrate groups attached covalently to the polypeptide chain. The protein moiety is the predominant group with the carbohydrate making up only a small percentage of the total weight.

Any of various animals that constitute the family Suidae and comprise stout-bodied, short-legged omnivorous mammals with thick skin, usually covered with coarse bristles, a rather long mobile snout, and small tail. Included are the genera Babyrousa, Phacochoerus (wart hogs), and Sus, the latter containing the domestic pig (see SUS SCROFA).

The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (EMBRYOS or FETUSES) in utero before birth, beginning from FERTILIZATION to BIRTH.

The simultaneous analysis, on a microchip, of multiple samples or targets arranged in an array format.

2-Deoxy-D-arabino-hexose. An antimetabolite of glucose with antiviral activity.

A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.

An enzyme of the oxidoreductase class that catalyzes the conversion of isocitrate and NAD+ to yield 2-ketoglutarate, carbon dioxide, and NADH. It occurs in cell mitochondria. The enzyme requires Mg2+, Mn2+; it is activated by ADP, citrate, and Ca2+, and inhibited by NADH, NADPH, and ATP. The reaction is the key rate-limiting step of the citric acid (tricarboxylic) cycle. (From Dorland, 27th ed) (The NADP+ enzyme is EC 1.1.1.42.) EC 1.1.1.41.

A heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by HYPERGLYCEMIA and GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE.

A collective genome representative of the many organisms, primarily microorganisms, existing in a community.

Semiautonomous, self-reproducing organelles that occur in the cytoplasm of all cells of most, but not all, eukaryotes. Each mitochondrion is surrounded by a double limiting membrane. The inner membrane is highly invaginated, and its projections are called cristae. Mitochondria are the sites of the reactions of oxidative phosphorylation, which result in the formation of ATP. They contain distinctive RIBOSOMES, transfer RNAs (RNA, TRANSFER); AMINO ACYL T RNA SYNTHETASES; and elongation and termination factors. Mitochondria depend upon genes within the nucleus of the cells in which they reside for many essential messenger RNAs (RNA, MESSENGER). Mitochondria are believed to have arisen from aerobic bacteria that established a symbiotic relationship with primitive protoeukaryotes. (King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)

A species of the genus SACCHAROMYCES, family Saccharomycetaceae, order Saccharomycetales, known as "baker's" or "brewer's" yeast. The dried form is used as a dietary supplement.

One of the three domains of life (the others being Eukarya and ARCHAEA), also called Eubacteria. They are unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms which generally possess rigid cell walls, multiply by cell division, and exhibit three principal forms: round or coccal, rodlike or bacillary, and spiral or spirochetal. Bacteria can be classified by their response to OXYGEN: aerobic, anaerobic, or facultatively anaerobic; by the mode by which they obtain their energy: chemotrophy (via chemical reaction) or PHOTOTROPHY (via light reaction); for chemotrophs by their source of chemical energy: CHEMOLITHOTROPHY (from inorganic compounds) or chemoorganotrophy (from organic compounds); and by their source for CARBON; NITROGEN; etc.; HETEROTROPHY (from organic sources) or AUTOTROPHY (from CARBON DIOXIDE). They can also be classified by whether or not they stain (based on the structure of their CELL WALLS) with CRYSTAL VIOLET dye: gram-negative or gram-positive.

Linear POLYPEPTIDES that are synthesized on RIBOSOMES and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of AMINO ACIDS determines the shape the polypeptide will take, during PROTEIN FOLDING, and the function of the protein.

Role of glutamine in human carbohydrate metabolism in kidney and other tissues. (1/3923)

Glutamine is the most abundant amino acid in the human body and is involved in more metabolic processes than any other amino acid. Until recently, the understanding of many aspects of glutamine metabolism was based on animal and in vitro data. However, recent studies using isotopic and balance techniques have greatly advanced the understanding of glutamine metabolism in humans and its role in glucose metabolism in the kidney and other tissues. There is now evidence that in postabsorptive humans, glutamine is an important glucose precursor and makes a significant contribution to the addition of new carbon to the glucose carbon pool. The importance of alanine for gluconeogenesis, viewed in terms of the addition of new carbons, is less than previously assumed. It appears that glutamine is predominantly a renal gluconeogenic substrate, whereas alanine gluconeogenesis is essentially confined to the liver. As shown recently, renal gluconeogenesis contributes 20 to 25% to whole-body glucose production. Moreover, glutamine has been shown not only to stimulate net muscle glycogen storage but also to stimulate gluconeogenesis in normal humans. Finally, in humans with type II diabetes, conversion of glutamine to glucose is increased (more so than that of alanine). The available evidence on the hormonal regulation of glutamine gluconeogenesis in kidney and liver and its alterations under pathological conditions are discussed. (+info)

Relationship between glycosyl hydrolase inventory and growth physiology of the hyperthermophile Pyrococcus furiosus on carbohydrate-based media. (2/3923)

Utilization of a range of carbohydrates for growth by the hyperthermophile Pyrococcus furiosus was investigated by examining the spectrum of glycosyl hydrolases produced by this microorganism and the thermal labilities of various saccharides. Previously, P. furiosus had been found to grow in batch cultures on several alpha-linked carbohydrates and cellobiose but not on glucose or other beta-linked sugars. Although P. furiosus was not able to grow on any nonglucan carbohydrate or any form of cellulose in this study (growth on oat spelt arabinoxylan was attributed to glucan contamination of this substrate), significant growth at 98 degrees C occurred on beta-1,3- and beta-1,3-beta-1,4-linked glucans. Oligosaccharides generated by digestion with a recombinant laminarinase derived from P. furiosus were the compounds that were most effective in stimulating growth of the microorganism. In several cases, periodic addition of beta-glucan substrates to fed-batch cultures limited adverse thermochemical modifications of the carbohydrates (i.e., Maillard reactions and caramelization) and led to significant increases (as much as two- to threefold) in the cell yields. While glucose had only a marginally positive effect on growth in batch culture, the final cell densities nearly tripled when glucose was added by the fed-batch procedure. Nonenzymatic browning reactions were found to be significant at 98 degrees C for saccharides with degrees of polymerization (DP) ranging from 1 to 6; glucose was the most labile compound on a mass basis and the least labile compound on a molar basis. This suggests that for DP of 2 or greater protection of the nonreducing monosaccharide component may be a factor in substrate availability. For P. furiosus, carbohydrate utilization patterns were found to reflect the distribution of the glycosyl hydrolases which are known to be produced by this microorganism. (+info)

Glucose kinetics during prolonged exercise in highly trained human subjects: effect of glucose ingestion. (3/3923)

1. The objectives of this study were (1) to investigate whether glucose ingestion during prolonged exercise reduces whole body muscle glycogen oxidation, (2) to determine the extent to which glucose disappearing from the plasma is oxidized during exercise with and without carbohydrate ingestion and (3) to obtain an estimate of gluconeogenesis. 2. After an overnight fast, six well-trained cyclists exercised on three occasions for 120 min on a bicycle ergometer at 50 % maximum velocity of O2 uptake and ingested either water (Fast), or a 4 % glucose solution (Lo-Glu) or a 22 % glucose solution (Hi-Glu) during exercise. 3. Dual tracer infusion of [U-13C]-glucose and [6,6-2H2]-glucose was given to measure the rate of appearance (Ra) of glucose, muscle glycogen oxidation, glucose carbon recycling, metabolic clearance rate (MCR) and non-oxidative disposal of glucose. 4. Glucose ingestion markedly increased total Ra especially with Hi-Glu. After 120 min Ra and rate of disappearance (Rd) of glucose were 51-52 micromol kg-1 min-1 during Fast, 73-74 micromol kg-1 min-1 during Lo-Glu and 117-119 micromol kg-1 min-1 during Hi-Glu. The percentage of Rd oxidized was between 96 and 100 % in all trials. 5. Glycogen oxidation during exercise was not reduced by glucose ingestion. The vast majority of glucose disappearing from the plasma is oxidized and MCR increased markedly with glucose ingestion. Glucose carbon recycling was minimal suggesting that gluconeogenesis in these conditions is negligible. (+info)

Conversion of brain-specific complex type sugar chains by N-acetyl-beta-D-hexosaminidase B. (4/3923)

The N-linked sugar chains, GlcNAcbeta1-2Manalpha1-6(GlcNAcbeta1-4)(Manalpha1++ +-3)Manbeta1-4GlcNAcb eta1-4(Fucalpha1-6)GlcNAc (BA-1) and GlcNAcbeta1-2Manalpha1-6(GlcNAcbeta1-4)(GlcNAcbeta1 -2Manalpha1-3)Manb eta1-4GlcNAcbeta1-4(Fucalpha1-6)GlcNAc (BA-2), were recently found to be linked to membrane proteins of mouse brain in a development-dependent manner [S. Nakakita, S. Natsuka, K. Ikenaka, and S. Hase, J. Biochem. 123, 1164-1168 (1998)]. The GlcNAc residue linked to the Manalpha1-3 branch of BA-2 is lacking in BA-1 and the removal of this GlcNAc residue is not part of the usual biosynthetic pathway for N-linked sugar chains, suggesting the existence of an N-acetyl-beta-D-hexosaminidase. Using pyridylaminated BA-2 (BA-2-PA) as a substrate the activity of this enzyme was found in all four subcellular fractions obtained. The activity was much greater in the cerebrum than in the cerebellum. To further identify the N-acetyl-beta-D-hexosaminidase, BA-1 and BA-2 in brain tissues of Hex gene-disrupted mutant mice were detected and quantified. PA-sugar chains were liberated from the cerebrum and cerebellum of the mutant mice by hydrazinolysis-N-acetylation followed by pyridylamination. PA-sugar chains were separated by anion-exchange HPLC, size-fractionation, and reversed-phase HPLC. Each peak was quantified by measuring the peaks at the elution positions of authentic BA-1-PA and BA-2-PA. BA-2-PA was detected in all the PA-sugar chain fractions prepared from Hexa, Hexb, and both Hexa and Hexb (double knockout) gene-disrupted mice, but BA-1 was not found in the fractions from Hexb gene-disrupted and double knockout mice. These results indicate that N-acetyl-beta-D-hexosaminidase B encoded by the Hexb gene hydrolyzed BA-2 to BA-1. (+info)

Sugar- and nitrogen-dependent regulation of an Amanita muscaria phenylalanine ammonium lyase gene. (5/3923)

The cDNA of a key enzyme of secondary metabolism, phenylalanine ammonium lyase, was identified for an ectomycorrhizal fungus by differential screening of a mycorrhizal library. The gene was highly expressed in hyphae grown at low external monosaccharide concentrations, but its expression was 30-fold reduced at elevated concentrations. Gene repression was regulated by hexokinase. (+info)

Characterisation of recombinant glycosylation variants of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3. (6/3923)

There are three potential N-glycosylation sites in the non-conserved central region of the insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) sequence (N89AS, N109AS, N172FS). IGFBP-3 exists as two glycoforms which reduce to a single form on enzymatic deglycosylation. To determine the functional significance of the carbohydrate chains, the N-glycosylation sites were mutated singly and in combinations by substituting Asn residues with Ala. Each recombinant glycoform was detected by radioimmunoassay, indicating that glycosylation is not essential for secretion in Chinese hamster ovary cells. Ligand blotting of the conditioned media using [125I]IGF-I indicated that all seven mutants are active. On the basis of the number and molecular masses of the bands detected for each glycoform, there is approximately 4, 4.5 and 5 kDa of carbohydrate on Asn89, Asn109 and Asn172 respectively, with variable occupancy of Asn172. Ternary complex formation by the glycovariants in the presence of ALS and excess IGF-I was not significantly different from that of fully glycosylated recombinant human (rh)IGFBP-3 [Ka (fully glycosylated)=12.5+/-4.1 l/nmol; mean Ka (all mutants)=22.1+/-3.0 l/nmol]. In contrast, Asn to Asp substitutions decreased acid-labile subunit (ALS) binding activity. Cell-surface association experiments indicate that glycosylation may influence the partitioning of IGFBP-3 between the extracellular milieu and the cell surface. Therefore, while the carbohydrate units appear to be non-essential to ALS or IGF binding, they may modulate other biological activities of IGFBP-3. (+info)

Prevalence of undiagnosed diabetes and abnormalities of carbohydrate metabolism in a U.S. Army population. (7/3923)

OBJECTIVE: The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) reported that 4.3-6.3% of adult Americans have undiagnosed diabetes. 15.6% have impaired glucose tolerance, and 10.1% have impaired fasting glucose. By design, NHANES III excluded people in the U.S. military. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of undiagnosed diabetes, impaired glucose tolerance, and impaired fasting glucose among U.S. Army soldiers. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A 2-h, 75-g oral glucose tolerance test was performed on a prospective, consecutive sample of 625 asymptomatic soldiers presenting to a U.S. Army medical clinic for physical examinations. Age of subjects was 32 +/- 9 years (mean +/- SD), and 81.0% of subjects were male. BMI was 26.2 +/- 3.7 kg/m2. Race/ethnicity categories included Caucasian (54.4%), African-American (24.4%), Hispanic (17.4%), and other (3.7%). A family history of diabetes was reported by 25.4% of the subjects, and the number of exercise sessions per week was 4.0 +/- 1.5. RESULTS: The prevalence of undiagnosed diabetes was 3 of 625 (0.5%) (95% CI, 0.1-1.4): impaired glucose tolerance, 11 of 598 (1.8%) (0.9-3.3); and impaired fasting glucose 6 of 585 (1.0%) (0.4-2.2). CONCLUSIONS: In this low-diabetes risk U.S. Army population, the prevalence of undiagnosed diabetes, impaired glucose tolerance, and impaired fasting glucose were 0.5, 1.8, and 1.0%, respectively. The prevalence rates found in this study are approximately one-tenth of those found in NHANES III. (+info)

Outer membranes of gram-negative bacteria. XIX. Isolation from Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 and use in reconstitution and definition of the permeability barrier. (8/3923)

A method for separating the outer and inner membranes of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 in the absence of added ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid was devised. The method yields two outer membrane fractions which show the same protein pattern on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, but differ substantially in their relative contents of phospholipids. One of these outer membrane fractions and the inner membrane fraction are less than 4% cross-contaminated, as judged by the content of typical inner and outer membrane markers. The outer membrane contains four major protein bands with apparent molecular weights of 37,000, 35,000, 21,000 and 17,000. Vesicles reconstituted from lipopolysaccharide and phospholipids were impermeable to all saccharides included in the vesicles during vesicle formation. When the vesicles contained outer membrane proteins, they fully retained only those saccharides of greater than 9,000 molecular weight, suggesting that the exclusion limit of the outer membrane of P. aeruginosa for saccharides is substantially larger than the figure (500 to 600 daltons) obtained for certain enteric bacteria. The advantages and potential disadvantages of having an outer membrane with a higher exclusion limit for hydrophilic substances are discussed. (+info)

Starvation is a condition where an individual's body does not receive enough nutrients to maintain proper bodily functions and growth. It can be caused by a lack of access to food, poverty, poor nutrition, or other factors that prevent the intake of sufficient calories and essential nutrients. Starvation can lead to severe health consequences, including weight loss, weakness, fatigue, and even death.

Types of Starvation:

There are several types of starvation, each with different causes and effects. These include:

1. Acute starvation: This occurs when an individual suddenly stops eating or has a limited access to food for a short period of time.
2. Chronic starvation: This occurs when an individual consistently does not consume enough calories and nutrients over a longer period of time, leading to gradual weight loss and other health problems.
3. Malnutrition starvation: This occurs when an individual's diet is deficient in essential nutrients, leading to malnutrition and other health problems.
4. Marasmus: This is a severe form of starvation that occurs in children, characterized by extreme weight loss, weakness, and wasting of muscles and organs.
5. Kwashiorkor: This is a form of malnutrition caused by a diet lacking in protein, leading to edema, diarrhea, and other health problems.

Effects of Starvation on the Body:

Starvation can have severe effects on the body, including:

1. Weight loss: Starvation causes weight loss, which can lead to a decrease in muscle mass and a loss of essential nutrients.
2. Fatigue: Starvation can cause fatigue, weakness, and a lack of energy, making it difficult to perform daily activities.
3. Weakened immune system: Starvation can weaken the immune system, making an individual more susceptible to illnesses and infections.
4. Nutrient deficiencies: Starvation can lead to a deficiency of essential nutrients, including vitamins and minerals, which can cause a range of health problems.
5. Increased risk of disease: Starvation can increase the risk of diseases such as tuberculosis, pellagra, and other infections.
6. Mental health issues: Starvation can lead to mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, and irritability.
7. Reproductive problems: Starvation can cause reproductive problems, including infertility and miscarriage.
8. Hair loss: Starvation can cause hair loss, which can be a sign of malnutrition.
9. Skin problems: Starvation can cause skin problems, such as dryness, irritation, and infections.
10. Increased risk of death: Starvation can lead to increased risk of death, especially in children and the elderly.

It is important to note that these effects can be reversed with proper nutrition and care. If you or someone you know is experiencing starvation, it is essential to seek medical attention immediately.

Body weight is an important health indicator, as it can affect an individual's risk for certain medical conditions, such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Maintaining a healthy body weight is essential for overall health and well-being, and there are many ways to do so, including a balanced diet, regular exercise, and other lifestyle changes.

There are several ways to measure body weight, including:

1. Scale: This is the most common method of measuring body weight, and it involves standing on a scale that displays the individual's weight in kg or lb.
2. Body fat calipers: These are used to measure body fat percentage by pinching the skin at specific points on the body.
3. Skinfold measurements: This method involves measuring the thickness of the skin folds at specific points on the body to estimate body fat percentage.
4. Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA): This is a non-invasive method that uses electrical impulses to measure body fat percentage.
5. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA): This is a more accurate method of measuring body composition, including bone density and body fat percentage.

It's important to note that body weight can fluctuate throughout the day due to factors such as water retention, so it's best to measure body weight at the same time each day for the most accurate results. Additionally, it's important to use a reliable scale or measuring tool to ensure accurate measurements.

There are several factors that can contribute to the development of insulin resistance, including:

1. Genetics: Insulin resistance can be inherited, and some people may be more prone to developing the condition based on their genetic makeup.
2. Obesity: Excess body fat, particularly around the abdominal area, can contribute to insulin resistance.
3. Physical inactivity: A sedentary lifestyle can lead to insulin resistance.
4. Poor diet: Consuming a diet high in refined carbohydrates and sugar can contribute to insulin resistance.
5. Other medical conditions: Certain medical conditions, such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and Cushing's syndrome, can increase the risk of developing insulin resistance.
6. Medications: Certain medications, such as steroids and some antipsychotic drugs, can increase insulin resistance.
7. Hormonal imbalances: Hormonal changes during pregnancy or menopause can lead to insulin resistance.
8. Sleep apnea: Sleep apnea can contribute to insulin resistance.
9. Chronic stress: Chronic stress can lead to insulin resistance.
10. Aging: Insulin resistance tends to increase with age, particularly after the age of 45.

There are several ways to diagnose insulin resistance, including:

1. Fasting blood sugar test: This test measures the level of glucose in the blood after an overnight fast.
2. Glucose tolerance test: This test measures the body's ability to regulate blood sugar levels after consuming a sugary drink.
3. Insulin sensitivity test: This test measures the body's ability to respond to insulin.
4. Homeostatic model assessment (HOMA): This is a mathematical formula that uses the results of a fasting glucose and insulin test to estimate insulin resistance.
5. Adiponectin test: This test measures the level of adiponectin, a protein produced by fat cells that helps regulate blood sugar levels. Low levels of adiponectin are associated with insulin resistance.

There is no cure for insulin resistance, but it can be managed through lifestyle changes and medication. Lifestyle changes include:

1. Diet: A healthy diet that is low in processed carbohydrates and added sugars can help improve insulin sensitivity.
2. Exercise: Regular physical activity, such as aerobic exercise and strength training, can improve insulin sensitivity.
3. Weight loss: Losing weight, particularly around the abdominal area, can improve insulin sensitivity.
4. Stress management: Strategies to manage stress, such as meditation or yoga, can help improve insulin sensitivity.
5. Sleep: Getting adequate sleep is important for maintaining healthy insulin levels.

Medications that may be used to treat insulin resistance include:

1. Metformin: This is a commonly used medication to treat type 2 diabetes and improve insulin sensitivity.
2. Thiazolidinediones (TZDs): These medications, such as pioglitazone, improve insulin sensitivity by increasing the body's ability to use insulin.
3. Sulfonylureas: These medications stimulate the release of insulin from the pancreas, which can help improve insulin sensitivity.
4. DPP-4 inhibitors: These medications, such as sitagliptin, work by reducing the breakdown of the hormone incretin, which helps to increase insulin secretion and improve insulin sensitivity.
5. GLP-1 receptor agonists: These medications, such as exenatide, mimic the action of the hormone GLP-1 and help to improve insulin sensitivity.

It is important to note that these medications may have side effects, so it is important to discuss the potential benefits and risks with your healthcare provider before starting treatment. Additionally, lifestyle modifications such as diet and exercise can also be effective in improving insulin sensitivity and managing blood sugar levels.

There are several different types of obesity, including:

1. Central obesity: This type of obesity is characterized by excess fat around the waistline, which can increase the risk of health problems such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
2. Peripheral obesity: This type of obesity is characterized by excess fat in the hips, thighs, and arms.
3. Visceral obesity: This type of obesity is characterized by excess fat around the internal organs in the abdominal cavity.
4. Mixed obesity: This type of obesity is characterized by both central and peripheral obesity.

Obesity can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetics, lack of physical activity, poor diet, sleep deprivation, and certain medications. Treatment for obesity typically involves a combination of lifestyle changes, such as increased physical activity and a healthy diet, and in some cases, medication or surgery may be necessary to achieve weight loss.

Preventing obesity is important for overall health and well-being, and can be achieved through a variety of strategies, including:

1. Eating a healthy, balanced diet that is low in added sugars, saturated fats, and refined carbohydrates.
2. Engaging in regular physical activity, such as walking, jogging, or swimming.
3. Getting enough sleep each night.
4. Managing stress levels through relaxation techniques, such as meditation or deep breathing.
5. Avoiding excessive alcohol consumption and quitting smoking.
6. Monitoring weight and body mass index (BMI) on a regular basis to identify any changes or potential health risks.
7. Seeking professional help from a healthcare provider or registered dietitian for personalized guidance on weight management and healthy lifestyle choices.

There are several possible causes of hyperglycemia, including:

1. Diabetes: This is a chronic condition where the body either does not produce enough insulin or cannot use insulin effectively.
2. Insulin resistance: This occurs when the body's cells become less responsive to insulin, leading to high blood sugar levels.
3. Pancreatitis: This is inflammation of the pancreas, which can lead to high blood sugar levels.
4. Cushing's syndrome: This is a rare hormonal disorder that can cause high blood sugar levels.
5. Medications: Certain medications, such as steroids and some types of antidepressants, can raise blood sugar levels.
6. Stress: Stress can cause the release of hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline, which can raise blood sugar levels.
7. Infections: Certain infections, such as pneumonia or urinary tract infections, can cause high blood sugar levels.
8. Trauma: Traumatic injuries can cause high blood sugar levels due to the release of stress hormones.
9. Surgery: Some types of surgery, such as heart bypass surgery, can cause high blood sugar levels.
10. Pregnancy: High blood sugar levels can occur during pregnancy, especially in women who have a history of gestational diabetes.

Hyperglycemia can cause a range of symptoms, including:

1. Increased thirst and urination
2. Fatigue
3. Blurred vision
4. Headaches
5. Cuts or bruises that are slow to heal
6. Tingling or numbness in the hands and feet
7. Dry, itchy skin
8. Flu-like symptoms, such as weakness, dizziness, and stomach pain
9. Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections
10. Sexual dysfunction in men and women

If left untreated, hyperglycemia can lead to serious complications, including:

1. Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA): A life-threatening condition that occurs when the body produces high levels of ketones, which are acidic substances that can cause confusion, nausea, and vomiting.
2. Hypoglycemia: Low blood sugar levels that can cause dizziness, confusion, and even loss of consciousness.
3. Nerve damage: High blood sugar levels over an extended period can damage the nerves, leading to numbness, tingling, and pain in the hands and feet.
4. Kidney damage: The kidneys may become overworked and damaged if they are unable to filter out the excess glucose in the blood.
5. Eye damage: High blood sugar levels can cause damage to the blood vessels in the eyes, leading to vision loss and blindness.
6. Cardiovascular disease: Hyperglycemia can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease, including heart attacks, strokes, and peripheral artery disease.
7. Cognitive impairment: Hyperglycemia has been linked to cognitive impairment and an increased risk of dementia.

It is essential to manage hyperglycemia by making lifestyle changes, such as following a healthy diet, regular exercise, and taking medication if prescribed by a healthcare professional. Monitoring blood sugar levels regularly can help identify the signs of hyperglycemia and prevent long-term complications.

Type 2 diabetes can be managed through a combination of diet, exercise, and medication. In some cases, lifestyle changes may be enough to control blood sugar levels, while in other cases, medication or insulin therapy may be necessary. Regular monitoring of blood sugar levels and follow-up with a healthcare provider are important for managing the condition and preventing complications.

Common symptoms of type 2 diabetes include:

* Increased thirst and urination
* Fatigue
* Blurred vision
* Cuts or bruises that are slow to heal
* Tingling or numbness in the hands and feet
* Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections

If left untreated, type 2 diabetes can lead to a range of complications, including:

* Heart disease and stroke
* Kidney damage and failure
* Nerve damage and pain
* Eye damage and blindness
* Foot damage and amputation

The exact cause of type 2 diabetes is not known, but it is believed to be linked to a combination of genetic and lifestyle factors, such as:

* Obesity and excess body weight
* Lack of physical activity
* Poor diet and nutrition
* Age and family history
* Certain ethnicities (e.g., African American, Hispanic/Latino, Native American)
* History of gestational diabetes or delivering a baby over 9 lbs.

There is no cure for type 2 diabetes, but it can be managed and controlled through a combination of lifestyle changes and medication. With proper treatment and self-care, people with type 2 diabetes can lead long, healthy lives.

In extreme cases, hypoglycemia can lead to seizures, loss of consciousness, and even coma. It is important to recognize the symptoms of hypoglycemia early on and seek medical attention if they persist or worsen over time. Treatment typically involves raising blood sugar levels through the consumption of quick-acting carbohydrates such as glucose tablets, fruit juice, or hard candy.

If left untreated, hypoglycemia can have serious consequences, including long-term damage to the brain, heart, and other organs. It is important for individuals with diabetes to monitor their blood sugar levels regularly and work with their healthcare provider to manage their condition effectively.

There are several types of diabetes mellitus, including:

1. Type 1 DM: This is an autoimmune condition in which the body's immune system attacks and destroys the cells in the pancreas that produce insulin, resulting in a complete deficiency of insulin production. It typically develops in childhood or adolescence, and patients with this condition require lifelong insulin therapy.
2. Type 2 DM: This is the most common form of diabetes, accounting for around 90% of all cases. It is caused by a combination of insulin resistance (where the body's cells do not respond properly to insulin) and impaired insulin secretion. It is often associated with obesity, physical inactivity, and a diet high in sugar and unhealthy fats.
3. Gestational DM: This type of diabetes develops during pregnancy, usually in the second or third trimester. Hormonal changes and insulin resistance can cause blood sugar levels to rise, putting both the mother and baby at risk.
4. LADA (Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults): This is a form of type 1 DM that develops in adults, typically after the age of 30. It shares features with both type 1 and type 2 DM.
5. MODY (Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young): This is a rare form of diabetes caused by genetic mutations that affect insulin production. It typically develops in young adulthood and can be managed with lifestyle changes and/or medication.

The symptoms of diabetes mellitus can vary depending on the severity of the condition, but may include:

1. Increased thirst and urination
2. Fatigue
3. Blurred vision
4. Cuts or bruises that are slow to heal
5. Tingling or numbness in hands and feet
6. Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections
7. Flu-like symptoms such as weakness, dizziness, and stomach pain
8. Dark, velvety skin patches (acanthosis nigricans)
9. Yellowish color of the skin and eyes (jaundice)
10. Delayed healing of cuts and wounds

If left untreated, diabetes mellitus can lead to a range of complications, including:

1. Heart disease and stroke
2. Kidney damage and failure
3. Nerve damage (neuropathy)
4. Eye damage (retinopathy)
5. Foot damage (neuropathic ulcers)
6. Cognitive impairment and dementia
7. Increased risk of infections and other diseases, such as pneumonia, gum disease, and urinary tract infections.

It is important to note that not all individuals with diabetes will experience these complications, and that proper management of the condition can greatly reduce the risk of developing these complications.

Examples of inborn errors of metabolism include:

1. Phenylketonuria (PKU): A disorder that affects the body's ability to break down the amino acid phenylalanine, leading to a buildup of this substance in the blood and brain.
2. Hypothyroidism: A condition in which the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormones, leading to developmental delays, intellectual disability, and other health problems.
3. Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD): A disorder that affects the body's ability to break down certain amino acids, leading to a buildup of these substances in the blood and urine.
4. Glycogen storage diseases: A group of disorders that affect the body's ability to store and use glycogen, a form of carbohydrate energy.
5. Mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS): A group of disorders that affect the body's ability to produce and break down certain sugars, leading to a buildup of these substances in the body.
6. Citrullinemia: A disorder that affects the body's ability to break down the amino acid citrulline, leading to a buildup of this substance in the blood and urine.
7. Homocystinuria: A disorder that affects the body's ability to break down certain amino acids, leading to a buildup of these substances in the blood and urine.
8. Tyrosinemia: A disorder that affects the body's ability to break down the amino acid tyrosine, leading to a buildup of this substance in the blood and liver.

Inborn errors of metabolism can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as blood and urine tests. Treatment for these disorders varies depending on the specific condition and may include dietary changes, medication, and other therapies. Early detection and treatment can help manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Examples of inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism include:

1. Phosphofructokinase (PFK) deficiency: This is a rare genetic disorder that affects the body's ability to break down glucose-6-phosphate, a type of sugar. Symptoms can include seizures, developmental delays, and metabolic acidosis.
2. Galactosemia: This is a group of genetic disorders that affect the body's ability to process galactose, a type of sugar found in milk and other dairy products. Untreated, galactosemia can lead to serious health problems, including liver disease, kidney damage, and cognitive impairment.
3. Glycogen storage disease type II (GSDII): This is a rare genetic disorder that affects the body's ability to store and use glycogen, a complex carbohydrate found in the liver and muscles. Symptoms can include low blood sugar, fatigue, and muscle weakness.
4. Pompe disease: This is a rare genetic disorder that affects the body's ability to break down glycogen. Symptoms can include muscle weakness, breathing problems, and heart problems.
5. Mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS): These are a group of genetic disorders that affect the body's ability to break down sugar molecules. Symptoms can include joint stiffness, developmental delays, and heart problems.

Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism can be diagnosed through blood tests, urine tests, and other diagnostic procedures. Treatment depends on the specific disorder and may involve a combination of dietary changes, medication, and other therapies.

There are several different types of weight gain, including:

1. Clinical obesity: This is defined as a BMI of 30 or higher, and is typically associated with a range of serious health problems, such as heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and certain types of cancer.
2. Central obesity: This refers to excess fat around the waistline, which can increase the risk of health problems such as heart disease and type 2 diabetes.
3. Muscle gain: This occurs when an individual gains weight due to an increase in muscle mass, rather than fat. This type of weight gain is generally considered healthy and can improve overall fitness and athletic performance.
4. Fat gain: This occurs when an individual gains weight due to an increase in body fat, rather than muscle or bone density. Fat gain can increase the risk of health problems such as heart disease and type 2 diabetes.

Weight gain can be measured using a variety of methods, including:

1. Body mass index (BMI): This is a widely used measure of weight gain that compares an individual's weight to their height. A BMI of 18.5-24.9 is considered normal, while a BMI of 25-29.9 is considered overweight, and a BMI of 30 or higher is considered obese.
2. Waist circumference: This measures the distance around an individual's waistline and can be used to assess central obesity.
3. Skinfold measurements: These involve measuring the thickness of fat at specific points on the body, such as the abdomen or thighs.
4. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA): This is a non-invasive test that uses X-rays to measure bone density and body composition.
5. Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA): This is a non-invasive test that uses electrical impulses to measure body fat percentage and other physiological parameters.

Causes of weight gain:

1. Poor diet: Consuming high amounts of processed foods, sugar, and saturated fats can lead to weight gain.
2. Lack of physical activity: Engaging in regular exercise can help burn calories and maintain a healthy weight.
3. Genetics: An individual's genetic makeup can affect their metabolism and body composition, making them more prone to weight gain.
4. Hormonal imbalances: Imbalances in hormones such as insulin, thyroid, and cortisol can contribute to weight gain.
5. Medications: Certain medications, such as steroids and antidepressants, can cause weight gain as a side effect.
6. Sleep deprivation: Lack of sleep can disrupt hormones that regulate appetite and metabolism, leading to weight gain.
7. Stress: Chronic stress can lead to emotional eating and weight gain.
8. Age: Metabolism slows down with age, making it more difficult to maintain a healthy weight.
9. Medical conditions: Certain medical conditions such as hypothyroidism, Cushing's syndrome, and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) can also contribute to weight gain.

Treatment options for obesity:

1. Lifestyle modifications: A combination of diet, exercise, and stress management techniques can help individuals achieve and maintain a healthy weight.
2. Medications: Prescription medications such as orlistat, phentermine-topiramate, and liraglutide can aid in weight loss.
3. Bariatric surgery: Surgical procedures such as gastric bypass surgery and sleeve gastrectomy can be effective for severe obesity.
4. Behavioral therapy: Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and other forms of counseling can help individuals develop healthy eating habits and improve their physical activity levels.
5. Meal replacement plans: Meal replacement plans such as Medifast can provide individuals with a structured diet that is high in protein, fiber, and vitamins, and low in calories and sugar.
6. Weight loss supplements: Supplements such as green tea extract, garcinia cambogia, and forskolin can help boost weight loss efforts.
7. Portion control: Using smaller plates and measuring cups can help individuals regulate their portion sizes and maintain a healthy weight.
8. Mindful eating: Paying attention to hunger and fullness cues, eating slowly, and savoring food can help individuals develop healthy eating habits.
9. Physical activity: Engaging in regular physical activity such as walking, running, swimming, or cycling can help individuals burn calories and maintain a healthy weight.

It's important to note that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to treating obesity, and the most effective treatment plan will depend on the individual's specific needs and circumstances. Consulting with a healthcare professional such as a registered dietitian or a physician can help individuals develop a personalized treatment plan that is safe and effective.

In hyperinsulinism, the body produces too much insulin, leading to a range of symptoms including:

1. Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar): Excessive insulin can cause blood sugar levels to drop too low, leading to hypoglycemic symptoms such as shakiness, dizziness, confusion, and rapid heartbeat.
2. Weight gain: Hyperinsulinism can lead to weight gain due to the body's inability to effectively use glucose for energy production.
3. Fatigue: Excessive insulin can cause fatigue, as the body's cells are not able to effectively use glucose for energy production.
4. Mood changes: Hyperinsulinism can lead to mood changes such as irritability, anxiety, and depression.
5. Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): Women with PCOS are at a higher risk of developing hyperinsulinism due to insulin resistance.
6. Gestational diabetes: Hyperinsulinism can occur during pregnancy, leading to gestational diabetes.
7. Acanthosis nigricans: A condition characterized by dark, velvety patches on the skin, often found in the armpits, neck, and groin area.
8. Cancer: Hyperinsulinism has been linked to an increased risk of certain types of cancer, such as breast, colon, and pancreatic cancer.
9. Cardiovascular disease: Excessive insulin can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease, including high blood pressure, heart disease, and stroke.
10. Cognitive impairment: Hyperinsulinism has been linked to cognitive impairment and an increased risk of dementia.

There are several causes of hyperinsulinism, including:

1. Insulin-producing tumors: Tumors that produce excessive amounts of insulin can lead to hyperinsulinism.
2. Familial hyperinsulinism: A genetic disorder that affects the regulation of insulin secretion and action.
3. Pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction: Dysfunction in the pancreatic beta cells, which produce insulin, can lead to hyperinsulinism.
4. Medications: Certain medications such as steroids and certain psychiatric drugs can cause hyperinsulinism.
5. Pituitary tumors: Tumors in the pituitary gland can lead to excessive secretion of growth hormone, which can stimulate insulin production.
6. Maternal diabetes during pregnancy: Women with diabetes during pregnancy may experience hyperinsulinism due to increased insulin resistance and higher insulin levels.
7. Gestational diabetes: High blood sugar during pregnancy can lead to hyperinsulinism.
8. Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): Women with PCOS may experience hyperinsulinism due to insulin resistance and high insulin levels.
9. Cushing's syndrome: An endocrine disorder caused by excessive cortisol production can lead to hyperinsulinism.
10. Other medical conditions: Certain medical conditions such as thyroid disorders, adrenal gland disorders, and pituitary gland disorders can also cause hyperinsulinism.

It's important to note that some individuals with hyperinsulinism may not experience any symptoms, while others may experience a range of symptoms, including:

1. Weight gain
2. Fatigue
3. Headaches
4. Numbness or tingling in the hands and feet
5. Memory loss and difficulty concentrating
6. Mood changes, such as anxiety and depression
7. Skin problems, such as acne and thinning skin
8. Increased risk of heart disease and stroke
9. Growth retardation in children
10. Increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes

If you suspect that you or your child may have hyperinsulinism, it's important to consult with a healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and treatment. A doctor may perform a physical examination, take a medical history, and order blood tests to determine if hyperinsulinism is present and what may be causing it. Treatment options for hyperinsulinism will depend on the underlying cause of the condition. In some cases, medications such as metformin or other anti-diabetic drugs may be prescribed to help regulate blood sugar levels and reduce insulin production. In other cases, surgery or lifestyle changes may be necessary. With proper diagnosis and treatment, it is possible to manage hyperinsulinism and prevent or manage related health complications.

Types of Experimental Diabetes Mellitus include:

1. Streptozotocin-induced diabetes: This type of EDM is caused by administration of streptozotocin, a chemical that damages the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, leading to high blood sugar levels.
2. Alloxan-induced diabetes: This type of EDM is caused by administration of alloxan, a chemical that also damages the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas.
3. Pancreatectomy-induced diabetes: In this type of EDM, the pancreas is surgically removed or damaged, leading to loss of insulin production and high blood sugar levels.

Experimental Diabetes Mellitus has several applications in research, including:

1. Testing new drugs and therapies for diabetes treatment: EDM allows researchers to evaluate the effectiveness of new treatments on blood sugar control and other physiological processes.
2. Studying the pathophysiology of diabetes: By inducing EDM in animals, researchers can study the progression of diabetes and its effects on various organs and tissues.
3. Investigating the role of genetics in diabetes: Researchers can use EDM to study the effects of genetic mutations on diabetes development and progression.
4. Evaluating the efficacy of new diagnostic techniques: EDM allows researchers to test new methods for diagnosing diabetes and monitoring blood sugar levels.
5. Investigating the complications of diabetes: By inducing EDM in animals, researchers can study the development of complications such as retinopathy, nephropathy, and cardiovascular disease.

In conclusion, Experimental Diabetes Mellitus is a valuable tool for researchers studying diabetes and its complications. The technique allows for precise control over blood sugar levels and has numerous applications in testing new treatments, studying the pathophysiology of diabetes, investigating the role of genetics, evaluating new diagnostic techniques, and investigating complications.

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Harper, Harold (1942). "Carbohydrate Metabolism in Thiamine Deficiency" (PDF). The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 142: 239- ... Since glucose metabolism is regulated by thiamine, the overconsumption of glucose can also result in thiamine inadequacy. When ... Thiamine (vitamin B1) is a key chemical in glucose metabolism that, when deficient, is most threatening to neurological ... are enzymes that readily cleave thiamine molecules and inhibit essential thiamine-regulated pathways such as the metabolism of ...

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"Studies on intermediate carbohydrate metabolism by R. T. Woodyatt". The Harvey Lectures, delivered under the auspices of the ... He graduated with a B.S. in 1906 from the University of Chicago, where he studied carbohydrate metabolism under John Ulric Nef ... reprinted in: "Studies on Intermediate Carbohydrate Metabolism by Dr. R. T. Woodyatt". Studies from the Otho S.A. Sprague ... p. 39 & p. 306 Murlin, John R. (September 1933). "Some aspects of carbohydrate metabolism" (PDF). The Ohio Journal of Science. ...

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ISBN 978-0-7817-4990-9. Goudsmit EM (1972). "Carbohydrates and carbohydrate metabolism in Mollusca". In Florkin M, Scheer BT ( ... It is the chief form of carbohydrate stored in animal body. It is insoluble in water. It turns brown-red when mixed with iodine ... These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists. Ruminants and termites, for example, use ... Most plants that synthesize and store inulin do not store other forms of carbohydrate such as starch. In the United States in ...

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Engelking LR (2015). "Chapter 31 - Carbohydrate Metabolism in Erythrocytes". Textbook of Veterinary Physiological Chemistry ( ... Jiménez RT, Puig JG (2012). "Purine Metabolism in the Pathogenesis of Hyperuricemia and Inborn Errors of Purine Metabolism ... and Single-Carbon Metabolism". Elsevier's Integrated Review Biochemistry (2nd ed.). pp. 119-124. doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-07446- ... Phosphoribosyltransferase Mechanisms and Roles in Nucleic Acid Metabolism. Progress in Nucleic Acid Research and Molecular ...

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Kinetin and carbohydrate metabolism in Chinese cabbages. Plant Physiology, 47:562-567 (1971). doi: 10.1104/pp.47.4.562 Berridge ... Cell Metabolism. 29: 399-416 (2019). doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2018.10.014. Grasso C, Eccles DA, Boukalova S, Fabre M-S, Dawson RH, ... Berridge shifted his research focus to glucose metabolism. Research from 2009 to 2015, in collaboration Professor Jiri Neuzil ( ... Zealand Liley Medal in 2016 for an outstanding contribution to health and medical sciences in the field of cellular metabolism ...

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While at the Institute the Coris' research focused on carbohydrate metabolism, leading to the definition of the Cori cycle in ... Carl and Gerti Cori and Carbohydrate Metabolism Archived 2013-01-12 at archive.today from American Chemical Society National ... Prize for Alberto Bernardo Houssay for discovery on the role of the hypophysis in carbohydrate metabolism". Wiadomosci ... "Carl and Gerti Cori and Carbohydrate Metabolism". American Chemical Society. Archived from the original on January 12, 2013. ...

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Glycoside hydrolase enzymes hydrolyse the glycosidic bond between two or more carbohydrates, or between a carbohydrate and a ... This is a key enzyme in glycogen metabolism and its gene localizes to a chromosomal region (15q15) that is associated with ... Drug Metabolism and Disposition. 20 (2): 309-15. PMID 1352226. Fenouillet E, Gluckman JC (Aug 1991). "Effect of a glucosidase ... non-carbohydrate moiety. This gene encodes a member of glycosyl hydrolases family 31. This enzyme hydrolyses terminal, non- ...

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The production of methane is an important and widespread form of microbial metabolism. In anoxic environments, it is the final ... CO2 During anaerobic respiration of carbohydrates, H2 and acetate are formed in a ratio of 2:1 or lower, so H2 contributes only ...

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Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units. Carbohydrates are usually taken into cells after ... Metabolism Look up metabolism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Metabolism. General ... The metabolism of cancer cells is also different from the metabolism of normal cells, and these differences can be used to find ... Brosnan JT (April 2000). "Glutamate, at the interface between amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism". The Journal of Nutrition ...

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"Organisms usually extract energy in the form of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. These polymers have a dual role as ... basic to metabolism.": 1230-1231 The units in energy flow webs are typically a measure mass or energy per m2 per unit time. ...

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HIV infection can affect the production of hormones that interfere with the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. In ...

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Lynch RM, Paul RJ (March 1987). "Compartmentation of carbohydrate metabolism in vascular smooth muscle". The American Journal ... Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. 32 (7): 1222-32. doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2012.35. PMC 3390818. PMID 22434069. Sanders ...

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January 2020). "AMPK, a Regulator of Metabolism and Autophagy, Is Activated by Lysosomal Damage via a Novel Galectin-Directed ... The protein has N- and C- terminal carbohydrate-binding domains connected by a link peptide. Multiple alternatively spliced ... including metabolism, obesity, diabetes, cancer, immune responses, and may be a part of the mechanism of action of the widely- ...

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However, depending on the nutrients the agar is supplemented with, different media can alter the oxidative metabolism profile ... Cunninghamella echinulata is able to grow on orange rind and assimilate carbohydrates into necessary biomolecules, where the ... trypticase soy medium or peptone broth at a pH of 8 yielded 0 μg/ml of breakdown products from the metabolism of rac-mexiletine ... "Stereoselective metabolism of rac-mexiletine by the fungus Cunninghamella echinulata yields the major human metabolites ...

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Metabolism, or the processes within living cells or organisms to maintain life, is affected by the sympathoadrenal system, ... Under normal conditions, adrenal hormone receptors, type I and type II, mediate the storage of carbohydrates and fats during ... As for fat metabolism, the catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) help stimulate lipolysis (the breakdown of fat) ... This explains the need for exercise to help increase the body's metabolism.[citation needed] Hypoglycemia, or low blood glucose ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathoadrenal_system

... carbohydrates and lignin-humic compounds) break down due to the increase in temperature and pressure. This transformation ... in newly formed aquatic sediments is mediated by microorganisms using different electron acceptors as part of their metabolism ...

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"TPhP exposure disturbs carbohydrate metabolism, lipid metabolism, and the DNA damage repair system in zebrafish liver". ... metabolism, and internal exposure research". Chemosphere. 153: 78-90. Bibcode:2016Chmsp.153...78H. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere. ...

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Foreign Compound Metabolism in Mammals. Volume 1: A Review of the Literature Published between 1960 and 1969. London: The ... a metabolic pathway that leads to the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon sources (i.e. glucogenic amino acids, ...

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... to trimeric autotransporter adhesins and the second has enzymes genomically linked to ribosome and carbohydrate metabolism ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-glycosyltransferase

At Cornell he studied the uptake and metabolism of ammonia in cyanobacteria. In 1984, upon completing his postdoctoral studies ... "Evidence for the involvement of surface carbohydrates in the recognition of Haematococcus pluvialis by the parasitic blastoclad ... focusing on the role of the biliprotein picocyanin C and the influence of environmental factors on its metabolism, under the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammy_Boussiba

Up to 19 types of permease exist to transport various carbohydrates with 13 being ATP-binding cassette transporters. B. longum ... The high number of genes associated with oligosaccharide metabolism is a result of gene duplication and horizontal gene ... the three original species were phenotypically difficult to distinguish due to different carbohydrate fermentation patterns ...

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ISBN 978-3-642-13865-2. Okar DA, Lange AJ (1999). "Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate and control of carbohydrate metabolism in ... Yao J, Rock CO (November 2017). "Bacterial fatty acid metabolism in modern antibiotic discovery". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta ... Plaxton WC (2004). "Principles of Metabolic Control". In Storey KB (ed.). Functional Metabolism: Regulation and Adaptation. ... is often a regulatory feature in metabolism and can be a form of negative feedback. Slow-tight inhibition occurs when the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor

Metabolism can drop to one-eighth of the normal rate. Echidnas begin to prepare for hibernation between February and April, ... The principal carbohydrate components of the milk are fucosyllactose and saialyllactose; it has a high iron content, which ... In contrast to other mammals, echidna rates of reproduction and metabolism are lower, and they live longer, as though in slow ... The echidna is endothermic, and can maintain body temperatures of around 32 °C. It can also reduce its metabolism and heart ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-beaked_echidna

Heldt, Hans-Walter; Piechulla, Birgit (2011), "Polysaccharides are storage and transport forms of carbohydrates produced by ... "1-Kestose supplementation mitigates the progressive deterioration of glucose metabolism in type 2 diabetes OLETF rats". ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kestose

This enzyme participates in glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism. It employs one cofactor, thiamin diphosphate (TPP), and ... plays a key role in catabolism of oxalate, a highly toxic compound that is a product of the oxidation of carbohydrates in many ... "The enzymes of oxalate metabolism: unexpected structures and mechanisms". Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 433 (1): 176 ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxalyl-CoA_decarboxylase

One of zinc's important roles is to change the cell's metabolism to produce citrate, an important semen component. The process ... Little if any evidence associates trans fat, saturated fat, and carbohydrate intake and prostate cancer. Evidence does not ... Costello LC, Franklin RB (June 1998). "Novel role of zinc in the regulation of prostate citrate metabolism and its implications ... Costello LC, Franklin RB (May 2006). "The clinical relevance of the metabolism of prostate cancer; zinc and tumor suppression: ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostate_cancer

If this is indeed the case, it could result in a greater tendency for muscle fatigue, should the carbohydrate stores become ... Stein, TP; Leskiw, MJ; Schluter, MD (July 1996). "Diet and nitrogen metabolism during spaceflight on the shuttle". Journal of ... Smirnov, KV; Rubinova, LG; Afonin, BV; Noskov, VB; Kravchenko, VV (May-June 1991). "[Functional carbohydrate test during 237- ... In contrast, experimental evidence suggests that the specific activity of muscle enzymes involved in oxidative metabolism, such ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiological_effects_in_space

As a component of the human gut flora, it can use both dietary carbohydrates and those sourced from the host, depending on ... "A high-resolution transcriptome map identifies small RNA regulation of metabolism in the gut microbe Bacteroides ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteroides_thetaiotaomicron

The main mechanism of toxicity with crimidine is that it inhibits vitamin B6, which is used in the metabolism of carbohydrates ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimidine

"Effects of epinephrine on carbohydrate metabolism in underfed and ad libitum fed rats". Am J Physiol. 190 (2): 239-42. doi: ... glucose metabolism (with N. Halmi), prostate cancer (R. Flocks), and hereditary hematuria (W.W. McCrory). Others who influenced ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_M._Opitz

Dextrose is a source of fermentable carbohydrate. The eggs and beef serum cause the medium to coagulate during the ... sterilization process and are sources of protein which are used for metabolism of the corynebacteria and other organisms. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Löffler's_medium

It deals with the structure and function of cellular components such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and ... cotransport metabolism - covalent bond - covalent radius - CpG island - cristae - cryptobiology - crystal structure - ... carbohydrate - carbon - carbon fixation - carboxylic acid - carcinoembryonic antigen - carrier - carrier protein - CAS registry ... metabolism - metabotropic glutamate receptor - metalloprotein - metaphase - metazoa - methionine - micelle - Michaelis-Menten ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles

1967). "Brain Metabolism during Fasting". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 46 (10): 1589-1595. doi:10.1172/JCI105650. PMC ... Ketogenesis occurs if oxaloacetate in the liver cells is depleted, a circumstance created by reduced carbohydrate intake ( ... "Butanoate metabolism - Reference pathway". Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes. Kanehisa Laboratories. 1 November 2017. ... D-β-hydroxybutyrate can be synthesized in the liver via the metabolism of fatty acids (e.g., butyrate), β-hydroxy β- ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-Hydroxybutyric_acid

Ingredients that have an adequate amount of carbohydrates and are high in insoluble fibers (typically around 10%), such as soy ... plays a major role in calcium absorption and bone health because it helps to maintain calcium homeostasis and bone metabolism. ... digestive tract and provide a source of phosphorus and allows the undeposited calcium to be available for whole body metabolism ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_health_diets_for_dogs

Inborn error of metabolism Terrie M. Rooney, ed. (1998). Contemporary Authors. Vol. 161. Gale / Cengage Learning. ISBN ... in 1956 for her work on nucleotides and complex carbohydrates. Neufeld has been widely recognized for her contributions to ... Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry,Academic Press,Volume 18,1963,Pages 309-356,ISSN 0096-5332,ISBN 9780120072187, https://doi. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_F._Neufeld

These ~172-kDa proteins are dimers of AB toxins, each composed of a carbohydrate-binding protein of the tachylectin family ( ... where alters the calcium metabolism and causes neuron apoptosis. Apart from its neurotoxicity, it has been recently shown that ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perivitellin-2

Carbohydrate metabolism disorders are a group of metabolic disorders. Normally your enzymes break carbohydrates down into ... Metabolism is the process your body uses to make energy from the food you eat. Food is made up of proteins, carbohydrates, and ... ClinicalTrials.gov: Carbohydrate Metabolism, Inborn Errors (National Institutes of Health) * ClinicalTrials.gov: ... glucose (a type of sugar). If you have one of these disorders, you may not have enough enzymes to break down the carbohydrates ...

https://medlineplus.gov/carbohydratemetabolismdisorders.html

Effects of combined treatment with rosiglitazone and intermediate-acting insulin on carbohydrate metabolism in patients with ... The combined treatment produced positive changes in lipid metabolism: total cholesterol decreased from 6.37 +/- 0.36 to 5.67 ...

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19227906/?dopt=Abstract

Because carbohydrate is the major secretagogue of insulin, some form of carbohydrate restriction is a prima facie candidate for ... These data show low carbohydrate diets to be comparable or better than traditional low fat high carbohydrate diets for weight ... Some form of low carbohydrate diet, in combination with exercise, is a viable option for patients with diabetes. However, the ... Furthermore, the ability of low carbohydrate diets to reduce triglycerides and to increase HDL is of particular importance. ...

https://nutritionandmetabolism.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1743-7075-2-16

Carbohydrate metabolism describes all processes of absorption, transport and degradation of carbohydrates. Its most important ... In addition to glucose, carbohydrate metabolism also includes the metabolism of fructose and galactose, among others. ... OME - Optimal Metabolism. € 42,00. Add to cart. * AUS-AHP - Herbicides, Pesticides, Fungicides, Insecticides. € 42,00. Add to ...

https://www.akuryprodukte.de/en/shop/stw-02-carbohydrate-metabolism/

CRC Press, 1985. Description: 2vISBN: 0849352622; 0849352630Subject(s): Carbohydrates -- metabolismNLM classification: QU 75 ... Regulation of carbohydrate metabolism / editor, Rivka Beitner. Contributor(s): Beitner, RivkaMaterial type: TextPublication ...

https://kohahq.searo.who.int/cgi-bin/koha/opac-search.pl?q=ccl=Provider%3ACRC%20Press%20%3A&sort_by=relevance_dsc&count=20&limit=su-to:Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate metabolism disorder is a severe systemic disease leading to the development of a full range of metabolic disorders ... Objective - investigate glucose, fructose, and galactose levels in saliva of patients with impaired carbohydrate metabolism and ... INVESTIGATION OF THE LEVEL OF MONOSACCHARIDES IN SALIVA OF PATIENTS WITH IMPAIRED CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM. ... in the quantitative and qualitative content of monosaccharides in saliva are determined by the type of carbohydrate metabolism ...

https://pesquisa.bvsalud.org/portal/resource/pt/mdl-37419464

This study investigated the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism through changes in skeletal muscle cell volume immediately ... The influence of skeletal muscle cell volume on carbohydrate metabolism in contracting skeletal muscle. ...

https://dr.library.brocku.ca/handle/10464/1660

... in H2-treated rats revealed alteration of amino acid metabolism pathways and activation of purine nucleotides and carbohydrate ... transcriptomic data to uncover molecular targets for the effect of prolonged molecular hydrogen treatment on liver metabolism. ... H2 influences liver metabolism of lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, and nucleic acids. We recently found that H2-treated rats ... suggesting that H2-induced alteration of liver metabolism could affect the whole-body metabolism and, therefore, body condition ...

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-07710-6?fbclid=IwAR0dCuc3kMCjvbgGz5YBb3wF7lruybL4bAGp4Qtl1I7-atEPznVTngZIhDc&error=cookies_not_supported&code=b3102452-5121-4444-b09a-f427610a3f0e

Impact of increased growth hormone secretion on carbohydrate metabolism in adolescents with diabetes. ... 3-Hydroxybutyric Acid, Adolescent, Carbohydrate Metabolism, Carrier Proteins, Child, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1, Female, Growth ... Impact of increased growth hormone secretion on carbohydrate metabolism in adolescents with diabetes. ...

https://www.rdm.ox.ac.uk/publications/72817?d897cfcb-0023-11ee-be50-064cbb69e63c

Disorders of Carbohydrate Metabolism * Genetics of Glycogen Storage Disease Type VI (Hers Disease) ... Changes of liver metabolite concentrations in adults with disorders of fructose metabolism after intravenous fructose by 31P ... Division of Pediatric Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center ...

https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/943882-medication

... nucleotide metabolism and transport; G, carbohydrate metabolism and transport; H, coenzyme metabolism; I, lipid metabolism; J, ... inorganic ion transport and metabolism; Q, secondary metabolism; T, signal transduction; U, intracellular trafficking and ...

https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/24/8/18-0151-f7

Effects of somatostatin-25 and urotensin II on lipid and carbohydrate metabolism of coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch. In: ... Dive into the research topics of Effects of somatostatin-25 and urotensin II on lipid and carbohydrate metabolism of coho ... Effects of somatostatin-25 and urotensin II on lipid and carbohydrate metabolism of coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch. / ... Effects of somatostatin-25 and urotensin II on lipid and carbohydrate metabolism of coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch. ...

https://scholars.ttu.edu/en/publications/effects-of-somatostatin-25-and-urotensin-ii-on-lipid-and-carbohyd

Modulation of the Activity of Enzymes Involved in Carbohydrate Metabolism during Flower Development of Grapevine ( Vitis ... Modulation of the Activity of Enzymes Involved in Carbohydrate Metabolism during Flower Development of Grapevine ( Vitis ...

https://hal.univ-reims.fr/hal-02945209

Gene-centric view of carbohydrate metabolism in quintessential herbivorous fishes from the Red Sea. *David Ngugi (Creator) ... Gene-centric view of carbohydrate metabolism in quintessential herbivorous fishes from the Red Sea. NCBI. ...

https://academia.kaust.edu.sa/en/datasets/gene-centric-view-of-carbohydrate-metabolism-in-quintessential-he-2

carbohydrate derivative metabolism. cell differentiation. cell population proliferation. cellular component organization. ...

https://www.informatics.jax.org/marker/MGI:104708

Steroidal contraceptives: effect on carbohydrate metabolism in women without diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009 ... Oral contraceptive use and glucose metabolism in a national sample of women in the united states. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;183: ... Effects of injectable or implantable progestin-only contraceptives on insulin-glucose metabolism and diabetes risk. Diabetes ... hemostatic parameters and carbohydrate metabolism. Contraception 2005;71:409-16. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception ...

https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/contraception/mmwr/spr/references.html

... lacZ and lacIIABC and analyzed the resulting strains of CJ18 to confirm the redirection of lactose metabolism via LacS and LacZ ... The presence of lacS and lacZ genes is the major dairy adaptation affecting lactose metabolism pathways also due to the ... Carbohydrate metabolism. Carbohydrate transport in bacteria is frequently mediated via phosphotransferase systems (PTSs). PTS ... Lee R, Molsknes T, Sandine WE, Elliker PR: Carbohydrate metabolism in lactic streptococci: fate of galactose supplied in free ...

https://bmcgenomics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2164-14-200

Metabolism; Carbohydrate metabolism. Pathway map. rn00030 Pentose phosphate pathway. Ortholog table. Module. M00004 Pentose ...

https://www.genome.jp/dbget-bin/www_bget?rn00030

Carbohydrate metabolism; tricarboxylic acid cycle; fumarate from succinate (eukaryal route): step 1/1. ... Metabolism. Developmental Biology. By research area. Immunology. Microbiology. Neuroscience. Signal Transduction. Stem Cells. ...

https://www.abcam.com/products/proteins-peptides/recombinant-human-sdha-protein-tagged-ab226268.html?accordion=Documents

2. Regulation of core metabolism. Carbohydrate metabolism: long-term regulation of glucose utilisation, enzyme-level control of ... Amino acid metabolism: control of protein turnover, nitrogen handling, links to nucleic acid metabolism, amino acid oxidation, ... Overview of metabolism: functions and end-products, anabolism and catabolism, energy metabolism; concepts of metabolic control. ... Discuss how metabolism is coordinated in mammals, and explain how disturbances in metabolism contribute to disease. ...

https://www.manchester.ac.uk/study/undergraduate/courses/2023/00613/bsc-molecular-biology-with-a-modern-language/course-details/BIOL21132

The same subspecies exhibits expansion of its carbohydrate metabolism gene repertoire including the acquisition of a genomic ... ErEurope strains have a distinct carbohydrate metabolism gene repertoire. To investigate whether carbohydrate metabolism gene ... Experimental assessment of carbohydrate metabolism. The E. rectale strains were pre-grown overnight on M2GSC medium and ... To understand in what way the carbohydrate metabolism of ErEurope strains has diverged from the other subspecies, we computed ...

https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-020-02042-y

... carbohydrate metabolism and bone disease in cystic fibrosis; endocrine disorders associated with childhood cancer survivors; ...

https://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/research/divisions/e/endocrinology

Mucopolysaccharidoses see Carbohydrate Metabolism Disorders * Niemann-Pick Disease see Genetic Brain Disorders ...

https://medlineplus.gov/metabolicproblems.html

Glucose measurements are used in the diagnosis and treatment of pancreatic islet cell carcinoma and of carbohydrate metabolism ... Glucose measurements are used in the diagnosis and treatment of carbohydrate metabolism disorders. ... and other diseases involving lipid metabolism and various endocrine disorders and in the treatment of patients with these ... other diseases involving lipid metabolism and various endocrine disorders as well as other metabolic or nutritional disorders. ...

https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2007-2008/BIOPRO_E.htm

Biological Process: carbohydrate metabolism (GO:0005975). 84. 5. 129031. Glycoside transferase. six-hairpin. subgroup. Six- ... Biological Process: carbohydrate metabolism (GO:0005975). 57. *i value: controls inflation, a process to dissipate family ... Biological Process: carbohydrate metabolism (GO:0005975). 149. 2. 118491. Six-hairpin glycosidase. Glycoside hydrolase. family ...

https://www.sgn.cornell.edu/search/unigene.pl?unigene_id=SGN-U324260

Inherited Disorders of Metabolism: Carbohydrate Metabolism Disorders. February 2010. (Aug. 26, 2010) http://www.merck.com/mmpe ... Inherited Disorders of Metabolism: Approach to the Patient With a Suspected Inherited Disorder of Metabolism. February 2010. ( ... Enzyme Replacement as an Effective Treatment for the Common Symptoms of Complex Carbohydrate Intolerance. Nutrition in ...

https://health.howstuffworks.com/wellness/men/sweating-odor/lactose-and-body-odor.htm

Carbohydrate metabolism and tuber dormancy Read more…. Mina Kyriacos - Agricultural Research Officer (Cultivar Registration ...

http://www.moa.gov.cy/moa/ari/ari.nsf/page13_en/page13_en?OpenDocument&ExpandSection=10%2C6%2C3%2C19%2C16%2C26%2C9%2C7

Changes in Carbohydrate Metabolism in Plasmopara viticola-Infected Grapevine Leaves. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions 24, ... Biosynthesis, metabolism, molecular engineering, and biological functions of stilbene phytoalexins in plants. BioFactors 36, ... Osmotic stress-induced change in polyamine metabolism can modulate grapevine defense responses and resistance to Botrytis ...

https://www.univ-reims.fr/ribp/nos-publications/nos-publications-en-2010-2011/nos-publications-en-2010-2011,22571,37677.html

Normally your enzymes break carbohydrates down into glucose (a type of sugar). (medlineplus.gov)
Compliance with these lifestyle modifications is less than satisfactory, however, and a high carbohydrate diet raises postprandial plasma glucose and insulin secretion, thereby increasing risk of CVD, hypertension, dyslipidemia, obesity and diabetes. (biomedcentral.com)
In addition to glucose, carbohydrate metabolism also includes the metabolism of fructose and galactose, among others. (akuryprodukte.de)
Objective - investigate glucose , fructose , and galactose levels in saliva of patients with impaired carbohydrate metabolism and establish a relationship with blood plasma parameters . (bvsalud.org)
long-term regulation of glucose utilisation, enzyme-level control of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, links to fatty acid metabolism, glycogen turnover, sugar interconversions and the citric acid cycle. (manchester.ac.uk)
Glucose measurements are used in the diagnosis and treatment of pancreatic islet cell carcinoma and of carbohydrate metabolism disorders, including diabetes mellitus, neonatal hypoglycemia, and idiopathic hypoglycemia. (cdc.gov)
These agents lower postprandial glucose by slowing glucose absorption and delaying the hydrolysis of ingested complex carbohydrates and disaccharide. (medscape.com)
Macromineral enrichment of refined carbohydrates may have a promising role in lowering postprandial glucose and triglycerides, and thus decrease their negative health consequences. (who.int)
therefore, serum tri- spectively ( 3 ), and are known to improve postprandial glyceride (TG) levels are expected to increase in a setting glucose and insulin metabolism ( 4 , 5 ). (who.int)

Carbohydrate metabolism disorders are a group of metabolic disorders. (medlineplus.gov)
If you have one of these disorders, you may not have enough enzymes to break down the carbohydrates. (medlineplus.gov)
Carbohydrate metabolism disorder is a severe systemic disease leading to the development of a full range of metabolic disorders, accompanied by obesity , vascular pathology , connective tissue damage. (bvsalud.org)
Changes of liver metabolite concentrations in adults with disorders of fructose metabolism after intravenous fructose by 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy. (medscape.com)
This battery of measurements are used in the diagnosis and treatment of certain liver, heart, and kidney diseases, acid-base imbalance in the respiratory and metabolic systems, other diseases involving lipid metabolism and various endocrine disorders as well as other metabolic or nutritional disorders. (cdc.gov)
Inherited Disorders of Metabolism: Approach to the Patient With a Suspected Inherited Disorder of Metabolism. (howstuffworks.com)

Because carbohydrate is the major secretagogue of insulin, some form of carbohydrate restriction is a prima facie candidate for dietary control of diabetes. (biomedcentral.com)
These data show low carbohydrate diets to be comparable or better than traditional low fat high carbohydrate diets for weight reduction, improvement in the dyslipidemia of diabetes and metabolic syndrome as well as control of blood pressure, postprandial glycemia and insulin secretion. (biomedcentral.com)
Macleod's main work was on carbohydrate metabolism and his efforts with Frederick Banting and Charles Best in the discovery of insulin. (biographybase.com)

In this review, we discuss the current evidence for a low carbohydrate diet versus a low fat diet in the management of people with diabetes, highlighting the potential role of low carbohydrate diet in ameliorating various metabolic abnormalities associated with diabetes. (biomedcentral.com)
You will learn about diseases caused by defects in metabolism, such as diabetes, which will emphasise the importance of metabolic control. (manchester.ac.uk)
Diseases caused by defects in metabolism will be studied to emphasise the importance of metabolic control. (manchester.ac.uk)

This work is the first to provide metabolomic and transcriptomic data to uncover molecular targets for the effect of prolonged molecular hydrogen treatment on liver metabolism. (nature.com)

A low fat, high carbohydrate diet in combination with regular exercise is the traditional recommendation for treating diabetes. (biomedcentral.com)
Moreover, the current epidemic of diabetes and obesity has been, over the past three decades, accompanied by a significant decrease in fat consumption and an increase in carbohydrate consumption. (biomedcentral.com)
Some form of low carbohydrate diet, in combination with exercise, is a viable option for patients with diabetes. (biomedcentral.com)
Impact of increased growth hormone secretion on carbohydrate metabolism in adolescents with diabetes. (ox.ac.uk)

Both transcripts and metabolites enriched in H 2 -treated rats revealed alteration of amino acid metabolism pathways and activation of purine nucleotides and carbohydrate biosynthesis pathways. (nature.com)
starch/sugar metabolism and fermentation for biofuels, storage lipid biosynthesis: regulation and applications. (manchester.ac.uk)
Cellular processes in biosynthesis (anabolism) and degradation (catabolism) of CARBOHYDRATES. (bvsalud.org)

A number of endogenous systems, such as the aerobic metabolism and electron transport chains, generate highly reactive molecules with important biological functions known as reactive oxygen species (ROS), including superoxide and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). (bvsalud.org)

control of protein turnover, nitrogen handling, links to nucleic acid metabolism, amino acid oxidation, integration with citric acid cycle. (manchester.ac.uk)

Regulation of carbohydrate metabolism / editor, Rivka Beitner. (who.int)
This study investigated the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism through changes in skeletal muscle cell volume immediately post contraction and during recovery. (brocku.ca)

Carbohydrate metabolism describes all processes of absorption, transport and degradation of carbohydrates. (akuryprodukte.de)

Over the past few decades, there have gradual but signif- in carbohydrate phosphorylation and oxidation, such icant changes in eating behaviour worldwide in light of as protein kinases and phosphatases. (who.int)

Modulation of the Activity of Enzymes Involved in Carbohydrate Metabolism during Flower Development of Grapevine ( Vitis Vinifera L. (univ-reims.fr)
Modulation of the Activity of Enzymes Involved in Carbohydrate Metabolism during Flower Development of Grapevine ( Vitis Vinifera L. ). Open Journal of Plant Science , 2016, 1 (1), pp.010-017. (univ-reims.fr)
Osmotic stress-induced change in polyamine metabolism can modulate grapevine defense responses and resistance to Botrytis cinerea . (univ-reims.fr)

To provide students with an understanding of the essential features of cellular metabolism, and the mechanisms through which metabolism is controlled. (manchester.ac.uk)
Describe the key features of cellular metabolism, including central catabolic and anabolic pathways. (manchester.ac.uk)
Explain how different control mechanisms may be integrated to coordinate cellular metabolism, with reference to specific examples. (manchester.ac.uk)

Food is made up of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. (medlineplus.gov)

The presence of lacS and lacZ genes is the major dairy adaptation affecting lactose metabolism pathways also due to the disruption of lacIIABC . (biomedcentral.com)

This apparent failure of low fat diets in curbing the obesity pandemic calls into question the effectiveness and long-term usefulness of such dietary recommendation and has led to renewed interest in alternative dietary interventions, notably those recommending reduced carbohydrate intake. (biomedcentral.com)

Differences in the quantitative and qualitative content of monosaccharides in saliva are determined by the type of carbohydrate metabolism disorder. (bvsalud.org)

Furthermore, the ability of low carbohydrate diets to reduce triglycerides and to increase HDL is of particular importance. (biomedcentral.com)

The same subspecies exhibits expansion of its carbohydrate metabolism gene repertoire including the acquisition of a genomic island strongly enriched in glycosyltransferase genes involved in exopolysaccharide synthesis. (biomedcentral.com)

It is important to understand that there is no clear cut definition of a low carbohydrate diet in the literature. (biomedcentral.com)

Within the framework of the study, a protocol was formed containing the values of anthropometric indices and assessments of body parameters , the results of the study of lipid and carbohydrate spectrum parameters in plasma . (bvsalud.org)

Metabolism is the process your body uses to make energy from the food you eat. (medlineplus.gov)

Heterogeneous growth in the Nile tilapia: social stress and carbohydrate metabolism. (bvsalud.org)

E. rectale produces butyrate and other short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) from carbohydrates not directly accessible by the host, which play a role in promoting intestinal health in the host [ 4 ]. (biomedcentral.com)

2 ) strongly emphasize the importance of reducing sim- would ultimately favour the onset and development of ple carbohydrates. (who.int)

Enzyme Replacement as an Effective Treatment for the Common Symptoms of Complex Carbohydrate Intolerance. (howstuffworks.com)

Nous avons génotypé les deux polymorphismes mononucléotidiques du gène ADIPOQ chez 140 patients atteints de DNID sans lien de parenté et 66 témoins non diabétiques en recourant à l'analyse du polymorphisme de longueur des fragments de restriction par réaction en chaîne de polymérase. (who.int)

variations during pregnancy affect lipid metabolism. (who.int)

Discuss how metabolism is coordinated in mammals, and explain how disturbances in metabolism contribute to disease. (manchester.ac.uk)

Anatomy17

Organisms19

Diseases11

Chemicals and Drugs118

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment22

Psychiatry and Psychology1

Phenomena and Processes69

Disciplines and Occupations1

Anthropology, Education, Sociology and Social Phenomena2

Technology, Industry, Agriculture9

Information Science6

Health Care3

Role of glutamine in human carbohydrate metabolism in kidney and other tissues. (1/3923)

Relationship between glycosyl hydrolase inventory and growth physiology of the hyperthermophile Pyrococcus furiosus on carbohydrate-based media. (2/3923)

Glucose kinetics during prolonged exercise in highly trained human subjects: effect of glucose ingestion. (3/3923)

Conversion of brain-specific complex type sugar chains by N-acetyl-beta-D-hexosaminidase B. (4/3923)

Sugar- and nitrogen-dependent regulation of an Amanita muscaria phenylalanine ammonium lyase gene. (5/3923)

Characterisation of recombinant glycosylation variants of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3. (6/3923)

Prevalence of undiagnosed diabetes and abnormalities of carbohydrate metabolism in a U.S. Army population. (7/3923)

Outer membranes of gram-negative bacteria. XIX. Isolation from Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 and use in reconstitution and definition of the permeability barrier. (8/3923)

Carbohydrate Metabolism

Carbohydrates

Dietary Carbohydrates

Glucose

Lipid Metabolism

Energy Metabolism

Glycolysis

Starch

Glycogen

Carbohydrate Sequence

Lactates

Blood Glucose

Insulin

Liver

Gluconeogenesis

Trehalose

Liver Glycogen

Fructose

Carbohydrate Conformation

Lactic Acid

Hexoses

Sucrose

Phosphoglucomutase

Phosphofructokinase-1

Pentose Phosphate Pathway

Citric Acid Cycle

Phosphofructokinases

Glucose Tolerance Test

Molecular Sequence Data

Carbon Isotopes

Pyruvates

Galactose

Thermoproteus

Oxidation-Reduction

Plant Tubers

beta-Fructofuranosidase

Gene Expression Profiling

Pyruvate Kinase

Metabolic Networks and Pathways

Fructosediphosphates

Fatty Acids, Nonesterified

Oxygen Consumption

Fatty Acids

Carbon

Fermentation

Carbon Dioxide

Polysaccharides

Starvation

Dietary Fats

Plant Leaves

Gene Expression Regulation, Plant

Metabolism

Pyruvic Acid

Photosynthesis

Glucagon

Triglycerides

Kinetics

Phosphorylases

Fasting

Pentosephosphates

Lipids

Mannose

Glycerol

Fructose-Bisphosphate Aldolase

Fructose-Bisphosphatase

Oligosaccharides

Nitrogen

Glycoside Hydrolases

Glycerol Kinase

Contraceptives, Oral, Sequential

Antigens, Tumor-Associated, Carbohydrate

Hexosephosphates

Glucosyltransferases

Amino Acid Sequence

Diet

Body Weight

Time Factors

Muscle, Skeletal

Oligonucleotide Array Sequence Analysis

Lectins