A heterotrimeric GTP-binding protein that mediates the light activation signal from photolyzed rhodopsin to cyclic GMP phosphodiesterase and is pivotal in the visual excitation process. Activation of rhodopsin on the outer membrane of rod and cone cells causes GTP to bind to transducin followed by dissociation of the alpha subunit-GTP complex from the beta/gamma subunits of transducin. The alpha subunit-GTP complex activates the cyclic GMP phosphodiesterase which catalyzes the hydrolysis of cyclic GMP to 5'-GMP. This leads to closure of the sodium and calcium channels and therefore hyperpolarization of the rod cells. EC 3.6.1.-.
The portion of a retinal rod cell situated between the ROD INNER SEGMENT and the RETINAL PIGMENT EPITHELIUM. It contains a stack of photosensitive disk membranes laden with RHODOPSIN.
A purplish-red, light-sensitive pigment found in RETINAL ROD CELLS of most vertebrates. It is a complex consisting of a molecule of ROD OPSIN and a molecule of 11-cis retinal (RETINALDEHYDE). Rhodopsin exhibits peak absorption wavelength at about 500 nm.
Enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of cyclic GMP to yield guanosine-5'-phosphate.
Photosensitive afferent neurons located in the peripheral retina, with their density increases radially away from the FOVEA CENTRALIS. Being much more sensitive to light than the RETINAL CONE CELLS, the rod cells are responsible for twilight vision (at scotopic intensities) as well as peripheral vision, but provide no color discrimination.
Proteins that regulate the signaling activity of GTP-BINDING PROTEINS. They are divided into three categories depending upon whether they stimulate GTPase activity (GTPASE-ACTIVATING PROTEINS), inhibit release of GDP; (GUANINE NUCLEOTIDE DISSOCIATION INHIBITORS); or exchange GTP for GDP; (GUANINE NUCLEOTIDE EXCHANGE FACTORS).
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
Specialized cells that detect and transduce light. They are classified into two types based on their light reception structure, the ciliary photoreceptors and the rhabdomeric photoreceptors with MICROVILLI. Ciliary photoreceptor cells use OPSINS that activate a PHOSPHODIESTERASE phosphodiesterase cascade. Rhabdomeric photoreceptor cells use opsins that activate a PHOSPHOLIPASE C cascade.
Microsatellite repeats consisting of three nucleotides dispersed in the euchromatic arms of chromosomes.
A 48-Kd protein of the outer segment of the retinal rods and a component of the phototransduction cascade. Arrestin quenches G-protein activation by binding to phosphorylated photolyzed rhodopsin. Arrestin causes experimental autoimmune uveitis when injected into laboratory animals.
Guanosine 5'-(trihydrogen diphosphate), monoanhydride with phosphorothioic acid. A stable GTP analog which enjoys a variety of physiological actions such as stimulation of guanine nucleotide-binding proteins, phosphoinositide hydrolysis, cyclic AMP accumulation, and activation of specific proto-oncogenes.
A cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase subfamily that is highly specific for CYCLIC GMP. It is found predominantly in the outer segment PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS of the RETINA. It is comprised of two catalytic subunits, referred to as alpha and beta, that form a dimer. In addition two regulatory subunits, referred to as gamma and delta, modulate the activity and localization of the enzyme.
Guanosine 5'-(tetrahydrogen triphosphate). A guanine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety.
Enzymes that hydrolyze GTP to GDP. EC 3.6.1.-.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared range.
Regulatory proteins that act as molecular switches. They control a wide range of biological processes including: receptor signaling, intracellular signal transduction pathways, and protein synthesis. Their activity is regulated by factors that control their ability to bind to and hydrolyze GTP to GDP. EC 3.6.1.-.
An interleukin-1 subtype that is synthesized as an inactive membrane-bound pro-protein. Proteolytic processing of the precursor form by CASPASE 1 results in release of the active form of interleukin-1beta from the membrane.
Copies of DNA sequences which lie adjacent to each other in the same orientation (direct tandem repeats) or in the opposite direction to each other (INVERTED TANDEM REPEATS).
A PROTEIN-SERINE-THREONINE KINASE that is found in PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS. It mediates light-dependent PHOSPHORYLATION of RHODOPSIN and plays an important role in PHOTOTRANSDUCTION.
Sequences of DNA or RNA that occur in multiple copies. There are several types: INTERSPERSED REPETITIVE SEQUENCES are copies of transposable elements (DNA TRANSPOSABLE ELEMENTS or RETROELEMENTS) dispersed throughout the genome. TERMINAL REPEAT SEQUENCES flank both ends of another sequence, for example, the long terminal repeats (LTRs) on RETROVIRUSES. Variations may be direct repeats, those occurring in the same direction, or inverted repeats, those opposite to each other in direction. TANDEM REPEAT SEQUENCES are copies which lie adjacent to each other, direct or inverted (INVERTED REPEAT SEQUENCES).
Photosensitive protein complexes of varied light absorption properties which are expressed in the PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS. They are OPSINS conjugated with VITAMIN A-based chromophores. Chromophores capture photons of light, leading to the activation of opsins and a biochemical cascade that ultimately excites the photoreceptor cells.
An ester formed between the aldehydic carbon of RIBOSE and the terminal phosphate of ADENOSINE DIPHOSPHATE. It is produced by the hydrolysis of nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide (NAD) by a variety of enzymes, some of which transfer an ADP-ribosyl group to target proteins.
Adjustment of the eyes under conditions of low light. The sensitivity of the eye to light is increased during dark adaptation.
Eye proteins are the biological molecules that make up the various structures of the eye and are essential for its proper function.
The process in which light signals are transformed by the PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS into electrical signals which can then be transmitted to the brain.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
A guanine nucleotide containing two phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
Photosensitive proteins expressed in the ROD PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS. They are the protein components of rod photoreceptor pigments such as RHODOPSIN.
A non-hydrolyzable analog of GTP, in which the oxygen atom bridging the beta to the gamma phosphate is replaced by a nitrogen atom. It binds tightly to G-protein in the presence of Mg2+. The nucleotide is a potent stimulator of ADENYLYL CYCLASES.
The GTPase-containing subunits of heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins. When dissociated from the heterotrimeric complex these subunits interact with a variety of second messenger systems. Hydrolysis of GTP by the inherent GTPase activity of the subunit causes it to revert to its inactive (heterotrimeric) form. The GTP-Binding protein alpha subunits are grouped into families according to the type of action they have on second messenger systems.
Compounds and molecular complexes that consist of very large numbers of atoms and are generally over 500 kDa in size. In biological systems macromolecular substances usually can be visualized using ELECTRON MICROSCOPY and are distinguished from ORGANELLES by the lack of a membrane structure.
An 11-kDa protein associated with the outer membrane of many cells including lymphocytes. It is the small subunit of the MHC class I molecule. Association with beta 2-microglobulin is generally required for the transport of class I heavy chains from the endoplasmic reticulum to the cell surface. Beta 2-microglobulin is present in small amounts in serum, csf, and urine of normal people, and to a much greater degree in the urine and plasma of patients with tubular proteinemia, renal failure, or kidney transplants.
A carotenoid constituent of visual pigments. It is the oxidized form of retinol which functions as the active component of the visual cycle. It is bound to the protein opsin forming the complex rhodopsin. When stimulated by visible light, the retinal component of the rhodopsin complex undergoes isomerization at the 11-position of the double bond to the cis-form; this is reversed in "dark" reactions to return to the native trans-configuration.
A colorless inorganic compound (HONH2) used in organic synthesis and as a reducing agent, due to its ability to donate nitric oxide.
GTP-BINDING PROTEINS that contain three non-identical subunits. They are found associated with members of the seven transmembrane domain superfamily of G-PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTORS. Upon activation the GTP-BINDING PROTEIN ALPHA SUBUNIT of the complex dissociates leaving a dimer of a GTP-BINDING PROTEIN BETA SUBUNIT bound to a GTP-BINDING PROTEIN GAMMA SUBUNIT.
Photosensitive afferent neurons located primarily within the FOVEA CENTRALIS of the MACULA LUTEA. There are three major types of cone cells (red, blue, and green) whose photopigments have different spectral sensitivity curves. Retinal cone cells operate in daylight vision (at photopic intensities) providing color recognition and central visual acuity.
An increased number of contiguous trinucleotide repeats in the DNA sequence from one generation to the next. The presence of these regions is associated with diseases such as FRAGILE X SYNDROME and MYOTONIC DYSTROPHY. Some CHROMOSOME FRAGILE SITES are composed of sequences where trinucleotide repeat expansion occurs.
The conversion of absorbed light energy into molecular signals.
Tandem arrays of moderately repetitive, short (10-60 bases) DNA sequences which are found dispersed throughout the GENOME, at the ends of chromosomes (TELOMERES), and clustered near telomeres. Their degree of repetition is two to several hundred at each locus. Loci number in the thousands but each locus shows a distinctive repeat unit.
A large family of evolutionarily conserved proteins that function as negative regulators of HETEROTRIMERIC GTP-BINDING PROTEINS. RGS PROTEINS act by increasing the GTPase activity of the G alpha subunit of a heterotrimeric GTP-binding protein, causing it to revert to its inactive (GDP-bound) form.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
Protein motif that contains a 33-amino acid long sequence that often occurs in tandem arrays. This repeating sequence of 33-amino acids was discovered in ANKYRIN where it is involved in interaction with the anion exchanger (ANION EXCHANGE PROTEIN 1, ERYTHROCYTE). Ankyrin repeats cooperatively fold into domains that mediate molecular recognition via protein-protein interactions.
The adjustment of the eye to variations in the intensity of light. Light adaptation is the adjustment of the eye when the light threshold is increased; DARK ADAPTATION when the light is greatly reduced. (From Cline et al., Dictionary of Visual Science, 4th ed)
A set of BACTERIAL ADHESINS and TOXINS, BIOLOGICAL produced by BORDETELLA organisms that determine the pathogenesis of BORDETELLA INFECTIONS, such as WHOOPING COUGH. They include filamentous hemagglutinin; FIMBRIAE PROTEINS; pertactin; PERTUSSIS TOXIN; ADENYLATE CYCLASE TOXIN; dermonecrotic toxin; tracheal cytotoxin; Bordetella LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES; and tracheal colonization factor.
Proteins which are found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. They consist of two types, peripheral and integral proteins. They include most membrane-associated enzymes, antigenic proteins, transport proteins, and drug, hormone, and lectin receptors.
A sequential pattern of amino acids occurring more than once in the same protein sequence.
One of the virulence factors produced by BORDETELLA PERTUSSIS. It is a multimeric protein composed of five subunits S1 - S5. S1 contains mono ADPribose transferase activity.
The ten-layered nervous tissue membrane of the eye. It is continuous with the OPTIC NERVE and receives images of external objects and transmits visual impulses to the brain. Its outer surface is in contact with the CHOROID and the inner surface with the VITREOUS BODY. The outer-most layer is pigmented, whereas the inner nine layers are transparent.
One of two major pharmacologically defined classes of adrenergic receptors. The beta adrenergic receptors play an important role in regulating CARDIAC MUSCLE contraction, SMOOTH MUSCLE relaxation, and GLYCOGENOLYSIS.
An integrin beta subunit of approximately 85-kDa in size which has been found in INTEGRIN ALPHAIIB-containing and INTEGRIN ALPHAV-containing heterodimers. Integrin beta3 occurs as three alternatively spliced isoforms, designated beta3A-C.
The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.
A variety of simple repeat sequences that are distributed throughout the GENOME. They are characterized by a short repeat unit of 2-8 basepairs that is repeated up to 100 times. They are also known as short tandem repeats (STRs).
Inorganic compounds that contain aluminum as an integral part of the molecule.
The most common of the microsatellite tandem repeats (MICROSATELLITE REPEATS) dispersed in the euchromatic arms of chromosomes. They consist of two nucleotides repeated in tandem; guanine and thymine, (GT)n, is the most frequently seen.
Specialized PHOTOTRANSDUCTION neurons in the vertebrates, such as the RETINAL ROD CELLS and the RETINAL CONE CELLS. Non-visual photoreceptor neurons have been reported in the deep brain, the PINEAL GLAND and organs of the circadian system.
Single chains of amino acids that are the units of multimeric PROTEINS. Multimeric proteins can be composed of identical or non-identical subunits. One or more monomeric subunits may compose a protomer which itself is a subunit structure of a larger assembly.
The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.
Heterotrimeric GTP-binding protein subunits that tightly associate with GTP-BINDING PROTEIN GAMMA SUBUNITS. A dimer of beta and gamma subunits is formed when the GTP-BINDING PROTEIN ALPHA SUBUNIT dissociates from the GTP-binding protein heterotrimeric complex. The beta-gamma dimer can play an important role in signal transduction by interacting with a variety of second messengers.
Nucleoside diphosphate sugars are the building blocks of nucleotides, which are the fundamental units of nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA.
The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
Nucleotides in which the base moiety is substituted with one or more sulfur atoms.
Copies of nucleic acid sequence that are arranged in opposing orientation. They may lie adjacent to each other (tandem) or be separated by some sequence that is not part of the repeat (hyphenated). They may be true palindromic repeats, i.e. read the same backwards as forward, or complementary which reads as the base complement in the opposite orientation. Complementary inverted repeats have the potential to form hairpin loop or stem-loop structures which results in cruciform structures (such as CRUCIFORM DNA) when the complementary inverted repeats occur in double stranded regions.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
An increase number of repeats of a genomic, tandemly repeated DNA sequence from one generation to the next.
Organic compounds that contain the (-NH2OH) radical.
A factor synthesized in a wide variety of tissues. It acts synergistically with TGF-alpha in inducing phenotypic transformation and can also act as a negative autocrine growth factor. TGF-beta has a potential role in embryonal development, cellular differentiation, hormone secretion, and immune function. TGF-beta is found mostly as homodimer forms of separate gene products TGF-beta1, TGF-beta2 or TGF-beta3. Heterodimers composed of TGF-beta1 and 2 (TGF-beta1.2) or of TGF-beta2 and 3 (TGF-beta2.3) have been isolated. The TGF-beta proteins are synthesized as precursor proteins.
The light sensitive outer portion of a retinal rod or a cone photoreceptor cell. The outer segment contains a stack of disk membranes laden with photoreceptive pigments (RETINAL PIGMENTS). The outer segment is connected to the inner segment by a PHOTORECEPTOR CONNECTING CILIUM.
Guanine nucleotides are a type of nucleotide that contains the nitrogenous base guanine and play important roles in various biological processes, including DNA and RNA synthesis, energy metabolism, and signal transduction.
Skatole is a chemical compound found in human and animal feces that has a strong, unpleasant odor and is associated with certain types of cancer.
Models used experimentally or theoretically to study molecular shape, electronic properties, or interactions; includes analogous molecules, computer-generated graphics, and mechanical structures.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
The process of moving proteins from one cellular compartment (including extracellular) to another by various sorting and transport mechanisms such as gated transport, protein translocation, and vesicular transport.
The lipid- and protein-containing, selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
The degree of similarity between sequences of amino acids. This information is useful for the analyzing genetic relatedness of proteins and species.
A class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of one of the two ester bonds in a phosphodiester compound. EC 3.1.4.

The human F box protein beta-Trcp associates with the Cul1/Skp1 complex and regulates the stability of beta-catenin. (1/185)

Ubiquitin-conjugation targets numerous cellular regulators for proteasome-mediated degradation. Thus, the identification of ubiquitin ligases and their physiological substrates is crucially important, especially for those cases in which aberrant levels of regulatory proteins (e.g., beta-catenin, p27) result from a deregulated ubiquitination pathway. In yeast, the proteolysis of several G1 regulators is controlled by ubiquitin ligases (or SCFs) formed by three subunits: Skp1, Cul A (Cdc53), and one of many F-box proteins. Specific F-box proteins (Fbps) recruit different substrates to the SCF. Although many Fbps have been identified in mammals, their specific substrates and the existence of multiple SCFs have not yet been reported. We have found that one human Fbp, beta-Trcp (beta-Transducin repeat containing protein), does indeed form a novel SCF with human Skp1 and Cul1. Consistent with recent reports indicating that Xenopus and Drosophila beta-Trcp homologs act as negative regulators of the Wnt/beta-catenin signaling pathway, we report here that human beta-Trcp interacts with beta-catenin in vivo. Furthermore, beta-catenin is specifically stabilized in vivo by the expression of a dominant negative beta-Trcp. These results indicate that the Cul1/Skp1/beta-Trcp complex forms a ubiquitin ligase that mediates the degradation of beta-catenin.  (+info)

The F-box protein beta-TrCP associates with phosphorylated beta-catenin and regulates its activity in the cell. (2/185)

Defects in beta-catenin regulation contribute to the neoplastic transformation of mammalian cells. Dysregulation of beta-catenin can result from missense mutations that affect critical sites of phosphorylation by glycogen synthase kinase 3beta (GSK3beta). Given that phosphorylation can regulate targeted degradation of beta-catenin by the proteasome, beta-catenin might interact with an E3 ubiquitin ligase complex containing an F-box protein, as is the case for certain cell cycle regulators. Accordingly, disruption of the Drosophila F-box protein Slimb upregulates the beta-catenin homolog Armadillo. We reasoned that the human homologs of Slimb - beta-TrCP and its isoform beta-TrCP2 (KIAA0696) - might interact with beta-catenin. We found that the binding of beta-TrCP to beta-catenin was direct and dependent upon the WD40 repeat sequences in beta-TrCP and on phosphorylation of the GSK3beta sites in beta-catenin. Endogenous beta-catenin and beta-TrCP could be coimmunoprecipitated from mammalian cells. Overexpression of wild-type beta-TrCP in mammalian cells promoted the downregulation of beta-catenin, whereas overexpression of a dominant-negative deletion mutant upregulated beta-catenin protein levels and activated signaling dependent on the transcription factor Tcf. In contrast, beta-TrCP2 did not associate with beta-catenin. We conclude that beta-TrCP is a component of an E3 ubiquitin ligase that is responsible for the targeted degradation of phosphorylated beta-catenin.  (+info)

Inducible degradation of IkappaBalpha by the proteasome requires interaction with the F-box protein h-betaTrCP. (3/185)

Activation of NF-kappaB transcription factors requires phosphorylation and ubiquitin-proteasome-dependent degradation of IkappaB proteins. We provide evidence that a human F-box protein, h-betaTrCP, a component of Skp1-Cullin-F-box protein (SCF) complexes, a new class of E3 ubiquitin ligases, is essential for inducible degradation of IkappaBalpha. betaTrCP associates with Ser32-Ser36 phosphorylated, but not with unmodified IkappaBalpha or Ser32-Ser36 phosphorylation-deficient mutants. Expression of a F-box-deleted betaTrCP inhibits IkappaBalpha degradation, promotes accumulation of phosphorylated Ser32-Ser36 IkappaBalpha, and prevents NF-kappaB-dependent transcription. Our findings indicate that betaTrCP is the adaptor protein required for IkappaBalpha recognition by the SCFbetaTrCP E3 complex that ubiquitinates IkappaBalpha and makes it a substrate for the proteasome.  (+info)

Negative regulation of axis formation and Wnt signaling in Xenopus embryos by the F-box/WD40 protein beta TrCP. (4/185)

Screening a maternal Xenopus expression library for activities that synergize with low levels of injected beta-catenin, we have isolated a clone encoding the C-terminal end of x-beta TrCP-2, a highly conserved protein belonging to the F-box/WD40 family of ubiquitin-ligase specificity factors. We show that x-beta TrCP-2 expression reduces dorsal axis formation in Xenopus embryos. A dominant negative mutant lacking the F-box triggers the opposite effect, inducing secondary axes and activating the expression of Wnt responsive genes in ectodermal explants. In light of the existence of beta TrCP transcripts associated with the vegetal cortex, we propose that beta TrCP plays a fundamental role in the establishment of the dorsal determinants during cortical rotation in Xenopus.  (+info)

An F-box protein, FWD1, mediates ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis of beta-catenin. (5/185)

beta-catenin plays an essential role in the Wingless/Wnt signaling cascade and is a component of the cadherin cell adhesion complex. Deregulation of beta-catenin accumulation as a result of mutations in adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) tumor suppressor protein is believed to initiate colorectal neoplasia. beta-catenin levels are regulated by the ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis system and beta-catenin ubiquitination is preceded by phosphorylation of its N-terminal region by the glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK-3beta)/Axin kinase complex. Here we show that FWD1 (the mouse homologue of Slimb/betaTrCP), an F-box/WD40-repeat protein, specifically formed a multi-molecular complex with beta-catenin, Axin, GSK-3beta and APC. Mutations at the signal-induced phosphorylation site of beta-catenin inhibited its association with FWD1. FWD1 facilitated ubiquitination and promoted degradation of beta-catenin, resulting in reduced cytoplasmic beta-catenin levels. In contrast, a dominant-negative mutant form of FWD1 inhibited the ubiquitination process and stabilized beta-catenin. These results suggest that the Skp1/Cullin/F-box protein FWD1 (SCFFWD1)-ubiquitin ligase complex is involved in beta-catenin ubiquitination and that FWD1 serves as an intracellular receptor for phosphorylated beta-catenin. FWD1 also links the phosphorylation machinery to the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway to ensure prompt and efficient proteolysis of beta-catenin in response to external signals. SCFFWD1 may be critical for tumor development and suppression through regulation of beta-catenin protein stability.  (+info)

HOS, a human homolog of Slimb, forms an SCF complex with Skp1 and Cullin1 and targets the phosphorylation-dependent degradation of IkappaB and beta-catenin. (6/185)

SCF E3 ubiquitin ligases mediate ubiquitination and proteasome-dependent degradation of phosphorylated substrates. We identified a human F-box/WD40 repeats protein (HOS), which is homologous to Slimb/h betaTrCP. Being a part of SCF complex with Skp1 and Cullin1, HOS specifically interacted with the phosphorylated IkappaB and beta-catenin, targeting these proteins for proteasome-dependent degradation in vivo. This targeting required Cullin1 as expression of a mutant Cullin1 abrogated the degradation of IkappaB and of beta-catenin. Mutant HOS which lacks the F-box blocked TNF alpha-induced degradation of IkappaB as well as GSK3beta-mediated degradation of beta-catenin. This mutant also inhibited NF-kappaB transactivation and increased the beta-catenin-dependent transcription activity of Tcf. These results demonstrate that SCF(HOS) E3 ubiquitin ligase regulate both NF-kappaB and beta-catenin signaling pathways.  (+info)

beta-Trcp couples beta-catenin phosphorylation-degradation and regulates Xenopus axis formation. (7/185)

Regulation of beta-catenin stability is essential for Wnt signal transduction during development and tumorigenesis. It is well known that serine-phosphorylation of beta-catenin by the Axin-glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3beta complex targets beta-catenin for ubiquitination-degradation, and mutations at critical phosphoserine residues stabilize beta-catenin and cause human cancers. How beta-catenin phosphorylation results in its degradation is undefined. Here we show that phosphorylated beta-catenin is specifically recognized by beta-Trcp, an F-box/WD40-repeat protein that also associates with Skp1, an essential component of the ubiquitination apparatus. beta-catenin harboring mutations at the critical phosphoserine residues escapes recognition by beta-Trcp, thus providing a molecular explanation for why these mutations cause beta-catenin accumulation that leads to cancer. Inhibition of endogenous beta-Trcp function by a dominant negative mutant stabilizes beta-catenin, activates Wnt/beta-catenin signaling, and induces axis formation in Xenopus embryos. Therefore, beta-Trcp plays a central role in recruiting phosphorylated beta-catenin for degradation and in dorsoventral patterning of the Xenopus embryo.  (+info)

A complex containing betaTrCP recruits Cdc34 to catalyse ubiquitination of IkappaBalpha. (8/185)

Activation of transcription factor NF-kappaB is accomplished by degradation of its inhibitor IkappaBalpha. Signal induced phosphorylation of IkappaBalpha on serine 32 and 36 targets the protein for ubiquitination on lysine 21 and 22. Here we use a phosphorylated peptide substrate representing residues 20-43 of IkappaBalpha to investigate requirements for ubiquitination of IkappaBalpha. Phosphorylation dependent polyubiquitination is carried out by a multiprotein complex containing betaTrCP, Skp1 and Cdc53 (Cull). In the presence of ubiquitin activating enzyme and the protein complex containing betaTrCP, polyubiquitination of IkappaBalpha peptide was dependent on the presence of Cdc34, while Ubc5 only stimulated mono- and di-ubiquitination.  (+info)

Transducin is a protein complex that plays a crucial role in the process of vision. It is activated by the binding of light-sensitive molecules called rhodopsin to a photoreceptor cell in the retina of the eye. When rhodopsin is activated, it causes a conformational change in transducin, which in turn activates a second messenger system that ultimately leads to the opening of ion channels in the cell membrane. This allows ions to flow into the cell, which generates an electrical signal that is transmitted to the brain and interpreted as visual information.

Rhodopsin is a protein found in the retina of the eye that is responsible for the process of vision in low light conditions. It is a type of photopigment that is sensitive to light in the short-wavelength region of the visible spectrum, which corresponds to blue and violet light. When light strikes the rhodopsin molecules, it causes a chemical change in the protein that triggers a series of events that ultimately leads to the transmission of visual information to the brain. Rhodopsin is essential for night vision and plays a critical role in the early stages of the visual process.

3',5'-Cyclic-GMP Phosphodiesterases (cGMP-PDEs) are a family of enzymes that play a crucial role in regulating the levels of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) in the body. cGMP is a second messenger molecule that is involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including smooth muscle relaxation, neurotransmission, and immune cell function. cGMP-PDEs are responsible for breaking down cGMP into guanosine monophosphate (GMP), thereby terminating the signaling effects of cGMP. There are 11 different subtypes of cGMP-PDEs, each with different tissue distribution and substrate specificity. In the medical field, cGMP-PDEs are of particular interest because they are targeted by a class of drugs called phosphodiesterase inhibitors (PDE inhibitors). PDE inhibitors are used to treat a variety of conditions, including erectile dysfunction, pulmonary hypertension, and glaucoma. By inhibiting cGMP-PDEs, PDE inhibitors increase the levels of cGMP in the body, leading to the desired therapeutic effects.

GTP-binding protein regulators, also known as G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) regulators, are a class of proteins that modulate the activity of GTP-binding proteins, which are involved in a wide range of cellular signaling pathways. These regulators can either activate or inhibit the activity of GTP-binding proteins, thereby controlling the downstream signaling cascades that they activate. In the medical field, GTP-binding protein regulators are of great interest because they play important roles in many physiological processes, including sensory perception, neurotransmission, and hormone signaling. They are also involved in a number of diseases, including cardiovascular disease, neurological disorders, and cancer. There are several classes of GTP-binding protein regulators, including G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs), arrestins, and G protein-coupled receptor interacting proteins (GIRKs). These regulators can be targeted for therapeutic intervention in the treatment of various diseases, and there is ongoing research to develop drugs that modulate their activity.

Arrestin is a protein that plays a role in regulating the activity of certain receptors in the cell. It is involved in the process of desensitization, which is the decrease in the responsiveness of a receptor to its ligand (the molecule that binds to the receptor and triggers a response). Arrestin helps to internalize and degrade receptors that have been activated by their ligands, which prevents them from continuing to respond to the ligand. This process is important for maintaining the proper functioning of cells and for preventing overstimulation of receptors. Arrestins are found in a variety of cells and are involved in regulating the activity of a number of different receptors, including those for hormones, neurotransmitters, and sensory stimuli.

Cyclic Nucleotide Phosphodiesterases, Type 6 (PDE6) are a family of enzymes that are responsible for breaking down cyclic nucleotides, such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), in the retina of the eye. These enzymes play a crucial role in regulating the transmission of visual signals from the retina to the brain. PDE6 is a heterodimeric enzyme composed of two subunits, alpha and beta, which are encoded by different genes. The alpha subunit contains the catalytic site of the enzyme, while the beta subunit is involved in the regulation of the enzyme's activity. Mutations in the genes encoding PDE6 can cause a group of inherited eye disorders known as cone-rod dystrophies, which affect the photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for color vision and night vision. These disorders are characterized by progressive vision loss and can lead to blindness in affected individuals.

Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) is a nucleotide that plays a crucial role in various cellular processes, including energy metabolism, signal transduction, and protein synthesis. It is composed of a guanine base, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups. In the medical field, GTP is often studied in relation to its role in regulating cellular processes. For example, GTP is a key molecule in the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton, which is responsible for maintaining cell shape and facilitating cell movement. GTP is also involved in the regulation of protein synthesis, as it serves as a substrate for the enzyme guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF), which activates the small GTPase protein Rho. In addition, GTP is involved in the regulation of various signaling pathways, including the Ras/MAPK pathway and the PI3K/Akt pathway. These pathways play important roles in regulating cell growth, differentiation, and survival, and are often dysregulated in various diseases, including cancer. Overall, GTP is a critical molecule in cellular metabolism and signaling, and its dysfunction can have significant consequences for cellular function and disease.

GTP phosphohydrolases are a family of enzymes that hydrolyze guanosine triphosphate (GTP) into guanosine diphosphate (GDP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). These enzymes play a crucial role in regulating various cellular processes, including signal transduction, protein synthesis, and cell division. In the medical field, GTP phosphohydrolases are of particular interest because they are involved in the regulation of many signaling pathways that are implicated in various diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and infectious diseases. For example, the enzyme Rho GTPase activating protein (RhoGAP) is a GTP phosphohydrolase that regulates the activity of Rho GTPases, which are involved in cell migration, cytoskeletal organization, and cell proliferation. Mutations in RhoGAP have been implicated in several human cancers, including breast cancer and glioblastoma. Other examples of GTP phosphohydrolases that are of medical interest include the enzyme GTPase-activating protein (GAP) for heterotrimeric G proteins, which regulates the activity of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), and the enzyme dynamin, which is involved in endocytosis and autophagy. Mutations in these enzymes have been implicated in various diseases, including hypertension, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders.

GTP-binding proteins, also known as G proteins, are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in signal transduction in cells. They are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and metabolism. G proteins are composed of three subunits: an alpha subunit, a beta subunit, and a gamma subunit. The alpha subunit is the one that binds to guanosine triphosphate (GTP), a molecule that is involved in regulating the activity of the protein. When GTP binds to the alpha subunit, it causes a conformational change in the protein, which in turn activates or inhibits downstream signaling pathways. G proteins are activated by a variety of extracellular signals, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors. Once activated, they can interact with other proteins in the cell, such as enzymes or ion channels, to transmit the signal and initiate a cellular response. G proteins are found in all eukaryotic cells and play a critical role in many physiological processes. They are also involved in a number of diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases.

Interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) is a type of cytokine, which is a signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is produced by various types of immune cells, including macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells, in response to infection, injury, or inflammation. IL-1β is involved in the regulation of immune responses, including the activation of T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells. It also promotes the production of other cytokines and chemokines, which help to recruit immune cells to the site of infection or injury. In addition to its role in the immune system, IL-1β has been implicated in a variety of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and multiple sclerosis. It is also involved in the pathogenesis of certain types of cancer, such as breast cancer and ovarian cancer. Overall, IL-1β is a key mediator of inflammation and immune responses, and its dysregulation has been linked to a range of diseases and conditions.

G-Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinase 1 (GRK1) is a protein that plays a role in regulating the activity of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in the human body. GPCRs are a large family of cell surface receptors that are activated by a variety of extracellular signals, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and sensory stimuli. When a GPCR is activated, it triggers a cascade of intracellular events that ultimately lead to a cellular response. GRK1 is a member of a family of enzymes called G-protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) that phosphorylate activated GPCRs, which in turn leads to the internalization and degradation of the receptor. This process helps to regulate the activity of GPCRs and prevent overstimulation of the cell. GRK1 has been implicated in a number of physiological processes, including vision, hearing, and the regulation of blood pressure. It has also been linked to a number of diseases, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and certain types of cancer.

Adenosine diphosphate ribose (ADPR) is a naturally occurring nucleotide that plays a role in various cellular processes, including energy metabolism, signal transduction, and gene expression. It is composed of an adenosine base, a ribose sugar, and two phosphate groups. In the medical field, ADPR is often studied in relation to its role in the regulation of cellular energy metabolism. For example, ADPR is involved in the production of ATP, the primary energy currency of the cell, through a process called substrate-level phosphorylation. ADPR is also involved in the regulation of calcium signaling, which is important for a wide range of cellular processes, including muscle contraction, neurotransmitter release, and gene expression. In addition, ADPR has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. For example, ADPR has been shown to regulate the activity of certain enzymes involved in cell proliferation and survival, which may contribute to the development of cancer. ADPR has also been shown to play a role in the regulation of blood vessel function, which may be important for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease. Finally, ADPR has been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, through its effects on calcium signaling and gene expression.

Eye proteins are proteins that are found in the eye and play important roles in maintaining the structure and function of the eye. These proteins can be found in various parts of the eye, including the cornea, lens, retina, and vitreous humor. Some examples of eye proteins include: 1. Collagen: This is a protein that provides strength and support to the cornea and lens. 2. Alpha-crystallin: This protein is found in the lens and helps to maintain its shape and transparency. 3. Rhodopsin: This protein is found in the retina and is responsible for vision in low light conditions. 4. Vitreous humor proteins: These proteins are found in the vitreous humor, a clear gel-like substance that fills the space between the lens and the retina. They help to maintain the shape of the eye and provide support to the retina. Disruptions in the production or function of these proteins can lead to various eye diseases and conditions, such as cataracts, glaucoma, and age-related macular degeneration. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of eye proteins is important for the development of effective treatments for these conditions.

Guanosine diphosphate (GDP) is a molecule that plays a role in various cellular processes, including metabolism, signal transduction, and gene expression. It is a nucleotide that consists of a guanine base, a ribose sugar, and a phosphate group. In the medical field, GDP is often studied in the context of its role in regulating the activity of enzymes called G-proteins. G-proteins are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including the transmission of signals from cell surface receptors to intracellular signaling pathways. GDP can bind to G-proteins and inhibit their activity, while guanosine triphosphate (GTP) can activate them. GDP is also involved in the regulation of the activity of enzymes called kinases, which play a key role in cellular signaling and metabolism. GDP can bind to and inhibit the activity of certain kinases, while GTP can activate them. In addition, GDP is a precursor to other important molecules, including guanosine triphosphate (GTP), which is involved in various cellular processes, and guanosine monophosphate (GMP), which is involved in the regulation of blood pressure and the production of nitric oxide. Overall, GDP is an important molecule in the regulation of cellular processes and is the subject of ongoing research in the medical field.

Rod opsins are a type of photopigment found in the retina of the eye. They are responsible for detecting low levels of light and are essential for night vision. Rod opsins are a type of opsin, which is a protein that binds to a molecule called retinal to form a light-sensitive pigment. When light strikes the rod opsin, it causes a chemical reaction that generates an electrical signal, which is then transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve. Rod opsins are found only in the rods, which are specialized cells in the retina that are responsible for detecting low levels of light.

Guanylyl Imidodiphosphate (GMP-ribose-5'-triphosphate, or GTP) is a molecule that plays a crucial role in various cellular processes, including signal transduction, protein synthesis, and cell division. It is a type of nucleotide that is closely related to adenosine triphosphate (ATP), another important energy molecule in the cell. In the medical field, GTP is often studied in the context of its role in regulating the activity of proteins called G-proteins. These proteins are involved in transmitting signals from cell surface receptors to the interior of the cell, and they play a key role in many physiological processes, including the regulation of blood pressure, heart rate, and neurotransmitter release. GTP is also involved in the regulation of protein synthesis, as it is a key component of the initiation complex that forms at the beginning of the translation process. In addition, GTP is involved in the regulation of cell division, as it is required for the proper assembly and function of the mitotic spindle, which is responsible for separating the chromosomes during cell division. Overall, GTP is a critical molecule in many cellular processes, and its dysfunction can lead to a variety of diseases and disorders.

GTP-binding protein alpha subunits, also known as Gα subunits, are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in signal transduction pathways in cells. These proteins are involved in regulating a wide range of cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and metabolism. Gα subunits are part of a larger family of proteins called G-proteins, which are composed of three subunits: an alpha subunit (Gα), a beta subunit (Gβ), and a gamma subunit (Gγ). The Gα subunit is responsible for binding and hydrolyzing guanosine triphosphate (GTP), a molecule that is involved in regulating the activity of many cellular signaling pathways. When a signaling molecule, such as a neurotransmitter or a hormone, binds to a cell surface receptor, it activates a G-protein by causing the Gα subunit to exchange its bound GDP for GTP. This change in the Gα subunit's conformation allows it to interact with and activate downstream effector proteins, such as enzymes or ion channels, which then carry out the specific cellular response to the signaling molecule. Once the signaling event is complete, the Gα subunit hydrolyzes the GTP back to GDP, returning it to its inactive state. This process is tightly regulated to ensure that the signaling pathway is turned off quickly and efficiently. Overall, GTP-binding protein alpha subunits play a critical role in regulating cellular signaling pathways and are involved in many important physiological processes.

In the medical field, macromolecular substances refer to large molecules that are composed of repeating units, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. These molecules are essential for many biological processes, including cell signaling, metabolism, and structural support. Macromolecular substances are typically composed of thousands or even millions of atoms, and they can range in size from a few nanometers to several micrometers. They are often found in the form of fibers, sheets, or other complex structures, and they can be found in a variety of biological tissues and fluids. Examples of macromolecular substances in the medical field include: - Proteins: These are large molecules composed of amino acids that are involved in a wide range of biological functions, including enzyme catalysis, structural support, and immune response. - Carbohydrates: These are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms that are involved in energy storage, cell signaling, and structural support. - Lipids: These are molecules composed of fatty acids and glycerol that are involved in energy storage, cell membrane structure, and signaling. - Nucleic acids: These are molecules composed of nucleotides that are involved in genetic information storage and transfer. Macromolecular substances are important for many medical applications, including drug delivery, tissue engineering, and gene therapy. Understanding the structure and function of these molecules is essential for developing new treatments and therapies for a wide range of diseases and conditions.

Beta 2-Microglobulin (β2M) is a small protein that is produced by most cells in the body, including immune cells such as T cells and B cells. It is a component of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules, which are found on the surface of most cells and are responsible for presenting antigens (foreign substances) to the immune system. In the medical field, β2M is often used as a marker of kidney function. High levels of β2M in the blood can indicate kidney damage or failure, as the kidneys are responsible for removing β2M from the bloodstream. In addition, high levels of β2M have been associated with an increased risk of certain types of cancer, including multiple myeloma and prostate cancer. β2M is also used as a diagnostic tool in the laboratory to help identify and monitor certain diseases and conditions, such as multiple myeloma, autoimmune disorders, and viral infections. It is also used as a component of some types of cancer treatments, such as immunotherapy.

Retinaldehyde is a form of vitamin A that is produced from retinol (vitamin A alcohol) in the body. It is an important molecule in the process of vision, as it is converted into retinal, which is a component of the visual pigment rhodopsin. Retinaldehyde is also involved in the regulation of cell growth and differentiation, and has been shown to have potential therapeutic applications in the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and inflammatory disorders. In the medical field, retinaldehyde is often used as a supplement or in the development of new drugs.

Hydroxylamine is a chemical compound with the formula NH2OH. It is a colorless, highly toxic gas that is used in various industrial applications, including the production of dyes, pharmaceuticals, and explosives. In the medical field, hydroxylamine is not commonly used. However, it has been studied for its potential as an antiviral agent against certain viruses, including HIV and influenza. It is also used as a reagent in analytical chemistry for the determination of certain compounds.

Heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins, also known as G proteins, are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in signal transduction in cells. They are composed of three subunits: an alpha subunit, a beta subunit, and a gamma subunit. When a signaling molecule, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, binds to a cell surface receptor, it causes a conformational change in the receptor that leads to the activation of a G protein. The alpha subunit then exchanges GDP (guanosine diphosphate) for GTP (guanosine triphosphate) and dissociates from the beta and gamma subunits. The alpha subunit then binds to and activates an effector protein, such as an enzyme or ion channel, leading to a cellular response. The beta and gamma subunits remain associated and can be recycled to form a new G protein complex. The G protein cycle is tightly regulated and allows cells to respond to a wide range of signaling molecules with precision and specificity. Heterotrimeric G proteins are involved in many physiological processes, including muscle contraction, neurotransmitter release, and the regulation of blood pressure. Mutations in G protein genes can lead to a variety of diseases, including hypertension, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

RGS proteins, also known as regulator of G protein signaling proteins, are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in modulating the activity of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in the body. GPCRs are a large group of cell surface receptors that respond to a wide range of signals, including hormones, neurotransmitters, and sensory stimuli. RGS proteins bind to the active form of G proteins and accelerate the rate at which the G protein returns to its inactive state, thereby reducing the duration of the signaling response. This process is important for regulating the activity of GPCRs and ensuring that their signaling is tightly controlled. RGS proteins are involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including vision, hearing, smell, taste, and pain sensation. They have also been implicated in a number of diseases, including hypertension, diabetes, and cancer. As such, RGS proteins are an important area of research in the medical field, with potential applications in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Membrane proteins are proteins that are embedded within the lipid bilayer of a cell membrane. They play a crucial role in regulating the movement of substances across the membrane, as well as in cell signaling and communication. There are several types of membrane proteins, including integral membrane proteins, which span the entire membrane, and peripheral membrane proteins, which are only in contact with one or both sides of the membrane. Membrane proteins can be classified based on their function, such as transporters, receptors, channels, and enzymes. They are important for many physiological processes, including nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and cell growth and division.

Pertussis toxin is a protein toxin produced by Bordetella pertussis, the bacterium responsible for whooping cough. It is one of the major virulence factors of B. pertussis and plays a key role in the pathogenesis of the disease. Pertussis toxin is a complex molecule composed of two subunits: the A subunit, which is responsible for its toxic effects, and the B subunit, which is responsible for its binding to host cells. The A subunit of pertussis toxin ADP-ribosylates a specific host cell protein, called the G protein, which is involved in signal transduction pathways. This ADP-ribosylation leads to the inhibition of the G protein, which in turn disrupts normal cellular signaling and causes a variety of toxic effects, including inflammation, cell death, and disruption of the respiratory system. Pertussis toxin is a major contributor to the severity of whooping cough, and it is the target of several vaccines used to prevent the disease. In addition to its role in whooping cough, pertussis toxin has also been studied for its potential use as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of other diseases, such as cancer and autoimmune disorders.

Receptors, Adrenergic, beta (β-adrenergic receptors) are a type of protein found on the surface of cells in the body that bind to and respond to signaling molecules called catecholamines, including adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine). These receptors are part of the adrenergic signaling system, which plays a critical role in regulating a wide range of physiological processes, including heart rate, blood pressure, metabolism, and immune function. There are three main types of β-adrenergic receptors: β1, β2, and β3. Each type of receptor is found in different tissues and has different functions. For example, β1 receptors are primarily found in the heart and are responsible for increasing heart rate and contractility. β2 receptors are found in the lungs, blood vessels, and muscles, and are involved in relaxing smooth muscle and increasing blood flow. β3 receptors are found in adipose tissue and are involved in regulating metabolism. Activation of β-adrenergic receptors can have a variety of effects on the body, depending on the specific receptor subtype and the tissue it is found in. For example, activation of β2 receptors in the lungs can cause bronchodilation, which can help to open up airways and improve breathing in people with asthma or other respiratory conditions. Activation of β1 receptors in the heart can increase heart rate and contractility, which can help to improve blood flow and oxygen delivery to the body's tissues. Activation of β3 receptors in adipose tissue can increase metabolism and help to promote weight loss. β-adrenergic receptors are important therapeutic targets for a variety of medical conditions, including heart disease, asthma, and diabetes. Drugs that target these receptors, such as beta blockers and beta agonists, are commonly used to treat these conditions.

Integrin beta3, also known as CD18, is a protein that plays a crucial role in the immune system and blood clotting. It is a subunit of integrin receptors, which are transmembrane proteins that mediate cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix interactions. In the context of the immune system, integrin beta3 is expressed on the surface of various immune cells, including neutrophils, monocytes, and platelets. It helps these cells to adhere to the endothelium (inner lining of blood vessels) and migrate through the blood vessel walls to sites of inflammation or infection. In the context of blood clotting, integrin beta3 is expressed on the surface of platelets. It plays a critical role in platelet aggregation, which is the process by which platelets stick together to form a plug at the site of a blood vessel injury. Integrin beta3 also helps to activate platelets and promote the formation of a fibrin clot, which stabilizes the platelet plug and prevents further bleeding. Mutations in the gene encoding integrin beta3 can lead to various bleeding disorders, such as Glanzmann thrombasthenia, a rare inherited bleeding disorder characterized by impaired platelet aggregation.

In the medical field, aluminum compounds refer to substances that contain aluminum as a component. Aluminum is a common element found in many minerals and is used in a variety of industrial and medical applications. In the context of medicine, aluminum compounds are often used as antacids to neutralize stomach acid and relieve symptoms of heartburn and indigestion. They may also be used as a component in certain medications, such as antiperspirants and certain types of antacids. However, excessive exposure to aluminum compounds can be harmful to human health. Aluminum has been linked to a number of health problems, including Alzheimer's disease, osteoporosis, and kidney damage. As a result, the use of aluminum compounds in certain medical applications is closely regulated to minimize the risk of adverse effects.

In the medical field, a protein subunit refers to a smaller, functional unit of a larger protein complex. Proteins are made up of chains of amino acids, and these chains can fold into complex three-dimensional structures that perform a wide range of functions in the body. Protein subunits are often formed when two or more protein chains come together to form a larger complex. These subunits can be identical or different, and they can interact with each other in various ways to perform specific functions. For example, the protein hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in red blood cells, is made up of four subunits: two alpha chains and two beta chains. Each of these subunits has a specific structure and function, and they work together to form a functional hemoglobin molecule. In the medical field, understanding the structure and function of protein subunits is important for developing treatments for a wide range of diseases and conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders, and infectious diseases.

GTP-binding protein beta subunits, also known as Gβ subunits, are a type of protein that plays a crucial role in signal transduction pathways in cells. They are a component of heterotrimeric G proteins, which are a family of proteins that are involved in transmitting signals from cell surface receptors to intracellular effector proteins. Gβ subunits are composed of two domains: an amino-terminal domain that interacts with the alpha subunit (Gα) and a carboxy-terminal domain that interacts with the gamma subunit (Gγ). When a signal is received by a cell surface receptor, it causes the exchange of GDP (guanosine diphosphate) for GTP (guanosine triphosphate) on the Gα subunit. This change in the Gα subunit leads to the dissociation of the Gα subunit from the Gβγ dimer, allowing the Gα subunit to activate its downstream effector proteins and the Gβγ dimer to interact with other signaling molecules. Gβ subunits are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including the regulation of ion channels, the modulation of neurotransmitter release, and the control of cell growth and differentiation. They are also involved in the development and progression of various diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases.

Nucleoside diphosphate sugars are a type of sugar molecule that serves as the backbone of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA. They are composed of a pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) linked to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group. The nitrogenous base can be either a purine (adenine or guanine) or a pyrimidine (cytosine, thymine, or uracil). In the medical field, nucleoside diphosphate sugars are important components of nucleic acid metabolism and are involved in various cellular processes, including DNA replication, RNA transcription, and protein synthesis. They are also used as precursors for the synthesis of nucleotides, which are the building blocks of nucleic acids. In addition, nucleoside diphosphate sugars are used in the development of antiviral drugs, as many viruses rely on the host cell's nucleic acid metabolism to replicate. By inhibiting the synthesis of nucleoside diphosphate sugars, these drugs can prevent the replication of the virus and treat viral infections.

Recombinant proteins are proteins that are produced by genetically engineering bacteria, yeast, or other organisms to express a specific gene. These proteins are typically used in medical research and drug development because they can be produced in large quantities and are often more pure and consistent than proteins that are extracted from natural sources. Recombinant proteins can be used for a variety of purposes in medicine, including as diagnostic tools, therapeutic agents, and research tools. For example, recombinant versions of human proteins such as insulin, growth hormones, and clotting factors are used to treat a variety of medical conditions. Recombinant proteins can also be used to study the function of specific genes and proteins, which can help researchers understand the underlying causes of diseases and develop new treatments.

Thionucleotides are a type of nucleotide that contain a sulfur atom in place of the oxygen atom that is typically found in the sugar-phosphate backbone of nucleotides. They are an important component of the genetic material of certain bacteria and archaea, and are also used in the synthesis of certain drugs and other compounds. Thionucleotides are synthesized using a variety of methods, including chemical synthesis and enzymatic synthesis. They have a number of unique properties that make them useful in a variety of applications, including their ability to form stable bonds with other molecules and their ability to undergo a variety of chemical reactions.

Hydroxylamines are a class of organic compounds that contain a hydroxyl group (-OH) bonded to an amine group (-NH2). They are commonly used as oxidizing agents in various chemical reactions, including the synthesis of pharmaceuticals and the treatment of wastewater. In the medical field, hydroxylamines have been studied for their potential therapeutic applications. For example, hydroxylamine hydrochloride has been used as a vasodilator to treat hypertension and angina pectoris. It works by relaxing blood vessels and improving blood flow to the heart. Hydroxylamines have also been investigated as potential antiviral agents against a variety of viruses, including HIV and influenza. They are thought to work by inhibiting viral replication and preventing the virus from infecting host cells. However, hydroxylamines can also be toxic and have been associated with adverse effects, including respiratory distress, nausea, and vomiting. Therefore, their use in the medical field is carefully regulated and monitored to ensure their safety and efficacy.

Transforming Growth Factor beta (TGF-β) is a family of cytokines that play a crucial role in regulating cell growth, differentiation, and migration. TGF-βs are secreted by a variety of cells, including immune cells, fibroblasts, and epithelial cells, and act on neighboring cells to modulate their behavior. TGF-βs have both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects, depending on the context in which they are released. They can promote the differentiation of immune cells into effector cells that help to fight infections, but they can also suppress the immune response to prevent excessive inflammation. In addition to their role in immune regulation, TGF-βs are also involved in tissue repair and fibrosis. They can stimulate the production of extracellular matrix proteins, such as collagen, which are essential for tissue repair. However, excessive production of TGF-βs can lead to fibrosis, a condition in which excessive amounts of connective tissue accumulate in the body, leading to organ dysfunction. Overall, TGF-βs are important signaling molecules that play a critical role in regulating a wide range of cellular processes in the body.

Guanine nucleotides are a type of nucleotide that contains the nitrogenous base guanine. They are important components of DNA and RNA, which are the genetic material of all living organisms. In DNA, guanine nucleotides are paired with cytosine nucleotides to form the base pair G-C, which is one of the four possible base pairs in DNA. In RNA, guanine nucleotides are paired with uracil nucleotides to form the base pair G-U. Guanine nucleotides play a crucial role in the structure and function of DNA and RNA, and are involved in many important biological processes, including gene expression, DNA replication, and protein synthesis.

Skatole is a chemical compound that is produced by the breakdown of tryptophan in the human body. It is also known as 3-methylindole or 3-methyl-1H-indole. Skatole is a foul-smelling compound that is often associated with the smell of feces. It is produced by the gut bacteria of some animals, including humans, and is present in small amounts in the urine and feces of these animals. In the medical field, skatole is sometimes used as a diagnostic tool to identify certain types of gastrointestinal disorders, such as inflammatory bowel disease or colon cancer. It is also used as a marker of exposure to certain drugs, such as the anti-inflammatory drug indomethacin.

In the medical field, RNA, Messenger (mRNA) refers to a type of RNA molecule that carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus of a cell to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized. During the process of transcription, the DNA sequence of a gene is copied into a complementary RNA sequence called messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA molecule then leaves the nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm of the cell, where it binds to ribosomes and serves as a template for the synthesis of a specific protein. The sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule determines the sequence of amino acids in the protein that is synthesized. Therefore, changes in the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule can result in changes in the amino acid sequence of the protein, which can affect the function of the protein and potentially lead to disease. mRNA molecules are often used in medical research and therapy as a way to introduce new genetic information into cells. For example, mRNA vaccines work by introducing a small piece of mRNA that encodes for a specific protein, which triggers an immune response in the body.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that carries genetic information in living organisms. It is composed of four types of nitrogen-containing molecules called nucleotides, which are arranged in a specific sequence to form the genetic code. In the medical field, DNA is often studied as a tool for understanding and diagnosing genetic disorders. Genetic disorders are caused by changes in the DNA sequence that can affect the function of genes, leading to a variety of health problems. By analyzing DNA, doctors and researchers can identify specific genetic mutations that may be responsible for a particular disorder, and develop targeted treatments or therapies to address the underlying cause of the condition. DNA is also used in forensic science to identify individuals based on their unique genetic fingerprint. This is because each person's DNA sequence is unique, and can be used to distinguish one individual from another. DNA analysis is also used in criminal investigations to help solve crimes by linking DNA evidence to suspects or victims.

Phosphoric diester hydrolases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of phosphoric diesters, which are esters of phosphoric acid. These enzymes are involved in a variety of biological processes, including the breakdown of nucleic acids, the metabolism of lipids, and the regulation of signaling pathways. In the medical field, phosphoric diester hydrolases are important for the proper functioning of the body. For example, they are involved in the breakdown of nucleic acids, which are the building blocks of DNA and RNA. This process is essential for the replication and repair of DNA, as well as the production of proteins from genetic information. Phosphoric diester hydrolases are also involved in the metabolism of lipids, which are a type of fat that is stored in the body. These enzymes help to break down lipids into smaller molecules that can be used for energy or stored for later use. In addition, phosphoric diester hydrolases play a role in the regulation of signaling pathways, which are the communication networks that allow cells to respond to changes in their environment. These enzymes help to control the activity of signaling molecules, which can affect a wide range of cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and death. Overall, phosphoric diester hydrolases are important enzymes that play a variety of roles in the body. They are involved in the breakdown of nucleic acids, the metabolism of lipids, and the regulation of signaling pathways, and are essential for the proper functioning of the body.

βTrCP2 (beta-transducin repeat containing protein 2; also known as Fbxw11 or HOS) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ... Fong A, Sun SC (Jun 2002). "Genetic evidence for the essential role of beta-transducin repeat-containing protein in the ... Fbxws containing WD40 repeats, Fbxls containing leucine-rich repeats, and Fbxos containing either "other" protein-protein ... The F-box proteins constitute one of the four subunits of ubiquitin protein ligase complex called SCFs (Skp1-Cul1-F-box protein ...
Similar to mammalian G protein beta subunits, this protein contains transducin-like repeats. Several transcript variants with ... Takagaki Y, Manley JL (November 1992). "A human polyadenylation factor is a G protein beta-subunit homologue". The Journal of ... Cleavage stimulation factor 50 kDa subunit is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CSTF1 gene. This gene encodes one of ... Takagaki Y, Manley JL (March 2000). "Complex protein interactions within the human polyadenylation machinery identify a novel ...
Transducin beta-like protein 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TBL3 gene. The protein encoded by this gene has ... It is believed that the WD40 repeats mediate protein-protein interactions and members of the family are involved in signal ... beta)-like 3". Rual JF, Venkatesan K, Hao T, et al. (2005). "Towards a proteome-scale map of the human protein-protein ... sequence similarity with members of the WD40 repeat-containing protein family. The WD40 group is a large family of proteins, ...
Fong A, Sun SC (Jun 2002). "Genetic evidence for the essential role of beta-transducin repeat-containing protein in the ... Nuclear factor NF-kappa-B p100 subunit is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NFKB2 gene. NF-κB has been detected in ... NFKB2+protein,+human at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Overview of all the structural ... The protein NFKB2 can become mutated and lead to hereditary endocrine and immuneodeficiences. The mutation occurs at the C- ...
Transducin (beta)-like 1X-linked, also known as TBL1X, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the TBL1X gene. The protein ... It is believed that the WD40 repeats mediate protein-protein interactions and members of the family are involved in signal ... "Entrez Gene: TBL1X transducin (beta)-like 1X-linked". Zhang J, Kalkum M, Chait BT, Roeder RG (March 2002). "The N-CoR-HDAC3 ... Li J, Wang J, Wang J, Nawaz Z, Liu JM, Qin J, Wong J (2000). "Both corepressor proteins SMRT and N-CoR exist in large protein ...
Beta-transducin repeat-containing protein (βTRCP) is an FBP that targets emi1-an APC/C-Cdh1 inhibitor-and wee1 for degradation ... Skp1 - Skp1 is an adaptor protein that is essential for the recognition and binding of F-box proteins. Cullin (CUL1) - Cullin ... The SCF complex also marks various other cellular proteins for destruction. SCF contains a variable F-box protein and three ... Instead, FBP affinity for protein substrates is regulated through cyclin-CDK-mediated phosphorylation of target proteins. ...
Fong A, Sun SC (June 2002). "Genetic evidence for the essential role of beta-transducin repeat-containing protein in the ... beta-transducin repeat containing) gene. This gene encodes a member of the F-box protein family which is characterized by an ... "Entrez Gene: BTRC beta-transducin repeat containing". Margottin F, Bour SP, Durand H, Selig L, Benichou S, Richard V, Thomas D ... Fbxws containing WD40 repeats, Fbxls containing leucine-rich repeats, and Fbxos containing either "other" protein-protein ...
... receptor kinase and beta-spectrin to WD40/beta-transducin repeat containing regions of the beta-subunit of trimeric G-proteins ... ARAP proteins contain five PH domains. Serine/threonine-specific protein kinases such as the Akt/Rac family, protein kinase D1 ... spectrin beta-chain, syntrophin (2 PH domains), and S. cerevisiae nuclear migration protein NUM1. Oxysterol-binding proteins ... and proteins such as the βγ-subunits of heterotrimeric G proteins, and protein kinase C. Through these interactions, PH domains ...
The WD40 repeat (also known as the WD or beta-transducin repeat) is a short structural motif of approximately 40 amino acids, ... ZFP106 Beta-propeller Tomosyn, a protein two WD40 domains Protein tandem repeats PDB: 1erj​; Sprague ER, Redd MJ, Johnson AD, ... WD40 domain-containing proteins have 4 to 16 repeating units, all of which are thought to form a circularised beta-propeller ... The blades interlock so that the last beta strand of one repeat forms with the first three of the next repeat to form the 3D ...
... inhibition and also generate a phosphodegron used as a docking site by the ubiquitin E3 ligase Beta-transducin Repeat ... The SMAD proteins are homologs of both the Drosophila protein MAD and the C. elegans protein SMA. The name is a combination of ... It also belongs to the Darwin family of proteins that modulate members of the TGFβ protein superfamily, a family of proteins ... Miyazono K (2000). "TGF-beta signaling by Smad proteins". Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews. 11 (1-2): 15-22. doi:10.1016/S1359- ...
WD40 repeats, also known as beta-transducin repeats, are short fragments found primarily in eukaryotes. They usually form beta- ... Rather than having the typical four beta-strands in a sheet, beta-lactamase inhibitor protein-II only has three beta-strands ... The influenza virus protein viral neuraminidase is a six-bladed beta-propeller protein whose active form is a tetramer. It is ... Additionally, there are proteins that have shown variance in the number of beta-strands per beta-sheet. ...
Heterotrimeric G proteins, also called guanosine nucleotide-binding proteins, consist of three subunits, called alpha, beta, ... The amino acid sequence contains 7 WD repeat motifs of about 40 amino acids, each highly conserved and possessing the Trp-Asp ... Nevertheless, recent in vivo findings demonstrate the necessity of the transducin Gβγ complex in the functioning of rod ... Portal: Biology (Protein pages needing a picture, G proteins, Protein complexes). ...
F-box-like/WD repeat-containing protein TBL1XR1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TBL1XR1 gene. The protein encoded ... "Entrez Gene: TBL1XR1 transducin (beta)-like 1X-linked receptor 1". "OMIM Entry - # 602342 - PIERPONT SYNDROME; PRPTS". www.omim ... It is believed that the WD40 repeats mediate protein-protein interactions, and members of the family are involved in signal ... by this gene has sequence similarity with members of the WD40 repeat-containing protein family. The WD40 group is a large ...
This protein is conserved all the way back to invertebrates. Proteins containing WD transducin repeating domains have been ... beta turns, and random coils. The human protein WDR90 adopts a 7-bladed beta propeller that is indicative of the WD40 repeat ... WD repeat-containing protein 90 is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the WDR90 gene (16p13.3). This human protein is ... its ties to the protein superfamily WD40 domain-containing proteins, and the known protein interactions, it could play a role ...
... bcr-abl fusion protein - benzene - benzene ring - beta-2 microglobulin - beta adrenergic receptor - beta sheet - beta-1 ... talin protein - tandem repeat sequence - taste bud - TATA box - tax gene product - taxonomy - telophase - tertiary structure - ... transducin - transformation - transforming growth factor - transforming growth factor alpha - transforming growth factor beta ... protein - protein biosynthesis - Protein Data Bank - protein design - protein expression - protein folding - protein isoform - ...
They form a G-protein regulator family that also contains TPR repeats. Human proteins containing this domain include: GPSM1, ... The inactive form contains the alpha subunit bound to GDP and complexes with the beta and gamma subunit. When the ligand is ... "AGS3 inhibits GDP dissociation from galpha subunits of the Gi family and rhodopsin-dependent activation of transducin". J. Biol ... Two classes of intracellular proteins act as inhibitors of G protein activation: GTPase activating proteins (GAPs), which ...
"The rod cGMP-phosphodiesterase beta-subunit promoter is a specific target for Sp4 and is not activated by other Sp proteins or ... "Association of the Asn306Ser variant of the SP4 transcription factor and an intronic variant in the beta-subunit of transducin ... "Different members of the Sp1 multigene family exert opposite transcriptional regulation of the long terminal repeat of HIV-1". ... "Nrl and Sp nuclear proteins mediate transcription of rod-specific cGMP-phosphodiesterase beta-subunit gene: involvement of ...
However, in vertebrates, the G protein is transducin, while the G protein in invertebrates is Gq (dgq in Drosophila). When ... including multiple death domain containing proteins and negative regulators such as the ankyrin repeat protein Cactus. The ... This occurs due to the fly's inability to create beta-alanine, a beta amino acid. The phenotypic expression of this mutation ... Calcium binds to proteins such as calmodulin (CaM) and an eye-specific protein kinase C (PKC) known as InaC. These proteins ...
Protein with WD-40 repeats involved in rRNA processing; associates with trans-acting ribosome biogenesis factors; similar to ... beta-transducin superfamily. GO Process (1). GO Function (0). GO Component (3) ... ubiquitin-dependent protein catabolic process [TAS]. Gene Ontology Cellular Component. *COP9 signalosome [IDA]*proteasome ... Search BioGRID for SARS-CoV-2 Protein Interactions , Download SARS-CoV-2 and Coronavirus-Related Interactions ...
Folding of proteins with WD-repeats: comparison of six members of the WD-repeat superfamily to the G protein beta subunit. ... BETA-GAMMA DIMER OF THE HETEROTRIMERIC G-PROTEIN TRANSDUCIN. 1trj. Homology Model of Yeast RACK1 Protein fitted into 11.7A cryo ... Repeated WD40 motifs act as a site for protein-protein or protein-DNA interaction, and proteins containing WD40 repeats are ... several proteins with WD-repeats are able to fold into globular proteins in a rabbit reticulocyte lysate. One protein, beta ...
Moreover, a HSP27 inhibitor cross-linked with HSP27 protein to ameliorate PF, which was more effective when targeting the ... Decreased mRNA expression of SMAD-specific E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase 2 (Smurf2), which is involved in ubiquitin degradation ... Heat shock protein 27 (HSP27) is overexpressed during pulmonary fibrosis (PF) and exacerbates PF; however, the upregulation of ... Beta-transducin repeat containing E3 ubiquitin protein ligase. CHX:. Cyclohexamide. ECM:. Extracellular matrix ...
Insulin Like Growth Factor 2 MRNA Binding Protein 1) Monoclonal Antibody validated in IP, RIP and WB. Batch-specific data ... beta-actin and beta-transducin repeat-containing protein, thereby regulating translation., clonality =, , isotype =, ... beta-actin and beta-transducin repeat-containing protein, thereby regulating translation., clonality =, , isotype =, ... beta-actin and beta-transducin repeat-containing protein, thereby regulating translation., clonality =, , isotype =, ...
The sulfur controller-2 negative regulatory gene of Neurospora crassa encodes a protein with beta-transducin repeats. Sr ... In pubg battlegrounds hacks download liver lipolysis and beta-oxidation occur leading to the formation of 13 CO 2. This puts ...
The precise regulation of the levels of cyclin proteins is fundamental to coordinate cell division with checkpoints, avoiding ... beta-Transducin Repeat-Containing Proteins ... CKII, CRLs, F-box protein, SCF, cell cycle, cyclin F, mitosis, ... The precise regulation of the levels of cyclin proteins is fundamental to coordinate cell division with checkpoints, avoiding ...
Smurf1 had a possible interaction with beta-transducin repeat containing E3 ubiquitin protein ligase (ß-TrCP), another E3 ... Protein Kinase Cδ (PKCδ) could induce phosphorylation of Drp1, and we found that HG induced phosphorylation of PKCδ. PKCδ ... Mechanistically, IFN-γ upregulates the level of intracellular Fe2+ through inhibiting Fe2+ efflux protein SLC40A1 and induces ... We found that HG-induced mitochondrial dysfunction via mitochondrial Dynamin-related protein 1(Drp1)-mediated mitochondrial ...
The HIV-1 Vpu protein is an oligomeric integral membrane protein essential for particle release, viral load and CD4 degradation ... Using Vpu proteins from a primary subtype C and the pNL4-3 subtype B isolates of HIV-1, we show oligomerization of the full- ... length protein as well as its transmembrane (TM) domain by genetic, biochemical and biophysical methods. We also provide direct ... and through its phosphoserine residues binds the beta transducin-repeat containing protein (βTrCP) in the cytoplasm [10]. The ...
Overexpression of miR-BART10-3p is associated with downregulation of beta-transducin repeat containing E3 ubiquitin protein ... transforming growth factor beta; TGFBI, transforming growth factor beta induced; TGFβR, transforming growth factor beta ... transforming growth factor beta receptor 2 (TGFβR2) (83), programmed cell death protein 4 (PDCD4) (82), and disabled homolog-2 ... by directly targeting transforming growth factor beta induced (TGFBI) protein, which resulted in downstream PTEN inactivation ...
... disc4 degradation depends upon these phosphoserines through binding of beta-transducin repeat-containing PHA-848125 proteins ( ... proteins gp160. While both of these protein are synthesized at identical prices unlike the Env proteins which is packed into ... The Vpu proteins can be an 81-amino-acid (81-aa) type I essential membrane proteins with two main domains specifically an N- ... The human being immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Vpu accessory protein is a transmembrane protein that down regulates CD4 ...
Family b.69.4.1: WD40-repeat [50979] (8 proteins). this is a repeat family; one repeat unit is 1tyq C:201-243 found in domain ... Class b: All beta proteins [48724] (165 folds). *. Fold b.69: 7-bladed beta-propeller [50964] (14 superfamilies). consists of ... PDB Compounds: (B:) transducin-like enhancer protein 1. SCOP Domain Sequences for d2ce9b1:. Sequence; same for both SEQRES and ... seven 4-stranded beta-sheet motifs; meander. *. Superfamily b.69.4: WD40 repeat-like [50978] (2 families) also contains 8- ...
GNAT1: G protein subunit alpha transducin 1. *GNAT2: G protein subunit alpha transducin 2 ... GNPTAB: N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate transferase subunits alpha and beta. *GNPTG: N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate ... GTF2IRD1: GTF2I repeat domain containing 1. *GTF2H5: general transcription factor IIH subunit 5 ... GJB1: gap junction protein beta 1. *GJB2: gap junction protein beta 2 ...
... "protein_coding" "AT2G40360","No alias","Arabidopsis thaliana","Transducin/WD40 repeat-like superfamily protein","protein_coding ... Sec61-beta subunit protein","protein_coding" "AT2G45170","ATG8E","Arabidopsis thaliana","AUTOPHAGY 8E","protein_coding" " ... "transducin family protein / WD-40 repeat family protein","protein_coding" "AT3G18130","RACK1C_AT","Arabidopsis thaliana"," ... "transducin family protein / WD-40 repeat family protein","protein_coding" "AT4G08390","SAPX","Arabidopsis thaliana","stromal ...
plastid developmental protein DAG, putative. -0.55. 0.32. -0.31. 41. AT5G64630. Transducin/WD40 repeat-like superfamily protein ... beta-galactosidase 14. beta-galactosidase 14. 0.55. 0.33. -0.32. 40. AT3G06790. ... Ribosomal protein L19 family protein. -0.53. 0.3. -0.3. 56. AT4G18090. unknown protein; Has 1807 Blast hits to 1807 proteins in ... protein.. 0.52. 0.3. -0.28. 63. AT2G37070. unknown protein; BEST Arabidopsis thaliana protein match. is: unknown protein (TAIR: ...
Beta-TrCP (transducin repeats containing)/Slimb pr... 52851. scaffold_60:313673-327673 DappuDraft_56983 Axon guidance receptor ... Leucine rich repeat proteins. some proteins contai... 52779. scaffold_6:2387576-2389416 DappuDraft_307168 Leucine rich repeat ... Leucine rich repeat proteins. some proteins contai... 52729. scaffold_6:2222052-2225853 DappuDraft_221844 DNA ligase (ATP). , ... Glia maturation factor beta 52888. scaffold_60:586498-587198 DappuDraft_307195 Ubiquitin--protein ligase. ,Anaphase-promoting ...
... transducin β like 1) as well as Siah-1 SIP (Siah-1 interacting protein) and Skp11 6 Lack of CK1γ and GSK3β-mediated ... protein family β-catenin consists of central 12 imperfect ARM repeats (R1-R12) as well as unique N-terminal (NTD) and carboxy- ... Keywords: acute myeloid leukemia Beta Catenin Intro β-catenin functions as a co-activator for the T-cell Citalopram ... As ligands the binding of WNT proteins induces conformational switch in the seven transmembrane website receptor Frizzled (FZD ...
Targeting transducin Beta-like protein 1 in mantle cell lymphoma. *Computerized Cognitive Training to Improve Cognition in ... Functional characterization of the telomere repeat containing RNA, TERRA, in telomere maintenance ...
beta-Transducin Repeat-Containing Proteins. Proteínas con Repetición de beta-Transducina. Proteínas F-Box. F-Box Proteins. ... Subunidades beta da Proteína de Ligação a GTP. GTP-Binding Protein beta Subunits. Subunidades beta de la Proteína de Enlace a ... Glucan 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidasa. Glucano 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucan 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1 ... beta-Manosidose. beta-Mannosidosis. beta-Manosidosis. C17 - Doenças da Pele e do Tecido Conjuntivo. Esclerodermia Difusa. ...
Proteínas con Repetición de beta-Transducina. beta-Transducin Repeat-Containing Proteins. Proteínas Contendo Repetições de beta ... Subunidades beta de la Proteína de Enlace a GTP. GTP-Binding Protein beta Subunits. Subunidades beta da Proteína de Ligação a ... Glucan 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,4-beta-Glucosidasa. Glucan 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1 ... beta-Manosidosis. beta-Mannosidosis. beta-Manosidose. C17 - Enfermedades de la Piel y Tejido Conjuntivo. Esclerodermia Difusa. ...
Proteínas con Repetición de beta-Transducina. beta-Transducin Repeat-Containing Proteins. Proteínas Contendo Repetições de beta ... Subunidades beta de la Proteína de Enlace a GTP. GTP-Binding Protein beta Subunits. Subunidades beta da Proteína de Ligação a ... Glucan 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,4-beta-Glucosidasa. Glucan 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1 ... beta-Manosidosis. beta-Mannosidosis. beta-Manosidose. C17 - Enfermedades de la Piel y Tejido Conjuntivo. Esclerodermia Difusa. ...
Proteínas con Repetición de beta-Transducina. beta-Transducin Repeat-Containing Proteins. Proteínas Contendo Repetições de beta ... Subunidades beta de la Proteína de Enlace a GTP. GTP-Binding Protein beta Subunits. Subunidades beta da Proteína de Ligação a ... Glucan 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,4-beta-Glucosidasa. Glucan 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1 ... beta-Manosidosis. beta-Mannosidosis. beta-Manosidose. C17 - Enfermedades de la Piel y Tejido Conjuntivo. Esclerodermia Difusa. ...
beta-Transducin Repeat-Containing Proteins. Proteínas Contendo Repetições de beta-Transducina. Proteínas con Repetición de beta ... F-Box Proteins. Proteínas F-Box. Proteínas F-Box. GTP-Binding Protein beta Subunits. Subunidades beta da Proteína de Ligação a ... Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidasa. Glucan 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano ... beta-Mannosidase. beta-Manosidase. beta-Manosidasa. D10 - Lipids. Fatty Acids, Omega-6. Ácidos Graxos Ômega-6. Ácidos Grasos ...
beta-Transducin Repeat-Containing Proteins. Proteínas con Repetición de beta-Transducina. Proteínas F-Box. F-Box Proteins. ... Subunidades beta da Proteína de Ligação a GTP. GTP-Binding Protein beta Subunits. Subunidades beta de la Proteína de Enlace a ... Glucan 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidasa. Glucano 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucan 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1 ... beta-Manosidose. beta-Mannosidosis. beta-Manosidosis. C17 - Doenças da Pele e do Tecido Conjuntivo. Esclerodermia Difusa. ...
beta-Transducin Repeat-Containing Proteins. Proteínas con Repetición de beta-Transducina. Proteínas F-Box. F-Box Proteins. ... Subunidades beta da Proteína de Ligação a GTP. GTP-Binding Protein beta Subunits. Subunidades beta de la Proteína de Enlace a ... Glucan 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidasa. Glucano 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucan 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1 ... beta-Manosidose. beta-Mannosidosis. beta-Manosidosis. C17 - Doenças da Pele e do Tecido Conjuntivo. Esclerodermia Difusa. ...
beta-Transducin Repeat-Containing Proteins. Proteínas Contendo Repetições de beta-Transducina. Proteínas con Repetición de beta ... F-Box Proteins. Proteínas F-Box. Proteínas F-Box. GTP-Binding Protein beta Subunits. Subunidades beta da Proteína de Ligação a ... Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidasa. Glucan 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano ... beta-Mannosidase. beta-Manosidase. beta-Manosidasa. D10 - Lipids. Fatty Acids, Omega-6. Ácidos Graxos Ômega-6. Ácidos Grasos ...
Proteínas con Repetición de beta-Transducina. beta-Transducin Repeat-Containing Proteins. Proteínas Contendo Repetições de beta ... Subunidades beta de la Proteína de Enlace a GTP. GTP-Binding Protein beta Subunits. Subunidades beta da Proteína de Ligação a ... Glucan 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,4-beta-Glucosidasa. Glucan 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1 ... beta-Manosidosis. beta-Mannosidosis. beta-Manosidose. C17 - Enfermedades de la Piel y Tejido Conjuntivo. Esclerodermia Difusa. ...
beta-Transducin Repeat-Containing Proteins. Proteínas Contendo Repetições de beta-Transducina. Proteínas con Repetición de beta ... F-Box Proteins. Proteínas F-Box. Proteínas F-Box. GTP-Binding Protein beta Subunits. Subunidades beta da Proteína de Ligação a ... Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidasa. Glucan 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano ... beta-Mannosidase. beta-Manosidase. beta-Manosidasa. D10 - Lipids. Fatty Acids, Omega-6. Ácidos Graxos Ômega-6. Ácidos Grasos ...
Proteínas con Repetición de beta-Transducina. beta-Transducin Repeat-Containing Proteins. Proteínas Contendo Repetições de beta ... Subunidades beta de la Proteína de Enlace a GTP. GTP-Binding Protein beta Subunits. Subunidades beta da Proteína de Ligação a ... Glucan 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,4-beta-Glucosidasa. Glucan 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1 ... beta-Manosidosis. beta-Mannosidosis. beta-Manosidose. C17 - Enfermedades de la Piel y Tejido Conjuntivo. Esclerodermia Difusa. ...
beta-Transducin Repeat-Containing Proteins. Proteínas Contendo Repetições de beta-Transducina. Proteínas con Repetición de beta ... F-Box Proteins. Proteínas F-Box. Proteínas F-Box. GTP-Binding Protein beta Subunits. Subunidades beta da Proteína de Ligação a ... Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidasa. Glucan 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano ... beta-Mannosidase. beta-Manosidase. beta-Manosidasa. D10 - Lipids. Fatty Acids, Omega-6. Ácidos Graxos Ômega-6. Ácidos Grasos ...
beta-Transducin Repeat-Containing Proteins. Proteínas Contendo Repetições de beta-Transducina. Proteínas con Repetición de beta ... F-Box Proteins. Proteínas F-Box. Proteínas F-Box. GTP-Binding Protein beta Subunits. Subunidades beta da Proteína de Ligação a ... Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,3-beta-Glucosidasa. Glucan 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano 1,4-beta-Glucosidase. Glucano ... beta-Mannosidase. beta-Manosidase. beta-Manosidasa. D10 - Lipids. Fatty Acids, Omega-6. Ácidos Graxos Ômega-6. Ácidos Grasos ...
  • WD40 repeats usually assume a 7-8 bladed beta-propeller fold, but proteins have been found with 4 to 16 repeated units, which also form a circularised beta-propeller structure. (embl.de)
  • several WD40-containing proteins act as key regulators of plant-specific developmental events. (embl.de)
  • There are 1918936 WD40 domains in 345139 proteins in SMART's nrdb database. (embl.de)
  • Taxonomic distribution of proteins containing WD40 domain. (embl.de)
  • The complete taxonomic breakdown of all proteins with WD40 domain is also avaliable . (embl.de)
  • Click on the protein counts, or double click on taxonomic names to display all proteins containing WD40 domain in the selected taxonomic class. (embl.de)
  • Folding of proteins with WD-repeats: comparison of six members of the WD-repeat superfamily to the G protein beta subunit. (embl.de)
  • Members of this family include the signal-transducing G protein beta subunit, as well as other proteins that regulate signal transduction, transcription, pre-mRNA splicing, cytoskeletal organization, and vesicular fusion. (embl.de)
  • Subsequent receptor phosphorylation mediates displacement of the bound G-protein alpha subunit by the arrestin SAG and terminates signaling. (cusabio.com)
  • One question that has remained unanswered is whether the G-protein α-subunit can support signaling without its cognate βγ partner complex. (eneuro.org)
  • The visual signal, or photoresponse, is initiated when photoexcited rhodopsin activates the transducin heterotrimer by catalyzing GDP−GTP exchange on its α-subunit (Gα t ). (eneuro.org)
  • The heterotrimeric G-protein transducin mediates visual signaling in vertebrate photoreceptor cells. (eneuro.org)
  • The heterotrimeric G-protein transducin mediates visual signal transduction in the outer segments of vertebrate photoreceptor cells. (eneuro.org)
  • These findings revealed a total water flux between the bulk and the protein inside in the Meta II state, and suggested that these pathways provide water molecules to the crucial sites of the activated rhodopsin. (cusabio.com)
  • the stoichiometry is 1:1 rhodopsin:transducin. (cusabio.com)
  • they are improvement of disease launch from contaminated cells (26 41 47 50 and degradation from the HIV receptor Compact disc4 proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (53). (cancer-pictures.org)
  • WD-repeat proteins are a large family found in all eukaryotes and are implicated in a variety of functions ranging from signal transduction and transcription regulation to cell cycle control and apoptosis. (embl.de)
  • Many aspects of the function of transducin were learned from knock-out mice lacking its individual subunits. (eneuro.org)
  • Previous studies have demonstrated that knocking out individual transducin subunits produces quite different phenotypes. (eneuro.org)
  • Decreased mRNA expression of SMAD-specific E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase 2 (Smurf2), which is involved in ubiquitin degradation of HSP27, was responsible for the increased expression of pHSP27. (biomedcentral.com)
  • SMAD-specific E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 2 (Smurf2), which is a crucial part of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, was suggested to be involved in the degradation of HSP27 [ 15 ] without elucidation of a detailed mechanism. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Light-induced isomerization of 11-cis to all-trans retinal triggers a conformational change that activates signaling via G-proteins. (cusabio.com)
  • Newer studies claim that Vpu aswell as the Vpu-like activity PHA-848125 of HIV-2 envelope protein works by overcoming a book species-specific host limitation to HIV launch (51). (cancer-pictures.org)
  • MiRNA expression is frequently altered during cancer development, associated with dysregulated expression of a plethora of different miRNAs, their biogenesis or processing proteins, such as DROSHA and DICER1 ( 1 ). (amegroups.org)
  • The specificity of the proteins is determined by the sequences outside the repeats themselves. (embl.de)
  • Besides coding for the normal retroviral Gag Pol and Env protein the HIV-1 genome also encodes the regulatory Tat and Rev protein and the accessories Vif Vpr Vpu and Nef protein (14). (cancer-pictures.org)
  • The mammalian genome comprises nuclear DNA (nDNA) derived from both parents and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) that is maternally inherited and encodes essential proteins required for oxidative phosphorylation. (regenerativemedicine.net)
  • WD-40 repeats (also known as WD or beta-transducin repeats) are short ~40 amino acid motifs, often terminating in a Trp-Asp (W-D) dipeptide. (embl.de)
  • Using Vpu proteins from a primary subtype C and the pNL4-3 subtype B isolates of HIV-1, we show oligomerization of the full-length protein as well as its transmembrane (TM) domain by genetic, biochemical and biophysical methods. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The human being immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Vpu accessory protein is a transmembrane protein that down regulates CD4 expression and promotes the discharge of new virions. (cancer-pictures.org)
  • However, the only studied example of a WD-repeat protein, G beta, synthesized in vitro in a rabbit reticulocyte lysate, is unable to fold into a native structure without its partner protein G gamma. (embl.de)
  • The non-WD-repeat amino terminal alpha helix of G beta does not inhibit folding because G beta does not fold even when this region is removed. (embl.de)
  • It is not known whether all WD-repeat proteins are unable to fold when synthesized in an in vitro system. (embl.de)
  • We show that unlike G beta, several proteins with WD-repeats are able to fold into globular proteins in a rabbit reticulocyte lysate. (embl.de)
  • The HIV-1 Vpu protein is an oligomeric integral membrane protein essential for particle release, viral load and CD4 degradation. (biomedcentral.com)
  • One such protein is viral protein U (Vpu) that is encoded by HIV-1 but not HIV-2 or the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) [ 2 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Whether Vpu is a viral pathogenesis factor remains to be established, but compared to HIV-1, closely related retroviruses such as HIV-2 and SIV that lack expression of a fully functional Vpu protein also cause less severe disease outcomes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Therefore the Vpu proteins also plays a part in viral persistence by attenuating immune system reactions during HIV disease. (cancer-pictures.org)
  • its steady association with Vpu impacts the Wnt and nuclear element kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathways (1 5 In HIV-infected cells Vpu can be synthesized from a bicistronic mRNA that also rules for the viral envelope (Env) proteins gp160. (cancer-pictures.org)
  • Whether Vpu can be a virulence element remains to become established but in comparison to HIV-1 carefully related retroviruses such as for example PHA-848125 HIV-2 and SIV that absence expression of a completely functional Vpu proteins also cause much less severe disease results. (cancer-pictures.org)
  • Even though transcriptional regulation of hsp27 is well recognized [ 14 ], few papers focus on degradation mechanisms of HSP27 protein. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Monoclonal antibody raised in mouse against human IGF2BP1 (Insulin Like Growth Factor 2 MRNA Binding Protein 1), using the full length recombinant protein. (diagenode.com)
  • IGF2BP1 (Insulin Like Growth Factor 2 MRNA Binding Protein 1) Monoclonal Antibody validated in IP, RIP and WB. (diagenode.com)
  • Note that these repeats are permuted with respect to the structural repeats (blades) of the beta propeller domain. (embl.de)
  • SCOP: Structural Classification of Proteins and ASTRAL. (berkeley.edu)
  • The family of WD-repeat proteins comprises over 30 different proteins that share a highly conserved repeating motif [Neer, E. J., Schmidt, C. J., Nambudripad, R., & Smith, T. F. (1994) Nature 371, 297-300]. (embl.de)
  • The precise regulation of the levels of cyclin proteins is fundamental to coordinate cell division with checkpoints, avoiding genome instability. (ox.ac.uk)
  • It is very likely that all WD-repeat proteins form a similar structure. (embl.de)
  • If WD proteins form structures similar to G beta, their hydrodynamic properties should be those of compact, globular proteins, and they should be resistant to cleavage by trypsin. (embl.de)
  • Our working definition of folding was that the proteins from globular, trypsin-resistant structures because, except for G beta gamma, their functions are not known or cannot be assayed in reticulocyte lysates. (embl.de)
  • Keywords: acute myeloid leukemia Beta Catenin Intro β-catenin functions as a co-activator for the T-cell Citalopram Hydrobromide element (TCF) 4/lymphoid enhancer element (LEF) 1 bipartite transcription element in the promoters of the WNT-β-catenin target genes and is implicated in malignancy transformation1. (researchassistantresume.com)
  • Note: The complete sequence including tag sequence, target protein sequence and linker sequence could be provided upon request. (cusabio.com)