Bile Reflux
Duodenogastric Reflux
Gastroesophageal Reflux
Bile
Bile Acids and Salts
Postgastrectomy Syndromes
Barrett Esophagus
Esophagus
Vesico-Ureteral Reflux
Anastomosis, Roux-en-Y
Biliary Tract Diseases
Bile Ducts
Stomach
Gastric Juice
Esophagitis, Peptic
Gastric Mucosa
Pyloric Antrum
Metaplasia
Laryngopharyngeal Reflux
Helicobacter pylori
Helicobacter Infections
Enterogastric reflux mimicking gallbladder disease: detection, quantitation and potential significance. (1/64)
OBJECTIVE: Visualization of enterogastric reflux (EGR) may be present during hepatobiliary imaging. Reflux of bile may damage the gastric mucosa, altering its function, and cause such symptoms as epigastric pain, heartburn, nausea, intermittent vomiting and abdominal fullness. These symptoms also are associated with gallbladder disease. The aim of this study was to quantitate the EGR index (EGRI) and to determine if a difference exists in normal and abnormal responses using standard cholecystokinin (CCK)-augmented hepatobiliary imaging. METHODS: This study used 129 patients. LAO dynamic data on a 128 x 128 matrix at a rate of 1 frame/min were obtained. After the gallbladder ejection fraction (GBEF) was determined, the EGRI (%) was calculated by relating the counts in the gastric ROI to the counts in the hepatobiliary ROI at a specified time. The results were compared with the patient's final clinical diagnosis. RESULTS: Normal responders (GBEF > or = 35%) had a higher EGRI than abnormal responders with a P = 0.001 EGR observed in 75 patients (58.1%). Significant reflux (EGRI > or = 14.2% at 15 min) was observed in 29 additional patients (22.5%). Patients with EGRI > or = 24.5% showed a strong association with the pathophysiologic syndrome of gastritis, alkaline reflux, gastric ulcer and gastro esophageal reflux disease. There was no EGR observed in the remaining 25 patients (19.4%). CONCLUSION: This simple addition to the CCK-augmented hepatobiliary imaging may both detect and quantitate abnormal EGR as the cause of the patient's symptoms in the presence of a normal GBEF result, and/or those patients with risk factors for gastritis. (+info)Cell proliferation in type C gastritis affecting the intact stomach. (2/64)
AIMS: Type C gastritis caused by bile reflux has a characteristic appearance, similar to that seen in other forms of chemical gastritis, such as those associated with NSAIDs or alcohol. An increase in mucosal cell proliferation increases the likelihood of a neoplastic clone of epithelial cells emerging, particularly where there is chronic epithelial injury associated with bile reflux. It has been shown previously that type C gastritis is associated with increased cell proliferation in the postsurgical stomach. The aim of this study was to determine cell proliferation in type C gastritis caused by bile reflux affecting the intact stomach. METHODS: Specimens from 15 patients with a histological diagnosis of type C gastritis on antral biopsy were obtained from the pathology archives between 1994 and 1997. A control group of nine normal antral biopsies was also selected and all underwent MIB-1 immunostaining. The gastric glands were divided into three zones (zone 1, gastric pit; zone 2, isthmus; and zone 3, gland base) and the numbers of positively staining nuclei for 500 epithelial cell nuclei were counted in each zone to determine the percentage labelling index (LI%). RESULTS: Cell proliferation was significantly higher in all three zones of the gastric glands with type C gastritis compared with controls as follows: zone 1, median LI% in type C gastritis 64.7 (range, 7.8-99.2), controls 4.7 (range, 2.0-11.3); zone 2, median LI% in type C gastritis 94.7 (range, 28.8-98.7), controls 40.2 (range, 23.1-70.3); and zone 3, median LI% in type C gastritis 20.0 (range, 1.3-96.0), controls 2.6 (range, 0.9-8.7). CONCLUSIONS: Bile reflux is thought to act as a promoter of gastric carcinogenesis in the postsurgical stomach. The same may be true in the intact stomach. (+info)Bile reflux gastritis and Barrett's oesophagus: further evidence of a role for duodenogastro-oesophageal reflux? (3/64)
BACKGROUND: There is increasing evidence that reflux of bile plays a part in the pathogenesis of Barrett's oesophagus. Bile injury to the gastric mucosa results in a "chemical" gastritis in which oedema and intestinal metaplasia are prominent. AIM: To determine if patients with Barrett's oesophagus have more bile related changes in antral mucosa than patients with uncomplicated gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) or non-ulcer dyspepsia (NUD). PATIENTS AND METHODS: Patients were identified by a retrospective search of pathology records and those with a clinically confirmed diagnosis of either Barrett's oesophagus or reflux oesophagitis who had oesophageal and gastric biopsies taken at the same endoscopy and had no evidence of Helicobacter pylori infection entered the study. Control biopsies were taken from H pylori negative NUD patients. Antral biopsies were examined "blind" to clinical group and graded for a series of histological features from which the "reflux gastritis score" (RGS) and "bile reflux index" (BRI) could be calculated. The reproducibility of these histological scores was tested by a second pathologist. RESULTS: There were 100 patients with Barrett's, 61 with GORD, and 50 with NUD. The RGSs did not differ between groups. BRI values in the Barrett's group were significantly higher than those in GORD subjects (p=0.014) which in turn were higher than those in NUD patients (p=0.037). Similarly, the frequency of high BRI values (>14) was significantly greater in the Barrett's group (29/100; 29%) than in the GORD (9/61; 14.8%) or NUD (4/50; 8%) group. However, agreement on BRI values was "poor", indicating limited applicability of this approach. CONCLUSION: Patients with Barrett's oesophagus have more evidence of bile related gastritis than subjects with uncomplicated GORD or NUD. The presence of bile in the refluxate could be a factor in both the development of "specialised" intestinal metaplasia and malignancy in the oesophagus. (+info)Influence of pantoprazole on oesophageal motility, and bile and acid reflux in patients with oesophagitis. (4/64)
BACKGROUND: Reflux of duodeno-gastric juice into the oesophagus appears to be involved in the pathogenesis of both reflux oesophagitis and oesophageal adenocarcinoma. Although proton pump inhibitors have been shown to decrease acid reflux and heal oesophagitis, their effect on biliary reflux and motility is less clear. AIM: To investigate whether pantoprazole also reduces bile reflux and whether this is paralleled by a change in oesophageal motility. METHODS: Combined 24-h measurements of intraoesophageal bilirubin concentration, pH and pressure were performed in 18 symptomatic patients with endoscopically proven reflux oesophagitis before and on day 28 of treatment with pantoprazole, 40 mg/day, under standardized conditions. A reflux symptom score was determined initially and every 2 weeks thereafter. After 56 days on medication, a control endoscopy was performed. RESULTS: The symptom score and the acid and bile reflux improved significantly, whereas the motility parameters did not change during the study period. Helicobacter pylori-positive patients had a significantly higher bile reflux time (32.1 +/- 4.3%) than H. pylori-negative patients (16.3 +/- 3.1%) (P=0.009). The endoscopic healing rate was 89%. The cough symptoms disappeared in three of four patients. CONCLUSIONS: The proton pump inhibitor pantoprazole decreases both acid and bile reflux. The decrease of bile reflux cannot be explained by increased oesophageal clearance as oesophageal motility did not improve with therapy. Interestingly, H. pylori infection of the stomach was associated with higher levels of oesophageal bile reflux. (+info)Bile reflux gastritis and intestinal metaplasia at the cardia. (5/64)
BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Intestinal metaplasia (IM) at the cardia is likely to be a precursor of cardia cancer. Previous work has shown that it is associated with chronic inflammation attributable to either gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) or Helicobacter pylori infection. An alternative aetiological factor is bile reflux. Duodenogastric reflux brings about histological changes in the gastric mucosa that can be graded and used to calculate a bile reflux index (BRI). We used the BRI to assess whether reflux of bile plays a part in the development of cardia IM. METHODS: Histological changes in simultaneous gastric antrum and cardia biopsies from 267 dyspeptic patients were independently graded by two pathologists. The association between cardia IM and age, sex, clinical group, H pylori status, increased BRI (>14), and inflammation at the cardia were evaluated using logistic regression. RESULTS: A total of 226 patients had adequate cardia and antral biopsies; 149 had GORD and 77 had non-ulcer dyspepsia. Cardia IM was present in 66 (29%) patients, of whom 28 (42%) had complete IM. Increasing age, male sex, chronic inflammation, and a high BRI emerged as significant independent associations with cardia IM. Clinical group and H pylori status were not independent risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: Histological evidence of bile reflux into the stomach is associated with cardia IM. This could have an important bearing on carcinogenesis at this site. (+info)Efficacy and one year follow up of argon plasma coagulation therapy for ablation of Barrett's oesophagus: factors determining persistence and recurrence of Barrett's epithelium. (6/64)
INTRODUCTION: Barrett's epithelium (BE) has malignant potential. Neither acid suppression nor antireflux surgery produce consistent or complete regression of the metaplastic epithelium. Endoscopic thermoablation with argon plasma coagulation (APC) offers a different approach but factors influencing its outcome have not been systematically examined. AIM: To assess the efficacy of APC and factors influencing initial and one year outcome. METHODS: Fifty patients, mean age 61.4 years, mean BE length 5.9 cm (range 3-19), underwent APC therapy at four weekly intervals while receiving proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy. BE margins were marked by India ink tattooing and extent was documented by grid drawings, photography, and 2 cm interval quadrantic jumbo biopsies. Twenty four hour ambulatory oesophageal pH studies were done while on PPIs before and after APC therapy, and Bilitec bilirubin monitoring after APC completion. RESULTS: A total of 68% of patients achieved >90% BE ablation after a median of four APC sessions. Persistent BE (>10% original BE area) was associated with longer initial BE length despite more APC sessions. Persistent acid and bile reflux on PPIs, although commoner in this group, were not significantly different from those successfully ablated. Fifteen of 34 patients (44%) with successful macroscopic clearance had buried glands, present in 8.3% of a total of 338 biopsies. At the one year follow up, only 32% of those with initial successful ablation showed no recurrence. BE recurred or increased in most with mean segment length increases of 1.1 cm and 1.6 cm, respectively, in patients with previous full ablation and those with persistent BE. The presence of buried glands did not predict BE recurrence. Patients who reduced their PPI dose had significantly greater BE recurrence. CONCLUSIONS: APC is most effective for shorter segment BE ablation but "buried" glands do occur. Recurrence of BE is common at one year, especially in those with initial persistent and/or long segment BE and those who reduce their PPI dose. (+info)The effect of famotidine on gastroesophageal and duodeno-gastro-esophageal refluxes in critically ill patients. (7/64)
AIM: To investigate the effect of famotidine on gastroesophageal reflux (GER) and duodeno-gastro-esophageal reflux (DGER) and to explore it's possible mechanisms. To identify the relevant factors of the reflux. METHODS: Nineteen critically ill patients were consecutively enrolled in the study. Dynamic 24 hours monitoring of GER and DGER before and after administration of famotidine was performed. The parameters of gastric residual volume, multiple organ disorder syndrome (MODS) score, acute physiology and chronic health evaluation II (APACHE II) score and PEEP were recorded. Paired t test; Wilcoxon signed ranks test and Univariate analysis with Spearman's rank correlation were applied to analyse the data. RESULTS: Statistical significance of longest acid reflux, reflux time of pH<4 and fraction time of acid reflux was observed in ten critically ill patients before and after administration. P value is 0.037, 0.005, 0.005 respectively. Significance change of all bile reflux parameters was observed before and after administration. P value is 0.007,0.024, 0.005, 0.007, 0.005. GER has positive correlation with APACHE II score and gastric residual volume with correlation coefficient of 0.720, 0.932 respectively. CONCLUSION: GER and DGER are much improved after the administration of famotidine. GER is correlated with APACHE II score and gastric residual volume. (+info)Reflux and Barrett's oesophagitis after gastric surgery--long-term follow-up and implications for the roles of gastric acid and bile in oesophagitis. (8/64)
BACKGROUND: The role of gastric acid is difficult to separate from that of bile in oesophageal reflux, and the complications of this can take many years to develop. Gastric surgery patients provide a good model for both significant bile reflux and marked gastric acid inhibition. AIM: To study the oesophageal abnormalities in gastric surgery patients undergoing long-term follow-up, compared with patients with intact stomachs. METHODS: Two hundred and forty adult patients were endoscoped regardless of their age, sex or type of surgical procedure. Oesophageal damage was graded on a scale of 0-5, and biopsies were taken to exclude neoplasia, to diagnose Barrett's oesophagus and to identify Helicobacter pylori. RESULTS: Of the 240 patients studied, 140 had undergone gastric surgery 27 years (19-31 years) [median (interquartile range)] prior to endoscopy, and these patients had milder oesophageal scores and fewer cases of Barrett's oesophagitis. Of the 119 patients with post-surgical bile reflux gastritis, 31 (26%) had oesophagitis, two (1.7%) had Barrett's oesophagitis and oesophageal scores of 0 (0-1) were found. These results compared with corresponding values of 37 (37%; P = 0.11), 11 (11%; P = 0.007) and 0 (0-2) (P = 0.046), respectively, in 100 patients with intact stomachs. In addition, of the 83 patients with vagotomy, 19 had oesophagitis (23%; P = 0.05), none had Barrett's oesophagitis and lower oesophageal scores (P = 0.02) were found. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence and severity of reflux and Barrett's oesophagitis are not increased in patients with a long history of gastric surgery, particularly after vagotomy, and despite being at risk of bile reflux. (+info)Bile reflux is a condition in which bile flows backward from the small intestine into the stomach and sometimes into the esophagus, causing symptoms such as heartburn, nausea, vomiting a greenish-yellow fluid (bile), and abdominal pain. Bile is a digestive fluid produced by the liver that helps to break down fats in the small intestine. Normally, a muscle called the sphincter of Oddi prevents bile from flowing backward into the stomach. However, if this muscle becomes weak or damaged, bile reflux can occur.
Bile reflux is different from gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), which occurs when stomach acid flows backward into the esophagus. Although both conditions can cause similar symptoms, such as heartburn and regurgitation, they require different treatments. Bile reflux can increase the risk of complications such as inflammation of the stomach lining (gastritis), ulcers, and cancer of the esophagus. If left untreated, bile reflux can lead to serious health problems, so it is important to seek medical attention if you experience symptoms.
Duodenogastric reflux (DGR) is a medical condition in which the contents of the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine, flow backward into the stomach. This occurs when the pyloric sphincter, a muscle that separates the stomach and duodenum, fails to function properly, allowing the reflux of duodenal juice into the stomach.
Duodenogastric refluxate typically contains bile acids, digestive enzymes, and other stomach-irritating substances. Chronic DGR can lead to gastritis (inflammation of the stomach lining), ulcers, and other gastrointestinal complications. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, vomiting, heartburn, and indigestion. Treatment usually involves medications that reduce acid production or neutralize stomach acid, as well as lifestyle modifications to minimize reflux triggers.
Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) is the retrograde movement of stomach contents into the esophagus, which can cause discomfort and symptoms. It occurs when the lower esophageal sphincter (a ring of muscle between the esophagus and stomach) relaxes inappropriately, allowing the acidic or non-acidic gastric contents to flow back into the esophagus.
Gastroesophageal reflux becomes gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) when it is more severe, persistent, and/or results in complications such as esophagitis, strictures, or Barrett's esophagus. Common symptoms of GERD include heartburn, regurgitation, chest pain, difficulty swallowing, and chronic cough or hoarseness.
Bile is a digestive fluid that is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. It plays an essential role in the digestion and absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins in the small intestine. Bile consists of bile salts, bilirubin, cholesterol, phospholipids, electrolytes, and water.
Bile salts are amphipathic molecules that help to emulsify fats into smaller droplets, increasing their surface area and allowing for more efficient digestion by enzymes such as lipase. Bilirubin is a breakdown product of hemoglobin from red blood cells and gives bile its characteristic greenish-brown color.
Bile is released into the small intestine in response to food, particularly fats, entering the digestive tract. It helps to break down large fat molecules into smaller ones that can be absorbed through the walls of the intestines and transported to other parts of the body for energy or storage.
Bile acids and salts are naturally occurring steroidal compounds that play a crucial role in the digestion and absorption of lipids (fats) in the body. They are produced in the liver from cholesterol and then conjugated with glycine or taurine to form bile acids, which are subsequently converted into bile salts by the addition of a sodium or potassium ion.
Bile acids and salts are stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine during digestion, where they help emulsify fats, allowing them to be broken down into smaller molecules that can be absorbed by the body. They also aid in the elimination of waste products from the liver and help regulate cholesterol metabolism.
Abnormalities in bile acid synthesis or transport can lead to various medical conditions, such as cholestatic liver diseases, gallstones, and diarrhea. Therefore, understanding the role of bile acids and salts in the body is essential for diagnosing and treating these disorders.
Postgastrectomy syndromes refer to a group of clinical manifestations that can occur as complications or sequelae following a gastrectomy, which is the surgical removal of all or part of the stomach. These syndromes are relatively common and can have a significant impact on the patient's quality of life.
There are several types of postgastrectomy syndromes, including:
1. Dumping syndrome: This occurs when the remaining portion of the stomach is unable to adequately regulate the passage of food into the small intestine, leading to symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, dizziness, and sweating.
2. Gastroparesis: This is a condition where the stomach is unable to empty properly due to decreased motility, leading to symptoms such as bloating, nausea, vomiting, and early satiety.
3. Nutritional deficiencies: Following gastrectomy, there can be malabsorption of certain nutrients, including vitamin B12, iron, calcium, and folate, leading to anemia, osteoporosis, and other health problems.
4. Afferent loop syndrome: This is a rare complication that occurs when the afferent loop, which carries digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver to the small intestine, becomes obstructed or narrowed, leading to symptoms such as abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and jaundice.
5. Alkaline reflux gastritis: This occurs when the alkaline contents of the small intestine reflux into the remnant stomach, causing inflammation and ulceration.
6. Bile reflux: This is a condition where bile from the small intestine flows back into the stomach, leading to symptoms such as abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and heartburn.
Treatment of postgastrectomy syndromes depends on the specific type and severity of the syndrome, and may include dietary modifications, medication, or surgical intervention.
Gastritis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the lining of the stomach. It can be caused by various factors, including bacterial infections (such as Helicobacter pylori), regular use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), excessive alcohol consumption, and stress.
Gastritis can present with a range of symptoms, such as abdominal pain or discomfort, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and bloating. In some cases, gastritis may not cause any noticeable symptoms. Depending on the severity and duration of inflammation, gastritis can lead to complications like stomach ulcers or even stomach cancer if left untreated.
There are two main types of gastritis: acute and chronic. Acute gastritis develops suddenly and may last for a short period, while chronic gastritis persists over time, often leading to atrophy of the stomach lining. Diagnosis typically involves endoscopy and tissue biopsy to assess the extent of inflammation and rule out other potential causes of symptoms. Treatment options depend on the underlying cause but may include antibiotics, proton pump inhibitors, or lifestyle modifications.
Barrett esophagus is a condition in which the tissue lining of the lower esophagus changes, becoming more like the tissue that lines the intestines (intestinal metaplasia). This change can increase the risk of developing esophageal adenocarcinoma, a type of cancer. The exact cause of Barrett esophagus is not known, but it is often associated with long-term gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), also known as chronic acid reflux.
In Barrett esophagus, the normal squamous cells that line the lower esophagus are replaced by columnar epithelial cells. This change is usually detected during an upper endoscopy and biopsy. The diagnosis of Barrett esophagus is confirmed when the biopsy shows intestinal metaplasia in the lower esophagus.
It's important to note that not everyone with GERD will develop Barrett esophagus, and not everyone with Barrett esophagus will develop esophageal cancer. However, if you have been diagnosed with Barrett esophagus, your healthcare provider may recommend regular endoscopies and biopsies to monitor the condition and reduce the risk of cancer. Treatment options for Barrett esophagus include medications to control acid reflux, lifestyle changes, and in some cases, surgery.
The esophagus is the muscular tube that connects the throat (pharynx) to the stomach. It is located in the midline of the neck and chest, passing through the diaphragm to enter the abdomen and join the stomach. The main function of the esophagus is to transport food and liquids from the mouth to the stomach for digestion.
The esophagus has a few distinct parts: the upper esophageal sphincter (a ring of muscle that separates the esophagus from the throat), the middle esophagus, and the lower esophageal sphincter (another ring of muscle that separates the esophagus from the stomach). The lower esophageal sphincter relaxes to allow food and liquids to enter the stomach and then contracts to prevent stomach contents from flowing back into the esophagus.
The walls of the esophagus are made up of several layers, including mucosa (a moist tissue that lines the inside of the tube), submucosa (a layer of connective tissue), muscle (both voluntary and involuntary types), and adventitia (an outer layer of connective tissue).
Common conditions affecting the esophagus include gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), Barrett's esophagus, esophageal cancer, esophageal strictures, and eosinophilic esophagitis.
Vesico-Ureteral Reflux (VUR) is a medical condition that affects the urinary system, specifically the junction where the ureters (tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder) connect with the bladder. In normal physiology, once the bladder fills up with urine and contracts during micturition (urination), the pressure within the bladder should prevent the backflow of urine into the ureters.
However, in VUR, the valve-like mechanism that prevents this backflow does not function properly, allowing urine to flow backward from the bladder into the ureters and potentially even into the kidneys. This reflux can lead to recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs), kidney damage, and other complications if left untreated. VUR is more commonly diagnosed in children but can also occur in adults.
Roux-en-Y anastomosis is a type of surgical connection between two parts of the gastrointestinal tract, typically performed during gastric bypass surgery for weight loss. In this procedure, a small pouch is created from the upper stomach, and the remaining portion of the stomach is bypassed. The Roux limb, a segment of the small intestine, is then connected to both the pouch and the bypassed stomach, creating two separate channels for food and digestive juices to mix. This surgical technique helps to reduce the amount of food that can be consumed and absorbed, leading to weight loss.
Biliary tract diseases refer to a group of medical conditions that affect the biliary system, which includes the gallbladder, bile ducts, and liver. Bile is a digestive juice produced by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and released into the small intestine through the bile ducts to help digest fats.
Biliary tract diseases can cause various symptoms such as abdominal pain, jaundice, fever, nausea, vomiting, and changes in stool color. Some of the common biliary tract diseases include:
1. Gallstones: Small, hard deposits that form in the gallbladder or bile ducts made up of cholesterol or bilirubin.
2. Cholecystitis: Inflammation of the gallbladder, often caused by gallstones.
3. Cholangitis: Infection or inflammation of the bile ducts.
4. Biliary dyskinesia: A motility disorder that affects the contraction and relaxation of the muscles in the biliary system.
5. Primary sclerosing cholangitis: A chronic autoimmune disease that causes scarring and narrowing of the bile ducts.
6. Biliary tract cancer: Rare cancers that affect the gallbladder, bile ducts, or liver.
Treatment for biliary tract diseases varies depending on the specific condition and severity but may include medications, surgery, or a combination of both.
Manometry is a medical test that measures pressure inside various parts of the gastrointestinal tract. It is often used to help diagnose digestive disorders such as achalasia, gastroparesis, and irritable bowel syndrome. During the test, a thin, flexible tube called a manometer is inserted through the mouth or rectum and into the area being tested. The tube is connected to a machine that measures and records pressure readings. These readings can help doctors identify any abnormalities in muscle function or nerve reflexes within the digestive tract.
Bile ducts are tubular structures that carry bile from the liver to the gallbladder for storage or directly to the small intestine to aid in digestion. There are two types of bile ducts: intrahepatic and extrahepatic. Intrahepatic bile ducts are located within the liver and drain bile from liver cells, while extrahepatic bile ducts are outside the liver and include the common hepatic duct, cystic duct, and common bile duct. These ducts can become obstructed or inflamed, leading to various medical conditions such as cholestasis, cholecystitis, and gallstones.
In anatomical terms, the stomach is a muscular, J-shaped organ located in the upper left portion of the abdomen. It is part of the gastrointestinal tract and plays a crucial role in digestion. The stomach's primary functions include storing food, mixing it with digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid to break down proteins, and slowly emptying the partially digested food into the small intestine for further absorption of nutrients.
The stomach is divided into several regions, including the cardia (the area nearest the esophagus), the fundus (the upper portion on the left side), the body (the main central part), and the pylorus (the narrowed region leading to the small intestine). The inner lining of the stomach, called the mucosa, is protected by a layer of mucus that prevents the digestive juices from damaging the stomach tissue itself.
In medical contexts, various conditions can affect the stomach, such as gastritis (inflammation of the stomach lining), peptic ulcers (sores in the stomach or duodenum), gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), and stomach cancer. Symptoms related to the stomach may include abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, vomiting, heartburn, and difficulty swallowing.
Gastric juice is a digestive fluid that is produced in the stomach. It is composed of several enzymes, including pepsin, which helps to break down proteins, and gastric amylase, which begins the digestion of carbohydrates. Gastric juice also contains hydrochloric acid, which creates a low pH environment in the stomach that is necessary for the activation of pepsin and the digestion of food. Additionally, gastric juice contains mucus, which helps to protect the lining of the stomach from the damaging effects of the hydrochloric acid. The production of gastric juice is controlled by hormones and the autonomic nervous system.
Peptic esophagitis is a medical condition that refers to inflammation and damage of the lining of the esophagus caused by stomach acid backing up into the esophagus. This is also known as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). The term "peptic" indicates that digestive enzymes or stomach acids are involved in the cause of the condition.
Peptic esophagitis can cause symptoms such as heartburn, chest pain, difficulty swallowing, and painful swallowing. If left untreated, it can lead to complications like strictures, ulcers, and Barrett's esophagus, which is a precancerous condition. Treatment typically involves lifestyle changes, medications to reduce acid production, and sometimes surgery.
Gastric mucosa refers to the innermost lining of the stomach, which is in contact with the gastric lumen. It is a specialized mucous membrane that consists of epithelial cells, lamina propria, and a thin layer of smooth muscle. The surface epithelium is primarily made up of mucus-secreting cells (goblet cells) and parietal cells, which secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor, and chief cells, which produce pepsinogen.
The gastric mucosa has several important functions, including protection against self-digestion by the stomach's own digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid. The mucus layer secreted by the epithelial cells forms a physical barrier that prevents the acidic contents of the stomach from damaging the underlying tissues. Additionally, the bicarbonate ions secreted by the surface epithelial cells help neutralize the acidity in the immediate vicinity of the mucosa.
The gastric mucosa is also responsible for the initial digestion of food through the action of hydrochloric acid and pepsin, an enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. The intrinsic factor secreted by parietal cells plays a crucial role in the absorption of vitamin B12 in the small intestine.
The gastric mucosa is constantly exposed to potential damage from various factors, including acid, pepsin, and other digestive enzymes, as well as mechanical stress due to muscle contractions during digestion. To maintain its integrity, the gastric mucosa has a remarkable capacity for self-repair and regeneration. However, chronic exposure to noxious stimuli or certain medical conditions can lead to inflammation, erosions, ulcers, or even cancer of the gastric mucosa.
The pyloric antrum is the distal part of the stomach, which is the last portion that precedes the pylorus and the beginning of the duodenum. It is a thickened, muscular area responsible for grinding and mixing food with gastric juices during digestion. The pyloric antrum also helps regulate the passage of chyme (partially digested food) into the small intestine through the pyloric sphincter, which controls the opening and closing of the pylorus. This region is crucial in the gastrointestinal tract's motor functions and overall digestive process.
Metaplasia is a term used in pathology to describe the replacement of one differentiated cell type with another differentiated cell type within a tissue or organ. It is an adaptive response of epithelial cells to chronic irritation, inflammation, or injury and can be reversible if the damaging stimulus is removed. Metaplastic changes are often associated with an increased risk of cancer development in the affected area.
For example, in the case of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), chronic exposure to stomach acid can lead to metaplasia of the esophageal squamous epithelium into columnar epithelium, a condition known as Barrett's esophagus. This metaplastic change is associated with an increased risk of developing esophageal adenocarcinoma.
Laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) is a condition in which the stomach contents, particularly acid, flow backward from the stomach into the larynx (voice box) and pharynx (throat). This is also known as extraesophageal reflux disease (EERD) or supraesophageal reflux disease (SERD). Unlike gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), where acid reflux causes symptoms such as heartburn and regurgitation, LPR may not cause classic reflux symptoms, but rather symptoms related to the upper aerodigestive tract. These can include hoarseness, throat clearing, cough, difficulty swallowing, and a sensation of a lump in the throat.
Dyspepsia is a medical term that refers to discomfort or pain in the upper abdomen, often accompanied by symptoms such as bloating, nausea, belching, and early satiety (feeling full quickly after starting to eat). It is also commonly known as indigestion. Dyspepsia can have many possible causes, including gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), peptic ulcers, gastritis, and functional dyspepsia (a condition in which there is no obvious structural or biochemical explanation for the symptoms). Treatment for dyspepsia depends on the underlying cause.
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a gram-negative, microaerophilic bacterium that colonizes the stomach of approximately 50% of the global population. It is closely associated with gastritis and peptic ulcer disease, and is implicated in the pathogenesis of gastric adenocarcinoma and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma. H. pylori infection is usually acquired in childhood and can persist for life if not treated. The bacterium's spiral shape and flagella allow it to penetrate the mucus layer and adhere to the gastric epithelium, where it releases virulence factors that cause inflammation and tissue damage. Diagnosis of H. pylori infection can be made through various tests, including urea breath test, stool antigen test, or histological examination of a gastric biopsy. Treatment typically involves a combination of antibiotics and proton pump inhibitors to eradicate the bacteria and promote healing of the stomach lining.
Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment that is produced by the liver when it breaks down old red blood cells. It is a normal byproduct of hemoglobin metabolism and is usually conjugated (made water-soluble) in the liver before being excreted through the bile into the digestive system. Elevated levels of bilirubin can cause jaundice, a yellowing of the skin and eyes. Increased bilirubin levels may indicate liver disease or other medical conditions such as gallstones or hemolysis. It is also measured to assess liver function and to help diagnose various liver disorders.
Helicobacter infections are caused by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), which colonizes the stomach lining and is associated with various gastrointestinal diseases. The infection can lead to chronic active gastritis, peptic ulcers, gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma, and gastric cancer.
The spiral-shaped H. pylori bacteria are able to survive in the harsh acidic environment of the stomach by producing urease, an enzyme that neutralizes gastric acid in their immediate vicinity. This allows them to adhere to and colonize the epithelial lining of the stomach, where they can cause inflammation (gastritis) and disrupt the normal functioning of the stomach.
Transmission of H. pylori typically occurs through oral-oral or fecal-oral routes, and infection is more common in developing countries and in populations with lower socioeconomic status. The diagnosis of Helicobacter infections can be confirmed through various tests, including urea breath tests, stool antigen tests, or gastric biopsy with histology and culture. Treatment usually involves a combination of antibiotics and proton pump inhibitors to eradicate the bacteria and reduce stomach acidity.
Esophageal pH monitoring is a medical test used to measure the acidity (pH level) inside the esophagus. The test involves inserting a thin, flexible tube through the nose and down into the esophagus. The tube contains a sensor that detects changes in pH levels and transmits this information to a recording device worn by the patient.
The test typically lasts for 24 hours, during which time the patient keeps a diary of their activities and symptoms. This information is used to correlate any symptoms with changes in pH levels. The test can help diagnose gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and assess the effectiveness of treatment.
It's important to note that there are some precautions to be taken before and after the test, such as avoiding certain medications that may affect the pH levels or interfere with the test results. Patients should follow their healthcare provider's instructions carefully to ensure accurate results.