The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
Pairing of purine and pyrimidine bases by HYDROGEN BONDING in double-stranded DNA or RNA.
The spatial arrangement of the atoms of a nucleic acid or polynucleotide that results in its characteristic 3-dimensional shape.
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
The relative amounts of the PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in a nucleic acid.
Disruption of the secondary structure of nucleic acids by heat, extreme pH or chemical treatment. Double strand DNA is "melted" by dissociation of the non-covalent hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions. Denatured DNA appears to be a single-stranded flexible structure. The effects of denaturation on RNA are similar though less pronounced and largely reversible.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
The reformation of all, or part of, the native conformation of a nucleic acid molecule after the molecule has undergone denaturation.
Polymers made up of a few (2-20) nucleotides. In molecular genetics, they refer to a short sequence synthesized to match a region where a mutation is known to occur, and then used as a probe (OLIGONUCLEOTIDE PROBES). (Dorland, 28th ed)
Widely used technique which exploits the ability of complementary sequences in single-stranded DNAs or RNAs to pair with each other to form a double helix. Hybridization can take place between two complimentary DNA sequences, between a single-stranded DNA and a complementary RNA, or between two RNA sequences. The technique is used to detect and isolate specific sequences, measure homology, or define other characteristics of one or both strands. (Kendrew, Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, 1994, p503)
A group of deoxyribonucleotides (up to 12) in which the phosphate residues of each deoxyribonucleotide act as bridges in forming diester linkages between the deoxyribose moieties.
A group of 13 or more deoxyribonucleotides in which the phosphate residues of each deoxyribonucleotide act as bridges in forming diester linkages between the deoxyribose moieties.
A highly fluorescent anti-infective dye used clinically as a topical antiseptic and experimentally as a mutagen, due to its interaction with DNA. It is also used as an intracellular pH indicator.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of bacteria.
Constituent of the 40S subunit of eukaryotic ribosomes. 18S rRNA is involved in the initiation of polypeptide synthesis in eukaryotes.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
Polydeoxyribonucleotides made up of deoxyadenine nucleotides and thymine nucleotides. Present in DNA preparations isolated from crab species. Synthetic preparations have been used extensively in the study of DNA.
The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.
The most abundant form of RNA. Together with proteins, it forms the ribosomes, playing a structural role and also a role in ribosomal binding of mRNA and tRNAs. Individual chains are conventionally designated by their sedimentation coefficients. In eukaryotes, four large chains exist, synthesized in the nucleolus and constituting about 50% of the ribosome. (Dorland, 28th ed)
The inferior region of the skull consisting of an internal (cerebral), and an external (basilar) surface.
Guanine is a purine nucleobase, one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA and RNA, involved in forming hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs in double-stranded DNA molecules.
The sequential correspondence of nucleotides in one nucleic acid molecule with those of another nucleic acid molecule. Sequence homology is an indication of the genetic relatedness of different organisms and gene function.
Any of the covalently closed DNA molecules found in bacteria, many viruses, mitochondria, plastids, and plasmids. Small, polydisperse circular DNA's have also been observed in a number of eukaryotic organisms and are suggested to have homology with chromosomal DNA and the capacity to be inserted into, and excised from, chromosomal DNA. It is a fragment of DNA formed by a process of looping out and deletion, containing a constant region of the mu heavy chain and the 3'-part of the mu switch region. Circular DNA is a normal product of rearrangement among gene segments encoding the variable regions of immunoglobulin light and heavy chains, as well as the T-cell receptor. (Riger et al., Glossary of Genetics, 5th ed & Segen, Dictionary of Modern Medicine, 1992)
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A category of nucleic acid sequences that function as units of heredity and which code for the basic instructions for the development, reproduction, and maintenance of organisms.
A genus of ascomycetous fungi of the family Saccharomycetaceae, order SACCHAROMYCETALES.
Condensation products of aromatic amines and aldehydes forming azomethines substituted on the N atom, containing the general formula R-N:CHR. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Agents that are capable of inserting themselves between the successive bases in DNA, thus kinking, uncoiling or otherwise deforming it and therefore preventing its proper functioning. They are used in the study of DNA.
Extrachromosomal, usually CIRCULAR DNA molecules that are self-replicating and transferable from one organism to another. They are found in a variety of bacterial, archaeal, fungal, algal, and plant species. They are used in GENETIC ENGINEERING as CLONING VECTORS.
Models used experimentally or theoretically to study molecular shape, electronic properties, or interactions; includes analogous molecules, computer-generated graphics, and mechanical structures.
A polynucleotide consisting essentially of chains with a repeating backbone of phosphate and ribose units to which nitrogenous bases are attached. RNA is unique among biological macromolecules in that it can encode genetic information, serve as an abundant structural component of cells, and also possesses catalytic activity. (Rieger et al., Glossary of Genetics: Classical and Molecular, 5th ed)
A purine base and a fundamental unit of ADENINE NUCLEOTIDES.
An order of fungi in the phylum Ascomycota that multiply by budding. They include the telomorphic ascomycetous yeasts which are found in a very wide range of habitats.
Enzymes that are part of the restriction-modification systems. They catalyze the endonucleolytic cleavage of DNA sequences which lack the species-specific methylation pattern in the host cell's DNA. Cleavage yields random or specific double-stranded fragments with terminal 5'-phosphates. The function of restriction enzymes is to destroy any foreign DNA that invades the host cell. Most have been studied in bacterial systems, but a few have been found in eukaryotic organisms. They are also used as tools for the systematic dissection and mapping of chromosomes, in the determination of base sequences of DNAs, and have made it possible to splice and recombine genes from one organism into the genome of another. EC 3.21.1.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Sequences of DNA or RNA that occur in multiple copies. There are several types: INTERSPERSED REPETITIVE SEQUENCES are copies of transposable elements (DNA TRANSPOSABLE ELEMENTS or RETROELEMENTS) dispersed throughout the genome. TERMINAL REPEAT SEQUENCES flank both ends of another sequence, for example, the long terminal repeats (LTRs) on RETROVIRUSES. Variations may be direct repeats, those occurring in the same direction, or inverted repeats, those opposite to each other in direction. TANDEM REPEAT SEQUENCES are copies which lie adjacent to each other, direct or inverted (INVERTED REPEAT SEQUENCES).
Ribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.
A single chain of deoxyribonucleotides that occurs in some bacteria and viruses. It usually exists as a covalently closed circle.
A purine or pyrimidine base bonded to a DEOXYRIBOSE containing a bond to a phosphate group.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
A rigorously mathematical analysis of energy relationships (heat, work, temperature, and equilibrium). It describes systems whose states are determined by thermal parameters, such as temperature, in addition to mechanical and electromagnetic parameters. (From Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 12th ed)
A group of adenine ribonucleotides in which the phosphate residues of each adenine ribonucleotide act as bridges in forming diester linkages between the ribose moieties.
Tritium is an isotope of hydrogen (specifically, hydrogen-3) that contains one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus, making it radioactive with a half-life of about 12.3 years, and is used in various applications including nuclear research, illumination, and dating techniques due to its low energy beta decay.
Viruses whose host is Escherichia coli.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
A group of ribonucleotides (up to 12) in which the phosphate residues of each ribonucleotide act as bridges in forming diester linkages between the ribose moieties.
The genetic process of crossbreeding between genetically dissimilar parents to produce a hybrid.
The property of objects that determines the direction of heat flow when they are placed in direct thermal contact. The temperature is the energy of microscopic motions (vibrational and translational) of the particles of atoms.
A basic science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter; and the reactions that occur between substances and the associated energy exchange.
The functional hereditary units of BACTERIA.
Ribonucleic acid in bacteria having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.
The composition, conformation, and properties of atoms and molecules, and their reaction and interaction processes.
The monomeric units from which DNA or RNA polymers are constructed. They consist of a purine or pyrimidine base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. (From King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
Ribonucleic acid in fungi having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.
The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.
The functional hereditary units of VIRUSES.
Use of restriction endonucleases to analyze and generate a physical map of genomes, genes, or other segments of DNA.
Presence of warmth or heat or a temperature notably higher than an accustomed norm.
Change brought about to an organisms genetic composition by unidirectional transfer (TRANSFECTION; TRANSDUCTION, GENETIC; CONJUGATION, GENETIC, etc.) and incorporation of foreign DNA into prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells by recombination of part or all of that DNA into the cell's genome.
Spectroscopic method of measuring the magnetic moment of elementary particles such as atomic nuclei, protons or electrons. It is employed in clinical applications such as NMR Tomography (MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING).
Macromolecular molds for the synthesis of complementary macromolecules, as in DNA REPLICATION; GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION of DNA to RNA, and GENETIC TRANSLATION of RNA into POLYPEPTIDES.
The sum of the weight of all the atoms in a molecule.
Separation of particles according to density by employing a gradient of varying densities. At equilibrium each particle settles in the gradient at a point equal to its density. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
Biologically active DNA which has been formed by the in vitro joining of segments of DNA from different sources. It includes the recombination joint or edge of a heteroduplex region where two recombining DNA molecules are connected.
Enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of ester bonds within RNA. EC 3.1.-.
Enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of the internal bonds and thereby the formation of polynucleotides or oligonucleotides from ribo- or deoxyribonucleotide chains. EC 3.1.-.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts.
Species- or subspecies-specific DNA (including COMPLEMENTARY DNA; conserved genes, whole chromosomes, or whole genomes) used in hybridization studies in order to identify microorganisms, to measure DNA-DNA homologies, to group subspecies, etc. The DNA probe hybridizes with a specific mRNA, if present. Conventional techniques used for testing for the hybridization product include dot blot assays, Southern blot assays, and DNA:RNA hybrid-specific antibody tests. Conventional labels for the DNA probe include the radioisotope labels 32P and 125I and the chemical label biotin. The use of DNA probes provides a specific, sensitive, rapid, and inexpensive replacement for cell culture techniques for diagnosing infections.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
The relationship between the chemical structure of a compound and its biological or pharmacological activity. Compounds are often classed together because they have structural characteristics in common including shape, size, stereochemical arrangement, and distribution of functional groups.
The process by which a DNA molecule is duplicated.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
Neoplasms of the base of the skull specifically, differentiated from neoplasms of unspecified sites or bones of the skull (SKULL NEOPLASMS).
DNA sequences which are recognized (directly or indirectly) and bound by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase during the initiation of transcription. Highly conserved sequences within the promoter include the Pribnow box in bacteria and the TATA BOX in eukaryotes.
Short sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) of DNA that are complementary to sequences of messenger RNA and allow reverse transcriptases to start copying the adjacent sequences of mRNA. Primers are used extensively in genetic and molecular biology techniques.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of chemical processes or phenomena; includes the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
The process of cumulative change over successive generations through which organisms acquire their distinguishing morphological and physiological characteristics.
The presence of an uncomplimentary base in double-stranded DNA caused by spontaneous deamination of cytosine or adenine, mismatching during homologous recombination, or errors in DNA replication. Multiple, sequential base pair mismatches lead to formation of heteroduplex DNA; (NUCLEIC ACID HETERODUPLEXES).
A change from planar to elliptic polarization when an initially plane-polarized light wave traverses an optically active medium. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
Enzymes that catalyze DNA template-directed extension of the 3'-end of an RNA strand one nucleotide at a time. They can initiate a chain de novo. In eukaryotes, three forms of the enzyme have been distinguished on the basis of sensitivity to alpha-amanitin, and the type of RNA synthesized. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992).
The arrangement of two or more amino acid or base sequences from an organism or organisms in such a way as to align areas of the sequences sharing common properties. The degree of relatedness or homology between the sequences is predicted computationally or statistically based on weights assigned to the elements aligned between the sequences. This in turn can serve as a potential indicator of the genetic relatedness between the organisms.
Microscopy using an electron beam, instead of light, to visualize the sample, thereby allowing much greater magnification. The interactions of ELECTRONS with specimens are used to provide information about the fine structure of that specimen. In TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY the reactions of the electrons that are transmitted through the specimen are imaged. In SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY an electron beam falls at a non-normal angle on the specimen and the image is derived from the reactions occurring above the plane of the specimen.
The biosynthesis of PEPTIDES and PROTEINS on RIBOSOMES, directed by MESSENGER RNA, via TRANSFER RNA that is charged with standard proteinogenic AMINO ACIDS.
Electrophoresis in which a polyacrylamide gel is used as the diffusion medium.
The part of a denture that overlies the soft tissue and supports the supplied teeth and is supported in turn by abutment teeth or the residual alveolar ridge. It is usually made of resins or metal or their combination.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
Computer-based representation of physical systems and phenomena such as chemical processes.
Proteins found in any species of virus.
DNA sequences encoding RIBOSOMAL RNA and the segments of DNA separating the individual ribosomal RNA genes, referred to as RIBOSOMAL SPACER DNA.
Proteins which bind to DNA. The family includes proteins which bind to both double- and single-stranded DNA and also includes specific DNA binding proteins in serum which can be used as markers for malignant diseases.
The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.
Injuries to DNA that introduce deviations from its normal, intact structure and which may, if left unrepaired, result in a MUTATION or a block of DNA REPLICATION. These deviations may be caused by physical or chemical agents and occur by natural or unnatural, introduced circumstances. They include the introduction of illegitimate bases during replication or by deamination or other modification of bases; the loss of a base from the DNA backbone leaving an abasic site; single-strand breaks; double strand breaks; and intrastrand (PYRIMIDINE DIMERS) or interstrand crosslinking. Damage can often be repaired (DNA REPAIR). If the damage is extensive, it can induce APOPTOSIS.
Collections of facts, assumptions, beliefs, and heuristics that are used in combination with databases to achieve desired results, such as a diagnosis, an interpretation, or a solution to a problem (From McGraw Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed).
Ketonic amines prepared from the condensation of a ketone with formaldehyde and ammonia or a primary or secondary amine. A Mannich base can act as the equivalent of an alpha,beta unsaturated ketone in synthesis or can be reduced to form physiologically active amino alcohols.
A family of DNA repair enzymes that recognize damaged nucleotide bases and remove them by hydrolyzing the N-glycosidic bond that attaches them to the sugar backbone of the DNA molecule. The process called BASE EXCISION REPAIR can be completed by a DNA-(APURINIC OR APYRIMIDINIC SITE) LYASE which excises the remaining RIBOSE sugar from the DNA.
The reconstruction of a continuous two-stranded DNA molecule without mismatch from a molecule which contained damaged regions. The major repair mechanisms are excision repair, in which defective regions in one strand are excised and resynthesized using the complementary base pairing information in the intact strand; photoreactivation repair, in which the lethal and mutagenic effects of ultraviolet light are eliminated; and post-replication repair, in which the primary lesions are not repaired, but the gaps in one daughter duplex are filled in by incorporation of portions of the other (undamaged) daughter duplex. Excision repair and post-replication repair are sometimes referred to as "dark repair" because they do not require light.
Thymine is a pyrimidine nucleobase, one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA (the other three being adenine, guanine, and cytosine), where it forms a base pair with adenine.
A low-energy attractive force between hydrogen and another element. It plays a major role in determining the properties of water, proteins, and other compounds.
Uracil is a nitrogenous base, specifically a pyrimidine derivative, which constitutes one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of RNA (ribonucleic acid), pairing with adenine via hydrogen bonds during base-pairing. (25 words)

Evidence on the conformation of HeLa-cell 5.8S ribosomal ribonucleic acid from the reaction of specific cytidine residues with sodium bisulphite. (1/178859)

The reaction of HeLa-cell 5.8S rRNA with NaHSO3 under conditions in which exposed cytidine residues are deaminated to uridine was studied. It was possible to estimate the reactivities of most of the 46 cytidine residues in the nucleotide sequence by comparing 'fingerprints' of the bisulphite-treated RNA with those of untreated RNA. The findings were consistent with the main features of the secondary-structure model for mammalian 5.85S rRNA proposed by Nazar, Sitz, & Busch [J. Biol. Chem (1975) 250, 8591--8597]. Five out of six regions that are depicted in the model as single-stranded loops contain cytidine residues that are reactive towards bisulphite at 25 degrees C (the other loop contains no cytidine). The cytidine residue nearest to the 3'-terminus is also reactive. Several cytidines residues that are internally located within proposed double-helical regions show little or no reactivity towards bisulphite, but the cytidine residues of several C.G pairs at the ends of helical regions show some reactivity, and one of the proposed loops appears to contain six nucleotides, rather than the minimum of four suggested by the primary structure. Two cytidine residues that are thought to be 'looped out' by small helix imperfections also show some reactivity.  (+info)

Marker effects on reversion of T4rII mutants. (2/178859)

The frequencies of 2-aminopurine- and 5-bromouracil-induced A:T leads to G:C transitions were compared at nonsense sites throughout the rII region of bacteriophage T4. These frequencies are influenced both by adjacent base pairs within the nonsense codons and by extracodonic factors. Following 2AP treatment, they are high in amber (UAG) and lower in opal (UGA) codons than in allelic ochre (UAA) codons. In general, 5BU-induced transitions are more frequent in both amber and opal codons than in the allelic ochre codons. 2AP- and 5BU-induced transition frequencies in the first and third positions of opal codons are correlated with those in the corresponding positions of the allelic ochre codons. Similarly, the frequencies of 2AP-induced transition in the first and second positions of amber codons and their ochre alleles are correlated. However, there is little correlation between the frequencies of 5BU-induced transitions in the first and second positions of allelic amber and ochre codons.  (+info)

Characterization of an amphioxus paired box gene, AmphiPax2/5/8: developmental expression patterns in optic support cells, nephridium, thyroid-like structures and pharyngeal gill slits, but not in the midbrain-hindbrain boundary region. (3/178859)

On the basis of developmental gene expression, the vertebrate central nervous system comprises: a forebrain plus anterior midbrain, a midbrain-hindbrain boundary region (MHB) having organizer properties, and a rhombospinal domain. The vertebrate MHB is characterized by position, by organizer properties and by being the early site of action of Wnt1 and engrailed genes, and of genes of the Pax2/5/8 subfamily. Wada and others (Wada, H., Saiga, H., Satoh, N. and Holland, P. W. H. (1998) Development 125, 1113-1122) suggested that ascidian tunicates have a vertebrate-like MHB on the basis of ascidian Pax258 expression there. In another invertebrate chordate, amphioxus, comparable gene expression evidence for a vertebrate-like MHB is lacking. We, therefore, isolated and characterized AmphiPax2/5/8, the sole member of this subfamily in amphioxus. AmphiPax2/5/8 is initially expressed well back in the rhombospinal domain and not where a MHB would be expected. In contrast, most of the other expression domains of AmphiPax2/5/8 correspond to expression domains of vertebrate Pax2, Pax5 and Pax8 in structures that are probably homologous - support cells of the eye, nephridium, thyroid-like structures and pharyngeal gill slits; although AmphiPax2/5/8 is not transcribed in any structures that could be interpreted as homologues of vertebrate otic placodes or otic vesicles. In sum, the developmental expression of AmphiPax2/5/8 indicates that the amphioxus central nervous system lacks a MHB resembling the vertebrate isthmic region. Additional gene expression data for the developing ascidian and amphioxus nervous systems would help determine whether a MHB is a basal chordate character secondarily lost in amphioxus. The alternative is that the MHB is a vertebrate innovation.  (+info)

Regulation of body length and male tail ray pattern formation of Caenorhabditis elegans by a member of TGF-beta family. (4/178859)

We have identified a new member of the TGF-beta superfamily, CET-1, from Caenorhabditis elegans, which is expressed in the ventral nerve cord and other neurons. cet-1 null mutants have shortened bodies and male tail abnormal phenotype resembling sma mutants, suggesting cet-1, sma-2, sma-3 and sma-4 share a common pathway. Overexpression experiments demonstrated that cet-1 function requires wild-type sma genes. Interestingly, CET-1 appears to affect body length in a dose-dependent manner. Heterozygotes for cet-1 displayed body lengths ranging between null mutant and wild type, and overexpression of CET-1 in wild-type worms elongated body length close to lon mutants. In male sensory ray patterning, lack of cet-1 function results in ray fusions. Epistasis analysis revealed that mab-21 lies downstream and is negatively regulated by the cet-1/sma pathway in the male tail. Our results show that cet-1 controls diverse biological processes during C. elegans development probably through different target genes.  (+info)

Activation of systemic acquired silencing by localised introduction of DNA. (5/178859)

BACKGROUND: In plants, post-transcriptional gene silencing results in RNA degradation after transcription. Among tobacco transformants carrying a nitrate reductase (Nia) construct under the control of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter (35S-Nia2), one class of transformants spontaneously triggers Nia post-transcriptional gene silencing (class II) whereas another class does not (class I). Non-silenced plants of both classes become silenced when grafted onto silenced stocks, indicating the existence of a systemic silencing signal. Graft-transmitted silencing is maintained in class II but not in class I plants when removed from silenced stocks, indicating similar requirements for spontaneous triggering and maintenance. RESULTS: Introduction of 35S-Nia2 DNA by the gene transfer method called biolistics led to localised acquired silencing (LAS) in bombarded leaves of wild-type, class I and class II plants, and to systemic acquired silencing (SAS) in class II plants. SAS occurred even if the targeted leaf was removed 2 days after bombardment, indicating that the systemic signal is produced, transmitted and amplified rapidly. SAS was activated by sense, antisense and promoterless Nia2 DNA constructs, indicating that transcription is not required although it does stimulate SAS. CONCLUSIONS: SAS was activated by biolistic introduction of promoterless constructs, indicating that the DNA itself is a potent activator of post-transcriptional gene silencing. The systemic silencing signal invaded the whole plant by cell-to-cell and long-distance propagation, and reamplification of the signal.  (+info)

Molecular cloning and epitope analysis of the peanut allergen Ara h 3. (6/178859)

Peanut allergy is a significant IgE-mediated health problem because of the increased prevalence, potential severity, and chronicity of the reaction. Following our characterization of the two peanut allergens Ara h 1 and Ara h 2, we have isolated a cDNA clone encoding a third peanut allergen, Ara h 3. The deduced amino acid sequence of Ara h 3 shows homology to 11S seed-storage proteins. The recombinant form of this protein was expressed in a bacterial system and was recognized by serum IgE from approximately 45% of our peanut-allergic patient population. Serum IgE from these patients and overlapping, synthetic peptides were used to map the linear, IgE-binding epitopes of Ara h 3. Four epitopes, between 10 and 15 amino acids in length, were found within the primary sequence, with no obvious sequence motif shared by the peptides. One epitope is recognized by all Ara h 3-allergic patients. Mutational analysis of the epitopes revealed that single amino acid changes within these peptides could lead to a reduction or loss of IgE binding. By determining which amino acids are critical for IgE binding, it might be possible to alter the Ara h 3 cDNA to encode a protein with a reduced IgE-binding capacity. These results will enable the design of improved diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for food-hypersensitivity reactions.  (+info)

TIF1gamma, a novel member of the transcriptional intermediary factor 1 family. (7/178859)

We report the cloning and characterization of a novel member of the Transcriptional Intermediary Factor 1 (TIF1) gene family, human TIF1gamma. Similar to TIF1alpha and TIF1beta, the structure of TIF1beta is characterized by multiple domains: RING finger, B boxes, Coiled coil, PHD/TTC, and bromodomain. Although structurally related to TIF1alpha and TIF1beta, TIF1gamma presents several functional differences. In contrast to TIF1alpha, but like TIF1beta, TIF1 does not interact with nuclear receptors in yeast two-hybrid or GST pull-down assays and does not interfere with retinoic acid response in transfected mammalian cells. Whereas TIF1alpha and TIF1beta were previously found to interact with the KRAB silencing domain of KOX1 and with the HP1alpha, MODI (HP1beta) and MOD2 (HP1gamma) heterochromatinic proteins, suggesting that they may participate in a complex involved in heterochromatin-induced gene repression, TIF1gamma does not interact with either the KRAB domain of KOX1 or the HP1 proteins. Nevertheless, TIF1gamma, like TIF1alpha and TIF1beta, exhibits a strong silencing activity when tethered to a promoter. Since deletion of a novel motif unique to the three TIF1 proteins, called TIF1 signature sequence (TSS), abrogates transcriptional repression by TIF1gamma, this motif likely participates in TIF1 dependent repression.  (+info)

Telomerase reverse transcriptase gene is a direct target of c-Myc but is not functionally equivalent in cellular transformation. (8/178859)

The telomerase reverse transcriptase component (TERT) is not expressed in most primary somatic human cells and tissues, but is upregulated in the majority of immortalized cell lines and tumors. Here, we identify the c-Myc transcription factor as a direct mediator of telomerase activation in primary human fibroblasts through its ability to specifically induce TERT gene expression. Through the use of a hormone inducible form of c-Myc (c-Myc-ER), we demonstrate that Myc-induced activation of the hTERT promoter requires an evolutionarily conserved E-box and that c-Myc-ER-induced accumulation of hTERT mRNA takes place in the absence of de novo protein synthesis. These findings demonstrate that the TERT gene is a direct transcriptional target of c-Myc. Since telomerase activation frequently correlates with immortalization and telomerase functions to stabilize telomers in cycling cells, we tested whether Myc-induced activation of TERT gene expression represents an important mechanism through which c-Myc acts to immortalize cells. Employing the rat embryo fibroblast cooperation assay, we show that TERT is unable to substitute for c-Myc in the transformation of primary rodent fibroblasts, suggesting that the transforming activities of Myc extend beyond its ability to activate TERT gene expression and hence telomerase activity.  (+info)

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Base pairing is a specific type of chemical bonding that occurs between complementary base pairs in the nucleic acid molecules DNA and RNA. In DNA, these bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). Adenine always pairs with thymine via two hydrogen bonds, while guanine always pairs with cytosine via three hydrogen bonds. This precise base pairing is crucial for the stability of the double helix structure of DNA and for the accurate replication and transcription of genetic information. In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine and pairs with adenine.

Nucleic acid conformation refers to the three-dimensional structure that nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) adopt as a result of the bonding patterns between the atoms within the molecule. The primary structure of nucleic acids is determined by the sequence of nucleotides, while the conformation is influenced by factors such as the sugar-phosphate backbone, base stacking, and hydrogen bonding.

Two common conformations of DNA are the B-form and the A-form. The B-form is a right-handed helix with a diameter of about 20 Å and a pitch of 34 Å, while the A-form has a smaller diameter (about 18 Å) and a shorter pitch (about 25 Å). RNA typically adopts an A-form conformation.

The conformation of nucleic acids can have significant implications for their function, as it can affect their ability to interact with other molecules such as proteins or drugs. Understanding the conformational properties of nucleic acids is therefore an important area of research in molecular biology and medicine.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material present in the cells of organisms where it is responsible for the storage and transmission of hereditary information. DNA is a long molecule that consists of two strands coiled together to form a double helix. Each strand is made up of a series of four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - that are linked together by phosphate and sugar groups. The sequence of these bases along the length of the molecule encodes genetic information, with A always pairing with T and C always pairing with G. This base-pairing allows for the replication and transcription of DNA, which are essential processes in the functioning and reproduction of all living organisms.

Base composition in genetics refers to the relative proportion of the four nucleotide bases (adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine) in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine, so the base composition is often expressed in terms of the ratio of adenine + thymine (A-T) to guanine + cytosine (G-C). This ratio can vary between species and even between different regions of the same genome. The base composition can provide important clues about the function, evolution, and structure of genetic material.

Nucleic acid denaturation is the process of separating the two strands of a double-stranded DNA molecule, or unwinding the helical structure of an RNA molecule, by disrupting the hydrogen bonds that hold the strands together. This process is typically caused by exposure to high temperatures, changes in pH, or the presence of chemicals called denaturants.

Denaturation can also cause changes in the shape and function of nucleic acids. For example, it can disrupt the secondary and tertiary structures of RNA molecules, which can affect their ability to bind to other molecules and carry out their functions within the cell.

In molecular biology, nucleic acid denaturation is often used as a tool for studying the structure and function of nucleic acids. For example, it can be used to separate the two strands of a DNA molecule for sequencing or amplification, or to study the interactions between nucleic acids and other molecules.

It's important to note that denaturation is a reversible process, and under the right conditions, the double-stranded structure of DNA can be restored through a process called renaturation or annealing.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Nucleic acid renaturation, also known as nucleic acid reassociation or hybridization, is the process of rejoining two complementary single-stranded nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) to form a double-stranded structure. This process occurs naturally in cells during transcription and DNA replication, but it can also be performed in vitro as a laboratory technique.

Renaturation typically involves denaturing the double-stranded nucleic acids into single strands by heat or chemical methods, followed by controlled cooling or modification of conditions to allow the complementary strands to find each other and reanneal. The rate and specificity of renaturation can be used to study the relatedness and concentration of nucleic acid sequences in a sample.

In molecular biology research, nucleic acid renaturation is often used in techniques such as Southern blotting, Northern blotting, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect and analyze specific DNA or RNA sequences.

Oligonucleotides are short sequences of nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and RNA. They typically contain fewer than 100 nucleotides, and can be synthesized chemically to have specific sequences. Oligonucleotides are used in a variety of applications in molecular biology, including as probes for detecting specific DNA or RNA sequences, as inhibitors of gene expression, and as components of diagnostic tests and therapies. They can also be used in the study of protein-nucleic acid interactions and in the development of new drugs.

Nucleic acid hybridization is a process in molecular biology where two single-stranded nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) with complementary sequences pair together to form a double-stranded molecule through hydrogen bonding. The strands can be from the same type of nucleic acid or different types (i.e., DNA-RNA or DNA-cDNA). This process is commonly used in various laboratory techniques, such as Southern blotting, Northern blotting, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and microarray analysis, to detect, isolate, and analyze specific nucleic acid sequences. The hybridization temperature and conditions are critical to ensure the specificity of the interaction between the two strands.

Oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODNs) are relatively short, synthetic single-stranded DNA molecules. They typically contain 15 to 30 nucleotides, but can range from 2 to several hundred nucleotides in length. ODNs are often used as tools in molecular biology research for various applications such as:

1. Nucleic acid detection and quantification (e.g., real-time PCR)
2. Gene regulation (antisense, RNA interference)
3. Gene editing (CRISPR-Cas systems)
4. Vaccine development
5. Diagnostic purposes

Due to their specificity and affinity towards complementary DNA or RNA sequences, ODNs can be designed to target a particular gene or sequence of interest. This makes them valuable tools in understanding gene function, regulation, and interaction with other molecules within the cell.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Polydeoxyribonucleotides" is not a widely recognized or established medical term. It seems to be a made-up or very obscure term that combines "poly," meaning many, "deoxy," referring to the lack of a hydroxyl group at the 2' carbon position in the ribose sugar, and "ribonucleotides," which are the building blocks of RNA.

If you meant "Polydeoxynucleotides" instead, it would refer to long, synthetic chains of deoxynucleotides, which are the building blocks of DNA. These chains can be used in various biochemical and biological research applications, such as studying enzyme mechanisms or constructing genetic circuits.

Aminacrine is a type of medication known as an antineoplastic agent or chemotherapeutic drug. It is primarily used in the treatment of certain types of cancer. Aminacrine works by interfering with the DNA replication process within cancer cells, which helps to inhibit the growth and proliferation of these cells.

The chemical name for aminacrine is 9-aminoacridine hydrochloride monohydrate. It has a yellowish crystalline appearance and is typically administered intravenously in a hospital setting. Common side effects of aminacrine include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, mouth sores, and hair loss. More serious side effects can include heart rhythm abnormalities, seizures, and lung or kidney damage.

It's important to note that the use of aminacrine is typically reserved for cases where other cancer treatments have not been effective, due to its potential for serious side effects. As with all medications, it should be used under the close supervision of a healthcare professional.

Viral DNA refers to the genetic material present in viruses that consist of DNA as their core component. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is one of the two types of nucleic acids that are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information in living organisms. Viruses are infectious agents much smaller than bacteria that can only replicate inside the cells of other organisms, called hosts.

Viral DNA can be double-stranded (dsDNA) or single-stranded (ssDNA), depending on the type of virus. Double-stranded DNA viruses have a genome made up of two complementary strands of DNA, while single-stranded DNA viruses contain only one strand of DNA.

Examples of dsDNA viruses include Adenoviruses, Herpesviruses, and Poxviruses, while ssDNA viruses include Parvoviruses and Circoviruses. Viral DNA plays a crucial role in the replication cycle of the virus, encoding for various proteins necessary for its multiplication and survival within the host cell.

Bacterial DNA refers to the genetic material found in bacteria. It is composed of a double-stranded helix containing four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) - that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. The sequence of these bases in the DNA molecule carries the genetic information necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of bacteria.

Bacterial DNA is circular in most bacterial species, although some have linear chromosomes. In addition to the main chromosome, many bacteria also contain small circular pieces of DNA called plasmids that can carry additional genes and provide resistance to antibiotics or other environmental stressors.

Unlike eukaryotic cells, which have their DNA enclosed within a nucleus, bacterial DNA is present in the cytoplasm of the cell, where it is in direct contact with the cell's metabolic machinery. This allows for rapid gene expression and regulation in response to changing environmental conditions.

18S rRNA (ribosomal RNA) is the smaller subunit of the eukaryotic ribosome, which is the cellular organelle responsible for protein synthesis. The "18S" refers to the sedimentation coefficient of this rRNA molecule, which is a measure of its rate of sedimentation in a centrifuge and is expressed in Svedberg units (S).

The 18S rRNA is a component of the 40S subunit of the ribosome, and it plays a crucial role in the decoding of messenger RNA (mRNA) during protein synthesis. Specifically, the 18S rRNA helps to form the structure of the ribosome and contains several conserved regions that are involved in binding to mRNA and guiding the movement of transfer RNAs (tRNAs) during translation.

The 18S rRNA is also a commonly used molecular marker for evolutionary studies, as its sequence is highly conserved across different species and can be used to infer phylogenetic relationships between organisms. Additionally, the analysis of 18S rRNA gene sequences has been widely used in various fields such as ecology, environmental science, and medicine to study biodiversity, biogeography, and infectious diseases.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

"Poly dA-dT" is not a medical term, but rather a molecular biology term that refers to a synthetic double-stranded DNA molecule. It is composed of two complementary strands: one strand consists of repeated adenine (dA) nucleotides, while the other strand consists of repeated thymine (dT) nucleotides. The "poly" prefix indicates that multiple units of these nucleotides are linked together in a chain-like structure.

This type of synthetic DNA molecule is often used as a substrate for various molecular biology techniques, such as in vitro transcription or translation assays, where it serves as a template for the production of RNA or proteins. It can also be used to study the interactions between DNA and proteins, such as transcription factors, that bind specifically to certain nucleotide sequences.

Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:

1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.

Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a type of RNA molecule that is a key component of ribosomes, which are the cellular structures where protein synthesis occurs in cells. In ribosomes, rRNA plays a crucial role in the process of translation, where genetic information from messenger RNA (mRNA) is translated into proteins.

Ribosomal RNA is synthesized in the nucleus and then transported to the cytoplasm, where it assembles with ribosomal proteins to form ribosomes. Within the ribosome, rRNA provides a structural framework for the assembly of the ribosome and also plays an active role in catalyzing the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids during protein synthesis.

There are several different types of rRNA molecules, including 5S, 5.8S, 18S, and 28S rRNA, which vary in size and function. These rRNA molecules are highly conserved across different species, indicating their essential role in protein synthesis and cellular function.

The skull base is the lower part of the skull that forms the floor of the cranial cavity and the roof of the facial skeleton. It is a complex anatomical region composed of several bones, including the frontal, sphenoid, temporal, occipital, and ethmoid bones. The skull base supports the brain and contains openings for blood vessels and nerves that travel between the brain and the face or neck. The skull base can be divided into three regions: the anterior cranial fossa, middle cranial fossa, and posterior cranial fossa, which house different parts of the brain.

Guanine is not a medical term per se, but it is a biological molecule that plays a crucial role in the body. Guanine is one of the four nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, along with adenine, cytosine, and thymine (in DNA) or uracil (in RNA). Specifically, guanine pairs with cytosine via hydrogen bonds to form a base pair.

Guanine is a purine derivative, which means it has a double-ring structure. It is formed through the synthesis of simpler molecules in the body and is an essential component of genetic material. Guanine's chemical formula is C5H5N5O.

While guanine itself is not a medical term, abnormalities or mutations in genes that contain guanine nucleotides can lead to various medical conditions, including genetic disorders and cancer.

Sequence homology in nucleic acids refers to the similarity or identity between the nucleotide sequences of two or more DNA or RNA molecules. It is often used as a measure of biological relationship between genes, organisms, or populations. High sequence homology suggests a recent common ancestry or functional constraint, while low sequence homology may indicate a more distant relationship or different functions.

Nucleic acid sequence homology can be determined by various methods such as pairwise alignment, multiple sequence alignment, and statistical analysis. The degree of homology is typically expressed as a percentage of identical or similar nucleotides in a given window of comparison.

It's important to note that the interpretation of sequence homology depends on the biological context and the evolutionary distance between the sequences compared. Therefore, functional and experimental validation is often necessary to confirm the significance of sequence homology.

Circular DNA is a type of DNA molecule that forms a closed loop, rather than the linear double helix structure commonly associated with DNA. This type of DNA is found in some viruses, plasmids (small extrachromosomal DNA molecules found in bacteria), and mitochondria and chloroplasts (organelles found in plant and animal cells).

Circular DNA is characterized by the absence of telomeres, which are the protective caps found on linear chromosomes. Instead, circular DNA has a specific sequence where the two ends join together, known as the origin of replication and the replication terminus. This structure allows for the DNA to be replicated efficiently and compactly within the cell.

Because of its circular nature, circular DNA is more resistant to degradation by enzymes that cut linear DNA, making it more stable in certain environments. Additionally, the ability to easily manipulate and clone circular DNA has made it a valuable tool in molecular biology and genetic engineering.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

A gene is a specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA that carries genetic information. Genes are the fundamental units of heredity and are responsible for the development and function of all living organisms. They code for proteins or RNA molecules, which carry out various functions within cells and are essential for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs.

Each gene has a specific location on a chromosome, and each person inherits two copies of every gene, one from each parent. Variations in the sequence of nucleotides in a gene can lead to differences in traits between individuals, including physical characteristics, susceptibility to disease, and responses to environmental factors.

Medical genetics is the study of genes and their role in health and disease. It involves understanding how genes contribute to the development and progression of various medical conditions, as well as identifying genetic risk factors and developing strategies for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.

"Saccharomyces" is a genus of fungi that are commonly known as baker's yeast or brewer's yeast. These organisms are single-celled and oval-shaped, and they reproduce through budding. They are widely used in the food industry for fermentation processes, such as making bread, beer, and wine.

In a medical context, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, one of the species within this genus, has been studied for its potential health benefits when taken orally. Some research suggests that it may help to support gut health and immune function, although more studies are needed to confirm these effects and establish appropriate dosages and safety guidelines.

It's worth noting that while Saccharomyces is generally considered safe for most people, there have been rare cases of infection in individuals with weakened immune systems or underlying medical conditions. As with any supplement, it's important to talk to your healthcare provider before starting to take Saccharomyces cerevisiae or any other probiotic strain.

A Schiff base is not a medical term per se, but rather a chemical concept that can be relevant in various scientific and medical fields. A Schiff base is a chemical compound that contains a carbon-nitrogen double bond with the nitrogen atom connected to an aryl or alkyl group, excluding hydrogen. This structure is also known as an azomethine.

The general formula for a Schiff base is R1R2C=NR3, where R1 and R2 are organic groups (aryl or alkyl), and R3 is a hydrogen atom or an organic group. These compounds can be synthesized by the condensation of a primary amine with a carbonyl compound, such as an aldehyde or ketone.

Schiff bases have been studied in various medical and biological contexts due to their potential bioactivities. Some Schiff bases exhibit antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. They can also serve as ligands for metal ions, forming complexes with potential applications in medicinal chemistry, such as in the development of new drugs or diagnostic agents.

Intercalating agents are chemical substances that can be inserted between the stacked bases of DNA, creating a separation or "intercalation" of the base pairs. This property is often exploited in cancer chemotherapy, where intercalating agents like doxorubicin and daunorubicin are used to inhibit the replication and transcription of cancer cells by preventing the normal functioning of their DNA. However, these agents can also have toxic effects on normal cells, particularly those that divide rapidly, such as bone marrow and gut epithelial cells. Therefore, their use must be carefully monitored and balanced against their therapeutic benefits.

A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosomal DNA of a bacterium or other organism. Plasmids are typically not essential for the survival of the organism, but they can confer beneficial traits such as antibiotic resistance or the ability to degrade certain types of pollutants.

Plasmids are capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA and can be transferred between bacteria through a process called conjugation. They often contain genes that provide resistance to antibiotics, heavy metals, and other environmental stressors. Plasmids have also been engineered for use in molecular biology as cloning vectors, allowing scientists to replicate and manipulate specific DNA sequences.

Plasmids are important tools in genetic engineering and biotechnology because they can be easily manipulated and transferred between organisms. They have been used to produce vaccines, diagnostic tests, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for various applications, including agriculture, medicine, and industry.

Molecular models are three-dimensional representations of molecular structures that are used in the field of molecular biology and chemistry to visualize and understand the spatial arrangement of atoms and bonds within a molecule. These models can be physical or computer-generated and allow researchers to study the shape, size, and behavior of molecules, which is crucial for understanding their function and interactions with other molecules.

Physical molecular models are often made up of balls (representing atoms) connected by rods or sticks (representing bonds). These models can be constructed manually using materials such as plastic or wooden balls and rods, or they can be created using 3D printing technology.

Computer-generated molecular models, on the other hand, are created using specialized software that allows researchers to visualize and manipulate molecular structures in three dimensions. These models can be used to simulate molecular interactions, predict molecular behavior, and design new drugs or chemicals with specific properties. Overall, molecular models play a critical role in advancing our understanding of molecular structures and their functions.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) is a single-stranded, linear polymer of ribonucleotides. It is a nucleic acid present in the cells of all living organisms and some viruses. RNAs play crucial roles in various biological processes such as protein synthesis, gene regulation, and cellular signaling. There are several types of RNA including messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), small nuclear RNA (snRNA), microRNA (miRNA), and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA). These RNAs differ in their structure, function, and location within the cell.

Adenine is a purine nucleotide base that is a fundamental component of DNA and RNA, the genetic material of living organisms. In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine via double hydrogen bonds, while in RNA, it pairs with uracil. Adenine is essential for the structure and function of nucleic acids, as well as for energy transfer reactions in cells through its role in the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary energy currency of the cell.

Saccharomycetales is an order of fungi that are commonly known as "true yeasts." They are characterized by their single-celled growth and ability to reproduce through budding or fission. These organisms are widely distributed in nature and can be found in a variety of environments, including soil, water, and on the surfaces of plants and animals.

Many species of Saccharomycetales are used in industrial processes, such as the production of bread, beer, and wine. They are also used in biotechnology to produce various enzymes, vaccines, and other products. Some species of Saccharomycetales can cause diseases in humans and animals, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. These infections, known as candidiasis or thrush, can affect various parts of the body, including the skin, mouth, and genital area.

DNA restriction enzymes, also known as restriction endonucleases, are a type of enzyme that cut double-stranded DNA at specific recognition sites. These enzymes are produced by bacteria and archaea as a defense mechanism against foreign DNA, such as that found in bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria).

Restriction enzymes recognize specific sequences of nucleotides (the building blocks of DNA) and cleave the phosphodiester bonds between them. The recognition sites for these enzymes are usually palindromic, meaning that the sequence reads the same in both directions when facing the opposite strands of DNA.

Restriction enzymes are widely used in molecular biology research for various applications such as genetic engineering, genome mapping, and DNA fingerprinting. They allow scientists to cut DNA at specific sites, creating precise fragments that can be manipulated and analyzed. The use of restriction enzymes has been instrumental in the development of recombinant DNA technology and the Human Genome Project.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Repetitive sequences in nucleic acid refer to repeated stretches of DNA or RNA nucleotide bases that are present in a genome. These sequences can vary in length and can be arranged in different patterns such as direct repeats, inverted repeats, or tandem repeats. In some cases, these repetitive sequences do not code for proteins and are often found in non-coding regions of the genome. They can play a role in genetic instability, regulation of gene expression, and evolutionary processes. However, certain types of repeat expansions have been associated with various neurodegenerative disorders and other human diseases.

A viral RNA (ribonucleic acid) is the genetic material found in certain types of viruses, as opposed to viruses that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). These viruses are known as RNA viruses. The RNA can be single-stranded or double-stranded and can exist as several different forms, such as positive-sense, negative-sense, or ambisense RNA. Upon infecting a host cell, the viral RNA uses the host's cellular machinery to translate the genetic information into proteins, leading to the production of new virus particles and the continuation of the viral life cycle. Examples of human diseases caused by RNA viruses include influenza, COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), hepatitis C, and polio.

Genetic transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is used to create a complementary RNA molecule. This process is the first step in gene expression, where the genetic code in DNA is converted into a form that can be used to produce proteins or functional RNAs.

During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to the DNA template strand and reads the sequence of nucleotide bases. As it moves along the template, it adds complementary RNA nucleotides to the growing RNA chain, creating a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to the DNA template strand. Once transcription is complete, the RNA molecule may undergo further processing before it can be translated into protein or perform its functional role in the cell.

Transcription can be either "constitutive" or "regulated." Constitutive transcription occurs at a relatively constant rate and produces essential proteins that are required for basic cellular functions. Regulated transcription, on the other hand, is subject to control by various intracellular and extracellular signals, allowing cells to respond to changing environmental conditions or developmental cues.

Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) is a form of DNA that consists of a single polynucleotide chain. In contrast, double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) consists of two complementary polynucleotide chains that are held together by hydrogen bonds.

In the double-helix structure of dsDNA, each nucleotide base on one strand pairs with a specific base on the other strand through hydrogen bonding: adenine (A) with thymine (T), and guanine (G) with cytosine (C). This base pairing provides stability to the double-stranded structure.

Single-stranded DNA, on the other hand, lacks this complementary base pairing and is therefore less stable than dsDNA. However, ssDNA can still form secondary structures through intrastrand base pairing, such as hairpin loops or cruciform structures.

Single-stranded DNA is found in various biological contexts, including viral genomes, transcription bubbles during gene expression, and in certain types of genetic recombination. It also plays a critical role in some laboratory techniques, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing.

Deoxyribonucleotides are the building blocks of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). They consist of a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), or thymine (T). A deoxyribonucleotide is formed when a nucleotide loses a hydroxyl group from its sugar molecule. In DNA, deoxyribonucleotides link together to form a long, double-helix structure through phosphodiester bonds between the sugar of one deoxyribonucleotide and the phosphate group of another. The sequence of these nucleotides carries genetic information that is essential for the development and function of all known living organisms and many viruses.

Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.

For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "thermodynamics" is not a term that has a specific medical definition. It is a branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. However, the principles of thermodynamics can be applied to biological systems, including those in the human body, such as in the study of metabolism or muscle function. But in a medical context, "thermodynamics" would not be a term used independently as a diagnosis, treatment, or any medical condition.

"Poly A" is an abbreviation for "poly(A) tail" or "polyadenylation." It refers to the addition of multiple adenine (A) nucleotides to the 3' end of eukaryotic mRNA molecules during the process of transcription. This poly(A) tail plays a crucial role in various aspects of mRNA metabolism, including stability, transport, and translation. The length of the poly(A) tail can vary from around 50 to 250 nucleotides depending on the cell type and developmental stage.

Tritium is not a medical term, but it is a term used in the field of nuclear physics and chemistry. Tritium (symbol: T or 3H) is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen with two neutrons and one proton in its nucleus. It is also known as heavy hydrogen or superheavy hydrogen.

Tritium has a half-life of about 12.3 years, which means that it decays by emitting a low-energy beta particle (an electron) to become helium-3. Due to its radioactive nature and relatively short half-life, tritium is used in various applications, including nuclear weapons, fusion reactors, luminous paints, and medical research.

In the context of medicine, tritium may be used as a radioactive tracer in some scientific studies or medical research, but it is not a term commonly used to describe a medical condition or treatment.

Coliphages are viruses that infect and replicate within certain species of bacteria that belong to the coliform group, particularly Escherichia coli (E. coli). These viruses are commonly found in water and soil environments and are frequently used as indicators of fecal contamination in water quality testing. Coliphages are not harmful to humans or animals, but their presence in water can suggest the potential presence of pathogenic bacteria or other microorganisms that may pose a health risk. There are two main types of coliphages: F-specific RNA coliphages and somatic (or non-F specific) DNA coliphages.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Oligoribonucleotides are short, synthetic chains of ribonucleotides, which are the building blocks of RNA (ribonucleic acid). These chains typically contain fewer than 20 ribonucleotide units, and can be composed of all four types of nucleotides found in RNA: adenine (A), uracil (U), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). They are often used in research for various purposes, such as studying RNA function, regulating gene expression, or serving as potential therapeutic agents.

Genetic hybridization is a biological process that involves the crossing of two individuals from different populations or species, which can lead to the creation of offspring with new combinations of genetic material. This occurs when the gametes (sex cells) from each parent combine during fertilization, resulting in a zygote with a unique genetic makeup.

In genetics, hybridization can also refer to the process of introducing new genetic material into an organism through various means, such as genetic engineering or selective breeding. This type of hybridization is often used in agriculture and biotechnology to create crops or animals with desirable traits, such as increased disease resistance or higher yields.

It's important to note that the term "hybrid" can refer to both crosses between different populations within a single species (intraspecific hybrids) and crosses between different species (interspecific hybrids). The latter is often more challenging, as significant genetic differences between the two parental species can lead to various reproductive barriers, making it difficult for the hybrid offspring to produce viable offspring of their own.

Temperature, in a medical context, is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment. It is usually measured using a thermometer and reported in degrees Celsius (°C), degrees Fahrenheit (°F), or kelvin (K). In the human body, normal core temperature ranges from about 36.5-37.5°C (97.7-99.5°F) when measured rectally, and can vary slightly depending on factors such as time of day, physical activity, and menstrual cycle. Elevated body temperature is a common sign of infection or inflammation, while abnormally low body temperature can indicate hypothermia or other medical conditions.

In the context of medicine, "chemistry" often refers to the field of study concerned with the properties, composition, and structure of elements and compounds, as well as their reactions with one another. It is a fundamental science that underlies much of modern medicine, including pharmacology (the study of drugs), toxicology (the study of poisons), and biochemistry (the study of the chemical processes that occur within living organisms).

In addition to its role as a basic science, chemistry is also used in medical testing and diagnosis. For example, clinical chemistry involves the analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and urine to detect and measure various substances, such as glucose, cholesterol, and electrolytes, that can provide important information about a person's health status.

Overall, chemistry plays a critical role in understanding the mechanisms of diseases, developing new treatments, and improving diagnostic tests and techniques.

A bacterial gene is a segment of DNA (or RNA in some viruses) that contains the genetic information necessary for the synthesis of a functional bacterial protein or RNA molecule. These genes are responsible for encoding various characteristics and functions of bacteria such as metabolism, reproduction, and resistance to antibiotics. They can be transmitted between bacteria through horizontal gene transfer mechanisms like conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Bacterial genes are often organized into operons, which are clusters of genes that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule.

It's important to note that the term "bacterial gene" is used to describe genetic elements found in bacteria, but not all genetic elements in bacteria are considered genes. For example, some DNA sequences may not encode functional products and are therefore not considered genes. Additionally, some bacterial genes may be plasmid-borne or phage-borne, rather than being located on the bacterial chromosome.

Bacterial RNA refers to the genetic material present in bacteria that is composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Unlike higher organisms, bacteria contain a single circular chromosome made up of DNA, along with smaller circular pieces of DNA called plasmids. These bacterial genetic materials contain the information necessary for the growth and reproduction of the organism.

Bacterial RNA can be divided into three main categories: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). mRNA carries genetic information copied from DNA, which is then translated into proteins by the rRNA and tRNA molecules. rRNA is a structural component of the ribosome, where protein synthesis occurs, while tRNA acts as an adapter that brings amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

Bacterial RNA plays a crucial role in various cellular processes, including gene expression, protein synthesis, and regulation of metabolic pathways. Understanding the structure and function of bacterial RNA is essential for developing new antibiotics and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Chemical phenomena refer to the changes and interactions that occur at the molecular or atomic level when chemicals are involved. These phenomena can include chemical reactions, in which one or more substances (reactants) are converted into different substances (products), as well as physical properties that change as a result of chemical interactions, such as color, state of matter, and solubility. Chemical phenomena can be studied through various scientific disciplines, including chemistry, biochemistry, and physics.

Nucleotides are the basic structural units of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA. They consist of a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine or uracil), a pentose sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA) and one to three phosphate groups. Nucleotides are linked together by phosphodiester bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of another, forming long chains known as polynucleotides. The sequence of these nucleotides determines the genetic information carried in DNA and RNA, which is essential for the functioning, reproduction and survival of all living organisms.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a type of nucleic acid that plays a crucial role in the process of gene expression. There are several types of RNA molecules, including messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). These RNA molecules help to transcribe DNA into mRNA, which is then translated into proteins by the ribosomes.

Fungi are a group of eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as larger organisms like mushrooms. Like other eukaryotes, fungi contain DNA and RNA as part of their genetic material. The RNA in fungi is similar to the RNA found in other organisms, including humans, and plays a role in gene expression and protein synthesis.

A specific medical definition of "RNA, fungal" does not exist, as RNA is a fundamental component of all living organisms, including fungi. However, RNA can be used as a target for antifungal drugs, as certain enzymes involved in RNA synthesis and processing are unique to fungi and can be inhibited by these drugs. For example, the antifungal drug flucytosine is converted into a toxic metabolite that inhibits fungal RNA and DNA synthesis.

In the context of medical and biological sciences, a "binding site" refers to a specific location on a protein, molecule, or cell where another molecule can attach or bind. This binding interaction can lead to various functional changes in the original protein or molecule. The other molecule that binds to the binding site is often referred to as a ligand, which can be a small molecule, ion, or even another protein.

The binding between a ligand and its target binding site can be specific and selective, meaning that only certain ligands can bind to particular binding sites with high affinity. This specificity plays a crucial role in various biological processes, such as signal transduction, enzyme catalysis, or drug action.

In the case of drug development, understanding the location and properties of binding sites on target proteins is essential for designing drugs that can selectively bind to these sites and modulate protein function. This knowledge can help create more effective and safer therapeutic options for various diseases.

Viral genes refer to the genetic material present in viruses that contains the information necessary for their replication and the production of viral proteins. In DNA viruses, the genetic material is composed of double-stranded or single-stranded DNA, while in RNA viruses, it is composed of single-stranded or double-stranded RNA.

Viral genes can be classified into three categories: early, late, and structural. Early genes encode proteins involved in the replication of the viral genome, modulation of host cell processes, and regulation of viral gene expression. Late genes encode structural proteins that make up the viral capsid or envelope. Some viruses also have structural genes that are expressed throughout their replication cycle.

Understanding the genetic makeup of viruses is crucial for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines. By targeting specific viral genes, researchers can develop drugs that inhibit viral replication and reduce the severity of viral infections. Additionally, knowledge of viral gene sequences can inform the development of vaccines that stimulate an immune response to specific viral proteins.

Restriction mapping is a technique used in molecular biology to identify the location and arrangement of specific restriction endonuclease recognition sites within a DNA molecule. Restriction endonucleases are enzymes that cut double-stranded DNA at specific sequences, producing fragments of various lengths. By digesting the DNA with different combinations of these enzymes and analyzing the resulting fragment sizes through techniques such as agarose gel electrophoresis, researchers can generate a restriction map - a visual representation of the locations and distances between recognition sites on the DNA molecule. This information is crucial for various applications, including cloning, genome analysis, and genetic engineering.

In a medical context, "hot temperature" is not a standard medical term with a specific definition. However, it is often used in relation to fever, which is a common symptom of illness. A fever is typically defined as a body temperature that is higher than normal, usually above 38°C (100.4°F) for adults and above 37.5-38°C (99.5-101.3°F) for children, depending on the source.

Therefore, when a medical professional talks about "hot temperature," they may be referring to a body temperature that is higher than normal due to fever or other causes. It's important to note that a high environmental temperature can also contribute to an elevated body temperature, so it's essential to consider both the body temperature and the environmental temperature when assessing a patient's condition.

Genetic transformation is the process by which an organism's genetic material is altered or modified, typically through the introduction of foreign DNA. This can be achieved through various techniques such as:

* Gene transfer using vectors like plasmids, phages, or artificial chromosomes
* Direct uptake of naked DNA using methods like electroporation or chemically-mediated transfection
* Use of genome editing tools like CRISPR-Cas9 to introduce precise changes into the organism's genome.

The introduced DNA may come from another individual of the same species (cisgenic), from a different species (transgenic), or even be synthetically designed. The goal of genetic transformation is often to introduce new traits, functions, or characteristics that do not exist naturally in the organism, or to correct genetic defects.

This technique has broad applications in various fields, including molecular biology, biotechnology, and medical research, where it can be used to study gene function, develop genetically modified organisms (GMOs), create cell lines for drug screening, and even potentially treat genetic diseases through gene therapy.

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) is a non-invasive diagnostic technique that provides information about the biochemical composition of tissues, including their metabolic state. It is often used in conjunction with Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to analyze various metabolites within body tissues, such as the brain, heart, liver, and muscles.

During MRS, a strong magnetic field, radio waves, and a computer are used to produce detailed images and data about the concentration of specific metabolites in the targeted tissue or organ. This technique can help detect abnormalities related to energy metabolism, neurotransmitter levels, pH balance, and other biochemical processes, which can be useful for diagnosing and monitoring various medical conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders, and metabolic diseases.

There are different types of MRS, such as Proton (^1^H) MRS, Phosphorus-31 (^31^P) MRS, and Carbon-13 (^13^C) MRS, each focusing on specific elements or metabolites within the body. The choice of MRS technique depends on the clinical question being addressed and the type of information needed for diagnosis or monitoring purposes.

A genetic template refers to the sequence of DNA or RNA that contains the instructions for the development and function of an organism or any of its components. These templates provide the code for the synthesis of proteins and other functional molecules, and determine many of the inherited traits and characteristics of an individual. In this sense, genetic templates serve as the blueprint for life and are passed down from one generation to the next through the process of reproduction.

In molecular biology, the term "template" is used to describe the strand of DNA or RNA that serves as a guide or pattern for the synthesis of a complementary strand during processes such as transcription and replication. During transcription, the template strand of DNA is transcribed into a complementary RNA molecule, while during replication, each parental DNA strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand.

In genetic engineering and synthetic biology, genetic templates can be manipulated and modified to introduce new functions or alter existing ones in organisms. This is achieved through techniques such as gene editing, where specific sequences in the genetic template are targeted and altered using tools like CRISPR-Cas9. Overall, genetic templates play a crucial role in shaping the structure, function, and evolution of all living organisms.

Molecular weight, also known as molecular mass, is the mass of a molecule. It is expressed in units of atomic mass units (amu) or daltons (Da). Molecular weight is calculated by adding up the atomic weights of each atom in a molecule. It is a useful property in chemistry and biology, as it can be used to determine the concentration of a substance in a solution, or to calculate the amount of a substance that will react with another in a chemical reaction.

Centrifugation, Density Gradient is a medical laboratory technique used to separate and purify different components of a mixture based on their size, density, and shape. This method involves the use of a centrifuge and a density gradient medium, such as sucrose or cesium chloride, to create a stable density gradient within a column or tube.

The sample is carefully layered onto the top of the gradient and then subjected to high-speed centrifugation. During centrifugation, the particles in the sample move through the gradient based on their size, density, and shape, with heavier particles migrating faster and further than lighter ones. This results in the separation of different components of the mixture into distinct bands or zones within the gradient.

This technique is commonly used to purify and concentrate various types of biological materials, such as viruses, organelles, ribosomes, and subcellular fractions, from complex mixtures. It allows for the isolation of pure and intact particles, which can then be collected and analyzed for further study or use in downstream applications.

In summary, Centrifugation, Density Gradient is a medical laboratory technique used to separate and purify different components of a mixture based on their size, density, and shape using a centrifuge and a density gradient medium.

Recombinant DNA is a term used in molecular biology to describe DNA that has been created by combining genetic material from more than one source. This is typically done through the use of laboratory techniques such as molecular cloning, in which fragments of DNA are inserted into vectors (such as plasmids or viruses) and then introduced into a host organism where they can replicate and produce many copies of the recombinant DNA molecule.

Recombinant DNA technology has numerous applications in research, medicine, and industry, including the production of recombinant proteins for use as therapeutics, the creation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for agricultural or industrial purposes, and the development of new tools for genetic analysis and manipulation.

It's important to note that while recombinant DNA technology has many potential benefits, it also raises ethical and safety concerns, and its use is subject to regulation and oversight in many countries.

Ribonucleases (RNases) are a group of enzymes that catalyze the degradation of ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules by hydrolyzing the phosphodiester bonds. These enzymes play crucial roles in various biological processes, such as RNA processing, turnover, and quality control. They can be classified into several types based on their specificities, mechanisms, and cellular localizations.

Some common classes of ribonucleases include:

1. Endoribonucleases: These enzymes cleave RNA internally, at specific sequences or structural motifs. Examples include RNase A, which targets single-stranded RNA; RNase III, which cuts double-stranded RNA at specific stem-loop structures; and RNase T1, which recognizes and cuts unpaired guanosine residues in RNA molecules.
2. Exoribonucleases: These enzymes remove nucleotides from the ends of RNA molecules. They can be further divided into 5'-3' exoribonucleases, which degrade RNA starting from the 5' end, and 3'-5' exoribonucleases, which start at the 3' end. Examples include Xrn1, a 5'-3' exoribonuclease involved in mRNA decay; and Dis3/RRP6, a 3'-5' exoribonuclease that participates in ribosomal RNA processing and degradation.
3. Specific ribonucleases: These enzymes target specific RNA molecules or regions with high precision. For example, RNase P is responsible for cleaving the 5' leader sequence of precursor tRNAs (pre-tRNAs) during their maturation; and RNase MRP is involved in the processing of ribosomal RNA and mitochondrial RNA molecules.

Dysregulation or mutations in ribonucleases have been implicated in various human diseases, such as neurological disorders, cancer, and viral infections. Therefore, understanding their functions and mechanisms is crucial for developing novel therapeutic strategies.

Endonucleases are enzymes that cleave, or cut, phosphodiester bonds within a polynucleotide chain, specifically within the same molecule of DNA or RNA. They can be found in all living organisms and play crucial roles in various biological processes, such as DNA replication, repair, and recombination.

Endonucleases can recognize specific nucleotide sequences (sequence-specific endonucleases) or have no sequence preference (non-specific endonucleases). Some endonucleases generate sticky ends, overhangs of single-stranded DNA after cleavage, while others produce blunt ends without any overhang.

These enzymes are widely used in molecular biology techniques, such as restriction digestion, cloning, and genome editing (e.g., CRISPR-Cas9 system). Restriction endonucleases recognize specific DNA sequences called restriction sites and cleave the phosphodiester bonds at or near these sites, generating defined fragment sizes that can be separated by agarose gel electrophoresis. This property is essential for various applications in genetic engineering and biotechnology.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

Substrate specificity in the context of medical biochemistry and enzymology refers to the ability of an enzyme to selectively bind and catalyze a chemical reaction with a particular substrate (or a group of similar substrates) while discriminating against other molecules that are not substrates. This specificity arises from the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme, which has evolved to match the shape, charge distribution, and functional groups of its physiological substrate(s).

Substrate specificity is a fundamental property of enzymes that enables them to carry out highly selective chemical transformations in the complex cellular environment. The active site of an enzyme, where the catalysis takes place, has a unique conformation that complements the shape and charge distribution of its substrate(s). This ensures efficient recognition, binding, and conversion of the substrate into the desired product while minimizing unwanted side reactions with other molecules.

Substrate specificity can be categorized as:

1. Absolute specificity: An enzyme that can only act on a single substrate or a very narrow group of structurally related substrates, showing no activity towards any other molecule.
2. Group specificity: An enzyme that prefers to act on a particular functional group or class of compounds but can still accommodate minor structural variations within the substrate.
3. Broad or promiscuous specificity: An enzyme that can act on a wide range of structurally diverse substrates, albeit with varying catalytic efficiencies.

Understanding substrate specificity is crucial for elucidating enzymatic mechanisms, designing drugs that target specific enzymes or pathways, and developing biotechnological applications that rely on the controlled manipulation of enzyme activities.

A DNA probe is a single-stranded DNA molecule that contains a specific sequence of nucleotides, and is labeled with a detectable marker such as a radioisotope or a fluorescent dye. It is used in molecular biology to identify and locate a complementary sequence within a sample of DNA. The probe hybridizes (forms a stable double-stranded structure) with its complementary sequence through base pairing, allowing for the detection and analysis of the target DNA. This technique is widely used in various applications such as genetic testing, diagnosis of infectious diseases, and forensic science.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

A Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR) in the context of medicinal chemistry and pharmacology refers to the relationship between the chemical structure of a drug or molecule and its biological activity or effect on a target protein, cell, or organism. SAR studies aim to identify patterns and correlations between structural features of a compound and its ability to interact with a specific biological target, leading to a desired therapeutic response or undesired side effects.

By analyzing the SAR, researchers can optimize the chemical structure of lead compounds to enhance their potency, selectivity, safety, and pharmacokinetic properties, ultimately guiding the design and development of novel drugs with improved efficacy and reduced toxicity.

DNA replication is the biological process by which DNA makes an identical copy of itself during cell division. It is a fundamental mechanism that allows genetic information to be passed down from one generation of cells to the next. During DNA replication, each strand of the double helix serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand. This results in the creation of two identical DNA molecules. The enzymes responsible for DNA replication include helicase, which unwinds the double helix, and polymerase, which adds nucleotides to the growing strands.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

Skull base neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors located in the skull base, which is the region where the skull meets the spine and where the brain connects with the blood vessels and nerves that supply the head and neck. These neoplasms can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous), and they can arise from various types of cells in this area, including bone, nerve, glandular, and vascular tissue.

Skull base neoplasms can cause a range of symptoms depending on their size, location, and growth rate. Some common symptoms include headaches, vision changes, hearing loss, facial numbness or weakness, difficulty swallowing, and balance problems. Treatment options for skull base neoplasms may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches. The specific treatment plan will depend on the type, size, location, and stage of the tumor, as well as the patient's overall health and medical history.

Promoter regions in genetics refer to specific DNA sequences located near the transcription start site of a gene. They serve as binding sites for RNA polymerase and various transcription factors that regulate the initiation of gene transcription. These regulatory elements help control the rate of transcription and, therefore, the level of gene expression. Promoter regions can be composed of different types of sequences, such as the TATA box and CAAT box, and their organization and composition can vary between different genes and species.

DNA primers are short single-stranded DNA molecules that serve as a starting point for DNA synthesis. They are typically used in laboratory techniques such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. The primer binds to a complementary sequence on the DNA template through base pairing, providing a free 3'-hydroxyl group for the DNA polymerase enzyme to add nucleotides and synthesize a new strand of DNA. This allows for specific and targeted amplification or analysis of a particular region of interest within a larger DNA molecule.

A chemical model is a simplified representation or description of a chemical system, based on the laws of chemistry and physics. It is used to explain and predict the behavior of chemicals and chemical reactions. Chemical models can take many forms, including mathematical equations, diagrams, and computer simulations. They are often used in research, education, and industry to understand complex chemical processes and develop new products and technologies.

For example, a chemical model might be used to describe the way that atoms and molecules interact in a particular reaction, or to predict the properties of a new material. Chemical models can also be used to study the behavior of chemicals at the molecular level, such as how they bind to each other or how they are affected by changes in temperature or pressure.

It is important to note that chemical models are simplifications of reality and may not always accurately represent every aspect of a chemical system. They should be used with caution and validated against experimental data whenever possible.

Biological evolution is the change in the genetic composition of populations of organisms over time, from one generation to the next. It is a process that results in descendants differing genetically from their ancestors. Biological evolution can be driven by several mechanisms, including natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation. These processes can lead to changes in the frequency of alleles (variants of a gene) within populations, resulting in the development of new species and the extinction of others over long periods of time. Biological evolution provides a unifying explanation for the diversity of life on Earth and is supported by extensive evidence from many different fields of science, including genetics, paleontology, comparative anatomy, and biogeography.

A base pair mismatch is a type of mutation that occurs during the replication or repair of DNA, where two incompatible nucleotides pair up instead of the usual complementary bases (adenine-thymine or cytosine-guanine). This can result in the substitution of one base pair for another and may lead to changes in the genetic code, potentially causing errors in protein synthesis and possibly contributing to genetic disorders or diseases, including cancer.

Circular dichroism (CD) is a technique used in physics and chemistry to study the structure of molecules, particularly large biological molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. It measures the difference in absorption of left-handed and right-handed circularly polarized light by a sample. This difference in absorption can provide information about the three-dimensional structure of the molecule, including its chirality or "handedness."

In more technical terms, CD is a form of spectroscopy that measures the differential absorption of left and right circularly polarized light as a function of wavelength. The CD signal is measured in units of millidegrees (mdeg) and can be positive or negative, depending on the type of chromophore and its orientation within the molecule.

CD spectra can provide valuable information about the secondary and tertiary structure of proteins, as well as the conformation of nucleic acids. For example, alpha-helical proteins typically exhibit a strong positive band near 190 nm and two negative bands at around 208 nm and 222 nm, while beta-sheet proteins show a strong positive band near 195 nm and two negative bands at around 217 nm and 175 nm.

CD spectroscopy is a powerful tool for studying the structural changes that occur in biological molecules under different conditions, such as temperature, pH, or the presence of ligands or other molecules. It can also be used to monitor the folding and unfolding of proteins, as well as the binding of drugs or other small molecules to their targets.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

DNA-directed RNA polymerases are enzymes that synthesize RNA molecules using a DNA template in a process called transcription. These enzymes read the sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule and use it as a blueprint to construct a complementary RNA strand.

The RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template, adding ribonucleotides one by one to the growing RNA chain. The synthesis is directional, starting at the promoter region of the DNA and moving towards the terminator region.

In bacteria, there is a single type of RNA polymerase that is responsible for transcribing all types of RNA (mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA). In eukaryotic cells, however, there are three different types of RNA polymerases: RNA polymerase I, II, and III. Each type is responsible for transcribing specific types of RNA.

RNA polymerases play a crucial role in gene expression, as they link the genetic information encoded in DNA to the production of functional proteins. Inhibition or mutation of these enzymes can have significant consequences for cellular function and survival.

In genetics, sequence alignment is the process of arranging two or more DNA, RNA, or protein sequences to identify regions of similarity or homology between them. This is often done using computational methods to compare the nucleotide or amino acid sequences and identify matching patterns, which can provide insight into evolutionary relationships, functional domains, or potential genetic disorders. The alignment process typically involves adjusting gaps and mismatches in the sequences to maximize the similarity between them, resulting in an aligned sequence that can be visually represented and analyzed.

Electron microscopy (EM) is a type of microscopy that uses a beam of electrons to create an image of the sample being examined, resulting in much higher magnification and resolution than light microscopy. There are several types of electron microscopy, including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and reflection electron microscopy (REM).

In TEM, a beam of electrons is transmitted through a thin slice of the sample, and the electrons that pass through the sample are focused to form an image. This technique can provide detailed information about the internal structure of cells, viruses, and other biological specimens, as well as the composition and structure of materials at the atomic level.

In SEM, a beam of electrons is scanned across the surface of the sample, and the electrons that are scattered back from the surface are detected to create an image. This technique can provide information about the topography and composition of surfaces, as well as the structure of materials at the microscopic level.

REM is a variation of SEM in which the beam of electrons is reflected off the surface of the sample, rather than scattered back from it. This technique can provide information about the surface chemistry and composition of materials.

Electron microscopy has a wide range of applications in biology, medicine, and materials science, including the study of cellular structure and function, disease diagnosis, and the development of new materials and technologies.

Protein biosynthesis is the process by which cells generate new proteins. It involves two major steps: transcription and translation. Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. This RNA copy, or messenger RNA (mRNA), carries the genetic information to the site of protein synthesis, the ribosome. During translation, the mRNA is read by transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which bring specific amino acids to the ribosome based on the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA. The ribosome then links these amino acids together in the correct order to form a polypeptide chain, which may then fold into a functional protein. Protein biosynthesis is essential for the growth and maintenance of all living organisms.

Electrophoresis, polyacrylamide gel (EPG) is a laboratory technique used to separate and analyze complex mixtures of proteins or nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) based on their size and electrical charge. This technique utilizes a matrix made of cross-linked polyacrylamide, a type of gel, which provides a stable and uniform environment for the separation of molecules.

In this process:

1. The polyacrylamide gel is prepared by mixing acrylamide monomers with a cross-linking agent (bis-acrylamide) and a catalyst (ammonium persulfate) in the presence of a buffer solution.
2. The gel is then poured into a mold and allowed to polymerize, forming a solid matrix with uniform pore sizes that depend on the concentration of acrylamide used. Higher concentrations result in smaller pores, providing better resolution for separating smaller molecules.
3. Once the gel has set, it is placed in an electrophoresis apparatus containing a buffer solution. Samples containing the mixture of proteins or nucleic acids are loaded into wells on the top of the gel.
4. An electric field is applied across the gel, causing the negatively charged molecules to migrate towards the positive electrode (anode) while positively charged molecules move toward the negative electrode (cathode). The rate of migration depends on the size, charge, and shape of the molecules.
5. Smaller molecules move faster through the gel matrix and will migrate farther from the origin compared to larger molecules, resulting in separation based on size. Proteins and nucleic acids can be selectively stained after electrophoresis to visualize the separated bands.

EPG is widely used in various research fields, including molecular biology, genetics, proteomics, and forensic science, for applications such as protein characterization, DNA fragment analysis, cloning, mutation detection, and quality control of nucleic acid or protein samples.

Denture bases are the part of a dental prosthesis that rests on the oral tissues and supports the artificial teeth. They are typically made from polymers such as acrylic resin or polymer-ceramic composites, and are custom-fabricated to fit precisely onto the gums and underlying bone structure in the mouth. The denture base provides stability and retention for the prosthesis, allowing it to remain securely in place during eating, speaking, and other activities. It is important that denture bases fit well and are comfortable, as ill-fitting bases can cause irritation, sores, and difficulty with oral function.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

A computer simulation is a process that involves creating a model of a real-world system or phenomenon on a computer and then using that model to run experiments and make predictions about how the system will behave under different conditions. In the medical field, computer simulations are used for a variety of purposes, including:

1. Training and education: Computer simulations can be used to create realistic virtual environments where medical students and professionals can practice their skills and learn new procedures without risk to actual patients. For example, surgeons may use simulation software to practice complex surgical techniques before performing them on real patients.
2. Research and development: Computer simulations can help medical researchers study the behavior of biological systems at a level of detail that would be difficult or impossible to achieve through experimental methods alone. By creating detailed models of cells, tissues, organs, or even entire organisms, researchers can use simulation software to explore how these systems function and how they respond to different stimuli.
3. Drug discovery and development: Computer simulations are an essential tool in modern drug discovery and development. By modeling the behavior of drugs at a molecular level, researchers can predict how they will interact with their targets in the body and identify potential side effects or toxicities. This information can help guide the design of new drugs and reduce the need for expensive and time-consuming clinical trials.
4. Personalized medicine: Computer simulations can be used to create personalized models of individual patients based on their unique genetic, physiological, and environmental characteristics. These models can then be used to predict how a patient will respond to different treatments and identify the most effective therapy for their specific condition.

Overall, computer simulations are a powerful tool in modern medicine, enabling researchers and clinicians to study complex systems and make predictions about how they will behave under a wide range of conditions. By providing insights into the behavior of biological systems at a level of detail that would be difficult or impossible to achieve through experimental methods alone, computer simulations are helping to advance our understanding of human health and disease.

Viral proteins are the proteins that are encoded by the viral genome and are essential for the viral life cycle. These proteins can be structural or non-structural and play various roles in the virus's replication, infection, and assembly process. Structural proteins make up the physical structure of the virus, including the capsid (the protein shell that surrounds the viral genome) and any envelope proteins (that may be present on enveloped viruses). Non-structural proteins are involved in the replication of the viral genome and modulation of the host cell environment to favor viral replication. Overall, a thorough understanding of viral proteins is crucial for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) refers to the specific regions of DNA in a cell that contain the genes for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Ribosomes are complex structures composed of proteins and rRNA, which play a crucial role in protein synthesis by translating messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins.

In humans, there are four types of rRNA molecules: 18S, 5.8S, 28S, and 5S. These rRNAs are encoded by multiple copies of rDNA genes that are organized in clusters on specific chromosomes. In humans, the majority of rDNA genes are located on the short arms of acrocentric chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22.

Each cluster of rDNA genes contains both transcribed and non-transcribed spacer regions. The transcribed regions contain the genes for the four types of rRNA, while the non-transcribed spacers contain regulatory elements that control the transcription of the rRNA genes.

The number of rDNA copies varies between species and even within individuals of the same species. The copy number can also change during development and in response to environmental factors. Variations in rDNA copy number have been associated with various diseases, including cancer and neurological disorders.

DNA-binding proteins are a type of protein that have the ability to bind to DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the genetic material of organisms. These proteins play crucial roles in various biological processes, such as regulation of gene expression, DNA replication, repair and recombination.

The binding of DNA-binding proteins to specific DNA sequences is mediated by non-covalent interactions, including electrostatic, hydrogen bonding, and van der Waals forces. The specificity of binding is determined by the recognition of particular nucleotide sequences or structural features of the DNA molecule.

DNA-binding proteins can be classified into several categories based on their structure and function, such as transcription factors, histones, and restriction enzymes. Transcription factors are a major class of DNA-binding proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences in the promoter region of genes and recruiting other proteins to modulate transcription. Histones are DNA-binding proteins that package DNA into nucleosomes, the basic unit of chromatin structure. Restriction enzymes are DNA-binding proteins that recognize and cleave specific DNA sequences, and are widely used in molecular biology research and biotechnology applications.

Protein binding, in the context of medical and biological sciences, refers to the interaction between a protein and another molecule (known as the ligand) that results in a stable complex. This process is often reversible and can be influenced by various factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration of the involved molecules.

In clinical chemistry, protein binding is particularly important when it comes to drugs, as many of them bind to proteins (especially albumin) in the bloodstream. The degree of protein binding can affect a drug's distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which in turn influence its therapeutic effectiveness and potential side effects.

Protein-bound drugs may be less available for interaction with their target tissues, as only the unbound or "free" fraction of the drug is active. Therefore, understanding protein binding can help optimize dosing regimens and minimize adverse reactions.

DNA damage refers to any alteration in the structure or composition of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is the genetic material present in cells. DNA damage can result from various internal and external factors, including environmental exposures such as ultraviolet radiation, tobacco smoke, and certain chemicals, as well as normal cellular processes such as replication and oxidative metabolism.

Examples of DNA damage include base modifications, base deletions or insertions, single-strand breaks, double-strand breaks, and crosslinks between the two strands of the DNA helix. These types of damage can lead to mutations, genomic instability, and chromosomal aberrations, which can contribute to the development of diseases such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and aging-related conditions.

The body has several mechanisms for repairing DNA damage, including base excision repair, nucleotide excision repair, mismatch repair, and double-strand break repair. However, if the damage is too extensive or the repair mechanisms are impaired, the cell may undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death) to prevent the propagation of potentially harmful mutations.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "knowledge bases" is a general term that refers to structured collections of knowledge in a specific field or area, and it is not a medical term with a defined meaning in the medical field. Knowledge bases can be found in many fields, including medicine, and they typically take the form of databases or repositories of information that are used to store, organize, and retrieve knowledge. In the medical field, knowledge bases might include information about diseases, treatments, medications, and other medical topics. They can be used by healthcare professionals, researchers, and patients to access accurate and reliable information.

Mannich bases are not a medical term, but rather a term used in chemistry to describe a class of compounds. They are named after the German chemist Carl Mannich who first described their synthesis in 1912.

A Mannich base is a compound that contains a carbon atom with three different substituents, including a nitrogen atom from an amine group and two organic groups. It is formed by reacting a ketone or aldehyde with a primary or secondary amine and a formaldehyde or other aldehyde.

Mannich bases have been used in the synthesis of various pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and dyes. They are also found in some natural products, such as certain alkaloids. While not directly related to medical definitions, understanding the chemistry of Mannich bases can be important for understanding the structure and function of certain drugs and chemical compounds used in medicine.

DNA glycosylases are a group of enzymes that play a crucial role in the maintenance of genetic material. They are responsible for initiating the base excision repair (BER) pathway, which is one of the major DNA repair mechanisms in cells.

The function of DNA glycosylases is to remove damaged or mismatched bases from DNA molecules. These enzymes recognize and bind to specific types of damaged or incorrect bases, and then cleave the N-glycosidic bond between the base and the deoxyribose sugar in the DNA backbone. This results in the formation of an apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) site, which is subsequently processed by other enzymes in the BER pathway.

There are several different types of DNA glycosylases that recognize and remove specific types of damaged or incorrect bases. For example, some DNA glycosylases specialize in removing oxidized bases, while others are responsible for removing mismatched bases or those that have been alkylated or methylated.

Overall, the proper functioning of DNA glycosylases is essential for maintaining genomic stability and preventing the accumulation of mutations that can lead to diseases such as cancer.

DNA repair is the process by which cells identify and correct damage to the DNA molecules that encode their genome. DNA can be damaged by a variety of internal and external factors, such as radiation, chemicals, and metabolic byproducts. If left unrepaired, this damage can lead to mutations, which may in turn lead to cancer and other diseases.

There are several different mechanisms for repairing DNA damage, including:

1. Base excision repair (BER): This process repairs damage to a single base in the DNA molecule. An enzyme called a glycosylase removes the damaged base, leaving a gap that is then filled in by other enzymes.
2. Nucleotide excision repair (NER): This process repairs more severe damage, such as bulky adducts or crosslinks between the two strands of the DNA molecule. An enzyme cuts out a section of the damaged DNA, and the gap is then filled in by other enzymes.
3. Mismatch repair (MMR): This process repairs errors that occur during DNA replication, such as mismatched bases or small insertions or deletions. Specialized enzymes recognize the error and remove a section of the newly synthesized strand, which is then replaced by new nucleotides.
4. Double-strand break repair (DSBR): This process repairs breaks in both strands of the DNA molecule. There are two main pathways for DSBR: non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and homologous recombination (HR). NHEJ directly rejoins the broken ends, while HR uses a template from a sister chromatid to repair the break.

Overall, DNA repair is a crucial process that helps maintain genome stability and prevent the development of diseases caused by genetic mutations.

Thymine is a pyrimidine nucleobase that is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid double helix of DNA (the other three being adenine, guanine, and cytosine). It is denoted by the letter T in DNA notation and pairs with adenine via two hydrogen bonds. Thymine is not typically found in RNA, where uracil takes its place pairing with adenine. The structure of thymine consists of a six-membered ring (pyrimidine) fused to a five-membered ring containing two nitrogen atoms and a ketone group.

Hydrogen bonding is not a medical term per se, but it is a fundamental concept in chemistry and biology that is relevant to the field of medicine. Here's a general definition:

Hydrogen bonding is a type of attractive force between molecules or within a molecule, which occurs when a hydrogen atom is bonded to a highly electronegative atom (like nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine) and is then attracted to another electronegative atom. This attraction results in the formation of a partially covalent bond known as a "hydrogen bond."

In biological systems, hydrogen bonding plays a crucial role in the structure and function of many biomolecules, such as DNA, proteins, and carbohydrates. For example, the double helix structure of DNA is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs (adenine-thymine and guanine-cytosine). Similarly, the three-dimensional structure of proteins is maintained by a network of hydrogen bonds that help to determine their function.

In medical contexts, hydrogen bonding can be relevant in understanding drug-receptor interactions, where hydrogen bonds between a drug molecule and its target protein can enhance the binding affinity and specificity of the interaction, leading to more effective therapeutic outcomes.

Uracil is not a medical term, but it is a biological molecule. Medically or biologically, uracil can be defined as one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that is linked to a ribose sugar by an N-glycosidic bond. It forms base pairs with adenine in double-stranded RNA and DNA. Uracil is a pyrimidine derivative, similar to thymine found in DNA, but it lacks the methyl group (-CH3) that thymine has at the 5 position of its ring.

Here we will revise the state-of-the-art LLPS sequence-based predictors, briefly introducing them and explaining which are the ... LLPS often involves sequence regions that have unique functional characteristics, as well as the presence of prion-like and RNA ... Shea, Joan-Emma; Best, Robert B; Mittal, Jeetain (2021-04-01). "Physics-based computational and theoretical approaches to ... trying to understand the relationship between protein sequence properties and the capability to drive LLPS. ...
The sequence is base-agnostic. That is, if a run of 10 repeated blocks is found, the next term in the sequence would be a ... Look-and-say sequence Kolakoski sequence Autogram Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A090822 (Gijswijt's sequence: a(1) = 1; for ... The sequence can be broken into discrete "block" and "glue" sequences, which can be used to recursively build up the sequence. ... sequence A090822 in the OEIS) The sequence is similar in definition to the Kolakoski sequence, but instead of counting the ...
The six-base consensus sequence is AGGAGG; in Escherichia coli, for example, the sequence is AGGAGGU, while the shorter GAGG ... Base pairing between the 3'-end of the rRNA and the Shine-Dalgarno sequence in mRNA is a mechanism by which the cell can ... terminal 16S rRNA sequence can restore translation. Kozak consensus sequence, the sequence that targets the ribosome to the ... Many studies have confirmed that base pairing between the Shine-Dalgarno sequence in mRNA and the 3' end of 16S rRNA is of ...
Templates are sequenced base-by-base during each read. Then, the data collection and analysis software aligns sample sequences ... Sequencing, by contrast, is thought to have less bias, although the sequencing bias of different sequencing technologies is not ... There are many new sequencing methods used in this sequencing step. Some technologies that analyze the sequences can use ... Massively parallel sequence analyses are used in conjunction with whole-genome sequence databases to analyze the interaction ...
... each base could be converted to one sequence instead of two), will sequence over 500 bases per second. Advantages of this ... Instead of one base being identified as it translocates through the pore, ~12 bases are required to find the sequence of one ... This sequencing method has a capacity of 50-250 bases per second per pore, and a four color fluorophore system ( ... V.7, -N.5, -P.467-473 Liu Z, Wang Y, Deng T, Chen Q (2016-05-30). "Solid-State Nanopore-Based DNA Sequencing Technology". ...
... perform comprehensive assays based on sequencing-by-synthesis of base pairs. Following library amplification, a series of ... Reduced representation bisulfite sequencing DNA methylation Shotgun sequencing ChIP-sequencing Kawakatsu, Taiji (2020), ... which affects sequences with highly skewed base compositions due to high rates of polymerase sequence errors in high AT-content ... One of the biggest concerns is the potential of bias in the base composition of sequences and over-representation of methylated ...
The similarity score is often based on sequence alignment. Sequence clustering is often used to make a non-redundant set of ... In bioinformatics, sequence clustering algorithms attempt to group biological sequences that are somehow related. The sequences ... sequences CluSTr: A single-linkage protein sequence clustering database from Smith-Waterman sequence similarities; covers over ... CD-HIT UCLUST in USEARCH Starcode: a fast sequence clustering algorithm based on exact all-pairs search. OrthoFinder: a fast, ...
... is a technique used to determine the series of base pairs in DNA, also known as DNA sequencing. The ... "History of Illumina Sequencing". Archived from the original on 12 October 2014. "Illumina - Sequencing and array-based ... This technique offers several advantages over traditional sequencing methods such as Sanger sequencing. Sanger sequencing ... the barcode sequence (indices), and the binding site for the sequencing primer. Indices are usually six base pairs long and are ...
... very different from that of Sanger sequencing-also known as capillary sequencing or first-generation sequencing-which is based ... Massive parallel sequencing or massively parallel sequencing is any of several high-throughput approaches to DNA sequencing ... Clinical metagenomic sequencing First-generation sequencing Third-generation sequencing RNA Velocity Nyren, P.; Pettersson, B ... January 2010). "Human genome sequencing using unchained base reads on self-assembling DNA nanoarrays". Science. 327 (5961): 78- ...
Weisstein, Eric W. "Aronson's Sequence". MathWorld. (Articles with short description, Short description matches Wikidata, Base- ... Aronson's sequence is an integer sequence defined by the English sentence "T is the first, fourth, eleventh, sixteenth, ... ... Cloitre, Sloane & Vandermast (2003) write that Aronson's sequence is "a classic example of a self-referential sequence." ... the sequence is credited to Jeffrey Aronson of Oxford, England. The sequence is infinite-and this statement requires some proof ...
Figure 2). Although most other modalities are not true sequencing-based techniques, the term "bisulfite sequencing" is often ... Bisulfite sequencing (also known as bisulphite sequencing) is the use of bisulfite treatment of DNA before routine sequencing ... This is based on a multi-tiered strategy, whereby bisulfite sequencing is used to obtain high-resolution methylation profiles ... Oxidative bisulfite sequencing is a method to discriminate between 5-methylcytosine and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine at single base ...
Shotgun sequencing is a sequencing method designed for analysis of DNA sequences longer than 1000 base pairs, up to and ... RNA sequencing was one of the earliest forms of nucleotide sequencing. The major landmark of RNA sequencing is the sequence of ... Two main areas of nanopore sequencing in development are solid state nanopore sequencing, and protein based nanopore sequencing ... 0.75 per base. Meanwhile, sequencing of human cDNA sequences called expressed sequence tags began in Craig Venter's lab, an ...
... they extend sequencing read lengths to an average of approximately 8,500 bases, with the longest reads exceeding 30,000 bases. ... Throughput varies based on the type of sample being sequenced. With the introduction of P6-C4 chemistry typical throughput per ... sequencing is a parallelized single molecule DNA sequencing method. Single-molecule real-time sequencing utilizes a zero-mode ... This P4 enzyme has average read lengths of more than 4,300 bases when paired with the C2 sequencing chemistry and more than ...
Now, next generation sequencing approaches are used. For Illumina sequencing, 36-base single-end sequencing reads are most ... Sequencing: The fragments are then sequenced. When RRBS was first developed, Sanger sequencing was initially used. ... Finally, Anchor-Based Bisulfite Sequencing (ABBS) was developed by Ben Delatte's group at Active Motif. This technology uses ... According to Gu et al., DNA fragments of 40-220 base pair are representative of the majority of promoter sequences and CpG ...
One sequence can be complementary to another sequence, meaning that they have the base on each position in the complementary (i ... DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleotide sequence of a given DNA fragment. The sequence of the DNA of a ... Digital genetic sequences may be stored in sequence databases, be analyzed (see Sequence analysis below), be digitally altered ... In bioinformatics, a sequence entropy, also known as sequence complexity or information profile, is a numerical sequence ...
Boolchandani, Manish; D'Souza, Alaric W.; Dantas, Gautam (June 2019). "Sequencing-based methods and resources to study ... High-throughput sequencing: all the nucleic acids fragments of the library are sequenced. The sequencing platform to be used is ... Sequencing Clinical data management Nanopore sequencing Govender, Kumeren N.; Street, Teresa L.; Sanderson, Nicholas D.; Eyre, ... The untargeted analysis is a metagenomic Shotgun sequencing approach. The whole DNA and/or RNA is sequenced with this approach ...
... (ESP) (sometimes "Paired-end mapping (PEM)") is a method based on sequence-tagged connectors developed ... "End-sequence profiling: Sequence-based analysis of aberrant genomes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (13 ... From the BAC library, both ends of the inserted fragments are sequenced using a sequencing platform. Detection of variations is ... Approximately 100-200 tumors can be sequenced at a resolution greater than 150kb when compared to sequencing an entire genome. ...
DNA sequences were originally read from sequencing gels by eye. With the advent of computerized base callers, humans no longer ... Oligotyping is the process of correcting DNA sequence measured during the process of DNA sequencing based on frequency data of ... With the advent of high throughput sequencing, the volume of sequence to be corrected exceeded human capacity for sequence ... called' the bases and instead 'corrected' the called bases. The bases were called by the software using the relative intensity ...
However, sequence conservation in ncRNAs is generally poor compared to protein-coding sequences, and base pairs that contribute ... Conserved sequences are typically identified by bioinformatics approaches based on sequence alignment. Advances in high- ... Sequences may also recombine or be deleted due to chromosomal rearrangements. Conserved sequences are sequences which persist ... orthologous sequences), or within a genome (paralogous sequences), or between donor and receptor taxa (xenologous sequences). ...
... the raw sequence reads are filtered based on quality. The adaptor sequences are also trimmed off the raw sequence reads. The ... miRNA sequencing in and of itself is not a new idea, initial methods of sequencing utilized Sanger sequencing methods. ... polymerase-based sequence-by-synthesis on the Illumina (company) platform, or sequencing by ligation on the ABI Solid ... is the use of next-generation sequencing or massively parallel high-throughput DNA sequencing to sequence microRNAs, also ...
... of which the first few bases are sequenced, yielding several millions of "reads", each 30 to 500 base pairs ("DNA characters") ... Ktistakis R, Fournier-Viger P, Puglisi SJ, Raman R (2019). "Succinct BWT-Based Sequence Prediction". Database and Expert ... nearly complete sequence of the organism in question (which may be up to several billion base pairs long). A number of ... The BWT can be defined with regards to the suffix array SA of text T as (1-based indexing): B W T [ i ] = { T [ S A [ i ] − 1 ...
Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification, commonly referred to as NASBA, is a method in molecular biology which is used to ... Mugasa, CM; Laurent, T; Schoone, GJ; Kager, PA; Lubega, GW; Schallig, HD (2009). "Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification ... Malek, L.; Sooknanan, R.; Compton, J. (1994). Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA). Methods in Molecular Biology. ... Malek, L.; Sooknanan, R.; Compton, J. (1994). Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA). Methods in Molecular Biology. ...
The assembler will then construct sequences based on the De Bruijn graph. De Bruijn graph assemblers typically perform better ... De novo sequence assemblers are a type of program that assembles short nucleotide sequences into longer ones without the use of ... Peltola, Hannu; Söderlund, Hans; Ukkonen, Esko (1984-01-11). "SEQAID: a DNA sequence assembling program based on a mathematical ... Sequence assembly Sequence alignment De novo transcriptome assembly J. Bang-Jensen; G. Gutin; A. Yeo (2004). "When the greedy ...
Based on the sequence list, it generates complete sequences in spectra and scores them with the experimental spectrum. However ... Given previously predicted partial peptide sequence, neural-network-based de novo peptide sequencing models will repeatedly ... based de novo peptide sequencing algorithms can also be fast enough to achieve real-time peptide de novo sequencing. PEAKS ... proposed DeepNovo, the first deep learning based de novo sequencing software. The benchmark analysis in the original ...
DNA, based on A-T, C-G base pairs, are formed in well-aligned sequences. Through precise sequences of DNA, 20 amino acids are ... A sequence-controlled polymer is a macromolecule, in which the sequence of monomers is controlled to some degree. This control ... The property of sequence control make sequence-controlled polymers an ideal platform to install various kinds of pendants (like ... 2. Principle of sequence regulation and synthesis of sequence-regulated oligomers of functional vinyl ethers and styrene ...
... a difference in DNA sequence amongst individuals. SSLPs are repeated sequences over varying base lengths in intergenic regions ... Simple Sequence Length Polymorphisms (SSLPs) are used as genetic markers with polymerase chain reaction (PCR). An SSLP is a ...
"Fungal taxonomy and sequence-based nomenclature". Nature Microbiology. Nature Portfolio. 6 (5): 540-548. doi:10.1038/s41564-021 ... Other post-sequencing data analysis performed by the disequilibrium study also failed to reject recombination however this ... Memon, Komal; Umrani, Fahim Aziz; Baqai, Attiya; Syed, Zafi Sherhan (2023). A Review Based On Comparative Analysis of ...
Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A002113 (Palindromes in base 10)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS ... Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A046760 (Wasteful numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ... Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A000959 (Lucky numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. ... Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A005100 (Deficient numbers)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation ...
"Fungal taxonomy and sequence-based nomenclature". Nature Microbiology. Nature Portfolio. 6 (5): 540-548. doi:10.1038/s41564-021 ... This list is based on the EOL list and was updated with the Species Fungorum list in 2023. Fusarium aberrans J.W. Xia, L. ...
Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A002113 (Palindromes in base 10.)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS ... Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A001359 (Lesser of twin primes.)". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS ... The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Retrieved 2018-11-20. Sloane, N. J. A. (ed.). "Sequence A051634 ... In duodecimal and higher bases (such as hexadecimal), 11 is represented as B, E, Z or ↋ (el), where 10 is A, T, W, X or ↊ (dek ...
Here we will revise the state-of-the-art LLPS sequence-based predictors, briefly introducing them and explaining which are the ... LLPS often involves sequence regions that have unique functional characteristics, as well as the presence of prion-like and RNA ... Shea, Joan-Emma; Best, Robert B; Mittal, Jeetain (2021-04-01). "Physics-based computational and theoretical approaches to ... trying to understand the relationship between protein sequence properties and the capability to drive LLPS. ...
Outside BASE, align the new sequences to genome or transcript sequences and calculate "intensities" for each gene on the "array ... sequencing-draft-2.txt​ (4.9 KB ) - added by Nicklas Nordborg 13 years ago.. sequencing-update-script-draft-2.txt​ (5.5 KB ) - ... sequencing-biomaterials-4.png​ (97.7 KB ) - added by Nicklas Nordborg 13 years ago.. sequencing-rawdata-4.png​ (73.2 KB ) - ... Handling short read transcript sequence data Reported by:. base. Owned by:. Nicklas Nordborg. ...
Perspective on droplet-based single-cell sequencing David A. Weitz Thought leader David Weitz introduces the Lab on a Chip ... From the themed collection: Droplet-based single-cell sequencing The article was first published on 02 Oct 2017. Lab Chip, 2017 ... From the themed collection: Droplet-based single-cell sequencing The article was first published on 19 Jul 2017. Lab Chip, 2017 ... From the themed collection: Droplet-based single-cell sequencing The article was first published on 19 Jul 2017. Lab Chip, 2017 ...
Sequence-Based Identification of Metronidazole-Resistant Clostridioides difficile Isolates Wiep Klaas Smits. , Céline Harmanus ... Comparison of pCD-METRO open reading frames and phylogenetic analysis in study of sequence-based identification of ... A) Linear maps compare the open reading frames (ORF)1-8 of the pCD-METRO reference sequence (identical to the RT005 plasmid) ... PlasmidFinder and In Silico pMLST: identification and typing of plasmid replicons in whole-genome sequencing (WGS). Methods Mol ...
SummaRuNNer: A Recurrent Neural Network Based Sequence Model for Extractive Summarization of Documents. February 1, 2023. ... SummaRuNNer: A Recurrent Neural Network Based Sequence Model for Extractive Summarization of Documents Proceedings of the AAAI ... SummaRuNNer: A Recurrent Neural Network Based Sequence Model for Extractive Summarization of Documents AAAI 2017, 3075. ... 2017). SummaRuNNer: A Recurrent Neural Network Based Sequence Model for Extractive Summarization of Documents. Proceedings of ...
... J Proteome ... we built a computational model to characterize the kinase sequence specificity toward the substrate target site based on known ... Finally, by combining the sequence recognition model with the quantitative changes in phosphorylation measured in the two drug ...
... provides genomic variation data detected by whole-genome sequencing (WGS) of Japanese individuals. Specifically, the database ... All sequencing libraries were constructed based on PCR-free methods.13 The sequence reads were mapped onto the human reference ... Variant databases for the Japanese population to date have been based on targeted SNP typing6 or whole-exome sequencing.17 ... iJGVD: an integrative Japanese genome variation database based on whole-genome sequencing. *Yumi Yamaguchi-Kabata. 1,2, ...
HaloPlexHS is a high-sensitivity, amplicon-based targeted sequencing method that incorporates molecular barcodes in ... Agilent offers other hybridization-based target enrichment technology options, also, for finding specific regions-of-interest. ... amplicon-based technology for target enrichment and amplification offers an NGS solution with speed, accuracy, and sensitivity ... Amplicon-based Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) Amplicon-based Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) for Library Prep Target ...
UCSF Developing NGS-based Infectious Disease Dx; Tests Metagenomic Sequencing on MinIon Feb 20, 2015 , Monica Heger ... It has developed an in-house bioinformatics pipeline, dubbed SURPI for sequence-based ultra-rapid pathogen identification, ... front-end visualization tools and a web-based interface, and taxonomic classification against all the sequences in GenBank. ... Next-gen sequencing diagnosed histoplasmosis.. Another case was a 20-year-old woman with a fever who had traveled to Australia ...
Erionema (Rutaceae) based on nrDNA sequences. Erin L. Batty, Gareth D. Holmes, Daniel J. Murphy, Paul I. Forster, Will C. Neal ... Erionema (Rutaceae) based on nrDNA sequences," Australian Systematic Botany, 35(4), 326-338, (16 September 2022) Include:. ... Simmons MP, Ochoterena H (2000) Gaps as characters in sequence-based phylogenetic analyses. Systematic Biology 49, 369-381. ... Sequence editing and alignment. Contiguous sequences for each region were assembled and edited using Sequencher (ver. 4.8, Gene ...
This sequence-based physical map will be useful to assemble the genome sequence of pea. Additionally, the 1.1 million WGP tags ... This sequence-based physical map will be useful to assemble the genome sequence of pea. Additionally, the 1.1 million WGP tags ... To address the challenges of accurate assembly of the pea genome (∼4.2 GB of which approximately 85% is repetitive sequences), ... To address the challenges of accurate assembly of the pea genome (~4.2 GB of which approximately 85% is repetitive sequences), ...
Triazine-based Sequence Defined Polymers with Side Chain Diversity and Backbone-Backbone Interaction Motifs ... Nature uses sequence-defined polymers such as polypeptides to create biomaterials, encode information, perform biocatalysis, ... This sequential reactivity provides advancement over prior methods used to form conventional sequence-defined peptide polymers ... acids and amino acid derivatives to form peptidomimetics having amide bonds.Presented here is a new class of synthetic sequence ...
Arnedo-Pac C; Mularoni L; Muiños F; Gonzalez-Perez A; Lopez-Bigas N; Schwartz R | Bioinformatics | 2019
Interface for sequence objects with residue-based meta information ... Since it is dependent on the length of the sequence, it needs to be manipulated after the sequence. The implementation may ... Bio::Seq::MetaI - Interface for sequence objects with residue-based meta information ... Character based meta data is read and set by method meta() and its variants. These are the suffixes and prefixes used in the ...
Posted: Tue Oct 01, 2013 7:44 pm Post subject: Task Sequence based on Variable Value. ... You could check the variable value and send the emails based on the variable value. Create 2 variable monitor tasks: ... hiteksoftware.com Forum Index -> Task Sequences, Chains and Scripts. All times are GMT - 8 Hours. ... Then in your task sequence: step 1 = MoveToDrive step 2 = monitorCopied step 3 = monitorNoFileExists. ...
GitHub - mskilab-org/JaBbA: MIP based joint inference of copy number and rearrangement state in cancer whole genome sequence ... MIP based joint inference of copy number and rearrangement state in cancer whole genome sequence data. - ... MIP based joint inference of copy number and rearrangement state in cancer whole genome sequence data. ... MIP based joint inference of copy number and rearrangement state in cancer whole genome sequence data. ...
Molecular phylogeny of tribe Dipterocarpeae (family Dipterocarpaceae) based on sequence data of chloroplast and nuclear DNA.. ... The sequence data were obtained through direct sequencing of PCR products. The sequencing reactions were performed by using ABI ... The sequences of both strands were obtained and matched together to get exact sequences by using Staden Package (Staden et al ... Molecular phylogeny of tribe Dipterocarpeae (family Dipterocarpaceae) based on sequence data of chloroplast and nuclear DNA. ...
... ... Nanocarriers based on sequence-defined oligomers for tumor-targeted siRNA and miRNA delivery ... Müller, Katharina (2016): Nanocarriers based on sequence-defined oligomers for tumor-targeted siRNA and miRNA delivery. ...
So far, the fastest method based on a sequence-pair required Oðn2 þ 3 Þ time, where is the number of rectilinear blocks. If ... we present a method of rectilinear block packing using selected sequence-pair (SSP), a rectangle packing representation. We ... A fast algorithm for rectilinear block packing based on selected sequence-pair - In this paper, ... So far, the fastest method based on a sequence-pair required Oðn2 þ 3 Þ time, where is the number of rectilinear blocks. If ...
Furthermore, matrix-profile-based path matching method was used for the first time in magnetic sequence-based localization. ... RF-based Wi-Fi and BLE systems are the most popular ones and these have been preferred because of their high distinguishable ... Indoor localization has become a popular topic with the development of location-based services (LBS) and indoor navigation ... Furthermore, matrix-profile-based path matching method was used for the first time in magnetic sequence-based localization. ...
Thermo Fisher Scientific & Pfizer Partner to Expand Localized Access to Next-Generation Sequencing-Based Testing for Cancer ... "In many parts of the world, access to next-generation sequencing may be limited or unaffordable for cancer patients. This ... based testing for lung and breast cancer patients in more than 30 countries across Latin America, Africa, the Middle East and ... based testing for lung and breast cancer patients in more than 30 countries across Latin America, Africa, the Middle East and ...
Con Sequence」 会場 : HLP Galerie, Wesseling ドイツ 日時 : 2018年4月29日 - 6月3日 ... 山野辺英明「Con Sequence」. 会場 : HLP Galerie, Wesseling ドイツ. 日時 : 2018年4月29日 - 6月3日 ... 山野辺英明
How T-lymphoblastic leukemia can be classified based on genetics using standard diagnostic techniques enhanced by whole genome ... leukemia can be classified based on genetics using standard diagnostic techniques enhanced by whole genome sequencing Leukemia ...
... has developed an AI-based mass spectrometric technique capable of determining the monomeric sequence of a polymer. This ... AI-based technique capable of determining the monomeric sequence of a polymer, for plastic recycling. by National Institute for ... AI-based technique capable of determining the monomeric sequence of a polymer, for plastic recycling. ... Citation: AI-based technique capable of determining the monomeric sequence of a polymer, for plastic recycling (2023, June 2) ...
The Forecasting Skill of Physics‐Based Seismicity Models during the 2010-2012 Canterbury, New Zealand, Earthquake Sequence. ... based seismicity models were less informative than empirical models during the aftershock sequence of the 1992 Mw 7.3 Landers, ... Based Seismicity Models during the 2010-2012 Canterbury, New Zealand, Earthquake Sequence. Seismological Research Letters, 89(4 ... based models. Purely physics‐based models have a performance comparable to the ETAS model, and the two coulomb/statistical ...
Next-generation sequencing (NGS) provides an advanced tool for massive genomic sequencing of viruses. However, the isolation of ... Sequence-independent, single-primer amplification (SISPA) NGS was attempted to recover the genomic sequences of HTNV isolates. ... based on the full length of the prototype HTNV 76-118. The whole-genome sequencing of HTNV isolates was accomplished by ... The nucleotide sequence of HTNV S, M, and L segments were covered up to 99.4-100%, 97.5-100%, and 95.6-99.8%, respectively, ...
... amplification-free bait capture enriched sequencing of cDNA is a viable method for generating a SARS-CoV-2 genome sequence and ... All libraries were sequenced using an Illumina MiniSeq with data analyzed using a standardized bioinformatics workflow (SARS- ... Genome sequencing of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is increasingly important to monitor the ... A Comparison of Whole Genome Sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 Using Amplicon-Based Sequencing, Random Hexamers, and Bait Capture by ...
each base has been sequenced 50 times, when 40 samples were loaded. Sequencing was ... we established a sequencing assay based a custom AmpliSeq™ panel to assess the exomic sequences in 72 subjects of Caucasian ... Next-generation sequencing of the human TRPV1 gene and the regulating co-players LTB4R and LTB4R2 based on a custom AmpliSeq™ ... Next-generation sequencing of TRPA1 and TRPV1 genes was based on a custom AmpliSeq library and performed using a validated ...
High-throughput single-cell activity-based screening and sequencing of antibodies using droplet microfluidics. Download Prime ... TY - JOUR T1 - Author Correction: High-throughput single-cell activity-based screening and sequencing of antibodies using ... Author Correction: High-throughput single-cell activity-based screening and sequencing of antibodies using droplet ... "Author Correction: High-throughput Single-cell Activity-based Screening and Sequencing of Antibodies Using Droplet ...
Based on the results, there is ample variation among the inter-population progenies for maximum exploitation of heterosis and ... Based on the results, there is ample variation among the inter-population progenies for maximum exploitation of heterosis and ... and variability was described among 52 oil palm inter-population crosses after two selection cycles using simple sequence ... and variability was described among 52 oil palm inter-population crosses after two selection cycles using simple sequence ...

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