The urea concentration of the blood stated in terms of nitrogen content. Serum (plasma) urea nitrogen is approximately 12% higher than blood urea nitrogen concentration because of the greater protein content of red blood cells. Increases in blood or serum urea nitrogen are referred to as azotemia and may have prerenal, renal, or postrenal causes. (From Saunders Dictionary & Encyclopedia of Laboratory Medicine and Technology, 1984)
A compound formed in the liver from ammonia produced by the deamination of amino acids. It is the principal end product of protein catabolism and constitutes about one half of the total urinary solids.
Creatinine is a waste product that's generated from muscle metabolism, typically filtered through the kidneys and released in urine, with increased levels in blood indicating impaired kidney function.
Body organ that filters blood for the secretion of URINE and that regulates ion concentrations.
Abrupt reduction in kidney function. Acute kidney injury encompasses the entire spectrum of the syndrome including acute kidney failure; ACUTE KIDNEY TUBULAR NECROSIS; and other less severe conditions.
Laboratory tests used to evaluate how well the kidneys are working through examination of blood and urine.
Pathological processes of the KIDNEY or its component tissues.
An examination of chemicals in the blood.
Acute kidney failure resulting from destruction of EPITHELIAL CELLS of the KIDNEY TUBULES. It is commonly attributed to exposure to toxic agents or renal ISCHEMIA following severe TRAUMA.
An element with the atomic symbol N, atomic number 7, and atomic weight [14.00643; 14.00728]. Nitrogen exists as a diatomic gas and makes up about 78% of the earth's atmosphere by volume. It is a constituent of proteins and nucleic acids and found in all living cells.
The process in certain BACTERIA; FUNGI; and CYANOBACTERIA converting free atmospheric NITROGEN to biologically usable forms of nitrogen, such as AMMONIA; NITRATES; and amino compounds.
A biochemical abnormality referring to an elevation of BLOOD UREA NITROGEN and CREATININE. Azotemia can be produced by KIDNEY DISEASES or other extrarenal disorders. When azotemia becomes associated with a constellation of clinical signs, it is termed UREMIA.
Adverse functional, metabolic, or structural changes in ischemic tissues resulting from the restoration of blood flow to the tissue (REPERFUSION), including swelling; HEMORRHAGE; NECROSIS; and damage from FREE RADICALS. The most common instance is MYOCARDIAL REPERFUSION INJURY.
A clinical syndrome associated with the retention of renal waste products or uremic toxins in the blood. It is usually the result of RENAL INSUFFICIENCY. Most uremic toxins are end products of protein or nitrogen CATABOLISM, such as UREA or CREATININE. Severe uremia can lead to multiple organ dysfunctions with a constellation of symptoms.
The end-stage of CHRONIC RENAL INSUFFICIENCY. It is characterized by the severe irreversible kidney damage (as measured by the level of PROTEINURIA) and the reduction in GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE to less than 15 ml per min (Kidney Foundation: Kidney Disease Outcome Quality Initiative, 2002). These patients generally require HEMODIALYSIS or KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION.
The presence of proteins in the urine, an indicator of KIDNEY DISEASES.
The mass or quantity of heaviness of an individual. It is expressed by units of pounds or kilograms.
Long convoluted tubules in the nephrons. They collect filtrate from blood passing through the KIDNEY GLOMERULUS and process this filtrate into URINE. Each renal tubule consists of a BOWMAN CAPSULE; PROXIMAL KIDNEY TUBULE; LOOP OF HENLE; DISTAL KIDNEY TUBULE; and KIDNEY COLLECTING DUCT leading to the central cavity of the kidney (KIDNEY PELVIS) that connects to the URETER.
A beta-N-Acetylhexosaminidase that catalyzes the hydrolysis of terminal, non-reducing 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-beta-glucose residues in chitobiose and higher analogs as well as in glycoproteins. Has been used widely in structural studies on bacterial cell walls and in the study of diseases such as MUCOLIPIDOSIS and various inflammatory disorders of muscle and connective tissue.
Stable nitrogen atoms that have the same atomic number as the element nitrogen, but differ in atomic weight. N-15 is a stable nitrogen isotope.
A complex of closely related aminoglycosides obtained from MICROMONOSPORA purpurea and related species. They are broad-spectrum antibiotics, but may cause ear and kidney damage. They act to inhibit PROTEIN BIOSYNTHESIS.
Excision of kidney.
Mercury chloride (HgCl2). A highly toxic compound that volatizes slightly at ordinary temperature and appreciably at 100 degrees C. It is corrosive to mucous membranes and used as a topical antiseptic and disinfectant.
A process involving chance used in therapeutic trials or other research endeavor for allocating experimental subjects, human or animal, between treatment and control groups, or among treatment groups. It may also apply to experiments on inanimate objects.
Therapy for the insufficient cleansing of the BLOOD by the kidneys based on dialysis and including hemodialysis, PERITONEAL DIALYSIS, and HEMODIAFILTRATION.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Conditions in which the KIDNEYS perform below the normal level in the ability to remove wastes, concentrate URINE, and maintain ELECTROLYTE BALANCE; BLOOD PRESSURE; and CALCIUM metabolism. Renal insufficiency can be classified by the degree of kidney damage (as measured by the level of PROTEINURIA) and reduction in GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE.
Measurable and quantifiable biological parameters (e.g., specific enzyme concentration, specific hormone concentration, specific gene phenotype distribution in a population, presence of biological substances) which serve as indices for health- and physiology-related assessments, such as disease risk, psychiatric disorders, environmental exposure and its effects, disease diagnosis, metabolic processes, substance abuse, pregnancy, cell line development, epidemiologic studies, etc.
Enzymes of the transferase class that catalyze the conversion of L-aspartate and 2-ketoglutarate to oxaloacetate and L-glutamate. EC 2.6.1.1.
A colorless alkaline gas. It is formed in the body during decomposition of organic materials during a large number of metabolically important reactions. Note that the aqueous form of ammonia is referred to as AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE.
Necrosis or disintegration of skeletal muscle often followed by myoglobinuria.
Proteins obtained from foods. They are the main source of the ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS.
Inorganic compounds that contain nitrogen as an integral part of the molecule.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
Synthetic or natural substances which are given to prevent a disease or disorder or are used in the process of treating a disease or injury due to a poisonous agent.
Myoglobinuria is the presence of myoglobin, a protein found in muscle fibers, in the urine, which can occur due to muscle injury or disease, and may lead to acute kidney injury if excessive.
The appearance of an abnormally large amount of GLUCOSE in the urine, such as more than 500 mg/day in adults. It can be due to HYPERGLYCEMIA or genetic defects in renal reabsorption (RENAL GLYCOSURIA).
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
Agents that inhibit SODIUM-POTASSIUM-CHLORIDE SYMPORTERS which are concentrated in the thick ascending limb at the junction of the LOOP OF HENLE and KIDNEY TUBULES, DISTAL. They act as DIURETICS. Excess use is associated with HYPOKALEMIA and HYPERGLYCEMIA.
Foodstuff used especially for domestic and laboratory animals, or livestock.
The circulation of nitrogen in nature, consisting of a cycle of biochemical reactions in which atmospheric nitrogen is compounded, dissolved in rain, and deposited in the soil, where it is assimilated and metabolized by bacteria and plants, eventually returning to the atmosphere by bacterial decomposition of organic matter.
Nitrogen oxide (NO2). A highly poisonous gas. Exposure produces inflammation of lungs that may only cause slight pain or pass unnoticed, but resulting edema several days later may cause death. (From Merck, 11th ed) It is a major atmospheric pollutant that is able to absorb UV light that does not reach the earth's surface.
The renal tubule portion that extends from the BOWMAN CAPSULE in the KIDNEY CORTEX into the KIDNEY MEDULLA. The proximal tubule consists of a convoluted proximal segment in the cortex, and a distal straight segment descending into the medulla where it forms the U-shaped LOOP OF HENLE.
Substances that dissociate into two or more ions, to some extent, in water. Solutions of electrolytes thus conduct an electric current and can be decomposed by it (ELECTROLYSIS). (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
A major protein in the BLOOD. It is important in maintaining the colloidal osmotic pressure and transporting large organic molecules.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
A bile pigment that is a degradation product of HEME.
An inorganic and water-soluble platinum complex. After undergoing hydrolysis, it reacts with DNA to produce both intra and interstrand crosslinks. These crosslinks appear to impair replication and transcription of DNA. The cytotoxicity of cisplatin correlates with cellular arrest in the G2 phase of the cell cycle.
The volume of water filtered out of plasma through glomerular capillary walls into Bowman's capsules per unit of time. It is considered to be equivalent to INULIN clearance.
An oxidation product, via XANTHINE OXIDASE, of oxypurines such as XANTHINE and HYPOXANTHINE. It is the final oxidation product of purine catabolism in humans and primates, whereas in most other mammals URATE OXIDASE further oxidizes it to ALLANTOIN.
The measurement of an organ in volume, mass, or heaviness.
Glucose in blood.
Nutritional physiology of animals.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of L-alanine and 2-oxoglutarate to pyruvate and L-glutamate. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.6.1.2.
Inflammation of the renal glomeruli (KIDNEY GLOMERULUS) that can be classified by the type of glomerular injuries including antibody deposition, complement activation, cellular proliferation, and glomerulosclerosis. These structural and functional abnormalities usually lead to HEMATURIA; PROTEINURIA; HYPERTENSION; and RENAL INSUFFICIENCY.
A non-metal element that has the atomic symbol P, atomic number 15, and atomic weight 31. It is an essential element that takes part in a broad variety of biochemical reactions.
The dialdehyde of malonic acid.
Any of various animals that constitute the family Suidae and comprise stout-bodied, short-legged omnivorous mammals with thick skin, usually covered with coarse bristles, a rather long mobile snout, and small tail. Included are the genera Babyrousa, Phacochoerus (wart hogs), and Sus, the latter containing the domestic pig (see SUS SCROFA).
Inflammation of any part of the KIDNEY.
Tests used in the analysis of the hemic system.
The consumption of edible substances.
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
The circulation of the BLOOD through the vessels of the KIDNEY.
The outer zone of the KIDNEY, beneath the capsule, consisting of KIDNEY GLOMERULUS; KIDNEY TUBULES, DISTAL; and KIDNEY TUBULES, PROXIMAL.
The number of LEUKOCYTES and ERYTHROCYTES per unit volume in a sample of venous BLOOD. A complete blood count (CBC) also includes measurement of the HEMOGLOBIN; HEMATOCRIT; and ERYTHROCYTE INDICES.
Nitrogenous products of NITRIC OXIDE synthases, ranging from NITRIC OXIDE to NITRATES. These reactive nitrogen intermediates also include the inorganic PEROXYNITROUS ACID and the organic S-NITROSOTHIOLS.
Examination of urine by chemical, physical, or microscopic means. Routine urinalysis usually includes performing chemical screening tests, determining specific gravity, observing any unusual color or odor, screening for bacteriuria, and examining the sediment microscopically.
Liquid by-product of excretion produced in the kidneys, temporarily stored in the bladder until discharge through the URETHRA.
A cluster of convoluted capillaries beginning at each nephric tubule in the kidney and held together by connective tissue.
Increase in BODY WEIGHT over existing weight.
A disturbance in the prooxidant-antioxidant balance in favor of the former, leading to potential damage. Indicators of oxidative stress include damaged DNA bases, protein oxidation products, and lipid peroxidation products (Sies, Oxidative Stress, 1991, pxv-xvi).
The volume of packed RED BLOOD CELLS in a blood specimen. The volume is measured by centrifugation in a tube with graduated markings, or with automated blood cell counters. It is an indicator of erythrocyte status in disease. For example, ANEMIA shows a low value; POLYCYTHEMIA, a high value.
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
Concentrated pharmaceutical preparations of plants obtained by removing active constituents with a suitable solvent, which is evaporated away, and adjusting the residue to a prescribed standard.
A tetrameric enzyme that, along with the coenzyme NAD+, catalyzes the interconversion of LACTATE and PYRUVATE. In vertebrates, genes for three different subunits (LDH-A, LDH-B and LDH-C) exist.
A polypeptide that is secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Growth hormone, also known as somatotropin, stimulates mitosis, cell differentiation and cell growth. Species-specific growth hormones have been synthesized.
A hypoperfusion of the BLOOD through an organ or tissue caused by a PATHOLOGIC CONSTRICTION or obstruction of its BLOOD VESSELS, or an absence of BLOOD CIRCULATION.
Chinese herbal or plant extracts which are used as drugs to treat diseases or promote general well-being. The concept does not include synthesized compounds manufactured in China.
Use of plants or herbs to treat diseases or to alleviate pain.
Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (-COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins.
A benzoic-sulfonamide-furan. It is a diuretic with fast onset and short duration that is used for EDEMA and chronic RENAL INSUFFICIENCY.
Regular course of eating and drinking adopted by a person or animal.
Naturally occurring or synthetic substances that inhibit or retard the oxidation of a substance to which it is added. They counteract the harmful and damaging effects of oxidation in animal tissues.
Proteins that are present in blood serum, including SERUM ALBUMIN; BLOOD COAGULATION FACTORS; and many other types of proteins.
State of the body in relation to the consumption and utilization of nutrients.
A disease or state in which death is possible or imminent.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
Any of the ruminant mammals with curved horns in the genus Ovis, family Bovidae. They possess lachrymal grooves and interdigital glands, which are absent in GOATS.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
Health care provided to a critically ill patient during a medical emergency or crisis.
PRESSURE of the BLOOD on the ARTERIES and other BLOOD VESSELS.
Inorganic oxides that contain nitrogen.
A member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol Na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23.
Portable peritoneal dialysis using the continuous (24 hours a day, 7 days a week) presence of peritoneal dialysis solution in the peritoneal cavity except for periods of drainage and instillation of fresh solution.
The process of breakdown of food for metabolism and use by the body.
Disease having a short and relatively severe course.
KIDNEY injuries associated with diabetes mellitus and affecting KIDNEY GLOMERULUS; ARTERIOLES; KIDNEY TUBULES; and the interstitium. Clinical signs include persistent PROTEINURIA, from microalbuminuria progressing to ALBUMINURIA of greater than 300 mg/24 h, leading to reduced GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE and END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE.
The pathological process occurring in cells that are dying from irreparable injuries. It is caused by the progressive, uncontrolled action of degradative ENZYMES, leading to MITOCHONDRIAL SWELLING, nuclear flocculation, and cell lysis. It is distinct it from APOPTOSIS, which is a normal, regulated cellular process.
A heterogeneous condition in which the heart is unable to pump out sufficient blood to meet the metabolic need of the body. Heart failure can be caused by structural defects, functional abnormalities (VENTRICULAR DYSFUNCTION), or a sudden overload beyond its capacity. Chronic heart failure is more common than acute heart failure which results from sudden insult to cardiac function, such as MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION.
Levels within a diagnostic group which are established by various measurement criteria applied to the seriousness of a patient's disorder.
A family of signal transducing adaptor proteins that control the METABOLISM of NITROGEN. They are primarily found in prokaryotes.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of urea and water to carbon dioxide and ammonia. EC 3.5.1.5.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
Glomerulonephritis associated with autoimmune disease SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS. Lupus nephritis is histologically classified into 6 classes: class I - normal glomeruli, class II - pure mesangial alterations, class III - focal segmental glomerulonephritis, class IV - diffuse glomerulonephritis, class V - diffuse membranous glomerulonephritis, and class VI - advanced sclerosing glomerulonephritis (The World Health Organization classification 1982).
Agents that promote the excretion of urine through their effects on kidney function.
Blood tests that are used to evaluate how well a patient's liver is working and also to help diagnose liver conditions.
Method of analyzing chemicals using automation.
Peroxidase catalyzed oxidation of lipids using hydrogen peroxide as an electron acceptor.
Solutions prepared for hemodialysis. The composition of the pre-dialysis solution may be varied in order to determine the effect of solvated metabolites on anoxia, malnutrition, acid-base balance, etc. Of principal interest are the effect of the choice of buffers (e.g., acetate or carbonate), the addition of cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+), and addition of carbohydrates (glucose).

Effect of fasting on temporal variation in the nephrotoxicity of amphotericin B in rats. (1/1427)

Evidence for temporal variation in the nephrotoxicity of amphotericin B was recently reported in experimental animals. The role of food in these variations was determined by studying the effect of a short fasting period on the temporal variation in the renal toxicity of amphotericin B. Twenty-eight normally fed and 28 fasted female Sprague-Dawley rats were used. Food was available ad libitum to the fed rats, while the fasted animals were fasted 12 h before and 24 h after amphotericin B injection to minimize stress for the animals. Water was available ad libitum to both groups of rats, which were maintained on a 14-h light, 10-h dark regimen (light on at 0600 h). Renal toxicity was determined by comparing the levels of excretion of renal enzyme and the serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels at the time of the maximal (0700 h) or the minimal (1900 h) nephrotoxicity after the intraperitoneal administration of a single dose of dextrose (5%; control group) or amphotericin B (50 mg/kg of body weight; treated group) to the rats. The nephrotoxicities obtained after amphotericin B administration at both times of day were compared to the nephrotoxicities observed for time-matched controls. In fed animals, the 24-h urinary excretion of N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase and beta-galactosidase was significantly higher when amphotericin B was injected at 0700 and 1900 h. The excretion of these two enzymes was reduced significantly (P < 0.05) in fasting rats, and this effect was larger at 0700 h (P < 0.05) than at 1900 h. The serum creatinine level was also significantly higher (P < 0.05) in fed animals treated at 0700 h than in fed animals treated at 1900 h. Fasting reduced significantly (P < 0.05) the increase in the serum creatinine level, and this effect was larger in the animals treated at 0700 h. Similar data were obtained for BUN levels. Amphotericin B accumulation was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the renal cortexes of fed rats than in those of fasted animals, but there was no difference according to the time of injection. These results demonstrated that fasting reduces the nephrotoxicity of amphotericin B and that food availability is of crucial importance in the temporal variation in the renal toxicity of amphotericin B in rats.  (+info)

Sustained induction of fetal hemoglobin by pulse butyrate therapy in sickle cell disease. (2/1427)

High levels of fetal hemoglobin (Hb F) protect from many of the complications of sickle cell disease and lead to improved survival. Butyrate and other short chain fatty acids were previously shown to increase Hb F production in erythroid cells in vitro and in animal models in vivo. However, butyrates are also known to inhibit the proliferation of many cell types, including erythroid cells. Experience with the use of butyrate in animal models and in early clinical trials demonstrated that the Hb F response may be lost after prolonged administration of high doses of butyrate. We hypothesized that this loss of response may be a result of the antiproliferative effects of butyrate. We designed a regimen consisting of intermittent or pulse therapy in which butyrate was administered for 4 days followed by 10 to 24 days with no drug exposure. This pulse regimen induced fetal globin gene expression in 9 of 11 patients. The mean Hb F in this group increased from 7.2% to 21.0% (P <.002) after intermittent butyrate therapy for a mean duration of 29.9 weeks. This was associated with a parallel increase in the number of F cells and F reticulocytes. The total hemoglobin levels also increased from a mean of 7.8 g/dL to a mean of 8.8 g/dL (P <.006). The increased levels of Hb F were sustained in all responders, including 1 patient who has been on pulse butyrate therapy for more than 28 months. This regimen, which resulted in a marked and sustained increase in Hb F levels in more than two thirds of the adult sickle cell patients enrolled in this study, was well tolerated without adverse side effects. These encouraging results require confirmation along with an appropriate evaluation of clinical outcomes in a larger number of patients with sickle cell disease.  (+info)

Comparative nephrotoxicities of netilmicin and gentamicin in rats. (3/1427)

The relative nephrotoxicities of netilmicin (Sch 20569) and gentamicin were compared in rats at doses of 30, 60, 90, and 120 mg/kg per day for 15 days. Both drugs caused proteinuria and a decrease in urine osmolality; however, netilmicin produced significantly less changes at all doses than gentamicin. Whereas gentamicin resulted in a decline in creatinine clearance at all doses, netilmicin failed to cause a decline in creatinine clearance. Renal-cortical concentrations of antibiotic at sacrifice were similar in animals receiving either drug. Light-microscopic changes were less severe with netilmicin than gentamicin. Cytosegresomes with myeloid bodies were identified electron microscopically in the kidneys of animals receiving either netilmicin or gentamicin at all doses. Electron-microscopic manifestations were similar. The data indicate that in the rat, netilmicin is distinctly less nephrotoxic than gentamicin.  (+info)

Total parenteral nutrition in the management of acute renal failure. (4/1427)

Malnutrition is frequently present in patients with acute renal failure and may affect morbidity and mortality in this condition. When adequate nourishment cannot be given through the gastrointestinal tract, total parental nutrition with amino acids and hypertonic glucose may have beneficial results. Total parenteral nutrition has been reported to stabilize or reduce serum urea nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus levels, improve wound healing, enhance survival from acute renal failure, and possibly increase the rate of recovery of renal function. The optimal composition of the total parenteral nutrition infusate is unknown. Preliminary results of a double-blind study are reported in which one man received hypertonic glucose alone, two received glucose with essential amino acids (21 g/day), and three received glucose with essential (21 g/day) and nonessential (21 g/day) amino acids. All infusates were isocaloric. No differences were observed in serum urea nitrogen levels, serum urea nitrogen/creatinine ratios or urea appearance rates. Nitrogen balance was negative in all patients. The ratio of essential amino acids/nonessential amino acids were higher and the tyrosine/phenylalanine ratios were lower in plasma in the two patients receiving glucose with essential amino acids. No patient survived the hospitalization. In view of the markedly negative nitrogen balance frequently observed in these and earlier studies, the use of a different composition or quantity of amino acids, a higher energy intake, and anabolic hormones deserve further investigation.  (+info)

Measurement of the delivery of dialysis in acute renal failure. (5/1427)

BACKGROUND: Recent studies in patients with acute renal failure (ARF) have shown a relationship between the delivered dose of dialysis and patient survival. However, there is currently no consensus on the appropriate method to measure the dose of dialysis in ARF patients. In this study, the dose of dialysis was measured by blood- and dialysate-based kinetic methods in a group of ARF patients who required intermittent hemodialysis. METHODS: Treatments were performed using a Fresenius 2008E volumetric hemodialysis machine with the ability to fractionally collect the spent dialysate. Single-, double-pool, and equilibrated Kt/V were determined from the pre-, immediate post-, and 30-minute post-blood urea nitrogen (BUN) measurements. The solute reduction index was determined from the collected dialysate, as well as the single- and double-pool Kt/V. RESULTS: Forty-six treatments in 28 consecutive patients were analyzed. The mean prescribed Kt/V (1.11 +/- 0.32) was significantly greater than the delivered dose estimated by single-pool (0.96 +/- 0.33), equilibrated (0.84 +/- 0.28), and double-pool (0.84 +/- 0.30) Kt/V (compared with prescribed, each P < 0.001). There was no statistical difference between the equilibrated and double-pool Kt/V (P = NS). The solute removal index, as determined from the dialysate, corresponded to a Kt/V of 0.56 +/- 0.27 and was significantly lower than the single-pool and double-pool Kt/V (each P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Blood-based kinetics used to estimate the dose of dialysis in ARF patients on intermittent hemodialysis provide internally consistent results. However, when compared with dialysate-side kinetics, blood-based kinetics substantially overestimated the amount of solute (urea) removal.  (+info)

Effects of carbon dioxide inhalation on hematology, coagulation, and serum clinical chemistry values in rats. (6/1427)

Blood samples from adult male and female Charles River Crl:CD (SD) BR rats were collected at weekly intervals for 4 wk to evaluate the effects of inhalation of an anesthetic dose of carbon dioxide (CO2) or of a carbon dioxide-oxygen mixture (CO2/O2) on hematology, coagulation, and serum biochemistry values. During the first 3 wk of the study, rats were assigned to 1 of 3 groups and were bled from the orbital sinus once weekly. Prior to the blood collection, rats in group 1 were exposed to room air only, rats in group 2 received CO2/O2 (approximately 66%:34% CO2:O2) by inhalation, and rats in group 3 received 100% CO2 by inhalation. In the rats exposed to CO2/O2 or CO2, leukocyte counts, lymphocyte counts, and glucose values were higher, and aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase, and calcium values were lower compared with those of rats exposed to room air only. Rats exposed to 100% CO2 had slightly (but statistically significant) lower mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration when compared with rats exposed only to room air. During week 4, all rats were reassigned to 1 of 2 groups and were bled terminally via closed cardiac puncture following exposure to either CO2/O2 or CO2. Increased lymphocyte counts (males only) and glucose and chloride concentrations were noted for rats exposed to CO2/O2 compared with those exposed to CO2. These alterations reiterate the importance of comparing clinical pathology values to those of concurrent control groups that have experienced blood collection under identical conditions in order to avoid potential errors in the interpretation of data.  (+info)

Nordihydroguairetic acid is a potent inhibitor of ferric-nitrilotriacetate-mediated hepatic and renal toxicity, and renal tumour promotion, in mice. (7/1427)

Ferric-nitrilotriacetate (Fe-NTA) is a known renal carcinogen. In the present study, we report the effect of a potent lignin-derived herbal antioxidant, nordihydroguairetic acid (NDGA), against Fe-NTA-mediated tissue toxicity. Fe-NTA (alone) treatment of mice enhances ornithine decarboxylase activity to 259% in liver and 341% in kidney and increases [3H]thymidine incorporation in DNA to 250% in liver and 324% in kidney compared with the corresponding saline-treated controls. The enhanced ornithine decarboxylase activity and DNA synthesis showed a reduction to 138 and 123%, respectively, in liver at a higher dose of 2 mg NDGA/day/animal whereas in kidney the reduction was to 118 and 102%, respectively, compared with the corresponding saline-treated controls. In the Fe-NTA (alone)-treated group, a 12% renal tumour incidence was recorded whereas, in N-diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-initiated and Fe-NTA-promoted animals, the percentage tumour incidence was increased to 68% as compared with untreated controls. No tumour incidence was recorded in the DEN-initiated, non-promoted group. The administration of NDGA, afforded >80% protection against DEN- and Fe-NTA-mediated renal tissue injury in vivo. Fe-NTA treatment also enhanced hepatic and renal microsomal lipid peroxidation to 170 and 205% of saline-treated controls, respectively, and hydrogen peroxide generation by >2.5-fold in both tissues accompanied by a 51 and 21% decrease in the level of glutathione and 35-48 and 35-50% decrease in the activities of glutathione-metabolizing and antioxidant enzymes in liver and kidney, respectively. These changes were reversed significantly in animals receiving a pre-treatment of NDGA. Our data show that NDGA can abrogate the toxic and tumour-promoting effects of Fe-NTA in liver and kidney of mice and can serve as a potent chemopreventive agent to suppress oxidant-induced tissue injury and tumorigenesis.  (+info)

Protein metabolism in insulin-treated gestational diabetes. (8/1427)

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that protein metabolism is not totally normalized in insulin treated gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) patients compared with normal, pregnant control subjects. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Protein metabolism in eight Hispanic women with insulin-treated GDM and eight healthy Hispanic control women was studied in late gestation and at 6 weeks postpartum. Nitrogen flux was assessed from the disposal rate of [15N]-labeled urea over 12 h after a dose of [15N]-labeled leucine. Plasma amino acid concentrations were determined in fasting and 2-h postprandial samples using an amino acid analyzer. RESULTS: Protein turnover was normalized in insulin-treated GDM; however, fasting and postprandial plasma amino acids were elevated antepartum and postpartum. Nitrogen flux was significantly lower during pregnancy (P = 0.04-0.001) and did not differ between groups. Fasting and postprandial plasma amino acids were elevated in GDM antepartum and postpartum, despite satisfactory glycemic control. Fasting levels of taurine, hydroxyproline, glutamic acid, glutamine, cystine, tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, and histidine were higher in GDM antepartum and postpartum (P < 0.05). Postprandial concentrations of taurine, hydroxyproline, valine, cystine, isoleucine, leucine, tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, ornithine, lysine, histidine, and arginine were higher in GDM antepartum and postpartum (P < 0.05). With few exceptions, plasma amino acid concentrations were lower antepartum than postpartum (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Protein turnover was normalized in insulin-treated women with GDM; however, fasting and postprandial plasma concentrations of amino acids were elevated in the antepartum and postpartum periods, despite satisfactory maternal glycemic control.  (+info)

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) is a laboratory value that measures the amount of urea nitrogen in the blood. Urea nitrogen is a waste product that is formed when proteins are broken down in the liver. The kidneys filter urea nitrogen from the blood and excrete it as urine.

A high BUN level may indicate impaired kidney function, as the kidneys are not effectively removing urea nitrogen from the blood. However, BUN levels can also be affected by other factors such as dehydration, heart failure, or gastrointestinal bleeding. Therefore, BUN should be interpreted in conjunction with other laboratory values and clinical findings.

The normal range for BUN is typically between 7-20 mg/dL (milligrams per deciliter) or 2.5-7.1 mmol/L (millimoles per liter), but the reference range may vary depending on the laboratory.

Urea is not a medical condition but it is a medically relevant substance. Here's the definition:

Urea is a colorless, odorless solid that is the primary nitrogen-containing compound in the urine of mammals. It is a normal metabolic end product that is excreted by the kidneys and is also used as a fertilizer and in various industrial applications. Chemically, urea is a carbamide, consisting of two amino groups (NH2) joined by a carbon atom and having a hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl group (OH) attached to the carbon atom. Urea is produced in the liver as an end product of protein metabolism and is then eliminated from the body by the kidneys through urination. Abnormal levels of urea in the blood, known as uremia, can indicate impaired kidney function or other medical conditions.

Creatinine is a waste product that's produced by your muscles and removed from your body by your kidneys. Creatinine is a breakdown product of creatine, a compound found in meat and fish, as well as in the muscles of vertebrates, including humans.

In healthy individuals, the kidneys filter out most of the creatinine and eliminate it through urine. However, when the kidneys are not functioning properly, creatinine levels in the blood can rise. Therefore, measuring the amount of creatinine in the blood or urine is a common way to test how well the kidneys are working. High creatinine levels in the blood may indicate kidney damage or kidney disease.

A kidney, in medical terms, is one of two bean-shaped organs located in the lower back region of the body. They are essential for maintaining homeostasis within the body by performing several crucial functions such as:

1. Regulation of water and electrolyte balance: Kidneys help regulate the amount of water and various electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and calcium in the bloodstream to maintain a stable internal environment.

2. Excretion of waste products: They filter waste products from the blood, including urea (a byproduct of protein metabolism), creatinine (a breakdown product of muscle tissue), and other harmful substances that result from normal cellular functions or external sources like medications and toxins.

3. Endocrine function: Kidneys produce several hormones with important roles in the body, such as erythropoietin (stimulates red blood cell production), renin (regulates blood pressure), and calcitriol (activated form of vitamin D that helps regulate calcium homeostasis).

4. pH balance regulation: Kidneys maintain the proper acid-base balance in the body by excreting either hydrogen ions or bicarbonate ions, depending on whether the blood is too acidic or too alkaline.

5. Blood pressure control: The kidneys play a significant role in regulating blood pressure through the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which constricts blood vessels and promotes sodium and water retention to increase blood volume and, consequently, blood pressure.

Anatomically, each kidney is approximately 10-12 cm long, 5-7 cm wide, and 3 cm thick, with a weight of about 120-170 grams. They are surrounded by a protective layer of fat and connected to the urinary system through the renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

Acute kidney injury (AKI), also known as acute renal failure, is a rapid loss of kidney function that occurs over a few hours or days. It is defined as an increase in the serum creatinine level by 0.3 mg/dL within 48 hours or an increase in the creatinine level to more than 1.5 times baseline, which is known or presumed to have occurred within the prior 7 days, or a urine volume of less than 0.5 mL/kg per hour for six hours.

AKI can be caused by a variety of conditions, including decreased blood flow to the kidneys, obstruction of the urinary tract, exposure to toxic substances, and certain medications. Symptoms of AKI may include decreased urine output, fluid retention, electrolyte imbalances, and metabolic acidosis. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the injury and providing supportive care, such as dialysis, to help maintain kidney function until the injury resolves.

Kidney function tests (KFTs) are a group of diagnostic tests that evaluate how well your kidneys are functioning by measuring the levels of various substances in the blood and urine. The tests typically assess the glomerular filtration rate (GFR), which is an indicator of how efficiently the kidneys filter waste from the blood, as well as the levels of electrolytes, waste products, and proteins in the body.

Some common KFTs include:

1. Serum creatinine: A waste product that's produced by normal muscle breakdown and is excreted by the kidneys. Elevated levels may indicate reduced kidney function.
2. Blood urea nitrogen (BUN): Another waste product that's produced when protein is broken down and excreted by the kidneys. Increased BUN levels can suggest impaired kidney function.
3. Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR): A calculation based on serum creatinine, age, sex, and race that estimates the GFR and provides a more precise assessment of kidney function than creatinine alone.
4. Urinalysis: An examination of a urine sample to detect abnormalities such as protein, blood, or bacteria that may indicate kidney disease.
5. Electrolyte levels: Measurement of sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate in the blood to ensure they're properly balanced, which is essential for normal kidney function.

KFTs are often ordered as part of a routine check-up or when kidney disease is suspected based on symptoms or other diagnostic tests. Regular monitoring of kidney function can help detect and manage kidney disease early, potentially preventing or slowing down its progression.

Kidney disease, also known as nephropathy or renal disease, refers to any functional or structural damage to the kidneys that impairs their ability to filter blood, regulate electrolytes, produce hormones, and maintain fluid balance. This damage can result from a wide range of causes, including diabetes, hypertension, glomerulonephritis, polycystic kidney disease, lupus, infections, drugs, toxins, and congenital or inherited disorders.

Depending on the severity and progression of the kidney damage, kidney diseases can be classified into two main categories: acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney disease (CKD). AKI is a sudden and often reversible loss of kidney function that occurs over hours to days, while CKD is a progressive and irreversible decline in kidney function that develops over months or years.

Symptoms of kidney diseases may include edema, proteinuria, hematuria, hypertension, electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, anemia, and decreased urine output. Treatment options depend on the underlying cause and severity of the disease and may include medications, dietary modifications, dialysis, or kidney transplantation.

Blood chemical analysis, also known as clinical chemistry or chemistry panel, is a series of tests that measure the levels of various chemicals in the blood. These tests can help evaluate the function of organs such as the kidneys and liver, and can also detect conditions such as diabetes and heart disease.

The tests typically include:

* Glucose: to check for diabetes
* Electrolytes (such as sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate): to check the body's fluid and electrolyte balance
* Calcium: to check for problems with bones, nerves, or kidneys
* Creatinine: to check for kidney function
* Urea Nitrogen (BUN): to check for kidney function
* Albumin: to check for liver function and nutrition status
* ALT (Alanine Transaminase) and AST (Aspartate Transaminase): to check for liver function
* Alkaline Phosphatase: to check for liver or bone disease
* Total Bilirubin: to check for liver function and gallbladder function
* Cholesterol: to check for heart disease risk
* Triglycerides: to check for heart disease risk

These tests are usually ordered by a doctor as part of a routine check-up, or to help diagnose and monitor specific medical conditions. The results of the blood chemical analysis are compared to reference ranges provided by the laboratory performing the test, which take into account factors such as age, sex, and race.

Acute Kidney Tubular Necrosis (ATN) is a medical condition characterized by the death of tubular epithelial cells that make up the renal tubules of the kidneys. This damage can occur as a result of various insults, including ischemia (lack of blood flow), toxins, or medications.

In ATN, the necrosis of the tubular cells leads to a decrease in the kidney's ability to concentrate urine, regulate electrolytes and remove waste products from the body. This can result in symptoms such as decreased urine output, fluid and electrolyte imbalances, and the accumulation of waste products in the blood (azotemia).

Acute Kidney Tubular Necrosis is usually diagnosed based on clinical findings, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment typically involves supportive care, such as administering intravenous fluids to maintain hydration and electrolyte balance, managing any underlying conditions that may have contributed to the development of ATN, and providing dialysis if necessary to support kidney function until the tubular cells can recover.

Nitrogen is not typically referred to as a medical term, but it is an element that is crucial to medicine and human life.

In a medical context, nitrogen is often mentioned in relation to gas analysis, respiratory therapy, or medical gases. Nitrogen (N) is a colorless, odorless, and nonreactive gas that makes up about 78% of the Earth's atmosphere. It is an essential element for various biological processes, such as the growth and maintenance of organisms, because it is a key component of amino acids, nucleic acids, and other organic compounds.

In some medical applications, nitrogen is used to displace oxygen in a mixture to create a controlled environment with reduced oxygen levels (hypoxic conditions) for therapeutic purposes, such as in certain types of hyperbaric chambers. Additionally, nitrogen gas is sometimes used in cryotherapy, where extremely low temperatures are applied to tissues to reduce pain, swelling, and inflammation.

However, it's important to note that breathing pure nitrogen can be dangerous, as it can lead to unconsciousness and even death due to lack of oxygen (asphyxiation) within minutes.

Nitrogen fixation is a process by which nitrogen gas (N2) in the air is converted into ammonia (NH3) or other chemically reactive forms, making it available to plants and other organisms for use as a nutrient. This process is essential for the nitrogen cycle and for the growth of many types of plants, as most plants cannot utilize nitrogen gas directly from the air.

In the medical field, nitrogen fixation is not a commonly used term. However, in the context of microbiology and infectious diseases, some bacteria are capable of fixing nitrogen and this ability can contribute to their pathogenicity. For example, certain species of bacteria that colonize the human body, such as those found in the gut or on the skin, may be able to fix nitrogen and use it for their own growth and survival. In some cases, these bacteria may also release fixed nitrogen into the environment, which can have implications for the ecology and health of the host and surrounding ecosystems.

Azotemia is a medical term that refers to an elevated level of urea and other nitrogenous waste products in the blood. This condition is typically caused by impaired kidney function, which can lead to the accumulation of these substances in the body.

Normally, the kidneys filter waste products from the blood and excrete them in the urine. However, when the kidneys are not functioning properly, they may be unable to remove these waste products efficiently, leading to their buildup in the bloodstream. This can cause a range of symptoms, including nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and confusion.

Azotemia is often classified based on the level of urea in the blood, with mild azotemia defined as a blood urea nitrogen (BUN) level between 20 and 39 mg/dL, moderate azotemia defined as a BUN level between 40 and 89 mg/dL, and severe azotemia defined as a BUN level of 90 mg/dL or higher.

Treatment for azotemia typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the condition, which may involve medications to control high blood pressure or diabetes, dietary changes, or dialysis in severe cases.

Reperfusion injury is a complex pathophysiological process that occurs when blood flow is restored to previously ischemic tissues, leading to further tissue damage. This phenomenon can occur in various clinical settings such as myocardial infarction (heart attack), stroke, or peripheral artery disease after an intervention aimed at restoring perfusion.

The restoration of blood flow leads to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inflammatory mediators, which can cause oxidative stress, cellular damage, and activation of the immune system. This results in a cascade of events that may lead to microvascular dysfunction, capillary leakage, and tissue edema, further exacerbating the injury.

Reperfusion injury is an important consideration in the management of ischemic events, as interventions aimed at restoring blood flow must be carefully balanced with potential harm from reperfusion injury. Strategies to mitigate reperfusion injury include ischemic preconditioning (exposing the tissue to short periods of ischemia before a prolonged ischemic event), ischemic postconditioning (applying brief periods of ischemia and reperfusion after restoring blood flow), remote ischemic preconditioning (ischemia applied to a distant organ or tissue to protect the target organ), and pharmacological interventions that scavenge ROS, reduce inflammation, or improve microvascular function.

Uremia is not a disease itself, but rather it's a condition that results from the buildup of waste products in the blood due to kidney failure. The term "uremia" comes from the word "urea," which is one of the waste products that accumulate when the kidneys are not functioning properly.

In uremia, the kidneys are unable to effectively filter waste and excess fluids from the blood, leading to a variety of symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, fatigue, itching, mental confusion, and ultimately, if left untreated, can lead to coma and death. It is a serious condition that requires immediate medical attention, often involving dialysis or a kidney transplant to manage the underlying kidney dysfunction.

Chronic kidney failure, also known as chronic kidney disease (CKD) stage 5 or end-stage renal disease (ESRD), is a permanent loss of kidney function that occurs gradually over a period of months to years. It is defined as a glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of less than 15 ml/min, which means the kidneys are filtering waste and excess fluids at less than 15% of their normal capacity.

CKD can be caused by various underlying conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, glomerulonephritis, polycystic kidney disease, and recurrent kidney infections. Over time, the damage to the kidneys can lead to a buildup of waste products and fluids in the body, which can cause a range of symptoms including fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath, nausea, vomiting, and confusion.

Treatment for chronic kidney failure typically involves managing the underlying condition, making lifestyle changes such as following a healthy diet, and receiving supportive care such as dialysis or a kidney transplant to replace lost kidney function.

Proteinuria is a medical term that refers to the presence of excess proteins, particularly albumin, in the urine. Under normal circumstances, only small amounts of proteins should be found in the urine because the majority of proteins are too large to pass through the glomeruli, which are the filtering units of the kidneys.

However, when the glomeruli become damaged or diseased, they may allow larger molecules such as proteins to leak into the urine. Persistent proteinuria is often a sign of kidney disease and can indicate damage to the glomeruli. It is usually detected through a routine urinalysis and may be confirmed with further testing.

The severity of proteinuria can vary, and it can be a symptom of various underlying conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, glomerulonephritis, and other kidney diseases. Treatment for proteinuria depends on the underlying cause and may include medications to control blood pressure, manage diabetes, or reduce protein loss in the urine.

Body weight is the measure of the force exerted on a scale or balance by an object's mass, most commonly expressed in units such as pounds (lb) or kilograms (kg). In the context of medical definitions, body weight typically refers to an individual's total weight, which includes their skeletal muscle, fat, organs, and bodily fluids.

Healthcare professionals often use body weight as a basic indicator of overall health status, as it can provide insights into various aspects of a person's health, such as nutritional status, metabolic function, and risk factors for certain diseases. For example, being significantly underweight or overweight can increase the risk of developing conditions like malnutrition, diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

It is important to note that body weight alone may not provide a complete picture of an individual's health, as it does not account for factors such as muscle mass, bone density, or body composition. Therefore, healthcare professionals often use additional measures, such as body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and blood tests, to assess overall health status more comprehensively.

Kidney tubules are the structural and functional units of the kidney responsible for reabsorption, secretion, and excretion of various substances. They are part of the nephron, which is the basic unit of the kidney's filtration and reabsorption process.

There are three main types of kidney tubules:

1. Proximal tubule: This is the initial segment of the kidney tubule that receives the filtrate from the glomerulus. It is responsible for reabsorbing approximately 65% of the filtrate, including water, glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes.
2. Loop of Henle: This U-shaped segment of the tubule consists of a thin descending limb, a thin ascending limb, and a thick ascending limb. The loop of Henle helps to concentrate urine by creating an osmotic gradient that allows water to be reabsorbed in the collecting ducts.
3. Distal tubule: This is the final segment of the kidney tubule before it empties into the collecting duct. It is responsible for fine-tuning the concentration of electrolytes and pH balance in the urine by selectively reabsorbing or secreting substances such as sodium, potassium, chloride, and hydrogen ions.

Overall, kidney tubules play a critical role in maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance, regulating acid-base balance, and removing waste products from the body.

Acetylglucosaminidase (ACG) is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminides, which are found in glycoproteins and glycolipids. This enzyme plays a crucial role in the degradation and recycling of these complex carbohydrates within the body.

Deficiency or malfunction of Acetylglucosaminidase can lead to various genetic disorders, such as mucolipidosis II (I-cell disease) and mucolipidosis III (pseudo-Hurler polydystrophy), which are characterized by the accumulation of glycoproteins and glycolipids in lysosomes, resulting in cellular dysfunction and progressive damage to multiple organs.

Nitrogen isotopes are different forms of the nitrogen element (N), which have varying numbers of neutrons in their atomic nuclei. The most common nitrogen isotope is N-14, which contains 7 protons and 7 neutrons in its nucleus. However, there are also heavier stable isotopes such as N-15, which contains one extra neutron.

In medical terms, nitrogen isotopes can be used in research and diagnostic procedures to study various biological processes. For example, N-15 can be used in a technique called "nitrogen-15 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy" to investigate the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds in the body. Additionally, stable isotope labeling with nitrogen-15 has been used in clinical trials and research studies to track the fate of drugs and nutrients in the body.

In some cases, radioactive nitrogen isotopes such as N-13 or N-16 may also be used in medical imaging techniques like positron emission tomography (PET) scans to visualize and diagnose various diseases and conditions. However, these applications are less common than the use of stable nitrogen isotopes.

Gentamicin is an antibiotic that belongs to the class of aminoglycosides. It is used to treat various types of bacterial infections, including:

* Gram-negative bacterial infections, such as those caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Proteus mirabilis
* Certain Gram-positive bacterial infections, such as those caused by Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes

Gentamicin works by binding to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, which inhibits protein synthesis and ultimately leads to bacterial cell death. It is typically given via injection (intramuscularly or intravenously) and is often used in combination with other antibiotics to treat serious infections.

Like all aminoglycosides, gentamicin can cause kidney damage and hearing loss, especially when used for long periods of time or at high doses. Therefore, monitoring of drug levels and renal function is recommended during treatment.

Nephrectomy is a surgical procedure in which all or part of a kidney is removed. It may be performed due to various reasons such as severe kidney damage, kidney cancer, or living donor transplantation. The type of nephrectomy depends on the reason for the surgery - a simple nephrectomy involves removing only the affected portion of the kidney, while a radical nephrectomy includes removal of the whole kidney along with its surrounding tissues like the adrenal gland and lymph nodes.

Mercuric chloride, also known as corrosive sublimate, is defined medically as a white or colorless crystalline compound used historically as a topical antiseptic and caustic. It has been used in the treatment of various skin conditions such as warts, thrush, and some parasitic infestations. However, its use is limited nowadays due to its high toxicity and potential for serious side effects, including kidney damage, digestive problems, and nervous system disorders. It is classified as a hazardous substance and should be handled with care.

"Random allocation," also known as "random assignment" or "randomization," is a process used in clinical trials and other research studies to distribute participants into different intervention groups (such as experimental group vs. control group) in a way that minimizes selection bias and ensures the groups are comparable at the start of the study.

In random allocation, each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group, and the assignment is typically made using a computer-generated randomization schedule or other objective methods. This process helps to ensure that any differences between the groups are due to the intervention being tested rather than pre-existing differences in the participants' characteristics.

Renal dialysis is a medical procedure that is used to artificially remove waste products, toxins, and excess fluids from the blood when the kidneys are no longer able to perform these functions effectively. This process is also known as hemodialysis.

During renal dialysis, the patient's blood is circulated through a special machine called a dialyzer or an artificial kidney, which contains a semi-permeable membrane that filters out waste products and excess fluids from the blood. The cleaned blood is then returned to the patient's body.

Renal dialysis is typically recommended for patients with advanced kidney disease or kidney failure, such as those with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). It is a life-sustaining treatment that helps to maintain the balance of fluids and electrolytes in the body, prevent the buildup of waste products and toxins, and control blood pressure.

There are two main types of renal dialysis: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. Hemodialysis is the most common type and involves using a dialyzer to filter the blood outside the body. Peritoneal dialysis, on the other hand, involves placing a catheter in the abdomen and using the lining of the abdomen (peritoneum) as a natural filter to remove waste products and excess fluids from the body.

Overall, renal dialysis is an essential treatment option for patients with kidney failure, helping them to maintain their quality of life and prolong their survival.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Renal insufficiency, also known as kidney failure, is a medical condition in which the kidneys are unable to properly filter waste products and excess fluids from the blood. This results in a buildup of these substances in the body, which can cause a variety of symptoms such as weakness, shortness of breath, and fluid retention. Renal insufficiency can be acute, meaning it comes on suddenly, or chronic, meaning it develops over time. It is typically diagnosed through blood tests, urine tests, and imaging studies. Treatment may include medications to control symptoms, dietary changes, and in severe cases, dialysis or a kidney transplant.

A biological marker, often referred to as a biomarker, is a measurable indicator that reflects the presence or severity of a disease state, or a response to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers can be found in various materials such as blood, tissues, or bodily fluids, and they can take many forms, including molecular, histologic, radiographic, or physiological measurements.

In the context of medical research and clinical practice, biomarkers are used for a variety of purposes, such as:

1. Diagnosis: Biomarkers can help diagnose a disease by indicating the presence or absence of a particular condition. For example, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a biomarker used to detect prostate cancer.
2. Monitoring: Biomarkers can be used to monitor the progression or regression of a disease over time. For instance, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels are monitored in diabetes patients to assess long-term blood glucose control.
3. Predicting: Biomarkers can help predict the likelihood of developing a particular disease or the risk of a negative outcome. For example, the presence of certain genetic mutations can indicate an increased risk for breast cancer.
4. Response to treatment: Biomarkers can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific treatment by measuring changes in the biomarker levels before and after the intervention. This is particularly useful in personalized medicine, where treatments are tailored to individual patients based on their unique biomarker profiles.

It's important to note that for a biomarker to be considered clinically valid and useful, it must undergo rigorous validation through well-designed studies, including demonstrating sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and clinical relevance.

Aspartate aminotransferases (ASTs) are a group of enzymes found in various tissues throughout the body, including the heart, liver, and muscles. They play a crucial role in the metabolic process of transferring amino groups between different molecules.

In medical terms, AST is often used as a blood test to measure the level of this enzyme in the serum. Elevated levels of AST can indicate damage or injury to tissues that contain this enzyme, such as the liver or heart. For example, liver disease, including hepatitis and cirrhosis, can cause elevated AST levels due to damage to liver cells. Similarly, heart attacks can also result in increased AST levels due to damage to heart muscle tissue.

It is important to note that an AST test alone cannot diagnose a specific medical condition, but it can provide valuable information when used in conjunction with other diagnostic tests and clinical evaluation.

Ammonia is a colorless, pungent-smelling gas with the chemical formula NH3. It is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen and is a basic compound, meaning it has a pH greater than 7. Ammonia is naturally found in the environment and is produced by the breakdown of organic matter, such as animal waste and decomposing plants. In the medical field, ammonia is most commonly discussed in relation to its role in human metabolism and its potential toxicity.

In the body, ammonia is produced as a byproduct of protein metabolism and is typically converted to urea in the liver and excreted in the urine. However, if the liver is not functioning properly or if there is an excess of protein in the diet, ammonia can accumulate in the blood and cause a condition called hyperammonemia. Hyperammonemia can lead to serious neurological symptoms, such as confusion, seizures, and coma, and is treated by lowering the level of ammonia in the blood through medications, dietary changes, and dialysis.

Rhabdomyolysis is a medical condition characterized by the breakdown and degeneration of skeletal muscle fibers, leading to the release of their intracellular contents into the bloodstream. This can result in various complications, including electrolyte imbalances, kidney injury or failure, and potentially life-threatening conditions if not promptly diagnosed and treated.

The process of rhabdomyolysis typically involves three key components:

1. Muscle injury: Direct trauma, excessive exertion, prolonged immobilization, infections, metabolic disorders, toxins, or medications can cause muscle damage, leading to the release of intracellular components into the bloodstream.
2. Release of muscle contents: When muscle fibers break down, they release various substances, such as myoglobin, creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), aldolase, and potassium ions. Myoglobin is a protein that can cause kidney damage when present in high concentrations in the bloodstream, particularly when it is filtered through the kidneys and deposits in the renal tubules.
3. Systemic effects: The release of muscle contents into the bloodstream can lead to various systemic complications, such as electrolyte imbalances (particularly hyperkalemia), acidosis, hypocalcemia, and kidney injury or failure due to myoglobin-induced tubular damage.

Symptoms of rhabdomyolysis can vary widely depending on the severity and extent of muscle damage but may include muscle pain, weakness, swelling, stiffness, dark urine, and tea-colored or cola-colored urine due to myoglobinuria. In severe cases, patients may experience symptoms related to kidney failure, such as nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and decreased urine output.

Diagnosis of rhabdomyolysis typically involves measuring blood levels of muscle enzymes (such as CK and LDH) and evaluating renal function through blood tests and urinalysis. Treatment generally focuses on addressing the underlying cause of muscle damage, maintaining fluid balance, correcting electrolyte imbalances, and preventing or managing kidney injury.

Dietary proteins are sources of protein that come from the foods we eat. Protein is an essential nutrient for the human body, required for various bodily functions such as growth, repair, and immune function. Dietary proteins are broken down into amino acids during digestion, which are then absorbed and used to synthesize new proteins in the body.

Dietary proteins can be classified as complete or incomplete based on their essential amino acid content. Complete proteins contain all nine essential amino acids that cannot be produced by the human body and must be obtained through the diet. Examples of complete protein sources include meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products, soy, and quinoa.

Incomplete proteins lack one or more essential amino acids and are typically found in plant-based foods such as grains, legumes, nuts, and seeds. However, by combining different incomplete protein sources, it is possible to obtain all the essential amino acids needed for a complete protein diet. This concept is known as complementary proteins.

It's important to note that while dietary proteins are essential for good health, excessive protein intake can have negative effects on the body, such as increased stress on the kidneys and bones. Therefore, it's recommended to consume protein in moderation as part of a balanced and varied diet.

Nitrogen compounds are chemical substances that contain nitrogen, which is a non-metal in group 15 of the periodic table. Nitrogen forms compounds with many other elements due to its ability to form multiple bonds, including covalent bonds with hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, sulfur, and halogens.

Nitrogen can exist in several oxidation states, ranging from -3 to +5, which leads to a wide variety of nitrogen compounds with different properties and uses. Some common examples of nitrogen compounds include:

* Ammonia (NH3), a colorless gas with a pungent odor, used in fertilizers, cleaning products, and refrigeration systems.
* Nitric acid (HNO3), a strong mineral acid used in the production of explosives, dyes, and fertilizers.
* Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), a white crystalline solid used as a fertilizer and explosive ingredient.
* Hydrazine (N2H4), a colorless liquid with a strong odor, used as a rocket fuel and reducing agent.
* Nitrous oxide (N2O), a colorless gas used as an anesthetic and laughing gas in dental procedures.

Nitrogen compounds have many important applications in various industries, such as agriculture, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and energy production. However, some nitrogen compounds can also be harmful or toxic to humans and the environment if not handled properly.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

In the context of medicine and toxicology, protective agents are substances that provide protection against harmful or damaging effects of other substances. They can work in several ways, such as:

1. Binding to toxic substances: Protective agents can bind to toxic substances, rendering them inactive or less active, and preventing them from causing harm. For example, activated charcoal is sometimes used in the emergency treatment of certain types of poisoning because it can bind to certain toxins in the stomach and intestines and prevent their absorption into the body.
2. Increasing elimination: Protective agents can increase the elimination of toxic substances from the body, for example by promoting urinary or biliary excretion.
3. Reducing oxidative stress: Antioxidants are a type of protective agent that can reduce oxidative stress caused by free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS). These agents can protect cells and tissues from damage caused by oxidation.
4. Supporting organ function: Protective agents can support the function of organs that have been damaged by toxic substances, for example by improving blood flow or reducing inflammation.

Examples of protective agents include chelating agents, antidotes, free radical scavengers, and anti-inflammatory drugs.

Myoglobinuria is a medical condition characterized by the presence of myoglobin in the urine. Myoglobin is a protein found in muscle cells that is released into the bloodstream when muscle tissue is damaged or broken down, such as during intense exercise, trauma, or muscle diseases like muscular dystrophy and rhabdomyolysis.

When myoglobin is present in high concentrations in the blood, it can damage the kidneys by causing direct tubular injury, cast formation, and obstruction, which can lead to acute kidney injury (AKI) or even renal failure if left untreated. Symptoms of myoglobinuria may include dark-colored urine, muscle pain, weakness, and swelling, as well as symptoms related to AKI such as nausea, vomiting, and decreased urine output.

Diagnosis of myoglobinuria is typically made by detecting myoglobin in the urine using a dipstick test or more specific tests like immunoassays or mass spectrometry. Treatment may involve aggressive fluid resuscitation, alkalization of the urine to prevent myoglobin precipitation, and management of any underlying conditions causing muscle damage.

Glycosuria is a medical term that refers to the presence of glucose in the urine. Under normal circumstances, the kidneys are able to reabsorb all of the filtered glucose back into the bloodstream. However, when the blood glucose levels become excessively high, such as in uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, the kidneys may not be able to reabsorb all of the glucose, and some of it will spill over into the urine.

Glycosuria can also occur in other conditions that affect glucose metabolism or renal function, such as impaired kidney function, certain medications, pregnancy, and rare genetic disorders. It is important to note that glycosuria alone does not necessarily indicate diabetes, but it may be a sign of an underlying medical condition that requires further evaluation by a healthcare professional.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Sodium-potassium-chloride symporters, also known as sodium-potassium-chloride cotransporters or NKCCs, are a type of membrane transport protein that facilitates the movement of ions across the cell membrane. Specifically, they mediate the simultaneous transport of sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), and chloride (Cl-) ions into cells.

Sodium-potassium-chloride symporter inhibitors are pharmacological agents that block the activity of these transporters, thereby preventing the uptake of these ions into cells. These drugs have been used in various clinical settings to treat or manage conditions such as hypertension, edema, and certain types of epilepsy.

Examples of sodium-potassium-chloride symporter inhibitors include loop diuretics such as furosemide, bumetanide, and torasemide, which target the NKCC2 transporter in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle in the kidney. By blocking this transporter, these drugs increase sodium and water excretion, reducing blood volume and lowering blood pressure.

It's worth noting that while "sodium-potassium-chloride symporter inhibitors" is a valid term, it may be less commonly used than more specific terms such as "loop diuretics."

Animal feed refers to any substance or mixture of substances, whether processed, unprocessed, or partially processed, which is intended to be used as food for animals, including fish, without further processing. It includes ingredients such as grains, hay, straw, oilseed meals, and by-products from the milling, processing, and manufacturing industries. Animal feed can be in the form of pellets, crumbles, mash, or other forms, and is used to provide nutrients such as energy, protein, fiber, vitamins, and minerals to support the growth, reproduction, and maintenance of animals. It's important to note that animal feed must be safe, nutritious, and properly labeled to ensure the health and well-being of the animals that consume it.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "nitrogen cycle" is not a medical term. It is a biological concept that refers to the process through which nitrogen, an essential element for life, is converted between various chemical forms as it circulates through the atmosphere, terrestrial ecosystems, and aquatic environments.

The nitrogen cycle includes several key processes:

1. Nitrogen fixation: Certain bacteria are capable of converting atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3), a form that can be used by plants and other organisms. This process is called nitrogen fixation.
2. Nitrification: Some types of bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites (NO2-) and then into nitrates (NO3-). This two-step process is known as nitrification.
3. Denitrification: Certain bacteria can convert nitrates back into nitrogen gas, releasing it into the atmosphere. This process is called denitrification.
4. Assimilation: Plants and other organisms take up nitrogen in the form of ammonia or nitrates from the soil or water and incorporate it into their tissues through a process called assimilation.
5. Ammonification: When organisms die and decompose, or when they excrete waste products, nitrogen is released back into the environment in the form of ammonia. This process is known as ammonification.

While not a medical term, understanding the nitrogen cycle is important for many areas of science, including environmental science, agriculture, and ecology.

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a gaseous air pollutant and respiratory irritant. It is a reddish-brown toxic gas with a pungent, choking odor. NO2 is a major component of smog and is produced from the combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants, and industrial processes.

Exposure to nitrogen dioxide can cause respiratory symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, and difficulty breathing, especially in people with asthma or other respiratory conditions. Long-term exposure has been linked to the development of chronic lung diseases, including bronchitis and emphysema. NO2 also contributes to the formation of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), which can penetrate deep into the lungs and cause additional health problems.

The proximal kidney tubule is the initial portion of the renal tubule in the nephron of the kidney. It is located in the renal cortex and is called "proximal" because it is closer to the glomerulus, compared to the distal tubule. The proximal tubule plays a crucial role in the reabsorption of water, electrolytes, and nutrients from the filtrate that has been formed by the glomerulus. It also helps in the secretion of waste products and other substances into the urine.

The proximal tubule is divided into two segments: the pars convoluta and the pars recta. The pars convoluta is the curved portion that receives filtrate from the Bowman's capsule, while the pars recta is the straight portion that extends deeper into the renal cortex.

The proximal tubule is lined with a simple cuboidal epithelium, and its cells are characterized by numerous mitochondria, which provide energy for active transport processes. The apical surface of the proximal tubular cells has numerous microvilli, forming a brush border that increases the surface area for reabsorption.

In summary, the proximal kidney tubule is a critical site for the reabsorption of water, electrolytes, and nutrients from the glomerular filtrate, contributing to the maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance in the body.

Electrolytes are substances that, when dissolved in water, break down into ions that can conduct electricity. In the body, electrolytes are responsible for regulating various important physiological functions, including nerve and muscle function, maintaining proper hydration and acid-base balance, and helping to repair tissue damage.

The major electrolytes found in the human body include sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate. These electrolytes are tightly regulated by various mechanisms, including the kidneys, which help to maintain their proper balance in the body.

When there is an imbalance of electrolytes in the body, it can lead to a range of symptoms and health problems. For example, low levels of sodium (hyponatremia) can cause confusion, seizures, and even coma, while high levels of potassium (hyperkalemia) can lead to heart arrhythmias and muscle weakness.

Electrolytes are also lost through sweat during exercise or illness, so it's important to replace them through a healthy diet or by drinking fluids that contain electrolytes, such as sports drinks or coconut water. In some cases, electrolyte imbalances may require medical treatment, such as intravenous (IV) fluids or medication.

Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in human blood plasma, synthesized by the liver. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the oncotic pressure or colloid osmotic pressure of blood, which helps to regulate the fluid balance between the intravascular and extravascular spaces.

Serum albumin has a molecular weight of around 66 kDa and is composed of a single polypeptide chain. It contains several binding sites for various endogenous and exogenous substances, such as bilirubin, fatty acids, hormones, and drugs, facilitating their transport throughout the body. Additionally, albumin possesses antioxidant properties, protecting against oxidative damage.

Albumin levels in the blood are often used as a clinical indicator of liver function, nutritional status, and overall health. Low serum albumin levels may suggest liver disease, malnutrition, inflammation, or kidney dysfunction.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment that is produced by the liver when it breaks down old red blood cells. It is a normal byproduct of hemoglobin metabolism and is usually conjugated (made water-soluble) in the liver before being excreted through the bile into the digestive system. Elevated levels of bilirubin can cause jaundice, a yellowing of the skin and eyes. Increased bilirubin levels may indicate liver disease or other medical conditions such as gallstones or hemolysis. It is also measured to assess liver function and to help diagnose various liver disorders.

Cisplatin is a chemotherapeutic agent used to treat various types of cancers, including testicular, ovarian, bladder, head and neck, lung, and cervical cancers. It is an inorganic platinum compound that contains a central platinum atom surrounded by two chloride atoms and two ammonia molecules in a cis configuration.

Cisplatin works by forming crosslinks between DNA strands, which disrupts the structure of DNA and prevents cancer cells from replicating. This ultimately leads to cell death and slows down or stops the growth of tumors. However, cisplatin can also cause damage to normal cells, leading to side effects such as nausea, vomiting, hearing loss, and kidney damage. Therefore, it is essential to monitor patients closely during treatment and manage any adverse effects promptly.

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is a test used to check how well the kidneys are working. Specifically, it estimates how much blood passes through the glomeruli each minute. The glomeruli are the tiny fibers in the kidneys that filter waste from the blood. A lower GFR number means that the kidneys aren't working properly and may indicate kidney disease.

The GFR is typically calculated using a formula that takes into account the patient's serum creatinine level, age, sex, and race. The most commonly used formula is the CKD-EPI (Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration) equation. A normal GFR is usually above 90 mL/min/1.73m2, but this can vary depending on the individual's age and other factors.

Uric acid is a chemical compound that is formed when the body breaks down purines, which are substances that are found naturally in certain foods such as steak, organ meats and seafood, as well as in our own cells. After purines are broken down, they turn into uric acid and then get excreted from the body in the urine.

However, if there is too much uric acid in the body, it can lead to a condition called hyperuricemia. High levels of uric acid can cause gout, which is a type of arthritis that causes painful swelling and inflammation in the joints, especially in the big toe. Uric acid can also form crystals that can collect in the kidneys and lead to kidney stones.

It's important for individuals with gout or recurrent kidney stones to monitor their uric acid levels and follow a treatment plan prescribed by their healthcare provider, which may include medications to lower uric acid levels and dietary modifications.

Organ size refers to the volume or physical measurement of an organ in the body of an individual. It can be described in terms of length, width, and height or by using specialized techniques such as imaging studies (like CT scans or MRIs) to determine the volume. The size of an organ can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, body size, and overall health status. Changes in organ size may indicate various medical conditions, including growths, inflammation, or atrophy.

Blood glucose, also known as blood sugar, is the concentration of glucose in the blood. Glucose is a simple sugar that serves as the main source of energy for the body's cells. It is carried to each cell through the bloodstream and is absorbed into the cells with the help of insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas.

The normal range for blood glucose levels in humans is typically between 70 and 130 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) when fasting, and less than 180 mg/dL after meals. Levels that are consistently higher than this may indicate diabetes or other metabolic disorders.

Blood glucose levels can be measured through a variety of methods, including fingerstick blood tests, continuous glucose monitoring systems, and laboratory tests. Regular monitoring of blood glucose levels is important for people with diabetes to help manage their condition and prevent complications.

"Animal nutritional physiological phenomena" is not a standardized medical or scientific term. However, it seems to refer to the processes and functions related to nutrition and physiology in animals. Here's a breakdown of the possible components:

1. Animal: This term refers to non-human living organisms that are multicellular, heterotrophic, and have a distinct nervous system.
2. Nutritional: This term pertains to the nourishment and energy requirements of an animal, including the ingestion, digestion, absorption, transportation, metabolism, and excretion of nutrients.
3. Physiological: This term refers to the functions and processes that occur within a living organism, including the interactions between different organs and systems.
4. Phenomena: This term generally means an observable fact or event.

Therefore, "animal nutritional physiological phenomena" could refer to the observable events and processes related to nutrition and physiology in animals. Examples of such phenomena include digestion, absorption, metabolism, energy production, growth, reproduction, and waste elimination.

Alanine transaminase (ALT) is a type of enzyme found primarily in the cells of the liver and, to a lesser extent, in the cells of other tissues such as the heart, muscles, and kidneys. Its primary function is to catalyze the reversible transfer of an amino group from alanine to another alpha-keto acid, usually pyruvate, to form pyruvate and another amino acid, usually glutamate. This process is known as the transamination reaction.

When liver cells are damaged or destroyed due to various reasons such as hepatitis, alcohol abuse, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, or drug-induced liver injury, ALT is released into the bloodstream. Therefore, measuring the level of ALT in the blood is a useful diagnostic tool for evaluating liver function and detecting liver damage. Normal ALT levels vary depending on the laboratory, but typically range from 7 to 56 units per liter (U/L) for men and 6 to 45 U/L for women. Elevated ALT levels may indicate liver injury or disease, although other factors such as muscle damage or heart disease can also cause elevations in ALT.

Glomerulonephritis is a medical condition that involves inflammation of the glomeruli, which are the tiny blood vessel clusters in the kidneys that filter waste and excess fluids from the blood. This inflammation can impair the kidney's ability to filter blood properly, leading to symptoms such as proteinuria (protein in the urine), hematuria (blood in the urine), edema (swelling), hypertension (high blood pressure), and eventually kidney failure.

Glomerulonephritis can be acute or chronic, and it may occur as a primary kidney disease or secondary to other medical conditions such as infections, autoimmune disorders, or vasculitis. The diagnosis of glomerulonephritis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, urinalysis, blood tests, and imaging studies, with confirmation often requiring a kidney biopsy. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and severity of the disease but may include medications to suppress inflammation, control blood pressure, and manage symptoms.

Phosphorus is an essential mineral that is required by every cell in the body for normal functioning. It is a key component of several important biomolecules, including adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the primary source of energy for cells, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), which are the genetic materials in cells.

Phosphorus is also a major constituent of bones and teeth, where it combines with calcium to provide strength and structure. In addition, phosphorus plays a critical role in various metabolic processes, including energy production, nerve impulse transmission, and pH regulation.

The medical definition of phosphorus refers to the chemical element with the atomic number 15 and the symbol P. It is a highly reactive non-metal that exists in several forms, including white phosphorus, red phosphorus, and black phosphorus. In the body, phosphorus is primarily found in the form of organic compounds, such as phospholipids, phosphoproteins, and nucleic acids.

Abnormal levels of phosphorus in the body can lead to various health problems. For example, high levels of phosphorus (hyperphosphatemia) can occur in patients with kidney disease or those who consume large amounts of phosphorus-rich foods, and can contribute to the development of calcification of soft tissues and cardiovascular disease. On the other hand, low levels of phosphorus (hypophosphatemia) can occur in patients with malnutrition, vitamin D deficiency, or alcoholism, and can lead to muscle weakness, bone pain, and an increased risk of infection.

Malondialdehyde (MDA) is a naturally occurring organic compound that is formed as a byproduct of lipid peroxidation, a process in which free radicals or reactive oxygen species react with polyunsaturated fatty acids. MDA is a highly reactive aldehyde that can modify proteins, DNA, and other biomolecules, leading to cellular damage and dysfunction. It is often used as a marker of oxidative stress in biological systems and has been implicated in the development of various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders.

"Swine" is a common term used to refer to even-toed ungulates of the family Suidae, including domestic pigs and wild boars. However, in a medical context, "swine" often appears in the phrase "swine flu," which is a strain of influenza virus that typically infects pigs but can also cause illness in humans. The 2009 H1N1 pandemic was caused by a new strain of swine-origin influenza A virus, which was commonly referred to as "swine flu." It's important to note that this virus is not transmitted through eating cooked pork products; it spreads from person to person, mainly through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes.

Nephritis is a medical term that refers to inflammation of the kidneys, specifically affecting the glomeruli - the tiny filtering units inside the kidneys. The condition can cause damage to the glomeruli, leading to impaired kidney function and the leakage of protein and blood into the urine.

Nephritis can result from a variety of causes, including infections, autoimmune disorders, and exposure to certain medications or toxins. Depending on the severity and underlying cause, nephritis may be treated with medications, dietary modifications, or other therapies aimed at reducing inflammation and preserving kidney function. In severe cases, hospitalization and more intensive treatments may be necessary.

Hematologic tests, also known as hematology tests, are a group of diagnostic exams that evaluate the health and function of different components of blood, such as red and white blood cells, platelets, and clotting factors. These tests can detect various disorders, including anemia, infection, bleeding problems, and several types of cancer. Common hematologic tests include complete blood count (CBC), coagulation studies, peripheral smear examination, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR). The specific test or combination of tests ordered will depend on the patient's symptoms, medical history, and physical examination findings.

The medical definition of "eating" refers to the process of consuming and ingesting food or nutrients into the body. This process typically involves several steps, including:

1. Food preparation: This may involve cleaning, chopping, cooking, or combining ingredients to make them ready for consumption.
2. Ingestion: The act of taking food or nutrients into the mouth and swallowing it.
3. Digestion: Once food is ingested, it travels down the esophagus and enters the stomach, where it is broken down by enzymes and acids to facilitate absorption of nutrients.
4. Absorption: Nutrients are absorbed through the walls of the small intestine and transported to cells throughout the body for use as energy or building blocks for growth and repair.
5. Elimination: Undigested food and waste products are eliminated from the body through the large intestine (colon) and rectum.

Eating is an essential function that provides the body with the nutrients it needs to maintain health, grow, and repair itself. Disorders of eating, such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa, can have serious consequences for physical and mental health.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

Renal circulation refers to the blood flow specifically dedicated to the kidneys. The main function of the kidneys is to filter waste and excess fluids from the blood, which then get excreted as urine. To perform this function efficiently, the kidneys receive a substantial amount of the body's total blood supply - about 20-25% in a resting state.

The renal circulation process begins when deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body returns to the right side of the heart and is pumped into the lungs for oxygenation. Oxygen-rich blood then leaves the left side of the heart through the aorta, the largest artery in the body.

A portion of this oxygen-rich blood moves into the renal arteries, which branch directly from the aorta and supply each kidney with blood. Within the kidneys, these arteries divide further into smaller vessels called afferent arterioles, which feed into a network of tiny capillaries called the glomerulus within each nephron (the functional unit of the kidney).

The filtration process occurs in the glomeruli, where waste materials and excess fluids are separated from the blood. The resulting filtrate then moves through another set of capillaries, the peritubular capillaries, which surround the renal tubules (the part of the nephron that reabsorbs necessary substances back into the bloodstream).

The now-deoxygenated blood from the kidneys' capillary network coalesces into venules and then merges into the renal veins, which ultimately drain into the inferior vena cava and return the blood to the right side of the heart. This highly specialized circulation system allows the kidneys to efficiently filter waste while maintaining appropriate blood volume and composition.

The kidney cortex is the outer region of the kidney where most of the functional units called nephrons are located. It plays a crucial role in filtering blood and regulating water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance in the body. The kidney cortex contains the glomeruli, proximal tubules, loop of Henle, and distal tubules, which work together to reabsorb necessary substances and excrete waste products into the urine.

A "Blood Cell Count" is a medical laboratory test that measures the number of red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets in a sample of blood. This test is often used as a part of a routine check-up or to help diagnose various medical conditions, such as anemia, infection, inflammation, and many others.

The RBC count measures the number of oxygen-carrying cells in the blood, while the WBC count measures the number of immune cells that help fight infections. The platelet count measures the number of cells involved in clotting. Abnormal results in any of these counts may indicate an underlying medical condition and further testing may be required for diagnosis and treatment.

Reactive Nitrogen Species (RNS) are a group of highly reactive and chemically diverse molecules that are derived from nitric oxide (NO) or other nitrogen-containing compounds. They play important roles in various biological processes, such as cell signaling, neurotransmission, and immune response. However, an overproduction of RNS can also contribute to the development of several pathological conditions, including inflammation, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer. Examples of RNS include nitric oxide (NO), peroxynitrite (ONOO-), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). These species are generated through various biochemical reactions, such as the conversion of L-arginine to citrulline by nitric oxide synthase (NOS) enzymes, which leads to the production of NO. RNS can then react with other molecules in the body, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to the formation of harmful compounds that can damage cellular structures and disrupt normal physiological functions.

Urinalysis is a medical examination and analysis of urine. It's used to detect and manage a wide range of disorders, such as diabetes, kidney disease, and liver problems. A urinalysis can also help monitor medications and drug compliance. The test typically involves checking the color, clarity, and specific gravity (concentration) of urine. It may also include chemical analysis to detect substances like glucose, protein, blood, and white blood cells, which could indicate various medical conditions. In some cases, a microscopic examination is performed to identify any abnormal cells, casts, or crystals present in the urine.

Urine is a physiological excretory product that is primarily composed of water, urea, and various ions (such as sodium, potassium, chloride, and others) that are the byproducts of protein metabolism. It also contains small amounts of other substances like uric acid, creatinine, ammonia, and various organic compounds. Urine is produced by the kidneys through a process called urination or micturition, where it is filtered from the blood and then stored in the bladder until it is excreted from the body through the urethra. The color, volume, and composition of urine can provide important diagnostic information about various medical conditions.

A kidney glomerulus is a functional unit in the nephron of the kidney. It is a tuft of capillaries enclosed within a structure called Bowman's capsule, which filters waste and excess fluids from the blood. The glomerulus receives blood from an afferent arteriole and drains into an efferent arteriole.

The process of filtration in the glomerulus is called ultrafiltration, where the pressure within the glomerular capillaries drives plasma fluid and small molecules (such as ions, glucose, amino acids, and waste products) through the filtration membrane into the Bowman's space. Larger molecules, like proteins and blood cells, are retained in the blood due to their larger size. The filtrate then continues down the nephron for further processing, eventually forming urine.

Weight gain is defined as an increase in body weight over time, which can be attributed to various factors such as an increase in muscle mass, fat mass, or total body water. It is typically measured in terms of pounds or kilograms and can be intentional or unintentional. Unintentional weight gain may be a cause for concern if it's significant or accompanied by other symptoms, as it could indicate an underlying medical condition such as hypothyroidism, diabetes, or heart disease.

It is important to note that while body mass index (BMI) can be used as a general guideline for weight status, it does not differentiate between muscle mass and fat mass. Therefore, an increase in muscle mass through activities like strength training could result in a higher BMI, but this may not necessarily be indicative of increased health risks associated with excess body fat.

Oxidative stress is defined as an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (free radicals) and the body's ability to detoxify them or repair the damage they cause. This imbalance can lead to cellular damage, oxidation of proteins, lipids, and DNA, disruption of cellular functions, and activation of inflammatory responses. Prolonged or excessive oxidative stress has been linked to various health conditions, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and aging-related diseases.

Hematocrit is a medical term that refers to the percentage of total blood volume that is made up of red blood cells. It is typically measured as part of a complete blood count (CBC) test. A high hematocrit may indicate conditions such as dehydration, polycythemia, or living at high altitudes, while a low hematocrit may be a sign of anemia, bleeding, or overhydration. It is important to note that hematocrit values can vary depending on factors such as age, gender, and pregnancy status.

"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.

A plant extract is a preparation containing chemical constituents that have been extracted from a plant using a solvent. The resulting extract may contain a single compound or a mixture of several compounds, depending on the extraction process and the specific plant material used. These extracts are often used in various industries including pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and food and beverage, due to their potential therapeutic or beneficial properties. The composition of plant extracts can vary widely, and it is important to ensure their quality, safety, and efficacy before use in any application.

L-Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) is an enzyme found in various tissues within the body, including the heart, liver, kidneys, muscles, and brain. It plays a crucial role in the process of energy production, particularly during anaerobic conditions when oxygen levels are low.

In the presence of the coenzyme NADH, LDH catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to lactate, generating NAD+ as a byproduct. Conversely, in the presence of NAD+, LDH can convert lactate back to pyruvate using NADH. This reversible reaction is essential for maintaining the balance between lactate and pyruvate levels within cells.

Elevated blood levels of LDH may indicate tissue damage or injury, as this enzyme can be released into the circulation following cellular breakdown. As a result, LDH is often used as a nonspecific biomarker for various medical conditions, such as myocardial infarction (heart attack), liver disease, muscle damage, and certain types of cancer. However, it's important to note that an isolated increase in LDH does not necessarily pinpoint the exact location or cause of tissue damage, and further diagnostic tests are usually required for confirmation.

Growth Hormone (GH), also known as somatotropin, is a peptide hormone secreted by the somatotroph cells in the anterior pituitary gland. It plays a crucial role in regulating growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration by stimulating the production of another hormone called insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) in the liver and other tissues. GH also has important metabolic functions, such as increasing glucose levels, enhancing protein synthesis, and reducing fat storage. Its secretion is regulated by two hypothalamic hormones: growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), which stimulates its release, and somatostatin (SRIF), which inhibits its release. Abnormal levels of GH can lead to various medical conditions, such as dwarfism or gigantism if there are deficiencies or excesses, respectively.

Ischemia is the medical term used to describe a lack of blood flow to a part of the body, often due to blocked or narrowed blood vessels. This can lead to a shortage of oxygen and nutrients in the tissues, which can cause them to become damaged or die. Ischemia can affect many different parts of the body, including the heart, brain, legs, and intestines. Symptoms of ischemia depend on the location and severity of the blockage, but they may include pain, cramping, numbness, weakness, or coldness in the affected area. In severe cases, ischemia can lead to tissue death (gangrene) or organ failure. Treatment for ischemia typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the blocked blood flow, such as through medication, surgery, or lifestyle changes.

Chinese herbal drugs, also known as traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), refer to a system of medicine that has been practiced in China for thousands of years. It is based on the belief that the body's vital energy, called Qi, must be balanced and flowing freely for good health. TCM uses various techniques such as herbal therapy, acupuncture, dietary therapy, and exercise to restore balance and promote healing.

Chinese herbal drugs are usually prescribed in the form of teas, powders, pills, or tinctures and may contain one or a combination of herbs. The herbs used in Chinese medicine are typically derived from plants, minerals, or animal products. Some commonly used Chinese herbs include ginseng, astragalus, licorice root, and cinnamon bark.

It is important to note that the use of Chinese herbal drugs should be under the guidance of a qualified practitioner, as some herbs can interact with prescription medications or have side effects. Additionally, the quality and safety of Chinese herbal products can vary widely depending on the source and manufacturing process.

Phytotherapy is the use of extracts of natural origin, especially plants or plant parts, for therapeutic purposes. It is also known as herbal medicine and is a traditional practice in many cultures. The active compounds in these plant extracts are believed to have various medicinal properties, such as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, or sedative effects. Practitioners of phytotherapy may use the whole plant, dried parts, or concentrated extracts to prepare teas, capsules, tinctures, or ointments for therapeutic use. It is important to note that the effectiveness and safety of phytotherapy are not always supported by scientific evidence, and it should be used with caution and preferably under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Amino acids are organic compounds that serve as the building blocks of proteins. They consist of a central carbon atom, also known as the alpha carbon, which is bonded to an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom (H), and a variable side chain (R group). The R group can be composed of various combinations of atoms such as hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon, which determine the unique properties of each amino acid.

There are 20 standard amino acids that are encoded by the genetic code and incorporated into proteins during translation. These include:

1. Alanine (Ala)
2. Arginine (Arg)
3. Asparagine (Asn)
4. Aspartic acid (Asp)
5. Cysteine (Cys)
6. Glutamine (Gln)
7. Glutamic acid (Glu)
8. Glycine (Gly)
9. Histidine (His)
10. Isoleucine (Ile)
11. Leucine (Leu)
12. Lysine (Lys)
13. Methionine (Met)
14. Phenylalanine (Phe)
15. Proline (Pro)
16. Serine (Ser)
17. Threonine (Thr)
18. Tryptophan (Trp)
19. Tyrosine (Tyr)
20. Valine (Val)

Additionally, there are several non-standard or modified amino acids that can be incorporated into proteins through post-translational modifications, such as hydroxylation, methylation, and phosphorylation. These modifications expand the functional diversity of proteins and play crucial roles in various cellular processes.

Amino acids are essential for numerous biological functions, including protein synthesis, enzyme catalysis, neurotransmitter production, energy metabolism, and immune response regulation. Some amino acids can be synthesized by the human body (non-essential), while others must be obtained through dietary sources (essential).

Furosemide is a loop diuretic medication that is primarily used to treat edema (fluid retention) associated with various medical conditions such as heart failure, liver cirrhosis, and kidney disease. It works by inhibiting the sodium-potassium-chloride cotransporter in the ascending loop of Henle in the kidneys, thereby promoting the excretion of water, sodium, and chloride ions. This increased urine output helps reduce fluid accumulation in the body and lower blood pressure.

Furosemide is also known by its brand names Lasix and Frusid. It can be administered orally or intravenously, depending on the patient's condition and the desired rate of diuresis. Common side effects include dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, hearing loss (in high doses), and increased blood sugar levels.

It is essential to monitor kidney function, electrolyte levels, and fluid balance while using furosemide to minimize potential adverse effects and ensure appropriate treatment.

A diet, in medical terms, refers to the planned and regular consumption of food and drinks. It is a balanced selection of nutrient-rich foods that an individual eats on a daily or periodic basis to meet their energy needs and maintain good health. A well-balanced diet typically includes a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and low-fat dairy products.

A diet may also be prescribed for therapeutic purposes, such as in the management of certain medical conditions like diabetes, hypertension, or obesity. In these cases, a healthcare professional may recommend specific restrictions or modifications to an individual's regular diet to help manage their condition and improve their overall health.

It is important to note that a healthy and balanced diet should be tailored to an individual's age, gender, body size, activity level, and any underlying medical conditions. Consulting with a healthcare professional, such as a registered dietitian or nutritionist, can help ensure that an individual's dietary needs are being met in a safe and effective way.

Antioxidants are substances that can prevent or slow damage to cells caused by free radicals, which are unstable molecules that the body produces as a reaction to environmental and other pressures. Antioxidants are able to neutralize free radicals by donating an electron to them, thus stabilizing them and preventing them from causing further damage to the cells.

Antioxidants can be found in a variety of foods, including fruits, vegetables, nuts, and grains. Some common antioxidants include vitamins C and E, beta-carotene, and selenium. Antioxidants are also available as dietary supplements.

In addition to their role in protecting cells from damage, antioxidants have been studied for their potential to prevent or treat a number of health conditions, including cancer, heart disease, and age-related macular degeneration. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential benefits and risks of using antioxidant supplements.

Blood proteins, also known as serum proteins, are a group of complex molecules present in the blood that are essential for various physiological functions. These proteins include albumin, globulins (alpha, beta, and gamma), and fibrinogen. They play crucial roles in maintaining oncotic pressure, transporting hormones, enzymes, vitamins, and minerals, providing immune defense, and contributing to blood clotting.

Albumin is the most abundant protein in the blood, accounting for about 60% of the total protein mass. It functions as a transporter of various substances, such as hormones, fatty acids, and drugs, and helps maintain oncotic pressure, which is essential for fluid balance between the blood vessels and surrounding tissues.

Globulins are divided into three main categories: alpha, beta, and gamma globulins. Alpha and beta globulins consist of transport proteins like lipoproteins, hormone-binding proteins, and enzymes. Gamma globulins, also known as immunoglobulins or antibodies, are essential for the immune system's defense against pathogens.

Fibrinogen is a protein involved in blood clotting. When an injury occurs, fibrinogen is converted into fibrin, which forms a mesh to trap platelets and form a clot, preventing excessive bleeding.

Abnormal levels of these proteins can indicate various medical conditions, such as liver or kidney disease, malnutrition, infections, inflammation, or autoimmune disorders. Blood protein levels are typically measured through laboratory tests like serum protein electrophoresis (SPE) and immunoelectrophoresis (IEP).

Nutritional status is a concept that refers to the condition of an individual in relation to their nutrient intake, absorption, metabolism, and excretion. It encompasses various aspects such as body weight, muscle mass, fat distribution, presence of any deficiencies or excesses of specific nutrients, and overall health status.

A comprehensive assessment of nutritional status typically includes a review of dietary intake, anthropometric measurements (such as height, weight, waist circumference, blood pressure), laboratory tests (such as serum albumin, total protein, cholesterol levels, vitamin and mineral levels), and clinical evaluation for signs of malnutrition or overnutrition.

Malnutrition can result from inadequate intake or absorption of nutrients, increased nutrient requirements due to illness or injury, or excessive loss of nutrients due to medical conditions. On the other hand, overnutrition can lead to obesity and related health problems such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and certain types of cancer.

Therefore, maintaining a good nutritional status is essential for overall health and well-being, and it is an important consideration in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of various medical conditions.

A critical illness is a serious condition that has the potential to cause long-term or permanent disability, or even death. It often requires intensive care and life support from medical professionals. Critical illnesses can include conditions such as:

1. Heart attack
2. Stroke
3. Organ failure (such as kidney, liver, or lung)
4. Severe infections (such as sepsis)
5. Coma or brain injury
6. Major trauma
7. Cancer that has spread to other parts of the body

These conditions can cause significant physical and emotional stress on patients and their families, and often require extensive medical treatment, rehabilitation, and long-term care. Critical illness insurance is a type of insurance policy that provides financial benefits to help cover the costs associated with treating these serious medical conditions.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

I apologize, but "sheep" is not a term that has a medical definition. It is a common animal with the scientific name Ovis aries. If you have any medical or health-related questions, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

Critical care, also known as intensive care, is a medical specialty that deals with the diagnosis and management of life-threatening conditions that require close monitoring and organ support. Critical care medicine is practiced in critical care units (ICUs) or intensive care units of hospitals. The goal of critical care is to prevent further deterioration of the patient's condition, to support failing organs, and to treat any underlying conditions that may have caused the patient to become critically ill.

Critical care involves a multidisciplinary team approach, including intensivists (specialist doctors trained in critical care), nurses, respiratory therapists, pharmacists, and other healthcare professionals. The care provided in the ICU is highly specialized and often involves advanced medical technology such as mechanical ventilation, dialysis, and continuous renal replacement therapy.

Patients who require critical care may have a wide range of conditions, including severe infections, respiratory failure, cardiovascular instability, neurological emergencies, and multi-organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS). Critical care is an essential component of modern healthcare and has significantly improved the outcomes of critically ill patients.

Blood pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of the blood vessels. It is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and is given as two figures:

1. Systolic pressure: This is the pressure when the heart pushes blood out into the arteries.
2. Diastolic pressure: This is the pressure when the heart rests between beats, allowing it to fill with blood.

Normal blood pressure for adults is typically around 120/80 mmHg, although this can vary slightly depending on age, sex, and other factors. High blood pressure (hypertension) is generally considered to be a reading of 130/80 mmHg or higher, while low blood pressure (hypotension) is usually defined as a reading below 90/60 mmHg. It's important to note that blood pressure can fluctuate throughout the day and may be affected by factors such as stress, physical activity, and medication use.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are a group of highly reactive gases, primarily composed of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). They are formed during the combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, gas, or biomass, and are emitted from various sources, including power plants, industrial boilers, transportation vehicles, and residential heating systems. Exposure to NOx can have adverse health effects, particularly on the respiratory system, and contribute to the formation of harmful air pollutants like ground-level ozone and fine particulate matter.

Sodium is an essential mineral and electrolyte that is necessary for human health. In a medical context, sodium is often discussed in terms of its concentration in the blood, as measured by serum sodium levels. The normal range for serum sodium is typically between 135 and 145 milliequivalents per liter (mEq/L).

Sodium plays a number of important roles in the body, including:

* Regulating fluid balance: Sodium helps to regulate the amount of water in and around your cells, which is important for maintaining normal blood pressure and preventing dehydration.
* Facilitating nerve impulse transmission: Sodium is involved in the generation and transmission of electrical signals in the nervous system, which is necessary for proper muscle function and coordination.
* Assisting with muscle contraction: Sodium helps to regulate muscle contractions by interacting with other minerals such as calcium and potassium.

Low sodium levels (hyponatremia) can cause symptoms such as confusion, seizures, and coma, while high sodium levels (hypernatremia) can lead to symptoms such as weakness, muscle cramps, and seizures. Both conditions require medical treatment to correct.

Peritoneal dialysis, continuous ambulatory (CAPD), is a type of renal replacement therapy used to treat patients with end-stage kidney disease. It is a form of peritoneal dialysis that is performed continuously, without the need for machines or hospitalization. CAPD uses the patient's own peritoneum, a thin membrane that lines the abdominal cavity, as a natural filter to remove waste products and excess fluids from the bloodstream.

In CAPD, a sterile dialysis solution is introduced into the peritoneal cavity through a permanent catheter implanted in the patient's abdomen. The solution remains in the peritoneal cavity for a dwell time of several hours, during which diffusion occurs across the peritoneal membrane, allowing waste products and excess fluids to move from the bloodstream into the dialysis solution.

After the dwell time, the used dialysis solution is drained from the peritoneal cavity and discarded, and a fresh batch of dialysis solution is introduced. This process is typically repeated four to five times a day, with each exchange taking about 30 minutes to complete. Patients can perform CAPD exchanges while going about their daily activities, making it a convenient and flexible treatment option for many patients with end-stage kidney disease.

Overall, CAPD is a highly effective form of dialysis that offers several advantages over other types of renal replacement therapy, including improved quality of life, better preservation of residual kidney function, and lower costs. However, it does require careful attention to sterile technique and regular monitoring to ensure proper functioning of the peritoneal membrane and adequate clearance of waste products and fluids.

Digestion is the complex process of breaking down food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the body for energy, growth, and cell repair. This process involves both mechanical and chemical actions that occur in the digestive system, which includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and accessory organs such as the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.

The different stages of digestion are:

1. Ingestion: This is the first step in digestion, where food is taken into the mouth.
2. Mechanical digestion: This involves physically breaking down food into smaller pieces through chewing, churning, and mixing with digestive enzymes.
3. Chemical digestion: This involves breaking down food molecules into simpler forms using various enzymes and chemicals produced by the digestive system.
4. Absorption: Once the food is broken down into simple molecules, they are absorbed through the walls of the small intestine into the bloodstream and transported to different parts of the body.
5. Elimination: The undigested material that remains after absorption is moved through the large intestine and eliminated from the body as feces.

The process of digestion is essential for maintaining good health, as it provides the necessary nutrients and energy required for various bodily functions.

An acute disease is a medical condition that has a rapid onset, develops quickly, and tends to be short in duration. Acute diseases can range from minor illnesses such as a common cold or flu, to more severe conditions such as pneumonia, meningitis, or a heart attack. These types of diseases often have clear symptoms that are easy to identify, and they may require immediate medical attention or treatment.

Acute diseases are typically caused by an external agent or factor, such as a bacterial or viral infection, a toxin, or an injury. They can also be the result of a sudden worsening of an existing chronic condition. In general, acute diseases are distinct from chronic diseases, which are long-term medical conditions that develop slowly over time and may require ongoing management and treatment.

Examples of acute diseases include:

* Acute bronchitis: a sudden inflammation of the airways in the lungs, often caused by a viral infection.
* Appendicitis: an inflammation of the appendix that can cause severe pain and requires surgical removal.
* Gastroenteritis: an inflammation of the stomach and intestines, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.
* Migraine headaches: intense headaches that can last for hours or days, and are often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound.
* Myocardial infarction (heart attack): a sudden blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle, often caused by a buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries.
* Pneumonia: an infection of the lungs that can cause coughing, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
* Sinusitis: an inflammation of the sinuses, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.

It's important to note that while some acute diseases may resolve on their own with rest and supportive care, others may require medical intervention or treatment to prevent complications and promote recovery. If you are experiencing symptoms of an acute disease, it is always best to seek medical attention to ensure proper diagnosis and treatment.

Diabetic nephropathy is a kidney disease that occurs as a complication of diabetes. It is also known as diabetic kidney disease (DKD). This condition affects the ability of the kidneys to filter waste and excess fluids from the blood, leading to their accumulation in the body.

Diabetic nephropathy is caused by damage to the small blood vessels in the kidneys, which can occur over time due to high levels of glucose in the blood. This damage can lead to scarring and thickening of the kidney's filtering membranes, reducing their ability to function properly.

Symptoms of diabetic nephropathy may include proteinuria (the presence of protein in the urine), edema (swelling in the legs, ankles, or feet due to fluid retention), and hypertension (high blood pressure). Over time, if left untreated, diabetic nephropathy can progress to end-stage kidney disease, which requires dialysis or a kidney transplant.

Preventing or delaying the onset of diabetic nephropathy involves maintaining good control of blood sugar levels, keeping blood pressure under control, and making lifestyle changes such as quitting smoking, eating a healthy diet, and getting regular exercise. Regular monitoring of kidney function through urine tests and blood tests is also important for early detection and treatment of this condition.

Necrosis is the premature death of cells or tissues due to damage or injury, such as from infection, trauma, infarction (lack of blood supply), or toxic substances. It's a pathological process that results in the uncontrolled and passive degradation of cellular components, ultimately leading to the release of intracellular contents into the extracellular space. This can cause local inflammation and may lead to further tissue damage if not treated promptly.

There are different types of necrosis, including coagulative, liquefactive, caseous, fat, fibrinoid, and gangrenous necrosis, each with distinct histological features depending on the underlying cause and the affected tissues or organs.

Heart failure is a pathophysiological state in which the heart is unable to pump sufficient blood to meet the metabolic demands of the body or do so only at the expense of elevated filling pressures. It can be caused by various cardiac disorders, including coronary artery disease, hypertension, valvular heart disease, cardiomyopathy, and arrhythmias. Symptoms may include shortness of breath, fatigue, and fluid retention. Heart failure is often classified based on the ejection fraction (EF), which is the percentage of blood that is pumped out of the left ventricle during each contraction. A reduced EF (less than 40%) is indicative of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), while a preserved EF (greater than or equal to 50%) is indicative of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). There is also a category of heart failure with mid-range ejection fraction (HFmrEF) for those with an EF between 40-49%.

A Severity of Illness Index is a measurement tool used in healthcare to assess the severity of a patient's condition and the risk of mortality or other adverse outcomes. These indices typically take into account various physiological and clinical variables, such as vital signs, laboratory values, and co-morbidities, to generate a score that reflects the patient's overall illness severity.

Examples of Severity of Illness Indices include the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) system, the Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS), and the Mortality Probability Model (MPM). These indices are often used in critical care settings to guide clinical decision-making, inform prognosis, and compare outcomes across different patient populations.

It is important to note that while these indices can provide valuable information about a patient's condition, they should not be used as the sole basis for clinical decision-making. Rather, they should be considered in conjunction with other factors, such as the patient's overall clinical presentation, treatment preferences, and goals of care.

PII nitrogen regulatory proteins are a type of signal transduction protein involved in the regulation of nitrogen metabolism in bacteria and archaea. They are named "PII" because they contain two identical subunits, each with a molecular weight of approximately 12 kilodaltons. These proteins play a crucial role in sensing and responding to changes in the energy status and nitrogen availability within the cell.

The PII protein is composed of three domains: the T-domain, which binds ATP and ADP; the N-domain, which binds 2-oxoglutarate (an indicator of carbon and nitrogen status); and the B-domain, which is involved in signal transduction. The PII protein can exist in different conformational states depending on whether it is bound to ATP or ADP, and this affects its ability to interact with downstream effectors.

One of the primary functions of PII proteins is to regulate the activity of glutamine synthetase (GS), an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of glutamate to glutamine. When nitrogen is abundant, PII proteins bind to GS and stimulate its activity, promoting the assimilation of ammonia into organic compounds. Conversely, when nitrogen is scarce, PII proteins dissociate from GS, allowing it to be inhibited by other regulatory proteins.

PII proteins can also interact with other enzymes and regulators involved in nitrogen metabolism, such as nitrogenase, uridylyltransferase/uridylyl-removing enzyme (UT/UR), and transcriptional regulators. Through these interactions, PII proteins help to coordinate the cell's response to changes in nitrogen availability and energy status, ensuring that resources are allocated efficiently and effectively.

Urease is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide. It is found in various organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and plants. In medicine, urease is often associated with certain bacterial infections, such as those caused by Helicobacter pylori, which can produce large amounts of this enzyme. The presence of urease in these infections can lead to increased ammonia production, contributing to the development of gastritis and peptic ulcers.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

Lupus nephritis is a type of kidney inflammation (nephritis) that can occur in people with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), an autoimmune disease. In lupus nephritis, the immune system produces abnormal antibodies that attack the tissues of the kidneys, leading to inflammation and damage. The condition can cause a range of symptoms, including proteinuria (protein in the urine), hematuria (blood in the urine), hypertension (high blood pressure), and eventually kidney failure if left untreated. Lupus nephritis is typically diagnosed through a combination of medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment may include medications to suppress the immune system and control inflammation, such as corticosteroids and immunosuppressive drugs.

Diuretics are a type of medication that increase the production of urine and help the body eliminate excess fluid and salt. They work by interfering with the reabsorption of sodium in the kidney tubules, which in turn causes more water to be excreted from the body. Diuretics are commonly used to treat conditions such as high blood pressure, heart failure, liver cirrhosis, and kidney disease. There are several types of diuretics, including loop diuretics, thiazide diuretics, potassium-sparing diuretics, and osmotic diuretics, each with its own mechanism of action and potential side effects. It is important to use diuretics under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as they can interact with other medications and have an impact on electrolyte balance in the body.

Liver function tests (LFTs) are a group of blood tests that are used to assess the functioning and health of the liver. These tests measure the levels of various enzymes, proteins, and waste products that are produced or metabolized by the liver. Some common LFTs include:

1. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT): An enzyme found primarily in the liver, ALT is released into the bloodstream in response to liver cell damage. Elevated levels of ALT may indicate liver injury or disease.
2. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST): Another enzyme found in various tissues, including the liver, heart, and muscles. Like ALT, AST is released into the bloodstream following tissue damage. High AST levels can be a sign of liver damage or other medical conditions.
3. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP): An enzyme found in several organs, including the liver, bile ducts, and bones. Elevated ALP levels may indicate a blockage in the bile ducts, liver disease, or bone disorders.
4. Gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT): An enzyme found mainly in the liver, pancreas, and biliary system. Increased GGT levels can suggest liver disease, alcohol consumption, or the use of certain medications.
5. Bilirubin: A yellowish pigment produced when hemoglobin from red blood cells is broken down. Bilirubin is processed by the liver and excreted through bile. High bilirubin levels can indicate liver dysfunction, bile duct obstruction, or certain types of anemia.
6. Albumin: A protein produced by the liver that helps maintain fluid balance in the body and transports various substances in the blood. Low albumin levels may suggest liver damage, malnutrition, or kidney disease.
7. Total protein: A measure of all proteins present in the blood, including albumin and other types of proteins produced by the liver. Decreased total protein levels can indicate liver dysfunction or other medical conditions.

These tests are often ordered together as part of a routine health checkup or when evaluating symptoms related to liver function or disease. The results should be interpreted in conjunction with clinical findings, medical history, and other diagnostic tests.

"Autoanalysis" is not a term that is widely used in the medical field. However, in psychology and psychotherapy, "autoanalysis" refers to the process of self-analysis or self-examination, where an individual analyzes their own thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and experiences to gain insight into their unconscious mind and understand their motivations, conflicts, and emotional patterns.

Self-analysis can involve various techniques such as introspection, journaling, meditation, dream analysis, and reflection on past experiences. While autoanalysis can be a useful tool for personal growth and self-awareness, it is generally considered less reliable and comprehensive than professional psychotherapy or psychoanalysis, which involves a trained therapist or analyst who can provide objective feedback, interpretation, and guidance.

Lipid peroxidation is a process in which free radicals, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), steal electrons from lipids containing carbon-carbon double bonds, particularly polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). This results in the formation of lipid hydroperoxides, which can decompose to form a variety of compounds including reactive carbonyl compounds, aldehydes, and ketones.

Malondialdehyde (MDA) is one such compound that is commonly used as a marker for lipid peroxidation. Lipid peroxidation can cause damage to cell membranes, leading to changes in their fluidity and permeability, and can also result in the modification of proteins and DNA, contributing to cellular dysfunction and ultimately cell death. It is associated with various pathological conditions such as atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer.

Hemodialysis solutions are sterile, pyrogen-free fluids used in the process of hemodialysis, a renal replacement therapy for patients with kidney failure. These solutions are formulated to remove waste products and excess fluid from the blood by means of diffusion and osmosis across a semipermeable membrane.

The primary components of hemodialysis solutions include:

1. Electrolytes: Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, and magnesium ions are present in concentrations that aim to restore normal levels in the body or to correct for abnormalities in patients' serum electrolyte levels.
2. Buffer: Bicarbonate or acetate is added as a buffer to maintain the pH of the dialysate and prevent acidification of the blood during hemodialysis.
3. Glucose: A small amount of glucose may be included in the solution to provide energy for the patient.
4. Water: Ultrapure water is used to prepare the solution, free from microbial contaminants and endotoxins.

Hemodialysis solutions are available in different concentrations and formulations to address individual patient needs and specific clinical situations. The composition of these solutions must be carefully controlled to ensure their effectiveness and safety during hemodialysis treatments.

... (BUN) is a medical test that measures the amount of urea nitrogen found in blood. The liver produces urea ... Each molecule of urea has two nitrogen atoms, each of molar mass 14g/mol. To convert from mg/dL of blood urea nitrogen to mmol/ ... Where 60 represents MW of urea and 14*2 MW of urea nitrogen. Kt/V Standardized Kt/V Urea reduction ratio Urine urea nitrogen ... Note that molar concentrations of urea and urea nitrogen are equal, because both nitrogen gas and urea has two nitrogen atoms. ...
Blood urea nitrogen Gerber GS, Brendler CB. Evaluation of the urologic patient: history, physical examination, and urinalysis. ... Urine urea nitrogen (UUN) refers to a test that measures the urine urea to assess nitrogen balance. Urea nitrogen is the end ... Nitrogen Balance = Protein intake/6.25- (UN + 4*) * For average loss via sweat and feces. Nitrogen balance value of 0 indicates ... By testing for UUN, clinicians can assess one's nitrogen balance. Calculating nitrogen balance is a useful tool in assessing ...
... blood, urea, nitrogen (BUN); and creatinine. Blood tests, complete blood count (CBC) and electrolytes. Imaging studies of the ... development of blood clots (thrombosis), blocking of arteries (embolism), and injury to adjacent structures, such as bowel or ... and disease progression in a case of inflammation of blood vessels, or vasculitis (one patient). One patient died of sepsis ( ...
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test measures the amount of urea nitrogen in the blood. Increased levels of urea in the blood (uremia ... blood urea nitrogen). A creatinine blood test and BUN test are usually performed together along with other blood panels for ... Baum N, Dichoso CC, Carlton CE (May 1975). "Blood urea nitrogen and serum creatinine. Physiology and interpretations". Urology ... urea is used by the body as a source of nitrogen essential for growth and life. The most relevant disorders on the urea cycle ...
90 mmHg Elevated serum blood urea nitrogen (> 40 mg/dL) or serum creatinine (> 1.5 mg/dL) Hepatitis B infection Arteriographic ... Individuals who are coughing up blood and have kidney involvement are likely to have granulomatosis with polyangiitis, ... Basic lab tests may include a complete blood count, chemiestries (look for creatinine), creatine phosphokinase level, liver ... on complete blood count Mononeuropathy or polyneuropathy Migratory or transient pulmonary opacities on chest x-ray Paranasal ...
Torre, Gregory M.; Lynch, Vincent D.; Jarowski, Charles I. (1981-01-01). "Lowering blood urea nitrogen with amino acid ...
60 mmHg or 7.9 kPa White blood cells > 15,000/µlitre Calcium < 2 mmol/litre Blood urea nitrogen > 16 mmol/litre Lactate ... blood urea nitrogen level >25 mg/dl (8.9 mmol/L), impaired mental status, systemic inflammatory response syndrome, age over 60 ... low blood calcium, high blood glucose, and dehydration. Blood loss, dehydration, and fluid leaking into the abdominal cavity ( ... Other causes include high levels of blood fats, high blood calcium, some medications, and certain genetic disorders, such as ...
... of the blood urea.[citation needed] The normal range of urea nitrogen in blood or serum is 5 to 20 mg/dl, or 1.8 to 7.1 mmol ... whereas in the United States only the nitrogen component of urea (the blood or serum urea nitrogen, i.e., BUN or SUN) is ... BUN only reflects the nitrogen content of urea (MW 28) and urea measurement reflects the whole of the molecule (MW 60), urea is ... Feinfeld DA, Bargouthi H, Niaz Q, Carvounis CP (2002). "Massive and disproportionate elevation of blood urea nitrogen in acute ...
Increases in serum levels of blood urea nitrogen and creatinine were detected. Long-term oral intake of Chinese herbal liquid ... High levels of blood sugar increased their expression and activity, which lead to an increase in hepatic glucose production and ... The same pathway was observed in peripheral blood lymphocytes. Geniposide has been reported as having a hypoglycemic effect, ... blood glucose, insulin and triglycerides (TG) levels. An increase in the activity of GP and G6Pas was also observed in this ...
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Blood Urea Nitrogen >28 mg/dL Glucose >252 mg/dL (14 mmol/L) Bicarbonate ...
A blood test may reveal increases in blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, phosphorus, and calcium. Emesis (induction of ... Dialysis of the blood (hemodialysis) and peritoneal dialysis can be used to support the kidneys if anuria develops. Oliguria ( ... increased blood calcium levels). "ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center Issues Nationwide Update: Raisins and Grapes Can Be Toxic ...
In the winter rainy season, there is an increase in blood urea nitrogen, albumin, and globulin. Some components of the blood ... However, females have significantly higher red blood cell counts, hematocrit, total leucocyte (white blood cell) counts, and ... Blood composition in Nubian ibex changes throughout the year. In the dry summer season, there is an increased concentration of ... Nubian ibex and other desert-dwelling ungulates have elevated isotopes of Nitrogen (δ15N) due to their diet of plants that grow ...
Azotemia is characterized as an increase of creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) in the plasma. Patients who have ... Blood vessels shrink and undergo apoptosis which results in poor blood flow in the kidneys. More complications happen when ... Because the blood vessels carry oxygen and nutrients throughout the body, having atherosclerosis restrict blood flow and ... By assessing the velocity of blood flow, the doctors can measure whether the kidney is receiving enough blood and nutrients to ...
Females also had an increased blood urea nitrogen level while males had a decreased leukocyte cell number. GRCh38: Ensembl ...
consequently, urea cannot be produced and excess nitrogen accumulates in the blood in the form of ammonia. Ammonia and arginine ... The urea cycle is a sequence of reactions that occurs in liver cells (hepatocytes). This cycle processes excess nitrogen, ... which produces urea by extracting nitrogen from arginine. In people with arginase deficiency, arginase is missing, and arginine ... recessive urea cycle disorder where a deficiency of the enzyme arginase causes a buildup of arginine and ammonia in the blood. ...
For historical reasons, the lab test measuring urea is known as "blood urea nitrogen" (BUN) in the US. The BUN:Cr ratio is a ... This results in lower levels of urea in the blood and higher levels of urea in the urine as compared to creatinine. Creatinine ... such as urea, creatinine, various body waste compounds, and other nitrogen-rich compounds) in the blood. It is largely related ... Orthostatic blood pressure (fluctuates depending on body position) Uremic frost, a condition that occurs when urea and urea ...
A more elaborate version of the MDRD equation also includes serum albumin and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels: eGFR = 170 × [ ... The original MDRD used six variables with the additional variables being the blood urea nitrogen and albumin levels. The ... where the creatinine and blood urea nitrogen concentrations are both in mg/dL. The albumin concentration is in g/dL. These MDRD ... If the blood concentration is 0.01 mg/mL (1 mg/dL), then one can say that 100 mL/min of blood is being "cleared" of creatinine ...
This can be distinguished from hereditary orotic aciduria by assessing blood ammonia levels and blood urea nitrogen (BUN). In ... In orotic aciduria, the urea cycle is not affected. Orotic aciduria can be diagnosed through genetic sequencing of the UMPS ... Elevated urinary orotic acid levels can also arise secondary to blockage of the urea cycle, particularly in ornithine ... OTC deficiency, hyperammonemia and decreased BUN are seen because the urea cycle is not functioning properly, but megaloblastic ...
Laboratory values can show increased blood urea nitrogen (BUN), or increased blood creatinine in cases of uremic pericarditis. ... decrease of at least 10 mmHg of the systolic blood pressure upon inspiration), low blood pressure (due to decreased cardiac ... "Who Is at Risk for Pericarditis?". National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. September 26, 2012. Archived from the original on ... "How Is Pericarditis Treated?". National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. September 26, 2012. Archived from the original on 2 ...
Other ways of testing thallium levels include CBC blood tests, liver function tests, blood urea nitrogen, calcium, or ... Normal background blood and urine concentrations in healthy persons are usually less than 1 μg/litre, but they are often in the ... Thallium is present in the blood for a very short time so urine testing is usually most appropriate. A quick way to assess ... Hemodialysis and hemoperfusion are also used to remove thallium from the blood stream. At later stage of the treatment ...
A basic metabolic panel measures sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), magnesium, creatinine, ... a protein or other biomolecule measured in a blood test Blood film, a way to look at blood cells under a microscope Blood lead ... Typical clinical blood panels include a basic metabolic panel or a complete blood count. Blood tests are also used in drug ... Determination of blood type for blood transfusion or transplants Blood cultures are commonly taken if infection is suspected. ...
... glucose testing and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) analysis.: 49-51 He is an innovator in the area of chemical-luminescence ... One instrument was designed to test blood samples for steroids and other drugs. Liston also developed specialty test ... instrumentation, particularly measurement of oxides of nitrogen.: 54 In addition, Liston and Lowell Edwards formed the Liston- ...
... pulmonary fibrosis and increase in blood urea nitrogen. These conclusions are based on the models that were used during these ...
Several lab test results, such as elevated blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and elevated creatinine, are illustrative of azotemia and ... Lab workup includes serum calcium levels, parathyroid hormone (PTH), phosphorus, creatinine, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), ... Currently, milk-alkali syndrome is the third most common cause of people hospitalized with high blood calcium, after ... Milk-alkali syndrome is characterized by elevated blood calcium levels, metabolic alkalosis, and acute kidney injury. Milk- ...
... blood urea nitrogen, electrolytes, and creatinine; determination of thyroid-stimulating hormone; and urinalysis. Other ... The following routine tests are recommended: Complete blood count Blood chemistry (electrolytes, glucose, renal function, liver ... and mentions that blood tests for vitamins D and B12, infectious diseases, and adrenal insufficiency may be warranted. The old ... and C-Reactive protein Iron tests Celiac disease screening Urinalysis for blood cells, protein and glucose In addition to the ...
Other changes in blood chemistry such as hypomagnesemia, hypocalcemia, hyperkalemia, and an increase in blood urea nitrogen ( ... Among the most common effects of this drug is increased blood cholesterol levels. ...
Serum glucose Calcium Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) Creatinine Electrolyte levels and the balance among them are tightly regulated ... Typically, the patient fasts for ten or twelve hours before the blood is drawn for the test-this is particularly important for ... The comprehensive metabolic panel, or chemical screen (CMP; CPT code 80053), is a panel of 14 blood tests that serves as an ... Sodium Potassium Chloride Carbon dioxide (CO2) Tests of protein levels in the blood help screen for both kidney and liver ...
Other factors that will influence the survival rate are the severity of proteinuria, blood urea nitrogen levels, serum creatine ... A blood test will be to measure the levels of creatine in the blood. An ultrasound will be done to see if there is inflammation ... If a patient is suspected to have DPGN, a blood and urine test will be done first. A urine test will be done to determine if ... They lead to rupturing of small blood vessels, ultimately causing necrosis and sclerosis. The glomeruli are the filters in the ...
BUN-to-creatinine ratio (the ratio of blood urea nitrogen to creatinine) can indicate other problems besides those intrinsic to ... A rise in blood creatinine concentration is a late marker, observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore ... It is released at a constant rate by the body (depending on muscle mass). Serum creatinine (a blood measurement) is an ... of kidney function can be made when interpreting the blood plasma concentration of creatinine along with that of urea. ...
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) is a medical test that measures the amount of urea nitrogen found in blood. The liver produces urea ... Each molecule of urea has two nitrogen atoms, each of molar mass 14g/mol. To convert from mg/dL of blood urea nitrogen to mmol/ ... Where 60 represents MW of urea and 14*2 MW of urea nitrogen. Kt/V Standardized Kt/V Urea reduction ratio Urine urea nitrogen ... Note that molar concentrations of urea and urea nitrogen are equal, because both nitrogen gas and urea has two nitrogen atoms. ...
... blood urea nitrogen) test, which can provide important information about your kidney function. ... What is a BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen) Test?. A BUN, or blood urea nitrogen test, can provide important information about your ... www.testing.com/tests/blood-urea-nitrogen-bun/. *Lyman JL. Blood urea nitrogen and creatinine. Emerg Med Clin North Am [ ... medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/bun-blood-urea-nitrogen/ BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen). ...
Learn about the blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test to assess kidney function and what possible results could mean. ... A common blood test, the blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test reveals important information about how well your kidneys are working. ... the creatinine levels in your blood will likely also be measured when your blood is tested for urea nitrogen levels. Creatinine ... A BUN test measures the amount of urea nitrogen thats in your blood. ...
A description of the blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test - what it tests for, when you should get one, and how to interpret the ... Taking a Blood Urea Nitrogen Test. Since this test measures urea nitrogen in the blood, testing requires a blood sample taken ... A blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test measures the amount of urea in a blood sample. Urea is a waste product that forms as part of ... Finding a Blood Urea Nitrogen Test. How can I get a blood urea nitrogen test?. A doctor normally prescribes testing for BUN, ...
Heartbeat:Blood urea nitrogen to creatinine ratio predicts outcome in acute heart failure ... Heartbeat:Blood urea nitrogen to creatinine ratio predicts outcome in acute heart failure ... Heartbeat:Blood urea nitrogen to creatinine ratio predicts outcome in acute heart failure ...
The urine urea nitrogen test measures the amount of urea in your urine. It can indicate how much protein youre eating and how ... A common test for urea nitrogen is the blood urea nitrogen test, better known as BUN. This article refers to the urine urea ... 2016). Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test.. https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/blood-urea-nitrogen/about/pac-20384821. ... Bloodurea nitrogen (BUN). (2018).. https://labtestsonline.org/tests/blood-urea-nitrogen-bun. ...
Blood urea nitrogen to creatinine ratio in the general population and patients with acute heart failure. / Matsue, Y.; Van der ... Blood urea nitrogen to creatinine ratio in the general population and patients with acute heart failure. In: European Journal ... Blood urea nitrogen to creatinine ratio in the general population and patients with acute heart failure. European Journal of ... title = "Blood urea nitrogen to creatinine ratio in the general population and patients with acute heart failure", ...
Get all details on Blood Urea Nitrogen ( BUN ) test such as : procedure, preparation, benefits, price, TAT and more. ... Book Blood Urea Nitrogen ( BUN ) test online on Bloodoxy at best price. ... Details of Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) What is a BUN (blood urea nitrogen) test?. A BUN, or blood urea nitrogen test, can provide ... Details of Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) What is a BUN (blood urea nitrogen) test?. A BUN, or blood urea nitrogen test, can provide ...
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... is a critical component of our blood that helps evaluate kidney function. In this article, we will explore what a BUN disorder ... is a critical component of our blood that helps evaluate kidney function. In this article, we will explore ... What Is a Blood Urea Nitrogen Disorder?. A Blood Urea Nitrogen disorder, often called high BUN or low BUN, is a condition that ... Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) is a critical component of our blood that helps evaluate kidney function. In this article, we will ...
Blood urea nitrogen (mg/dL). Variable Name: LBXSBU. SAS Label: Blood urea nitrogen (mg/dL). English Text: Blood urea nitrogen ( ... Blood urea nitrogen (mmol/L). Variable Name: LBDSBUSI. SAS Label: Blood urea nitrogen (mmol/L). English Text: Blood urea ... Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN). The DxC800 modular chemistry (BUNm) is used to quantitatively determine the concentration of blood ... 6. Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) BUN measurements are used in the diagnosis of certain renal and metabolic diseases. The ...
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) determination only (ie, no creatinine) seems indicated in the absence of a history of urinary tract ... If the patient needs a blood transfusion, packed red blood cells are preferable. One unit should elevate the hematocrit by 3 ... White blood cell (WBC) count. Indications include the following:. * Suspected infection that would make surgery contraindicated ... Blood glucose determination is indicated only in the elderly population because of the high prevalence of diabetes mellitus. ...
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) testing is commonly part of the basic metabolic panel (BMP) or comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), ... encoded search term (Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN)) and Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) What to Read Next on Medscape ... Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) Updated: Mar 06, 2014 * Author: Edgar V Lerma, MD, FACP, FASN, FAHA, FASH, FNLA, FNKF; Chief Editor: ... Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) testing is commonly part of the basic metabolic panel (BMP) or comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), ...
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) testing is commonly part of the basic metabolic panel (BMP) or comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), ... encoded search term (Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN)) and Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) What to Read Next on Medscape ... Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) Updated: Mar 06, 2014 * Author: Edgar V Lerma, MD, FACP, FASN, FAHA, FASH, FNLA, FNKF; Chief Editor: ... Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) testing is commonly part of the basic metabolic panel (BMP) or comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), ...
Creatinine, Blood Urea Nitrogen. Increases (,1.25 times the upper limit of normal) in serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen ... treatment with ACE inhibitors was associated with increases in blood urea nitrogen and serum creatinine; these increases were ... hypertensive patients with no apparent preexisting renal vascular diseases have developed increases in blood urea nitrogen and ... The drug also accumulates in red blood cells, so that whole blood levels are 1.6 to 1.8 times those measured in plasma. ...
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN). Urea nitrogen is a waste product in your blood that comes from the breakdown of protein in the foods ... A "normal" creatinine level in the blood is hard to define because it can change depending on your age, sex, body size, and ... There are many ways to complete this test - some involve a 24-hour urine collection while others involve multiple blood samples ... Healthy kidneys keep the albumin in your blood while filtering the creatinine out into the urine. So, there should be very ...
... blood urea nitrogen; and creatinine. Other Procedures -- Perform a baseline visual acuity exam and test for red-green color ... blood urea nitrogen, and creatinine. -- To assist in the decision about the duration of TB treatment, investigate the ... Obtain a complete blood cell count, including platelets. -- Conduct chemistry panel tests, especially for liver enzyme levels ( ... Laboratory Tests -- Obtain a complete blood cell count, and also obtain a platelet count if the patient will be treated with a ...
blood urea nitrogen. *sodium. *potassium. *calcium. *phosphorous. *lactate dehydrogenase. *uric acid. Doctors use two sets. of ... doctors will request regular blood tests to monitor the levels of chemicals in the blood. ... Hypocalcemia: This is when an individual has low levels of calcium in their blood. Hypocalcemia can result in acute kidney ... These, however, may become severe if a person does not receive treatment, and the chemicals keep on building up in the blood. ...
... blood urea nitrogen, serum creatinine, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and free thyroxine levels, as well as spot urine protein-to ... Elevated blood pressure. Chronic hypertension complicates approximately 1 in 10 diabetic pregnancies overall. [20] Women with ... Impaired glucose tolerance is a condition in which the blood sugar level is elevated (140-199 mg/dL after a 2-h OGTT) but is ... As renal blood flow and glomerular filtration rate increase 30-50% during pregnancy, the degree of proteinuria will also ...
Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN). [PDF - 238 KB] September 2011. C-Reactive Protein. [PDF - 324 KB] September 2011. ... For a subset of examination components (e.g., body measurements, blood pressure and the dental examination), a "gold standard" ...
... blood urea nitrogen (BUN), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX), and malondialdehyde (MDA) in blood were ... Additionally, the EOM group also showed marked changes of the rise of blood glucose and the decrease of BUN and GSH-PX.,i, ... After continuous inhalation for 3 days, the swimming time, blood glucose, blood lactic acid (BLA), ... After continuous inhalation for 3 days, the swimming time, blood glucose, blood lactic acid (BLA), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), ...
... blood urea nitrogen, and renal arsenic accumulation were significantly decreased and reduced renal morphologic injury was ...
Blood Urea Nitrogen * Diagnosis, Differential * Female * Hematologic Diseases / diagnosis* * Humans * Kidney Diseases / ...
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN). *Serum creatinine. *Urinalysis. Repeat testing if any of the results are abnormal, if the patient ... TCE metabolites: Although TCE disappears rapidly from the blood, metabolites (e.g., TCA) can persist in the blood for several ... TCE: Directly testing for TCE in the blood can be used for either immediate exposure or chronic exposure. However, multiple ... The TCE metabolite, free trichloroethanol, can be measured in the blood. However, several other compounds affect the level of ...
Multiple myeloma is the second most common type of blood cancer after leukemia. Learn more about the symptoms, causes, ... Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine. These check how well your kidneys are working. ... Blood problems. You might get anemia, which means your body doesnt have enough red blood cells. This can make you tired and ... To confirm a diagnosis, you might have blood tests including:. *A complete blood count (CBC). It measures the different kinds ...
... blood urea nitrogen (BUN), nitric oxide (NO), and malondialdehyde (MDA) were downregulated, while those of albumin (ALB), ... blood urea nitrogen (BUN), nitric oxide (NO), and malondialdehyde (MDA) were downregulated, while those of albumin (ALB), ... blood urea nitrogen (BUN), albumin (ALB), superoxide dismutase (SOD), nitric oxide (NO), catalase (CAT), malondialdehyde (MDA ... It cools the body, moistens the lungs, benefits the blood, has anti-inflammatory and detoxification effects, reduces blood ...
... may treat high blood pressure and CHF. Learn about the drug class, side effects, dosages, drug interactions, warnings, patient ... Creatinine, Blood Urea Nitrogen. In controlled clinical trials minor increases in blood urea nitrogen and serum creatinine, ... Increases in blood urea nitrogen or creatinine were a cause for discontinuation in 1.2 percent of patients. ... increases in blood urea nitrogen and serum creatinine were observed in 20 percent of patients. These increases were almost ...
Take 200 mg of supplemental vitamin C daily (in one study women with higher blood levels of vitamin C were half as likely to ... Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) Test: Are Your Kidneys OK?. Stay Connected With Dr. Weil - Get Free Newsletters Right In Your Inbox. ...
  • All children with confirmed hypertension should be screened for underlying renal disease via blood urea nitrogen and creatinine levels, complete blood count, electrolyte levels, urinalysis, urine culture, and renal ultrasonography. (aafp.org)
  • The Healthy Living Assessment and Enhanced Living Assessment are comprehensive panels of blood tests that provide insight into liver, kidney, blood, electrolyte, heart and metabolic health. (rmalab.com)
  • Dialysis can perform the functions of the kidney, cleaning waste from your blood, maintaining electrolyte and acid/base balance, and controlling your blood pressure. (upmc.com)
  • Laboratory findings include low platelets, elevated white blood cell counts, electrolyte abnormalities, elevated blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine, and proteinuria. (cdc.gov)
  • It is not considered as reliable as creatinine or BUN/creatinine ratio blood studies. (wikipedia.org)
  • The ratio is may also be useful for diagnosing gastrointestinal bleeding in some patients who do not present with overt blood loss. (medscape.com)
  • Your liver produces ammonia - which contains nitrogen - after it breaks down proteins used by your body's cells. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Fatigue-related biochemical responses of serum lactate, ammonia, glucose, creatine kinase (CK), and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) were measured following the swimming exercise. (medsci.org)
  • However, the "clogging theory," that is, the excessive accumulation of blood lactic acid (BLA) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN), would cause metabolic disorders that would eventually result in the fatigue. (hindawi.com)
  • The concentrations of renal malondialdehyde, reactive oxygen species, 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine, serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, and renal arsenic accumulation were significantly decreased and reduced renal morphologic injury was observed compared with the As 2 O 3 -treated group. (springer.com)
  • Urea is found dissolved in blood and is excreted by the renal tubules. (medscape.com)
  • Liver disease may be associated with near-normal values of both BUN (due to decreased urea production) and serum creatinine (due to muscle wasting), despite a significant decline in renal function manifested by decreased GFR. (medscape.com)
  • In states of intravascular volume depletion, proximal sodium and water reabsorption increases, coupled with a parallel increase in the reabsorption of urea. (medscape.com)
  • All children with prehypertension or hypertension should make therapeutic lifestyle changes to lower blood pressure, including losing weight if overweight, consuming a healthy diet low in sodium, getting regular physical activity, and avoiding tobacco and alcohol use. (aafp.org)
  • A BUN, or blood urea nitrogen test, can provide important information about your kidney function. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Kidney function tests are simple blood and urine tests that can help identify problems with your kidneys. (healthline.com)
  • The determination of serum urea nitrogen is the most widely used test for the evaluation of kidney function. (cdc.gov)
  • blood urea nitrogen: the concentration of nitrogen in the blood in the form of urea, indicating kidney function. (infoplease.com)
  • If kidney problems are the main concern, the creatinine levels in your blood will likely also be measured when your blood is tested for urea nitrogen levels. (mayoclinic.org)
  • During late December 2016, CDC tested a blood specimen from the patient and confirmed that the infection was caused by Seoul virus, a member of the hantavirus family of rodent-borne viruses. (cdc.gov)
  • Urea nitrogen is a waste product that your kidneys remove from your blood. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Normal BUN levels can vary, but generally a high level of blood urea nitrogen is a sign that your kidneys are not working well. (medlineplus.gov)
  • A common blood test, the blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test reveals important information about how well your kidneys are working. (mayoclinic.org)
  • The urea travels from your liver to your kidneys through your bloodstream. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Healthy kidneys filter urea and remove other waste products from your blood. (mayoclinic.org)
  • A BUN test can reveal whether your urea nitrogen levels are higher than normal, suggesting that your kidneys may not be working properly. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Your doctor may also test how well your kidneys are removing waste from the blood. (mayoclinic.org)
  • It is also referred to as urea nitrogen and is filtered out of the blood by the kidneys. (testing.com)
  • The kidneys filter urea out of the blood so it can be cleared out of the body in the urine. (testing.com)
  • Although BUN can be tested individually, it is more common for it to be measured along with other substances in the blood that can reflect the functioning of the kidneys. (testing.com)
  • Urea is a waste product that is excreted by the kidneys when you urinate. (healthline.com)
  • The estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) is an estimate of how well your kidneys are removing waste products from the blood. (kidney.org)
  • Healthy kidneys keep the albumin in your blood while filtering the creatinine out into the urine. (kidney.org)
  • These may show if there's a block in the urinary tract or in the blood vessels that lead to the kidneys. (upmc.com)
  • Blood lead concentrations of 60 micrograms per deciliter or above were found in 19 of 143 workers and 63 workers had concentrations of 40 to 59 micrograms per deciliter. (cdc.gov)
  • Elevated blood urea nitrogen concentrations were found in 21 of 143 workers, possibly suggesting lead induced kidney disease. (cdc.gov)
  • The liver produces urea in the urea cycle as a waste product of the digestion of protein. (wikipedia.org)
  • Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) testing is commonly part of the basic metabolic panel (BMP) or comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), which is commonly obtained as part of a routine medical examination. (medscape.com)
  • This is when an individual has low levels of calcium in their blood. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Plaque is a sticky substance made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances found in the blood. (lupus.org)
  • Elsewhere, the concentration of urea is reported in SI unit as mmol/L, which is generally depending on the lab. (wikipedia.org)
  • AKI incidence was significantly enhanced by diabetes, hyperkalemia, higher levels of WBC count, and blood urea nitrogen (BUN). (frontiersin.org)
  • After continuous inhalation for 3 days, the swimming time, blood glucose, blood lactic acid (BLA), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX), and malondialdehyde (MDA) in blood were determined. (hindawi.com)
  • Additionally, the EOM group also showed marked changes of the rise of blood glucose and the decrease of BUN and GSH-PX. (hindawi.com)
  • High levels of creatinine in your blood may be a sign of kidney damage. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Your doctor will usually recommend a urea test to determine protein levels in the body. (healthline.com)
  • In addition, your urea nitrogen levels may rise if you're going through heart failure or dehydration. (healthline.com)
  • During pregnancy, physiologic changes in blood flow can also lower BUN levels. (medscape.com)
  • The more the levels of certain substances in the blood depart from healthy ranges, the worse the symptoms may be. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • If an individual is at risk of developing TLS, doctors will request regular blood tests to monitor the levels of chemicals in the blood. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Take 200 mg of supplemental vitamin C daily (in one study women with higher blood levels of vitamin C were half as likely to develop gallstones as those with lower levels). (drweil.com)
  • Hormones released from the kidney control many important functions in the body, including managing blood sugar levels, regulating inflammation, regulating the balance of salt and water, controlling the "fight or flight" response to stress, maintaining pregnancy, and initiating and controlling sexual maturation during childhood and puberty. (lupus.org)
  • Urea is a waste product that forms as part of the body's natural process of breaking down proteins. (testing.com)
  • A protein made by the body's immune system that circulates in the blood, recognizes foreign substances like bacteria and viruses, and defends the body against them. (lupus.org)
  • Immune-mediated thrombocytopenia (ITP) in dogs is a blood disease in which the dog's immune system attacks and destroys the body's platelets. (petmd.com)
  • But if your provider has ordered other tests on your blood sample, you may need to fast (not eat or drink) for several hours before the test. (medlineplus.gov)
  • If your blood sample will be used for additional tests, you may need to fast for a certain amount of time before the test. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Your physician may recommend screening tests, including a BUN measurement, if you have risk factors for kidney disease, such as a family history of kidney problems, diabetes, or cardiovascular issues like high blood pressure. (testing.com)
  • While BUN can be tested alone, in most cases, it is part of a panel of tests that includes multiple measurements from the same blood sample. (testing.com)
  • Other blood and urine tests check whether your body is making unusual proteins and, if so, what kinds and how much. (webmd.com)
  • We are working with LifeLabs to provide a new, easier way to access and order conventional blood tests for Naturopathic Doctors, with the development of 17 Patient Assessment Panels. (rmalab.com)
  • Blood tests measure waste products such as creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN). (upmc.com)
  • The main causes of an increase in BUN are: high-protein diet, decrease in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) (suggestive of kidney failure), decrease in blood volume (hypovolemia), congestive heart failure, gastrointestinal hemorrhage, fever, rapid cell destruction from infections, athletic activity, excessive muscle breakdown, and increased catabolism. (wikipedia.org)
  • Vasotec (enalapril maleate) is an ACE ( angiotensin converting enzyme ) inhibitor used to treat high blood pressure ( hypertension ), congestive heart failure , kidney problems caused by diabetes , and to improve survival after a heart attack . (rxlist.com)
  • Urea, often called urea nitrogen, is a waste product produced due to the breakdown of proteins in the body. (testing.com)
  • Platelets are stored in the spleen and travel through the bloodstream to areas of blood vessel damage. (petmd.com)
  • The blood draw normally occurs in a medical setting like a doctor's office or laboratory. (testing.com)
  • Urea production occurs primarily in the liver (urea cycle, also referred to as the ornithine cycle) and is regulated by N-acetylglutamate. (medscape.com)
  • Occurs when your blood does not carry enough oxygen to the rest of the rest of your body. (lupus.org)
  • Normal human adult blood should contain 6 to 20 mg/dL (2.1 to 7.1 mmol/L) of urea nitrogen. (wikipedia.org)
  • As this process unfolds, it's normal for some urea to be in the blood. (testing.com)
  • A normal urea level in the urine is 12 to 20 grams over 24 hours. (healthline.com)
  • A "normal" creatinine level in the blood is hard to define because it can change depending on your age, sex, body size, and other factors. (kidney.org)
  • Normal blood pressure values for children and adolescents are based on age, sex, and height, and are available in standardized tables. (aafp.org)
  • You might also have too few platelets, which makes it harder for your blood to clot. (webmd.com)
  • Platelets are a type of blood cell that play an important role in blood clotting. (petmd.com)
  • Dogs normally have between 200,000 and 500,000 platelets per microliter of blood, but only 20,000 to 50,000 per microliter are needed to prevent spontaneous bleeding and bruising. (petmd.com)
  • If damaged blood vessels are not repaired quickly by the platelets, bleeding-ranging from a small bruise to serious internal hemorrhaging-can occur. (petmd.com)
  • Since platelets form blood clots to stop and prevent bleeding, a platelet deficiency caused by ITP typically causes internal bleeding and bruising. (petmd.com)
  • The nitrogen combines with other elements, such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, to form urea, which is a chemical waste product. (mayoclinic.org)
  • That limits the flow of oxygen-rich blood to your body. (lupus.org)
  • Over time, this may lead to serious health problems, including high blood pressure , anemia , and heart disease . (medlineplus.gov)
  • Vulnerability to infection is extremely high in patients with agranulocytosis, which is the virtual absence of neutrophils in peripheral blood, with ANC typically lower than 100/μL. (medscape.com)
  • A more recent article on high blood pressure in children and adolescents is available. (aafp.org)
  • See related handout on managing high blood pressure in children , written by the authors of this article. (aafp.org)
  • High blood pressure in children and adolescents is a growing health problem that is often overlooked by physicians. (aafp.org)
  • 2 High blood pressure in childhood commonly leads to hypertension in adulthood, 3 and adult hypertension is the leading cause of premature death around the world. (aafp.org)
  • In one study, hypertension was diagnosed in only 26 percent of children with documented high blood pressure in an electronic medical record. (aafp.org)
  • Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) is a medical test that measures the amount of urea nitrogen found in blood. (wikipedia.org)
  • The BUN test measures the amount of urea nitrogen in your blood. (medlineplus.gov)
  • A BUN test measures the amount of urea nitrogen that's in your blood. (mayoclinic.org)
  • A blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test measures the amount of urea in a blood sample. (testing.com)
  • As the test name indicates, a BUN test measures urea nitrogen in the blood. (testing.com)
  • A creatinine blood test measures the level of creatinine, a waste product, in the blood. (healthline.com)
  • It measures the different kinds of cells in your blood. (webmd.com)
  • Concurrent anemia, thrombocytopenia, and/or an abnormal result on a peripheral blood smear from a patient with neutropenia suggest an underlying hematologic disorder. (medscape.com)
  • A health care professional will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. (medlineplus.gov)
  • During the BUN test, a member of your health care team takes a sample of blood by inserting a needle into a vein in your arm. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Lowering blood pressure lowers the risk of fatal and non-fatal cardiovascular events, primarily strokes and myocardial infarctions. (nih.gov)
  • Changes in clinical assessments during the study for A , mean spleen size, B , mean hemoglobin level, C , mean total white blood cell (WBC) count, D , mean platelet count, and E , mean weight in the four cohorts. (ajtmh.org)
  • Immediately after the termination of HS, we reinfused the initially shed blood volumes to restore and maintain the mean arterial blood pressure (MABP) to the original value during the 30-min resuscitation. (medsci.org)
  • After the needle is inserted, a small amount of blood will be collected into a test tube or vial. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The urine urea nitrogen test determines how much urea is in the urine to assess the amount of protein breakdown. (healthline.com)
  • In addition, a small amount of urea is also excreted in sweat. (medscape.com)
  • You might get anemia, which means your body doesn't have enough red blood cells. (webmd.com)
  • TLS is the name for a group of health problems an individual may experience when they have a buildup of certain substances in the blood. (medicalnewstoday.com)