An autosomal recessive inherited disorder characterized by choreoathetosis beginning in childhood, progressive CEREBELLAR ATAXIA; TELANGIECTASIS of CONJUNCTIVA and SKIN; DYSARTHRIA; B- and T-cell immunodeficiency, and RADIOSENSITIVITY to IONIZING RADIATION. Affected individuals are prone to recurrent sinobronchopulmonary infections, lymphoreticular neoplasms, and other malignancies. Serum ALPHA-FETOPROTEINS are usually elevated. (Menkes, Textbook of Child Neurology, 5th ed, p688) The gene for this disorder (ATM) encodes a cell cycle checkpoint protein kinase and has been mapped to chromosome 11 (11q22-q23).
A group of PROTEIN-SERINE-THREONINE KINASES which activate critical signaling cascades in double strand breaks, APOPTOSIS, and GENOTOXIC STRESS such as ionizing ultraviolet A light, thereby acting as a DNA damage sensor. These proteins play a role in a wide range of signaling mechanisms in cell cycle control.
Permanent dilation of preexisting blood vessels (CAPILLARIES; ARTERIOLES; VENULES) creating small focal red lesions, most commonly in the skin or mucous membranes. It is characterized by the prominence of skin blood vessels, such as vascular spiders.
An autosomal dominant vascular anomaly characterized by telangiectases of the skin and mucous membranes and by recurrent gastrointestinal bleeding. This disorder is caused by mutations of a gene (on chromosome 9q3) which encodes endoglin, a membrane glycoprotein that binds TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA.
Impairment of the ability to perform smoothly coordinated voluntary movements. This condition may affect the limbs, trunk, eyes, pharynx, larynx, and other structures. Ataxia may result from impaired sensory or motor function. Sensory ataxia may result from posterior column injury or PERIPHERAL NERVE DISEASES. Motor ataxia may be associated with CEREBELLAR DISEASES; CEREBRAL CORTEX diseases; THALAMIC DISEASES; BASAL GANGLIA DISEASES; injury to the RED NUCLEUS; and other conditions.
Proteins that are normally involved in holding cellular growth in check. Deficiencies or abnormalities in these proteins may lead to unregulated cell growth and tumor development.
Incoordination of voluntary movements that occur as a manifestation of CEREBELLAR DISEASES. Characteristic features include a tendency for limb movements to overshoot or undershoot a target (dysmetria), a tremor that occurs during attempted movements (intention TREMOR), impaired force and rhythm of diadochokinesis (rapidly alternating movements), and GAIT ATAXIA. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p90)
Proteins that control the CELL DIVISION CYCLE. This family of proteins includes a wide variety of classes, including CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES, mitogen-activated kinases, CYCLINS, and PHOSPHOPROTEIN PHOSPHATASES as well as their putative substrates such as chromatin-associated proteins, CYTOSKELETAL PROTEINS, and TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS.
An inorganic pyrophosphate which affects calcium metabolism in mammals. Abnormalities in its metabolism occur in some human diseases, notably HYPOPHOSPHATASIA and pseudogout (CHONDROCALCINOSIS).
A group of rare, idiopathic, congenital retinal vascular anomalies affecting the retinal capillaries. It is characterized by dilation and tortuosity of retinal vessels and formation of multiple aneurysms, with different degrees of leakage and exudates emanating from the blood vessels.
An autosomal recessive disease, usually of childhood onset, characterized pathologically by degeneration of the spinocerebellar tracts, posterior columns, and to a lesser extent the corticospinal tracts. Clinical manifestations include GAIT ATAXIA, pes cavus, speech impairment, lateral curvature of spine, rhythmic head tremor, kyphoscoliosis, congestive heart failure (secondary to a cardiomyopathy), and lower extremity weakness. Most forms of this condition are associated with a mutation in a gene on chromosome 9, at band q13, which codes for the mitochondrial protein frataxin. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p1081; N Engl J Med 1996 Oct 17;335(16):1169-75) The severity of Friedreich ataxia associated with expansion of GAA repeats in the first intron of the frataxin gene correlates with the number of trinucleotide repeats. (From Durr et al, N Engl J Med 1996 Oct 17;335(16):1169-75)
Proteins which bind to DNA. The family includes proteins which bind to both double- and single-stranded DNA and also includes specific DNA binding proteins in serum which can be used as markers for malignant diseases.
Injuries to DNA that introduce deviations from its normal, intact structure and which may, if left unrepaired, result in a MUTATION or a block of DNA REPLICATION. These deviations may be caused by physical or chemical agents and occur by natural or unnatural, introduced circumstances. They include the introduction of illegitimate bases during replication or by deamination or other modification of bases; the loss of a base from the DNA backbone leaving an abasic site; single-strand breaks; double strand breaks; and intrastrand (PYRIMIDINE DIMERS) or interstrand crosslinking. Damage can often be repaired (DNA REPAIR). If the damage is extensive, it can induce APOPTOSIS.
A group of dominantly inherited, predominately late-onset, cerebellar ataxias which have been divided into multiple subtypes based on clinical features and genetic mapping. Progressive ataxia is a central feature of these conditions, and in certain subtypes POLYNEUROPATHY; DYSARTHRIA; visual loss; and other disorders may develop. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1997, Ch65, pp 12-17; J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1998 Jun;57(6):531-43)
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION or particle radiation (high energy ELEMENTARY PARTICLES) capable of directly or indirectly producing IONS in its passage through matter. The wavelengths of ionizing electromagnetic radiation are equal to or smaller than those of short (far) ultraviolet radiation and include gamma and X-rays.
Enzyme activated in response to DNA DAMAGE involved in cell cycle arrest. The gene is located on the long (q) arm of chromosome 22 at position 12.1. In humans it is encoded by the CHEK2 gene.
The reconstruction of a continuous two-stranded DNA molecule without mismatch from a molecule which contained damaged regions. The major repair mechanisms are excision repair, in which defective regions in one strand are excised and resynthesized using the complementary base pairing information in the intact strand; photoreactivation repair, in which the lethal and mutagenic effects of ultraviolet light are eliminated; and post-replication repair, in which the primary lesions are not repaired, but the gaps in one daughter duplex are filled in by incorporation of portions of the other (undamaged) daughter duplex. Excision repair and post-replication repair are sometimes referred to as "dark repair" because they do not require light.
Impairment of the ability to coordinate the movements required for normal ambulation (WALKING) which may result from impairments of motor function or sensory feedback. This condition may be associated with BRAIN DISEASES (including CEREBELLAR DISEASES and BASAL GANGLIA DISEASES); SPINAL CORD DISEASES; or PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES.
Penetrating, high-energy electromagnetic radiation emitted from atomic nuclei during NUCLEAR DECAY. The range of wavelengths of emitted radiation is between 0.1 - 100 pm which overlaps the shorter, more energetic hard X-RAYS wavelengths. The distinction between gamma rays and X-rays is based on their radiation source.
The ability of some cells or tissues to survive lethal doses of IONIZING RADIATION. Tolerance depends on the species, cell type, and physical and chemical variables, including RADIATION-PROTECTIVE AGENTS and RADIATION-SENSITIZING AGENTS.
Nuclear phosphoprotein encoded by the p53 gene (GENES, P53) whose normal function is to control CELL PROLIFERATION and APOPTOSIS. A mutant or absent p53 protein has been found in LEUKEMIA; OSTEOSARCOMA; LUNG CANCER; and COLORECTAL CANCER.
Interruptions in the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA, across both strands adjacently.
A serine-threonine protein kinase that, when activated by DNA, phosphorylates several DNA-binding protein substrates including the TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEIN P53 and a variety of TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS.
Bleeding from the nose.
The introduction of a phosphoryl group into a compound through the formation of an ester bond between the compound and a phosphorus moiety.
Keto-pyrans.
One of the two types of ACTIVIN RECEPTORS. They are membrane protein kinases belonging to the family of PROTEIN-SERINE-THREONINE KINASES. The major type II activin receptors are ActR-IIA and ActR-IIB.
Abnormal formation of blood vessels that shunt arterial blood directly into veins without passing through the CAPILLARIES. They usually are crooked, dilated, and with thick vessel walls. A common type is the congenital arteriovenous fistula. The lack of blood flow and oxygen in the capillaries can lead to tissue damage in the affected areas.
Small chromosomal proteins (approx 12-20 kD) possessing an open, unfolded structure and attached to the DNA in cell nuclei by ionic linkages. Classification into the various types (designated histone I, histone II, etc.) is based on the relative amounts of arginine and lysine in each.
Proteins found in the nucleus of a cell. Do not confuse with NUCLEOPROTEINS which are proteins conjugated with nucleic acids, that are not necessarily present in the nucleus.
Connective tissue cells which secrete an extracellular matrix rich in collagen and other macromolecules.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
The relationship between the dose of administered radiation and the response of the organism or tissue to the radiation.
The complex series of phenomena, occurring between the end of one CELL DIVISION and the end of the next, by which cellular material is duplicated and then divided between two daughter cells. The cell cycle includes INTERPHASE, which includes G0 PHASE; G1 PHASE; S PHASE; and G2 PHASE, and CELL DIVISION PHASE.
A chromosome instability syndrome resulting from a defective response to DNA double-strand breaks. In addition to characteristic FACIES and MICROCEPHALY, patients have a range of findings including RADIOSENSITIVITY, immunodeficiency, increased cancer risk, and growth retardation. Causative mutations occur in the NBS1 gene, located on human chromosome 8q21. NBS1 codes for nibrin, the key regulator protein of the R/M/N (RAD50/MRE11/NBS1) protein complex which senses and mediates cellular response to DNA DAMAGE caused by IONIZING RADIATION.
Complex cytotoxic antibiotic obtained from Streptomyces flocculus or S. rufochronmogenus. It is used in advanced carcinoma and causes leukopenia.
A mild form of LIMITED SCLERODERMA, a multi-system disorder. Its features include symptoms of CALCINOSIS; RAYNAUD DISEASE; ESOPHAGEAL MOTILITY DISORDERS; sclerodactyly, and TELANGIECTASIS. When the defect in esophageal function is not prominent, it is known as CRST syndrome.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
A family of enzymes that catalyze the conversion of ATP and a protein to ADP and a phosphoprotein.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
The period of the CELL CYCLE following DNA synthesis (S PHASE) and preceding M PHASE (cell division phase). The CHROMOSOMES are tetraploid in this point.
The process by which a DNA molecule is duplicated.
A type of chromosomal aberration involving DNA BREAKS. Chromosome breakage can result in CHROMOSOMAL TRANSLOCATION; CHROMOSOME INVERSION; or SEQUENCE DELETION.
A congenital abnormality in which the CEREBRUM is underdeveloped, the fontanels close prematurely, and, as a result, the head is small. (Desk Reference for Neuroscience, 2nd ed.)
That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum immediately below the visible range and extending into the x-ray frequencies. The longer wavelengths (near-UV or biotic or vital rays) are necessary for the endogenous synthesis of vitamin D and are also called antirachitic rays; the shorter, ionizing wavelengths (far-UV or abiotic or extravital rays) are viricidal, bactericidal, mutagenic, and carcinogenic and are used as disinfectants.
An individual having different alleles at one or more loci regarding a specific character.
Penetrating electromagnetic radiation emitted when the inner orbital electrons of an atom are excited and release radiant energy. X-ray wavelengths range from 1 pm to 10 nm. Hard X-rays are the higher energy, shorter wavelength X-rays. Soft x-rays or Grenz rays are less energetic and longer in wavelength. The short wavelength end of the X-ray spectrum overlaps the GAMMA RAYS wavelength range. The distinction between gamma rays and X-rays is based on their radiation source.
Abnormal number or structure of chromosomes. Chromosome aberrations may result in CHROMOSOME DISORDERS.
One of the mechanisms by which CELL DEATH occurs (compare with NECROSIS and AUTOPHAGOCYTOSIS). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA; (DNA FRAGMENTATION); at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth.
That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum usually sensed as heat. Infrared wavelengths are longer than those of visible light, extending into the microwave frequencies. They are used therapeutically as heat, and also to warm food in restaurants.
Genes that code for proteins that regulate the CELL DIVISION CYCLE. These genes form a regulatory network that culminates in the onset of MITOSIS by activating the p34cdc2 protein (PROTEIN P34CDC2).
Compounds that inhibit cell production of DNA or RNA.
A single-stranded DNA-binding protein that is found in EUKARYOTIC CELLS. It is required for DNA REPLICATION; DNA REPAIR; and GENETIC RECOMBINATION.
A cell line derived from cultured tumor cells.
Deoxycytidine is a nucleoside consisting of the pentose sugar deoxyribose linked to the nitrogenous base cytosine, which plays a crucial role in DNA replication and repair processes within cells.
Eukaryotic cell line obtained in a quiescent or stationary phase which undergoes conversion to a state of unregulated growth in culture, resembling an in vitro tumor. It occurs spontaneously or through interaction with viruses, oncogenes, radiation, or drugs/chemicals.
Enzymes that are involved in the reconstruction of a continuous two-stranded DNA molecule without mismatch from a molecule, which contained damaged regions.
An increased tendency of the GENOME to acquire MUTATIONS when various processes involved in maintaining and replicating the genome are dysfunctional.
The span of viability of a cell characterized by the capacity to perform certain functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, some form of responsiveness, and adaptability.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
White blood cells formed in the body's lymphoid tissue. The nucleus is round or ovoid with coarse, irregularly clumped chromatin while the cytoplasm is typically pale blue with azurophilic (if any) granules. Most lymphocytes can be classified as either T or B (with subpopulations of each), or NATURAL KILLER CELLS.
CELL CYCLE regulatory signaling systems that are triggered by DNA DAMAGE or lack of nutrients during G2 PHASE. When triggered they restrain cells transitioning from G2 phase to M PHASE.
A terminal section of a chromosome which has a specialized structure and which is involved in chromosomal replication and stability. Its length is believed to be a few hundred base pairs.
An antiviral antibiotic produced by Cephalosporium aphidicola and other fungi. It inhibits the growth of eukaryotic cells and certain animal viruses by selectively inhibiting the cellular replication of DNA polymerase II or the viral-induced DNA polymerases. The drug may be useful for controlling excessive cell proliferation in patients with cancer, psoriasis or other dermatitis with little or no adverse effect upon non-multiplying cells.
A ubiquitously expressed telomere-binding protein that is present at TELOMERES throughout the cell cycle. It is a suppressor of telomere elongation and may be involved in stabilization of telomere length. It is structurally different from TELOMERIC REPEAT BINDING PROTEIN 1 in that it contains basic N-terminal amino acid residues.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
Proteins that specifically bind to IRON.
Regulatory signaling systems that control the progression through the CELL CYCLE. They ensure that the cell has completed, in the correct order and without mistakes, all the processes required to replicate the GENOME and CYTOPLASM, and divide them equally between two daughter cells. If cells sense they have not completed these processes or that the environment does not have the nutrients and growth hormones in place to proceed, then the cells are restrained (or "arrested") until the processes are completed and growth conditions are suitable.
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.
A state of elevated cardiac output due to conditions of either increased hemodynamic demand or reduced cardiac oxygen output. These conditions may include ANEMIA; ARTERIOVENOUS FISTULA; THYROTOXICOSIS; PREGNANCY; EXERCISE; FEVER; and ANOXIA. In time, compensatory changes of the heart can lead to pathological form of high cardiac output and eventual HEART FAILURE.
An antineoplastic agent that inhibits DNA synthesis through the inhibition of ribonucleoside diphosphate reductase.
One of the two types of ACTIVIN RECEPTORS or activin receptor-like kinases (ALK'S). There are several type I activin receptors. The major active ones are ALK-2 (ActR-IA) and ALK-4 (ActR-IB).
Morpholines are organic compounds containing a morpholine ring, which is a saturated six-membered heterocycle made up of four carbon atoms and two oxygen atoms (OCC1CCO), often used as functional groups in pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and materials science due to their versatile chemical properties.
A mutation in which a codon is mutated to one directing the incorporation of a different amino acid. This substitution may result in an inactive or unstable product. (From A Dictionary of Genetics, King & Stansfield, 5th ed)
A genotoxicological technique for measuring DNA damage in an individual cell using single-cell gel electrophoresis. Cell DNA fragments assume a "comet with tail" formation on electrophoresis and are detected with an image analysis system. Alkaline assay conditions facilitate sensitive detection of single-strand damage.
The first continuously cultured human malignant CELL LINE, derived from the cervical carcinoma of Henrietta Lacks. These cells are used for VIRUS CULTIVATION and antitumor drug screening assays.
Clinical conditions caused by an abnormal chromosome constitution in which there is extra or missing chromosome material (either a whole chromosome or a chromosome segment). (from Thompson et al., Genetics in Medicine, 5th ed, p429)
An individual in which both alleles at a given locus are identical.
A complex of related glycopeptide antibiotics from Streptomyces verticillus consisting of bleomycin A2 and B2. It inhibits DNA metabolism and is used as an antineoplastic, especially for solid tumors.
A methylxanthine naturally occurring in some beverages and also used as a pharmacological agent. Caffeine's most notable pharmacological effect is as a central nervous system stimulant, increasing alertness and producing agitation. It also relaxes SMOOTH MUSCLE, stimulates CARDIAC MUSCLE, stimulates DIURESIS, and appears to be useful in the treatment of some types of headache. Several cellular actions of caffeine have been observed, but it is not entirely clear how each contributes to its pharmacological profile. Among the most important are inhibition of cyclic nucleotide PHOSPHODIESTERASES, antagonism of ADENOSINE RECEPTORS, and modulation of intracellular calcium handling.
Highly reactive chemicals that introduce alkyl radicals into biologically active molecules and thereby prevent their proper functioning. Many are used as antineoplastic agents, but most are very toxic, with carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, and immunosuppressant actions. They have also been used as components in poison gases.
The part of brain that lies behind the BRAIN STEM in the posterior base of skull (CRANIAL FOSSA, POSTERIOR). It is also known as the "little brain" with convolutions similar to those of CEREBRAL CORTEX, inner white matter, and deep cerebellar nuclei. Its function is to coordinate voluntary movements, maintain balance, and learn motor skills.
A specific pair of GROUP C CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
A non-essential amino acid occurring in natural form as the L-isomer. It is synthesized from GLYCINE or THREONINE. It is involved in the biosynthesis of PURINES; PYRIMIDINES; and other amino acids.
A nucleus located in the middle hypothalamus in the most ventral part of the third ventricle near the entrance of the infundibular recess. Its small cells are in close contact with the ependyma.
A characteristic symptom complex.
Syndromes in which there is a deficiency or defect in the mechanisms of immunity, either cellular or humoral.
Proteins and peptides that are involved in SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION within the cell. Included here are peptides and proteins that regulate the activity of TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS and cellular processes in response to signals from CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS. Intracellular signaling peptide and proteins may be part of an enzymatic signaling cascade or act through binding to and modifying the action of other signaling factors.
Small double-stranded, non-protein coding RNAs (21-31 nucleotides) involved in GENE SILENCING functions, especially RNA INTERFERENCE (RNAi). Endogenously, siRNAs are generated from dsRNAs (RNA, DOUBLE-STRANDED) by the same ribonuclease, Dicer, that generates miRNAs (MICRORNAS). The perfect match of the siRNAs' antisense strand to their target RNAs mediates RNAi by siRNA-guided RNA cleavage. siRNAs fall into different classes including trans-acting siRNA (tasiRNA), repeat-associated RNA (rasiRNA), small-scan RNA (scnRNA), and Piwi protein-interacting RNA (piRNA) and have different specific gene silencing functions.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Poly(deoxyribonucleotide):poly(deoxyribonucleotide)ligases. Enzymes that catalyze the joining of preformed deoxyribonucleotides in phosphodiester linkage during genetic processes during repair of a single-stranded break in duplex DNA. The class includes both EC 6.5.1.1 (ATP) and EC 6.5.1.2 (NAD).
The decrease in the cell's ability to proliferate with the passing of time. Each cell is programmed for a certain number of cell divisions and at the end of that time proliferation halts. The cell enters a quiescent state after which it experiences CELL DEATH via the process of APOPTOSIS.
The period of the CELL CYCLE preceding DNA REPLICATION in S PHASE. Subphases of G1 include "competence" (to respond to growth factors), G1a (entry into G1), G1b (progression), and G1c (assembly). Progression through the G1 subphases is effected by limiting growth factors, nutrients, or inhibitors.
Strains of mice arising from a parental inbred stock that was subsequently used to produce substrains of knockout and other mutant mice with targeted mutations.
A gene silencing phenomenon whereby specific dsRNAs (RNA, DOUBLE-STRANDED) trigger the degradation of homologous mRNA (RNA, MESSENGER). The specific dsRNAs are processed into SMALL INTERFERING RNA (siRNA) which serves as a guide for cleavage of the homologous mRNA in the RNA-INDUCED SILENCING COMPLEX. DNA METHYLATION may also be triggered during this process.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
The record of descent or ancestry, particularly of a particular condition or trait, indicating individual family members, their relationships, and their status with respect to the trait or condition.
Nucleoproteins, which in contrast to HISTONES, are acid insoluble. They are involved in chromosomal functions; e.g. they bind selectively to DNA, stimulate transcription resulting in tissue-specific RNA synthesis and undergo specific changes in response to various hormones or phytomitogens.
Within a eukaryotic cell, a membrane-limited body which contains chromosomes and one or more nucleoli (CELL NUCLEOLUS). The nuclear membrane consists of a double unit-type membrane which is perforated by a number of pores; the outermost membrane is continuous with the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM. A cell may contain more than one nucleus. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
A specific pair of GROUP D CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
The phosphoprotein encoded by the BRCA1 gene (GENE, BRCA1). In normal cells the BRCA1 protein is localized in the nucleus, whereas in the majority of breast cancer cell lines and in malignant pleural effusions from breast cancer patients, it is localized mainly in the cytoplasm. (Science 1995;270(5237):713,789-91)
A dominantly-inherited ATAXIA first described in people of Azorean and Portuguese descent, and subsequently identified in Brazil, Japan, China, and Australia. This disorder is classified as one of the SPINOCEREBELLAR ATAXIAS (Type 3) and has been associated with a mutation of the MJD1 gene on chromosome 14. Clinical features include progressive ataxia, DYSARTHRIA, postural instability, nystagmus, eyelid retraction, and facial FASCICULATIONS. DYSTONIA is prominent in younger patients (referred to as Type I Machado-Joseph Disease). Type II features ataxia and ocular signs; Type III features MUSCULAR ATROPHY and a sensorimotor neuropathy; and Type IV features extrapyramidal signs combined with a sensorimotor neuropathy. (From Clin Neurosci 1995;3(1):17-22; Ann Neurol 1998 Mar;43(3):288-96)
A cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor that mediates TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEIN P53-dependent CELL CYCLE arrest. p21 interacts with a range of CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES and associates with PROLIFERATING CELL NUCLEAR ANTIGEN and CASPASE 3.
A disturbance in the prooxidant-antioxidant balance in favor of the former, leading to potential damage. Indicators of oxidative stress include damaged DNA bases, protein oxidation products, and lipid peroxidation products (Sies, Oxidative Stress, 1991, pxv-xvi).
The material of CHROMOSOMES. It is a complex of DNA; HISTONES; and nonhistone proteins (CHROMOSOMAL PROTEINS, NON-HISTONE) found within the nucleus of a cell.
Conversion of an inactive form of an enzyme to one possessing metabolic activity. It includes 1, activation by ions (activators); 2, activation by cofactors (coenzymes); and 3, conversion of an enzyme precursor (proenzyme or zymogen) to an active enzyme.
Biochemical identification of mutational changes in a nucleotide sequence.
Immunologic method used for detecting or quantifying immunoreactive substances. The substance is identified by first immobilizing it by blotting onto a membrane and then tagging it with labeled antibodies.
Retinal diseases refer to a diverse group of vision-threatening disorders that affect the retina's structure and function, including age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, retinal detachment, retinitis pigmentosa, and macular edema, among others.
Production of new arrangements of DNA by various mechanisms such as assortment and segregation, CROSSING OVER; GENE CONVERSION; GENETIC TRANSFORMATION; GENETIC CONJUGATION; GENETIC TRANSDUCTION; or mixed infection of viruses.
Human COLORECTAL CARCINOMA cell line.
An alkaloid isolated from the stem wood of the Chinese tree, Camptotheca acuminata. This compound selectively inhibits the nuclear enzyme DNA TOPOISOMERASES, TYPE I. Several semisynthetic analogs of camptothecin have demonstrated antitumor activity.
Very toxic and complex pyrone derivatives from the fungus Calcarisporium arbuscula. They bind to and inhibit mitochondrial ATPase, thereby uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation. They are used as biochemical tools.
A general term for various neoplastic diseases of the lymphoid tissue.
Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blot transferring from the electrophoresis gel to strips of nitrocellulose paper, followed by labeling with antibody probes.
Ordered rearrangement of T-cell variable gene regions coding for the antigen receptors.
An increased tendency to acquire CHROMOSOME ABERRATIONS when various processes involved in chromosome replication, repair, or segregation are dysfunctional.
DNA-binding motifs formed from two alpha-helixes which intertwine for about eight turns into a coiled coil and then bifurcate to form Y shaped structures. Leucines occurring in heptad repeats end up on the same sides of the helixes and are adjacent to each other in the stem of the Y (the "zipper" region). The DNA-binding residues are located in the bifurcated region of the Y.
Acquired degenerative dilation or expansion (ectasia) of normal BLOOD VESSELS, often associated with aging. They are isolated, tortuous, thin-walled vessels and sources of bleeding. They occur most often in mucosal capillaries of the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT leading to GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE and ANEMIA.
An increased number of contiguous trinucleotide repeats in the DNA sequence from one generation to the next. The presence of these regions is associated with diseases such as FRAGILE X SYNDROME and MYOTONIC DYSTROPHY. Some CHROMOSOME FRAGILE SITES are composed of sequences where trinucleotide repeat expansion occurs.
A subclass of dual specificity phosphatases that play a role in the progression of the CELL CYCLE. They dephosphorylate and activate CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES.
Phosphotransferases that catalyzes the conversion of 1-phosphatidylinositol to 1-phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate. Many members of this enzyme class are involved in RECEPTOR MEDIATED SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION and regulation of vesicular transport with the cell. Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases have been classified both according to their substrate specificity and their mode of action within the cell.
Compounds that inhibit the activity of DNA TOPOISOMERASE I.
A type of chromosome aberration characterized by CHROMOSOME BREAKAGE and transfer of the broken-off portion to another location, often to a different chromosome.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
Mapping of the KARYOTYPE of a cell.
Drugs used to potentiate the effectiveness of radiation therapy in destroying unwanted cells.
An essential amino acid occurring naturally in the L-form, which is the active form. It is found in eggs, milk, gelatin, and other proteins.
A type of CELL NUCLEUS division by means of which the two daughter nuclei normally receive identical complements of the number of CHROMOSOMES of the somatic cells of the species.
Congenital vascular anomalies in the brain characterized by direct communication between an artery and a vein without passing through the CAPILLARIES. The locations and size of the shunts determine the symptoms including HEADACHES; SEIZURES; STROKE; INTRACRANIAL HEMORRHAGES; mass effect; and vascular steal effect.
Non-receptor tyrosine kinases encoded by the C-ABL GENES. They are distributed in both the cytoplasm and the nucleus. c-Abl plays a role in normal HEMATOPOIESIS especially of the myeloid lineage. Oncogenic transformation of c-abl arises when specific N-terminal amino acids are deleted, releasing the kinase from negative regulation.
Derivatives of the steroid androstane having two double bonds at any site in any of the rings.
Technique using an instrument system for making, processing, and displaying one or more measurements on individual cells obtained from a cell suspension. Cells are usually stained with one or more fluorescent dyes specific to cell components of interest, e.g., DNA, and fluorescence of each cell is measured as it rapidly transverses the excitation beam (laser or mercury arc lamp). Fluorescence provides a quantitative measure of various biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell, as well as a basis for cell sorting. Other measurable optical parameters include light absorption and light scattering, the latter being applicable to the measurement of cell size, shape, density, granularity, and stain uptake.
An E3 UBIQUITIN LIGASE that interacts with and inhibits TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEIN P53. Its ability to ubiquitinate p53 is regulated by TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEIN P14ARF.
Compounds or agents that combine with an enzyme in such a manner as to prevent the normal substrate-enzyme combination and the catalytic reaction.
The fission of a CELL. It includes CYTOKINESIS, when the CYTOPLASM of a cell is divided, and CELL NUCLEUS DIVISION.
Variant forms of the same gene, occupying the same locus on homologous CHROMOSOMES, and governing the variants in production of the same gene product.
The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.
A genetic rearrangement through loss of segments of DNA or RNA, bringing sequences which are normally separated into close proximity. This deletion may be detected using cytogenetic techniques and can also be inferred from the phenotype, indicating a deletion at one specific locus.
An essential ribonucleoprotein reverse transcriptase that adds telomeric DNA to the ends of eukaryotic CHROMOSOMES.
Mice bearing mutant genes which are phenotypically expressed in the animals.
A negative regulatory effect on physiological processes at the molecular, cellular, or systemic level. At the molecular level, the major regulatory sites include membrane receptors, genes (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION), mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), and proteins.

p53- and ATM-dependent apoptosis induced by telomeres lacking TRF2. (1/586)

Although broken chromosomes can induce apoptosis, natural chromosome ends (telomeres) do not trigger this response. It is shown that this suppression of apoptosis involves the telomeric-repeat binding factor 2 (TRF2). Inhibition of TRF2 resulted in apoptosis in a subset of mammalian cell types. The response was mediated by p53 and the ATM (ataxia telangiectasia mutated) kinase, consistent with activation of a DNA damage checkpoint. Apoptosis was not due to rupture of dicentric chromosomes formed by end-to-end fusion, indicating that telomeres lacking TRF2 directly signal apoptosis, possibly because they resemble damaged DNA. Thus, in some cells, telomere shortening may signal cell death rather than senescence.  (+info)

Ataxia, ocular telangiectasia, chromosome instability, and Langerhans cell histiocytosis in a patient with an unknown breakage syndrome. (2/586)

An 8 year old boy who had Langerhans cell histiocytosis when he was 15 months old showed psychomotor regression from the age of 2 years. Microcephaly, severe growth deficiency, and ocular telangiectasia were also evident. Magnetic nuclear resonance imaging showed cerebellar atrophy. Alphafetoprotein was increased. Chromosome instability after x irradiation and rearrangements involving chromosome 7 were found. Molecular study failed to show mutations involving the ataxia-telangiectasia gene. This patient has a clinical picture which is difficult to relate to a known breakage syndrome. Also, the relationship between the clinical phenotype and histiocytosis is unclear.  (+info)

Replication-mediated DNA damage by camptothecin induces phosphorylation of RPA by DNA-dependent protein kinase and dissociates RPA:DNA-PK complexes. (3/586)

Replication protein A (RPA) is a DNA single-strand binding protein essential for DNA replication, recombination and repair. In human cells treated with the topoisomerase inhibitors camptothecin or etoposide (VP-16), we find that RPA2, the middle-sized subunit of RPA, becomes rapidly phosphorylated. This response appears to be due to DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) and to be independent of p53 or the ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) protein. RPA2 phosphorylation in response to camptothecin required ongoing DNA replication. Camptothecin itself partially inhibited DNA synthesis, and this inhibition followed the same kinetics as DNA-PK activation and RPA2 phosphorylation. DNA-PK activation and RPA2 phosphorylation were prevented by the cell-cycle checkpoint abrogator 7-hydroxystaurosporine (UCN-01), which markedly potentiates camptothecin cytotoxicity. The DNA-PK catalytic subunit (DNA-PKcs) was found to bind RPA which was replaced by the Ku autoantigen upon camptothecin treatment. DNA-PKcs interacted directly with RPA1 in vitro. We propose that the encounter of a replication fork with a topoisomerase-DNA cleavage complex could lead to a juxtaposition of replication fork-associated RPA and DNA double-strand end-associated DNA-PK, leading to RPA2 phosphorylation which may signal the presence of DNA damage to an S-phase checkpoint mechanism. KEYWORDS: camptothecin/DNA damage/DNA-dependent protein kinase/RPA2 phosphorylation  (+info)

Requirement of ATM in phosphorylation of the human p53 protein at serine 15 following DNA double-strand breaks. (4/586)

Microinjection of the restriction endonuclease HaeIII, which causes DNA double-strand breaks with blunt ends, induces nuclear accumulation of p53 protein in normal and xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) primary fibroblasts. In contrast, this induction of p53 accumulation is not observed in ataxia telangiectasia (AT) fibroblasts. HaeIII-induced p53 protein in normal fibroblasts is phosphorylated at serine 15, as determined by immunostaining with an antibody specific for phosphorylated serine 15 of p53. This phosphorylation correlates well with p53 accumulation. Treatment with lactacystin (an inhibitor of the proteasome) or heat shock leads to similar levels of p53 accumulation in normal and AT fibroblasts, but the p53 protein lacks a phosphorylated serine 15. Following microinjection of HaeIII into lactacystin-treated normal fibroblasts, lactacystin-induced p53 protein is phosphorylated at serine 15 and stabilized even in the presence of cycloheximide. However, neither stabilization nor phosphorylation at serine 15 is observed in AT fibroblasts under the same conditions. These results indicate the significance of serine 15 phosphorylation for p53 stabilization after DNA double-strand breaks and an absolute requirement for ATM in this phosphorylation process.  (+info)

Risk of breast cancer and other cancers in heterozygotes for ataxia-telangiectasia. (5/586)

Mortality from cancer among 178 parents and 236 grandparents of 95 British patients with ataxia-telangiectasia was examined. For neither parents nor grandparents was mortality from all causes or from cancer appreciably elevated over that of the national population. Among mothers, three deaths from breast cancer gave rise to a standardized mortality ratio of 3.37 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.69-9.84). In contrast, there was no excess of breast cancer in grandmothers, the standardized mortality ratio being 0.89 (95% CI: 0.18-2.59), based on three deaths. This is the largest study of families of ataxia-telangiectasia patients conducted in Britain but, nonetheless, the study is small and CIs are wide. However, taken together with data from other countries, an increased risk of breast cancer among female heterozygotes is still apparent, though lower than previously thought.  (+info)

Abnormal myo-inositol and phospholipid metabolism in cultured fibroblasts from patients with ataxia telangiectasia. (6/586)

Ataxia telangiectasia (AT) is a complex autosomal recessive disorder that has been associated with a wide range of physiological defects including an increased sensitivity to ionizing radiation and abnormal checkpoints in the cell cycle. The mutated gene product, ATM, has a domain possessing homology to phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase and has been shown to possess protein kinase activity. In this study, we have investigated how AT affects myo-inositol metabolism and phospholipid synthesis using cultured human fibroblasts. In six fibroblast lines from patients with AT, myo-inositol accumulation over a 3-h period was decreased compared to normal fibroblasts. The uptake and incorporation of myo-inositol into phosphoinositides over a 24-h period, as well as the free myo-inositol content was also lower in some but not all of the AT fibroblast lines. A consistent finding was that the proportion of 32P in total labeled phospholipid that was incorporated into phosphatidylglycerol was greater in AT than normal fibroblasts, whereas the fraction of radioactivity in phosphatidic acid was decreased. Turnover studies revealed that AT cells exhibit a less active phospholipid metabolism as compared to normal cells. In summary, these studies demonstrate that two manifestations of the AT defect are alterations in myo-inositol metabolism and phospholipid synthesis. These abnormalities could have an effect on cellular signaling pathways and membrane production, as well as on the sensitivity of the cells to ionizing radiation and proliferative responses.  (+info)

Cell cycle control, checkpoint mechanisms, and genotoxic stress. (7/586)

The ability of cells to maintain genomic integrity is vital for cell survival and proliferation. Lack of fidelity in DNA replication and maintenance can result in deleterious mutations leading to cell death or, in multicellular organisms, cancer. The purpose of this review is to discuss the known signal transduction pathways that regulate cell cycle progression and the mechanisms cells employ to insure DNA stability in the face of genotoxic stress. In particular, we focus on mammalian cell cycle checkpoint functions, their role in maintaining DNA stability during the cell cycle following exposure to genotoxic agents, and the gene products that act in checkpoint function signal transduction cascades. Key transitions in the cell cycle are regulated by the activities of various protein kinase complexes composed of cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) molecules. Surveillance control mechanisms that check to ensure proper completion of early events and cellular integrity before initiation of subsequent events in cell cycle progression are referred to as cell cycle checkpoints and can generate a transient delay that provides the cell more time to repair damage before progressing to the next phase of the cycle. A variety of cellular responses are elicited that function in checkpoint signaling to inhibit cyclin/Cdk activities. These responses include the p53-dependent and p53-independent induction of Cdk inhibitors and the p53-independent inhibitory phosphorylation of Cdk molecules themselves. Eliciting proper G1, S, and G2 checkpoint responses to double-strand DNA breaks requires the function of the Ataxia telangiectasia mutated gene product. Several human heritable cancer-prone syndromes known to alter DNA stability have been found to have defects in checkpoint surveillance pathways. Exposures to several common sources of genotoxic stress, including oxidative stress, ionizing radiation, UV radiation, and the genotoxic compound benzo[a]pyrene, elicit cell cycle checkpoint responses that show both similarities and differences in their molecular signaling.  (+info)

Rapid and efficient ATM mutation detection by fluorescent chemical cleavage of mismatch: identification of four novel mutations. (8/586)

Mutations in the Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated (ATM) gene are responsible for the autosomal recessive disease Ataxia Telangiectasia (A-T). A wide variety of mutations scattered across the entire coding region (9168bp) of ATM have been found, which presents a challenge in developing an efficient mutation screening strategy for detecting unknown mutations. Fluorescent chemical cleavage of mismatch (FCCM) is an ideal mutation screening method, offering a non-radioactive alternative to other techniques such as restriction endonuclease fingerprinting (REF). Using FCCM, we have developed an efficient, accurate and sensitive mutation detection method for screening RT-PCR products for ATM mutations. We have identified seven ATM mutations in five A-T families, four of which are previously unknown. We quantified ATM protein expression in four of the families and found variable ATM protein expression (0-6.4%), further evidence for mutant ATM protein expression in both classic and variant A-T patients. We conclude that FCCM offers a robust ATM mutation detection method and can be used to screen for ATM mutations in cancer-prone populations.  (+info)

Ataxia telangiectasia is a rare, inherited genetic disorder that affects the nervous system, immune system, and overall development. The condition is characterized by progressive difficulty with coordination and balance (ataxia), as well as the development of small, dilated blood vessels (telangiectasias) on the skin and eyes.

The underlying cause of ataxia telangiectasia is a mutation in the ATM gene, which provides instructions for making a protein that plays a critical role in DNA repair and maintaining genetic stability. When this gene is mutated, cells are unable to properly repair damaged DNA, leading to an increased risk of cancer and other health problems.

Individuals with ataxia telangiectasia typically begin to show symptoms during early childhood, with progressive difficulties in coordination and balance, slurred speech, and recurrent respiratory infections due to weakened immune function. Over time, these symptoms can worsen, leading to significant disability and reduced life expectancy.

There is currently no cure for ataxia telangiectasia, and treatment is focused on managing the symptoms and complications of the condition. This may include physical therapy, speech therapy, and medications to help control infections and other health problems.

Ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) proteins are a type of protein that play a crucial role in the maintenance and repair of DNA in cells. The ATM gene produces these proteins, which are involved in several important cellular processes such as:

1. DNA damage response: When DNA is damaged, ATM proteins help to detect and respond to the damage by activating various signaling pathways that lead to DNA repair or apoptosis (programmed cell death) if the damage is too severe.
2. Cell cycle regulation: ATM proteins regulate the cell cycle by controlling checkpoints that ensure proper DNA replication and division. This helps prevent the propagation of cells with damaged DNA.
3. Telomere maintenance: ATM proteins help maintain telomeres, which are the protective caps at the ends of chromosomes. Telomeres shorten as cells divide, and when they become too short, cells can no longer divide and enter a state of senescence or die.

Mutations in the ATM gene can lead to Ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T), a rare inherited disorder characterized by neurological problems, immune system dysfunction, increased risk of cancer, and sensitivity to ionizing radiation. People with A-T have defective ATM proteins that cannot properly respond to DNA damage, leading to genomic instability and increased susceptibility to disease.

Telangiectasia is a medical term that refers to the dilation and widening of small blood vessels called capillaries, leading to their visibility under the skin or mucous membranes. These dilated vessels often appear as tiny red lines or patterns, measuring less than 1 millimeter in diameter.

Telangiectasias can occur in various parts of the body, such as the face, nose, cheeks, legs, and fingers. They are typically harmless but may cause cosmetic concerns for some individuals. In certain cases, telangiectasias can be a sign of an underlying medical condition, like rosacea, hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT), or liver disease.

It is essential to consult with a healthcare professional if you notice any unusual changes in your skin or mucous membranes, as they can provide appropriate evaluation and treatment recommendations based on the underlying cause of the telangiectasias.

Hereditary Hemorrhagic Telangiectasia (HHT) is a rare genetic disorder that affects the blood vessels. It is also known as Osler-Weber-Rendu syndrome. This condition is characterized by the formation of abnormal blood vessels called telangiectases, which are small red spots or tiny bulges that can be found in the skin, mucous membranes (like those inside the nose, mouth, and GI tract), and sometimes in vital organs like the lungs and brain.

These telangiectases have a tendency to bleed easily, leading to potentially serious complications such as anemia due to chronic blood loss, and in some cases, strokes or brain abscesses if the telangiectases in the brain rupture. HHT is typically inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, meaning that a child has a 50% chance of inheriting the gene from an affected parent. There are several genes associated with HHT, the most common being ACVRL1, ENG, and SMAD4.

Ataxia is a medical term that refers to a group of disorders affecting coordination, balance, and speech. It is characterized by a lack of muscle control during voluntary movements, causing unsteady or awkward movements, and often accompanied by tremors. Ataxia can affect various parts of the body, such as the limbs, trunk, eyes, and speech muscles. The condition can be congenital or acquired, and it can result from damage to the cerebellum, spinal cord, or sensory nerves. There are several types of ataxia, including hereditary ataxias, degenerative ataxias, cerebellar ataxias, and acquired ataxias, each with its own specific causes, symptoms, and prognosis. Treatment for ataxia typically focuses on managing symptoms and improving quality of life, as there is no cure for most forms of the disorder.

Tumor suppressor proteins are a type of regulatory protein that helps control the cell cycle and prevent cells from dividing and growing in an uncontrolled manner. They work to inhibit tumor growth by preventing the formation of tumors or slowing down their progression. These proteins can repair damaged DNA, regulate gene expression, and initiate programmed cell death (apoptosis) if the damage is too severe for repair.

Mutations in tumor suppressor genes, which provide the code for these proteins, can lead to a decrease or loss of function in the resulting protein. This can result in uncontrolled cell growth and division, leading to the formation of tumors and cancer. Examples of tumor suppressor proteins include p53, Rb (retinoblastoma), and BRCA1/2.

Cerebellar ataxia is a type of ataxia, which refers to a group of disorders that cause difficulties with coordination and movement. Cerebellar ataxia specifically involves the cerebellum, which is the part of the brain responsible for maintaining balance, coordinating muscle movements, and regulating speech and eye movements.

The symptoms of cerebellar ataxia may include:

* Unsteady gait or difficulty walking
* Poor coordination of limb movements
* Tremors or shakiness, especially in the hands
* Slurred or irregular speech
* Abnormal eye movements, such as nystagmus (rapid, involuntary movement of the eyes)
* Difficulty with fine motor tasks, such as writing or buttoning a shirt

Cerebellar ataxia can be caused by a variety of underlying conditions, including:

* Genetic disorders, such as spinocerebellar ataxia or Friedreich's ataxia
* Brain injury or trauma
* Stroke or brain hemorrhage
* Infections, such as meningitis or encephalitis
* Exposure to toxins, such as alcohol or certain medications
* Tumors or other growths in the brain

Treatment for cerebellar ataxia depends on the underlying cause. In some cases, there may be no cure, and treatment is focused on managing symptoms and improving quality of life. Physical therapy, occupational therapy, and speech therapy can help improve coordination, balance, and communication skills. Medications may also be used to treat specific symptoms, such as tremors or muscle spasticity. In some cases, surgery may be recommended to remove tumors or repair damage to the brain.

Cell cycle proteins are a group of regulatory proteins that control the progression of the cell cycle, which is the series of events that take place in a eukaryotic cell leading to its division and duplication. These proteins can be classified into several categories based on their functions during different stages of the cell cycle.

The major groups of cell cycle proteins include:

1. Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs): CDKs are serine/threonine protein kinases that regulate key transitions in the cell cycle. They require binding to a regulatory subunit called cyclin to become active. Different CDK-cyclin complexes are activated at different stages of the cell cycle.
2. Cyclins: Cyclins are a family of regulatory proteins that bind and activate CDKs. Their levels fluctuate throughout the cell cycle, with specific cyclins expressed during particular phases. For example, cyclin D is important for the G1 to S phase transition, while cyclin B is required for the G2 to M phase transition.
3. CDK inhibitors (CKIs): CKIs are regulatory proteins that bind to and inhibit CDKs, thereby preventing their activation. CKIs can be divided into two main families: the INK4 family and the Cip/Kip family. INK4 family members specifically inhibit CDK4 and CDK6, while Cip/Kip family members inhibit a broader range of CDKs.
4. Anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C): APC/C is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that targets specific proteins for degradation by the 26S proteasome. During the cell cycle, APC/C regulates the metaphase to anaphase transition and the exit from mitosis by targeting securin and cyclin B for degradation.
5. Other regulatory proteins: Several other proteins play crucial roles in regulating the cell cycle, such as p53, a transcription factor that responds to DNA damage and arrests the cell cycle, and the polo-like kinases (PLKs), which are involved in various aspects of mitosis.

Overall, cell cycle proteins work together to ensure the proper progression of the cell cycle, maintain genomic stability, and prevent uncontrolled cell growth, which can lead to cancer.

Calcium pyrophosphate is a mineral compound made up of calcium and pyrophosphate ions. In the body, it can form crystals that deposit in joints, causing a type of arthritis known as calcium pyrophosphate deposition (CPPD) disease or pseudogout. CPPD disease is characterized by sudden attacks of joint pain and swelling, often in the knee or wrist. The condition is more common in older adults and can also occur in people with underlying medical conditions such as hyperparathyroidism, hemochromatosis, and hypophosphatasia. Calcium pyrophosphate crystals may also be found in the fluid around the heart (pericardial fluid) or in other tissues, but they do not always cause symptoms.

Retinal telangiectasia is a medical condition characterized by the dilation and tortuosity (abnormal twisting or turning) of small retinal blood vessels, specifically the capillaries in the back part of the eye called the retina. This condition can be idiopathic (without a known cause), or it can be associated with various systemic diseases or genetic syndromes.

Retinal telangiectasia is often accompanied by other retinal abnormalities, such as microaneurysms, exudates, and hemorrhages. In some cases, it may lead to vision loss due to macular edema (fluid accumulation in the central part of the retina) or retinal detachment.

There are two main types of retinal telangiectasia:

1. Eales' disease: This is a rare idiopathic condition that primarily affects young adults, particularly males from Asian and Middle Eastern countries. It typically presents with retinal telangiectasia in the peripheral retina, along with inflammation, vitreous hemorrhage, and neovascularization (the growth of new blood vessels).
2. Coats' disease: This is a congenital or infantile disorder that affects the retinal vasculature. It primarily affects males and is characterized by unilateral retinal telangiectasia, exudates, and sometimes retinal detachment. Coats' disease can lead to severe vision loss if not treated promptly.

It is essential to monitor and manage retinal telangiectasia to prevent or treat associated complications and preserve vision. Treatment options may include laser photocoagulation, cryotherapy, intravitreal injections of anti-VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) drugs, or vitrectomy surgery, depending on the severity and progression of the condition.

Friedreich Ataxia is a genetic disorder that affects the nervous system and causes issues with movement. It is characterized by progressive damage to the nerves (neurons) in the spinal cord and peripheral nerves, which can lead to problems with muscle coordination, gait, speech, and hearing. The condition is also associated with heart disorders, diabetes, and vision impairment.

Friedreich Ataxia is caused by a mutation in the FXN gene, which provides instructions for making a protein called frataxin. This protein plays a role in the production of energy within cells, particularly in the mitochondria. The mutation in the FXN gene leads to reduced levels of frataxin, which can cause nerve damage and other symptoms associated with Friedreich Ataxia.

The condition typically begins in childhood or early adulthood and progresses over time, often leading to significant disability. There is currently no cure for Friedreich Ataxia, but treatments are available to help manage the symptoms and improve quality of life.

DNA-binding proteins are a type of protein that have the ability to bind to DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the genetic material of organisms. These proteins play crucial roles in various biological processes, such as regulation of gene expression, DNA replication, repair and recombination.

The binding of DNA-binding proteins to specific DNA sequences is mediated by non-covalent interactions, including electrostatic, hydrogen bonding, and van der Waals forces. The specificity of binding is determined by the recognition of particular nucleotide sequences or structural features of the DNA molecule.

DNA-binding proteins can be classified into several categories based on their structure and function, such as transcription factors, histones, and restriction enzymes. Transcription factors are a major class of DNA-binding proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences in the promoter region of genes and recruiting other proteins to modulate transcription. Histones are DNA-binding proteins that package DNA into nucleosomes, the basic unit of chromatin structure. Restriction enzymes are DNA-binding proteins that recognize and cleave specific DNA sequences, and are widely used in molecular biology research and biotechnology applications.

DNA damage refers to any alteration in the structure or composition of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is the genetic material present in cells. DNA damage can result from various internal and external factors, including environmental exposures such as ultraviolet radiation, tobacco smoke, and certain chemicals, as well as normal cellular processes such as replication and oxidative metabolism.

Examples of DNA damage include base modifications, base deletions or insertions, single-strand breaks, double-strand breaks, and crosslinks between the two strands of the DNA helix. These types of damage can lead to mutations, genomic instability, and chromosomal aberrations, which can contribute to the development of diseases such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and aging-related conditions.

The body has several mechanisms for repairing DNA damage, including base excision repair, nucleotide excision repair, mismatch repair, and double-strand break repair. However, if the damage is too extensive or the repair mechanisms are impaired, the cell may undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death) to prevent the propagation of potentially harmful mutations.

Spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a group of genetic disorders that affect the cerebellum, which is the part of the brain responsible for coordinating muscle movements. SCAs are characterized by progressive problems with balance, speech, and coordination. They are caused by mutations in various genes that result in the production of abnormal proteins that accumulate in neurons, leading to their degeneration.

There are over 40 different types of SCAs, each caused by a different genetic mutation. Some of the more common types include SCA1, SCA2, SCA3, SCA6, and SCA7. The symptoms and age of onset can vary widely depending on the type of SCA.

In addition to problems with coordination and balance, people with SCAs may also experience muscle weakness, stiffness, tremors, spasticity, and difficulty swallowing or speaking. Some types of SCAs can also cause visual disturbances, hearing loss, and cognitive impairment. Currently, there is no cure for SCAs, but treatments such as physical therapy, speech therapy, and medications can help manage the symptoms.

Ionizing radiation is a type of radiation that carries enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules, which means it can knock electrons out of their orbits and create ions. These charged particles can cause damage to living tissue and DNA, making ionizing radiation dangerous to human health. Examples of ionizing radiation include X-rays, gamma rays, and some forms of subatomic particles such as alpha and beta particles. The amount and duration of exposure to ionizing radiation are important factors in determining the potential health effects, which can range from mild skin irritation to an increased risk of cancer and other diseases.

Checkpoint Kinase 2 (Chk2) is a serine/threonine protein kinase that plays a crucial role in the DNA damage response and the regulation of the cell cycle. It is activated by various types of DNA damage, including double-strand breaks, and phosphorylates several downstream targets involved in cell cycle arrest, DNA repair, and apoptosis. Chk2 is a key player in the G2/M checkpoint, which prevents cells with damaged DNA from entering mitosis and dividing. Mutations in the Chk2 gene have been associated with increased risk of cancer.

DNA repair is the process by which cells identify and correct damage to the DNA molecules that encode their genome. DNA can be damaged by a variety of internal and external factors, such as radiation, chemicals, and metabolic byproducts. If left unrepaired, this damage can lead to mutations, which may in turn lead to cancer and other diseases.

There are several different mechanisms for repairing DNA damage, including:

1. Base excision repair (BER): This process repairs damage to a single base in the DNA molecule. An enzyme called a glycosylase removes the damaged base, leaving a gap that is then filled in by other enzymes.
2. Nucleotide excision repair (NER): This process repairs more severe damage, such as bulky adducts or crosslinks between the two strands of the DNA molecule. An enzyme cuts out a section of the damaged DNA, and the gap is then filled in by other enzymes.
3. Mismatch repair (MMR): This process repairs errors that occur during DNA replication, such as mismatched bases or small insertions or deletions. Specialized enzymes recognize the error and remove a section of the newly synthesized strand, which is then replaced by new nucleotides.
4. Double-strand break repair (DSBR): This process repairs breaks in both strands of the DNA molecule. There are two main pathways for DSBR: non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and homologous recombination (HR). NHEJ directly rejoins the broken ends, while HR uses a template from a sister chromatid to repair the break.

Overall, DNA repair is a crucial process that helps maintain genome stability and prevent the development of diseases caused by genetic mutations.

Gait ataxia is a type of ataxia, which refers to a lack of coordination or stability, specifically involving walking or gait. It is characterized by an unsteady, uncoordinated, and typically wide-based gait pattern. This occurs due to dysfunction in the cerebellum or its connecting pathways, responsible for maintaining balance and coordinating muscle movements.

In gait ataxia, individuals often have difficulty with controlling the rhythm and pace of their steps, tend to veer or stagger off course, and may display a reeling or stumbling motion while walking. They might also have trouble performing rapid alternating movements like quickly tapping their foot or heel. These symptoms are usually worse when the person is tired or attempting to walk in the dark.

Gait ataxia can be caused by various underlying conditions, including degenerative neurological disorders (e.g., cerebellar atrophy, multiple sclerosis), stroke, brain injury, infection (e.g., alcoholism, HIV), or exposure to certain toxins. Proper diagnosis and identification of the underlying cause are essential for effective treatment and management of gait ataxia.

Gamma rays are a type of ionizing radiation that is released from the nucleus of an atom during radioactive decay. They are high-energy photons, with wavelengths shorter than 0.01 nanometers and frequencies greater than 3 x 10^19 Hz. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation, similar to X-rays, but with higher energy levels and the ability to penetrate matter more deeply. They can cause damage to living tissue and are used in medical imaging and cancer treatment.

Radiation tolerance, in the context of medicine and particularly radiation oncology, refers to the ability of tissues or organs to withstand and recover from exposure to ionizing radiation without experiencing significant damage or loss of function. It is often used to describe the maximum dose of radiation that can be safely delivered to a specific area of the body during radiotherapy treatments.

Radiation tolerance varies depending on the type and location of the tissue or organ. For example, some tissues such as the brain, spinal cord, and lungs have lower radiation tolerance than others like the skin or bone. Factors that can affect radiation tolerance include the total dose of radiation, the fractionation schedule (the number and size of radiation doses), the volume of tissue treated, and the individual patient's overall health and genetic factors.

Assessing radiation tolerance is critical in designing safe and effective radiotherapy plans for cancer patients, as excessive radiation exposure can lead to serious side effects such as radiation-induced injury, fibrosis, or even secondary malignancies.

Tumor suppressor protein p53, also known as p53 or tumor protein p53, is a nuclear phosphoprotein that plays a crucial role in preventing cancer development and maintaining genomic stability. It does so by regulating the cell cycle and acting as a transcription factor for various genes involved in apoptosis (programmed cell death), DNA repair, and cell senescence (permanent cell growth arrest).

In response to cellular stress, such as DNA damage or oncogene activation, p53 becomes activated and accumulates in the nucleus. Activated p53 can then bind to specific DNA sequences and promote the transcription of target genes that help prevent the proliferation of potentially cancerous cells. These targets include genes involved in cell cycle arrest (e.g., CDKN1A/p21), apoptosis (e.g., BAX, PUMA), and DNA repair (e.g., GADD45).

Mutations in the TP53 gene, which encodes p53, are among the most common genetic alterations found in human cancers. These mutations often lead to a loss or reduction of p53's tumor suppressive functions, allowing cancer cells to proliferate uncontrollably and evade apoptosis. As a result, p53 has been referred to as "the guardian of the genome" due to its essential role in preventing tumorigenesis.

Double-stranded DNA breaks (DSBs) refer to a type of damage that occurs in the DNA molecule when both strands of the double helix are severed or broken at the same location. This kind of damage is particularly harmful to cells because it can disrupt the integrity and continuity of the genetic material, potentially leading to genomic instability, mutations, and cell death if not properly repaired.

DSBs can arise from various sources, including exposure to ionizing radiation, chemical agents, free radicals, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and errors during DNA replication or repair processes. Unrepaired or incorrectly repaired DSBs have been implicated in numerous human diseases, such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and premature aging.

Cells possess several mechanisms to repair double-stranded DNA breaks, including homologous recombination (HR) and non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). HR is a more accurate repair pathway that uses a homologous template, typically the sister chromatid, to restore the original DNA sequence. NHEJ, on the other hand, directly ligates the broken ends together, often resulting in small deletions or insertions at the break site and increased risk of errors. The choice between these two pathways depends on various factors, such as the cell cycle stage, the presence of nearby breaks, and the availability of repair proteins.

In summary, double-stranded DNA breaks are severe forms of DNA damage that can have detrimental consequences for cells if not properly repaired. Cells employ multiple mechanisms to address DSBs, with homologous recombination and non-homologous end joining being the primary repair pathways.

DNA-activated protein kinase (DNA-PK) is a type of serine/threonine protein kinase that plays a crucial role in the DNA damage response and repair processes in cells. It is composed of a catalytic subunit, DNA-PKcs, and a regulatory subunit, Ku, which binds to double-stranded DNA breaks and recruits DNA-PKcs to the site of damage.

Once activated by DNA damage, DNA-PK phosphorylates various downstream targets involved in DNA repair, including proteins involved in non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and homologous recombination (HR). NHEJ is a major pathway for the repair of double-stranded DNA breaks, while HR is a more accurate but slower process that requires a template for repair.

Dysregulation of DNA-PK has been implicated in various human diseases, including cancer and neurological disorders. Inhibitors of DNA-PK are being investigated as potential therapeutic agents for the treatment of cancer, particularly in combination with other DNA damage response inhibitors or radiation therapy.

Epistaxis is the medical term for nosebleed. It refers to the bleeding from the nostrils or nasal cavity, which can be caused by various factors such as dryness, trauma, inflammation, high blood pressure, or use of blood-thinning medications. Nosebleeds can range from minor nuisances to potentially life-threatening emergencies, depending on the severity and underlying cause. If you are experiencing a nosebleed that does not stop after 20 minutes of applying direct pressure, or if you are coughing up or vomiting blood, seek medical attention immediately.

Phosphorylation is the process of adding a phosphate group (a molecule consisting of one phosphorus atom and four oxygen atoms) to a protein or other organic molecule, which is usually done by enzymes called kinases. This post-translational modification can change the function, localization, or activity of the target molecule, playing a crucial role in various cellular processes such as signal transduction, metabolism, and regulation of gene expression. Phosphorylation is reversible, and the removal of the phosphate group is facilitated by enzymes called phosphatases.

I believe there might be a misunderstanding in your question. "Pyrones" is not a medical term, but rather a chemical term used to describe a class of organic compounds known as lactones with a characteristic eight-membered ring. These compounds are found in various natural sources such as plants and fungi, and some have been studied for their potential biological activities.

However, if you meant "pyrexia" instead of "pyrones," then I can provide the medical definition:

Pyrexia is a term used to describe an abnormally elevated body temperature, also known as fever. In adults, a core body temperature of 100.4°F (38°C) or higher is generally considered indicative of pyrexia. Fever is often a response to an infection or inflammation in the body and can be part of the immune system's effort to combat pathogens.

Activin receptors, type II, are a subgroup of serine/threonine kinase receptors that play a crucial role in signal transduction pathways involved in various biological processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. There are two types of activin receptors, Type IIA (ACVR2A) and Type IIB (ACVR2B), which are single-pass transmembrane proteins with an extracellular domain that binds to activins and a cytoplasmic domain with kinase activity.

Activins are dimeric proteins that belong to the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily, and they play essential roles in regulating developmental processes, reproduction, and homeostasis. Activin receptors, type II, function as primary binding sites for activins, forming a complex with Type I activin receptors (ALK4, ALK5, or ALK7) to initiate downstream signaling cascades.

Once the activin-receptor complex is formed, the intracellular kinase domain of the Type II receptor phosphorylates and activates the Type I receptor, which in turn propagates the signal by recruiting and phosphorylating downstream effectors such as SMAD proteins. Activated SMADs then form a complex and translocate to the nucleus, where they regulate gene expression.

Dysregulation of activin receptors, type II, has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including cancer, fibrosis, and developmental disorders. Therefore, understanding their function and regulation is essential for developing novel therapeutic strategies to target these diseases.

Arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) are abnormal tangles of blood vessels that directly connect arteries and veins, bypassing the capillary system. This results in a high-flow and high-pressure circulation in the affected area. AVMs can occur anywhere in the body but are most common in the brain and spine. They can vary in size and may cause symptoms such as headaches, seizures, or bleeding in the brain. In some cases, AVMs may not cause any symptoms and may only be discovered during imaging tests for other conditions. Treatment options include surgery, radiation therapy, or embolization to reduce the flow of blood through the malformation and prevent complications.

Histones are highly alkaline proteins found in the chromatin of eukaryotic cells. They are rich in basic amino acid residues, such as arginine and lysine, which give them their positive charge. Histones play a crucial role in packaging DNA into a more compact structure within the nucleus by forming a complex with it called a nucleosome. Each nucleosome contains about 146 base pairs of DNA wrapped around an octamer of eight histone proteins (two each of H2A, H2B, H3, and H4). The N-terminal tails of these histones are subject to various post-translational modifications, such as methylation, acetylation, and phosphorylation, which can influence chromatin structure and gene expression. Histone variants also exist, which can contribute to the regulation of specific genes and other nuclear processes.

Nuclear proteins are a category of proteins that are primarily found in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. They play crucial roles in various nuclear functions, such as DNA replication, transcription, repair, and RNA processing. This group includes structural proteins like lamins, which form the nuclear lamina, and regulatory proteins, such as histones and transcription factors, that are involved in gene expression. Nuclear localization signals (NLS) often help target these proteins to the nucleus by interacting with importin proteins during active transport across the nuclear membrane.

Fibroblasts are specialized cells that play a critical role in the body's immune response and wound healing process. They are responsible for producing and maintaining the extracellular matrix (ECM), which is the non-cellular component present within all tissues and organs, providing structural support and biochemical signals for surrounding cells.

Fibroblasts produce various ECM proteins such as collagens, elastin, fibronectin, and laminins, forming a complex network of fibers that give tissues their strength and flexibility. They also help in the regulation of tissue homeostasis by controlling the turnover of ECM components through the process of remodeling.

In response to injury or infection, fibroblasts become activated and start to proliferate rapidly, migrating towards the site of damage. Here, they participate in the inflammatory response, releasing cytokines and chemokines that attract immune cells to the area. Additionally, they deposit new ECM components to help repair the damaged tissue and restore its functionality.

Dysregulation of fibroblast activity has been implicated in several pathological conditions, including fibrosis (excessive scarring), cancer (where they can contribute to tumor growth and progression), and autoimmune diseases (such as rheumatoid arthritis).

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

A dose-response relationship in radiation refers to the correlation between the amount of radiation exposure (dose) and the biological response or adverse health effects observed in exposed individuals. As the level of radiation dose increases, the severity and frequency of the adverse health effects also tend to increase. This relationship is crucial in understanding the risks associated with various levels of radiation exposure and helps inform radiation protection standards and guidelines.

The effects of ionizing radiation can be categorized into two types: deterministic and stochastic. Deterministic effects have a threshold dose below which no effect is observed, and above this threshold, the severity of the effect increases with higher doses. Examples include radiation-induced cataracts or radiation dermatitis. Stochastic effects, on the other hand, do not have a clear threshold and are based on probability; as the dose increases, so does the likelihood of the adverse health effect occurring, such as an increased risk of cancer.

Understanding the dose-response relationship in radiation exposure is essential for setting limits on occupational and public exposure to ionizing radiation, optimizing radiation protection practices, and developing effective medical countermeasures in case of radiation emergencies.

The cell cycle is a series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication. It consists of four main phases: G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase, and M phase.

During the G1 phase, the cell grows in size and synthesizes mRNA and proteins in preparation for DNA replication. In the S phase, the cell's DNA is copied, resulting in two complete sets of chromosomes. During the G2 phase, the cell continues to grow and produces more proteins and organelles necessary for cell division.

The M phase is the final stage of the cell cycle and consists of mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division). Mitosis results in two genetically identical daughter nuclei, while cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm and creates two separate daughter cells.

The cell cycle is regulated by various checkpoints that ensure the proper completion of each phase before progressing to the next. These checkpoints help prevent errors in DNA replication and division, which can lead to mutations and cancer.

Nijmegen Breakage Syndrome (NBS) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by extreme sensitivity to ionizing radiation, progressive microcephaly, short stature, immunodeficiency, and an increased risk of developing malignancies, particularly lymphoid tumors. The syndrome is caused by mutations in the NBN gene, which encodes a protein called nibrin that plays a critical role in DNA repair and maintenance of genomic stability.

Individuals with NBS typically have microcephaly at birth or develop it in early childhood, accompanied by developmental delay, intellectual disability, and characteristic facial features such as a prominent forehead, recessed jaw, and widely spaced eyes. They may also have skin abnormalities, skeletal anomalies, and hearing loss.

Immunodeficiency is a common feature of NBS, with patients often experiencing recurrent infections due to impaired immune function. They may have low levels of immunoglobulins and T-cell lymphopenia, which can increase their susceptibility to infections.

NBS is associated with an increased risk of malignancies, particularly lymphoid tumors such as B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma and leukemia. The risk of cancer increases with age, and most patients develop a malignancy by their mid-20s.

The diagnosis of NBS is typically made based on clinical features, genetic testing, and confirmation of biallelic mutations in the NBN gene. Treatment may involve management of infections, immunoglobulin replacement therapy, and chemotherapy or radiation therapy for malignancies. However, these treatments can be challenging due to the increased sensitivity to ionizing radiation and potential toxicity of chemotherapeutic agents.

Overall, NBS is a rare but serious disorder that requires multidisciplinary care from specialists in genetics, immunology, oncology, and other fields.

Streptonigrin is not a medical condition, it is actually a naturally occurring antibiotic and antineoplastic agent. It is produced by the bacterium Streptomyces flocculus and has been studied for its potential use in cancer chemotherapy due to its ability to inhibit DNA synthesis in cancer cells. However, its clinical use is limited due to its toxicity.

CREST syndrome is a subtype of a autoimmune connective tissue disorder called scleroderma (systemic sclerosis). The name "CREST" is an acronym that stands for the following five features:

* Calcinosis: The formation of calcium deposits in the skin and underlying tissues, which can cause painful ulcers.
* Raynaud's phenomenon: A condition in which the blood vessels in the fingers and toes constrict in response to cold or stress, causing the digits to turn white or blue and become numb or painful.
* Esophageal dysmotility: Difficulty swallowing due to weakened muscles in the esophagus.
* Sclerodactyly: Thickening and tightening of the skin on the fingers.
* Telangiectasias: Dilated blood vessels near the surface of the skin, causing red spots or lines.

It's important to note that not everyone with CREST syndrome will have all five of these features, and some people may have additional symptoms not included in the acronym. Additionally, CREST syndrome is a chronic condition that can cause a range of complications, including lung fibrosis, kidney problems, and digital ulcers. Treatment typically focuses on managing specific symptoms and slowing the progression of the disease.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

Protein kinases are a group of enzymes that play a crucial role in many cellular processes by adding phosphate groups to other proteins, a process known as phosphorylation. This modification can activate or deactivate the target protein's function, thereby regulating various signaling pathways within the cell. Protein kinases are essential for numerous biological functions, including metabolism, signal transduction, cell cycle progression, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). Abnormal regulation of protein kinases has been implicated in several diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

The G2 phase, also known as the "gap 2 phase," is a stage in the cell cycle that occurs after DNA replication (S phase) and before cell division (mitosis). During this phase, the cell prepares for mitosis by completing the synthesis of proteins and organelles needed for chromosome separation. The cell also checks for any errors or damage to the DNA before entering mitosis. This phase is a critical point in the cell cycle where proper regulation ensures the faithful transmission of genetic information from one generation of cells to the next. If significant DNA damage is detected during G2, the cell may undergo programmed cell death (apoptosis) instead of dividing.

DNA replication is the biological process by which DNA makes an identical copy of itself during cell division. It is a fundamental mechanism that allows genetic information to be passed down from one generation of cells to the next. During DNA replication, each strand of the double helix serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand. This results in the creation of two identical DNA molecules. The enzymes responsible for DNA replication include helicase, which unwinds the double helix, and polymerase, which adds nucleotides to the growing strands.

Chromosome breakage is a medical term that refers to the breaking or fragmentation of chromosomes, which are thread-like structures located in the nucleus of cells that carry genetic information. Normally, chromosomes are tightly coiled and consist of two strands called chromatids, joined together at a central point called the centromere.

Chromosome breakage can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as radiation or chemicals, or inherited genetic disorders. When a chromosome breaks, it can result in various genetic abnormalities, depending on the location and severity of the break.

For instance, if the break occurs in a region containing important genes, it can lead to the loss or alteration of those genes, causing genetic diseases or birth defects. In some cases, the broken ends of the chromosome may rejoin incorrectly, leading to chromosomal rearrangements such as translocations, deletions, or inversions. These rearrangements can also result in genetic disorders or cancer.

Chromosome breakage is commonly observed in individuals with certain inherited genetic conditions, such as Bloom syndrome, Fanconi anemia, and ataxia-telangiectasia, which are characterized by an increased susceptibility to chromosome breakage due to defects in DNA repair mechanisms.

Microcephaly is a medical condition where an individual has a smaller than average head size. The circumference of the head is significantly below the normal range for age and sex. This condition is typically caused by abnormal brain development, which can be due to genetic factors or environmental influences such as infections or exposure to harmful substances during pregnancy.

Microcephaly can be present at birth (congenital) or develop in the first few years of life. People with microcephaly often have intellectual disabilities, delayed development, and other neurological problems. However, the severity of these issues can vary widely, ranging from mild to severe. It is important to note that not all individuals with microcephaly will experience significant impairments or challenges.

According to the medical definition, ultraviolet (UV) rays are invisible radiations that fall in the range of the electromagnetic spectrum between 100-400 nanometers. UV rays are further divided into three categories: UVA (320-400 nm), UVB (280-320 nm), and UVC (100-280 nm).

UV rays have various sources, including the sun and artificial sources like tanning beds. Prolonged exposure to UV rays can cause damage to the skin, leading to premature aging, eye damage, and an increased risk of skin cancer. UVA rays penetrate deeper into the skin and are associated with skin aging, while UVB rays primarily affect the outer layer of the skin and are linked to sunburns and skin cancer. UVC rays are the most harmful but fortunately, they are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere and do not reach the surface.

Healthcare professionals recommend limiting exposure to UV rays, wearing protective clothing, using broad-spectrum sunscreen with an SPF of at least 30, and avoiding tanning beds to reduce the risk of UV-related health problems.

A heterozygote is an individual who has inherited two different alleles (versions) of a particular gene, one from each parent. This means that the individual's genotype for that gene contains both a dominant and a recessive allele. The dominant allele will be expressed phenotypically (outwardly visible), while the recessive allele may or may not have any effect on the individual's observable traits, depending on the specific gene and its function. Heterozygotes are often represented as 'Aa', where 'A' is the dominant allele and 'a' is the recessive allele.

X-rays, also known as radiographs, are a type of electromagnetic radiation with higher energy and shorter wavelength than visible light. In medical imaging, X-rays are used to produce images of the body's internal structures, such as bones and organs, by passing the X-rays through the body and capturing the resulting shadows or patterns on a specialized film or digital detector.

The amount of X-ray radiation used is carefully controlled to minimize exposure and ensure patient safety. Different parts of the body absorb X-rays at different rates, allowing for contrast between soft tissues and denser structures like bone. This property makes X-rays an essential tool in diagnosing and monitoring a wide range of medical conditions, including fractures, tumors, infections, and foreign objects within the body.

Chromosome aberrations refer to structural and numerical changes in the chromosomes that can occur spontaneously or as a result of exposure to mutagenic agents. These changes can affect the genetic material encoded in the chromosomes, leading to various consequences such as developmental abnormalities, cancer, or infertility.

Structural aberrations include deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations, and rings, which result from breaks and rearrangements of chromosome segments. Numerical aberrations involve changes in the number of chromosomes, such as aneuploidy (extra or missing chromosomes) or polyploidy (multiples of a complete set of chromosomes).

Chromosome aberrations can be detected and analyzed using various cytogenetic techniques, including karyotyping, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH). These methods allow for the identification and characterization of chromosomal changes at the molecular level, providing valuable information for genetic counseling, diagnosis, and research.

Apoptosis is a programmed and controlled cell death process that occurs in multicellular organisms. It is a natural process that helps maintain tissue homeostasis by eliminating damaged, infected, or unwanted cells. During apoptosis, the cell undergoes a series of morphological changes, including cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, and fragmentation into membrane-bound vesicles called apoptotic bodies. These bodies are then recognized and engulfed by neighboring cells or phagocytic cells, preventing an inflammatory response. Apoptosis is regulated by a complex network of intracellular signaling pathways that involve proteins such as caspases, Bcl-2 family members, and inhibitors of apoptosis (IAPs).

Infrared rays are not typically considered in the context of medical definitions. They are a type of electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than those of visible light, ranging from 700 nanometers to 1 millimeter. In the field of medicine, infrared radiation is sometimes used in therapeutic settings for its heat properties, such as in infrared saunas or infrared therapy devices. However, infrared rays themselves are not a medical condition or diagnosis.

I'm happy to help! However, I believe there may be a slight mistake in your question. The abbreviation "cdc" is not typically associated with genetics or genes in the context of medical definitions.

If you meant to ask for a definition of "genes," here it is:

Genes are segments of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that contain the instructions for the development, function, and reproduction of all living organisms. They are the basic units of heredity, passed down from one generation to the next. Genes encode specific proteins or RNA molecules that play critical roles in the structure, function, and regulation of the body's cells, tissues, and organs.

If you had a different term in mind, please let me know, and I will be happy to provide a definition for it!

Nucleic acid synthesis inhibitors are a class of antimicrobial, antiviral, or antitumor agents that block the synthesis of nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) by interfering with enzymes involved in their replication. These drugs can target various stages of nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA transcription, replication, and repair, as well as RNA transcription and processing.

Examples of nucleic acid synthesis inhibitors include:

1. Antibiotics like quinolones (e.g., ciprofloxacin), rifamycins (e.g., rifampin), and trimethoprim, which target bacterial DNA gyrase, RNA polymerase, or dihydrofolate reductase, respectively.
2. Antiviral drugs like reverse transcriptase inhibitors (e.g., zidovudine, lamivudine) and integrase strand transfer inhibitors (e.g., raltegravir), which target HIV replication by interfering with viral enzymes required for DNA synthesis.
3. Antitumor drugs like antimetabolites (e.g., methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil) and topoisomerase inhibitors (e.g., etoposide, doxorubicin), which interfere with DNA replication and repair in cancer cells.

These drugs have been widely used for treating various bacterial and viral infections, as well as cancers, due to their ability to selectively inhibit the growth of target cells without affecting normal cellular functions significantly. However, they may also cause side effects related to their mechanism of action or off-target effects on non-target cells.

Replication Protein A (RPA) is a single-stranded DNA binding protein complex that plays a crucial role in the process of DNA replication, repair, and recombination. In eukaryotic cells, RPA is composed of three subunits: RPA70, RPA32, and RPA14. The primary function of RPA is to coat single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) generated during these processes, protecting it from degradation, preventing the formation of secondary structures, and promoting the recruitment of other proteins involved in DNA metabolism.

RPA binds ssDNA with high affinity and specificity, forming a stable complex that protects the DNA from nucleases, chemical modifications, and other damaging agents. The protein also participates in the regulation of various enzymatic activities, such as helicase loading and activation, end processing, and polymerase processivity.

During DNA replication, RPA is essential for the initiation and elongation phases. It facilitates the assembly of the pre-replicative complex (pre-RC) at origins of replication, aids in the recruitment and activation of helicases, and promotes the switch from MCM2-7 helicase to polymerase processivity during DNA synthesis.

In addition to its role in DNA replication, RPA is involved in various DNA repair pathways, including nucleotide excision repair (NER), base excision repair (BER), mismatch repair (MMR), and double-strand break repair (DSBR). It also plays a critical role in meiotic recombination during sexual reproduction.

In summary, Replication Protein A (RPA) is a eukaryotic single-stranded DNA binding protein complex that protects, stabilizes, and regulates ssDNA during DNA replication, repair, and recombination processes.

A cell line that is derived from tumor cells and has been adapted to grow in culture. These cell lines are often used in research to study the characteristics of cancer cells, including their growth patterns, genetic changes, and responses to various treatments. They can be established from many different types of tumors, such as carcinomas, sarcomas, and leukemias. Once established, these cell lines can be grown and maintained indefinitely in the laboratory, allowing researchers to conduct experiments and studies that would not be feasible using primary tumor cells. It is important to note that tumor cell lines may not always accurately represent the behavior of the original tumor, as they can undergo genetic changes during their time in culture.

Deoxycytidine is a chemical compound that is a component of DNA, one of the nucleic acids in living organisms. It is a nucleoside, consisting of the sugar deoxyribose and the base cytosine. Deoxycytidine pairs with guanine via hydrogen bonds to form base pairs in the double helix structure of DNA.

In biochemistry, deoxycytidine can also exist as a free nucleoside, not bound to other molecules. It is involved in various cellular processes related to DNA metabolism and replication. Deoxycytidine can be phosphorylated to form deoxycytidine monophosphate (dCMP), which is an important intermediate in the synthesis of DNA.

It's worth noting that while deoxycytidine is a component of DNA, its counterpart in RNA is cytidine, which contains ribose instead of deoxyribose as the sugar component.

A "cell line, transformed" is a type of cell culture that has undergone a stable genetic alteration, which confers the ability to grow indefinitely in vitro, outside of the organism from which it was derived. These cells have typically been immortalized through exposure to chemical or viral carcinogens, or by introducing specific oncogenes that disrupt normal cell growth regulation pathways.

Transformed cell lines are widely used in scientific research because they offer a consistent and renewable source of biological material for experimentation. They can be used to study various aspects of cell biology, including signal transduction, gene expression, drug discovery, and toxicity testing. However, it is important to note that transformed cells may not always behave identically to their normal counterparts, and results obtained using these cells should be validated in more physiologically relevant systems when possible.

DNA repair enzymes are a group of enzymes that are responsible for identifying and correcting damage to the DNA molecule. These enzymes play a critical role in maintaining the integrity of an organism's genetic material, as they help to ensure that the information stored in DNA is accurately transmitted during cell division and reproduction.

There are several different types of DNA repair enzymes, each responsible for correcting specific types of damage. For example, base excision repair enzymes remove and replace damaged or incorrect bases, while nucleotide excision repair enzymes remove larger sections of damaged DNA and replace them with new nucleotides. Other types of DNA repair enzymes include mismatch repair enzymes, which correct errors that occur during DNA replication, and double-strand break repair enzymes, which are responsible for fixing breaks in both strands of the DNA molecule.

Defects in DNA repair enzymes have been linked to a variety of diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and premature aging. For example, individuals with xeroderma pigmentosum, a rare genetic disorder characterized by an increased risk of skin cancer, have mutations in genes that encode nucleotide excision repair enzymes. Similarly, defects in mismatch repair enzymes have been linked to hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer, a type of colon cancer that is inherited and tends to occur at a younger age than sporadic colon cancer.

Overall, DNA repair enzymes play a critical role in maintaining the stability and integrity of an organism's genetic material, and defects in these enzymes can have serious consequences for human health.

Genomic instability is a term used in genetics and molecular biology to describe a state of increased susceptibility to genetic changes or mutations in the genome. It can be defined as a condition where the integrity and stability of the genome are compromised, leading to an increased rate of DNA alterations such as point mutations, insertions, deletions, and chromosomal rearrangements.

Genomic instability is a hallmark of cancer cells and can also be observed in various other diseases, including genetic disorders and aging. It can arise due to defects in the DNA repair mechanisms, telomere maintenance, epigenetic regulation, or chromosome segregation during cell division. These defects can result from inherited genetic mutations, acquired somatic mutations, exposure to environmental mutagens, or age-related degenerative changes.

Genomic instability is a significant factor in the development and progression of cancer as it promotes the accumulation of oncogenic mutations that contribute to tumor initiation, growth, and metastasis. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms underlying genomic instability is crucial for developing effective strategies for cancer prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.

Cell survival refers to the ability of a cell to continue living and functioning normally, despite being exposed to potentially harmful conditions or treatments. This can include exposure to toxins, radiation, chemotherapeutic drugs, or other stressors that can damage cells or interfere with their normal processes.

In scientific research, measures of cell survival are often used to evaluate the effectiveness of various therapies or treatments. For example, researchers may expose cells to a particular drug or treatment and then measure the percentage of cells that survive to assess its potential therapeutic value. Similarly, in toxicology studies, measures of cell survival can help to determine the safety of various chemicals or substances.

It's important to note that cell survival is not the same as cell proliferation, which refers to the ability of cells to divide and multiply. While some treatments may promote cell survival, they may also inhibit cell proliferation, making them useful for treating diseases such as cancer. Conversely, other treatments may be designed to specifically target and kill cancer cells, even if it means sacrificing some healthy cells in the process.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that is an essential part of the immune system. They are responsible for recognizing and responding to potentially harmful substances such as viruses, bacteria, and other foreign invaders. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B-lymphocytes (B-cells) and T-lymphocytes (T-cells).

B-lymphocytes produce antibodies, which are proteins that help to neutralize or destroy foreign substances. When a B-cell encounters a foreign substance, it becomes activated and begins to divide and differentiate into plasma cells, which produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies. These antibodies bind to the foreign substance, marking it for destruction by other immune cells.

T-lymphocytes, on the other hand, are involved in cell-mediated immunity. They directly attack and destroy infected cells or cancerous cells. T-cells can also help to regulate the immune response by producing chemical signals that activate or inhibit other immune cells.

Lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow and mature in either the bone marrow (B-cells) or the thymus gland (T-cells). They circulate throughout the body in the blood and lymphatic system, where they can be found in high concentrations in lymph nodes, the spleen, and other lymphoid organs.

Abnormalities in the number or function of lymphocytes can lead to a variety of immune-related disorders, including immunodeficiency diseases, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.

The G2 phase cell cycle checkpoint is a point in the cell cycle, specifically in the G2 phase, where the cell checks for any DNA damage or other issues that may have occurred during the DNA synthesis phase (S phase) before proceeding to mitosis. This checkpoint serves as a quality control mechanism to ensure that the genetic material is accurately and completely replicated and that the cell is ready to divide. If DNA damage or other problems are detected, the cell cycle is halted at the G2 checkpoint until the issues can be resolved. If the damage is too severe or cannot be repaired, the cell may undergo programmed cell death (apoptosis) to prevent the propagation of potentially harmful mutations.

A telomere is a region of repetitive DNA sequences found at the end of chromosomes, which protects the genetic data from damage and degradation during cell division. Telomeres naturally shorten as cells divide, and when they become too short, the cell can no longer divide and becomes senescent or dies. This natural process is associated with aging and various age-related diseases. The length of telomeres can also be influenced by various genetic and environmental factors, including stress, diet, and lifestyle.

Aphidicolin is an antimicrotubule agent that is specifically a inhibitor of DNA polymerase alpha. It is an antibiotic that is produced by the fungus Cephalosporium aphidicola and is used in research to study the cell cycle and DNA replication. In clinical medicine, it has been explored as a potential anticancer agent, although its use is not currently approved for this indication.

Telomeric Repeat Binding Protein 2 (TRF2) is a protein that binds to the telomeres, which are the repetitive DNA sequences found at the ends of chromosomes. TRF2 plays a crucial role in protecting the telomeres from being recognized as damaged or broken DNA, which could otherwise lead to chromosomal instability and cellular senescence or apoptosis.

TRF2 is a member of the shelterin complex, a group of proteins that bind to and protect telomeres. TRF2 specifically binds to double-stranded TTAGGG repeats in the telomeric DNA through its N-terminal Myb-like DNA binding domain. By binding to the telomeres, TRF2 helps to prevent the activation of the DNA damage response (DDR) pathway and the subsequent activation of p53-dependent cell cycle checkpoints or apoptosis.

TRF2 has also been shown to play a role in regulating the length of telomeres. It can inhibit the activity of telomerase, an enzyme that adds repetitive DNA sequences to the ends of chromosomes, thereby limiting the extension of telomeres. TRF2 can also promote the formation of t-loops, a higher-order structure in which the 3' overhang of the telomere invades the double-stranded telomeric DNA, forming a displacement loop (D-loop). This helps to protect the telomere from being recognized as a double-strand break and degraded by nucleases.

Mutations in TRF2 have been associated with several human diseases, including premature aging disorders such as dyskeratosis congenita and Hoyeraal-Hreidarsson syndrome, as well as cancer.

A "knockout" mouse is a genetically engineered mouse in which one or more genes have been deleted or "knocked out" using molecular biology techniques. This allows researchers to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes, as well as potential associations with human diseases. The mice are generated by introducing targeted DNA modifications into embryonic stem cells, which are then used to create a live animal. Knockout mice have been widely used in biomedical research to investigate gene function, disease mechanisms, and potential therapeutic targets.

Iron-binding proteins, also known as transferrins, are a type of protein responsible for the transport and storage of iron in the body. They play a crucial role in maintaining iron homeostasis by binding free iron ions and preventing them from participating in harmful chemical reactions that can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cause cellular damage.

Transferrin is the primary iron-binding protein found in blood plasma, while lactoferrin is found in various exocrine secretions such as milk, tears, and saliva. Both transferrin and lactoferrin have a similar structure, consisting of two lobes that can bind one ferric ion (Fe3+) each. When iron is bound to these proteins, they are called holo-transferrin or holo-lactoferrin; when they are unbound, they are referred to as apo-transferrin or apo-lactoferrin.

Iron-binding proteins have a high affinity for iron and can regulate the amount of free iron available in the body. They help prevent iron overload, which can lead to oxidative stress and cellular damage, as well as iron deficiency, which can result in anemia and other health problems.

In summary, iron-binding proteins are essential for maintaining iron homeostasis by transporting and storing iron ions, preventing them from causing harm to the body's cells.

Cell cycle checkpoints are control mechanisms that regulate the cell cycle and ensure the accurate and timely progression through different phases of the cell cycle. These checkpoints monitor specific cellular events, such as DNA replication and damage, chromosome separation, and proper attachment of the mitotic spindle to the chromosomes. If any of these events fail to occur properly or are delayed, the cell cycle checkpoints trigger a response that can halt the cell cycle until the problem is resolved. This helps to prevent cells with damaged or incomplete genomes from dividing and potentially becoming cancerous.

There are three main types of cell cycle checkpoints:

1. G1 Checkpoint: Also known as the restriction point, this checkpoint controls the transition from the G1 phase to the S phase of the cell cycle. It monitors the availability of nutrients, growth factors, and the integrity of the genome before allowing the cell to proceed into DNA replication.
2. G2 Checkpoint: This checkpoint regulates the transition from the G2 phase to the M phase of the cell cycle. It checks for completion of DNA replication and absence of DNA damage before allowing the cell to enter mitosis.
3. Mitotic (M) Checkpoint: Also known as the spindle assembly checkpoint, this checkpoint ensures that all chromosomes are properly attached to the mitotic spindle before anaphase begins. It prevents the separation of sister chromatids until all kinetochores are correctly attached and tension is established between them.

Cell cycle checkpoints play a crucial role in maintaining genomic stability, preventing tumorigenesis, and ensuring proper cell division. Dysregulation of these checkpoints can lead to various diseases, including cancer.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material present in the cells of organisms where it is responsible for the storage and transmission of hereditary information. DNA is a long molecule that consists of two strands coiled together to form a double helix. Each strand is made up of a series of four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - that are linked together by phosphate and sugar groups. The sequence of these bases along the length of the molecule encodes genetic information, with A always pairing with T and C always pairing with G. This base-pairing allows for the replication and transcription of DNA, which are essential processes in the functioning and reproduction of all living organisms.

A phenotype is the physical or biochemical expression of an organism's genes, or the observable traits and characteristics resulting from the interaction of its genetic constitution (genotype) with environmental factors. These characteristics can include appearance, development, behavior, and resistance to disease, among others. Phenotypes can vary widely, even among individuals with identical genotypes, due to differences in environmental influences, gene expression, and genetic interactions.

Cardiac output is a measure of the amount of blood that is pumped by the heart in one minute. It is calculated by multiplying the stroke volume (the amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle in each beat) by the heart rate (the number of times the heart beats per minute).

A "high" cardiac output refers to a situation where the cardiac output is greater than normal. This can occur in various conditions such as hyperthyroidism, anemia, fever, pregnancy, or any other condition that increases the body's metabolic demand and requires more blood flow to tissues. It can also be seen in patients with certain heart conditions like a severely narrowed aortic valve or high output cardiac failure.

However, it is important to note that while a high cardiac output may be beneficial in some cases, such as during exercise or pregnancy, chronically elevated levels can lead to increased workload on the heart and potentially contribute to heart failure over time.

Hydroxyurea is an antimetabolite drug that is primarily used in the treatment of myeloproliferative disorders such as chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), essential thrombocythemia, and polycythemia vera. It works by interfering with the synthesis of DNA, which inhibits the growth of cancer cells.

In addition to its use in cancer therapy, hydroxyurea is also used off-label for the management of sickle cell disease. In this context, it helps to reduce the frequency and severity of painful vaso-occlusive crises by increasing the production of fetal hemoglobin (HbF), which decreases the formation of sickled red blood cells.

The medical definition of hydroxyurea is:

A hydantoin derivative and antimetabolite that inhibits ribonucleoside diphosphate reductase, thereby interfering with DNA synthesis. It has been used as an antineoplastic agent, particularly in the treatment of myeloproliferative disorders, and more recently for the management of sickle cell disease to reduce the frequency and severity of painful vaso-occlusive crises by increasing fetal hemoglobin production.

Activin receptors, type I are serine/threonine kinase receptors that play a crucial role in the activin signaling pathway. There are two types of activin receptors, Type I (ALK2, ALK4, and ALK7) and Type II (ActRII and ActRIIB). Activin receptors, type I are transmembrane proteins that bind to activins, which are cytokines belonging to the TGF-β superfamily.

Once activated by binding to activins, activin receptors, type I recruit and phosphorylate type II receptors, leading to the activation of downstream signaling pathways, including SMAD proteins. Activated SMAD proteins then translocate to the nucleus and regulate gene expression, thereby mediating various cellular responses such as proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and migration.

Mutations in activin receptors, type I have been implicated in several human diseases, including cancer, fibrosis, and developmental disorders. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of activin receptors, type I is essential for developing novel therapeutic strategies to treat these diseases.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Morpholines" is not a medical term. It is a chemical term that refers to a class of heterocyclic organic compounds containing one nitrogen atom and one oxygen atom in the ring. They are widely used as intermediates in the synthesis of various pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and dyes. If you have any questions about a medical issue or term, I'd be happy to try to help answer those for you!

A missense mutation is a type of point mutation in which a single nucleotide change results in the substitution of a different amino acid in the protein that is encoded by the affected gene. This occurs when the altered codon (a sequence of three nucleotides that corresponds to a specific amino acid) specifies a different amino acid than the original one. The function and/or stability of the resulting protein may be affected, depending on the type and location of the missense mutation. Missense mutations can have various effects, ranging from benign to severe, depending on the importance of the changed amino acid for the protein's structure or function.

The Comet Assay, also known as single-cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE), is a sensitive method used to detect and measure DNA damage at the level of individual cells. The assay gets its name from the comet-like shape that formed DNA fragments migrate towards the anode during electrophoresis, creating a "tail" that represents the damaged DNA.

In this assay, cells are embedded in low melting point agarose on a microscope slide and then lysed to remove the cell membranes and histones, leaving the DNA intact. The slides are then subjected to electrophoresis under neutral or alkaline conditions, which causes the negatively charged DNA fragments to migrate out of the nucleus towards the anode. After staining with a DNA-binding dye, the slides are visualized under a fluorescence microscope and the degree of DNA damage is quantified by measuring the length and intensity of the comet "tail."

The Comet Assay is widely used in genetic toxicology to assess the genotoxic potential of chemicals, drugs, and environmental pollutants. It can also be used to measure DNA repair capacity and oxidative DNA damage.

HeLa cells are a type of immortalized cell line used in scientific research. They are derived from a cancer that developed in the cervical tissue of Henrietta Lacks, an African-American woman, in 1951. After her death, cells taken from her tumor were found to be capable of continuous division and growth in a laboratory setting, making them an invaluable resource for medical research.

HeLa cells have been used in a wide range of scientific studies, including research on cancer, viruses, genetics, and drug development. They were the first human cell line to be successfully cloned and are able to grow rapidly in culture, doubling their population every 20-24 hours. This has made them an essential tool for many areas of biomedical research.

It is important to note that while HeLa cells have been instrumental in numerous scientific breakthroughs, the story of their origin raises ethical questions about informed consent and the use of human tissue in research.

Chromosome disorders are a group of genetic conditions caused by abnormalities in the number or structure of chromosomes. Chromosomes are thread-like structures located in the nucleus of cells that contain most of the body's genetic material, which is composed of DNA and proteins. Normally, humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes.

Chromosome disorders can result from changes in the number of chromosomes (aneuploidy) or structural abnormalities in one or more chromosomes. Some common examples of chromosome disorders include:

1. Down syndrome: a condition caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21, resulting in intellectual disability, developmental delays, and distinctive physical features.
2. Turner syndrome: a condition that affects only females and is caused by the absence of all or part of one X chromosome, resulting in short stature, lack of sexual development, and other symptoms.
3. Klinefelter syndrome: a condition that affects only males and is caused by an extra copy of the X chromosome, resulting in tall stature, infertility, and other symptoms.
4. Cri-du-chat syndrome: a condition caused by a deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 5, resulting in intellectual disability, developmental delays, and a distinctive cat-like cry.
5. Fragile X syndrome: a condition caused by a mutation in the FMR1 gene on the X chromosome, resulting in intellectual disability, behavioral problems, and physical symptoms.

Chromosome disorders can be diagnosed through various genetic tests, such as karyotyping, chromosomal microarray analysis (CMA), or fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Treatment for these conditions depends on the specific disorder and its associated symptoms and may include medical interventions, therapies, and educational support.

A homozygote is an individual who has inherited the same allele (version of a gene) from both parents and therefore possesses two identical copies of that allele at a specific genetic locus. This can result in either having two dominant alleles (homozygous dominant) or two recessive alleles (homozygous recessive). In contrast, a heterozygote has inherited different alleles from each parent for a particular gene.

The term "homozygote" is used in genetics to describe the genetic makeup of an individual at a specific locus on their chromosomes. Homozygosity can play a significant role in determining an individual's phenotype (observable traits), as having two identical alleles can strengthen the expression of certain characteristics compared to having just one dominant and one recessive allele.

Bleomycin is a type of chemotherapeutic agent used to treat various types of cancer, including squamous cell carcinoma, testicular cancer, and lymphomas. It works by causing DNA damage in rapidly dividing cells, which can inhibit the growth and proliferation of cancer cells.

Bleomycin is an antibiotic derived from Streptomyces verticillus and is often administered intravenously or intramuscularly. While it can be effective in treating certain types of cancer, it can also have serious side effects, including lung toxicity, which can lead to pulmonary fibrosis and respiratory failure. Therefore, bleomycin should only be used under the close supervision of a healthcare professional who is experienced in administering chemotherapy drugs.

Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant that occurs naturally in the leaves, seeds, or fruits of some plants. It can also be produced artificially and added to various products, such as food, drinks, and medications. Caffeine has a number of effects on the body, including increasing alertness, improving mood, and boosting energy levels.

In small doses, caffeine is generally considered safe for most people. However, consuming large amounts of caffeine can lead to negative side effects, such as restlessness, insomnia, rapid heart rate, and increased blood pressure. It is also possible to become dependent on caffeine, and withdrawal symptoms can occur if consumption is suddenly stopped.

Caffeine is found in a variety of products, including coffee, tea, chocolate, energy drinks, and some medications. The amount of caffeine in these products can vary widely, so it is important to pay attention to serving sizes and labels to avoid consuming too much.

Alkylating agents are a class of chemotherapy drugs that work by alkylating, or adding an alkyl group to, DNA molecules. This process can damage the DNA and prevent cancer cells from dividing and growing. Alkylating agents are often used to treat various types of cancer, including Hodgkin's lymphoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, multiple myeloma, and solid tumors. Examples of alkylating agents include cyclophosphamide, melphalan, and chlorambucil. These drugs can have significant side effects, including nausea, vomiting, hair loss, and an increased risk of infection. They can also cause long-term damage to the heart, lungs, and reproductive system.

The cerebellum is a part of the brain that lies behind the brainstem and is involved in the regulation of motor movements, balance, and coordination. It contains two hemispheres and a central portion called the vermis. The cerebellum receives input from sensory systems and other areas of the brain and spinal cord and sends output to motor areas of the brain. Damage to the cerebellum can result in problems with movement, balance, and coordination.

Human chromosome pair 11 consists of two rod-shaped structures present in the nucleus of each cell in the human body. Each member of the pair is a single chromosome, and together they contain the genetic material that is inherited from both parents. They are located on the eleventh position in the standard karyotype, which is a visual representation of the 23 pairs of human chromosomes.

Chromosome 11 is one of the largest human chromosomes and contains an estimated 135 million base pairs. It contains approximately 1,400 genes that provide instructions for making proteins, as well as many non-coding RNA molecules that play a role in regulating gene expression.

Chromosome 11 is known to contain several important genes and genetic regions associated with various human diseases and conditions. For example, it contains the Wilms' tumor 1 (WT1) gene, which is associated with kidney cancer in children, and the neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) gene, which is associated with a genetic disorder that causes benign tumors to grow on nerves throughout the body. Additionally, chromosome 11 contains the region where the ABO blood group genes are located, which determine a person's blood type.

It's worth noting that human chromosomes come in pairs because they contain two copies of each gene, one inherited from the mother and one from the father. This redundancy allows for genetic diversity and provides a backup copy of essential genes, ensuring their proper function and maintaining the stability of the genome.

Serine is an amino acid, which is a building block of proteins. More specifically, it is a non-essential amino acid, meaning that the body can produce it from other compounds, and it does not need to be obtained through diet. Serine plays important roles in the body, such as contributing to the formation of the protective covering of nerve fibers (myelin sheath), helping to synthesize another amino acid called tryptophan, and taking part in the metabolism of fatty acids. It is also involved in the production of muscle tissues, the immune system, and the forming of cell structures. Serine can be found in various foods such as soy, eggs, cheese, meat, peanuts, lentils, and many others.

The arcuate nucleus is a part of the hypothalamus in the brain. It is involved in the regulation of various physiological functions, including appetite, satiety, and reproductive hormones. The arcuate nucleus contains two main types of neurons: those that produce neuropeptide Y and agouti-related protein, which stimulate feeding and reduce energy expenditure; and those that produce pro-opiomelanocortin and cocaine-and-amphetamine-regulated transcript, which suppress appetite and increase energy expenditure. These neurons communicate with other parts of the brain to help maintain energy balance and reproductive function.

A syndrome, in medical terms, is a set of symptoms that collectively indicate or characterize a disease, disorder, or underlying pathological process. It's essentially a collection of signs and/or symptoms that frequently occur together and can suggest a particular cause or condition, even though the exact physiological mechanisms might not be fully understood.

For example, Down syndrome is characterized by specific physical features, cognitive delays, and other developmental issues resulting from an extra copy of chromosome 21. Similarly, metabolic syndromes like diabetes mellitus type 2 involve a group of risk factors such as obesity, high blood pressure, high blood sugar, and abnormal cholesterol or triglyceride levels that collectively increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes.

It's important to note that a syndrome is not a specific diagnosis; rather, it's a pattern of symptoms that can help guide further diagnostic evaluation and management.

Immunologic deficiency syndromes refer to a group of disorders characterized by defective functioning of the immune system, leading to increased susceptibility to infections and malignancies. These deficiencies can be primary (genetic or congenital) or secondary (acquired due to environmental factors, medications, or diseases).

Primary immunodeficiency syndromes (PIDS) are caused by inherited genetic mutations that affect the development and function of immune cells, such as T cells, B cells, and phagocytes. Examples include severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), common variable immunodeficiency (CVID), Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, and X-linked agammaglobulinemia.

Secondary immunodeficiency syndromes can result from various factors, including:

1. HIV/AIDS: Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection leads to the depletion of CD4+ T cells, causing profound immune dysfunction and increased vulnerability to opportunistic infections and malignancies.
2. Medications: Certain medications, such as chemotherapy, immunosuppressive drugs, and long-term corticosteroid use, can impair immune function and increase infection risk.
3. Malnutrition: Deficiencies in essential nutrients like protein, vitamins, and minerals can weaken the immune system and make individuals more susceptible to infections.
4. Aging: The immune system naturally declines with age, leading to an increased incidence of infections and poorer vaccine responses in older adults.
5. Other medical conditions: Chronic diseases such as diabetes, cancer, and chronic kidney or liver disease can also compromise the immune system and contribute to immunodeficiency syndromes.

Immunologic deficiency syndromes require appropriate diagnosis and management strategies, which may include antimicrobial therapy, immunoglobulin replacement, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, or targeted treatments for the underlying cause.

Intracellular signaling peptides and proteins are molecules that play a crucial role in transmitting signals within cells, which ultimately lead to changes in cell behavior or function. These signals can originate from outside the cell (extracellular) or within the cell itself. Intracellular signaling molecules include various types of peptides and proteins, such as:

1. G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs): These are seven-transmembrane domain receptors that bind to extracellular signaling molecules like hormones, neurotransmitters, or chemokines. Upon activation, they initiate a cascade of intracellular signals through G proteins and secondary messengers.
2. Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs): These are transmembrane receptors that bind to growth factors, cytokines, or hormones. Activation of RTKs leads to autophosphorylation of specific tyrosine residues, creating binding sites for intracellular signaling proteins such as adapter proteins, phosphatases, and enzymes like Ras, PI3K, and Src family kinases.
3. Second messenger systems: Intracellular second messengers are small molecules that amplify and propagate signals within the cell. Examples include cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), diacylglycerol (DAG), inositol triphosphate (IP3), calcium ions (Ca2+), and nitric oxide (NO). These second messengers activate or inhibit various downstream effectors, leading to changes in cellular responses.
4. Signal transduction cascades: Intracellular signaling proteins often form complex networks of interacting molecules that relay signals from the plasma membrane to the nucleus. These cascades involve kinases (protein kinases A, B, C, etc.), phosphatases, and adapter proteins, which ultimately regulate gene expression, cell cycle progression, metabolism, and other cellular processes.
5. Ubiquitination and proteasome degradation: Intracellular signaling pathways can also control protein stability by modulating ubiquitin-proteasome degradation. E3 ubiquitin ligases recognize specific substrates and conjugate them with ubiquitin molecules, targeting them for proteasomal degradation. This process regulates the abundance of key signaling proteins and contributes to signal termination or amplification.

In summary, intracellular signaling pathways involve a complex network of interacting proteins that relay signals from the plasma membrane to various cellular compartments, ultimately regulating gene expression, metabolism, and other cellular processes. Dysregulation of these pathways can contribute to disease development and progression, making them attractive targets for therapeutic intervention.

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) is a type of short, double-stranded RNA molecule that plays a role in the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway. The RNAi pathway is a natural cellular process that regulates gene expression by targeting and destroying specific messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules, thereby preventing the translation of those mRNAs into proteins.

SiRNAs are typically 20-25 base pairs in length and are generated from longer double-stranded RNA precursors called hairpin RNAs or dsRNAs by an enzyme called Dicer. Once generated, siRNAs associate with a protein complex called the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), which uses one strand of the siRNA (the guide strand) to recognize and bind to complementary sequences in the target mRNA. The RISC then cleaves the target mRNA, leading to its degradation and the inhibition of protein synthesis.

SiRNAs have emerged as a powerful tool for studying gene function and have shown promise as therapeutic agents for a variety of diseases, including viral infections, cancer, and genetic disorders. However, their use as therapeutics is still in the early stages of development, and there are challenges associated with delivering siRNAs to specific cells and tissues in the body.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

DNA ligases are enzymes that catalyze the formation of a phosphodiester bond between two compatible ends of DNA molecules, effectively joining or "ligating" them together. There are several types of DNA ligases found in nature, each with specific functions and preferences for the type of DNA ends they can seal.

The most well-known DNA ligase is DNA ligase I, which plays a crucial role in replicating and repairing DNA in eukaryotic cells. It seals nicks or gaps in double-stranded DNA during replication and participates in the final step of DNA excision repair by rejoining the repaired strand to the original strand.

DNA ligase IV, another important enzyme, is primarily involved in the repair of double-strand breaks through a process called non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). This pathway is essential for maintaining genome stability and preventing chromosomal abnormalities.

Bacterial DNA ligases, such as T4 DNA ligase, are often used in molecular biology techniques due to their ability to join various types of DNA ends with high efficiency. These enzymes have been instrumental in the development of recombinant DNA technology and gene cloning methods.

Cellular aging, also known as cellular senescence, is a natural process that occurs as cells divide and grow older. Over time, cells accumulate damage to their DNA, proteins, and lipids due to various factors such as genetic mutations, oxidative stress, and epigenetic changes. This damage can impair the cell's ability to function properly and can lead to changes associated with aging, such as decreased tissue repair and regeneration, increased inflammation, and increased risk of age-related diseases.

Cellular aging is characterized by several features, including:

1. Shortened telomeres: Telomeres are the protective caps on the ends of chromosomes that shorten each time a cell divides. When telomeres become too short, the cell can no longer divide and becomes senescent or dies.
2. Epigenetic changes: Epigenetic modifications refer to chemical changes to DNA and histone proteins that affect gene expression without changing the underlying genetic code. As cells age, they accumulate epigenetic changes that can alter gene expression and contribute to cellular aging.
3. Oxidative stress: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are byproducts of cellular metabolism that can damage DNA, proteins, and lipids. Accumulated ROS over time can lead to oxidative stress, which is associated with cellular aging.
4. Inflammation: Senescent cells produce pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and matrix metalloproteinases that contribute to a low-grade inflammation known as inflammaging. This chronic inflammation can lead to tissue damage and increase the risk of age-related diseases.
5. Genomic instability: DNA damage accumulates with age, leading to genomic instability and an increased risk of mutations and cancer.

Understanding cellular aging is crucial for developing interventions that can delay or prevent age-related diseases and improve healthy lifespan.

The G1 phase, or Gap 1 phase, is the first phase of the cell cycle, during which the cell grows in size and synthesizes mRNA and proteins in preparation for subsequent steps leading to mitosis. During this phase, the cell also checks its growth and makes sure that it is large enough to proceed through the cell cycle. If the cell is not large enough, it will arrest in the G1 phase until it has grown sufficiently. The G1 phase is followed by the S phase, during which DNA replication occurs.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Mice, 129 Strain" is not a medical definition. Instead, it refers to a specific strain of laboratory mice used in biomedical research. The 129 strain is one of the most commonly used inbred mouse strains and has been extensively characterized genetically and phenotypically. These mice are often used as models for various human diseases due to their well-defined genetic background, which facilitates reproducible experimental results.

The 129 strain is maintained through brother-sister mating for many generations, resulting in a high degree of genetic homogeneity within the strain. There are several substrains of the 129 strain, including 129S1/SvImJ, 129X1/SvJ, 129S6/SvEvTac, and 129P3/J, among others. Each substrain may have distinct genetic differences that can influence experimental outcomes. Therefore, it is essential to specify the exact substrain when reporting research findings involving 129 mice.

RNA interference (RNAi) is a biological process in which RNA molecules inhibit the expression of specific genes. This process is mediated by small RNA molecules, including microRNAs (miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), that bind to complementary sequences on messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules, leading to their degradation or translation inhibition.

RNAi plays a crucial role in regulating gene expression and defending against foreign genetic elements, such as viruses and transposons. It has also emerged as an important tool for studying gene function and developing therapeutic strategies for various diseases, including cancer and viral infections.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

I must clarify that the term "pedigree" is not typically used in medical definitions. Instead, it is often employed in genetics and breeding, where it refers to the recorded ancestry of an individual or a family, tracing the inheritance of specific traits or diseases. In human genetics, a pedigree can help illustrate the pattern of genetic inheritance in families over multiple generations. However, it is not a medical term with a specific clinical definition.

Chromosomal proteins, non-histone, are a diverse group of proteins that are associated with chromatin, the complex of DNA and histone proteins, but do not have the characteristic structure of histones. These proteins play important roles in various nuclear processes such as DNA replication, transcription, repair, recombination, and chromosome condensation and segregation during cell division. They can be broadly classified into several categories based on their functions, including architectural proteins, enzymes, transcription factors, and structural proteins. Examples of non-histone chromosomal proteins include high mobility group (HMG) proteins, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs), and condensins.

The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in the eukaryotic cells (cells with a true nucleus). It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as DNA molecules in complex with proteins, RNA molecules, and histones to form chromosomes.

The primary function of the cell nucleus is to regulate and control the activities of the cell, including growth, metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction. It also plays a crucial role in the process of mitosis (cell division) by separating and protecting the genetic material during this process. The nuclear membrane, or nuclear envelope, surrounding the nucleus is composed of two lipid bilayers with numerous pores that allow for the selective transport of molecules between the nucleoplasm (nucleus interior) and the cytoplasm (cell exterior).

The cell nucleus is a vital structure in eukaryotic cells, and its dysfunction can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

Human chromosome pair 14 consists of two rod-shaped structures present in the nucleus of human cells, which contain genetic material in the form of DNA and proteins. Each member of the pair contains a single very long DNA molecule that carries an identical set of genes and other genetic elements, totaling approximately 105 million base pairs. These chromosomes play a crucial role in the development, functioning, and reproduction of human beings.

Chromosome 14 is one of the autosomal chromosomes, meaning it is not involved in determining the sex of an individual. It contains around 800-1,000 genes that provide instructions for producing various proteins responsible for numerous cellular functions and processes. Some notable genes located on chromosome 14 include those associated with neurodevelopmental disorders, cancer susceptibility, and immune system regulation.

Human cells typically have 23 pairs of chromosomes, including 22 autosomal pairs (numbered 1-22) and one pair of sex chromosomes (XX for females or XY for males). Chromosome pair 14 is the eighth largest autosomal pair in terms of its total length.

It's important to note that genetic information on chromosome 14, like all human chromosomes, can vary between individuals due to genetic variations and mutations. These differences contribute to the unique characteristics and traits found among humans.

BRCA1 protein is a tumor suppressor protein that plays a crucial role in repairing damaged DNA and maintaining genomic stability. The BRCA1 gene provides instructions for making this protein. Mutations in the BRCA1 gene can lead to impaired function of the BRCA1 protein, significantly increasing the risk of developing breast, ovarian, and other types of cancer.

The BRCA1 protein forms complexes with several other proteins to participate in various cellular processes, such as:

1. DNA damage response and repair: BRCA1 helps recognize and repair double-strand DNA breaks through homologous recombination, a precise error-free repair mechanism.
2. Cell cycle checkpoints: BRCA1 is involved in regulating the G1/S and G2/M cell cycle checkpoints to ensure proper DNA replication and cell division.
3. Transcription regulation: BRCA1 can act as a transcriptional co-regulator, influencing the expression of genes involved in various cellular processes, including DNA repair and cell cycle control.
4. Apoptosis: In cases of severe or irreparable DNA damage, BRCA1 helps trigger programmed cell death (apoptosis) to eliminate potentially cancerous cells.

Individuals with inherited mutations in the BRCA1 gene have a higher risk of developing breast and ovarian cancers compared to the general population. Genetic testing for BRCA1 mutations is available for individuals with a family history of these cancers or those who meet specific clinical criteria. Identifying carriers of BRCA1 mutations allows for enhanced cancer surveillance, risk reduction strategies, and potential targeted therapies.

Machado-Joseph Disease (MJD) is a genetic disorder that affects the part of the brain that controls movement. It is also known as spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3). MJD is characterized by progressive problems with coordination, speech, and swallowing, along with muscle stiffness, tremors, and in some cases, eye movement abnormalities.

MJD is caused by a mutation in the ATXN3 gene, which results in an expanded CAG repeat sequence. This genetic defect leads to the production of an abnormal protein that accumulates in nerve cells, causing them to die. The severity and age of onset of MJD can vary widely, even within families, but symptoms typically begin between the ages of 10 and 60.

MJD is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner, meaning that a child has a 50% chance of inheriting the disease-causing mutation from an affected parent. Currently, there is no cure for MJD, but treatments can help manage symptoms and improve quality of life.

Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21, also known as CDKN1A or p21/WAF1/CIP1, is a protein that regulates the cell cycle. It inhibits the activity of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), which are enzymes that play crucial roles in controlling the progression of the cell cycle.

The binding of p21 to CDKs prevents the phosphorylation and activation of downstream targets, leading to cell cycle arrest. This protein is transcriptionally activated by tumor suppressor protein p53 in response to DNA damage or other stress signals, and it functions as an important mediator of p53-dependent growth arrest.

By inhibiting CDKs, p21 helps to ensure that cells do not proceed through the cell cycle until damaged DNA has been repaired, thereby preventing the propagation of potentially harmful mutations. Additionally, p21 has been implicated in other cellular processes such as apoptosis, differentiation, and senescence. Dysregulation of p21 has been associated with various human diseases, including cancer.

Oxidative stress is defined as an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (free radicals) and the body's ability to detoxify them or repair the damage they cause. This imbalance can lead to cellular damage, oxidation of proteins, lipids, and DNA, disruption of cellular functions, and activation of inflammatory responses. Prolonged or excessive oxidative stress has been linked to various health conditions, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and aging-related diseases.

Chromatin is the complex of DNA, RNA, and proteins that make up the chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell. It is responsible for packaging the long DNA molecules into a more compact form that fits within the nucleus. Chromatin is made up of repeating units called nucleosomes, which consist of a histone protein octamer wrapped tightly by DNA. The structure of chromatin can be altered through chemical modifications to the histone proteins and DNA, which can influence gene expression and other cellular processes.

Enzyme activation refers to the process by which an enzyme becomes biologically active and capable of carrying out its specific chemical or biological reaction. This is often achieved through various post-translational modifications, such as proteolytic cleavage, phosphorylation, or addition of cofactors or prosthetic groups to the enzyme molecule. These modifications can change the conformation or structure of the enzyme, exposing or creating a binding site for the substrate and allowing the enzymatic reaction to occur.

For example, in the case of proteolytic cleavage, an inactive precursor enzyme, known as a zymogen, is cleaved into its active form by a specific protease. This is seen in enzymes such as trypsin and chymotrypsin, which are initially produced in the pancreas as inactive precursors called trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen, respectively. Once they reach the small intestine, they are activated by enteropeptidase, a protease that cleaves a specific peptide bond, releasing the active enzyme.

Phosphorylation is another common mechanism of enzyme activation, where a phosphate group is added to a specific serine, threonine, or tyrosine residue on the enzyme by a protein kinase. This modification can alter the conformation of the enzyme and create a binding site for the substrate, allowing the enzymatic reaction to occur.

Enzyme activation is a crucial process in many biological pathways, as it allows for precise control over when and where specific reactions take place. It also provides a mechanism for regulating enzyme activity in response to various signals and stimuli, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, or changes in the intracellular environment.

DNA Mutational Analysis is a laboratory test used to identify genetic variations or changes (mutations) in the DNA sequence of a gene. This type of analysis can be used to diagnose genetic disorders, predict the risk of developing certain diseases, determine the most effective treatment for cancer, or assess the likelihood of passing on an inherited condition to offspring.

The test involves extracting DNA from a patient's sample (such as blood, saliva, or tissue), amplifying specific regions of interest using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and then sequencing those regions to determine the precise order of nucleotide bases in the DNA molecule. The resulting sequence is then compared to reference sequences to identify any variations or mutations that may be present.

DNA Mutational Analysis can detect a wide range of genetic changes, including single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), insertions, deletions, duplications, and rearrangements. The test is often used in conjunction with other diagnostic tests and clinical evaluations to provide a comprehensive assessment of a patient's genetic profile.

It is important to note that not all mutations are pathogenic or associated with disease, and the interpretation of DNA Mutational Analysis results requires careful consideration of the patient's medical history, family history, and other relevant factors.

Immunoblotting, also known as western blotting, is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology and immunogenetics to detect and quantify specific proteins in a complex mixture. This technique combines the electrophoretic separation of proteins by gel electrophoresis with their detection using antibodies that recognize specific epitopes (protein fragments) on the target protein.

The process involves several steps: first, the protein sample is separated based on size through sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Next, the separated proteins are transferred onto a nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane using an electric field. The membrane is then blocked with a blocking agent to prevent non-specific binding of antibodies.

After blocking, the membrane is incubated with a primary antibody that specifically recognizes the target protein. Following this, the membrane is washed to remove unbound primary antibodies and then incubated with a secondary antibody conjugated to an enzyme such as horseradish peroxidase (HRP) or alkaline phosphatase (AP). The enzyme catalyzes a colorimetric or chemiluminescent reaction that allows for the detection of the target protein.

Immunoblotting is widely used in research and clinical settings to study protein expression, post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and disease biomarkers. It provides high specificity and sensitivity, making it a valuable tool for identifying and quantifying proteins in various biological samples.

Retinal diseases refer to a group of conditions that affect the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue located at the back of the eye. The retina is responsible for converting light into electrical signals that are sent to the brain and interpreted as visual images. Retinal diseases can cause vision loss or even blindness, depending on their severity and location in the retina.

Some common retinal diseases include:

1. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD): A progressive disease that affects the central part of the retina called the macula, causing blurred or distorted vision.
2. Diabetic retinopathy: A complication of diabetes that can damage the blood vessels in the retina, leading to vision loss.
3. Retinal detachment: A serious condition where the retina becomes separated from its underlying tissue, requiring immediate medical attention.
4. Macular edema: Swelling or thickening of the macula due to fluid accumulation, which can cause blurred vision.
5. Retinitis pigmentosa: A group of inherited eye disorders that affect the retina's ability to respond to light, causing progressive vision loss.
6. Macular hole: A small break in the macula that can cause distorted or blurry vision.
7. Retinal vein occlusion: Blockage of the retinal veins that can lead to bleeding, swelling, and potential vision loss.

Treatment for retinal diseases varies depending on the specific condition and its severity. Some treatments include medication, laser therapy, surgery, or a combination of these options. Regular eye exams are essential for early detection and treatment of retinal diseases.

Genetic recombination is the process by which genetic material is exchanged between two similar or identical molecules of DNA during meiosis, resulting in new combinations of genes on each chromosome. This exchange occurs during crossover, where segments of DNA are swapped between non-sister homologous chromatids, creating genetic diversity among the offspring. It is a crucial mechanism for generating genetic variability and facilitating evolutionary change within populations. Additionally, recombination also plays an essential role in DNA repair processes through mechanisms such as homologous recombinational repair (HRR) and non-homologous end joining (NHEJ).

HCT116 cells are a type of human colon cancer cell line that is widely used in scientific research. They were originally established in the early 1980s from a primary colon tumor that had metastasized to the liver. HCT116 cells are known for their stability, robust growth, and susceptibility to various genetic manipulations, making them a popular choice for studying cancer biology, drug discovery, and gene function.

These cells have several important features that make them useful in research. For example, they harbor mutations in key genes involved in colorectal cancer development, such as the adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) gene and the KRAS oncogene. Additionally, HCT116 cells can be easily cultured in the lab and are amenable to a variety of experimental techniques, including genetic modification, drug screening, and protein analysis.

It is important to note that while HCT116 cells provide valuable insights into colon cancer biology, they represent only one type of cancer cell line, and their behavior may not necessarily reflect the complexity of human tumors in vivo. Therefore, researchers must exercise caution when interpreting results obtained from these cells and consider other complementary approaches to validate their findings.

Camptothecin is a topoisomerase I inhibitor, which is a type of chemotherapeutic agent used in cancer treatment. It works by interfering with the function of an enzyme called topoisomerase I, which helps to uncoil DNA during cell division. By inhibiting this enzyme, camptothecin prevents the cancer cells from dividing and growing, ultimately leading to their death.

Camptothecin is found naturally in the bark and stem of the Camptotheca acuminata tree, also known as the "happy tree," which is native to China. It was first isolated in 1966 and has since been developed into several synthetic derivatives, including irinotecan and topotecan, which are used clinically to treat various types of cancer, such as colon, lung, and ovarian cancers.

Like other chemotherapeutic agents, camptothecin can have significant side effects, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and myelosuppression (suppression of bone marrow function). It is important for patients receiving camptothecin-based therapies to be closely monitored by their healthcare team to manage these side effects effectively.

Aurovertins are a group of naturally occurring organic compounds that are produced by certain species of fungi. They belong to a class of molecules known as bisanthraquinones, which contain two anthraquinone units joined together. Aurovertins have been found to inhibit the activity of certain enzymes in the body, and they have been studied for their potential use as pharmaceuticals. However, they are also known to be toxic to some organisms, so their therapeutic use is still being explored.

There are several different aurovertins that have been identified, including aurovertin A, B, C, and D. These compounds differ from one another in their chemical structure and biological activity. For example, aurovertin A has been found to inhibit the activity of an enzyme called ATP synthase, which is involved in energy production within cells. This has led to interest in the potential use of aurovertin A as a research tool for studying cellular metabolism and as a possible therapeutic agent for diseases that are associated with mitochondrial dysfunction.

It is important to note that aurovertins have not been approved for use as drugs, and they should only be used in a laboratory setting under the supervision of trained professionals. Further research is needed to determine the safety and efficacy of these compounds before they can be considered for therapeutic use in humans.

Lymphoma is a type of cancer that originates from the white blood cells called lymphocytes, which are part of the immune system. These cells are found in various parts of the body such as the lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, and other organs. Lymphoma can be classified into two main types: Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL).

HL is characterized by the presence of a specific type of abnormal lymphocyte called Reed-Sternberg cells, while NHL includes a diverse group of lymphomas that lack these cells. The symptoms of lymphoma may include swollen lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and fatigue.

The exact cause of lymphoma is not known, but it is believed to result from genetic mutations in the lymphocytes that lead to uncontrolled cell growth and division. Exposure to certain viruses, chemicals, and radiation may increase the risk of developing lymphoma. Treatment options for lymphoma depend on various factors such as the type and stage of the disease, age, and overall health of the patient. Common treatments include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, and stem cell transplantation.

Western blotting is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to detect and quantify specific proteins in a mixture of many different proteins. This technique is commonly used to confirm the expression of a protein of interest, determine its size, and investigate its post-translational modifications. The name "Western" blotting distinguishes this technique from Southern blotting (for DNA) and Northern blotting (for RNA).

The Western blotting procedure involves several steps:

1. Protein extraction: The sample containing the proteins of interest is first extracted, often by breaking open cells or tissues and using a buffer to extract the proteins.
2. Separation of proteins by electrophoresis: The extracted proteins are then separated based on their size by loading them onto a polyacrylamide gel and running an electric current through the gel (a process called sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or SDS-PAGE). This separates the proteins according to their molecular weight, with smaller proteins migrating faster than larger ones.
3. Transfer of proteins to a membrane: After separation, the proteins are transferred from the gel onto a nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane using an electric current in a process called blotting. This creates a replica of the protein pattern on the gel but now immobilized on the membrane for further analysis.
4. Blocking: The membrane is then blocked with a blocking agent, such as non-fat dry milk or bovine serum albumin (BSA), to prevent non-specific binding of antibodies in subsequent steps.
5. Primary antibody incubation: A primary antibody that specifically recognizes the protein of interest is added and allowed to bind to its target protein on the membrane. This step may be performed at room temperature or 4°C overnight, depending on the antibody's properties.
6. Washing: The membrane is washed with a buffer to remove unbound primary antibodies.
7. Secondary antibody incubation: A secondary antibody that recognizes the primary antibody (often coupled to an enzyme or fluorophore) is added and allowed to bind to the primary antibody. This step may involve using a horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated or alkaline phosphatase (AP)-conjugated secondary antibody, depending on the detection method used later.
8. Washing: The membrane is washed again to remove unbound secondary antibodies.
9. Detection: A detection reagent is added to visualize the protein of interest by detecting the signal generated from the enzyme-conjugated or fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibody. This can be done using chemiluminescent, colorimetric, or fluorescent methods.
10. Analysis: The resulting image is analyzed to determine the presence and quantity of the protein of interest in the sample.

Western blotting is a powerful technique for identifying and quantifying specific proteins within complex mixtures. It can be used to study protein expression, post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and more. However, it requires careful optimization and validation to ensure accurate and reproducible results.

"T-lymphocyte gene rearrangement" refers to the process that occurs during the development of T-cells (a type of white blood cell) in which the genes that code for their antigen receptors are rearranged to create a unique receptor that can recognize and bind to specific foreign molecules, such as viruses or tumor cells.

The T-cell receptor (TCR) is made up of two chains, alpha and beta, which are composed of variable and constant regions. During gene rearrangement, the variable region genes are rearranged through a process called V(D)J recombination, in which specific segments of DNA are cut and joined together to form a unique combination that encodes for a diverse range of antigen receptors.

This allows T-cells to recognize and respond to a wide variety of foreign molecules, contributing to the adaptive immune response. However, this process can also lead to errors and the generation of T-cells with self-reactive receptors, which can contribute to autoimmune diseases if not properly regulated.

Chromosomal instability is a term used in genetics to describe a type of genetic alteration where there are abnormalities in the number or structure of chromosomes within cells. Chromosomes are thread-like structures that contain our genetic material, and they usually exist in pairs in the nucleus of a cell.

Chromosomal instability can arise due to various factors, including errors in DNA replication or repair, problems during cell division, or exposure to environmental mutagens. This instability can lead to an increased frequency of chromosomal abnormalities, such as deletions, duplications, translocations, or changes in the number of chromosomes.

Chromosomal instability is associated with several human diseases, including cancer. In cancer cells, chromosomal instability can contribute to tumor heterogeneity, drug resistance, and disease progression. It is also observed in certain genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome, where an extra copy of chromosome 21 is present, and in some rare inherited syndromes, such as Bloom syndrome and Fanconi anemia, which are characterized by a high risk of cancer and other health problems.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Leucine Zippers" is not a medical term or concept. It is a term used in molecular biology to describe a specific structural motif found in some proteins. Leucine zippers are amino acid sequences that contain regularly spaced leucine residues and form coiled-coil structures, which play a role in protein-protein interactions, particularly in DNA binding transcription factors.

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or concepts, I would be happy to help!

Angiodysplasia is a vascular disorder characterized by the dilation and abnormal formation of blood vessels, particularly in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. These abnormal blood vessels are prone to leakage or rupture, which can lead to bleeding. Angiodysplasia is most commonly found in the colon but can occur in other parts of the GI tract as well. It is more common in older adults and can cause symptoms such as anemia, fatigue, and bloody stools. The exact cause of angiodysplasia is not known, but it may be associated with chronic low-grade inflammation or increased pressure in the blood vessels. Treatment options include endoscopic therapies to stop bleeding, medications to reduce acid production in the stomach, and surgery in severe cases.

Trinucleotide Repeat Expansion is a genetic mutation where a sequence of three DNA nucleotides is repeated more frequently than what is typically found in the general population. In this type of mutation, the number of repeats can expand or increase from one generation to the next, leading to an increased risk of developing certain genetic disorders.

These disorders are often neurological and include conditions such as Huntington's disease, myotonic dystrophy, fragile X syndrome, and Friedreich's ataxia. The severity of these diseases can be related to the number of repeats present in the affected gene, with a higher number of repeats leading to more severe symptoms or an earlier age of onset.

It is important to note that not all trinucleotide repeat expansions will result in disease, and some people may carry these mutations without ever developing any symptoms. However, if the number of repeats crosses a certain threshold, it can lead to genetic instability and an increased risk of disease development.

CDC25 phosphatases are a group of enzymes that play crucial roles in the regulation of the cell cycle, which is the series of events that cells undergo as they grow and divide. Specifically, CDC25 phosphatases function to remove inhibitory phosphates from certain cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), thereby activating them and allowing the cell cycle to progress.

There are three main types of CDC25 phosphatases in humans, known as CDC25A, CDC25B, and CDC25C. These enzymes are named after the original yeast homolog, called Cdc25, which was discovered to be essential for cell cycle progression.

CDC25 phosphatases are tightly regulated during the cell cycle, with their activity being controlled by various mechanisms such as phosphorylation, protein-protein interactions, and subcellular localization. Dysregulation of CDC25 phosphatases has been implicated in several human diseases, including cancer, where they can contribute to uncontrolled cell growth and division. Therefore, understanding the functions and regulation of CDC25 phosphatases is an important area of research in molecular biology and medicine.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases (PI3Ks) are a family of enzymes that play a crucial role in intracellular signal transduction. They phosphorylate the 3-hydroxyl group of the inositol ring in phosphatidylinositol and its derivatives, which results in the production of second messengers that regulate various cellular processes such as cell growth, proliferation, differentiation, motility, and survival.

PI3Ks are divided into three classes based on their structure and substrate specificity. Class I PI3Ks are further subdivided into two categories: class IA and class IB. Class IA PI3Ks are heterodimers consisting of a catalytic subunit (p110α, p110β, or p110δ) and a regulatory subunit (p85α, p85β, p55γ, or p50γ). They are primarily activated by receptor tyrosine kinases and G protein-coupled receptors. Class IB PI3Ks consist of a catalytic subunit (p110γ) and a regulatory subunit (p101 or p84/87). They are mainly activated by G protein-coupled receptors.

Dysregulation of PI3K signaling has been implicated in various human diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and autoimmune disorders. Therefore, PI3Ks have emerged as important targets for drug development in these areas.

Topoisomerase I inhibitors are a class of anticancer drugs that work by inhibiting the function of topoisomerase I, an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the relaxation and replication of DNA. By inhibiting this enzyme's activity, these drugs interfere with the normal unwinding and separation of DNA strands, leading to DNA damage and ultimately cell death. Topoisomerase I inhibitors are used in the treatment of various types of cancer, including colon, small cell lung, ovarian, and cervical cancers. Examples of topoisomerase I inhibitors include camptothecin, irinotecan, and topotecan.

Translocation, genetic, refers to a type of chromosomal abnormality in which a segment of a chromosome is transferred from one chromosome to another, resulting in an altered genome. This can occur between two non-homologous chromosomes (non-reciprocal translocation) or between two homologous chromosomes (reciprocal translocation). Genetic translocations can lead to various clinical consequences, depending on the genes involved and the location of the translocation. Some translocations may result in no apparent effects, while others can cause developmental abnormalities, cancer, or other genetic disorders. In some cases, translocations can also increase the risk of having offspring with genetic conditions.

Biological models, also known as physiological models or organismal models, are simplified representations of biological systems, processes, or mechanisms that are used to understand and explain the underlying principles and relationships. These models can be theoretical (conceptual or mathematical) or physical (such as anatomical models, cell cultures, or animal models). They are widely used in biomedical research to study various phenomena, including disease pathophysiology, drug action, and therapeutic interventions.

Examples of biological models include:

1. Mathematical models: These use mathematical equations and formulas to describe complex biological systems or processes, such as population dynamics, metabolic pathways, or gene regulation networks. They can help predict the behavior of these systems under different conditions and test hypotheses about their underlying mechanisms.
2. Cell cultures: These are collections of cells grown in a controlled environment, typically in a laboratory dish or flask. They can be used to study cellular processes, such as signal transduction, gene expression, or metabolism, and to test the effects of drugs or other treatments on these processes.
3. Animal models: These are living organisms, usually vertebrates like mice, rats, or non-human primates, that are used to study various aspects of human biology and disease. They can provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of diseases, the mechanisms of drug action, and the safety and efficacy of new therapies.
4. Anatomical models: These are physical representations of biological structures or systems, such as plastic models of organs or tissues, that can be used for educational purposes or to plan surgical procedures. They can also serve as a basis for developing more sophisticated models, such as computer simulations or 3D-printed replicas.

Overall, biological models play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of biology and medicine, helping to identify new targets for therapeutic intervention, develop novel drugs and treatments, and improve human health.

Karyotyping is a medical laboratory test used to study the chromosomes in a cell. It involves obtaining a sample of cells from a patient, usually from blood or bone marrow, and then staining the chromosomes so they can be easily seen under a microscope. The chromosomes are then arranged in pairs based on their size, shape, and other features to create a karyotype. This visual representation allows for the identification and analysis of any chromosomal abnormalities, such as extra or missing chromosomes, or structural changes like translocations or inversions. These abnormalities can provide important information about genetic disorders, diseases, and developmental problems.

Radiation-sensitizing agents are drugs that make cancer cells more sensitive to radiation therapy. These agents work by increasing the ability of radiation to damage the DNA of cancer cells, which can lead to more effective tumor cell death. This means that lower doses of radiation may be required to achieve the same therapeutic effect, reducing the potential for damage to normal tissues surrounding the tumor.

Radiation-sensitizing agents are often used in conjunction with radiation therapy to improve treatment outcomes for patients with various types of cancer. They can be given either systemically (through the bloodstream) or locally (directly to the tumor site). The choice of agent and the timing of administration depend on several factors, including the type and stage of cancer, the patient's overall health, and the specific radiation therapy protocol being used.

It is important to note that while radiation-sensitizing agents can enhance the effectiveness of radiation therapy, they may also increase the risk of side effects. Therefore, careful monitoring and management of potential toxicities are essential during treatment.

Threonine is an essential amino acid, meaning it cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through the diet. Its chemical formula is HO2CCH(NH2)CH(OH)CH3. Threonine plays a crucial role in various biological processes, including protein synthesis, immune function, and fat metabolism. It is particularly important for maintaining the structural integrity of proteins, as it is often found in their hydroxyl-containing regions. Foods rich in threonine include animal proteins such as meat, dairy products, and eggs, as well as plant-based sources like lentils and soybeans.

Mitosis is a type of cell division in which the genetic material of a single cell, called the mother cell, is equally distributed into two identical daughter cells. It's a fundamental process that occurs in multicellular organisms for growth, maintenance, and repair, as well as in unicellular organisms for reproduction.

The process of mitosis can be broken down into several stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During prophase, the chromosomes condense and become visible, and the nuclear envelope breaks down. In prometaphase, the nuclear membrane is completely disassembled, and the mitotic spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes at their centromeres.

During metaphase, the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate, an imaginary line equidistant from the two spindle poles. In anaphase, sister chromatids are pulled apart by the spindle fibers and move toward opposite poles of the cell. Finally, in telophase, new nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes, and the chromosomes decondense and become less visible.

Mitosis is followed by cytokinesis, a process that divides the cytoplasm of the mother cell into two separate daughter cells. The result of mitosis and cytokinesis is two genetically identical cells, each with the same number and kind of chromosomes as the original parent cell.

Intracranial arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) are abnormal, tangled connections between the arteries and veins in the brain. These connections bypass the capillary system, which can lead to high-flow shunting and potential complications such as hemorrhage, stroke, or neurological deficits. AVMs are congenital conditions, meaning they are present at birth, although symptoms may not appear until later in life. They are relatively rare, affecting approximately 0.1% of the population. Treatment options for AVMs include surgery, radiation therapy, and endovascular embolization, depending on the size, location, and specific characteristics of the malformation.

Proto-oncogene proteins c-ABL are normal cellular proteins that play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including regulation of cell growth, differentiation, and survival. They belong to the family of non-receptor tyrosine kinases and are encoded by the c-ABL gene located on chromosome 9 in humans.

The c-ABL protein is composed of several functional domains, including an N-terminal cap domain, a SRC homology 3 (SH3) domain, a SRC homology 2 (SH2) domain, and a C-terminal tyrosine kinase domain. These domains enable c-ABL to interact with other proteins and participate in signal transduction pathways that control essential cellular functions.

However, when the c-ABL gene is altered or mutated, it can become an oncogene, leading to the production of a dysregulated c-ABL protein. This abnormal protein can contribute to uncontrolled cell growth and division, ultimately resulting in cancer. One such example is the Philadelphia chromosome, a genetic alteration found in chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) and some types of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). This abnormality arises from a reciprocal translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22, resulting in the formation of the BCR-ABL fusion gene. The resulting BCR-ABL fusion protein has constitutively active tyrosine kinase activity, leading to uncontrolled cell growth and division, which is characteristic of leukemia.

In summary, proto-oncogene proteins c-ABL are essential regulators of normal cellular processes. However, when they become dysregulated due to genetic alterations or mutations, they can contribute to the development of cancer.

Androstadienes are a class of steroid hormones that are derived from androstenedione, which is a weak male sex hormone. Androstadienes include various compounds such as androstadiene-3,17-dione and androstanedione, which are intermediate products in the biosynthesis of more potent androgens like testosterone and dihydrotestosterone.

Androstadienes are present in both males and females but are found in higher concentrations in men. They can be detected in various bodily fluids, including blood, urine, sweat, and semen. In addition to their role in steroid hormone synthesis, androstadienes have been studied for their potential use as biomarkers of physiological processes and disease states.

It's worth noting that androstadienes are sometimes referred to as "androstenes" in the literature, although this term can also refer to other related compounds.

Flow cytometry is a medical and research technique used to measure physical and chemical characteristics of cells or particles, one cell at a time, as they flow in a fluid stream through a beam of light. The properties measured include:

* Cell size (light scatter)
* Cell internal complexity (granularity, also light scatter)
* Presence or absence of specific proteins or other molecules on the cell surface or inside the cell (using fluorescent antibodies or other fluorescent probes)

The technique is widely used in cell counting, cell sorting, protein engineering, biomarker discovery and monitoring disease progression, particularly in hematology, immunology, and cancer research.

Proto-oncogene proteins, such as c-MDM2, are normal cellular proteins that play crucial roles in regulating various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). When these genes undergo mutations or are overexpressed, they can become oncogenes, which contribute to the development of cancer.

The c-MDM2 protein is a key regulator of the cell cycle and is involved in the negative regulation of the tumor suppressor protein p53. Under normal conditions, p53 helps prevent the formation of tumors by inducing cell cycle arrest or apoptosis in response to DNA damage or other stress signals. However, when c-MDM2 is overexpressed or mutated, it can bind and inhibit p53, leading to uncontrolled cell growth and increased risk of cancer development.

In summary, proto-oncogene proteins like c-MDM2 are important regulators of normal cellular processes, but when they become dysregulated through mutations or overexpression, they can contribute to the formation of tumors and cancer progression.

Enzyme inhibitors are substances that bind to an enzyme and decrease its activity, preventing it from catalyzing a chemical reaction in the body. They can work by several mechanisms, including blocking the active site where the substrate binds, or binding to another site on the enzyme to change its shape and prevent substrate binding. Enzyme inhibitors are often used as drugs to treat various medical conditions, such as high blood pressure, abnormal heart rhythms, and bacterial infections. They can also be found naturally in some foods and plants, and can be used in research to understand enzyme function and regulation.

Cell division is the process by which a single eukaryotic cell (a cell with a true nucleus) divides into two identical daughter cells. This complex process involves several stages, including replication of DNA, separation of chromosomes, and division of the cytoplasm. There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis is the type of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells. It is a fundamental process for growth, development, and tissue repair in multicellular organisms. The stages of mitosis include prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, followed by cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm.

Meiosis, on the other hand, is a type of cell division that occurs in the gonads (ovaries and testes) during the production of gametes (sex cells). Meiosis results in four genetically unique daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This process is essential for sexual reproduction and genetic diversity. The stages of meiosis include meiosis I and meiosis II, which are further divided into prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

In summary, cell division is the process by which a single cell divides into two daughter cells, either through mitosis or meiosis. This process is critical for growth, development, tissue repair, and sexual reproduction in multicellular organisms.

An allele is a variant form of a gene that is located at a specific position on a specific chromosome. Alleles are alternative forms of the same gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same locus or position on homologous chromosomes.

Each person typically inherits two copies of each gene, one from each parent. If the two alleles are identical, a person is said to be homozygous for that trait. If the alleles are different, the person is heterozygous.

For example, the ABO blood group system has three alleles, A, B, and O, which determine a person's blood type. If a person inherits two A alleles, they will have type A blood; if they inherit one A and one B allele, they will have type AB blood; if they inherit two B alleles, they will have type B blood; and if they inherit two O alleles, they will have type O blood.

Alleles can also influence traits such as eye color, hair color, height, and other physical characteristics. Some alleles are dominant, meaning that only one copy of the allele is needed to express the trait, while others are recessive, meaning that two copies of the allele are needed to express the trait.

Protein binding, in the context of medical and biological sciences, refers to the interaction between a protein and another molecule (known as the ligand) that results in a stable complex. This process is often reversible and can be influenced by various factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration of the involved molecules.

In clinical chemistry, protein binding is particularly important when it comes to drugs, as many of them bind to proteins (especially albumin) in the bloodstream. The degree of protein binding can affect a drug's distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which in turn influence its therapeutic effectiveness and potential side effects.

Protein-bound drugs may be less available for interaction with their target tissues, as only the unbound or "free" fraction of the drug is active. Therefore, understanding protein binding can help optimize dosing regimens and minimize adverse reactions.

Gene deletion is a type of mutation where a segment of DNA, containing one or more genes, is permanently lost or removed from a chromosome. This can occur due to various genetic mechanisms such as homologous recombination, non-homologous end joining, or other types of genomic rearrangements.

The deletion of a gene can have varying effects on the organism, depending on the function of the deleted gene and its importance for normal physiological processes. If the deleted gene is essential for survival, the deletion may result in embryonic lethality or developmental abnormalities. However, if the gene is non-essential or has redundant functions, the deletion may not have any noticeable effects on the organism's phenotype.

Gene deletions can also be used as a tool in genetic research to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes. For example, researchers may use gene deletion techniques to create genetically modified animal models to investigate the impact of gene deletion on disease progression or development.

Telomerase is an enzyme that adds repetitive DNA sequences (telomeres) to the ends of chromosomes, which are lost during each cell division due to the incomplete replication of the ends of linear chromosomes. Telomerase is not actively present in most somatic cells, but it is highly expressed in germ cells and stem cells, allowing them to divide indefinitely. However, in many types of cancer cells, telomerase is abnormally activated, which leads to the maintenance or lengthening of telomeres, contributing to their unlimited replicative potential and tumorigenesis.

A "mutant strain of mice" in a medical context refers to genetically engineered mice that have specific genetic mutations introduced into their DNA. These mutations can be designed to mimic certain human diseases or conditions, allowing researchers to study the underlying biological mechanisms and test potential therapies in a controlled laboratory setting.

Mutant strains of mice are created through various techniques, including embryonic stem cell manipulation, gene editing technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9, and radiation-induced mutagenesis. These methods allow scientists to introduce specific genetic changes into the mouse genome, resulting in mice that exhibit altered physiological or behavioral traits.

These strains of mice are widely used in biomedical research because their short lifespan, small size, and high reproductive rate make them an ideal model organism for studying human diseases. Additionally, the mouse genome has been well-characterized, and many genetic tools and resources are available to researchers working with these animals.

Examples of mutant strains of mice include those that carry mutations in genes associated with cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, metabolic diseases, and immunological conditions. These mice provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of human diseases and help advance our understanding of potential therapeutic interventions.

Down-regulation is a process that occurs in response to various stimuli, where the number or sensitivity of cell surface receptors or the expression of specific genes is decreased. This process helps maintain homeostasis within cells and tissues by reducing the ability of cells to respond to certain signals or molecules.

In the context of cell surface receptors, down-regulation can occur through several mechanisms:

1. Receptor internalization: After binding to their ligands, receptors can be internalized into the cell through endocytosis. Once inside the cell, these receptors may be degraded or recycled back to the cell surface in smaller numbers.
2. Reduced receptor synthesis: Down-regulation can also occur at the transcriptional level, where the expression of genes encoding for specific receptors is decreased, leading to fewer receptors being produced.
3. Receptor desensitization: Prolonged exposure to a ligand can lead to a decrease in receptor sensitivity or affinity, making it more difficult for the cell to respond to the signal.

In the context of gene expression, down-regulation refers to the decreased transcription and/or stability of specific mRNAs, leading to reduced protein levels. This process can be induced by various factors, including microRNA (miRNA)-mediated regulation, histone modification, or DNA methylation.

Down-regulation is an essential mechanism in many physiological processes and can also contribute to the development of several diseases, such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders.

... (AT or A-T), also referred to as ataxia-telangiectasia syndrome or Louis-Bar syndrome, is a rare, ... No curative medication has been approved for the treatment of inherited cerebellar ataxias, including Ataxia-Telangiectasia. N- ... Ataxia-oculomotor apraxia type 2 (AOA2 also known as SCAR1) Ataxia-telangiectasia like disorder (ATLD) Nijmegen breakage ... Most often the ataxia appears between 10 and 15 years of age, and differs from A-T by the absence of telangiectasia and ...
... (ATDC) is a gene implicated in ataxia-telangiectasia. It is involved in a mouse ... Tauchi H, Green C, Knapp M, Laderoute K, Kapp L (2000). "Altered splicing of the ATDC message in ataxia telangiectasia group D ... Laderoute KR, Knapp AM, Green CJ, Sutherland RM, Kapp LN (1996). "Expression of the ATDC (ataxia telangiectasia group D- ... "The product of the ataxia-telangiectasia group D complementing gene, ATDC, interacts with a protein kinase C substrate and ...
Ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related protein has been shown to interact with: BRCA1, CHD4, HDAC2, MSH2, P53 RAD17, and RHEB. ... Gatei M, Zhou BB, Hobson K, Scott S, Young D, Khanna KK (May 2001). "Ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) kinase and ATM and ... Serine/threonine-protein kinase ATR, also known as ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related protein (ATR) or FRAP-related protein ... Chen J (September 2000). "Ataxia telangiectasia-related protein is involved in the phosphorylation of BRCA1 following ...
Patients with Ataxia telangiectasia delays have hypersensitivity to radiation due to the delay of accumulation of p53. In this ... "Ataxia Telangiectasia". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-04-11. Soriani RR, Satomi LC, Pinto Td (2005-07-01). "Effects ...
"ataxia-telangiectasia". Genetics Home Reference. Retrieved 2017-05-15. "What Is Fanconi Anemia?". NHLBI, NIH. Retrieved 2017-05 ... Mutations in the ATM gene cause ataxia-telangiectasia. The ATM gene provides instructions for making a protein that helps ...
... the ataxia telangiectasia service; services for patients with pulmonary fibrosis, vasculitis, and rare diseases including ...
Taylor AM, Byrd PJ (October 2005). "Molecular pathology of ataxia telangiectasia". Journal of Clinical Pathology. 58 (10): 1009 ... the liver Nonseminomatous germ cell tumors Yolk sac tumor Other conditions associated with elevated AFP Ataxia telangiectasia: ...
McKusick, V. A.; Cross, H. E. (1966-02-28). "Ataxia-telangiectasia and Swiss-type agammaglobulinemia. Two genetic disorders of ...
1996). "Accelerated telomere shortening in ataxia telangiectasia". Nat. Genet. 13 (3): 350-353. doi:10.1038/ng0796-350. PMID ...
"N-Acetyl-L-Leucine for Ataxia-Telangiectasia". clinicaltrials.gov. Retrieved 2019-08-01. "IntraBio". Archived from the original ... and Ataxia-Telangiectasia. Future opportunities to develop N-Acetyl-Leucine include Lewy body dementia, amyotrophic lateral ... and ataxia telangiectasia". Trials. 22 (1): 84. doi:10.1186/s13063-020-05009-3. PMC 7821839. PMID 33482890. "IntraBio Receives ... Neurological signs and symptoms include cerebellar ataxia (unsteady walking with uncoordinated limb movements), dysarthria ( ...
Furthermore, his analysis of patients with ataxia-telangiectasia revealed a range of immune system abnormalities including ... "Heterogeneity of immunological abnormalities in ataxia-telangiectasia". Journal of Clinical Immunology. 3 (2): 135-141. doi: ...
"N-Acetyl-L-Leucine for Ataxia-Telangiectasia". clinicaltrials.gov. Retrieved 2019-08-01. "IntraBio". Archived from the original ... parallel clinical trials with N-Acetyl-L-Leucine for the treatment of Niemann-Pick disease type C and Ataxia-Telangiectasia. ...
"Entrez Gene: NPAT nuclear protein, ataxia-telangiectasia locus". Zheng L, Roeder RG, Luo Y (Jul 2003). "S phase activation of ... half of the gene for ataxia telangiectasia". Human Molecular Genetics. 5 (1): 145-9. doi:10.1093/hmg/5.1.145. PMID 8789452. ...
"The Ataxia-Telangiectasia Society Annual Report and Accounts" (PDF). 2014. "Information for ICRR2015". Journal of Radiation ... In 2014, Jeggo was the chair of the Scientific Advisory Board for the Ataxia-Telangiectasia Society. Jeggo was an invited ... She found that a mutation in ataxia telangiectasia mutated kinase (ATM) causes damage to DNA and chromatin structure. Jeggo's ... In her most recent publication, Jeggo worked with other researchers on the Ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3 related protein (ATR ...
... ataxia telangiectasia. EZH2 is the catalytic subunit of the Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2). EZH2's catalytic activity ... "EZH2-mediated H3K27 trimethylation mediates neurodegeneration in ataxia-telangiectasia". Nature Neuroscience. 16 (12): 1745- ...
However, research has linked SH3D21 expression changes to male infertility and Ataxia Telangiectasia. Further studies have ... "Newborn screening for SCID identifies patients with ataxia telangiectasia". Journal of Clinical Immunology. 33 (3): 540-9. doi: ...
Mutations of Mre11 can precipitate ataxia-telangiectasia-like disorder. V(D)J recombination involves opening stem-loops ...
... and ataxia telangiectasia. Bhalla P, Wysocki CA, van Oers NS (May 2020). "Molecular Insights Into the Causes of Human Thymic ... "Malignant disease and variations in radiosensitivity in ataxia telangiectasia patients.". Genetic predisposition to cancer 1996 ...
... has been shown to interact with: FANCI Ataxia telangiectasia mutated, BARD1, BRCA1. BRCA2, FANCE, HTATIP, and MEN1. ... Castillo P, Bogliolo M, Surralles J (May 2011). "Coordinated action of the Fanconi anemia and ataxia telangiectasia pathways in ... May 2002). "Convergence of the fanconi anemia and ataxia telangiectasia signaling pathways". Cell. 109 (4): 459-72. doi:10.1016 ... May 2002). "Convergence of the fanconi anemia and ataxia telangiectasia signaling pathways". Cell. 109 (4): 459-72. doi:10.1016 ...
He had been suffering for many years of Ataxia telangiectasia. She also came out some time later as a lesbian. She has made a ...
Matsuoka S, Rotman G, Ogawa A, Shiloh Y, Tamai K, Elledge SJ (2000). "Ataxia telangiectasia-mutated phosphorylates Chk2 in vivo ...
August 2006). "ATM mutations that cause ataxia-telangiectasia are breast cancer susceptibility alleles". Nat. Genet. 38 (8): ...
His son Rupert died in 2017 aged 31 from ataxia-telangiectasia. Oleg Prokofiev died in 1998 aged 69, while on holiday on the ...
Ataxia telangiectasia results from defects in the ataxia telangiectasia mutated gene, which can cause abnormal cell death in ... These are ataxia with oculomotor apraxia type 1 (AOA1), ataxia with oculomotor apraxia 2 (AOA2), and ataxia telangiectasia. ... Patients with ataxia telangiectasia have prolonged vertical and horizontal saccade latencies and hypometric saccades, and, ... Ataxia-oculomotor apraxia type 2 (AOA2), also known as spinocerebellar ataxia with axonal neuropathy type 2, has its onset ...
1989). "Ataxia-ocular motor apraxia: a syndrome mimicking ataxia-telangiectasia". Ann. Neurol. 24 (4): 497-502. doi:10.1002/ana ... GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Ataxia with Oculomotor Apraxia Type 1 OMIM entries on Ataxia with Oculomotor Apraxia Type 1 ... 2005). "The ataxia-oculomotor apraxia 1 gene product has a role distinct from ATM and interacts with the DNA strand break ... Ataxia oculomotor apraxia-1 is a neurological disorder caused by mutations in the APTX gene that encodes aprataxin. The ...
... has been shown to interact with Mdm2 and Ataxia telangiectasia mutated. Abnormalities in this gene are one of the causes ...
"DNA methylation and gene expression signatures are associated with ataxia-telangiectasia phenotype". Scientific Reports. 10 (1 ...
"Splicing Defects in the Ataxia-Telangiectasia Gene, ATM: Underlying Mutations and Consequences". The American Journal of Human ...
2000). "Functional link between ataxia-telangiectasia and Nijmegen breakage syndrome gene products". Nature. 405 (6785): 473-7 ...
Li S, Ting NS, Zheng L, Chen PL, Ziv Y, Shiloh Y, Lee EY, Lee WH (2000). "Functional link of BRCA1 and ataxia telangiectasia ... "Functional link of BRCA1 and ataxia telangiectasia gene product in DNA damage response". Nature. 406 (6792): 210-5. doi:10.1038 ...
Ataxia-telangiectasia (AT or A-T), also referred to as ataxia-telangiectasia syndrome or Louis-Bar syndrome, is a rare, ... No curative medication has been approved for the treatment of inherited cerebellar ataxias, including Ataxia-Telangiectasia. N- ... Ataxia-oculomotor apraxia type 2 (AOA2 also known as SCAR1) Ataxia-telangiectasia like disorder (ATLD) Nijmegen breakage ... Most often the ataxia appears between 10 and 15 years of age, and differs from A-T by the absence of telangiectasia and ...
Ataxia Telangiectasia (AT) is an inherited disease that affects several body systems, including the nervous system and immune ... About Ataxia-Telangiectasia (Ataxia-Telangiectasia Childrens Project) * Ataxia - telangiectasia (Medical Encyclopedia) Also in ... Ataxia Telangiectasia (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke) * Ataxia-Telangiectasia (For Parents) (Nemours ... Ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T) is a rare, inherited disease. It affects the nervous system, immune system, and other body systems ...
The more subtle clinical findings that facilitate early diagnosis and the most provocative long-term clinical observations in our series of patients are emphasized. The most striking pathological findings in our own series of 11 complete autopsies are reviewed in relation to new findings from 57 aut …
... cerebellar ataxia, variable immunodeficiency with susceptibility to sinopulmonary infections, impaired organ maturation, x-ray ... Ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T) is an autosomal recessive, complex, multisystem disorder characterized by progressive neurologic ... hypersensitivity, ocular and cutaneous telangiectasia (see image below), and a p... ... The ataxia-telangiectasia gene has been localized to band 11q22-23. The gene, called ATM (ataxia-telangiectasia mutated), is a ...
We recommend the use of routine serum alpha-fetoprotein testing for all children with persistent ataxia. ... Consequences of the delayed diagnosis of ataxia-telangiectasia Pediatrics. 1998 Jul;102(1 Pt 1):98-100. doi: 10.1542/peds.102.1 ... Objectives: Ataxia-telangiectasia (AT) is a rare, autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder in which the diagnosis is ... Design: The records of all patients seen at the Ataxia-Telangiectasia Clinical Center from July 1, 1995 to April 1, 1997 were ...
Introduction Ataxia telangiectasia (A-T) is a multisystem, degenerative disorder caused by mutation of the A-T mutated (ATM) ... Classic A-T presents with ataxia and ocular telangiectasia in association with immunodeficiency, increased risk for malignancy ... She exhibits focal dystonia and blepharospasm, in addition to ocular telangiectasia. She remains independently mobile. ... following 20 years of progressive gait ataxia. She has choreo-athetoid movements of the arms and neck. Her younger sister is 20 ...
ataxia telangiectasia gene. Ataxia telangiectasia (AT) is a rare autosomal recessive disease, characterised by cerebella ataxia ... Ataxia telangiectasia mutant protein activates c-Abl tyrosine kinase in response to ionizing radiation. Nature 1997;387:516-19. ... Swift M, Reitnauer PJ, Morrell D, et al. Breast and other cancers in families with ataxia-telangiectasia. N Engl J Med 1987;316 ... Pleiotropic defects in ataxia-telangiectasia protein-deficient mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1996;93:13084-9. ...
Method to Detect Mutations in Human Ataxia-Telangiectasia Mutation (ATM gene) Tech Summary. Ataxia-Telangiectasia (AT) is an ...
Ataxia-Telangiectasia - Learn about the causes, symptoms, diagnosis & treatment from the MSD Manuals - Medical Consumer Version ... Immune Deficiency Foundation: Ataxia-telangiectasia: General information on ataxia-telangiectasia, including information on ... Symptoms of Ataxia-Telangiectasia Incoordination (ataxia) usually develops when children begin to walk, but it may be delayed ... Ataxia-Telangiectasia By James Fernandez , MD, PhD, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine at Case Western Reserve ...
Repair of strand breaks in superhelical dna of ataxia telangiectasia lymphoblastoid cells. J Cell Sci (1981) 48 (1): 383-391. ... Identification and Characterization of a Novel and Specific Inhibitor of the Ataxia-Telangiectasia Mutated Kinase ATM ... Differences in the DNA Supercoiling Response of Irradiated Cell Lines from Ataxia-telangiectasia Versus Unaffected Individuals ... The inhibition of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase enhances growth rates of ataxia telangiectasia cells ...
Learn and reinforce your understanding of Ataxia-telangiectasia. ... Ataxia-telangiectasia Videos, Flashcards, High Yield Notes, & ...
Immunodeficiencies , Introduction , Ataxia-Telangiectasia. Ataxia-Telangiectasia Ataxia Telangiectasia (A-T) Childrens Project ... Ataxia Telangiectasia at the National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc.(NORD).. Ataxia Telangiectasia in the Patient and ... Ataxia Telangiectasia by the Florida Medical Association.. Questions and Answers: Ataxia Telangiectasia by National Institutes ... Ataxia-Telangiectasia Mutation Database. ATbase - a registry of patients with ataxia-telangiectasia by Karolinska Insitutet, ...
Nervous System DiseasesNeurologic ManifestationsDyskinesiasAtaxiaCerebellar AtaxiaSpinocerebellar AtaxiasAtaxia Telangiectasia ... Central Nervous System DiseasesBrain DiseasesCerebellar DiseasesCerebellar AtaxiaSpinocerebellar AtaxiasAtaxia Telangiectasia ... All MeSH CategoriesDiseases CategoryCardiovascular DiseasesVascular DiseasesTelangiectasisAtaxia Telangiectasia ... All MeSH CategoriesDiseases CategoryNervous System DiseasesNeurocutaneous SyndromesAtaxia Telangiectasia ...
In contrast, the HCR of Vag synthesis for sunlamp-exposed Ad 2 was in the normal range for the three ataxia telangiectasia, ... Host cell reactivation of sunlamp-exposed adenovirus in fibroblasts from patients with blooms syndrome, ataxia telangiectasia ...
The technical storage or access that is used exclusively for statistical purposes. The technical storage or access that is used exclusively for anonymous statistical purposes. Without a subpoena, voluntary compliance on the part of your Internet Service Provider, or additional records from a third party, information stored or retrieved for this purpose alone cannot usually be used to identify you. ...
In 1941 Madame Louis-Bar1 described a 9-year-old boy with progressive cerebellar ataxia and bilateral symmetrical ... Ataxia-Telangiectasia: Report of a Case and Review of the Literature. JULIUS KOREIN, M.D.; PAUL A. STEINMAN; EDWARD H. SENZ, M. ... Ataxia-Telangiectasia: Report of a Case and Review of the Literature. Arch Neurol. 1961;4(3):272-280. doi:10.1001/archneur. ... 1941 Madame Louis-Bar1 described a 9-year-old boy with progressive cerebellar ataxia and bilateral symmetrical telangiectasia ...
Ataxia Telangiectasia. Ataxia telangiectasia, also known as Louis-Bar syndrome, is a complex hereditary syndrome first ... Friedreich ataxia and ataxia with oculomotor apraxia type 1 (AOA1) can be differentiated from ataxia telangiectasia by a ... The ataxia telangiectasia Rad3-related (ATR) protein responds to UV damage, whereas the ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) ... Ataxia telangiectasia is an early onset autosomal recessive disorder characterized by cerebellar ataxia, telangiectasias, ...
title = "Survival probability in ataxia telangiectasia",. abstract = "Ataxia telangiectasia is a rare, multiorgan ... Survival probability in ataxia telangiectasia. Thomas O. Crawford, R. L. Skolasky, R. Fernandez, K. J. Rosquist, H. M. Lederman ... Survival probability in ataxia telangiectasia. / Crawford, Thomas O.; Skolasky, R. L.; Fernandez, R. et al. In: Archives of ... Survival probability in ataxia telangiectasia. Archives of disease in childhood. 2006 Jul;91(7):610-611. doi: 10.1136/adc. ...
New Collaborative partnership with BrAshA-T Ataxia-Telangiectasia in News ... New Collaborative partnership with BrAshA-T Ataxia-Telangiectasia 13th February 2018. /in News /by Sean Kelly. Action for A-T ... You are here: Home / NEWS / News / New Collaborative partnership with BrAshA-T Ataxia-Telangiectasia ... We are delighted to announce our latest collaborative partnership with the Australian charity, BrAshA-T Ataxia-Telangiectasia. ...
Cerebellar Ataxia and Ocular Conjunctival Telangiectasia. Look Again. Matheus Gomes Ferreira, Fábio A. Nascimento, Hélio A.G. ... Late-onset ataxia telangiectasia. Laurence Newrick, Noor Sharrack, Marios Hadjivassiliou et al.. Neurology: Clinical Practice, ... Reviewing the genetic causes of spastic-ataxias. Susanne T. de Bot, Michel A.A.P. Willemsen, Sascha Vermeer et al.. Neurology, ... A Proposed Clinical Classification and a Diagnostic Approach for Congenital Ataxias. Ivana Rocha Raslan, Orlando G. Barsottini ...
The G1, S, and G2 cell cycle checkpoints are primarily regulated by the ATM (ataxia telangiectasia, mutated) and ATR (ATM and ...
About Ataxia Telangiectasia (A-T) - A-T is a rare, genetic degenerative disease of childhood, which affects multiple systems of ... ABOUT ATAXIA TELANGIECTASIA - WHAT IS A-T?. About Ataxia Telangiectasia - A-T is a rare, genetic degenerative disease of ... A-T is also characterised by telangiectasias (widened, "spider" like veins), which often appear in the corners of the eyes. Due ... The first signs of A-T are neurological: poor balance and reduced motor coordination (ataxia) being the most prominent, where ...
... Being such a rare disease, it is critical that any effort, ... Ataxia Telangiectasia) are maximised. This can only be achieved through a coordinated effort by all of the major stakeholders ...
Ataxia-telangiectasia: Linkage evidence for genetic heterogeneity [4]. E. Sobel*, E. Lange, N. G.J. Jaspers, L. Chessa, O. ... Ataxia-telangiectasia: Linkage evidence for genetic heterogeneity [4]. / Sobel, E.; Lange, E.; Jaspers, N. G.J. et al. In: ... Ataxia-telangiectasia: Linkage evidence for genetic heterogeneity [4]. American Journal of Human Genetics. 1992;50(6):1343-1348 ... Ataxia-telangiectasia : Linkage evidence for genetic heterogeneity [4]. In: American Journal of Human Genetics. 1992 ; Vol. 50 ...
Ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T) is a rare, inherited disorder that is present at birth and affects many parts of the body. It can ... Essential Questions and Answers on Ataxia-telangiectasia in "MEDICAL»HOSP". What is Ataxia-telangiectasia?. Ataxia- ... Full Form: Ataxia-telangiectasia. For more information of "Ataxia-telangiectasia", see the section below. ... Who is affected by Ataxia-telangiectasia?. Ataxia-telangiectasia is present at birth and can affect both genders equally. ...
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Autosomal Recessive Cerebellar Ataxia with Oculomotor Apraxia (AtaxiaTelangiectasia-Like Syndrome) Is Linked to Chromosome ... Autosomal Recessive Cerebellar Ataxia with Oculomotor Apraxia (AtaxiaTelangiectasia-Like Syndrome) Is Linked to Chromosome ...
Order Ataxia Telangiectasia And Rad3 Related Protein ATR Polyclonal Antibody Human PE 01017963748 at Gentaur Ataxia ... A Rabbit polyclonal antibody against Human Ataxia Telangiectasia And Rad3 Related Protein (ATR). This antibody is labeled with ...
Ataxia-Telangiectasia Society Read more Published: 4th January, 2018. Updated: 30th April, 2021. ...
  • Ataxia-telangiectasia (AT or A-T), also referred to as ataxia-telangiectasia syndrome or Louis-Bar syndrome, is a rare, neurodegenerative, autosomal recessive disease causing severe disability. (wikipedia.org)
  • Ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T) is an autosomal recessive, complex, multisystem disorder characterized by progressive neurologic impairment, cerebellar ataxia, variable immunodeficiency with susceptibility to sinopulmonary infections, impaired organ maturation, x-ray hypersensitivity, ocular and cutaneous telangiectasia (see image below), and a predisposition to malignancy. (medscape.com)
  • Ataxia-telangiectasia can best be classified, according to its major clinical and pathologic features, as a predominantly cerebellar form of spinocerebellar degeneration, which is transmitted as an autosomal recessive trait and evolves ultimately to include motor neuron disease, with spinal muscular atrophy and peripheral neuropathy. (medscape.com)
  • Ataxia-telangiectasia (AT) is a rare, autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder in which the diagnosis is obvious when ataxia and telangiectasia are both present. (nih.gov)
  • Ataxia telangiectasia (AT) is a rare multisystem, autosomal, recessive disease characterised by neuronal degeneration, genome instability, and an increased risk of cancer. (bmj.com)
  • Ataxia telangiectasia (AT) is a rare autosomal recessive disease, characterised by cerebella ataxia, immunodeficiency, increased sensitivity to ionising radiation, and a predisposition to malignancies, especially lymphoid neoplasms. (bmj.com)
  • Ataxia-Telangiectasia (AT) is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder caused by mutation in ATM (AT Mutation) gene. (benaroyaresearch.org)
  • Spinocerebellar ataxia type 35 (SCA35) is a rare, autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disorder associated with mutations in TGM6 gene that encode the protein transglutaminase 6 (TG6). (ataxia.org)
  • Ataxia-telangiectasia should be considered among the immunodeficiency diseases, cancer-prone genetic disorders, chromosomal instability syndromes, disorders with abnormal radiosensitivity, syndromes with possible DNA-repair/processing defects, and (as is now evident) the progeroid syndromes. (medscape.com)
  • Classic A-T presents with ataxia and ocular telangiectasia in association with immunodeficiency, increased risk for malignancy, increased serum α-fetoprotein levels, radiosensitivity, and chromosomal instability. (bmj.com)
  • Ataxia-telangiectasia is a hereditary disorder characterized by incoordination, dilated capillaries, and an immunodeficiency that causes increased susceptibility to infections. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Ataxia-telangiectasia also causes abnormalities in the cerebellum (the part of the brain that coordinates the body's movements), which are unrelated to the immunodeficiency disorder and which result in loss of coordination. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Multisystemic manifestations of AT include motor impairments secondary to a neurodegenerative process, oculocutaneous telangiectasia, sinopulmonary infections, hypersensitivity to ionizing radiation, and a combined immunodeficiency that can be quite variable. (medscape.com)
  • The study investigated ChromaDex's proprietary Niagen ® ingredient (patented nicotinamide riboside, or "NR") in patients with ataxia-telangiectasia (AT), a rare, inherited neurodegenerative disorder characterized by premature aging, cerebellar degeneration, immunodeficiency, and cancer predisposition. (biospace.com)
  • A gap of some 15 years occurred before the next report in 1941 by Louis-Bar, who described progressive cerebellar ataxia and cutaneous telangiectasia in a Belgian child. (medscape.com)
  • In 1941 Madame Louis-Bar 1 described a 9-year-old boy with progressive cerebellar ataxia and bilateral symmetrical telangiectasia involving the sclerae, the external ears, and the exposed skin of the extremities. (jamanetwork.com)
  • The diagnosis of ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T) is based primarily on clinical examination and should include progressive cerebellar ataxia with onset between 1 and 3 years of age. (mhmedical.com)
  • Ataxia telangiectasia is a rare, multiorgan neurodegenerative disorder with enhanced vulnerability to cancer and infection. (johnshopkins.edu)
  • About Ataxia Telangiectasia - A-T is a rare, genetic degenerative disease of childhood, which affects multiple systems of the human body. (actionforat.org)
  • Ataxia telangiectasia is a rare genetic condition. (childrensdayton.org)
  • Ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T) is a multisystem, cancer-predisposing genetic disorder caused by deficiency of the ATM protein. (wustl.edu)
  • The main goal of our project is the development of a powerful genetic model to investigate pathogenesis of spinocerebellar ataxia with axonal neuropathy-1 (SCAN-1) disease. (ataxia.org)
  • The late appearance of telangiectasia may be a barrier to the diagnosis. (wikipedia.org)
  • However, the diagnosis can be made upon the onset of ataxia and before the appearance of telangiectasia if confirmed by laboratory tests. (nih.gov)
  • Syllaba and Henner first published descriptions of patients with ataxia-telangiectasia in 1926. (medscape.com)
  • The records of all patients seen at the Ataxia-Telangiectasia Clinical Center from July 1, 1995 to April 1, 1997 were reviewed to determine age of onset of gait abnormality, recognition of telangiectasia, and diagnosis. (nih.gov)
  • In 48 patients with AT, who were the index cases in their respective families, the median age of diagnosis (78 months) occurred after the onset of gait abnormalities (15 months) and closely corresponded to the development of telangiectasia (72 months). (nih.gov)
  • ATbase - a registry of patients with ataxia-telangiectasia by Karolinska Insitutet, Stockholm, Sweden. (lu.se)
  • Patients with ataxia telangiectasia, also known as Louis-Bar syndrome, are hypersensitive to ionizing radiation, while patients with Bloom syndrome, Fanconi anemia, and xeroderma pigmentosum are sensitive to UV radiation. (medscape.com)
  • To overcome this challenge, nine patients with symptoms that resemble those of ataxia telangiectasia, including neurodegeneration, hypogammaglobulinemia, telangiectasia, and/or elevated serum α-fetoprotein, were subjected to whole-exome sequencing (WES) to identify the causative mutations. (shengsci.com)
  • The study found that supplementation with NR improved ataxia scores and increased immunoglobulins, or antibodies, in the immune-compromised patients. (biospace.com)
  • NR improved ataxia scores in patients and increased serum immunoglobulin G (IgG), or antibodies, which are important for protection against pathogens. (biospace.com)
  • The diagnosis of A-T may not be made until the preschool years when the neurologic symptoms of impaired gait, hand coordination, speech and eye movement appear or worsen, and the telangiectasia first appear. (wikipedia.org)
  • In the majority of cases (34/48), telangiectasia appeared before the diagnosis was established. (nih.gov)
  • Apparent ocular telangiectasia. (medscape.com)
  • [ 3 ] They observed progressive choreoathetosis and ocular telangiectasia in 3 members of a single family. (medscape.com)
  • She exhibits focal dystonia and blepharospasm, in addition to ocular telangiectasia. (bmj.com)
  • Ataxia telangiectasia and Nijmegen breakage syndrome, for example, develop as a result of mutations in genes involved in the DNA damage response. (shengsci.com)
  • Also, in response to IONIZING RADIATION it can undergo PHOSPHORYLATION by ataxia telangiectasia mutated protein. (bvsalud.org)
  • In contrast, the HCR of Vag synthesis for sunlamp-exposed Ad 2 was in the normal range for the three ataxia telangiectasia, three Bloom's syndrome, and two Huntington's disease fibroblasts strains. (mcmaster.ca)
  • Introduction Ataxia telangiectasia (A-T) is a multisystem, degenerative disorder caused by mutation of the A-T mutated ( ATM ) gene. (bmj.com)
  • Ataxia refers to poor coordination and telangiectasia to small dilated blood vessels, both of which are hallmarks of the disease. (wikipedia.org)
  • The following symptoms or problems are either common or important features of A-T:[citation needed] Ataxia (difficulty with control of movement) that is apparent early but worsens in school to pre-teen years Oculomotor apraxia (difficulty with coordination of head and eye movement when shifting gaze from one place to the next) Involuntary movements Telangiectasia (dilated blood vessels) over the white (sclera) of the eyes, making them appear bloodshot. (wikipedia.org)
  • The clinical and immunological presentation of ataxia-telangiectasia may differ even within the same family, as described by Soresina et al. (medscape.com)
  • Our data identify ITCH as a novel component of the ATM-dependent signaling pathway and suggest that the impairment of the correct Mupirocin functionality of ITCH caused by Atm deficiency may Mupirocin contribute to the Mupirocin complex clinical features linked to Ataxia Telangiectasia. (biongenex.com)
  • Ataxia telangiectasia by the Atlas of Genetics and Cytogenetics in Oncology and Haematology. (lu.se)
  • Ataxia-Telangiectasia (A-T) is a rare inherited disorder that affects the nervous system, immune system, and other body systems. (thenewsbee.com)
  • Ataxia-telangiectasia mutated interacts with Parkin and induces mitophagy independent of kinase activity. (bvsalud.org)
  • The available literature is reviewed and discussed and the possible relationship of the disease to the hereditary ataxias and the phakomatoses is considered. (jamanetwork.com)
  • Rationale Ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related (ATR) threonine serine kinase is among the important elements in orchestrating the DNA harm response (DDR). (gasyblog.com)
  • Typical features of CD40LG deficiency and MSS are distinct from the symptoms usually seen in ataxia telangiectasia. (shengsci.com)
  • Symptoms of ataxia-telangiectasia often start before age 5. (cancercenter.com)
  • This disorder is characterized by progressive difficulty in coordinating movements (ataxia) beginning in early childhood, usually before age 5. (thenewsbee.com)
  • Case Description The eldest sister is 24-years-old and became wheelchair bound by age 22, following 20 years of progressive gait ataxia. (bmj.com)
  • The gene, called ATM (ataxia-telangiectasia mutated), is a member of a family of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase-related genes involved in cell cycle control, intracellular protein transport, and DNA damage response. (medscape.com)
  • Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated (ATM) kinase a central regulator of the DNA damage response regulates the activity of several E3-ubiquitin ligases and the ubiquitination-proteasome system is a consistent target of ATM. (biongenex.com)
  • In response to ionizing radiation (IR), the cell cycle checkpoint kinase, Chk2 (hCds1), is phosphorylated and activated in an ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM)-dependent manner. (wustl.edu)
  • Pay special attention to the susceptibility of adult members of families with ataxia-telangiectasia to malignant neoplasms and to the importance of regular examinations for early cancer detection. (medscape.com)
  • The ataxia telangiectasia Rad3-related (ATR) protein responds to UV damage, whereas the ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) protein responds to double-strand breaks (DSBs) caused by ionizing radiation and radiomimetic compounds. (medscape.com)
  • The dilated capillaries (telangiectasia), called spider veins, are usually most obvious on the eyeballs, ears, and sides of the neck. (msdmanuals.com)
  • A-T is also characterised by telangiectasias (widened, "spider" like veins), which often appear in the corners of the eyes. (actionforat.org)
  • Spider veins (also called telangiectasia) are small veins that become enlarged and are visible under the skin. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Ataxia Telangiectasia at the National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc.(NORD). (lu.se)
  • The effects of NR on ataxia (a group of disorders that affect coordination, balance and speech), dysarthria (a motor speech disorder), quality of life, and laboratory parameters were analyzed. (biospace.com)
  • Ataxia-telangiectasia can also be classified among the neurocutaneous syndromes, although not among the phakomatoses as originally proposed, because the vascular and cutaneous lesions of ataxia-telangiectasia are not congenital nevi but develop in the course of the disease as a progeric manifestation. (medscape.com)
  • We recommend the use of routine serum alpha-fetoprotein testing for all children with persistent ataxia. (nih.gov)
  • Ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T) is a rare, inherited disease. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Being such a rare disease, it is critical that any effort, resources and/or funding committed to finding a cure for A-T (Ataxia Telangiectasia) are maximised. (cureat.org)
  • Ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T) is a rare, inherited disorder that is present at birth and affects many parts of the body. (onlineabbreviations.com)
  • Ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T) is a rare, inherited disorder that affects multiple parts of the body such as neurologic systems, immune systems and cancer predispositions. (onlineabbreviations.com)
  • Ataxia-Telangiectasia (AT), although rare, can be an complicated disorder to diagnose and treat because of its various effects on different parts of the body. (onlineabbreviations.com)
  • Ataxia Telangiectasia in the Patient and Family handbook of the Immune Deficiency Foundation (IDF). (lu.se)
  • Despite undeniable progresses in the knowledge concerning the molecular pathology of Machado- Joseph disease (MJD)/Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3), therapeutic compounds remain to be discovered and validated. (ataxia.org)
  • In children with ataxia-telangiectasia, incoordination usually develops when they begin to walk, and muscles progressively weaken, causing them to be greatly disabled. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Incoordination (ataxia) usually develops when children begin to walk, but it may be delayed until age 4. (msdmanuals.com)
  • The Orphanet Registry (2018) estimates the average prevalence of Ataxia-Telangiectasia at 1 per 100,000 children. (thenewsbee.com)
  • As per the National Library of Medicine (2018), Ataxia-Telangiectasia occurs in 1 in 40,000-100,000 people worldwide. (thenewsbee.com)
  • The analysis covers Ataxia Telangiectasia market uptake by drugs, patient uptake by therapies, and sales of each drug. (thenewsbee.com)
  • As per DelveInsight, the Ataxia Telangiectasia Therapeutics Market dynamics are expected to transform in the coming years owing to the launch of emerging therapies, ongoing Research and Development (R&D) activities, and the active participation of the global pharma and biotech giants in the therapeutic segment. (thenewsbee.com)
  • Double your impact during the Annual Ataxia Research Drive! (ataxia.org)