B lymphocytes regulatory. Medical search

White blood cells formed in the body's lymphoid tissue. The nucleus is round or ovoid with coarse, irregularly clumped chromatin while the cytoplasm is typically pale blue with azurophilic (if any) granules. Most lymphocytes can be classified as either T or B (with subpopulations of each), or NATURAL KILLER CELLS.

Lymphoid cells concerned with humoral immunity. They are short-lived cells resembling bursa-derived lymphocytes of birds in their production of immunoglobulin upon appropriate stimulation.

Morphologic alteration of small B LYMPHOCYTES or T LYMPHOCYTES in culture into large blast-like cells able to synthesize DNA and RNA and to divide mitotically. It is induced by INTERLEUKINS; MITOGENS such as PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS, and by specific ANTIGENS. It may also occur in vivo as in GRAFT REJECTION.

Lymphocytes responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Two types have been identified - cytotoxic (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and helper T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, HELPER-INDUCER). They are formed when lymphocytes circulate through the THYMUS GLAND and differentiate to thymocytes. When exposed to an antigen, they divide rapidly and produce large numbers of new T cells sensitized to that antigen.

A classification of lymphocytes based on structurally or functionally different populations of cells.

IMMUNOGLOBULINS on the surface of B-LYMPHOCYTES. Their MESSENGER RNA contains an EXON with a membrane spanning sequence, producing immunoglobulins in the form of type I transmembrane proteins as opposed to secreted immunoglobulins (ANTIBODIES) which do not contain the membrane spanning segment.

The number of LYMPHOCYTES per unit volume of BLOOD.

An encapsulated lymphatic organ through which venous blood filters.

A round-to-oval mass of lymphoid tissue embedded in the lateral wall of the PHARYNX. There is one on each side of the oropharynx in the fauces between the anterior and posterior pillars of the SOFT PALATE.

A classification of B-lymphocytes based on structurally or functionally different populations of cells.

Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.

A class of immunoglobulin bearing mu chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN MU-CHAINS). IgM can fix COMPLEMENT. The name comes from its high molecular weight and originally being called a macroglobulin.

Technique using an instrument system for making, processing, and displaying one or more measurements on individual cells obtained from a cell suspension. Cells are usually stained with one or more fluorescent dyes specific to cell components of interest, e.g., DNA, and fluorescence of each cell is measured as it rapidly transverses the excitation beam (laser or mercury arc lamp). Fluorescence provides a quantitative measure of various biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell, as well as a basis for cell sorting. Other measurable optical parameters include light absorption and light scattering, the latter being applicable to the measurement of cell size, shape, density, granularity, and stain uptake.

Measure of histocompatibility at the HL-A locus. Peripheral blood lymphocytes from two individuals are mixed together in tissue culture for several days. Lymphocytes from incompatible individuals will stimulate each other to proliferate significantly (measured by tritiated thymidine uptake) whereas those from compatible individuals will not. In the one-way MLC test, the lymphocytes from one of the individuals are inactivated (usually by treatment with MITOMYCIN or radiation) thereby allowing only the untreated remaining population of cells to proliferate in response to foreign histocompatibility antigens.

The number of WHITE BLOOD CELLS per unit volume in venous BLOOD. A differential leukocyte count measures the relative numbers of the different types of white cells.

T-cell enhancement of the B-cell response to thymic-dependent antigens.

Differentiation antigens residing on mammalian leukocytes. CD stands for cluster of differentiation, which refers to groups of monoclonal antibodies that show similar reactivity with certain subpopulations of antigens of a particular lineage or differentiation stage. The subpopulations of antigens are also known by the same CD designation.

The type species of LYMPHOCRYPTOVIRUS, subfamily GAMMAHERPESVIRINAE, infecting B-cells in humans. It is thought to be the causative agent of INFECTIOUS MONONUCLEOSIS and is strongly associated with oral hairy leukoplakia (LEUKOPLAKIA, HAIRY;), BURKITT LYMPHOMA; and other malignancies.

Multi-subunit proteins which function in IMMUNITY. They are produced by B LYMPHOCYTES from the IMMUNOGLOBULIN GENES. They are comprised of two heavy (IMMUNOGLOBULIN HEAVY CHAINS) and two light chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN LIGHT CHAINS) with additional ancillary polypeptide chains depending on their isoforms. The variety of isoforms include monomeric or polymeric forms, and transmembrane forms (B-CELL ANTIGEN RECEPTORS) or secreted forms (ANTIBODIES). They are divided by the amino acid sequence of their heavy chains into five classes (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A; IMMUNOGLOBULIN D; IMMUNOGLOBULIN E; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G; IMMUNOGLOBULIN M) and various subclasses.

Substances that stimulate mitosis and lymphocyte transformation. They include not only substances associated with LECTINS, but also substances from streptococci (associated with streptolysin S) and from strains of alpha-toxin-producing staphylococci. (Stedman, 25th ed)

Differentiation antigens expressed on B-lymphocytes and B-cell precursors. They are involved in regulation of B-cell proliferation.

Mucoproteins isolated from the kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris); some of them are mitogenic to lymphocytes, others agglutinate all or certain types of erythrocytes or lymphocytes. They are used mainly in the study of immune mechanisms and in cell culture.

The in vitro formation of clusters consisting of a cell (usually a lymphocyte) surrounded by antigenic cells or antigen-bearing particles (usually erythrocytes, which may or may not be coated with antibody or antibody and complement). The rosette-forming cell may be an antibody-forming cell, a memory cell, a T-cell, a cell bearing surface cytophilic antibodies, or a monocyte possessing Fc receptors. Rosette formation can be used to identify specific populations of these cells.

Lymphocytes that show specificity for autologous tumor cells. Ex vivo isolation and culturing of TIL with interleukin-2, followed by reinfusion into the patient, is one form of adoptive immunotherapy of cancer.

An immunoglobulin which accounts for less than 1% of plasma immunoglobulin. It is found on the membrane of many circulating B LYMPHOCYTES.

Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.

A MANNOSE/GLUCOSE binding lectin isolated from the jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis). It is a potent mitogen used to stimulate cell proliferation in lymphocytes, primarily T-lymphocyte, cultures.

A critical subpopulation of T-lymphocytes involved in the induction of most immunological functions. The HIV virus has selective tropism for the T4 cell which expresses the CD4 phenotypic marker, a receptor for HIV. In fact, the key element in the profound immunosuppression seen in HIV infection is the depletion of this subset of T-lymphocytes.

A method for the detection of very small quantities of antibody in which the antigen-antibody-complement complex adheres to indicator cells, usually primate erythrocytes or nonprimate blood platelets. The reaction is dependent on the number of bound C3 molecules on the C3b receptor sites of the indicator cell.

The production of ANTIBODIES by proliferating and differentiated B-LYMPHOCYTES under stimulation by ANTIGENS.

They are oval or bean shaped bodies (1 - 30 mm in diameter) located along the lymphatic system.

Immunized T-lymphocytes which can directly destroy appropriate target cells. These cytotoxic lymphocytes may be generated in vitro in mixed lymphocyte cultures (MLC), in vivo during a graft-versus-host (GVH) reaction, or after immunization with an allograft, tumor cell or virally transformed or chemically modified target cell. The lytic phenomenon is sometimes referred to as cell-mediated lympholysis (CML). These CD8-positive cells are distinct from NATURAL KILLER CELLS and NATURAL KILLER T-CELLS. There are two effector phenotypes: TC1 and TC2.

The transfer of lymphocytes from a donor to a recipient or reinfusion to the donor.

Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.

The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.

Leukemia associated with HYPERPLASIA of the lymphoid tissues and increased numbers of circulating malignant LYMPHOCYTES and lymphoblasts.

A soluble substance elaborated by antigen- or mitogen-stimulated T-LYMPHOCYTES which induces DNA synthesis in naive lymphocytes.

Specialized tissues that are components of the lymphatic system. They provide fixed locations within the body where a variety of LYMPHOCYTES can form, mature and multiply. The lymphoid tissues are connected by a network of LYMPHATIC VESSELS.

The phenomenon of target cell destruction by immunologically active effector cells. It may be brought about directly by sensitized T-lymphocytes or by lymphoid or myeloid "killer" cells, or it may be mediated by cytotoxic antibody, cytotoxic factor released by lymphoid cells, or complement.

Membrane antigens associated with maturation stages of B-lymphocytes, often expressed in tumors of B-cell origin.

A tumor necrosis factor superfamily member that plays a role in the regulation of B-LYMPHOCYTE survival. It occurs as a membrane-bound protein that is cleaved to release an biologically active soluble form with specificity to TRANSMEMBRANE ACTIVATOR AND CAML INTERACTOR PROTEIN; B-CELL ACTIVATION FACTOR RECEPTOR; and B-CELL MATURATION ANTIGEN.

Proteins isolated from the roots of the pokeweed, Phytolacca americana, that agglutinate some erythrocytes, stimulate mitosis and antibody synthesis in lymphocytes, and induce activation of plasma cells.

A classification of T-lymphocytes, especially into helper/inducer, suppressor/effector, and cytotoxic subsets, based on structurally or functionally different populations of cells.

Antigens on surfaces of cells, including infectious or foreign cells or viruses. They are usually protein-containing groups on cell membranes or walls and may be isolated.

Immunosuppression by reduction of circulating lymphocytes or by T-cell depletion of bone marrow. The former may be accomplished in vivo by thoracic duct drainage or administration of antilymphocyte serum. The latter is performed ex vivo on bone marrow before its transplantation.

Manifestations of the immune response which are mediated by antigen-sensitized T-lymphocytes via lymphokines or direct cytotoxicity. This takes place in the absence of circulating antibody or where antibody plays a subordinate role.

Process of classifying cells of the immune system based on structural and functional differences. The process is commonly used to analyze and sort T-lymphocytes into subsets based on CD antigens by the technique of flow cytometry.

A single, unpaired primary lymphoid organ situated in the MEDIASTINUM, extending superiorly into the neck to the lower edge of the THYROID GLAND and inferiorly to the fourth costal cartilage. It is necessary for normal development of immunologic function early in life. By puberty, it begins to involute and much of the tissue is replaced by fat.

Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function that leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.

Glycoproteins expressed on all mature T-cells, thymocytes, and a subset of mature B-cells. Antibodies specific for CD5 can enhance T-cell receptor-mediated T-cell activation. The B-cell-specific molecule CD72 is a natural ligand for CD5. (From Abbas et al., Cellular and Molecular Immunology, 2d ed, p156)

A critical subpopulation of regulatory T-lymphocytes involved in MHC Class I-restricted interactions. They include both cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and CD8+ suppressor T-lymphocytes.

Cells of the lymphoid series that can react with antigen to produce specific cell products called antibodies. Various cell subpopulations, often B-lymphocytes, can be defined, based on the different classes of immunoglobulins that they synthesize.

Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.

A group of genetically identical cells all descended from a single common ancestral cell by mitosis in eukaryotes or by binary fission in prokaryotes. Clone cells also include populations of recombinant DNA molecules all carrying the same inserted sequence. (From King & Stansfield, Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)

Complex of at least five membrane-bound polypeptides in mature T-lymphocytes that are non-covalently associated with one another and with the T-cell receptor (RECEPTORS, ANTIGEN, T-CELL). The CD3 complex includes the gamma, delta, epsilon, zeta, and eta chains (subunits). When antigen binds to the T-cell receptor, the CD3 complex transduces the activating signals to the cytoplasm of the T-cell. The CD3 gamma and delta chains (subunits) are separate from and not related to the gamma/delta chains of the T-cell receptor (RECEPTORS, ANTIGEN, T-CELL, GAMMA-DELTA).

Proteins that share the common characteristic of binding to carbohydrates. Some ANTIBODIES and carbohydrate-metabolizing proteins (ENZYMES) also bind to carbohydrates, however they are not considered lectins. PLANT LECTINS are carbohydrate-binding proteins that have been primarily identified by their hemagglutinating activity (HEMAGGLUTININS). However, a variety of lectins occur in animal species where they serve diverse array of functions through specific carbohydrate recognition.

Antibodies which react with the individual structural determinants (idiotopes) on the variable region of other antibodies.

The fission of a CELL. It includes CYTOKINESIS, when the CYTOPLASM of a cell is divided, and CELL NUCLEUS DIVISION.

Substances that are recognized by the immune system and induce an immune reaction.

Bone marrow-derived lymphocytes that possess cytotoxic properties, classically directed against transformed and virus-infected cells. Unlike T CELLS; and B CELLS; NK CELLS are not antigen specific. The cytotoxicity of natural killer cells is determined by the collective signaling of an array of inhibitory and stimulatory CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS. A subset of T-LYMPHOCYTES referred to as NATURAL KILLER T CELLS shares some of the properties of this cell type.

Antigens expressed on the cell membrane of T-lymphocytes during differentiation, activation, and normal and neoplastic transformation. Their phenotypic characterization is important in differential diagnosis and studies of thymic ontogeny and T-cell function.

The class of heavy chains found in IMMUNOGLOBULIN M. They have a molecular weight of approximately 72 kDa and they contain about 57 amino acid residues arranged in five domains and have more oligosaccharide branches and a higher carbohydrate content than the heavy chains of IMMUNOGLOBULIN G.

A soluble factor produced by activated T-LYMPHOCYTES that induces the expression of MHC CLASS II GENES and FC RECEPTORS on B-LYMPHOCYTES and causes their proliferation and differentiation. It also acts on T-lymphocytes, MAST CELLS, and several other hematopoietic lineage cells.

The demonstration of the cytotoxic effect on a target cell of a lymphocyte, a mediator released by a sensitized lymphocyte, an antibody, or complement.

A member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily with specificity for CD40 LIGAND. It is found on mature B-LYMPHOCYTES and some EPITHELIAL CELLS, lymphoid DENDRITIC CELLS. Evidence suggests that CD40-dependent activation of B-cells is important for generation of memory B-cells within the germinal centers. Mutations of the gene for CD40 antigen result in HYPER-IGM IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME, TYPE 3. Signaling of the receptor occurs through its association with TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED FACTORS.

An integrin heterodimer widely expressed on cells of hematopoietic origin. CD11A ANTIGEN comprises the alpha chain and the CD18 antigen (ANTIGENS, CD18) the beta chain. Lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1 is a major receptor of T-CELLS; B-CELLS; and GRANULOCYTES. It mediates the leukocyte adhesion reactions underlying cytolytic conjugate formation, helper T-cell interactions, and antibody-dependent killing by NATURAL KILLER CELLS and granulocytes. Intracellular adhesion molecule-1 has been defined as a ligand for lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1.

Cell surface glycoproteins on lymphocytes and other leukocytes that mediate adhesion to specialized blood vessels called high endothelial venules. Several different classes of lymphocyte homing receptors have been identified, and they appear to target different surface molecules (addressins) on high endothelial venules in different tissues. The adhesion plays a crucial role in the trafficking of lymphocytes.

Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations, or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. All animals within an inbred strain trace back to a common ancestor in the twentieth generation.

The largest of polypeptide chains comprising immunoglobulins. They contain 450 to 600 amino acid residues per chain, and have molecular weights of 51-72 kDa.

Specialized forms of antibody-producing B-LYMPHOCYTES. They synthesize and secrete immunoglobulin. They are found only in lymphoid organs and at sites of immune responses and normally do not circulate in the blood or lymph. (Rosen et al., Dictionary of Immunology, 1989, p169 & Abbas et al., Cellular and Molecular Immunology, 2d ed, p20)

An energy dependent process following the crosslinking of B CELL ANTIGEN RECEPTORS by multivalent ligands (bivalent anti-antibodies, LECTINS or ANTIGENS), on the B-cell surface. The crosslinked ligand-antigen receptor complexes collect in patches which flow to and aggregate at one pole of the cell to form a large mass - the cap. The caps may then be endocytosed or shed into the environment.

Molecular sites on or in B-lymphocytes, follicular dendritic cells, lymphoid cells, and epithelial cells that recognize and combine with COMPLEMENT C3D. Human complement receptor 2 (CR2) serves as a receptor for both C3dg and the gp350/220 glycoprotein of HERPESVIRUS 4, HUMAN, and binds the monoclonal antibody OKB7, which blocks binding of both ligands to the receptor.

The major interferon produced by mitogenically or antigenically stimulated LYMPHOCYTES. It is structurally different from TYPE I INTERFERON and its major activity is immunoregulation. It has been implicated in the expression of CLASS II HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS in cells that do not normally produce them, leading to AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.

The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.

Syndromes in which there is a deficiency or defect in the mechanisms of immunity, either cellular or humoral.

Sites on an antigen that interact with specific antibodies.

The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.

Glycoproteins found on the membrane or surface of cells.

Test for tissue antigen using either a direct method, by conjugation of antibody with fluorescent dye (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, DIRECT) or an indirect method, by formation of antigen-antibody complex which is then labeled with fluorescein-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin antibody (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, INDIRECT). The tissue is then examined by fluorescence microscopy.

Large, phagocytic mononuclear leukocytes produced in the vertebrate BONE MARROW and released into the BLOOD; contain a large, oval or somewhat indented nucleus surrounded by voluminous cytoplasm and numerous organelles.

Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.

The largest lymphatic vessel that passes through the chest and drains into the SUBCLAVIAN VEIN.

A method to identify and enumerate cells that are synthesizing ANTIBODIES against ANTIGENS or HAPTENS conjugated to sheep RED BLOOD CELLS. The sheep red blood cells surrounding cells secreting antibody are lysed by added COMPLEMENT producing a clear zone of HEMOLYSIS. (From Illustrated Dictionary of Immunology, 3rd ed)

Non-antibody proteins secreted by inflammatory leukocytes and some non-leukocytic cells, that act as intercellular mediators. They differ from classical hormones in that they are produced by a number of tissue or cell types rather than by specialized glands. They generally act locally in a paracrine or autocrine rather than endocrine manner.

Reduction in the number of lymphocytes.

Genes encoding the different subunits of the IMMUNOGLOBULINS, for example the IMMUNOGLOBULIN LIGHT CHAIN GENES and the IMMUNOGLOBULIN HEAVY CHAIN GENES. The heavy and light immunoglobulin genes are present as gene segments in the germline cells. The completed genes are created when the segments are shuffled and assembled (B-LYMPHOCYTE GENE REARRANGEMENT) during B-LYMPHOCYTE maturation. The gene segments of the human light and heavy chain germline genes are symbolized V (variable), J (joining) and C (constant). The heavy chain germline genes have an additional segment D (diversity).

A class of lymphocytes characterized by the lack of surface markers specific for either T or B lymphocytes.

The altered state of immunologic responsiveness resulting from initial contact with antigen, which enables the individual to produce antibodies more rapidly and in greater quantity in response to secondary antigenic stimulus.

High-molecular weight glycoproteins uniquely expressed on the surface of LEUKOCYTES and their hemopoietic progenitors. They contain a cytoplasmic protein tyrosine phosphatase activity which plays a role in intracellular signaling from the CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS. The CD45 antigens occur as multiple isoforms that result from alternative mRNA splicing and differential usage of three exons.

Subpopulation of CD4+ lymphocytes that cooperate with other lymphocytes (either T or B) to initiate a variety of immune functions. For example, helper-inducer T-cells cooperate with B-cells to produce antibodies to thymus-dependent antigens and with other subpopulations of T-cells to initiate a variety of cell-mediated immune functions.

The relatively long-lived phagocytic cell of mammalian tissues that are derived from blood MONOCYTES. Main types are PERITONEAL MACROPHAGES; ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES; HISTIOCYTES; KUPFFER CELLS of the liver; and OSTEOCLASTS. They may further differentiate within chronic inflammatory lesions to EPITHELIOID CELLS or may fuse to form FOREIGN BODY GIANT CELLS or LANGHANS GIANT CELLS. (from The Dictionary of Cell Biology, Lackie and Dow, 3rd ed.)

Molecules on the surface of T-lymphocytes that recognize and combine with antigens. The receptors are non-covalently associated with a complex of several polypeptides collectively called CD3 antigens (ANTIGENS, CD3). Recognition of foreign antigen and the major histocompatibility complex is accomplished by a single heterodimeric antigen-receptor structure, composed of either alpha-beta (RECEPTORS, ANTIGEN, T-CELL, ALPHA-BETA) or gamma-delta (RECEPTORS, ANTIGEN, T-CELL, GAMMA-DELTA) chains.

The specific failure of a normally responsive individual to make an immune response to a known antigen. It results from previous contact with the antigen by an immunologically immature individual (fetus or neonate) or by an adult exposed to extreme high-dose or low-dose antigen, or by exposure to radiation, antimetabolites, antilymphocytic serum, etc.

Nuclear antigens encoded by VIRAL GENES found in HUMAN HERPESVIRUS 4. At least six nuclear antigens have been identified.

Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.

One of the mechanisms by which CELL DEATH occurs (compare with NECROSIS and AUTOPHAGOCYTOSIS). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA; (DNA FRAGMENTATION); at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth.

RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.

Eukaryotic cell line obtained in a quiescent or stationary phase which undergoes conversion to a state of unregulated growth in culture, resembling an in vitro tumor. It occurs spontaneously or through interaction with viruses, oncogenes, radiation, or drugs/chemicals.

A general term for various neoplastic diseases of the lymphoid tissue.

Cells contained in the bone marrow including fat cells (see ADIPOCYTES); STROMAL CELLS; MEGAKARYOCYTES; and the immediate precursors of most blood cells.

Mature LYMPHOCYTES and MONOCYTES transported by the blood to the body's extravascular space. They are morphologically distinguishable from mature granulocytic leukocytes by their large, non-lobed nuclei and lack of coarse, heavily stained cytoplasmic granules.

Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.

Serum containing GAMMA-GLOBULINS which are antibodies for lymphocyte ANTIGENS. It is used both as a test for HISTOCOMPATIBILITY and therapeutically in TRANSPLANTATION.

An immunologic deficiency state characterized by an extremely low level of generally all classes of gamma-globulin in the blood.

A group of antigens that includes both the major and minor histocompatibility antigens. The former are genetically determined by the major histocompatibility complex. They determine tissue type for transplantation and cause allograft rejections. The latter are systems of allelic alloantigens that can cause weak transplant rejection.

The soft tissue filling the cavities of bones. Bone marrow exists in two types, yellow and red. Yellow marrow is found in the large cavities of large bones and consists mostly of fat cells and a few primitive blood cells. Red marrow is a hematopoietic tissue and is the site of production of erythrocytes and granular leukocytes. Bone marrow is made up of a framework of connective tissue containing branching fibers with the frame being filled with marrow cells.

Antigens that exist in alternative (allelic) forms in a single species. When an isoantigen is encountered by species members who lack it, an immune response is induced. Typical isoantigens are the BLOOD GROUP ANTIGENS.

The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.

Large, transmembrane, non-covalently linked glycoproteins (alpha and beta). Both chains can be polymorphic although there is more structural variation in the beta chains. The class II antigens in humans are called HLA-D ANTIGENS and are coded by a gene on chromosome 6. In mice, two genes named IA and IE on chromosome 17 code for the H-2 antigens. The antigens are found on B-lymphocytes, macrophages, epidermal cells, and sperm and are thought to mediate the competence of and cellular cooperation in the immune response. The term IA antigens used to refer only to the proteins encoded by the IA genes in the mouse, but is now used as a generic term for any class II histocompatibility antigen.

Unglycosylated phosphoproteins expressed only on B-cells. They are regulators of transmembrane Ca2+ conductance and thought to play a role in B-cell activation and proliferation.

A chronic leukemia characterized by abnormal B-lymphocytes and often generalized lymphadenopathy. In patients presenting predominately with blood and bone marrow involvement it is called chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL); in those predominately with enlarged lymph nodes it is called small lymphocytic lymphoma. These terms represent spectrums of the same disease.

Ratio of T-LYMPHOCYTES that express the CD4 ANTIGEN to those that express the CD8 ANTIGEN. This value is commonly assessed in the diagnosis and staging of diseases affecting the IMMUNE SYSTEM including HIV INFECTIONS.

Molecules found on the surface of some, but not all, B-lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes, and macrophages, which recognize and combine with the Fc (crystallizable) portion of immunoglobulin molecules.

An inheritable change in cells manifested by changes in cell division and growth and alterations in cell surface properties. It is induced by infection with a transforming virus.

Cells grown in vitro from neoplastic tissue. If they can be established as a TUMOR CELL LINE, they can be propagated in cell culture indefinitely.

The number of CD4-POSITIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES per unit volume of BLOOD. Determination requires the use of a fluorescence-activated flow cytometer.

Ordered rearrangement of B-lymphocyte variable gene regions coding for the IMMUNOGLOBULIN CHAINS, thereby contributing to antibody diversity. It occurs during the differentiation of the IMMATURE B-LYMPHOCYTES.

That region of the immunoglobulin molecule that varies in its amino acid sequence and composition, and comprises the binding site for a specific antigen. It is located at the N-terminus of the Fab fragment of the immunoglobulin. It includes hypervariable regions (COMPLEMENTARITY DETERMINING REGIONS) and framework regions.

Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.

White blood cells. These include granular leukocytes (BASOPHILS; EOSINOPHILS; and NEUTROPHILS) as well as non-granular leukocytes (LYMPHOCYTES and MONOCYTES).

One of the types of light chains of the immunoglobulins with a molecular weight of approximately 22 kDa.

A CXC chemokine that is chemotactic for B-LYMPHOCYTES. It has specificity for CXCR5 RECEPTORS.

Local surface sites on antibodies which react with antigen determinant sites on antigens (EPITOPES.) They are formed from parts of the variable regions of FAB FRAGMENTS.

A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).

Gene rearrangement of the B-lymphocyte which results in a substitution in the type of heavy-chain constant region that is expressed. This allows the effector response to change while the antigen binding specificity (variable region) remains the same. The majority of class switching occurs by a DNA recombination event but it also can take place at the level of RNA processing.

The movement of cells from one location to another. Distinguish from CYTOKINESIS which is the process of dividing the CYTOPLASM of a cell.

Antigens expressed primarily on the membranes of living cells during sequential stages of maturation and differentiation. As immunologic markers they have high organ and tissue specificity and are useful as probes in studies of normal cell development as well as neoplastic transformation.

The activated center of a lymphoid follicle in secondary lymphoid tissue where B-LYMPHOCYTES are stimulated by antigens and helper T cells (T-LYMPHOCYTES, HELPER-INDUCER) are stimulated to generate memory cells.

A CELL LINE derived from human T-CELL LEUKEMIA and used to determine the mechanism of differential susceptibility to anti-cancer drugs and radiation.

A lectin and cell adhesion molecule found in B-LYMPHOCYTES. It interacts with SIALIC ACIDS and mediates signaling from B-CELL ANTIGEN RECEPTORS.

Receptors present on activated T-LYMPHOCYTES and B-LYMPHOCYTES that are specific for INTERLEUKIN-2 and play an important role in LYMPHOCYTE ACTIVATION. They are heterotrimeric proteins consisting of the INTERLEUKIN-2 RECEPTOR ALPHA SUBUNIT, the INTERLEUKIN-2 RECEPTOR BETA SUBUNIT, and the INTERLEUKIN RECEPTOR COMMON GAMMA-CHAIN.

The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.

Adherence of cells to surfaces or to other cells.

The property of antibodies which enables them to react with some ANTIGENIC DETERMINANTS and not with others. Specificity is dependent on chemical composition, physical forces, and molecular structure at the binding site.

A member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily that specifically binds B-CELL ACTIVATING FACTOR. It is found on B-LYMPHOCYTES and plays a role in maturation and survival of B-cells. Signaling by the activated receptor occurs through its association with TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED FACTORS.

Lipid-containing polysaccharides which are endotoxins and important group-specific antigens. They are often derived from the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria and induce immunoglobulin secretion. The lipopolysaccharide molecule consists of three parts: LIPID A, core polysaccharide, and O-specific chains (O ANTIGENS). When derived from Escherichia coli, lipopolysaccharides serve as polyclonal B-cell mitogens commonly used in laboratory immunology. (From Dorland, 28th ed)

CD4-positive T cells that inhibit immunopathology or autoimmune disease in vivo. They inhibit the immune response by influencing the activity of other cell types. Regulatory T-cells include naturally occurring CD4+CD25+ cells, IL-10 secreting Tr1 cells, and Th3 cells.

Small antigenic determinants capable of eliciting an immune response only when coupled to a carrier. Haptens bind to antibodies but by themselves cannot elicit an antibody response.

Represents 15-20% of the human serum immunoglobulins, mostly as the 4-chain polymer in humans or dimer in other mammals. Secretory IgA (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A, SECRETORY) is the main immunoglobulin in secretions.

The classes of immunoglobulins found in any species of animal. In man there are nine classes that migrate in five different groups in electrophoresis; they each consist of two light and two heavy protein chains, and each group has distinguishing structural and functional properties.

Specialized cells of the hematopoietic system that have branch-like extensions. They are found throughout the lymphatic system, and in non-lymphoid tissues such as SKIN and the epithelia of the intestinal, respiratory, and reproductive tracts. They trap and process ANTIGENS, and present them to T-CELLS, thereby stimulating CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY. They are different from the non-hematopoietic FOLLICULAR DENDRITIC CELLS, which have a similar morphology and immune system function, but with respect to humoral immunity (ANTIBODY PRODUCTION).

A specific immune response elicited by a specific dose of an immunologically active substance or cell in an organism, tissue, or cell.

A heterogeneous group of immunocompetent cells that mediate the cellular immune response by processing and presenting antigens to the T-cells. Traditional antigen-presenting cells include MACROPHAGES; DENDRITIC CELLS; LANGERHANS CELLS; and B-LYMPHOCYTES. FOLLICULAR DENDRITIC CELLS are not traditional antigen-presenting cells, but because they hold antigen on their cell surface in the form of IMMUNE COMPLEXES for B-cell recognition they are considered so by some authors.

A protein extracted from boiled culture of tubercle bacilli (MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS). It is used in the tuberculin skin test (TUBERCULIN TEST) for the diagnosis of tuberculosis infection in asymptomatic persons.

Crystallizable fragments composed of the carboxy-terminal halves of both IMMUNOGLOBULIN HEAVY CHAINS linked to each other by disulfide bonds. Fc fragments contain the carboxy-terminal parts of the heavy chain constant regions that are responsible for the effector functions of an immunoglobulin (COMPLEMENT fixation, binding to the cell membrane via FC RECEPTORS, and placental transport). This fragment can be obtained by digestion of immunoglobulins with the proteolytic enzyme PAPAIN.

Substances elaborated by viruses that have antigenic activity.

55-kDa antigens found on HELPER-INDUCER T-LYMPHOCYTES and on a variety of other immune cell types. CD4 antigens are members of the immunoglobulin supergene family and are implicated as associative recognition elements in MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX class II-restricted immune responses. On T-lymphocytes they define the helper/inducer subset. CD4 antigens also serve as INTERLEUKIN-15 receptors and bind to the HIV receptors, binding directly to the HIV ENVELOPE PROTEIN GP120.

The lipid- and protein-containing, selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the ANTIGEN (or a very similar shape) that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially PLASMA CELLS).

Disorders that are characterized by the production of antibodies that react with host tissues or immune effector cells that are autoreactive to endogenous peptides.

Progenitor cells from which all blood cells derive.

A form of undifferentiated malignant LYMPHOMA usually found in central Africa, but also reported in other parts of the world. It is commonly manifested as a large osteolytic lesion in the jaw or as an abdominal mass. B-cell antigens are expressed on the immature cells that make up the tumor in virtually all cases of Burkitt lymphoma. The Epstein-Barr virus (HERPESVIRUS 4, HUMAN) has been isolated from Burkitt lymphoma cases in Africa and it is implicated as the causative agent in these cases; however, most non-African cases are EBV-negative.

A group of heterogeneous lymphoid tumors generally expressing one or more B-cell antigens or representing malignant transformations of B-lymphocytes.

Lymphoid tissue on the mucosa of the small intestine.

Proteins associated with the inner surface of the lipid bilayer of the viral envelope. These proteins have been implicated in control of viral transcription and may possibly serve as the "glue" that binds the nucleocapsid to the appropriate membrane site during viral budding from the host cell.

Cell surface molecules on cells of the immune system that specifically bind surface molecules or messenger molecules and trigger changes in the behavior of cells. Although these receptors were first identified in the immune system, many have important functions elsewhere.

A sucrose polymer of high molecular weight.

In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.

Deliberate stimulation of the host's immune response. ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of ANTIGENS or IMMUNOLOGIC ADJUVANTS. PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of IMMUNE SERA or LYMPHOCYTES or their extracts (e.g., transfer factor, immune RNA) or transplantation of immunocompetent cell producing tissue (thymus or bone marrow).

The movement of leukocytes in response to a chemical concentration gradient or to products formed in an immunologic reaction.

A tumor necrosis factor receptor subtype found in a variety of tissues and on activated LYMPHOCYTES. It has specificity for FAS LIGAND and plays a role in regulation of peripheral immune responses and APOPTOSIS. Multiple isoforms of the protein exist due to multiple ALTERNATIVE SPLICING. The activated receptor signals via a conserved death domain that associates with specific TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED FACTORS in the CYTOPLASM.

Proteins which bind to DNA. The family includes proteins which bind to both double- and single-stranded DNA and also includes specific DNA binding proteins in serum which can be used as markers for malignant diseases.

Antibodies that react with self-antigens (AUTOANTIGENS) of the organism that produced them.

The span of viability of a cell characterized by the capacity to perform certain functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, some form of responsiveness, and adaptability.

Proteins, glycoprotein, or lipoprotein moieties on surfaces of tumor cells that are usually identified by monoclonal antibodies. Many of these are of either embryonic or viral origin.

Antigens which may directly stimulate B lymphocytes without the cooperation of T lymphocytes.

A membrane glycoprotein and differentiation antigen expressed on the surface of T-cells that binds to CD40 ANTIGENS on B-LYMPHOCYTES and induces their proliferation. Mutation of the gene for CD40 ligand is a cause of HYPER-IGM IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME, TYPE 1.

The class of heavy chains found in IMMUNOGLOBULIN D. They have a molecular weight of approximately 64 kDa and they contain about 500 amino acid residues arranged in four domains and an oligosaccharide component covalently bound to the Fc fragment constant region.

The process by which antigen is presented to lymphocytes in a form they can recognize. This is performed by antigen presenting cells (APCs). Some antigens require processing before they can be recognized. Antigen processing consists of ingestion and partial digestion of the antigen by the APC, followed by presentation of fragments on the cell surface. (From Rosen et al., Dictionary of Immunology, 1989)

Ordered rearrangement of B-lymphocyte variable gene regions of the IMMUNOGLOBULIN HEAVY CHAINS, thereby contributing to antibody diversity. It occurs during the first stage of differentiation of the IMMATURE B-LYMPHOCYTES.

Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.

Proteins which are found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. They consist of two types, peripheral and integral proteins. They include most membrane-associated enzymes, antigenic proteins, transport proteins, and drug, hormone, and lectin receptors.

A chronic, relapsing, inflammatory, and often febrile multisystemic disorder of connective tissue, characterized principally by involvement of the skin, joints, kidneys, and serosal membranes. It is of unknown etiology, but is thought to represent a failure of the regulatory mechanisms of the autoimmune system. The disease is marked by a wide range of system dysfunctions, an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and the formation of LE cells in the blood or bone marrow.

Deliberate prevention or diminution of the host's immune response. It may be nonspecific as in the administration of immunosuppressive agents (drugs or radiation) or by lymphocyte depletion or may be specific as in desensitization or the simultaneous administration of antigen and immunosuppressive drugs.

A subclass of HLA-D antigens that consist of alpha and beta chains. The inheritance of HLA-DR antigens differs from that of the HLA-DQ ANTIGENS and HLA-DP ANTIGENS.

Excess of normal lymphocytes in the blood or in any effusion.

Surface ligands, usually glycoproteins, that mediate cell-to-cell adhesion. Their functions include the assembly and interconnection of various vertebrate systems, as well as maintenance of tissue integration, wound healing, morphogenic movements, cellular migrations, and metastasis.

The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.

The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.

Process whereby the immune system reacts against the body's own tissues. Autoimmunity may produce or be caused by AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.

Mice homozygous for the mutant autosomal recessive gene "scid" which is located on the centromeric end of chromosome 16. These mice lack mature, functional lymphocytes and are thus highly susceptible to lethal opportunistic infections if not chronically treated with antibiotics. The lack of B- and T-cell immunity resembles severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) syndrome in human infants. SCID mice are useful as animal models since they are receptive to implantation of a human immune system producing SCID-human (SCID-hu) hematochimeric mice.

A 302-amino-acid fragment in the alpha chain (672-1663) of C3b. It is generated when C3b is inactivated (iC3b) and its alpha chain is cleaved by COMPLEMENT FACTOR I into C3c, and C3dg (955-1303) in the presence COMPLEMENT FACTOR H. Serum proteases further degrade C3dg into C3d (1002-1303) and C3g (955-1001).

Any of the ruminant mammals with curved horns in the genus Ovis, family Bovidae. They possess lachrymal grooves and interdigital glands, which are absent in GOATS.

Serum glycoproteins participating in the host defense mechanism of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION that creates the COMPLEMENT MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX. Included are glycoproteins in the various pathways of complement activation (CLASSICAL COMPLEMENT PATHWAY; ALTERNATIVE COMPLEMENT PATHWAY; and LECTIN COMPLEMENT PATHWAY).

Benzene derivatives which are substituted with three nitro groups in any position.

Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.

Red blood cells. Mature erythrocytes are non-nucleated, biconcave disks containing HEMOGLOBIN whose function is to transport OXYGEN.

Form of passive immunization where previously sensitized immunologic agents (cells or serum) are transferred to non-immune recipients. When transfer of cells is used as a therapy for the treatment of neoplasms, it is called adoptive immunotherapy (IMMUNOTHERAPY, ADOPTIVE).

Molecules on the surface of B- and T-lymphocytes that recognize and combine with specific antigens.

The processes triggered by interactions of ANTIBODIES with their ANTIGENS.

All of the processes involved in increasing CELL NUMBER including CELL DIVISION.

Surgical removal of the thymus gland. (Dorland, 28th ed)

Serum that contains antibodies. It is obtained from an animal that has been immunized either by ANTIGEN injection or infection with microorganisms containing the antigen.

Any of several ways in which living cells of an organism communicate with one another, whether by direct contact between cells or by means of chemical signals carried by neurotransmitter substances, hormones, and cyclic AMP.

Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of immune system, processes, or phenomena. They include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electrical equipment.

Amplified B lymphocyte CD40 signaling drives regulatory B10 cell expansion in mice. (1/35)

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B cell-derived IL-10 suppresses inflammatory disease in Lyn-deficient mice. (2/35)

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Matchmaking the B-cell signature of tolerance to regulatory B cells. (3/35)

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Regulatory B cell production of IL-10 inhibits lymphoma depletion during CD20 immunotherapy in mice. (4/35)

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Rejection and regulation: a tight balance. (5/35)

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Regulatory B10 cells differentiate into antibody-secreting cells after transient IL-10 production in vivo. (6/35)

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Increased numbers of CD5+ B lymphocytes with a regulatory phenotype in spondylarthritis. (7/35)

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Preserving the B-cell compartment favors operational tolerance in human renal transplantation. (8/35)

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The two main types of lymphoid leukemia are:

1. Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL): This type of leukemia is most commonly seen in children, but it can also occur in adults. It is characterized by a rapid increase in the number of immature white blood cells in the blood and bone marrow.
2. Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL): This type of leukemia usually affects older adults and is characterized by the gradual buildup of abnormal white blood cells in the blood, bone marrow, and lymph nodes.

Symptoms of lymphoid leukemia include fatigue, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and swollen lymph nodes. Treatment options for lymphoid leukemia can vary depending on the type of cancer and the severity of symptoms, but may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or bone marrow transplantation.

Examples of Immunologic Deficiency Syndromes include:

1. Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases (PIDDs): These are a group of genetic disorders that affect the immune system's ability to function properly. Examples include X-linked agammaglobulinemia, common variable immunodeficiency, and severe combined immunodeficiency.
2. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS): This is a condition that results from the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, which destroys CD4 cells, a type of immune cell that fights off infections.
3. Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura (ITP): This is an autoimmune disorder that causes the immune system to attack and destroy platelets, which are blood cells that help the blood to clot.
4. Autoimmune Disorders: These are conditions in which the immune system mistakenly attacks and damages healthy cells and tissues in the body. Examples include rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and multiple sclerosis.
5. Immunosuppressive Therapy-induced Immunodeficiency: This is a condition that occurs as a side effect of medications used to prevent rejection in organ transplant patients. These medications can suppress the immune system, increasing the risk of infections.

Symptoms of Immunologic Deficiency Syndromes can vary depending on the specific disorder and the severity of the immune system dysfunction. Common symptoms include recurrent infections, fatigue, fever, and swollen lymph nodes. Treatment options for these syndromes range from medications to suppress the immune system to surgery or bone marrow transplantation.

In summary, Immunologic Deficiency Syndromes are a group of disorders that result from dysfunction of the immune system, leading to recurrent infections and other symptoms. There are many different types of these syndromes, each with its own set of symptoms and treatment options.

There are several possible causes of lymphopenia, including:

1. Viral infections: Many viral infections can cause lymphopenia, such as HIV/AIDS, hepatitis B and C, and influenza.
2. Bacterial infections: Some bacterial infections, such as tuberculosis and leprosy, can also cause lymphopenia.
3. Cancer: Certain types of cancer, such as Hodgkin's disease and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, can cause lymphopenia by destroying lymphocytes.
4. Autoimmune disorders: Autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus, can cause lymphopenia by attacking the body's own tissues, including lymphocytes.
5. Radiation therapy: Radiation therapy can destroy lymphocytes and cause lymphopenia.
6. Medications: Certain medications, such as chemotherapy drugs and antibiotics, can cause lymphopenia as a side effect.
7. Genetic disorders: Some genetic disorders, such as X-linked lymphoproliferative disease, can cause lymphopenia by affecting the development or function of lymphocytes.

Symptoms of lymphopenia can include recurring infections, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes. Treatment of lymphopenia depends on the underlying cause and may involve antibiotics, antiviral medications, or immunoglobulin replacement therapy. In some cases, a bone marrow transplant may be necessary.

Overall, lymphopenia is a condition that can have a significant impact on quality of life, and it is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time. With proper diagnosis and treatment, many people with lymphopenia can experience improved health outcomes and a better quality of life.

There are several types of lymphoma, including:

1. Hodgkin lymphoma: This is a type of lymphoma that originates in the white blood cells called Reed-Sternberg cells. It is characterized by the presence of giant cells with multiple nucleoli.
2. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL): This is a type of lymphoma that does not meet the criteria for Hodgkin lymphoma. There are many subtypes of NHL, each with its own unique characteristics and behaviors.
3. Cutaneous lymphoma: This type of lymphoma affects the skin and can take several forms, including cutaneous B-cell lymphoma and cutaneous T-cell lymphoma.
4. Primary central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma: This is a rare type of lymphoma that develops in the brain or spinal cord.
5. Post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD): This is a type of lymphoma that develops in people who have undergone an organ transplant, often as a result of immunosuppressive therapy.

The symptoms of lymphoma can vary depending on the type and location of the cancer. Some common symptoms include:

* Swollen lymph nodes
* Fever
* Fatigue
* Weight loss
* Night sweats
* Itching

Lymphoma is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, imaging tests (such as CT scans or PET scans), and biopsies. Treatment options for lymphoma depend on the type and stage of the cancer, and may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, or stem cell transplantation.

Overall, lymphoma is a complex and diverse group of cancers that can affect people of all ages and backgrounds. While it can be challenging to diagnose and treat, advances in medical technology and research have improved the outlook for many patients with lymphoma.

People with agammaglobulinemia are more susceptible to infections, particularly those caused by encapsulated bacteria, such as Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae type b. They may also experience recurrent sinopulmonary infections, ear infections, and gastrointestinal infections. The disorder can be managed with intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) therapy, which provides antibodies to help prevent infections. In severe cases, a bone marrow transplant may be necessary.

Agammaglobulinemia is an autosomal recessive disorder, meaning that a person must inherit two mutated copies of the BTK gene (one from each parent) to develop the condition. It is relatively rare, affecting approximately one in 1 million people worldwide. The disorder can be diagnosed through genetic testing and a complete blood count (CBC) that shows low levels of immunoglobulins.

Treatment for ag

In LLCB, the B cells undergo a mutation that causes them to become cancerous and multiply rapidly. This can lead to an overproduction of these cells in the bone marrow, causing the bone marrow to become crowded and unable to produce healthy red blood cells, platelets, and white blood cells.

LLCB is typically a slow-growing cancer, and it can take years for symptoms to develop. However, as the cancer progresses, it can lead to a range of symptoms including fatigue, weakness, weight loss, fever, night sweats, and swollen lymph nodes.

LLCB is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, blood tests, bone marrow biopsy, and imaging studies such as X-rays or CT scans. Treatment options for LLCB include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and in some cases, stem cell transplantation.

Overall, while LLCB is a serious condition, it is typically slow-growing and can be managed with appropriate treatment. With current treatments, many people with LLCB can achieve long-term remission and a good quality of life.

1. Activation of oncogenes: Some viruses contain genes that code for proteins that can activate existing oncogenes in the host cell, leading to uncontrolled cell growth.
2. Inactivation of tumor suppressor genes: Other viruses may contain genes that inhibit the expression of tumor suppressor genes, allowing cells to grow and divide uncontrollably.
3. Insertional mutagenesis: Some viruses can insert their own DNA into the host cell's genome, leading to disruptions in normal cellular function and potentially causing cancer.
4. Epigenetic changes: Viral infection can also cause epigenetic changes, such as DNA methylation or histone modification, that can lead to the silencing of tumor suppressor genes and the activation of oncogenes.

Viral cell transformation is a key factor in the development of many types of cancer, including cervical cancer caused by human papillomavirus (HPV), and liver cancer caused by hepatitis B virus (HBV). In addition, some viruses are specifically known to cause cancer, such as Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV).

Early detection and treatment of viral infections can help prevent the development of cancer. Vaccines are also available for some viruses that are known to cause cancer, such as HPV and hepatitis B. Additionally, antiviral therapy can be used to treat existing infections and may help reduce the risk of cancer development.

Examples of autoimmune diseases include:

1. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA): A condition where the immune system attacks the joints, leading to inflammation, pain, and joint damage.
2. Lupus: A condition where the immune system attacks various body parts, including the skin, joints, and organs.
3. Hashimoto's thyroiditis: A condition where the immune system attacks the thyroid gland, leading to hypothyroidism.
4. Multiple sclerosis (MS): A condition where the immune system attacks the protective covering of nerve fibers in the central nervous system, leading to communication problems between the brain and the rest of the body.
5. Type 1 diabetes: A condition where the immune system attacks the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas, leading to high blood sugar levels.
6. Guillain-Barré syndrome: A condition where the immune system attacks the nerves, leading to muscle weakness and paralysis.
7. Psoriasis: A condition where the immune system attacks the skin, leading to red, scaly patches.
8. Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis: Conditions where the immune system attacks the digestive tract, leading to inflammation and damage to the gut.
9. Sjögren's syndrome: A condition where the immune system attacks the glands that produce tears and saliva, leading to dry eyes and mouth.
10. Vasculitis: A condition where the immune system attacks the blood vessels, leading to inflammation and damage to the blood vessels.

The symptoms of autoimmune diseases vary depending on the specific disease and the organs or tissues affected. Common symptoms include fatigue, fever, joint pain, skin rashes, and swollen lymph nodes. Treatment for autoimmune diseases typically involves medication to suppress the immune system and reduce inflammation, as well as lifestyle changes such as dietary changes and stress management techniques.

Also known as Burkitt's Lymphoma.

There are several subtypes of lymphoma, B-cell, including:

1. Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL): This is the most common type of B-cell lymphoma and typically affects older adults.
2. Follicular lymphoma: This type of lymphoma grows slowly and often does not require treatment for several years.
3. Marginal zone lymphoma: This type of lymphoma develops in the marginal zone of the spleen or other lymphoid tissues.
4. Hodgkin lymphoma: This is a type of B-cell lymphoma that is characterized by the presence of Reed-Sternberg cells, which are abnormal cells that can be identified under a microscope.

The symptoms of lymphoma, B-cell can vary depending on the subtype and the location of the tumor. Common symptoms include swollen lymph nodes, fatigue, fever, night sweats, and weight loss.

Treatment for lymphoma, B-cell usually involves chemotherapy, which is a type of cancer treatment that uses drugs to kill cancer cells. Radiation therapy may also be used in some cases. In some cases, bone marrow or stem cell transplantation may be recommended.

Prognosis for lymphoma, B-cell depends on the subtype and the stage of the disease at the time of diagnosis. In general, the prognosis is good for patients with early-stage disease, but the cancer can be more difficult to treat if it has spread to other parts of the body.

Prevention of lymphoma, B-cell is not possible, as the exact cause of the disease is not known. However, avoiding exposure to certain risk factors, such as viral infections and pesticides, may help reduce the risk of developing the disease. Early detection and treatment can also improve outcomes for patients with lymphoma, B-cell.

Lymphoma, B-cell is a type of cancer that affects the immune system and can be treated with chemotherapy and other therapies. The prognosis varies depending on the subtype and stage of the disease at diagnosis. Prevention is not possible, but early detection and treatment can improve outcomes for patients with this condition.

The term "systemic" refers to the fact that the disease affects multiple organ systems, including the skin, joints, kidneys, lungs, and nervous system. LES is a complex condition, and its symptoms can vary widely depending on which organs are affected. Common symptoms include fatigue, fever, joint pain, rashes, and swelling in the extremities.

There are several subtypes of LES, including:

1. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE): This is the most common form of the disease, and it can affect anyone, regardless of age or gender.
2. Discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE): This subtype typically affects the skin, causing a red, scaly rash that does not go away.
3. Drug-induced lupus erythematosus: This form of the disease is caused by certain medications, and it usually resolves once the medication is stopped.
4. Neonatal lupus erythematosus: This rare condition affects newborn babies of mothers with SLE, and it can cause liver and heart problems.

There is no cure for LES, but treatment options are available to manage the symptoms and prevent flares. Treatment may include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, immunosuppressive medications, and antimalarial drugs. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and treat the disease.

It is important for people with LES to work closely with their healthcare providers to manage their condition and prevent complications. With proper treatment and self-care, many people with LES can lead active and fulfilling lives.

There are several possible causes of lymphocytosis, including:

1. Infection: Lymphocytosis can be caused by a variety of infections, such as viral or bacterial infections.
2. Autoimmune disorders: Conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and multiple sclerosis can cause an abnormal increase in lymphocytes.
3. Cancer: Lymphocytosis can be a symptom of certain types of cancer, such as Hodgkin's disease and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.
4. Reaction to medication: Certain medications, such as antibiotics and chemotherapy drugs, can cause lymphocytosis.
5. Genetic disorders: Certain genetic disorders, such as X-linked agammaglobulinemia, can cause lymphocytosis.

Symptoms of lymphocytosis may include swollen lymph nodes, fatigue, fever, and weight loss. Treatment depends on the underlying cause of the condition, and may involve antibiotics, chemotherapy, or other medications. In some cases, no treatment is necessary, as the condition may resolve on its own over time.

Examples of delayed hypersensitivity reactions include contact dermatitis (a skin reaction to an allergic substance), tuberculin reactivity (a reaction to the bacteria that cause tuberculosis), and sarcoidosis (a condition characterized by inflammation in various organs, including the lungs and lymph nodes).

Delayed hypersensitivity reactions are important in the diagnosis and management of allergic disorders and other immune-related conditions. They can be detected through a variety of tests, including skin prick testing, patch testing, and blood tests. Treatment for delayed hypersensitivity reactions depends on the underlying cause and may involve medications such as antihistamines, corticosteroids, or immunosuppressants.

Hairy cell leukemia typically affects older adults, and it is usually slow-growing and progresses gradually over many years. Symptoms of hairy cell leukemia can include fatigue, weakness, weight loss, fever, night sweats, and swollen lymph nodes.

Hairy cell leukemia is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, blood tests, and bone marrow biopsy. Treatment for hairy cell leukemia typically involves chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of both. In some cases, the disease may go into remission with treatment, but it can also be a chronic condition that requires ongoing management.

Prevention: There is no known prevention for hairy cell leukemia, as the cause of the disease is not fully understood. However, early detection and treatment can improve outcomes.

Prognosis: The prognosis for hairy cell leukemia varies depending on the individual patient and the aggressiveness of the disease. In general, the condition tends to be slow-growing and progresses gradually over many years. With appropriate treatment, some patients can achieve long-term remission or even be cured. However, in more advanced cases, the disease can be more difficult to treat and may have a poorer prognosis.

Symptoms: Symptoms of hairy cell leukemia can include fatigue, weakness, weight loss, fever, night sweats, and swollen lymph nodes. These symptoms can develop gradually over time, and they may be mild at first but become more severe as the disease progresses.

Treatment: Treatment for hairy cell leukemia typically involves chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of both. The specific treatment plan will depend on the individual patient and the severity of their condition. In some cases, watchful waiting may be appropriate, especially if the disease is not causing significant symptoms.

Lifestyle Changes: There are no lifestyle changes that can cure hairy cell leukemia, but they can help improve overall health and well-being. These changes may include eating a healthy diet, getting regular exercise, getting enough rest, and managing stress. In addition, avoiding exposure to certain chemicals and toxins may be beneficial for some patients.

Medications: There are several medications that can be used to treat hairy cell leukemia. These include chemotherapy drugs such as pentostatin and cladribine, which can help kill cancer cells and slow the progression of the disease. In addition, some patients may receive radiation therapy to help shrink swollen lymph nodes or other affected tissues.

Supportive Care: Supportive care is an important part of treatment for hairy cell leukemia. This type of care focuses on managing symptoms and improving quality of life, rather than directly targeting the cancer cells. Supportive care may include medications to manage pain, fatigue, or infection, as well as blood transfusions to help improve anemia.

Bone Marrow Transplant: In some cases, bone marrow transplant may be an option for patients with hairy cell leukemia. This involves replacing the patient's bone marrow with healthy cells from a donor, which can help cure the disease. However, this is typically reserved for patients who have not responded to other treatments or who have experienced significant complications from the disease.

Overall, the prognosis for hairy cell leukemia is generally good, with many patients experiencing a good response to treatment and a low risk of complications. However, it is important for patients to work closely with their healthcare team to develop a personalized treatment plan that meets their individual needs and helps them achieve the best possible outcome.

There are several types of lymphoproliferative disorders, including:

1. Lymphoma: This is a type of cancer that affects the immune system and can arise from either B cells or T cells. There are several subtypes of lymphoma, including Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
2. Leukemia: This is a type of cancer that affects the blood and bone marrow. It occurs when there is an abnormal proliferation of white blood cells, which can lead to an overproduction of immature or malignant cells.
3. Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS): This is a group of disorders that affect the bone marrow and can lead to an abnormal production of blood cells. MDS can progress to acute myeloid leukemia (AML).
4. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL): This is a type of cancer that affects the blood and bone marrow, characterized by the accumulation of mature-looking but dysfunctional B cells in the blood.
5. Marginal zone lymphoma: This is a type of cancer that arises from the marginal zone of the spleen, which is the area where the white pulp and red pulp of the spleen meet.
6. Mantle cell lymphoma: This is a type of cancer that affects the lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues, characterized by the accumulation of malignant B cells in the mantle zone of the lymph node.
7. Primary central nervous system lymphoma (PCNSL): This is a rare type of cancer that affects the brain and spinal cord, characterized by the accumulation of malignant B cells in the central nervous system.
8. Hairy cell leukemia: This is a rare type of cancer that affects the blood and bone marrow, characterized by the accumulation of abnormal B cells with a "hairy" appearance in the blood and bone marrow.
9. Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma: This is a type of cancer that affects the lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues, characterized by the accumulation of malignant B cells in the lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues.
10. AIDS-related lymphoma: This is a type of cancer that affects people with HIV/AIDS, characterized by the accumulation of malignant B cells in the lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues.

It's important to note that these are just some examples of B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas, and there are many other subtypes and variants of this disease. Each type of lymphoma has its own unique characteristics and may require different treatment approaches.

People with SCID are extremely susceptible to infections, particularly those caused by viruses, and often develop symptoms shortly after birth. These may include diarrhea, vomiting, fever, and failure to gain weight or grow at the expected rate. Without treatment, SCID can lead to life-threatening infections and can be fatal within the first year of life.

Treatment for SCID typically involves bone marrow transplantation or enzyme replacement therapy. Bone marrow transplantation involves replacing the patient's faulty immune system with healthy cells from a donor, while enzyme replacement therapy involves replacing the missing or dysfunctional enzymes that cause the immune deficiency. Both of these treatments can help restore the patient's immune system and improve their quality of life.

In summary, severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) is a rare genetic disorder that impairs the body's ability to fight infections and can be fatal without treatment. Treatment options include bone marrow transplantation and enzyme replacement therapy.

There are several symptoms of RA, including:

1. Joint pain and stiffness, especially in the hands and feet
2. Swollen and warm joints
3. Redness and tenderness in the affected areas
4. Fatigue, fever, and loss of appetite
5. Loss of range of motion in the affected joints
6. Firm bumps of tissue under the skin (rheumatoid nodules)

RA can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, blood tests, and imaging studies such as X-rays or ultrasound. Treatment typically involves a combination of medications, including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs), and biologic agents. Lifestyle modifications such as exercise and physical therapy can also be helpful in managing symptoms and improving quality of life.

There is no cure for RA, but early diagnosis and aggressive treatment can help to slow the progression of the disease and reduce symptoms. With proper management, many people with RA are able to lead active and fulfilling lives.

There are several different types of leukemia, including:

1. Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL): This is the most common type of leukemia in children, but it can also occur in adults. It is characterized by an overproduction of immature white blood cells called lymphoblasts.
2. Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML): This type of leukemia affects the bone marrow's ability to produce red blood cells, platelets, and other white blood cells. It can occur at any age but is most common in adults.
3. Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL): This type of leukemia affects older adults and is characterized by the slow growth of abnormal white blood cells called lymphocytes.
4. Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML): This type of leukemia is caused by a genetic mutation in a gene called BCR-ABL. It can occur at any age but is most common in adults.
5. Hairy Cell Leukemia: This is a rare type of leukemia that affects older adults and is characterized by the presence of abnormal white blood cells called hairy cells.
6. Myelodysplastic Syndrome (MDS): This is a group of disorders that occur when the bone marrow is unable to produce healthy blood cells. It can lead to leukemia if left untreated.

Treatment for leukemia depends on the type and severity of the disease, but may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, targeted therapy, or stem cell transplantation.

Herpesviridae infections are caused by the Herpesviridae family of viruses and can be transmitted through skin-to-skin contact, sexual contact, or from mother to child during pregnancy or childbirth. Symptoms of herpesviridae infections can vary depending on the type of virus and the individual infected, but may include fever, fatigue, muscle aches, and skin sores or rashes.

There is no cure for herpesviridae infections, but antiviral medications can help manage symptoms and reduce the risk of transmission to others. Good hygiene practices, such as washing hands regularly and avoiding close contact with those who are infected, can also help prevent the spread of these viruses.

Some common types of herpesviridae infections include:

* Herpes simplex virus (HSV) - Causes cold sores and genital herpes.
* Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) - Causes chickenpox and shingles.
* Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) - Associated with certain types of cancer, such as Kaposi's sarcoma.

1) They share similarities with humans: Many animal species share similar biological and physiological characteristics with humans, making them useful for studying human diseases. For example, mice and rats are often used to study diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer because they have similar metabolic and cardiovascular systems to humans.

2) They can be genetically manipulated: Animal disease models can be genetically engineered to develop specific diseases or to model human genetic disorders. This allows researchers to study the progression of the disease and test potential treatments in a controlled environment.

3) They can be used to test drugs and therapies: Before new drugs or therapies are tested in humans, they are often first tested in animal models of disease. This allows researchers to assess the safety and efficacy of the treatment before moving on to human clinical trials.

4) They can provide insights into disease mechanisms: Studying disease models in animals can provide valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of a particular disease. This information can then be used to develop new treatments or improve existing ones.

5) Reduces the need for human testing: Using animal disease models reduces the need for human testing, which can be time-consuming, expensive, and ethically challenging. However, it is important to note that animal models are not perfect substitutes for human subjects, and results obtained from animal studies may not always translate to humans.

6) They can be used to study infectious diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study infectious diseases such as HIV, TB, and malaria. These models allow researchers to understand how the disease is transmitted, how it progresses, and how it responds to treatment.

7) They can be used to study complex diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study complex diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. These models allow researchers to understand the underlying mechanisms of the disease and test potential treatments.

8) They are cost-effective: Animal disease models are often less expensive than human clinical trials, making them a cost-effective way to conduct research.

9) They can be used to study drug delivery: Animal disease models can be used to study drug delivery and pharmacokinetics, which is important for developing new drugs and drug delivery systems.

10) They can be used to study aging: Animal disease models can be used to study the aging process and age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. This allows researchers to understand how aging contributes to disease and develop potential treatments.

The symptoms of infectious mononucleosis can vary in severity but typically include:

* Fatigue
* Fever
* Sore throat
* Swollen lymph nodes in the neck and armpits
* Enlarged spleen
* Headache
* Muscle weakness
* Rash
* Swollen liver or spleen

Infectious mononucleosis is usually diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, blood tests, and other laboratory tests. Treatment focuses on relieving symptoms and allowing the body to fight the infection on its own.

Prognosis for infectious mononucleosis is generally good, but it can take several weeks to recover fully. Complications are rare but can include inflammation of the spleen, liver disease, and a condition called splenomegaly (enlargement of the spleen).

Prevention includes avoiding close contact with people who have mononucleosis, washing hands frequently, and not sharing eating or drinking utensils. There is no vaccine available to protect against infectious mononucleosis.

Hodgkin Disease can spread to other parts of the body through the lymphatic system, and it can affect people of all ages, although it is most common in young adults and teenagers. The symptoms of Hodgkin Disease can vary depending on the stage of the disease, but they may include swollen lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, fatigue, weight loss, and itching.

There are several types of Hodgkin Disease, including:

* Classical Hodgkin Disease: This is the most common type of Hodgkin Disease and is characterized by the presence of Reed-Sternberg cells.
* Nodular Lymphocytic predominant Hodgkin Disease: This type of Hodgkin Disease is characterized by the presence of nodules in the lymph nodes.
* Mixed Cellularity Hodgkin Disease: This type of Hodgkin Disease is characterized by a mixture of Reed-Sternberg cells and other immune cells.

Hodgkin Disease is usually diagnosed with a biopsy, which involves removing a sample of tissue from the affected lymph node or other area and examining it under a microscope for cancer cells. Treatment for Hodgkin Disease typically involves chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of both. In some cases, bone marrow or stem cell transplantation may be necessary.

The prognosis for Hodgkin Disease is generally good, especially if the disease is detected and treated early. According to the American Cancer Society, the 5-year survival rate for people with Hodgkin Disease is about 85%. However, the disease can sometimes recur after treatment, and the long-term effects of radiation therapy and chemotherapy can include infertility, heart problems, and an increased risk of secondary cancers.

Hodgkin Disease is a rare form of cancer that affects the immune system. It is most commonly diagnosed in young adults and is usually treatable with chemotherapy or radiation therapy. However, the disease can sometimes recur after treatment, and the long-term effects of treatment can include infertility, heart problems, and an increased risk of secondary cancers.

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection is a condition in which the body is infected with HIV, a type of retrovirus that attacks the body's immune system. HIV infection can lead to AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), a condition in which the immune system is severely damaged and the body is unable to fight off infections and diseases.

There are several ways that HIV can be transmitted, including:

1. Sexual contact with an infected person
2. Sharing of needles or other drug paraphernalia with an infected person
3. Mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding
4. Blood transfusions ( although this is rare in developed countries due to screening processes)
5. Organ transplantation (again, rare)

The symptoms of HIV infection can be mild at first and may not appear until several years after infection. These symptoms can include:

1. Fever
2. Fatigue
3. Swollen glands in the neck, armpits, and groin
4. Rash
5. Muscle aches and joint pain
6. Night sweats
7. Diarrhea
8. Weight loss

If left untreated, HIV infection can progress to AIDS, which is a life-threatening condition that can cause a wide range of symptoms, including:

1. Opportunistic infections (such as pneumocystis pneumonia)
2. Cancer (such as Kaposi's sarcoma)
3. Wasting syndrome
4. Neurological problems (such as dementia and seizures)

HIV infection is diagnosed through a combination of blood tests and physical examination. Treatment typically involves antiretroviral therapy (ART), which is a combination of medications that work together to suppress the virus and slow the progression of the disease.

Prevention methods for HIV infection include:

1. Safe sex practices, such as using condoms and dental dams
2. Avoiding sharing needles or other drug-injecting equipment
3. Avoiding mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding
4. Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), which is a short-term treatment that can prevent infection after potential exposure to the virus
5. Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), which is a daily medication that can prevent infection in people who are at high risk of being exposed to the virus.

It's important to note that HIV infection is manageable with proper treatment and care, and that people living with HIV can lead long and healthy lives. However, it's important to be aware of the risks and take steps to prevent transmission.

Plasmacytoma is a type of plasma cell dyscrasia, which is a group of diseases that affect the production and function of plasma cells. Plasma cells are a type of white blood cell that produces antibodies to fight infections. In plasmacytoma, the abnormal plasma cells grow and multiply out of control, leading to a tumor.

There are several subtypes of plasmacytoma, including:

* solitary plasmacytoma: A single tumor that occurs in one location.
* multiple myeloma: A type of cancer that affects the bones and is characterized by an overgrowth of malignant plasma cells in the bone marrow.
* extramedullary plasmacytoma: A tumor that occurs outside of the bone marrow, such as in soft tissue or organs.

Plasmacytoma is usually diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, imaging tests such as X-rays or CT scans, and biopsy. Treatment typically involves chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy to destroy the abnormal cells. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove the tumor.

Plasmacytoma is a relatively rare cancer, but it can be aggressive and potentially life-threatening if left untreated. It is important for patients with symptoms of plasmacytoma to seek medical attention as soon as possible to receive an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment.

There are several causes of hypergammaglobulinemia, including:

1. Chronic infections: Prolonged infections can cause an increase in the production of immunoglobulins to fight off the infection.
2. Autoimmune disorders: Conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and multiple sclerosis can cause the immune system to produce excessive amounts of antibodies.
3. Cancer: Some types of cancer, such as Hodgkin's disease and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, can cause an increase in immunoglobulin production.
4. Genetic disorders: Certain genetic conditions, such as X-linked agammaglobulinemia, can lead to a deficiency or excess of immunoglobulins.
5. Medications: Certain medications, such as corticosteroids and chemotherapy drugs, can suppress the immune system and reduce the production of immunoglobulins.

Symptoms of hypergammaglobulinemia can include:

1. Infections: Recurring infections are a common symptom of hypergammaglobulinemia, as the excessive amount of antibodies can make it difficult for the body to fight off infections effectively.
2. Fatigue: Chronic infections and inflammation can cause fatigue and weakness.
3. Weight loss: Recurring infections and chronic inflammation can lead to weight loss and malnutrition.
4. Swollen lymph nodes: Enlarged lymph nodes are a common symptom of hypergammaglobulinemia, as the body tries to fight off infections.
5. Fever: Recurring fevers can be a symptom of hypergammaglobulinemia, as the body tries to fight off infections.
6. Night sweats: Excessive sweating at night can be a symptom of hypergammaglobulinemia.
7. Skin rashes: Certain types of skin rashes can be a symptom of hypergammaglobulinemia, such as a rash caused by allergic reactions to medications or infections.
8. Joint pain: Pain and stiffness in the joints can be a symptom of hypergammaglobulinemia, particularly if the excessive amount of antibodies is causing inflammation in the joints.
9. Headaches: Chronic headaches can be a symptom of hypergammaglobulinemia, particularly if the excessive amount of antibodies is causing inflammation in the brain or other parts of the body.
10. Swollen liver and spleen: Enlarged liver and spleen can be a symptom of hypergammaglobulinemia, as the body tries to filter out excess antibodies and fight off infections.

It is important to note that these symptoms can also be caused by other medical conditions, so it is essential to consult a healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and treatment. A healthcare professional may perform blood tests and other diagnostic procedures to determine the underlying cause of the symptoms and develop an appropriate treatment plan. Treatment for hypergammaglobulinemia typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the condition, such as infections, allergies, or autoimmune disorders, and may include medications to reduce inflammation and suppress the immune system.

There are several key features of inflammation:

1. Increased blood flow: Blood vessels in the affected area dilate, allowing more blood to flow into the tissue and bringing with it immune cells, nutrients, and other signaling molecules.
2. Leukocyte migration: White blood cells, such as neutrophils and monocytes, migrate towards the site of inflammation in response to chemical signals.
3. Release of mediators: Inflammatory mediators, such as cytokines and chemokines, are released by immune cells and other cells in the affected tissue. These molecules help to coordinate the immune response and attract more immune cells to the site of inflammation.
4. Activation of immune cells: Immune cells, such as macrophages and T cells, become activated and start to phagocytose (engulf) pathogens or damaged tissue.
5. Increased heat production: Inflammation can cause an increase in metabolic activity in the affected tissue, leading to increased heat production.
6. Redness and swelling: Increased blood flow and leakiness of blood vessels can cause redness and swelling in the affected area.
7. Pain: Inflammation can cause pain through the activation of nociceptors (pain-sensing neurons) and the release of pro-inflammatory mediators.

Inflammation can be acute or chronic. Acute inflammation is a short-term response to injury or infection, which helps to resolve the issue quickly. Chronic inflammation is a long-term response that can cause ongoing damage and diseases such as arthritis, asthma, and cancer.

There are several types of inflammation, including:

1. Acute inflammation: A short-term response to injury or infection.
2. Chronic inflammation: A long-term response that can cause ongoing damage and diseases.
3. Autoimmune inflammation: An inappropriate immune response against the body's own tissues.
4. Allergic inflammation: An immune response to a harmless substance, such as pollen or dust mites.
5. Parasitic inflammation: An immune response to parasites, such as worms or fungi.
6. Bacterial inflammation: An immune response to bacteria.
7. Viral inflammation: An immune response to viruses.
8. Fungal inflammation: An immune response to fungi.

There are several ways to reduce inflammation, including:

1. Medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, and disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs).
2. Lifestyle changes, such as a healthy diet, regular exercise, stress management, and getting enough sleep.
3. Alternative therapies, such as acupuncture, herbal supplements, and mind-body practices.
4. Addressing underlying conditions, such as hormonal imbalances, gut health issues, and chronic infections.
5. Using anti-inflammatory compounds found in certain foods, such as omega-3 fatty acids, turmeric, and ginger.

It's important to note that chronic inflammation can lead to a range of health problems, including:

1. Arthritis
2. Diabetes
3. Heart disease
4. Cancer
5. Alzheimer's disease
6. Parkinson's disease
7. Autoimmune disorders, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis.

Therefore, it's important to manage inflammation effectively to prevent these complications and improve overall health and well-being.

There are several subtypes of B-cell leukemia, including:

1. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL): This is the most common type of B-cell leukemia, and it typically affects older adults. CLL is a slow-growing cancer that can progress over time.
2. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL): This is a fast-growing and aggressive form of B-cell leukemia that can affect people of all ages. ALL is often treated with chemotherapy and sometimes with bone marrow transplantation.
3. Burkitt lymphoma: This is an aggressive form of B-cell leukemia that typically affects older adults in Africa and Asia. Burkitt lymphoma can be treated with chemotherapy and sometimes with bone marrow transplantation.
4. Hairy cell leukemia: This is a rare type of B-cell leukemia that is characterized by the presence of hair-like projections on the surface of cancer cells. Hairy cell leukemia can be treated with chemotherapy and sometimes with bone marrow transplantation.

The diagnosis of B-cell leukemia is based on a combination of physical examination, medical history, laboratory tests, and biopsies. Treatment options for B-cell leukemia include chemotherapy, bone marrow transplantation, and in some cases, targeted therapy with drugs that specifically target cancer cells. The prognosis for B-cell leukemia varies depending on the subtype of the disease and the patient's overall health.

1. Lymphedema: This is a condition in which the lymph vessels are unable to properly drain fluid from the body, leading to swelling in the affected limb.
2. Lymphangitis: This is an inflammation of the lymph vessels that can cause pain, redness, and swelling.
3. Lymphadenitis: This is an infection of the lymph nodes that can cause swelling, pain, and difficulty breathing.
4. Primary lymphedema: This is a rare genetic condition in which the lymph vessels are missing or do not develop properly.
5. Secondary lymphedema: This is a condition that develops as a result of another condition or injury, such as surgery, radiation therapy, or infection.
6. Lymphatic malformations: These are abnormalities in the development of the lymph vessels and nodes that can cause swelling, pain, and difficulty breathing.
7. Lymphocystis: This is a rare condition in which small cysts form in the lymph vessels and nodes.
8. Lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM): This is a rare condition that causes cysts to form in the lungs and can also affect the lymph vessels and nodes.
9. Lipedema: This is a condition in which there is an abnormal accumulation of fat in the legs, thighs, and buttocks, which can cause swelling and pain.
10. Pemphigus: This is a group of rare autoimmune disorders that affect the skin and mucous membranes, leading to blistering and scarring.

Treatment for lymphatic diseases depends on the specific condition and may include compression garments, exercises, and manual lymph drainage therapy. In some cases, medications such as antibiotics or anti-inflammatory drugs may be prescribed to help manage symptoms. Surgery may also be necessary in some cases to remove blockages or repair damaged vessels.

It is important to seek medical attention if you experience any persistent swelling or pain, as these can be signs of a lymphatic disease. Early diagnosis and treatment can help to manage symptoms and improve quality of life.

Symptoms of EBV infection can vary widely, ranging from asymptomatic to severe, and may include:

* Fatigue
* Fever
* Sore throat
* Swollen lymph nodes in the neck and armpits
* Swollen liver or spleen
* Rash
* Headaches
* Muscle weakness

In some cases, EBV can lead to more serious complications such as infectious mononucleosis (IM), also known as glandular fever, which can cause:

* Enlarged liver and spleen
* Splenomegaly (enlargement of the spleen)
* Hepatomegaly (enlargement of the liver)
* Thrombocytopenia (low platelet count)
* Anemia (low red blood cell count)
* Leukopenia (low white blood cell count)

EBV is also associated with an increased risk of developing certain types of cancer, including Burkitt lymphoma, Hodgkin lymphoma, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

There is no specific treatment for EBV infections, and most cases resolve on their own within a few weeks. Antiviral medications may be prescribed in severe cases or to prevent complications. Rest, hydration, and over-the-counter pain relief medication can help alleviate symptoms.

There are several types of melanoma, including:

1. Superficial spreading melanoma: This is the most common type of melanoma, accounting for about 70% of cases. It usually appears as a flat or slightly raised discolored patch on the skin.
2. Nodular melanoma: This type of melanoma is more aggressive and accounts for about 15% of cases. It typically appears as a raised bump on the skin, often with a darker color.
3. Acral lentiginous melanoma: This type of melanoma affects the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, or nail beds and accounts for about 5% of cases.
4. Lentigo maligna melanoma: This type of melanoma usually affects the face and is more common in older adults.

The risk factors for developing melanoma include:

1. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation exposure from the sun or tanning beds
2. Fair skin, light hair, and light eyes
3. A history of sunburns
4. Weakened immune system
5. Family history of melanoma

The symptoms of melanoma can vary depending on the type and location of the cancer. Common symptoms include:

1. Changes in the size, shape, or color of a mole
2. A new mole or growth on the skin
3. A spot or sore that bleeds or crusts over
4. Itching or pain on the skin
5. Redness or swelling around a mole

If melanoma is suspected, a biopsy will be performed to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment options for melanoma depend on the stage and location of the cancer and may include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of these. Early detection and treatment are key to successful outcomes in melanoma cases.

In conclusion, melanoma is a type of skin cancer that can be deadly if not detected early. It is important to practice sun safety, perform regular self-exams, and seek medical attention if any suspicious changes are noticed on the skin. By being aware of the risk factors, symptoms, and treatment options for melanoma, individuals can take steps to protect themselves from this potentially deadly disease.

There are several types of dysgammaglobulinemia, including:

1. X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA): This is a rare genetic disorder caused by mutations in the Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) gene. It results in a complete absence of immunoglobulins in the blood, leaving individuals with XLA susceptible to infections.
2. Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID): This is a relatively common autoimmune disorder that affects B cells and leads to low levels of immunoglobulins in the blood. It can be associated with other autoimmune disorders, such as hypothyroidism or rheumatoid arthritis.
3. Selective IgA deficiency: This is a relatively common condition characterized by low levels of IgA antibodies in the blood. It can increase the risk of infections, particularly in the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts.
4. Other forms of dysgammaglobulinemia: There are several other less common forms of dysgammaglobulinemia that can be caused by a variety of genetic or acquired factors, such as mutations in the immunoglobulin genes, chronic infections, or certain medications.

The symptoms and signs of dysgammaglobulinemia depend on the specific type and severity of the disorder. Common symptoms include recurrent infections, particularly respiratory and gastrointestinal infections, as well as fatigue, fever, and night sweats. Diagnosis is typically made based on a combination of clinical findings, laboratory tests (such as measurements of immunoglobulin levels), and genetic testing. Treatment options include antibiotics for infections, immunoglobulin replacement therapy, and management of associated symptoms such as fatigue and fever.

The presence of chromosome-defective micronuclei in cells can be an indication of genetic damage and may be used as a diagnostic marker for certain diseases or conditions, such as cancer or exposure to toxic substances. The frequency and distribution of these structures within a cell population can also provide information about the type and severity of genetic damage present.

In contrast to other types of micronuclei, which are typically smaller and less complex, chromosome-defective micronuclei are larger and more irregular in shape, and may contain fragmented or abnormal chromatin material. They can also be distinguished from other types of micronuclei by their specific staining properties and the presence of certain structural features, such as the presence of nucleoli or the absence of a membrane boundary.

Overall, the study of chromosome-defective micronuclei is an important tool for understanding the mechanisms of genetic damage and disease, and may have practical applications in fields such as cancer diagnosis and environmental health assessment.

The primary symptoms of Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome include:

1. Eczema and skin rashes
2. Immune system dysfunction, leading to recurrent infections
3. Bleeding disorders, including easy bruising and nosebleeds
4. Delayed development and growth retardation
5. Short stature
6. Poor muscle tone and coarse facial features
7. Heart defects, such as ventricular septal defects
8. Kidney disease or dysfunction
9. Increased risk of cancer, particularly lymphoma

Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome is diagnosed through a combination of clinical evaluation, laboratory tests, and genetic analysis. Treatment for the condition typically involves managing symptoms and preventing complications through medications, immunoglobulin replacement therapy, and other supportive measures.

The prognosis for individuals with Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome varies depending on the severity of their symptoms and the presence of any comorbidities. With appropriate medical care, many individuals with this condition can lead relatively normal lives, but they may require lifelong monitoring and treatment to manage their symptoms and prevent complications.

Multiple myeloma is the second most common type of hematologic cancer after non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, accounting for approximately 1% of all cancer deaths worldwide. It is more common in older adults, with most patients being diagnosed over the age of 65.

The exact cause of multiple myeloma is not known, but it is believed to be linked to genetic mutations that occur in the plasma cells. There are several risk factors that have been associated with an increased risk of developing multiple myeloma, including:

1. Family history: Having a family history of multiple myeloma or other plasma cell disorders increases the risk of developing the disease.
2. Age: The risk of developing multiple myeloma increases with age, with most patients being diagnosed over the age of 65.
3. Race: African Americans are at higher risk of developing multiple myeloma than other races.
4. Obesity: Being overweight or obese may increase the risk of developing multiple myeloma.
5. Exposure to certain chemicals: Exposure to certain chemicals such as pesticides, solvents, and heavy metals has been linked to an increased risk of developing multiple myeloma.

The symptoms of multiple myeloma can vary depending on the severity of the disease and the organs affected. Common symptoms include:

1. Bone pain: Pain in the bones, particularly in the spine, ribs, or long bones, is a common symptom of multiple myeloma.
2. Fatigue: Feeling tired or weak is another common symptom of the disease.
3. Infections: Patients with multiple myeloma may be more susceptible to infections due to the impaired functioning of their immune system.
4. Bone fractures: Weakened bones can lead to an increased risk of fractures, particularly in the spine, hips, or ribs.
5. Kidney problems: Multiple myeloma can cause damage to the kidneys, leading to problems such as kidney failure or proteinuria (excess protein in the urine).
6. Anemia: A low red blood cell count can cause anemia, which can lead to fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath.
7. Increased calcium levels: High levels of calcium in the blood can cause symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, constipation, and confusion.
8. Neurological problems: Multiple myeloma can cause neurological problems such as headaches, numbness or tingling in the arms and legs, and difficulty with coordination and balance.

The diagnosis of multiple myeloma typically involves a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests. These may include:

1. Complete blood count (CBC): A CBC can help identify abnormalities in the numbers and characteristics of different types of blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
2. Serum protein electrophoresis (SPEP): This test measures the levels of different proteins in the blood, including immunoglobulins (antibodies) and abnormal proteins produced by myeloma cells.
3. Urine protein electrophoresis (UPEP): This test measures the levels of different proteins in the urine.
4. Immunofixation: This test is used to identify the type of antibody produced by myeloma cells and to rule out other conditions that may cause similar symptoms.
5. Bone marrow biopsy: A bone marrow biopsy involves removing a sample of tissue from the bone marrow for examination under a microscope. This can help confirm the diagnosis of multiple myeloma and determine the extent of the disease.
6. Imaging tests: Imaging tests such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRI scans may be used to assess the extent of bone damage or other complications of multiple myeloma.
7. Genetic testing: Genetic testing may be used to identify specific genetic abnormalities that are associated with multiple myeloma and to monitor the response of the disease to treatment.

It's important to note that not all patients with MGUS or smoldering myeloma will develop multiple myeloma, and some patients with multiple myeloma may not have any symptoms at all. However, if you are experiencing any of the symptoms listed above or have a family history of multiple myeloma, it's important to talk to your doctor about your risk and any tests that may be appropriate for you.

The symptoms of AIDS can vary depending on the individual and the stage of the disease. Common symptoms include:

1. Fever
2. Fatigue
3. Swollen glands
4. Rash
5. Muscle aches and joint pain
6. Night sweats
7. Diarrhea
8. Weight loss
9. Memory loss and other neurological problems
10. Cancer and other opportunistic infections.

AIDS is diagnosed through blood tests that detect the presence of HIV antibodies or the virus itself. There is no cure for AIDS, but antiretroviral therapy (ART) can help manage the symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. Prevention methods include using condoms, pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), and avoiding sharing needles or other injection equipment.

In summary, Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a severe and life-threatening condition caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). It is characterized by a severely weakened immune system, which makes it difficult to fight off infections and diseases. While there is no cure for AIDS, antiretroviral therapy can help manage the symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. Prevention methods include using condoms, pre-exposure prophylaxis, and avoiding sharing needles or other injection equipment.

The term splenomegaly is used to describe any condition that results in an increase in the size of the spleen, regardless of the underlying cause. This can be caused by a variety of factors, such as infection, inflammation, cancer, or genetic disorders.

Splenomegaly can be diagnosed through a physical examination, where the doctor may feel the enlarged spleen during an abdominal palpation. Imaging tests, such as ultrasound, computed tomography (CT) scans, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), may also be used to confirm the diagnosis and evaluate the extent of the splenomegaly.

Treatment for splenomegaly depends on the underlying cause. For example, infections such as malaria or mononucleosis are treated with antibiotics, while cancerous conditions may require surgical intervention or chemotherapy. In some cases, the spleen may need to be removed, a procedure known as splenectomy.

In conclusion, splenomegaly is an abnormal enlargement of the spleen that can be caused by various factors and requires prompt medical attention for proper diagnosis and treatment.

There are several different types of tumor viruses, including:

1. Human papillomavirus (HPV): This virus is responsible for causing cervical cancer and other types of cancer, such as anal, vulvar, vaginal, and penile cancer.
2. Hepatitis B virus (HBV): This virus can cause liver cancer, known as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).
3. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): This virus can increase the risk of developing certain types of cancer, such as Kaposi's sarcoma and lymphoma.
4. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV): This virus has been linked to the development of Burkitt lymphoma and Hodgkin's lymphoma.
5. Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV): This virus is responsible for causing Merkel cell carcinoma, a rare type of skin cancer.
6. Human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV-1): This virus has been linked to the development of adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL).

Tumor virus infections can be diagnosed through a variety of methods, including blood tests, imaging studies, and biopsies. Treatment for these infections often involves antiviral medications, chemotherapy, and surgery. In some cases, tumors may also be removed through radiation therapy.

It's important to note that not all tumors or cancers are caused by viruses, and that many other factors, such as genetics and environmental exposures, can also play a role in the development of cancer. However, for those tumor virus infections that are caused by a specific virus, early diagnosis and treatment can improve outcomes and reduce the risk of complications.

Overall, tumor virus infections are a complex and diverse group of conditions, and further research is needed to better understand their causes and develop effective treatments.

Examples of experimental leukemias include:

1. X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA): A rare inherited disorder that leads to a lack of antibody production and an increased risk of infections.
2. Diamond-Blackfan anemia (DBA): A rare inherited disorder characterized by a failure of red blood cells to mature in the bone marrow.
3. Fanconi anemia: A rare inherited disorder that leads to a defect in DNA repair and an increased risk of cancer, particularly leukemia.
4. Ataxia-telangiectasia (AT): A rare inherited disorder characterized by progressive loss of coordination, balance, and speech, as well as an increased risk of cancer, particularly lymphoma.
5. Down syndrome: A genetic disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21, which increases the risk of developing leukemia, particularly acute myeloid leukemia (AML).

These experimental leukemias are often used in research studies to better understand the biology of leukemia and to develop new treatments.

Sjögren's syndrome can affect people of all ages, but it most commonly occurs in women between the ages of 40 and 60. The exact cause of the disorder is not known, but it is believed to be an autoimmune response, meaning that the immune system mistakenly attacks the glands as if they were foreign substances.

Symptoms of Sjögren's syndrome can vary in severity and may include:

* Dry mouth (xerostomia)
* Dry eyes (dry eye syndrome)
* Fatigue
* Joint pain
* Swollen lymph nodes
* Rash
* Sores on the skin
* Numbness or tingling in the hands and feet
* Sexual dysfunction

There is no cure for Sjögren's syndrome, but various treatments can help manage the symptoms. These may include:

* Medications to stimulate saliva production
* Eye drops to moisturize the eyes
* Mouthwashes to stimulate saliva production
* Pain relief medication for joint pain
* Anti-inflammatory medication to reduce swelling
* Immunosuppressive medication to suppress the immune system
* Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) to treat hormonal imbalances.

Sjögren's syndrome can also increase the risk of developing other autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis or lupus. It is important for people with Sjögren's syndrome to work closely with their healthcare provider to manage their symptoms and monitor their condition over time.

* Peripheral T-cell lymphoma (PTCL): This is a rare type of T-cell lymphoma that can develop in the skin, lymph nodes, or other organs.
* Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL): This is a type of PTCL that affects the skin and can cause lesions, rashes, and other skin changes.
* Anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL): This is a rare subtype of PTCL that can develop in the lymph nodes, spleen, or bone marrow.
* Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL): This is a rare and aggressive subtype of PTCL that is caused by the human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1).

Symptoms of T-cell lymphoma can include:

* Swollen lymph nodes
* Fever
* Fatigue
* Weight loss
* Night sweats
* Skin lesions or rashes

Treatment options for T-cell lymphoma depend on the subtype and stage of the cancer, but may include:

* Chemotherapy
* Radiation therapy
* Immunotherapy
* Targeted therapy

Prognosis for T-cell lymphoma varies depending on the subtype and stage of the cancer, but in general, the prognosis for PTCL is poorer than for other types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. However, with prompt and appropriate treatment, many people with T-cell lymphoma can achieve long-term remission or even be cured.

There are several types of chromosome aberrations, including:

1. Chromosomal deletions: Loss of a portion of a chromosome.
2. Chromosomal duplications: Extra copies of a chromosome or a portion of a chromosome.
3. Chromosomal translocations: A change in the position of a chromosome or a portion of a chromosome.
4. Chromosomal inversions: A reversal of a segment of a chromosome.
5. Chromosomal amplifications: An increase in the number of copies of a particular chromosome or gene.

Chromosome aberrations can be detected through various techniques, such as karyotyping, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), or array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH). These tests can help identify changes in the chromosomal makeup of cells and provide information about the underlying genetic causes of disease.

Chromosome aberrations are associated with a wide range of diseases, including:

1. Cancer: Chromosome abnormalities are common in cancer cells and can contribute to the development and progression of cancer.
2. Birth defects: Many birth defects are caused by chromosome abnormalities, such as Down syndrome (trisomy 21), which is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.
3. Neurological disorders: Chromosome aberrations have been linked to various neurological disorders, including autism and intellectual disability.
4. Immunodeficiency diseases: Some immunodeficiency diseases, such as X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), are caused by chromosome abnormalities.
5. Infectious diseases: Chromosome aberrations can increase the risk of infection with certain viruses, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
6. Ageing: Chromosome aberrations have been linked to the ageing process and may contribute to the development of age-related diseases.
7. Radiation exposure: Exposure to radiation can cause chromosome abnormalities, which can increase the risk of cancer and other diseases.
8. Genetic disorders: Many genetic disorders are caused by chromosome aberrations, such as Turner syndrome (45,X), which is caused by a missing X chromosome.
9. Rare diseases: Chromosome aberrations can cause rare diseases, such as Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY), which is caused by an extra copy of the X chromosome.
10. Infertility: Chromosome abnormalities can contribute to infertility in both men and women.

Understanding the causes and consequences of chromosome aberrations is important for developing effective treatments and improving human health.

Symptoms of EBL can vary widely and may include:

* Swollen lymph nodes
* Chronic diarrhea
* Weight loss
* Anemia
* Lethargy
* Enlarged spleen and liver
* Neoplastic diseases such as lymphosarcoma, leukemia, or other types of cancer.

EBL is usually diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, blood tests, and biopsies. There is no cure for EBL, and treatment is primarily focused on managing symptoms and preventing the spread of the disease.

Prevention of EBL includes:

* Testing herds for BLV regularly
* Avoiding close contact between animals
* Practicing good hygiene and sanitation
* Implementing strict biosecurity measures
* Eliminating infected animals from the herd

It is important to note that EBL is not a reportable disease in all countries, and testing for BLV may not be mandatory in all regions. However, it is still important for farmers and veterinarians to be aware of the risk of EBL and take appropriate measures to prevent its spread.

The symptoms of dermatitis, exfoliative include:

* Intense redness and scaling or blistering of the skin
* Itching, which can be severe
* Burning sensation on the skin
* Dry, rough skin that may flake off
* Small, raised bumps or hives on the skin
* Crusting or oozing of the skin

The diagnosis of dermatitis, exfoliative is based on the appearance of the skin and the patient's medical history. A skin biopsy may be performed to confirm the diagnosis and rule out other conditions. Treatment typically involves topical medications, such as corticosteroids or immunomodulators, and may also include oral medications or phototherapy.

In addition to these symptoms and treatments, it is important to note that dermatitis, exfoliative can be a chronic condition and may recur over time. It can also lead to complications such as skin infections or scarring. Therefore, it is important for individuals with this condition to work closely with their healthcare provider to manage their symptoms and prevent complications.

Examples of acute diseases include:

1. Common cold and flu
2. Pneumonia and bronchitis
3. Appendicitis and other abdominal emergencies
4. Heart attacks and strokes
5. Asthma attacks and allergic reactions
6. Skin infections and cellulitis
7. Urinary tract infections
8. Sinusitis and meningitis
9. Gastroenteritis and food poisoning
10. Sprains, strains, and fractures.

Acute diseases can be treated effectively with antibiotics, medications, or other therapies. However, if left untreated, they can lead to chronic conditions or complications that may require long-term care. Therefore, it is important to seek medical attention promptly if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

There are several subtypes of NHL, including:

1. B-cell lymphomas (such as diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and follicular lymphoma)
2. T-cell lymphomas (such as peripheral T-cell lymphoma and mycosis fungoides)
3. Natural killer cell lymphomas (such as nasal NK/T-cell lymphoma)
4. Histiocyte-rich B-cell lymphoma
5. Primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma
6. Mantle cell lymphoma
7. Waldenström macroglobulinemia
8. Lymphoplasmacytoid lymphoma
9. Myelodysplastic syndrome/myeloproliferative neoplasms (MDS/MPN) related lymphoma

These subtypes can be further divided into other categories based on the specific characteristics of the cancer cells.

Symptoms of NHL can vary depending on the location and size of the tumor, but may include:

* Swollen lymph nodes in the neck, underarm, or groin
* Fever
* Fatigue
* Weight loss
* Night sweats
* Itching
* Abdominal pain
* Swollen spleen

Treatment for NHL typically involves a combination of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and in some cases, targeted therapy or immunotherapy. The specific treatment plan will depend on the subtype of NHL, the stage of the cancer, and other individual factors.

Overall, NHL is a complex and diverse group of cancers that require specialized care from a team of medical professionals, including hematologists, oncologists, radiation therapists, and other support staff. With advances in technology and treatment options, many people with NHL can achieve long-term remission or a cure.

The burden of chronic diseases is significant, with over 70% of deaths worldwide attributed to them, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). In addition to the physical and emotional toll they take on individuals and their families, chronic diseases also pose a significant economic burden, accounting for a large proportion of healthcare expenditure.

In this article, we will explore the definition and impact of chronic diseases, as well as strategies for managing and living with them. We will also discuss the importance of early detection and prevention, as well as the role of healthcare providers in addressing the needs of individuals with chronic diseases.

What is a Chronic Disease?

A chronic disease is a condition that lasts for an extended period of time, often affecting daily life and activities. Unlike acute diseases, which have a specific beginning and end, chronic diseases are long-term and persistent. Examples of chronic diseases include:

1. Diabetes
2. Heart disease
3. Arthritis
4. Asthma
5. Cancer
6. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
7. Chronic kidney disease (CKD)
8. Hypertension
9. Osteoporosis
10. Stroke

Impact of Chronic Diseases

The burden of chronic diseases is significant, with over 70% of deaths worldwide attributed to them, according to the WHO. In addition to the physical and emotional toll they take on individuals and their families, chronic diseases also pose a significant economic burden, accounting for a large proportion of healthcare expenditure.

Chronic diseases can also have a significant impact on an individual's quality of life, limiting their ability to participate in activities they enjoy and affecting their relationships with family and friends. Moreover, the financial burden of chronic diseases can lead to poverty and reduce economic productivity, thus having a broader societal impact.

Addressing Chronic Diseases

Given the significant burden of chronic diseases, it is essential that we address them effectively. This requires a multi-faceted approach that includes:

1. Lifestyle modifications: Encouraging healthy behaviors such as regular physical activity, a balanced diet, and smoking cessation can help prevent and manage chronic diseases.
2. Early detection and diagnosis: Identifying risk factors and detecting diseases early can help prevent or delay their progression.
3. Medication management: Effective medication management is crucial for controlling symptoms and slowing disease progression.
4. Multi-disciplinary care: Collaboration between healthcare providers, patients, and families is essential for managing chronic diseases.
5. Health promotion and disease prevention: Educating individuals about the risks of chronic diseases and promoting healthy behaviors can help prevent their onset.
6. Addressing social determinants of health: Social determinants such as poverty, education, and employment can have a significant impact on health outcomes. Addressing these factors is essential for reducing health disparities and improving overall health.
7. Investing in healthcare infrastructure: Investing in healthcare infrastructure, technology, and research is necessary to improve disease detection, diagnosis, and treatment.
8. Encouraging policy change: Policy changes can help create supportive environments for healthy behaviors and reduce the burden of chronic diseases.
9. Increasing public awareness: Raising public awareness about the risks and consequences of chronic diseases can help individuals make informed decisions about their health.
10. Providing support for caregivers: Chronic diseases can have a significant impact on family members and caregivers, so providing them with support is essential for improving overall health outcomes.

Conclusion

Chronic diseases are a major public health burden that affect millions of people worldwide. Addressing these diseases requires a multi-faceted approach that includes lifestyle changes, addressing social determinants of health, investing in healthcare infrastructure, encouraging policy change, increasing public awareness, and providing support for caregivers. By taking a comprehensive approach to chronic disease prevention and management, we can improve the health and well-being of individuals and communities worldwide.

There are different types of immunoglobulins, also called antibodies, that the body produces to fight off infections. One type is called Immunoglobulin A (IgA), which is found in mucosal surfaces like the respiratory, gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts. IgA plays a crucial role in protecting these areas from infection. It helps neutralize and remove pathogens from the body before they can cause harm.

IgA deficiency is when the body does not produce enough IgA, either due to a genetic defect or other underlying conditions. This deficiency may increase the risk of developing certain types of infections. People with IgA deficiency are more likely to get respiratory infections like bronchitis, pneumonia and sinusitis. They may also experience frequent ear infections, tonsillitis and other throat infections.

Some people are born with IgA deficiency due to genetic mutations that affect the production of this antibody. Others can develop it over time due to certain medical conditions or medications. For example, people with HIV/AIDS often have low levels of IgA. Certain drugs such as corticosteroids and chemotherapy can also reduce IgA production.

Granulomas are formed in response to the presence of a foreign substance or an infection, and they serve as a protective barrier to prevent the spread of the infection and to isolate the offending agent. The granuloma is characterized by a central area of necrosis, surrounded by a ring of immune cells, including macrophages and T-lymphocytes.

Granulomas are commonly seen in a variety of inflammatory conditions, such as tuberculosis, leprosy, and sarcoidosis. They can also occur as a result of infections, such as bacterial or fungal infections, and in the context of autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis.

In summary, granuloma is a term used to describe a type of inflammatory lesion that is formed in response to the presence of a foreign substance or an infection, and serves as a protective barrier to prevent the spread of the infection and to isolate the offending agent.

Neoplasm refers to an abnormal growth of cells that can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Neoplasms can occur in any part of the body and can affect various organs and tissues. The term "neoplasm" is often used interchangeably with "tumor," but while all tumors are neoplasms, not all neoplasms are tumors.

Types of Neoplasms

There are many different types of neoplasms, including:

1. Carcinomas: These are malignant tumors that arise in the epithelial cells lining organs and glands. Examples include breast cancer, lung cancer, and colon cancer.
2. Sarcomas: These are malignant tumors that arise in connective tissue, such as bone, cartilage, and fat. Examples include osteosarcoma (bone cancer) and soft tissue sarcoma.
3. Lymphomas: These are cancers of the immune system, specifically affecting the lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues. Examples include Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
4. Leukemias: These are cancers of the blood and bone marrow that affect the white blood cells. Examples include acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL).
5. Melanomas: These are malignant tumors that arise in the pigment-producing cells called melanocytes. Examples include skin melanoma and eye melanoma.

Causes and Risk Factors of Neoplasms

The exact causes of neoplasms are not fully understood, but there are several known risk factors that can increase the likelihood of developing a neoplasm. These include:

1. Genetic predisposition: Some people may be born with genetic mutations that increase their risk of developing certain types of neoplasms.
2. Environmental factors: Exposure to certain environmental toxins, such as radiation and certain chemicals, can increase the risk of developing a neoplasm.
3. Infection: Some neoplasms are caused by viruses or bacteria. For example, human papillomavirus (HPV) is a common cause of cervical cancer.
4. Lifestyle factors: Factors such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, and a poor diet can increase the risk of developing certain types of neoplasms.
5. Family history: A person's risk of developing a neoplasm may be higher if they have a family history of the condition.

Signs and Symptoms of Neoplasms

The signs and symptoms of neoplasms can vary depending on the type of cancer and where it is located in the body. Some common signs and symptoms include:

1. Unusual lumps or swelling
2. Pain
3. Fatigue
4. Weight loss
5. Change in bowel or bladder habits
6. Unexplained bleeding
7. Coughing up blood
8. Hoarseness or a persistent cough
9. Changes in appetite or digestion
10. Skin changes, such as a new mole or a change in the size or color of an existing mole.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Neoplasms

The diagnosis of a neoplasm usually involves a combination of physical examination, imaging tests (such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRI scans), and biopsy. A biopsy involves removing a small sample of tissue from the suspected tumor and examining it under a microscope for cancer cells.

The treatment of neoplasms depends on the type, size, location, and stage of the cancer, as well as the patient's overall health. Some common treatments include:

1. Surgery: Removing the tumor and surrounding tissue can be an effective way to treat many types of cancer.
2. Chemotherapy: Using drugs to kill cancer cells can be effective for some types of cancer, especially if the cancer has spread to other parts of the body.
3. Radiation therapy: Using high-energy radiation to kill cancer cells can be effective for some types of cancer, especially if the cancer is located in a specific area of the body.
4. Immunotherapy: Boosting the body's immune system to fight cancer can be an effective treatment for some types of cancer.
5. Targeted therapy: Using drugs or other substances to target specific molecules on cancer cells can be an effective treatment for some types of cancer.

Prevention of Neoplasms

While it is not always possible to prevent neoplasms, there are several steps that can reduce the risk of developing cancer. These include:

1. Avoiding exposure to known carcinogens (such as tobacco smoke and radiation)
2. Maintaining a healthy diet and lifestyle
3. Getting regular exercise
4. Not smoking or using tobacco products
5. Limiting alcohol consumption
6. Getting vaccinated against certain viruses that are associated with cancer (such as human papillomavirus, or HPV)
7. Participating in screening programs for early detection of cancer (such as mammograms for breast cancer and colonoscopies for colon cancer)
8. Avoiding excessive exposure to sunlight and using protective measures such as sunscreen and hats to prevent skin cancer.

It's important to note that not all cancers can be prevented, and some may be caused by factors that are not yet understood or cannot be controlled. However, by taking these steps, individuals can reduce their risk of developing cancer and improve their overall health and well-being.

Types of experimental neoplasms include:

* Xenografts: tumors that are transplanted into animals from another species, often humans.
* Transgenic tumors: tumors that are created by introducing cancer-causing genes into an animal's genome.
* Chemically-induced tumors: tumors that are caused by exposure to certain chemicals or drugs.

The use of experimental neoplasms in research has led to significant advances in our understanding of cancer biology and the development of new treatments for the disease. However, the use of animals in cancer research is a controversial topic and alternatives to animal models are being developed and implemented.

The symptoms of CVID can vary from person to person and may include:

1. Frequent or recurring infections, such as sinus infections, ear infections, and pneumonia.
2. Poor response to vaccines.
3. Delayed growth and development in children.
4. Autoimmune disorders, such as thyroiditis or arthritis.
5. Increased risk of developing certain types of cancer, such as lymphoma.

CVID is caused by mutations in several genes that are involved in the immune system. These genes play a role in the development and function of immune cells, such as T cells and B cells. The exact cause of CVID is often not known, but it can be inherited or acquired through genetic mutations.

There is no cure for CVID, but treatment can help manage the symptoms and prevent complications. Treatment typically involves antibiotics to fight off infections, immunoglobulin replacement therapy to boost the immune system, and medication to manage autoimmune disorders. In some cases, a bone marrow transplant may be recommended.

The prognosis for CVID varies depending on the severity of the disorder and the presence of any complications. With proper treatment, many people with CVID can lead normal lives and have a good quality of life. However, some individuals may experience ongoing health problems and a higher risk of developing certain types of cancer.

Thymoma can be broadly classified into two main types:

1. Benign thymoma: This type of thymoma is non-cancerous and does not spread to other parts of the body. It is usually small in size and may not cause any symptoms.
2. Malignant thymoma: This type of thymoma is cancerous and can spread to other parts of the body, including the lungs, liver, and bone marrow. Malignant thymomas are more aggressive than benign thymomas and can be life-threatening if not treated promptly.

The exact cause of thymoma is not known, but it is believed to arise from abnormal cell growth in the thymus gland. Some risk factors that may increase the likelihood of developing thymoma include:

1. Genetic mutations: Certain genetic mutations, such as those affecting the TREX1 gene, can increase the risk of developing thymoma.
2. Radiation exposure: Exposure to radiation, such as from radiation therapy, may increase the risk of developing thymoma.
3. Thymic hyperplasia: Enlargement of the thymus gland, known as thymic hyperplasia, may increase the risk of developing thymoma.

The symptoms of thymoma can vary depending on the size and location of the tumor. Some common symptoms include:

1. Chest pain or discomfort
2. Shortness of breath
3. Coughing
4. Fatigue
5. Weight loss
6. Fever
7. Night sweats
8. Pain in the arm or shoulder

Thymoma is diagnosed through a combination of imaging tests, such as computed tomography (CT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and biopsy, which involves removing a sample of tissue from the thymus gland for examination under a microscope. Treatment options for thymoma depend on the stage and aggressiveness of the tumor, and may include:

1. Surgery: Removing the tumor through surgery is often the first line of treatment for thymoma.
2. Radiation therapy: High-energy beams can be used to kill cancer cells and shrink the tumor.
3. Chemotherapy: Drugs can be used to kill cancer cells and shrink the tumor.
4. Targeted therapy: Drugs that target specific molecules involved in the growth and spread of cancer cells can be used to treat thymoma.
5. Immunotherapy: Treatments that use the body's immune system to fight cancer, such as checkpoint inhibitors, can be effective for some people with thymoma.

Overall, the prognosis for thymoma is generally good, with a 5-year survival rate of about 70% for people with localized disease. However, the prognosis can vary depending on the stage and aggressiveness of the tumor, as well as the effectiveness of treatment.

Explanation: Neoplastic cell transformation is a complex process that involves multiple steps and can occur as a result of genetic mutations, environmental factors, or a combination of both. The process typically begins with a series of subtle changes in the DNA of individual cells, which can lead to the loss of normal cellular functions and the acquisition of abnormal growth and reproduction patterns.

Over time, these transformed cells can accumulate further mutations that allow them to survive and proliferate despite adverse conditions. As the transformed cells continue to divide and grow, they can eventually form a tumor, which is a mass of abnormal cells that can invade and damage surrounding tissues.

In some cases, cancer cells can also break away from the primary tumor and travel through the bloodstream or lymphatic system to other parts of the body, where they can establish new tumors. This process, known as metastasis, is a major cause of death in many types of cancer.

It's worth noting that not all transformed cells will become cancerous. Some forms of cellular transformation, such as those that occur during embryonic development or tissue regeneration, are normal and necessary for the proper functioning of the body. However, when these transformations occur in adult tissues, they can be a sign of cancer.

See also: Cancer, Tumor

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Symptoms of type 1 diabetes can include increased thirst and urination, blurred vision, fatigue, weight loss, and skin infections. If left untreated, type 1 diabetes can lead to serious complications such as kidney damage, nerve damage, and blindness.

Type 1 diabetes is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as blood glucose measurements and autoantibody tests. Treatment typically involves insulin therapy, which can be administered via injections or an insulin pump, as well as regular monitoring of blood glucose levels and appropriate lifestyle modifications such as a healthy diet and regular exercise.

There are several types of disease susceptibility, including:

1. Genetic predisposition: This refers to the inherent tendency of an individual to develop a particular disease due to their genetic makeup. For example, some families may have a higher risk of developing certain diseases such as cancer or heart disease due to inherited genetic mutations.
2. Environmental susceptibility: This refers to the increased risk of developing a disease due to exposure to environmental factors such as pollutants, toxins, or infectious agents. For example, someone who lives in an area with high levels of air pollution may be more susceptible to developing respiratory problems.
3. Lifestyle susceptibility: This refers to the increased risk of developing a disease due to unhealthy lifestyle choices such as smoking, lack of exercise, or poor diet. For example, someone who smokes and is overweight may be more susceptible to developing heart disease or lung cancer.
4. Immune system susceptibility: This refers to the increased risk of developing a disease due to an impaired immune system. For example, people with autoimmune disorders such as HIV/AIDS or rheumatoid arthritis may be more susceptible to opportunistic infections.

Understanding disease susceptibility can help healthcare providers identify individuals who are at risk of developing certain diseases and provide preventive measures or early intervention to reduce the risk of disease progression. Additionally, genetic testing can help identify individuals with a high risk of developing certain diseases, allowing for earlier diagnosis and treatment.

In summary, disease susceptibility refers to the predisposition of an individual to develop a particular disease or condition due to various factors such as genetics, environment, lifestyle choices, and immune system function. Understanding disease susceptibility can help healthcare providers identify individuals at risk and provide appropriate preventive measures or early intervention to reduce the risk of disease progression.

Leukemic infiltration refers to the abnormal growth and spread of cancer cells (leukemia) into normal tissues, organs, or bones. It is a common feature of many types of leukemia, including acute myeloid leukemia (AML), chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), and acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL).

Leukemic infiltration can cause a range of symptoms, including pain, swelling, and difficulty with movement or function. In severe cases, it can also lead to life-threatening complications such as organ failure or sepsis.

The diagnosis of leukemic infiltration typically involves a combination of physical examination, medical history, laboratory tests (such as blood and bone marrow studies), and imaging studies (such as X-rays, CT scans, or PET scans). Treatment options for leukemic infiltration depend on the specific type of leukemia and the severity of the infiltration, but may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, or bone marrow transplantation.

Overall, leukemic infiltration is a serious condition that can have significant impacts on quality of life and survival. Early detection and prompt treatment are important for achieving the best possible outcomes.

The diagnosis of GVHD is based on a combination of clinical findings, laboratory tests, and biopsies. Treatment options include immunosuppressive drugs, corticosteroids, and in severe cases, stem cell transplantation reversal or donor lymphocyte infusion.

Prevention of GVHD includes selecting the right donor, using conditioning regimens that minimize damage to the recipient's bone marrow, and providing appropriate immunosuppression after transplantation. Early detection and management of GVHD are critical to prevent long-term complications and improve survival rates.

Also known as: chronic granulomatous disease, CGD.

A thymus neoplasm is a type of cancer that originates in the thymus gland, which is located in the chest behind the sternum and is responsible for the development and maturation of T-lymphocytes (T-cells) of the immune system.

Types of Thymus Neoplasms

There are several types of thymus neoplasms, including:

1. Thymoma: A slow-growing tumor that is usually benign but can sometimes be malignant.
2. Thymic carcinoma: A more aggressive type of cancer that is less common than thymoma.
3. Thymic lymphoma: A type of cancer that arises from the T-cells in the thymus gland and can be either B-cell or T-cell derived.

Symptoms of Thymus Neoplasms

The symptoms of thymus neoplasms can vary depending on the location and size of the tumor, but they may include:

1. Chest pain or discomfort
2. Coughing or shortness of breath
3. Fatigue or fever
4. Swelling in the neck or face
5. Weight loss or loss of appetite

Diagnosis of Thymus Neoplasms

The diagnosis of a thymus neoplasm typically involves a combination of imaging tests such as chest X-rays, computed tomography (CT) scans, and positron emission tomography (PET) scans, as well as a biopsy to confirm the presence of cancer cells.

Treatment of Thymus Neoplasms

The treatment of thymus neoplasms depends on the type and stage of the cancer, but may include:

1. Surgery to remove the tumor
2. Radiation therapy to kill any remaining cancer cells
3. Chemotherapy to destroy cancer cells
4. Targeted therapy to specific molecules involved in the growth and progression of the cancer.

Prognosis of Thymus Neoplasms

The prognosis for thymus neoplasms depends on the type and stage of the cancer at the time of diagnosis. In general, the earlier the cancer is detected and treated, the better the prognosis.

Prevention of Thymus Neoplasms

There is no known way to prevent thymus neoplasms, as they are rare and can occur in people of all ages. However, early detection and treatment of the cancer can improve the chances of a successful outcome.

Current Research on Thymus Neoplasms

Researchers are currently studying new treatments for thymus neoplasms, such as targeted therapies and immunotherapy, which use the body's own immune system to fight cancer. Additionally, researchers are working to develop better diagnostic tests to detect thymus neoplasms at an earlier stage, when they are more treatable.

Conclusion

Thymus neoplasms are rare and complex cancers that require specialized care and treatment. While the prognosis for these cancers can be challenging, advances in diagnosis and treatment have improved outcomes for many patients. Researchers continue to study new treatments and diagnostic tools to improve the chances of a successful outcome for those affected by thymus neoplasms.

The exact cause of LGL leukemia is not known, but it is believed to be linked to genetic mutations and environmental factors. The disease typically affects older adults and is more common in men than women.

Symptoms of LGL leukemia can include fatigue, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and swollen lymph nodes. If the disease progresses, it can lead to anemia, infections, and bleeding problems.

Diagnosis of LGL leukemia is based on a combination of physical examination, medical history, laboratory tests, and bone marrow biopsy. Treatment options include chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and stem cell transplantation. The prognosis for LGL leukemia varies depending on the aggressiveness of the disease and the response to treatment.

In summary, large granular lymphocytic leukemia is a rare and complex blood cancer that requires specialized medical care and close monitoring for effective management and treatment.

Examples of syndromes include:

1. Down syndrome: A genetic disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 that affects intellectual and physical development.
2. Turner syndrome: A genetic disorder caused by a missing or partially deleted X chromosome that affects physical growth and development in females.
3. Marfan syndrome: A genetic disorder affecting the body's connective tissue, causing tall stature, long limbs, and cardiovascular problems.
4. Alzheimer's disease: A neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss, confusion, and changes in personality and behavior.
5. Parkinson's disease: A neurological disorder characterized by tremors, rigidity, and difficulty with movement.
6. Klinefelter syndrome: A genetic disorder caused by an extra X chromosome in males, leading to infertility and other physical characteristics.
7. Williams syndrome: A rare genetic disorder caused by a deletion of genetic material on chromosome 7, characterized by cardiovascular problems, developmental delays, and a distinctive facial appearance.
8. Fragile X syndrome: The most common form of inherited intellectual disability, caused by an expansion of a specific gene on the X chromosome.
9. Prader-Willi syndrome: A genetic disorder caused by a defect in the hypothalamus, leading to problems with appetite regulation and obesity.
10. Sjogren's syndrome: An autoimmune disorder that affects the glands that produce tears and saliva, causing dry eyes and mouth.

Syndromes can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment for a syndrome depends on the underlying cause and the specific symptoms and signs presented by the patient.

Symptoms of PLL include fever, night sweats, weight loss, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes. Treatment options include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and bone marrow transplantation. Prognosis is generally poor, with a five-year survival rate of less than 50%.

Also known as PTCL or T-cell leukemia.

Leukemia, Prolymphocytic, T-Cell: A rare type of cancer that affects the blood and bone marrow, characterized by excessive proliferation of mature T-cells. Symptoms include fever, night sweats, weight loss, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes. Treatment options include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and bone marrow transplantation, with a poor five-year survival rate of less than 50%. Also known as PTCL or T-cell leukemia.

Grave's disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism and affects about 1 in 200 people. It can occur at any age but is more common in women and tends to run in families. The exact cause of Grave's disease is not known, but it may be related to a combination of genetic and environmental factors.

Symptoms of Grave's disease can vary from person to person, but common signs include:

* Weight loss
* Nervousness or anxiety
* Irregular heartbeat (palpitations)
* Increased sweating
* Heat intolerance
* Fatigue
* Changes in menstrual cycle in women
* Enlargement of the thyroid gland, known as a goiter
* Bulging eyes (exophthalmos)

Grave's disease can be diagnosed through blood tests and scans. Treatment options include medication to reduce the production of thyroxine, radioactive iodine therapy to destroy part of the thyroid gland, and surgery to remove part or all of the thyroid gland.

It is important to seek medical attention if you experience any symptoms of Grave's disease, as untreated hyperthyroidism can lead to complications such as heart problems, osteoporosis, and eye problems. With proper treatment, most people with Grave's disease can manage their symptoms and lead a normal life.

The disease is named after the Swedish physician Jan G. Waldenström, who first described it in 1944. It is also known as lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma or IgM multoculullarity.

The exact cause of Waldenström macroglobulinemia is not known, but it is believed to be linked to genetic mutations that occur in the plasma cells. The condition usually affects older adults and is more common in males than females.

Symptoms of Waldenström macroglobulinemia can include:

* Fatigue
* Weight loss
* Enlargement of the liver and spleen
* Swelling in the legs, ankles, and hands
* Pain in the bones or joints
* Increased risk of infections
* Numbness or tingling in the hands and feet

The diagnosis of Waldenström macroglobulinemia is based on a combination of physical examination, blood tests, and imaging studies. Treatment options include chemotherapy, immunomodulatory drugs, and stem cell transplantation. The prognosis for the disease varies depending on the severity of the symptoms and the response to treatment.

Overall, Waldenström macroglobulinemia is a rare and complex condition that requires careful management by a team of healthcare professionals. With appropriate treatment, many patients with this condition can experience long-term remission and improved quality of life.

The symptoms of T-cell leukemia can vary depending on the severity of the disease, but they may include:

* Fatigue
* Weakness
* Frequent infections
* Easy bruising or bleeding
* Swollen lymph nodes
* Pain in the bones or joints
* Headaches
* Confusion or seizures (in severe cases)

T-cell leukemia is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, blood tests, and bone marrow biopsy. Treatment typically involves chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy to kill cancer cells and restore the body's normal production of blood cells. In some cases, bone marrow transplantation may be recommended.

The prognosis for T-cell leukemia varies depending on the patient's age and overall health, as well as the aggressiveness of the disease. However, with current treatments, the 5-year survival rate is around 70% for children and adolescents, and around 40% for adults.

It's important to note that T-cell leukemia is relatively rare compared to other types of leukemia, such as acute myeloid leukemia (AML) or chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). However, it can be a very aggressive and difficult-to-treat form of cancer, and patients with T-cell leukemia often require intensive treatment and close follow-up care.

Li N, Workman CJ, Martin SM, Vignali DA (Dec 2004). "Biochemical analysis of the regulatory T cell protein lymphocyte ... Maçon-Lemaître L, Triebel F (Jun 2005). "The negative regulatory function of the lymphocyte-activation gene-3 co-receptor ( ... molecular analysis of the negative regulatory function of lymphocyte activation gene-3". Journal of Immunology. 169 (10): 5392- ... "T Lymphocytes infiltrating various tumour types express the MHC class II ligand lymphocyte activation gene-3 (LAG-3): role of ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphocyte-activation_gene_3

Resting B lymphocytes do not produce cytokines. After lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation are produced TNFα, IL-1β, IL-10 and ... Regulatory B cells (Bregs or Breg cell) represent a small population of B cells which participates in immunomodulations and in ... Likewise, regulatory B cell subsets have also been demonstrated to inhibit Th1 responses through IL-10 production during ... Berthelot JM, Jamin C, Amrouche K, Le Goff B, Maugars Y, Youinou P (January 2013). "Regulatory B cells play a key role in ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulatory_B_cell

Ley K, Smith E, Stark MA (2006). "IL-17A-producing neutrophil-regulatory Tn lymphocytes". Immunologic Research. 34 (3): 229-42 ... May 2006). "Selective regulatory function of Socs3 in the formation of IL-17-secreting T cells". Proceedings of the National ... Increased concentration of IL-6 alters the epidermal environment by decreasing the ability of T regulatory cells to control the ... "First in the world regulatory approval of Novartis' Cosentyx(TM) in Japan for both psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis". Novartis ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interleukin_17

... is a regulatory protein on B lymphocytes. The cytoplasmic tail of CD72 contains two potential immunoreceptor tyrosine- ... These features suggest a negative regulatory role for CD72. CD72 is a nonredundant regulator of B-cell development and a ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD72

E proteins are involved in the development of lymphocytes. They initiate transcription by binding to regulatory E-box sequences ... E proteins play a critical role in lymphopoiesis, and the encoded protein is required for B and T lymphocyte development. This ... E proteins activate transcription by binding to regulatory E-box sequences on target genes as heterodimers or homodimers, and ... Quong MW, Romanow WJ, Murre C (2002). "E protein function in lymphocyte development". Annual Review of Immunology. 20: 301-22. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCF3

"Regulatory T‐lymphocytes mediate amyotrophic lateral sclerosis progression and survival". EMBO Molecular Medicine. 5 (1): 64-79 ... T regulatory (Treg) cells is also a safeguard against neuroinflammation, demonstrated by the evidence of inverse correlation of ... It is characterised by the activation of microglia and astrocytes, T lymphocyte infiltration, and the production of pro- ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroinflammation

It is located on chromosome 1p13 and expressed in lymphocytes. It acts as a negative regulator of T-cell activation. Mutation ... This gene is the second major immune-regulatory gene related to autoimmune thyroid disease. CTLA-4 gene polymorphisms may ... It is also characterized by invasion of the thyroid tissue by leukocytes, mainly T-lymphocytes. A rare but serious complication ... Activation of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CD8+ T-cells) in response to cell-mediated immune response affected by helper T- ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hashimoto's_thyroiditis

TNFRSF25 is also highly expressed by FoxP3 positive regulatory T lymphocytes. TNFRSF25 is activated by a monogamous ligand, ... This receptor is expressed preferentially by activated and antigen-experienced T lymphocytes. ... stimulates profound and highly specific proliferation of FoxP3+ regulatory T cells from their 8-10% of all CD4+ T cells to 35- ... the majority of T cells that regularly encounter cognate antigen are FoxP3+ regulatory T cells. Stimulation of TNFRSF25, in the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_receptor_3

regulatory T-lymphocytes have a limited capability to control these cells. In the late stage, the extent of inflammation ... They are also involved in intensification of the function of regulatory T-lymphocytes and in the induction of apoptosis of ... leukocytes and lymphocytes), and red blood cells. Although some of these microvesicle populations occur in the blood of healthy ... cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, because microvesicles released from a tumor cell contain Fas ligand and TRAIL. They prevent ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microvesicles

... and regulatory T lymphocytes. Thus, CCL1 mainly acts as a chemoattractant for monocytes/macrophages, T lymphocytes, specially ... CCL1 is secreted by activated monocytes/macrophages, T lymphocytes and endothelial cells. CCL1 binds to the chemokine receptor ... most likely leading to an influx of lymphocytes and monocytes and thus to an adaptive immune response. Because CCL1 binds to ... Th2-differentiated T cells and a subset of T regulatory cells in vitro into inflammatory siter. It can also attract NK cells, ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCL1

González-Amaro R, Marazuela M (April 2016). "T regulatory (Treg) and T helper 17 (Th17) lymphocytes in thyroid autoimmunity". ... This in turn results in temporary lymphocyte retention in the lymph organs. It is thought that retention of lymphocytes in the ... is involved in lymphocyte proliferation and functions as a signal-transmitting receptor in lymphocytes, including natural ... Most lymphocytes express sphingosine-1-phosphate receptors (S1P1-5), which are G protein-coupled receptors located in the cell ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD69

Interleukin 10 is produced by regulatory T lymphocytes, B cells, and monocytes. It is a homodimer that functions through the IL ... is involved in immuno-regulatory responses IL-24 produced by activated monocytes and T-cells. IL-26 is a newly discovered ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IL-10_family

"IRF8 interferon regulatory factor 8 [Homo sapiens (human)] - Gene - NCBI". "MAP2K1 mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1 [ ... Shukla V, Lu R (August 2014). "IRF4 and IRF8: Governing the virtues of B Lymphocytes". Frontiers in Biology. 9 (4): 269-282. ... Follicular lymphoma (FL) is a cancer that involves certain types of white blood cells known as lymphocytes. The cancer ... These cells normally occupy the follicles (nodular swirls of various types of lymphocytes) in the germinal centers of lymphoid ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Follicular_lymphoma

... a set of non-B-cell lymphocytes; 2) IRF8 (10-50% of cases) which encodes the interferon regulatory factor 8 protein, a protein ... The following lymphocyte disorders may be confused with but can be distinguished from PTFL based on the following points: ... "IRF4 interferon regulatory factor 4 [Homo sapiens (human)] - Gene - NCBI". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. "IGH immunoglobulin heavy ... "IRF8 interferon regulatory factor 8 [Homo sapiens (human)] - Gene - NCBI". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. "MAP2K1 mitogen-activated ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediatric-type_follicular_lymphoma

These results strongly support the regulatory role of TIRC7 signalling pathway in lymphocytes. TCIRG1 mutations affect the a3 ... Upon lymphocyte activation TIRC7 is upregulated to engage HLA-DRα2 and induce apoptotic signals in human CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells ... The negative immune regulatory role of TIRC7 is furthermore supported by the fact that TIRC7 knock out mice exhibits an ... The induction of TIRC7 in IL-10 secreting T regulatory cells and the prevention of colitis in the presence of TIRC7 positive T ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCIRG1

"Entrez Gene: SIPA1 signal-induced proliferation-associated gene 1". Minato N (1997). "[Regulatory mechanisms of lymphocyte ... It exhibits a specific GAP activity for Ras-related regulatory proteins Rap1 and Rap2, but not for Ran or other small GTPases. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIPA1

Removal of sialic acid residues from the surface of tumor cells makes them available to NK cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes ... Below is a table that listed known PRRs and interferon regulatory factors that are getting activated upon SeV infection. SeV ... Barnes BJ, Moore PA, Pitha PM (June 2001). "Virus-specific activation of a novel interferon regulatory factor, IRF-5, results ... The persistent infection can also be established instantly in interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3)-knockdown cells. IRF-3 is ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murine_respirovirus

June 2015). "Peripheral regulatory T lymphocytes recirculating to the thymus suppress the development of their precursors". ... July 2018). "Expanded autologous regulatory T-lymphocyte infusions in ALS: A phase I, first-in-human study". Neurology. 5 (4): ... Another regulatory T cell subset is Treg17 cells. Regulatory T cells are involved in shutting down immune responses after they ... Regulatory T cells can produce Granzyme B, which in turn can induce apoptosis of effector cells. Regulatory T cells from ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulatory_T_cell

Fanzo JC, Hu CM, Jang SY, Pernis AB (February 2003). "Regulation of lymphocyte apoptosis by interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF ... October 1996). "Cloning of human lymphocyte-specific interferon regulatory factor (hLSIRF/hIRF4) and mapping of the gene to ... IRF4 is necessary for effector function of T regulatory cells due to its role as a regulatory factor for Blimp-1. IRF4 is an ... The expression of IRF4 is essential for the differentiation of T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes as well as certain myeloid cells ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRF4

Later was shown that the effect of monoclonal antibodies is formation of regulatory T lymphocytes. It has been shown that ... was originally used by Gershon and Kondo in 1970 for suppression of naive lymphocyte populations by cells with regulatory ... During a tolerant state potential effector cells remain but are tightly regulated by induced antigen-specific CD4+ regulatory T ... Gershon, R. K.; Kondo, K. (May 1970). "Cell interactions in the induction of tolerance: the role of thymic lymphocytes". ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_tolerance

NKT cell Journal Screening Nature glossary on murine NKT cells Nature Reviews Web Focus on regulatory lymphocytes (Webarchive ... While iNKT cells are not very numerous, their unique properties makes them an important regulatory cell that can influence how ... In addition there are subtypes specialized in T follicular helper-like function and IL-10 dependent regulatory functions. Once ... They engage in cross talk with other immune cells, like dendritic cells, neutrophils and lymphocytes. Activation occurs by ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_killer_T_cell

Regulatory B (Breg) cell An immunosuppressive B cell type that stops the expansion of pathogenic, pro-inflammatory lymphocytes ... B cells, also known as B lymphocytes, are a type of white blood cell of the lymphocyte subtype. They function in the humoral ... B cells, unlike the other two classes of lymphocytes, T cells and natural killer cells, express B cell receptors (BCRs) on ... No common Breg cell identity has been described and many Breg cell subsets sharing regulatory functions have been found in both ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_cell

MDSCs can also play a positive regulatory role. It is stated that MMR vaccine stimulates MDSC populations in people taking the ... Suppressor activity of MDSC is determined by their ability to inhibit the effector function of lymphocytes. Inhibition can be ... In addition to producing NO and ROS, MDSCs secrete immune-regulatory cytokines such as TNF, TGFB, and IL10. There are ... Blidner AG, Méndez-Huergo SP, Cagnoni AJ, Rabinovich GA (November 2015). "Re-wiring regulatory cell networks in immunity by ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myeloid-derived_suppressor_cell

"Competing feedback loops shape IL-2 signaling between helper and regulatory T lymphocytes in cellular microenvironments". ... Oct1 is expressed in T-lymphocytes and Oct2 is induced after cell activation. NFAT has multiple family members, all of them are ... On the other hand, IL-2/JES6-1 highly selectively stimulate regulatory T cells and they could be potentially useful for ... It is a 15.5-16 kDa protein that regulates the activities of white blood cells (leukocytes, often lymphocytes) that are ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interleukin_2

Regulatory macrophages produce Interleukin 10, which can inhibit cytotoxic responses of other lymphocytes to cancer cell ... or regulatory. Regulatory-phenotype macrophages have only recently been recognized as an important contributor to tissue ... Regulatory macrophages do not fit into the M1/M2 classification system, and they display different markers. After receiving ... Similar molecules may cause development of an inhibitory, regulatory phenotype. A MAF can also alter the ability of macrophages ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage-activating_factor

"Human lymphocytes interact directly with CD47 through a novel member of the signal regulatory protein (SIRP) family". J. ... Signal-regulatory protein gamma is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SIRPG gene. SIRPG has also recently been ... PDBe-KB provides an overview of all the structure information available in the PDB for Human Signal-regulatory protein gamma ( ... "Entrez Gene: SIRPG signal-regulatory protein gamma". Kharitonenkov A, Chen Z, Sures I, et al. (1997). "A family of proteins ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIRPG

Self antigens, in the right context, form a regulatory T-cell population that protects self tissues from immune attack or ... Alternatively, macrophages and other cytotoxic lymphocytes consume or destroy cells by apoptotic signaling and present self- ... and B-lymphocytes). Normally, these APC 'present' class II receptor/antigens to a great many T-cells, each with unique T-cell ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HLA-DP

"Induction of antigen-specific regulatory T lymphocytes by human dendritic cells expressing the glucocorticoid-induced leucine ... protects T lymphocytes from interleukin-2 withdrawal-induced apoptosis". Blood. 104 (1): 215-23. doi:10.1182/blood-2003-12-4295 ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TSC22D3

... on T lymphocytes: activation-dependent up-regulation and regulatory function". Eur. J. Immunol. 31 (4): 1173-80. doi:10.1002/ ... Together, CR3 and CR4 are involved in various functions of the T and B lymphocytes and NK cells. For instance, while both CR3 ... is a human cell surface receptor found on B and T lymphocytes, polymorphonuclear leukocytes (mostly neutrophils), NK cells, and ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage-1_antigen

Many regulatory processes can lead to allelic exclusion. In one instance, one allele of the gene can become transcriptionally ... This phenomenon is most notable for playing a role in the development of B lymphocytes, where allelic exclusion allows for each ... This is significant as the co-expression of both alleles in B lymphocytes is associated with autoimmunity and the production of ... mature B lymphocyte to express only one type of immunoglobulin. This subsequently results in each B lymphocyte being able to ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allelic_exclusion

The 19S regulatory particles can recognize ubiquitin-labeled protein as degradation substrate, unfold the protein to linear, ... Madani N, Kabat D (Dec 1998). "An endogenous inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus in human lymphocytes is overcome by the ... Thus, 19S regulatory particle pertains a series of important capabilities to address these functional challenges. To recognize ... 26S proteasome complex is usually consisted of a 20S core particle (CP, or 20S proteasome) and one or two 19S regulatory ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSMD7

B and T lymphocytes are tested for their affinity for self MHC/peptide complexes before leaving the primary lymphoid organs and ... there are mechanisms in the periphery involving T regulatory cells to prevent the host from obtaining an autoimmune disease. ... B lymphocytes can also participate in light chain receptor editing, VH gene replacement, or be released and later undergo ... There is a large diversity of epitopes recognized and, as a result, it is possible for some B and T lymphocytes to develop with ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clonal_deletion

"BCR sequences essential for transformation by the BCR-ABL oncogene bind to the ABL SH2 regulatory domain in a non- ... a 105-kD Crk-associated substrate-related protein that is involved in beta 1 integrin-mediated signaling in lymphocytes". J. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABL_(gene)

1999). "Inherited human Caspase 10 mutations underlie defective lymphocyte and dendritic cell apoptosis in autoimmune ... "The death effector domain-associated factor plays distinct regulatory roles in the nucleus and cytoplasm". J. Biol. Chem. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspase_10

A low level of blood lymphocytes may result from the virus acting through ACE2-related entry into lymphocytes. Another common ... The first COVID‑19 vaccine was granted regulatory approval on 2 December 2020 by the UK medicines regulator MHRA. It was ... Autopsies of people who died of COVID‑19 have found diffuse alveolar damage, and lymphocyte-containing inflammatory infiltrates ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19

This regulatory pathway was new at the time and not well understood. One of its advantages is that the US FDA holds more ... It targets the programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) receptor of lymphocytes. It works by targeting the cellular pathway of ... This was Merck's first use of the designation and the reduction in regulatory risk was one of the reasons management was ... Pembrolizumab is a therapeutic antibody that binds to and blocks PD-1 located on lymphocytes. This receptor is generally ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembrolizumab

Liu FT (April 2005). "Regulatory roles of galectins in the immune response". International Archives of Allergy and Immunology. ... is a novel eosinophil chemoattractant produced by T lymphocytes". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 273 (27): 16976-84. doi: ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galectin-9

Cantor's early studies focused on the development and function of lymphocytes derived from the thymus (T-lymphocytes or T cells ... Hu D, †Ikizawa K, Lu L, Sanchirico ME, Shinohara ML, Cantor H. Analysis of regulatory CD8 cells in mice deficient in the Qa-1 ... Nature 2010;467:328 Kim, H-J, Wang X, Radfar S, Sproule TJ, Roopenian DC, Cantor H. CD8+ T regulatory cells express the Ly49 ... Nabel G, Fresno M, Chessman A, Cantor H. Use of cloned populations of mouse lymphocytes to analyze cellular differentiation. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_Cantor

UBL regulatory systems - including UBLs themselves and the cascade of enzymes that interact with them - are believed to share a ... "Isolation of a polypeptide that has lymphocyte-differentiating properties and is probably represented universally in living ... These chains may be linear or branched, and different regulatory signals may be sent by differences in the length and branching ... The evolution of UBLs and their associated suites of regulatory proteins has been of interest since shortly after they were ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubiquitin-like_protein

These regulatory particles include 19S proteasome complexes, 11S proteasome complex, etc. Following the CP-RP association, the ... Madani N, Kabat D (Dec 1998). "An endogenous inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus in human lymphocytes is overcome by the ... The proteolytic capacity of 20S core particle (CP) can be activated when CP associates with one or two regulatory particles (RP ... Ben-Neriah Y (Jan 2002). "Regulatory functions of ubiquitination in the immune system". Nature Immunology. 3 (1): 20-6. doi: ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSMB3

... discovery of regulatory T cells Louis W. Sauer (1885-1980), perfected pertussis vaccine, developed diphtheria/p daertussis/ ... who established that dendritic cells are responsible for imprinting the tissue-specific homing of T lymphocytes Fred Rosen ( ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_immunologists

It is associated with agammaglobulinemia-6. The B lymphocyte antigen receptor is a multimeric complex that includes the antigen ... immunoglobulin-like regulatory regions, and allelic polymorphism". Immunogenetics. 40 (2): 145-9. doi:10.1007/BF00188178. PMID ... "Entrez Gene: CD79B CD79b molecule, immunoglobulin-associated beta". Reth M (1992). "Antigen receptors on B lymphocytes". Annu. ... and serine phosphorylation of the p56lck protein tyrosine kinase in response to antigen receptor cross-linking in B lymphocytes ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD79B

Due to the AP-1 regulatory functions in cancer cells, AP-1 modulation is studied as a potential strategy for cancer prevention ... Martins G, Calame K (2008). "Regulation and functions of Blimp-1 in T and B lymphocytes". Annual Review of Immunology. 26: 133- ... AP-1 was first discovered as a TPA-activated transcription factor that bound to a cis-regulatory element of the human ... Since its discovery, AP-1 has been found to be associated with numerous regulatory and physiological processes, and new ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AP-1_transcription_factor

... gene regulatory network - genetic carrier - genetic code - genetic drift - genetic engineering - genetic fingerprint - genetic ... lymphocyte homing receptor - lysine - lysis - lysis buffer - lysozyme - lytic cycle macroevolution - macromolecular system - ... nucleic acid regulatory sequence - nucleic acid repetitive sequence - nucleic acid sequence homology - nucleon - nucleophile - ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles

Nonetheless, regulatory bodies, such as the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), commonly use LNT as a basis for regulatory ... November 2011). "Chromosome aberrations in peripheral blood lymphocytes of individuals living in high background radiation ... The LNT model is commonly used by regulatory bodies as a basis for formulating public health policies that set regulatory dose ... The NRC upheld the LNT model in 2021 as a "sound regulatory basis for minimizing the risk of unnecessary radiation exposure to ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_no-threshold_model

These studies have had a broad impact on the development, evaluation and regulatory approval of drugs, and helped to establish ... These observations have raised fundamental questions about T lymphocyte biology and viral replication that bridge to a basic ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Richman

El Mir, S.; Triebel, F. (2000-06-01). "A soluble lymphocyte activation gene-3 molecule used as a vaccine adjuvant elicits ... Type 1 regulatory cells or Tr1 (TR1) cells are a class of regulatory T cells participating in peripheral immunity as a subsets ... IL-27, together with TGF-β induces IL-10-producing regulatory T cells with Tr1-like properties cells. IL-27 alone can induce IL ... In vivo Tr1 cells need to be activated, to be able to exert their regulatory effects. Cytokines mediated Tr1 cells secrete ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_1_regulatory_T_cell

Recent research demonstrates that reduction of lymphocyte populations can impair cognition in mice, and that restoration of ... from Rhodobacter sphaeroides Attenuates Microglia-Mediated Inflammation and Phagocytosis and Directs Regulatory T Cell Response ... lymphocytes restores cognitive abilities. Epigenetic medicine encompasses a new branch of neuroimmunology that studies the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroimmunology

Lymphocytes can enter mitosis when they are activated by mitogens or antigens. B cells specifically can divide when they ... TGF-𝝱 works by binding to cell-surface receptors and activating the Smad gene regulatory proteins. Smad proteins then trigger ... T cells undergo mitosis when stimulated by mitogens to produce small lymphocytes that are then responsible for the production ... Mitogens are often used to stimulate lymphocytes and thereby assess immune function. The most commonly used mitogens in ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitogen

Maternal immune factors are transferred by lymphocytes traveling from the mother's gut to the mammary gland where the secretory ... "Immune regulatory cytokines in the milk of lactating women from farming and urban environments". Pediatric Allergy and ... Their presence in human milk may stimulate lymphocytes responsible for the development of the infant's specific immunity. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_milk_immunity

The table below shows some transcription factors that have been predicted by Genomatix that binds to the regulatory sequence of ... through GEO profiles show that CCDC138 is expressed in moderate levels in various tissues including peripheral blood lymphocyte ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCDC138

B lymphocytes (B cells), which are part of the normal immune response, are also responsible for the over-aggressive response ... Regulatory agencies recommend that patients be treated with an antihistamine prior to a belimumab infusion. Because belimumab ... B-cell activating factor (BAFF), also called B-lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS), is required for the development and survival of B ... It interacts with three membrane receptors on B lymphocytes: BAFF-R (BAFF receptor) BCMA (B cell maturation antigen) TACI ( ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belimumab

Winoto A, Littman DR (April 2002). "Nuclear hormone receptors in T lymphocytes". Cell. 109 Suppl (2): S57-S66. doi:10.1016/ ... "Identification of nerve growth factor-responsive element of the TCL1 promoter as a novel negative regulatory element". The ... Expression is inducible by phytohemagglutinin in human lymphocytes and by serum stimulation of arrested fibroblasts. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_receptor_4A1

Müller-Suur, C.; Larsson, K.; Malmberg, P.; Larsson, P.H. (1997). "Increased number of activated lymphocytes in human lung ... Appendix to EPA ICR 1989.06: Supporting Statement for the Information Collection Request for NPDES and ELG Regulatory Revisions ... through regulatory change enacted by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which sought voluntary compliance from drug ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production

CDK5 regulatory subunit associated protein 1 like 1 (6p22.3) COL11A2: collagen, type XI, alpha 2(6p21.3) CYP21A2: cytochrome ... LY6G6E encoding protein Lymphocyte antigen 6 complex, locus G6E (pseudogene) (6p21.33) MIR4640: microRNA 4640 (6p21.33) MLIP: ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome_6

... and STAT6 determines the levels of CD20 on the surface of normal and malignant B lymphocytes. STAT6 also plays a critical role ... "Lineage-specific modulation of interleukin 4 signaling by interferon regulatory factor 4". The Journal of Experimental Medicine ... "Lineage-specific modulation of interleukin 4 signaling by interferon regulatory factor 4". The Journal of Experimental Medicine ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STAT6

CD8+ T cells and CD8+ tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) from individuals with melanoma. Blockade of TIGIT and PD-1 led to ... "TIGIT+ iTregs elicited by human regulatory macrophages control T cell immunity". Nature Communications. 9 (2858): 2858. Bibcode ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIGIT

You M (October 2020). "Changes of China's regulatory regime on commercial artificial breeding of terrestrial wildlife in time ... or CD4+ T-lymphocyte deficiency. Pets may also serve as a reservoir of viral disease and contribute to the chronic presence of ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosis

Liu L, Zhang J, Yuan J, Dang Y, Yang C, Chen X, Xu J, Yu L (March 2005). "Characterization of a human regulatory subunit of ... In this way, it governs the action of cytotoxic lymphocytes. The amount of IL-2 being produced by the T-helper cells is ... IL-2 activates T-helper lymphocytes and induces the production of other cytokines. ... calcineurin A and a 19-kD Ca2+-binding regulatory subunit, calcineurin B. There are three isozymes of the catalytic subunit, ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcineurin

The pre-mRNA of this protein is edited in many tissues( heart, bladder, lymphocytes, fibroblast, epithelial cells and brain) ... ADAR family ADARs 1-3 with ADAR 1 and ADAR 2 being the only enzymatically active members.ADAR3 is thought to have a regulatory ... It is widely expressed protein but expression is particularly high in brain and B lymphocytes. Alternative promoters and ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BLCAP

The kinase DYRK1A reciprocally regulates the differentiation of Th17 and regulatory T cells. Elife. 2015;4. doi:10.7554/eLife. ... High-Frequency, Functional HIV-Specific T-Follicular Helper and Regulatory Cells Are Present Within Germinal Centers in ... transcriptome analysis reveals distinct genetic modules associated with Helios expression in intratumoral regulatory T cells. ...

https://www.broadinstitute.org/bibcite/keyword/6402

MononuclearLymphocytesB-LymphocytesB-Lymphocyte SubsetsB-Lymphocytes, Regulatory. All MeSH CategoriesAnatomy CategoryHemic and ... MononuclearLymphocytesLymphocyte SubsetsB-Lymphocyte SubsetsB-Lymphocytes, Regulatory. All MeSH CategoriesAnatomy CategoryCells ... MononuclearLymphocytesB-LymphocytesB-Lymphocyte SubsetsB-Lymphocytes, Regulatory. All MeSH CategoriesAnatomy CategoryHemic and ... MononuclearLymphocytesLymphocyte SubsetsB-Lymphocyte SubsetsB-Lymphocytes, Regulatory. All MeSH CategoriesAnatomy CategoryHemic ...

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh?term=68060151[uid]

1216 Recruitment of Regulatory Lymphocytes Attenuates Periodontal Disease Symptoms Saturday, March 24, 2012: 8 a.m. - 9:30 a.m. ... We hypothesize that recruiting regulatory lymphocytes back into the periodontium may not only decrease the symptoms of ... Results: We observed the recruitment of regulatory T cells to CCL22 microparticles (injected into the periodontium) in mice and ... were fabricated using a double emulsion procedure to encapsulate and sustain a biological gradient of the regulatory lymphocyte ...

http://www-personal.umich.edu/~sbayne/DMG/DMG-Publications/IADR-AADR-Meeting-Program-Books/2012-AADR-Tampa/2012-AADR-Tampa-CD/AADR12/Paper158070.html

The regulatory role of NZB T lymphocytes in the production of anti-DNA antibodies in vitro C A Laskin et al. J Immunol. 1986. . ... The regulatory role of NZB T lymphocytes in the production of anti-DNA antibodies in vitro C A Laskin, G Haddad, C A Soloninka ... NZB T cells actively interfere with normal immune regulatory mechanisms that lead to the production of anti-DNA antibodies ... spontaneously in vitro by nonautoimmune syngeneic B lymphocytes. Although these studies of anti-DNA antibody production in ...

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3489043

... Del Porto F.. ;Cifani N.;Proietta M.;Dezi T.;Tritapepe L.; ... Lag3+ regulatory T lymphocytes in critical carotid artery stenosis / Del Porto, F.; Cifani, N.; Proietta, M.; Dezi, T.; ... Lag3+ regulatory T lymphocytes in critical carotid artery stenosis / Del Porto, F.; Cifani, N.; Proietta, M.; Dezi, T.; ... The aim of this study was to evaluate CD25+ and Lag3+ T regulatory subpopulations in patients with critical carotid artery ...

https://iris.uniroma1.it/handle/11573/1306245

Regulatory T Lymphocytes in Periodontitis: A Translational View.. Alvarez, Carla; Rojas, Carolina; Rojas, Leticia; Cafferata, ... during which the presence of regulatory T cells (Tregs) is essential to ensure a controlled response that minimizes collateral ...

https://pesquisa.bvsalud.org/saudepublica/resource/pt/mdl-29805313

Lymphocyte Activation * Monocytes / immunology* * Rats * T-Lymphocytes / immunology* * T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory / immunology ... Development of lymphocyte responses and interactions in the human fetus and newborn Immunol Rev. 1981;57:39-60. doi: 10.1111/j. ...

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6458553/?dopt=Abstract

In these settings, lymphocytes are key components that contribute to inflammation and rejection of either patient or donor ... In the present review, the focus is to describe basic functions of lymphocyte populations and how they may contribute to ... "Regulatory role of gamma delta T cells in uterine intraepithelial lymphocytes in maternal antifetal immune response," The ... Proportions of lymphocytes in human placental tissue and findings ex vivo relating to outcome or lymphocyte function. ...

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/sci/2017/5738371/

Regulatory B and T lymphocytes in multiple sclerosis: friends or foes?. 10 November 2018 ... CD39 is highly involved in mediating the suppression activity of tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T regulatory lymphocytes. Cancer ... which is critical for T and B lymphocyte egress from secondary lymphoid organs and thymus. As consequence, lymphocytes ... Serpero, L.D., Filaci, G., Parodi, A. et al. Fingolimod Modulates Peripheral Effector and Regulatory T Cells in MS Patients. J ...

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11481-013-9465-5

Mixed Lymphocyte Reactions are cell proliferation assays. We offer a comprehensive selection of MLRs experiments to test your ... other clients use the Mixed Lymphocyte Reaction as part of the preclinical regulatory submission package. Due to this need, ... While many of our clients use Mixed Lymphocyte Reactions (MLRs) to evaluate the potential for graft rejection early in the ... Whether your Mixed Lymphocyte Reaction requires GLP compliance, or can simply be run under research protocol, we encourage you ...

https://xenodiagnostics.com/mixed-lymphocyte-reactions-glp-vs-non-glp-regulatory-compliance/

... is to better understand the immunology of host-pathogen interaction and basic aspects of CD4+ T cell effector and regulatory ... Regulatory mechanisms that control immunopathology during parasitic infections. *Hematopoiesis and lymphocyte homeostasis in ... the study of regulatory circuits that control Th lymphocyte responses in the same models, (3) the regulation of hematopoiesis ... heminth) played a major role in the discovery of the functional diversity of CD+ T helper (Th) lymphocyte effector subsets ...

https://www.niaid.nih.gov/node/9403

T-Lymphocytes, Suppressor-Effector. T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory. T-Lymphocytes, Suppressor-Inducer. T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory. ...

https://decs.bvs.br/I/del_i2006.htm

B lymphocytes in higher organisms develop in the bone marrow, where they recombine and assemble their cell surface antibody ... B cell super-enhancers and regulatory clusters recruit AID tumorigenic activity. Qian J, Wang Q, Dose M, Pruett N, Kieffer-Kwon ... Global regulation of promoter melting in naive lymphocytes. Kouzine F, Wojtowicz D, Yamane A, Resch W, Kieffer-Kwon KR, Bandle ... Interactome maps of mouse gene regulatory domains reveal basic principles of transcriptional regulation. Kieffer-Kwon KR, Tang ...

https://www.niams.nih.gov/labs/laboratory-lymphocyte-nuclear-biology

... and IL-35-producing Regulatory B Cells (i35-Bregs): Critical Regulators of Autoimmune Diseases. ... Research in the Egwuagu laboratory is on autoreactive lymphocytes that mediate CNS autoimmune diseases, such as Uveitis and ... Interleukin 35 (IL-35) and IL-35-producing Regulatory B Cells (i35-Bregs): Critical Regulators of Autoimmune Diseases.. ... CIT): Lecture will focus on the immunobiology of Interleukin 35 (IL-35), our discovery of a novel regulatory B cell population ...

https://videocast.nih.gov/watch=18508

... in T lymphocytes suppresses development of chronic ocular inflammation via upregulation of CTLA-4 and expansion of regulatory T ... The innate immune system provides instructional signals for lymphocyte differentiation while lymphocytes regulate the intensity ... Mechanisms that regulate lymphocyte development and cell-fate decisions Kim SH, Burton J, Yu CR, Sun L, He C, Wang H, Morse HC ... Auto-reactive lymphocytes that mediate CNS autoimmune diseases Amadi-Obi A, Yu CR, Liu X, Mahdi RM, Clarke GL, Nussenblatt RB, ...

https://www.nei.nih.gov/research/research-labs-and-branches/molecular-immunology-section

However, the underlying regulatory mechanisms for this protection are unclear. Here, we report that CD8+ regulatory T (Treg) ... inducing regulatory CD8+ T cells and reducing susceptibility to autoimmune diabetes. ... Inhibition by lethal irradiation and restoration by splenic lymphocytes. Diabetes 31, 808-815 (1982). ... However, the underlying regulatory mechanisms for this protection are unclear. Here, we report that CD8+ regulatory T (Treg) ...

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-15857-x?error=cookies_not_supported&code=168535d0-5d2f-4677-badf-3304150c38c4

Bare lymphocyte syndrome type II ... RFXAP proteins come together to form the regulatory factor X (RFX) complex, which attaches ...

http://vsearch.nlm.nih.gov/vivisimo/cgi-bin/query-meta?v:project=medlineplus&query=Coagulation+Factor+X+Human

MeSH Terms: Animals; Autoimmunity*/genetics; B-Lymphocytes/immunology; B-Lymphocytes/metabolism; Chemotaxis, Leukocyte; ... Cytokines/genetics; Cytokines/metabolism*; Disease Models, Animal; Female; Gene Expression Regulation; Gene Regulatory Networks ... T-Lymphocytes/immunology; T-Lymphocytes/metabolism; Tertiary Lymphoid Structures/immunology*; Tertiary Lymphoid Structures/ ... and lymphocytes into the alveoli, (ii) cell death as reflected by increased protein, double-stranded DNA, and lactate ...

https://tools.niehs.nih.gov/portfolio/index.cfm?do=portfolio.publicationDetail&id=4095859

Memory T Lymphocytes in Cancer Immunology (R01) PA-07-255. NCI ... such as CD25+ regulatory T cells or immature DCs. Responding T ... Title: Memory T Lymphocytes in Cancer Immunology (R01). Announcement Type. This is a reissue of PA-06-350, which was previously ... Memory T cells, like effector T cells, belong to a heterogeneous class of lymphocytes. Memory T cells are defined based on ... Understanding and exploiting the induction of long-lasting antigen-specific T lymphocyte immunity to human tumors is one of the ...

https://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-07-255.html

Regulatory lymphocytes and intestinal inflammation.. Izcue A; Coombes JL; Powrie F. Annu Rev Immunol; 2009; 27():313-38. PubMed ... Type 3 regulatory T cells at the interface of symbiosis.. Park JH; Eberl G. J Microbiol; 2018 Mar; 56(3):163-171. PubMed ID: ...

https://pubmedhh.nlm.nih.gov/biomarkers/search.php?id=35017213&mod=related&page=1&outid=&proj=

Keywords: CD8+ tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes; cytotoxic T lymphocytes -associated protein 4; dendritic cells; immune evasion; ... hypoxia-inducible factors; myeloid-derived suppressor cells; natural killer; programmed death receptor and ligand; regulatory T ...

https://www.mdpi.com/journal/cancers/special_issues

Regulatory T lymphocytes. Thymus gland. Vitamin D3. Abstract in English. There are consistent data in literature indicating ... However, there are no data in the literature concerning the possible role of this moelcule in natural regulatory T cells. In ... These cells are known as natural regulatory T cells. Several questions about these cells remain unanswered, such as how they ... Peptide phage display for the identification of novel molecular markers on human thymic regulatory CD4+CD25+ T cells ...

https://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/5/5146/tde-28012009-131608/en.php

Title: Freeze and Thaw of CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ Regulatory T Cells Results in Loss of CD62L Expression and a Reduced Capacity to ... Sell selectin, lymphocyte [Mus musculus] Sell selectin, lymphocyte [Mus musculus]. Gene ID:20343 ... selectin, lymphocyteprovided by MGI. Primary source. MGI:MGI:98279 See related. Ensembl:ENSMUSG00000026581 AllianceGenome:MGI: ... Sell selectin, lymphocyte [ Mus musculus (house mouse) ] Gene ID: 20343, updated on 12-Apr-2023 ...

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene?term=20343

The average lymphocyte count nadir occurred at Day 5 of treatment, with recovery and return to baseline by Week 6 [see Warnings ... Teplizumab-mzwv leads to an increase in the proportion of regulatory T cells and of exhausted CD8+ T cells in peripheral blood. ... Decrease in white blood cells. TZIELD may cause a decrease in a type of white blood cell called lymphocytes. A decrease in ... Teplizumab-mzwv binds to CD3 (a cell surface antigen present on T lymphocytes) and delays the onset of Stage 3 type 1 diabetes ...

https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=e8a39a5f-139c-4510-9777-71cbb00138fa&audience=professional

CD, cluster of differentiation; CTLs, cytotoxic T lymphocytes; Tregs, T regulatory cells. ... CD, cluster of differentiation; CTLs, cytotoxic T lymphocytes; Tregs, T regulatory cells. ... ns, no significance; TIL, tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte; CD, cluster of differentiation; CTLs, cytotoxic T lymphocytes; OS, ... cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), regulatory T‑cells (Tregs), programmed cell death protein 1+ T cells and programmed cell death ...

https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/ol.2023.13847

While many of our clients use Mixed Lymphocyte Reactions (MLR's) to evaluate the potential for graft rejection early in the development of their technology, other clients use the Mixed Lymphocyte Reaction as part of the preclinical regulatory submission package. (xenodiagnostics.com)
Due to this need, Xeno Diagnostics is uniquely set up to perform Mixed Lymphocyte Reactions under Good Laboratory Practices (GLP's). (xenodiagnostics.com)
The goal of our project was to study the role and immunomodulatory functions of human DN T cells in Mixed Lymphocyte Reactions (MLR). (umontreal.ca)

The observation that the immune system is able to "tailor" host-protective responses to a specific type of parasite (e.g. protozoan vs. heminth) played a major role in the discovery of the functional diversity of CD+ T helper (Th) lymphocyte effector subsets defined by specific cytokine secretion profiles. (nih.gov)
Moreover, our work on the analysis of Th subsets during parasitic infection has led to the discovery that effector cells can themselves be induced to display immuno-regulatory activity. (nih.gov)
Beginning with his seminal finding that susceptibility or resistance to organ-specific autoimmune disease is inversely correlated with expression level of the relevant autoantigen in the thymus, his work evolved towards characterization of lymphocyte subsets that mediate uveitis. (nih.gov)
Although this method can provide insights into regulatory T cell differentiation, it can also be modified to study other CD4 T cell subsets and other immune cells of interest. (jove.com)

Focus is on cytokine signaling with particular interest in the roles of JAK/STAT pathway and suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins in the regulation of lymphocyte development and cell-fate decisions. (nih.gov)
Role of JAK/STAT signal transduction pathway and suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins in the regulation of lymphocyte development and cell-fate decisions. (nih.gov)
This amino acid has been shown to play a role in lymphocyte proliferation, cytokine production by lymphocytes and macrophages and phagocytosis and superoxide production by macrophages and neutrophils. (who.int)

High-Frequency, Functional HIV-Specific T-Follicular Helper and Regulatory Cells Are Present Within Germinal Centers in Children but Not Adults. (broadinstitute.org)
Yates K, Bi K, Haining N, Cantor H, Kim H-J. Comparative transcriptome analysis reveals distinct genetic modules associated with Helios expression in intratumoral regulatory T cells. (broadinstitute.org)
The kinase DYRK1A reciprocally regulates the differentiation of Th17 and regulatory T cells. (broadinstitute.org)
We observed the recruitment of regulatory T cells to CCL22 microparticles (injected into the periodontium) in mice and the subsequent amelioration of disease symptoms. (umich.edu)
Additional examination of the cellular mechanisms involved in the regulation of this response in NZB mice revealed: 1) this response is markedly T cell dependent, 2) NZB T cells are essential for maximal production of this autoantibody, and 3) NZB T cells actively interfere with normal immune regulatory mechanisms that lead to the production of anti-DNA antibodies spontaneously in vitro by nonautoimmune syngeneic B lymphocytes. (nih.gov)
Patients with neurological symptoms display a peculiar expansion of CD25+ T cells, strongly confirming a relationship between ischemic brain damage and this regulatory subpopulation, whereas Lag3+ Tregs early distinguish CAS from AAD and probably exert protective actions against aortic wall rupture throughout their anti-inflammatory functions. (uniroma1.it)
The immune homeostasis associated with periodontal health requires a regulated immuno-inflammatory response, during which the presence of regulatory T cells (Tregs) is essential to ensure a controlled response that minimizes collateral tissue damage. (bvsalud.org)
In the present review, the focus is to describe basic functions of lymphocyte populations and how they may contribute to fetomaternal immune regulation, as well as determining what proportions and effector functions of these cells are reported to be present in placental tissues in humans. (hindawi.com)
The objective of this review is to discuss some of these mechanisms in the light of the current literature, with particular emphasis on lymphocyte function at the fetomaternal interface and how these cells may contribute to immune modulation during pregnancy. (hindawi.com)
Additionally, the placental tissues also contained CD4 + CD25 high cells, supposedly regulatory T cells (Tregs). (hindawi.com)
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a complex neurological disease where, in genetically predisposed individuals, the unbalanced interplay between pathogenic and regulatory T cells will result in the progression of the autoimmune assault to neural antigens. (springer.com)
Here we characterized IL-17 and IFNγ producing effector CD4 and CD8 positive T cells as well as CD4 positive CD25 high CD127 low regulatory T cells in MS patients before and 1 month after treatment was started. (springer.com)
Finally, we observed that CD4+ CD25 high CD127 low regulatory T cells were decreased in MS patients compared to healthy controls and fingolimod significantly increased their frequencies. (springer.com)
All together these findings demonstrate that fingolimod functionally modulates the ability of potentially pathogenic effector cells to produce relevant pro-inflammatory cytokines and increases the number of circulating regulatory T cells possibly contributing in restoring a balance between these populations. (springer.com)
In healthy condition, the onset of an autoimmune response against the CNS is prevented by a tightly regulated balance between self-reacting immune cells and regulatory lymphocytes including both B and T cells. (springer.com)
Interleukin 35 (IL-35) and IL-35-producing Regulatory B Cells (i35-Bregs): Critical Regulators of Autoimmune Diseases. (nih.gov)
Seminar will conclude with recent data addressing the question of whether Breg constitutes a unique B cell lineage or merely peripheral B cells that are induced to produce regulatory cytokines during inflammation, akin to inducible Tregs. (nih.gov)
ii) rIL12p35 and Ebi3 suppresses lymphocyte proliferation and IL-39 producing B cells maybe the etiologic agent of systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE). (nih.gov)
The innate immune system provides instructional signals for lymphocyte differentiation while lymphocytes regulate the intensity and duration of the inflammatory response by coordinating activities of most immune cells. (nih.gov)
10. Type 3 regulatory T cells at the interface of symbiosis. (nih.gov)
Here, we report that CD8 + regulatory T (Treg) cells prevent the onset of streptozotocin -induced diabetes by a rodent intestinal nematode. (nature.com)
These cells are known as natural regulatory T cells. (usp.br)
Several questions about these cells remain unanswered, such as how they are generated, what is determinant in their regulatory function and which specific molecular markers can be used to identify them. (usp.br)
Taking this into consideration, our aim was to identify new potentially important molecules in the development and/or supressive function of natural regulatory T cells, both in the thymus and in CD4+CD25+ thymocytes. (usp.br)
The levels of TILs, including the total number of T cells, cluster of differentiation (CD)4 + T cells, CD8 + cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), regulatory T‑cells (Tregs), programmed cell death protein 1 + T cells and programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD‑L1) + T cells, in the TME of patients with PC were detected using multiple fluorescence immunohistochemistry. (spandidos-publications.com)
The TME encompasses the surrounding immune cells, lymphocytes, bone marrow-derived inflammatory cells, blood vessels, extracellular matrix, fibroblasts and other signaling molecules ( 4 , 5 ). (spandidos-publications.com)
However, recent studies showing that regulatory T cells are major cerebroprotective immunomodulators after stroke suggest that targeting the endogenous adaptive immune response may offer novel promising neuroprotectant therapies. (biomedcentral.com)
Morphologic alteration of small B LYMPHOCYTES or T LYMPHOCYTES in culture into large blast-like cells able to synthesize DNA and RNA and to divide mitotically. (harvard.edu)
Suppression of allograft rejection by regulatory B cells induced via TLR signaling. (harvard.edu)
These attempts have, so far, usually been based on either mononuclear cells from peripheral blood or tumour infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) separated from fresh tumour specimens. (justia.com)
This protocol describes the reproducible generation and phenotyping of human induced regulatory T cells (iTregs) from naïve CD4 + T cells in vitro . (jove.com)
The overall goals of this experiment are to induce human FOXP3-positive regulatory T cells from naive CD4 T cells in vitro, and to analyze their phenotype. (jove.com)
The main advantage of this technique is that it allows the reproducible generation and phenotyping of human FOXP3-positive regulatory T cells. (jove.com)
Indeed, it was not until the pioneering work of Eric Newsholme's laboratory in the 1980's that it was established that immune cells such as lymphocytes and macrophages could utilize glutamine at high rates in addition to glucose (3,4). (who.int)
Among these populations, Double Negative CD4-CD8-TCRαβ+ regulatory T cells (DN T) have been described. (umontreal.ca)
These cells represent 1-3% of all T cell lymphocytes and are known to have antigen-specific inhibitory functions of the immune response. (umontreal.ca)

Research in the Egwuagu laboratory is on autoreactive lymphocytes that mediate CNS autoimmune diseases, such as Uveitis and Multiple Sclerosis. (nih.gov)
The Molecular Immunology Section seeks to understand molecular and cellular mechanisms that regulate host immunity with particular focus on lymphocytes that mediate CNS autoimmune diseases, such as Uveitis and Multiple Sclerosis. (nih.gov)

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS), driven by autoreactive lymphocytes resulting into an inflammatory cascade and subsequent degeneration of the neural tissue (Compston and Coles 2008 ). (springer.com)

Most cytokines activate the JAK/STAT signal transduction pathway, an evolutionarily conserved mechanism that regulates lymphocyte development, differentiation and lineage commitment. (nih.gov)
This method can help to answer key questions in the T cell immunology field, such as how does regulatory T cell differentiation occur on the molecular level? (jove.com)

Among these, adoptive transfer of tumour antigen-specific lymphocytes seems particularly promising. (justia.com)

Understand the structure, function, and in gut development to identify disease regulatory mechanisms responsible for mechanisms and therapeutic targets for motility in the GI tract. (nih.gov)
However, the underlying regulatory mechanisms for this protection are unclear. (nature.com)

The overall objective of our work is to better understand the immunology of host-pathogen interaction and basic aspects of CD4+ T cell effector and regulatory function. (nih.gov)

Lymphocyte Activation" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicine's controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) . (harvard.edu)

Our main goal is to unravel the nuclear events that drive activation and transformation of B lymphocytes, from changes in transcription, epigenetics and chromatin architecture, to recombination and hypermutation of antibody genes. (nih.gov)
This graph shows the total number of publications written about "Lymphocyte Activation" by people in Harvard Catalyst Profiles by year, and whether "Lymphocyte Activation" was a major or minor topic of these publication. (harvard.edu)
Below are the most recent publications written about "Lymphocyte Activation" by people in Profiles. (harvard.edu)
The present invention discloses an improved method for expansion and activation of tumor-reactive lymphocytes, in particular CD4+ helper and/or CD8+ T-lymphocytes, which may be used for treating and/or preventing cancer. (justia.com)
The invention relates to an improved method for expansion and activation of tumour-reactive lymphocytes, in particular CD4+ helper and/or CD8+ T-lymphocytes. (justia.com)

Lymphocytes, macrophages and neutrophils play an important role in the immune and inflammatory response. (who.int)
The metabolic fate of glutamine in lymphocytes, macrophages and neutrophils will be discussed in the present paper. (who.int)

Eric Newsholme's laboratory was the first to show glutamine utilization by lymphocytes and macrophages. (who.int)

The method provides high numbers of tumor-reactive T-lymphocytes within a short time span and the possibility of directing development of tumor-reactive CD4+ helper and/or CD8+ T-lymphocytes towards specific subpopulations. (justia.com)
and a second phase of activating and promoting growth of tumor-reactive CD4+ T helper and/or CD8+ T-lymphocytes, wherein the second phase is initiated when the CD25 cell surface marker (or IL-2R marker) is down-regulated on CD4+ T helper and/or CD8+ T-lymphocytes. (justia.com)
Accordingly, the present invention discloses an improved method for expansion of tumour-reactive CD4+ helper and/or CD8+ T-lymphocytes, wherein specific culturing conditions have been determined and optimized, and wherein specific markers on the T-lymphocytes and in the culture medium are monitored throughout the expansion phase, in order to obtain high numbers of tumour-reactive T-lymphocytes in the shortest possible time span. (justia.com)

Quiescent healthy T lymphocytes were unaffected by the drugs whereas mitogen-stimulated lymphocytes as well as leukemic cell lines displayed a cell cycle block, caspase-dependent apoptosis, and dephosphorylation of key components of the signaling pathway. (oncotarget.com)

In these settings, lymphocytes are key components that contribute to inflammation and rejection of either patient or donor tissues following transplantation. (hindawi.com)
11. Regulatory lymphocytes and intestinal inflammation. (nih.gov)

Regulatory B and T lymphocytes in multiple sclerosis: friends or foes? (springer.com)

Nevertheless, the effects of PI3K/Akt/mTOR inhibitors on T lymphocytes, a key component of immune responses, have been seldom explored. (oncotarget.com)

The aim of this study was to evaluate CD25+ and Lag3+ T regulatory subpopulations in patients with critical carotid artery stenosis (CAS) and Stanford-A acute aortic dissection (AAD). (uniroma1.it)

Indeed, recent data indicates that periodontal lesions can be characterized an absence of a subset of lymphocytes that mediates immunological tolerance and homeostasis. (umich.edu)
We hypothesize that recruiting regulatory lymphocytes back into the periodontium may not only decrease the symptoms of periodontal disease, but also restore immunological homeostasis and possibly even promote tissue regeneration. (umich.edu)

Abstract: Seminar will focus on the immunobiology of Interleukin 35 (IL-35), our discovery of a novel regulatory B cell population that produces IL-35 (i35-Breg) and pioneering work on the use of IL-35 and adoptive Breg/i35-Breg therapy for organ-specific autoimmune diseases. (nih.gov)

Notre objectif consistait donc principalement à étudier le rôle et le mécanisme d'action des cellules T DN régulatrices humaines in vitro, en étudiant leur capacité à inhiber une réaction lymphocytaire mixte (MLR). (umontreal.ca)

B lymphocytes in higher organisms develop in the bone marrow, where they recombine and assemble their cell surface antibody receptor genes. (nih.gov)

More recently his lab discovered a novel regulatory B cell population that produces IL-35 (i35-Breg) and now pioneering the use of adoptive Breg/i35-Breg therapy for organ-specific autoimmune diseases. (nih.gov)

Dr. Paul provides details of his discovery of the molecular structure and functions of interleukin-4, a critical regulatory factor for lymphocytes. (cdc.gov)

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) controlled release microparticles were fabricated using a double emulsion procedure to encapsulate and sustain a biological gradient of the regulatory lymphocyte recruiting chemokine, CCL-22. (umich.edu)

Therefore, our findings suggest that PI3K/Akt/mTOR inhibitors preserve lymphocyte viability. (oncotarget.com)

Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) (see the image below) is a heterogeneous group of lymphoproliferative disorders characterized by localization of neoplastic T lymphocytes to the skin, with no evidence of extracutaneous disease at the time of diagnosis. (medscape.com)
Autophagy was also induced in proliferating lymphocytes and in JURKAT and MOLT-4 cell lines. (oncotarget.com)
Many regulatory T cell populations have been studied and shown to have immunosuppressive properties in GvHD. (umontreal.ca)
and an electron microphotograph of a dendritic cell with adherent lymphocytes. (cdc.gov)

The data suggest a proinflammatory state that may be simultaneously Immune-dysregulated, with reduced regulatory (suppressor) T-ceIls, amongst early-career masons. (cdc.gov)

By contrast, masons had a lower percentage of CD25-positive lymphocytes (12.4 vs 20.4, p=0.01). (cdc.gov)

Mature lymphocytes recirculate via blood and lymph through lymphoid tissues in a relatively quiescent state until stimulated to proliferate during, for example, a bacterial or viral infection. (who.int)

While this does require additional effort from both Xeno and our clients, this ensures that the data obtained from these studies meets regulatory expectations. (xenodiagnostics.com)

Lag3+ regulatory T lymphocytes in critical carotid artery stenosis / Del Porto, F. (uniroma1.it)

The inventors have previously disclosed a general method for expansion of tumour-reactive T-lymphocytes from sentinel lymph nodes, showing that it is possible to culture T-lymphocytes obtained from sentinel lymph nodes in order to obtain a culture of tumour-reactive T-lymphocytes. (justia.com)

Anatomy45

Organisms14

Diseases16

Chemicals and Drugs101

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment31

Phenomena and Processes47

Disciplines and Occupations1

Information Science2

Health Care1

Amplified B lymphocyte CD40 signaling drives regulatory B10 cell expansion in mice. (1/35)

B cell-derived IL-10 suppresses inflammatory disease in Lyn-deficient mice. (2/35)

Matchmaking the B-cell signature of tolerance to regulatory B cells. (3/35)

Regulatory B cell production of IL-10 inhibits lymphoma depletion during CD20 immunotherapy in mice. (4/35)

Rejection and regulation: a tight balance. (5/35)

Regulatory B10 cells differentiate into antibody-secreting cells after transient IL-10 production in vivo. (6/35)

Increased numbers of CD5+ B lymphocytes with a regulatory phenotype in spondylarthritis. (7/35)

Preserving the B-cell compartment favors operational tolerance in human renal transplantation. (8/35)

Lymphocytes

B-Lymphocytes

Lymphocyte Activation

T-Lymphocytes

Lymphocyte Subsets

Receptors, Antigen, B-Cell

Lymphocyte Count

Spleen

Palatine Tonsil

B-Lymphocyte Subsets

Cells, Cultured

Immunoglobulin M

Flow Cytometry

Lymphocyte Culture Test, Mixed

Leukocyte Count

Lymphocyte Cooperation

Antigens, CD

Herpesvirus 4, Human

Immunoglobulins

Mitogens

Antigens, CD19

Phytohemagglutinins

Mice, Inbred C57BL

Rosette Formation

Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating

Mice, Inbred BALB C

Immunoglobulin D

Antibodies, Monoclonal

Concanavalin A

CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes

Immune Adherence Reaction

Antibody Formation

Lymph Nodes

T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic

Lymphocyte Transfusion

Cell Line

Immunoglobulin G

Leukemia, Lymphoid

Interleukin-2

Lymphoid Tissue

Cytotoxicity, Immunologic

Cell Separation

Antigens, Differentiation, B-Lymphocyte

B-Cell Activating Factor

Pokeweed Mitogens

T-Lymphocyte Subsets

Antigens, Surface

Lymphocyte Depletion

Immunity, Cellular

Immunophenotyping

Thymus Gland

Cell Differentiation

Antigens, CD5

CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes

Antibody-Producing Cells

Molecular Sequence Data

Clone Cells

Antigens, CD3

Lectins

Antibodies, Anti-Idiotypic

Cell Division

Antigens

Killer Cells, Natural

Antigens, Differentiation, T-Lymphocyte

Immunoglobulin mu-Chains

Interleukin-4

Cytotoxicity Tests, Immunologic

Antigens, CD40

Lymphocyte Function-Associated Antigen-1

Receptors, Lymphocyte Homing

Mice, Inbred Strains

Immunoglobulin Heavy Chains

Plasma Cells

Immunologic Capping

Receptors, Complement 3d

Interferon-gamma

Base Sequence

Mice, Inbred CBA

Immunologic Deficiency Syndromes

Epitopes