Apc10 subunit anaphase promoting complex cyclosome. Medical search

The phase of cell nucleus division following METAPHASE, in which the CHROMATIDS separate and migrate to opposite poles of the spindle.

An E3 ubiquitin ligase primarily involved in regulation of the metaphase-to-anaphase transition during MITOSIS through ubiquitination of specific CELL CYCLE PROTEINS. Enzyme activity is tightly regulated through subunits and cofactors, which modulate activation, inhibition, and substrate specificity. The anaphase-promoting complex, or APC-C, is also involved in tissue differentiation in the PLACENTA, CRYSTALLINE LENS, and SKELETAL MUSCLE, and in regulation of postmitotic NEURONAL PLASTICITY and excitability.

Complexes of enzymes that catalyze the covalent attachment of UBIQUITIN to other proteins by forming a peptide bond between the C-terminal GLYCINE of UBIQUITIN and the alpha-amino groups of LYSINE residues in the protein. The complexes play an important role in mediating the selective-degradation of short-lived and abnormal proteins. The complex of enzymes can be broken down into three components that involve activation of ubiquitin (UBIQUITIN-ACTIVATING ENZYMES), conjugation of ubiquitin to the ligase complex (UBIQUITIN-CONJUGATING ENZYMES), and ligation of ubiquitin to the substrate protein (UBIQUITIN-PROTEIN LIGASES).

Highly conserved proteins that specifically bind to and activate the anaphase-promoting complex-cyclosome, promoting ubiquitination and proteolysis of cell-cycle-regulatory proteins. Cdc20 is essential for anaphase-promoting complex activity, initiation of anaphase, and cyclin proteolysis during mitosis.

Cdh1 is an activator of the anaphase-promoting complex-cyclosome, and is involved in substrate recognition. It associates with the complex in late MITOSIS from anaphase through G1 to regulate activity of CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES and to prevent premature DNA replication.

Subtype of CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM that produces botulinum toxin type G. Though it has been isolated from soil, no outbreaks involving this type have been recognized.

A highly evolutionarily conserved subunit of the anaphase-promoting complex (APC-C) containing multiple 34-amino-acid tetratricopeptide repeats. These domains, also found in Apc subunits 6, 7, and 8, have been shown to mediate protein-protein interactions, suggesting that Apc3 may assist in coordinating the juxtaposition of the catalytic and substrate recognition module subunits relative to co-activators and APC-C inhibitors.

Proteins that control the CELL DIVISION CYCLE. This family of proteins includes a wide variety of classes, including CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES, mitogen-activated kinases, CYCLINS, and PHOSPHOPROTEIN PHOSPHATASES as well as their putative substrates such as chromatin-associated proteins, CYTOSKELETAL PROTEINS, and TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS.

The largest subunit of the anaphase-promoting complex. It acts primarily as a scaffold for the proper organization and arrangement of subunits. The C-terminal region of Apc1 contains a series of tandem amino acid repeats that are also seen in the 26S proteasome regulatory particle, and may assist with forming and stabilizing protein-protein interactions.

A microtubule structure that forms during CELL DIVISION. It consists of two SPINDLE POLES, and sets of MICROTUBULES that may include the astral microtubules, the polar microtubules, and the kinetochore microtubules.

A genus of ascomycetous fungi, family Sordariaceae, order SORDARIALES, comprising bread molds. They are capable of converting tryptophan to nicotinic acid and are used extensively in genetic and enzyme research. (Dorland, 27th ed)

A cyclin subtype that is transported into the CELL NUCLEUS at the end of the G2 PHASE. It stimulates the G2/M phase transition by activating CDC2 PROTEIN KINASE.

A family of proteins that share the F-BOX MOTIF and are involved in protein-protein interactions. They play an important role in process of protein ubiquition by associating with a variety of substrates and then associating into SCF UBIQUITIN LIGASE complexes. They are held in the ubiquitin-ligase complex via binding to SKP DOMAIN PROTEINS.

Tumor suppressor genes located in the 5q21 region on the long arm of human chromosome 5. The mutation of these genes is associated with familial adenomatous polyposis (ADENOMATOUS POLYPOSIS COLI) and GARDNER SYNDROME, as well as some sporadic colorectal cancers.

The phase of cell nucleus division following PROMETAPHASE, in which the CHROMOSOMES line up across the equatorial plane of the SPINDLE APPARATUS prior to separation.

A class of enzymes that catalyze the formation of a bond between two substrate molecules, coupled with the hydrolysis of a pyrophosphate bond in ATP or a similar energy donor. (Dorland, 28th ed) EC 6.

The cellular signaling system that halts the progression of cells through MITOSIS or MEIOSIS if a defect that will affect CHROMOSOME SEGREGATION is detected.

A widely-expressed cyclin A subtype that functions during the G1/S and G2/M transitions of the CELL CYCLE.

A subunit of the anaphase-promoting complex whose primary function is to provide structural support for the catalytic and substrate-recognition modules of the complex. Apc5, along with Apc4, tethers the tetratricopeptide-coactivator binding subcomplex to the main structural subunit, Apc1.

Mad2 is a component of the spindle-assembly checkpoint apparatus. It binds to and inhibits the Cdc20 activator subunit of the anaphase-promoting complex, preventing the onset of anaphase until all chromosomes are properly aligned at the metaphase plate. Mad2 is required for proper microtubule capture at KINETOCHORES.

A cyclin B subtype that colocalizes with MICROTUBULES during INTERPHASE and is transported into the CELL NUCLEUS at the end of the G2 PHASE.

The orderly segregation of CHROMOSOMES during MEIOSIS or MITOSIS.

A diverse class of enzymes that interact with UBIQUITIN-CONJUGATING ENZYMES and ubiquitination-specific protein substrates. Each member of this enzyme group has its own distinct specificity for a substrate and ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme. Ubiquitin-protein ligases exist as both monomeric proteins multiprotein complexes.

The complex series of phenomena, occurring between the end of one CELL DIVISION and the end of the next, by which cellular material is duplicated and then divided between two daughter cells. The cell cycle includes INTERPHASE, which includes G0 PHASE; G1 PHASE; S PHASE; and G2 PHASE, and CELL DIVISION PHASE.

The phase of cell nucleus division following PROPHASE, when the breakdown of the NUCLEAR ENVELOPE occurs and the MITOTIC SPINDLE APPARATUS enters the nuclear region and attaches to the KINETOCHORES.

Phosphoprotein with protein kinase activity that functions in the G2/M phase transition of the CELL CYCLE. It is the catalytic subunit of the MATURATION-PROMOTING FACTOR and complexes with both CYCLIN A and CYCLIN B in mammalian cells. The maximal activity of cyclin-dependent kinase 1 is achieved when it is fully dephosphorylated.

The first continuously cultured human malignant CELL LINE, derived from the cervical carcinoma of Henrietta Lacks. These cells are used for VIRUS CULTIVATION and antitumor drug screening assays.

A type of CELL NUCLEUS division, occurring during maturation of the GERM CELLS. Two successive cell nucleus divisions following a single chromosome duplication (S PHASE) result in daughter cells with half the number of CHROMOSOMES as the parent cells.

The act of ligating UBIQUITINS to PROTEINS to form ubiquitin-protein ligase complexes to label proteins for transport to the PROTEASOME ENDOPEPTIDASE COMPLEX where proteolysis occurs.

Geminin inhibits DNA replication by preventing the incorporation of MCM complex into pre-replication complex. It is absent during G1 phase of the CELL CYCLE and accumulates through S, G2,and M phases. It is degraded at the metaphase-anaphase transition by the ANAPHASE-PROMOTING COMPLEX-CYCLOSOME.

Proteins obtained from the species Schizosaccharomyces pombe. The function of specific proteins from this organism are the subject of intense scientific interest and have been used to derive basic understanding of the functioning similar proteins in higher eukaryotes.

Together with the Apc11 subunit, forms the catalytic core of the E3 ubiquitin ligase anaphase-promoting complex (APC-C). Its N-terminus has cullin domains which associate with the RING FINGER DOMAINS of Apc11. Apc2 also interacts with the E2 ubiquitin ligases involved in APC-C ubiquitination reactions.

A cyclin subtype that has specificity for CDC2 PROTEIN KINASE and CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE 2. It plays a role in progression of the CELL CYCLE through G1/S and G2/M phase transitions.

Proteins obtained from the species SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE. The function of specific proteins from this organism are the subject of intense scientific interest and have been used to derive basic understanding of the functioning similar proteins in higher eukaryotes.

A group of enzymes that catalyzes the phosphorylation of serine or threonine residues in proteins, with ATP or other nucleotides as phosphate donors.

Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.

A genus of ascomycetous fungi of the family Schizosaccharomycetaceae, order Schizosaccharomycetales.

A highly conserved subunit of the anaphase-promoting complex (APC-C) containing multiple 34-amino-acid tetratricopeptide repeats. These domains, also found in Apc3, Apc6, and Apc7, have been shown to mediate protein-protein interactions, suggesting that Apc8 may assist in coordinating the juxtaposition of the catalytic and substrate recognition module subunits relative to coactivators and APC-C inhibitors.

Separase is a caspase-like cysteine protease, which plays a central role in triggering ANAPHASE by cleaving the SCC1/RAD21 subunit of the cohesin complex. Cohesin holds the sister CHROMATIDS together during METAPHASE and its cleavage results in chromosome segregation.

The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.

Proteins found in any species of fungus.

Nocodazole is an antineoplastic agent which exerts its effect by depolymerizing microtubules.

Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.

Proteins found in the nucleus of a cell. Do not confuse with NUCLEOPROTEINS which are proteins conjugated with nucleic acids, that are not necessarily present in the nucleus.

The final phase of cell nucleus division following ANAPHASE, in which two daughter nuclei are formed, the CYTOPLASM completes division, and the CHROMOSOMES lose their distinctness and are transformed into CHROMATIN threads.

A family of highly conserved serine-threonine kinases that are involved in the regulation of MITOSIS. They are involved in many aspects of cell division, including centrosome duplication, SPINDLE APPARATUS formation, chromosome alignment, attachment to the spindle, checkpoint activation, and CYTOKINESIS.

Either of the two longitudinally adjacent threads formed when a eukaryotic chromosome replicates prior to mitosis. The chromatids are held together at the centromere. Sister chromatids are derived from the same chromosome. (Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)

Cellular proteins encoded by the c-mos genes (GENES, MOS). They function in the cell cycle to maintain MATURATION PROMOTING FACTOR in the active state and have protein-serine/threonine kinase activity. Oncogenic transformation can take place when c-mos proteins are expressed at the wrong time.

Proteins obtained from various species of Xenopus. Included here are proteins from the African clawed frog (XENOPUS LAEVIS). Many of these proteins have been the subject of scientific investigations in the area of MORPHOGENESIS and development.

The period of the CELL CYCLE preceding DNA REPLICATION in S PHASE. Subphases of G1 include "competence" (to respond to growth factors), G1a (entry into G1), G1b (progression), and G1c (assembly). Progression through the G1 subphases is effected by limiting growth factors, nutrients, or inhibitors.

Genes that code for proteins that regulate the CELL DIVISION CYCLE. These genes form a regulatory network that culminates in the onset of MITOSIS by activating the p34cdc2 protein (PROTEIN P34CDC2).

The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.

Female germ cells derived from OOGONIA and termed OOCYTES when they enter MEIOSIS. The primary oocytes begin meiosis but are arrested at the diplotene state until OVULATION at PUBERTY to give rise to haploid secondary oocytes or ova (OVUM).

Single chains of amino acids that are the units of multimeric PROTEINS. Multimeric proteins can be composed of identical or non-identical subunits. One or more monomeric subunits may compose a protomer which itself is a subunit structure of a larger assembly.

Slender, cylindrical filaments found in the cytoskeleton of plant and animal cells. They are composed of the protein TUBULIN and are influenced by TUBULIN MODULATORS.

A highly conserved 76-amino acid peptide universally found in eukaryotic cells that functions as a marker for intracellular PROTEIN TRANSPORT and degradation. Ubiquitin becomes activated through a series of complicated steps and forms an isopeptide bond to lysine residues of specific proteins within the cell. These "ubiquitinated" proteins can be recognized and degraded by proteosomes or be transported to specific compartments within the cell.

A class of enzymes that form a thioester bond to UBIQUITIN with the assistance of UBIQUITIN-ACTIVATING ENZYMES. They transfer ubiquitin to the LYSINE of a substrate protein with the assistance of UBIQUITIN-PROTEIN LIGASES.

An aquatic genus of the family, Pipidae, occurring in Africa and distinguished by having black horny claws on three inner hind toes.

A highly conserved subunit of the anaphase-promoting complex (APC-C) containing multiple 34 amino acid tetratricopeptide repeats. These domains, also found in Apc3, Apc7, and Apc8, have been shown to mediate protein-protein interactions, suggesting that Apc6 may assist in coordinating the juxtaposition of the catalytic and substrate recognition module subunits relative to coactivators and APC-C inhibitors.

A subset of ubiquitin protein ligases that are formed by the association of a SKP DOMAIN PROTEIN, a CULLIN DOMAIN PROTEIN and a F-BOX DOMAIN PROTEIN.

A species of the genus SACCHAROMYCES, family Saccharomycetaceae, order Saccharomycetales, known as "baker's" or "brewer's" yeast. The dried form is used as a dietary supplement.

A family of proteins that are structurally-related to Ubiquitin. Ubiquitins and ubiquitin-like proteins participate in diverse cellular functions, such as protein degradation and HEAT-SHOCK RESPONSE, by conjugation to other proteins.

Large multiprotein complexes that bind the centromeres of the chromosomes to the microtubules of the mitotic spindle during metaphase in the cell cycle.

A large multisubunit complex that plays an important role in the degradation of most of the cytosolic and nuclear proteins in eukaryotic cells. It contains a 700-kDa catalytic sub-complex and two 700-kDa regulatory sub-complexes. The complex digests ubiquitinated proteins and protein activated via ornithine decarboxylase antizyme.

The introduction of a phosphoryl group into a compound through the formation of an ester bond between the compound and a phosphorus moiety.

A gene silencing phenomenon whereby specific dsRNAs (RNA, DOUBLE-STRANDED) trigger the degradation of homologous mRNA (RNA, MESSENGER). The specific dsRNAs are processed into SMALL INTERFERING RNA (siRNA) which serves as a guide for cleavage of the homologous mRNA in the RNA-INDUCED SILENCING COMPLEX. DNA METHYLATION may also be triggered during this process.

In a prokaryotic cell or in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell, a structure consisting of or containing DNA which carries the genetic information essential to the cell. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)

Recombinant proteins produced by the GENETIC TRANSLATION of fused genes formed by the combination of NUCLEIC ACID REGULATORY SEQUENCES of one or more genes with the protein coding sequences of one or more genes.

Phase of the CELL CYCLE following G1 and preceding G2 when the entire DNA content of the nucleus is replicated. It is achieved by bidirectional replication at multiple sites along each chromosome.

Commonly observed structural components of proteins formed by simple combinations of adjacent secondary structures. A commonly observed structure may be composed of a CONSERVED SEQUENCE which can be represented by a CONSENSUS SEQUENCE.

The process by which the CYTOPLASM of a cell is divided.

Proteins to which calcium ions are bound. They can act as transport proteins, regulator proteins, or activator proteins. They typically contain EF HAND MOTIFS.

Proteins that originate from insect species belonging to the genus DROSOPHILA. The proteins from the most intensely studied species of Drosophila, DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER, are the subject of much interest in the area of MORPHOGENESIS and development.

Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.

The period of the CELL CYCLE following DNA synthesis (S PHASE) and preceding M PHASE (cell division phase). The CHROMOSOMES are tetraploid in this point.

A family of enzymes that catalyze the conversion of ATP and a protein to ADP and a phosphoprotein.

A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts.

The clear constricted portion of the chromosome at which the chromatids are joined and by which the chromosome is attached to the spindle during cell division.

Together with the Apc2 subunit, forms the catalytic core of the E3 ubiquitin ligase, anaphase-promoting complex-cyclosome. It has a RING H2 domain which interacts with the cullin domain of Apc2. Apc11 also interacts with the E2 ubiquitin ligases involved in APC-C ubiquitination reactions.

Transport proteins that carry specific substances in the blood or across cell membranes.

Proteins which maintain the transcriptional quiescence of specific GENES or OPERONS. Classical repressor proteins are DNA-binding proteins that are normally bound to the OPERATOR REGION of an operon, or the ENHANCER SEQUENCES of a gene until a signal occurs that causes their release.

A negative regulator of beta-catenin signaling which is mutant in ADENOMATOUS POLYPOSIS COLI and GARDNER SYNDROME.

Calcium-dependent cell adhesion proteins. They are important in the formation of ADHERENS JUNCTIONS between cells. Cadherins are classified by their distinct immunological and tissue specificities, either by letters (E- for epithelial, N- for neural, and P- for placental cadherins) or by numbers (cadherin-12 or N-cadherin 2 for brain-cadherin). Cadherins promote cell adhesion via a homophilic mechanism as in the construction of tissues and of the whole animal body.

Any of various enzymatically catalyzed post-translational modifications of PEPTIDES or PROTEINS in the cell of origin. These modifications include carboxylation; HYDROXYLATION; ACETYLATION; PHOSPHORYLATION; METHYLATION; GLYCOSYLATION; ubiquitination; oxidation; proteolysis; and crosslinking and result in changes in molecular weight and electrophoretic motility.

A large family of regulatory proteins that function as accessory subunits to a variety of CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES. They generally function as ENZYME ACTIVATORS that drive the CELL CYCLE through transitions between phases. A subset of cyclins may also function as transcriptional regulators.

A genus of small, two-winged flies containing approximately 900 described species. These organisms are the most extensively studied of all genera from the standpoint of genetics and cytology.

Small double-stranded, non-protein coding RNAs (21-31 nucleotides) involved in GENE SILENCING functions, especially RNA INTERFERENCE (RNAi). Endogenously, siRNAs are generated from dsRNAs (RNA, DOUBLE-STRANDED) by the same ribonuclease, Dicer, that generates miRNAs (MICRORNAS). The perfect match of the siRNAs' antisense strand to their target RNAs mediates RNAi by siRNA-guided RNA cleavage. siRNAs fall into different classes including trans-acting siRNA (tasiRNA), repeat-associated RNA (rasiRNA), small-scan RNA (scnRNA), and Piwi protein-interacting RNA (piRNA) and have different specific gene silencing functions.

The ability of a protein to retain its structural conformation or its activity when subjected to physical or chemical manipulations.

Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.

Nucleoproteins, which in contrast to HISTONES, are acid insoluble. They are involved in chromosomal functions; e.g. they bind selectively to DNA, stimulate transcription resulting in tissue-specific RNA synthesis and undergo specific changes in response to various hormones or phytomitogens.

Compounds and molecular complexes that consist of very large numbers of atoms and are generally over 500 kDa in size. In biological systems macromolecular substances usually can be visualized using ELECTRON MICROSCOPY and are distinguished from ORGANELLES by the lack of a membrane structure.

A highly conserved subunit of the anaphase-promoting complex (APC-C) containing multiple 34 amino acid tetratricopeptide repeats. These domains, also found in Apc3, Apc6, and Apc8, have been shown to mediate protein-protein interactions, suggesting that Apc7 may assist in coordinating the juxtaposition of the catalytic and substrate recognition module subunits relative to coactivators and APC-C inhibitors.

Protein kinases that control cell cycle progression in all eukaryotes and require physical association with CYCLINS to achieve full enzymatic activity. Cyclin-dependent kinases are regulated by phosphorylation and dephosphorylation events.

The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.

High molecular weight proteins found in the MICROTUBULES of the cytoskeletal system. Under certain conditions they are required for TUBULIN assembly into the microtubules and stabilize the assembled microtubules.

The degree of similarity between sequences of amino acids. This information is useful for the analyzing genetic relatedness of proteins and species.

A microtubule-associated mechanical adenosine triphosphatase, that uses the energy of ATP hydrolysis to move organelles along microtubules toward the plus end of the microtubule. The protein is found in squid axoplasm, optic lobes, and in bovine brain. Bovine kinesin is a heterotetramer composed of two heavy (120 kDa) and two light (62 kDa) chains. EC 3.6.1.-.

The first phase of cell nucleus division, in which the CHROMOSOMES become visible, the CELL NUCLEUS starts to lose its identity, the SPINDLE APPARATUS appears, and the CENTRIOLES migrate toward opposite poles.

A class in the phylum MOLLUSCA comprised of mussels; clams; OYSTERS; COCKLES; and SCALLOPS. They are characterized by a bilaterally symmetrical hinged shell and a muscular foot used for burrowing and anchoring.

A type of nuclear polyploidization in which multiple cycles of DNA REPLICATION occur in the absence of CELL DIVISION and result in a POLYPLOID CELL.

A subclass of PEPTIDE HYDROLASES that catalyze the internal cleavage of PEPTIDES or PROTEINS.

A microtubule subunit protein found in large quantities in mammalian brain. It has also been isolated from SPERM FLAGELLUM; CILIA; and other sources. Structurally, the protein is a dimer with a molecular weight of approximately 120,000 and a sedimentation coefficient of 5.8S. It binds to COLCHICINE; VINCRISTINE; and VINBLASTINE.

The interval between two successive CELL DIVISIONS during which the CHROMOSOMES are not individually distinguishable. It is composed of the G phases (G1 PHASE; G0 PHASE; G2 PHASE) and S PHASE (when DNA replication occurs).

An aurora kinase that is a component of the chromosomal passenger protein complex and is involved in the regulation of MITOSIS. It mediates proper CHROMOSOME SEGREGATION and contractile ring function during CYTOKINESIS.

The level of protein structure in which combinations of secondary protein structures (alpha helices, beta sheets, loop regions, and motifs) pack together to form folded shapes called domains. Disulfide bridges between cysteines in two different parts of the polypeptide chain along with other interactions between the chains play a role in the formation and stabilization of tertiary structure. Small proteins usually consist of only one domain but larger proteins may contain a number of domains connected by segments of polypeptide chain which lack regular secondary structure.

Male germ cells derived from SPERMATOGONIA. The euploid primary spermatocytes undergo MEIOSIS and give rise to the haploid secondary spermatocytes which in turn give rise to SPERMATIDS.

Within a eukaryotic cell, a membrane-limited body which contains chromosomes and one or more nucleoli (CELL NUCLEOLUS). The nuclear membrane consists of a double unit-type membrane which is perforated by a number of pores; the outermost membrane is continuous with the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM. A cell may contain more than one nucleus. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)

The fission of a CELL. It includes CYTOKINESIS, when the CYTOPLASM of a cell is divided, and CELL NUCLEUS DIVISION.

Apc10 is necessary for coactivator-dependent substrate recognition by the anaphase-promoting complex-cyclosome. It binds the Apc2 subunit, which is a part of the catalytic core, and interacts with coactivators Cdh1 or Cdc20 to recruit substrates to the complex.

The cell center, consisting of a pair of CENTRIOLES surrounded by a cloud of amorphous material called the pericentriolar region. During interphase, the centrosome nucleates microtubule outgrowth. The centrosome duplicates and, during mitosis, separates to form the two poles of the mitotic spindle (MITOTIC SPINDLE APPARATUS).

The arrangement of two or more amino acid or base sequences from an organism or organisms in such a way as to align areas of the sequences sharing common properties. The degree of relatedness or homology between the sequences is predicted computationally or statistically based on weights assigned to the elements aligned between the sequences. This in turn can serve as a potential indicator of the genetic relatedness between the organisms.

A cell line derived from cultured tumor cells.

Microscopy of specimens stained with fluorescent dye (usually fluorescein isothiocyanate) or of naturally fluorescent materials, which emit light when exposed to ultraviolet or blue light. Immunofluorescence microscopy utilizes antibodies that are labeled with fluorescent dye.

A polyposis syndrome due to an autosomal dominant mutation of the APC genes (GENES, APC) on CHROMOSOME 5. The syndrome is characterized by the development of hundreds of ADENOMATOUS POLYPS in the COLON and RECTUM of affected individuals by early adulthood.

The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.

The developmental entity of a fertilized egg (ZYGOTE) in animal species other than MAMMALS. For chickens, use CHICK EMBRYO.

An order of fungi in the phylum Ascomycota that multiply by budding. They include the telomorphic ascomycetous yeasts which are found in a very wide range of habitats.

The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.

A family of herbivorous leaping MAMMALS of Australia, New Guinea, and adjacent islands. Members include kangaroos, wallabies, quokkas, and wallaroos.

Screening techniques first developed in yeast to identify genes encoding interacting proteins. Variations are used to evaluate interplay between proteins and other molecules. Two-hybrid techniques refer to analysis for protein-protein interactions, one-hybrid for DNA-protein interactions, three-hybrid interactions for RNA-protein interactions or ligand-based interactions. Reverse n-hybrid techniques refer to analysis for mutations or other small molecules that dissociate known interactions.

Structures within the nucleus of fungal cells consisting of or containing DNA, which carry genetic information essential to the cell.

A species of nematode that is widely used in biological, biochemical, and genetic studies.

The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.

The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.

Conversion of an inactive form of an enzyme to one possessing metabolic activity. It includes 1, activation by ions (activators); 2, activation by cofactors (coenzymes); and 3, conversion of an enzyme precursor (proenzyme or zymogen) to an active enzyme.

Regulatory signaling systems that control the progression through the CELL CYCLE. They ensure that the cell has completed, in the correct order and without mistakes, all the processes required to replicate the GENOME and CYTOPLASM, and divide them equally between two daughter cells. If cells sense they have not completed these processes or that the environment does not have the nutrients and growth hormones in place to proceed, then the cells are restrained (or "arrested") until the processes are completed and growth conditions are suitable.

A family of multisubunit cytoskeletal motor proteins that use the energy of ATP hydrolysis to power a variety of cellular functions. Dyneins fall into two major classes based upon structural and functional criteria.

Very long DNA molecules and associated proteins, HISTONES, and non-histone chromosomal proteins (CHROMOSOMAL PROTEINS, NON-HISTONE). Normally 46 chromosomes, including two sex chromosomes are found in the nucleus of human cells. They carry the hereditary information of the individual.

The failure of homologous CHROMOSOMES or CHROMATIDS to segregate during MITOSIS or MEIOSIS with the result that one daughter cell has both of a pair of parental chromosomes or chromatids and the other has none.

Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.

A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.

Cleavage of proteins into smaller peptides or amino acids either by PROTEASES or non-enzymatically (e.g., Hydrolysis). It does not include Protein Processing, Post-Translational.

Macromolecular complexes formed from the association of defined protein subunits.

The characteristic 3-dimensional shape of a protein, including the secondary, supersecondary (motifs), tertiary (domains) and quaternary structure of the peptide chain. PROTEIN STRUCTURE, QUATERNARY describes the conformation assumed by multimeric proteins (aggregates of more than one polypeptide chain).

Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in fungi.

Test for tissue antigen using either a direct method, by conjugation of antibody with fluorescent dye (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, DIRECT) or an indirect method, by formation of antigen-antibody complex which is then labeled with fluorescein-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin antibody (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, INDIRECT). The tissue is then examined by fluorescence microscopy.

The sum of the weight of all the atoms in a molecule.

A group of enzymes removing the SERINE- or THREONINE-bound phosphate groups from a wide range of phosphoproteins, including a number of enzymes which have been phosphorylated under the action of a kinase. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992)

Proteins which bind to DNA. The family includes proteins which bind to both double- and single-stranded DNA and also includes specific DNA binding proteins in serum which can be used as markers for malignant diseases.

Protein analogs and derivatives of the Aequorea victoria green fluorescent protein that emit light (FLUORESCENCE) when excited with ULTRAVIOLET RAYS. They are used in REPORTER GENES in doing GENETIC TECHNIQUES. Numerous mutants have been made to emit other colors or be sensitive to pH.

Within most types of eukaryotic CELL NUCLEUS, a distinct region, not delimited by a membrane, in which some species of rRNA (RNA, RIBOSOMAL) are synthesized and assembled into ribonucleoprotein subunits of ribosomes. In the nucleolus rRNA is transcribed from a nucleolar organizer, i.e., a group of tandemly repeated chromosomal genes which encode rRNA and which are transcribed by RNA polymerase I. (Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology & Molecular Biology, 2d ed)

Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.

Electrophoresis in which a polyacrylamide gel is used as the diffusion medium.

Multisubunit enzymes that reversibly synthesize ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE. They are coupled to the transport of protons across a membrane.

A phosphoprotein phosphatase subtype that is comprised of a catalytic subunit and two different regulatory subunits. At least two genes encode isoforms of the protein phosphatase catalytic subunit, while several isoforms of regulatory subunits exist due to the presence of multiple genes and the alternative splicing of their mRNAs. Protein phosphatase 2 acts on a broad variety of cellular proteins and may play a role as a regulator of intracellular signaling processes.

Models used experimentally or theoretically to study molecular shape, electronic properties, or interactions; includes analogous molecules, computer-generated graphics, and mechanical structures.

CIRCULAR DNA that is interlaced together as links in a chain. It is used as an assay for the activity of DNA TOPOISOMERASES. Catenated DNA is attached loop to loop in contrast to CONCATENATED DNA which is attached end to end.

The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.

A family of rat kangaroos found in and around Australia. Genera include Potorous and Bettongia.

RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.

An enzyme group that specifically dephosphorylates phosphotyrosyl residues in selected proteins. Together with PROTEIN-TYROSINE KINASE, it regulates tyrosine phosphorylation and dephosphorylation in cellular signal transduction and may play a role in cell growth control and carcinogenesis.

An increased tendency to acquire CHROMOSOME ABERRATIONS when various processes involved in chromosome replication, repair, or segregation are dysfunctional.

A vitamin-K dependent zymogen present in the blood, which, upon activation by thrombin and thrombomodulin exerts anticoagulant properties by inactivating factors Va and VIIIa at the rate-limiting steps of thrombin formation.

Major constituent of the cytoskeleton found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. They form a flexible framework for the cell, provide attachment points for organelles and formed bodies, and make communication between parts of the cell possible.

A genus of the family Heteromyidae which contains 22 species. Their physiology is adapted for the conservation of water, and they seldom drink water. They are found in arid or desert habitats and travel by hopping on their hind limbs.

Genetically engineered MUTAGENESIS at a specific site in the DNA molecule that introduces a base substitution, or an insertion or deletion.

The chromosomal constitution of cells which deviate from the normal by the addition or subtraction of CHROMOSOMES, chromosome pairs, or chromosome fragments. In a normally diploid cell (DIPLOIDY) the loss of a chromosome pair is termed nullisomy (symbol: 2N-2), the loss of a single chromosome is MONOSOMY (symbol: 2N-1), the addition of a chromosome pair is tetrasomy (symbol: 2N+2), the addition of a single chromosome is TRISOMY (symbol: 2N+1).

A medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the internal organ systems of adults.

The functional hereditary units of FUNGI.

The process of moving proteins from one cellular compartment (including extracellular) to another by various sorting and transport mechanisms such as gated transport, protein translocation, and vesicular transport.

An exchange of segments between the sister chromatids of a chromosome, either between the sister chromatids of a meiotic tetrad or between the sister chromatids of a duplicated somatic chromosome. Its frequency is increased by ultraviolet and ionizing radiation and other mutagenic agents and is particularly high in BLOOM SYNDROME.

Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blot transferring from the electrophoresis gel to strips of nitrocellulose paper, followed by labeling with antibody probes.

Microscopy in which television cameras are used to brighten magnified images that are otherwise too dark to be seen with the naked eye. It is used frequently in TELEPATHOLOGY.

An order of the class Insecta. Wings, when present, number two and distinguish Diptera from other so-called flies, while the halteres, or reduced hindwings, separate Diptera from other insects with one pair of wings. The order includes the families Calliphoridae, Oestridae, Phoridae, SARCOPHAGIDAE, Scatophagidae, Sciaridae, SIMULIIDAE, Tabanidae, Therevidae, Trypetidae, CERATOPOGONIDAE; CHIRONOMIDAE; CULICIDAE; DROSOPHILIDAE; GLOSSINIDAE; MUSCIDAE; TEPHRITIDAE; and PSYCHODIDAE. The larval form of Diptera species are called maggots (see LARVA).

A group of enzymes which catalyze the hydrolysis of ATP. The hydrolysis reaction is usually coupled with another function such as transporting Ca(2+) across a membrane. These enzymes may be dependent on Ca(2+), Mg(2+), anions, H+, or DNA.

Process of generating a genetic MUTATION. It may occur spontaneously or be induced by MUTAGENS.

Proteins which are involved in the phenomenon of light emission in living systems. Included are the "enzymatic" and "non-enzymatic" types of system with or without the presence of oxygen or co-factors.

Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.

Short sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) of DNA that are complementary to sequences of messenger RNA and allow reverse transcriptases to start copying the adjacent sequences of mRNA. Primers are used extensively in genetic and molecular biology techniques.

A species of fruit fly much used in genetics because of the large size of its chromosomes.

A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).

The injection of very small amounts of fluid, often with the aid of a microscope and microsyringes.

The part of a cell that contains the CYTOSOL and small structures excluding the CELL NUCLEUS; MITOCHONDRIA; and large VACUOLES. (Glick, Glossary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 1990)

A genetic rearrangement through loss of segments of DNA or RNA, bringing sequences which are normally separated into close proximity. This deletion may be detected using cytogenetic techniques and can also be inferred from the phenotype, indicating a deletion at one specific locus.

The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.

Partial proteins formed by partial hydrolysis of complete proteins or generated through PROTEIN ENGINEERING techniques.

Products of proto-oncogenes. Normally they do not have oncogenic or transforming properties, but are involved in the regulation or differentiation of cell growth. They often have protein kinase activity.

Vaccines consisting of one or more antigens that stimulate a strong immune response. They are purified from microorganisms or produced by recombinant DNA techniques, or they can be chemically synthesized peptides.

A broad category of nuclear proteins that are components of or participate in the formation of the NUCLEAR MATRIX.

A multi-functional catenin that participates in CELL ADHESION and nuclear signaling. Beta catenin binds CADHERINS and helps link their cytoplasmic tails to the ACTIN in the CYTOSKELETON via ALPHA CATENIN. It also serves as a transcriptional co-activator and downstream component of WNT PROTEIN-mediated SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAYS.

Single-stranded complementary DNA synthesized from an RNA template by the action of RNA-dependent DNA polymerase. cDNA (i.e., complementary DNA, not circular DNA, not C-DNA) is used in a variety of molecular cloning experiments as well as serving as a specific hybridization probe.

The material of CHROMOSOMES. It is a complex of DNA; HISTONES; and nonhistone proteins (CHROMOSOMAL PROTEINS, NON-HISTONE) found within the nucleus of a cell.

Proton-translocating ATPases that are involved in acidification of a variety of intracellular compartments.

A family of Urodela consisting of 15 living genera and about 42 species and occurring in North America, Europe, Asia, and North Africa.

The commonest and widest ranging species of the clawed "frog" (Xenopus) in Africa. This species is used extensively in research. There is now a significant population in California derived from escaped laboratory animals.

Tumors or cancer of the INTESTINES.

A heterogeneous group of immunocompetent cells that mediate the cellular immune response by processing and presenting antigens to the T-cells. Traditional antigen-presenting cells include MACROPHAGES; DENDRITIC CELLS; LANGERHANS CELLS; and B-LYMPHOCYTES. FOLLICULAR DENDRITIC CELLS are not traditional antigen-presenting cells, but because they hold antigen on their cell surface in the form of IMMUNE COMPLEXES for B-cell recognition they are considered so by some authors.

The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.

Serologic tests in which a positive reaction manifested by visible CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION occurs when a soluble ANTIGEN reacts with its precipitins, i.e., ANTIBODIES that can form a precipitate.

Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of fungi.

A mature haploid female germ cell extruded from the OVARY at OVULATION.

Immunologic method used for detecting or quantifying immunoreactive substances. The substance is identified by first immobilizing it by blotting onto a membrane and then tagging it with labeled antibodies.

Characterization of the DOC1/APC10 subunit of the yeast and the human anaphase-promoting complex. (1/7)

The anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC) is a ubiquitin-protein ligase whose activity is essential for progression through mitosis. The vertebrate APC is thought to be composed of 8 subunits, whereas in budding yeast several additional APC-associated proteins have been identified, including a 33-kDa protein called Doc1 or Apc10. Here, we show that Doc1/Apc10 is a subunit of the yeast APC throughout the cell cycle. Mutation of Doc1/Apc10 inactivates the APC without destabilizing the complex. An ortholog of Doc1/Apc10, which we call APC10, is associated with the APC in different vertebrates, including humans and frogs. Biochemical fractionation experiments and mass spectrometric analysis of a component of the purified human APC show that APC10 is a genuine APC subunit whose cellular levels or association with the APC are not cell cycle-regulated. We have further identified an APC10 homology region, which we propose to call the DOC domain, in several protein sequences that also contain either cullin or HECT domains. Cullins are present in several ubiquitination complexes including the APC, whereas HECT domains represent the catalytic core of a different type of ubiquitin-protein ligase. DOC domains may therefore be important for reactions catalyzed by several types of ubiquitin-protein ligases. (+info)

Identification of human APC10/Doc1 as a subunit of anaphase promoting complex. (2/7)

Anaphase-promoting complex or cyclosome (APC) is a ubiquitin ligase which specifically targets mitotic regulatory factors such as Pds1/Cut2 and cyclin B. Identification of the subunits of multiprotein complex APC in several species revealed the highly conserved composition of APC from yeast to human. It has been reported, however, that vertebrate APC is composed of at least eight subunits, APC1 to APC8, while budding yeast APC is constituted of at least 12 components, Apc1 to Apc13. It has not yet been clearly understood whether additional components found in budding yeast, Apc9 to Apc13, are actually composed of mammalian APC. Here we isolated and characterized human APC10/Doc1, and found that APC10/Doc1 binds to APC core subunits throughout the cell cycle. Further, it was found that APC10/Doc1 is localized in centrosomes and mitotic spindles throughout mitosis, while it is also localized in kinetochores from prophase to anaphase and in midbody in telophase and cytokinesis. These results strongly support the notion that human APC10/Doc1 may be one of the APC core subunits rather than the transiently associated regulatory factor. (+info)

Doc1 mediates the activity of the anaphase-promoting complex by contributing to substrate recognition. (3/7)

The anaphase-promoting complex (APC) is a multisubunit E3 ubiquitin ligase that targets specific cell cycle-related proteins for degradation, regulating progression from metaphase to anaphase and exit from mitosis. The APC is regulated by binding of the coactivator proteins Cdc20p and Cdh1p, and by phosphorylation. We have developed a purification strategy that allowed us to purify the budding yeast APC to near homogeneity and identify two novel APC-associated proteins, Swm1p and Mnd2p. Using an in vitro ubiquitylation system and a native gel binding assay, we have characterized the properties of wild-type and mutant APC. We show that both the D and KEN boxes contribute to substrate recognition and that coactivator is required for substrate binding. APC lacking Apc9p or Doc1p/Apc10 have impaired E3 ligase activities. However, whereas Apc9p is required for structural stability and the incorporation of Cdc27p into the APC complex, Doc1p/Apc10 plays a specific role in substrate recognition by APC-coactivator complexes. These results imply that Doc1p/Apc10 may play a role to regulate the binding of specific substrates, similar to that of the coactivators. (+info)

The APC subunit Doc1 promotes recognition of the substrate destruction box. (4/7)

BACKGROUND: Accurate chromosome segregation during mitosis requires the coordinated destruction of the mitotic regulators securin and cyclins. The anaphase-promoting complex (APC) is a multisubunit ubiquitin-protein ligase that catalyzes the polyubiquitination of these and other proteins and thereby promotes their destruction. How the APC recognizes its substrates is not well understood. In mitosis, the APC activator Cdc20 binds to the APC and is thought to recruit substrates by interacting with a conserved target protein motif called the destruction box. A related protein, called Cdh1, performs a similar function during G1. Recent evidence, however, suggests that the core APC subunit Doc1 also contributes to substrate recognition. RESULTS: To better understand the mechanism by which Doc1 promotes substrate binding to the APC, we generated a series of point mutations in Doc1 and analyzed their effects on the processivity of substrate ubiquitination. Mutations that reduce Doc1 function fall into two classes that define spatially and functionally distinct regions of the protein. One region, which includes the carboxy terminus, anchors Doc1 to the APC but does not influence substrate recognition. The other region, located on the opposite face of Doc1, is required for Doc1 to enhance substrate binding to the APC. Importantly, stimulation of binding by Doc1 also requires that the substrate contain an intact destruction box. Cells carrying DOC1 mutations that eliminate substrate recognition delay in mitosis with high levels of APC substrates. CONCLUSIONS: Doc1 contributes to recognition of the substrate destruction box by the APC. This function of Doc1 is necessary for efficient substrate proteolysis in vivo. (+info)

Structures of APC/C(Cdh1) with substrates identify Cdh1 and Apc10 as the D-box co-receptor. (5/7)

(+info)

Spindle assembly requires complete disassembly of spindle remnants from the previous cell cycle. (6/7)

(+info)

A novel yeast screen for mitotic arrest mutants identifies DOC1, a new gene involved in cyclin proteolysis. (7/7)

B-type cyclins are rapidly degraded at the transition between metaphase and anaphase and their ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis is required for cells to exit mitosis. We used a novel enrichment to isolate new budding mutants that arrest the cell cycle in mitosis. Most of these mutants lie in the CDC16, CDC23, and CDC27 genes, which have already been shown to play a role in cyclin proteolysis and encode components of a 20S complex (called the cyclosome or anaphase promoting complex) that ubiquitinates mitotic cyclins. We show that mutations in CDC26 and a novel gene, DOC1, also prevent mitotic cyclin proteolysis. Mutants in either gene arrest as large budded cells with high levels of the major mitotic cyclin (Clb2) protein at 37 degrees C and cannot degrade Clb2 in G1-arrested cells. Cdc26 associates in vivo with Doc1, Cdc16, Cdc23, and Cdc27. In addition, the majority of Doc1 cosediments at 20S with Cdc27 in a sucrose gradient, indicating that Cdc26 and Doc1 are components of the anaphase promoting complex. (+info)

The APC gene is a tumor suppressor gene that helps regulate cell growth and prevent the formation of tumors. Mutations in the APC gene can cause the development of adenomas, which are precancerous growths that can eventually become colon cancer if left untreated.

APC mutations can be inherited from one's parents or can occur spontaneously. The risk of developing colorectal cancer is increased in people with an APC mutation, and regular screening and monitoring is recommended to detect and remove any precancerous growths before they become cancerous.

Symptoms of APC may include abdominal pain, diarrhea, rectal bleeding, and weight loss. Treatment for APC typically involves removal of the affected portion of the colon and rectum, followed by ongoing monitoring and screening to detect any recurrences.

In summary, adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) is a genetic condition that increases the risk of developing colorectal cancer and other cancers. It is caused by mutations in the APC gene and can be inherited or acquired spontaneously. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, diarrhea, rectal bleeding, and weight loss, and treatment typically involves removal of the affected portion of the colon and rectum, followed by ongoing monitoring and screening.

There are several types of genetic nondisjunction, including:

1. Robertsonian translocation: This type of nondisjunction involves the exchange of genetic material between two chromosomes, resulting in a mixture of genetic information that can lead to developmental abnormalities.
2. Turner syndrome: This is a rare condition that occurs when one X chromosome is missing or partially present, leading to physical and developmental abnormalities in females.
3. Klinefelter syndrome: This condition occurs when an extra X chromosome is present, leading to physical and developmental abnormalities in males.
4. Trisomy 13: This condition occurs when there are three copies of chromosome 13, leading to severe developmental and physical abnormalities.
5. Trisomy 18: This condition occurs when there are three copies of chromosome 18, leading to severe developmental and physical abnormalities.

Genetic nondisjunction can be caused by various factors, including genetic mutations, errors during meiosis, or exposure to certain chemicals or radiation. It can be diagnosed through cytogenetic analysis, which involves studying the chromosomes of cells to identify any abnormalities.

Treatment for genetic nondisjunction depends on the specific type and severity of the condition. In some cases, no treatment is necessary, while in others, medication or surgery may be recommended. Prenatal testing can also be done to detect genetic nondisjunction before birth.

In summary, genetic nondisjunction is a chromosomal abnormality that occurs during meiosis and can lead to developmental and physical abnormalities. It can be caused by various factors and diagnosed through cytogenetic analysis. Treatment depends on the specific type and severity of the condition, and prenatal testing is available to detect genetic nondisjunction before birth.

Causes of Chromosomal Instability:

1. Genetic mutations: Mutations in genes that regulate the cell cycle or chromosome segregation can lead to CIN.
2. Environmental factors: Exposure to certain environmental agents such as radiation and certain chemicals can increase the risk of developing CIN.
3. Errors during DNA replication: Mistakes during DNA replication can also lead to CIN.

Types of Chromosomal Instability:

1. Aneuploidy: Cells with an abnormal number of chromosomes, either more or fewer than the normal diploid number (46 in humans).
2. Structural changes: Deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations, and other structural changes can occur in the chromosomes.
3. Unstable chromosome structures: Chromosomes with abnormal shapes or structures, such as telomere shortening, centromere instability, or chromosome breaks, can also lead to CIN.

Effects of Chromosomal Instability:

1. Cancer: CIN can increase the risk of developing cancer by disrupting normal cellular processes and leading to genetic mutations.
2. Aging: CIN can contribute to aging by shortening telomeres, which are the protective caps at the ends of chromosomes that help maintain their stability.
3. Neurodegenerative diseases: CIN has been implicated in the development of certain neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.
4. Infertility: CIN can lead to infertility by disrupting normal meiotic recombination and chromosome segregation during gametogenesis.

Detection and Diagnosis of Chromosomal Instability:

1. Karyotyping: This is a technique used to visualize the entire set of chromosomes in a cell. It can help identify structural abnormalities such as deletions, duplications, or translocations.
2. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH): This technique uses fluorescent probes to detect specific DNA sequences or proteins on chromosomes. It can help identify changes in chromosome structure or number.
3. Array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH): This technique compares the genetic material of a sample to a reference genome to identify copy number changes.
4. Next-generation sequencing (NGS): This technique can identify point mutations and other genetic changes in DNA.

Treatment and Management of Chromosomal Instability:

1. Cancer treatment: Depending on the type and stage of cancer, treatments such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or surgery may be used to eliminate cancer cells with CIN.
2. Prenatal testing: Pregnant women with a family history of CIN can undergo prenatal testing to detect chromosomal abnormalities in their fetuses.
3. Genetic counseling: Individuals with a family history of CIN can consult with a genetic counselor to discuss risk factors and potential testing options.
4. Lifestyle modifications: Making healthy lifestyle choices such as maintaining a balanced diet, exercising regularly, and not smoking can help reduce the risk of developing cancer and other diseases associated with CIN.

In conclusion, chromosomal instability is a common feature of many human diseases, including cancer, and can be caused by a variety of factors. The diagnosis and management of CIN require a multidisciplinary approach that includes cytogenetic analysis, molecular diagnostics, and clinical evaluation. Understanding the causes and consequences of CIN is crucial for developing effective therapies and improving patient outcomes.

There are several types of aneuploidy, including:

1. Trisomy: This is the presence of an extra copy of a chromosome. For example, Down syndrome is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21).
2. Monosomy: This is the absence of a chromosome.
3. Mosaicism: This is the presence of both normal and abnormal cells in the body.
4. Uniparental disomy: This is the presence of two copies of a chromosome from one parent, rather than one copy each from both parents.

Aneuploidy can occur due to various factors such as errors during cell division, exposure to certain chemicals or radiation, or inheritance of an abnormal number of chromosomes from one's parents. The risk of aneuploidy increases with age, especially for women over the age of 35, as their eggs are more prone to errors during meiosis (the process by which egg cells are produced).

Aneuploidy can be diagnosed through various methods such as karyotyping (examining chromosomes under a microscope), fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) or quantitative PCR. Treatment for aneuploidy depends on the underlying cause and the specific health problems it has caused. In some cases, treatment may involve managing symptoms, while in others, it may involve correcting the genetic abnormality itself.

In summary, aneuploidy is a condition where there is an abnormal number of chromosomes present in a cell, which can lead to various developmental and health problems. It can occur due to various factors and can be diagnosed through different methods. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and the specific health problems it has caused.

Types of Intestinal Neoplasms:

1. Adenomas: These are benign tumors that grow on the inner lining of the intestine. They can become malignant over time if left untreated.
2. Carcinomas: These are malignant tumors that develop in the inner lining of the intestine. They can be subdivided into several types, including colon cancer and rectal cancer.
3. Lymphoma: This is a type of cancer that affects the immune system and can occur in the intestines.
4. Leiomyosarcomas: These are rare malignant tumors that develop in the smooth muscle layers of the intestine.

Causes and Risk Factors:

The exact cause of intestinal neoplasms is not known, but several factors can increase the risk of developing these growths. These include:

1. Age: The risk of developing intestinal neoplasms increases with age.
2. Family history: Having a family history of colon cancer or other intestinal neoplasms can increase the risk of developing these growths.
3. Inflammatory bowel disease: People with inflammatory bowel diseases, such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, are at higher risk of developing intestinal neoplasms.
4. Genetic mutations: Certain genetic mutations can increase the risk of developing intestinal neoplasms.
5. Diet and lifestyle factors: A diet high in fat and low in fiber, as well as lack of physical activity, may increase the risk of developing intestinal neoplasms.

Symptoms:

Intestinal neoplasms can cause a variety of symptoms, including:

1. Abdominal pain or discomfort
2. Changes in bowel habits, such as diarrhea or constipation
3. Blood in the stool
4. Weight loss
5. Fatigue
6. Loss of appetite

Diagnosis:

To diagnose intestinal neoplasms, a doctor may perform several tests, including:

1. Colonoscopy: A colonoscope is inserted through the rectum and into the colon to visualize the inside of the colon and detect any abnormal growths.
2. Biopsy: A small sample of tissue is removed from the colon and examined under a microscope for cancer cells.
3. Imaging tests: Such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRI scans to look for any abnormalities in the colon.
4. Blood tests: To check for certain substances in the blood that are associated with intestinal neoplasms.

Treatment:

The treatment of intestinal neoplasms depends on the type and location of the growth, as well as the stage of the cancer. Treatment options may include:

1. Surgery: To remove the tumor and any affected tissue.
2. Chemotherapy: To kill any remaining cancer cells with drugs.
3. Radiation therapy: To kill cancer cells with high-energy X-rays or other forms of radiation.
4. Targeted therapy: To use drugs that target specific molecules on cancer cells to kill them.
5. Immunotherapy: To use drugs that stimulate the immune system to fight cancer cells.

Prognosis:

The prognosis for intestinal neoplasms depends on several factors, including the type and stage of the cancer, the location of the growth, and the effectiveness of treatment. In general, early detection and treatment improve the prognosis, while later-stage cancers have a poorer prognosis.

Complications:

Intestinal neoplasms can cause several complications, including:

1. Obstruction: The tumor can block the normal flow of food through the intestine, leading to abdominal pain and other symptoms.
2. Bleeding: The tumor can cause bleeding in the intestine, which can lead to anemia and other complications.
3. Perforation: The tumor can create a hole in the wall of the intestine, leading to peritonitis (inflammation of the lining of the abdomen) and other complications.
4. Metastasis: The cancer cells can spread to other parts of the body, such as the liver or lungs, and cause further complications.
5. Malnutrition: The tumor can make it difficult for the body to absorb nutrients, leading to malnutrition and other health problems.

Prevention:

There is no sure way to prevent intestinal neoplasms, but there are several steps that may help reduce the risk of developing these types of cancer. These include:

1. Avoiding known risk factors: Avoiding known risk factors such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, and a diet high in processed meat can help reduce the risk of developing intestinal neoplasms.
2. Maintaining a healthy diet: Eating a balanced diet that is high in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains can help keep the intestines healthy and may reduce the risk of cancer.
3. Exercise regularly: Regular exercise can help maintain a healthy weight, improve digestion, and may reduce the risk of developing intestinal neoplasms.
4. Managing chronic conditions: Managing chronic conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease, diabetes, and obesity can help reduce the risk of developing intestinal neoplasms.
5. Screening tests: Regular screening tests such as colonoscopy, CT scan, or barium enema can help detect precancerous polyps or early-stage cancer, allowing for early treatment and prevention of advanced disease.

Early detection and diagnosis are crucial for effective treatment and survival rates for intestinal neoplasms. If you have any of the risk factors or symptoms mentioned above, it is essential to consult a doctor as soon as possible. A thorough examination and diagnostic tests can help determine the cause of your symptoms and recommend appropriate treatment.

"Characterization of the DOC1/APC10 subunit of the yeast and the human anaphase-promoting complex". The Journal of Biological ... "The Apc5 subunit of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome interacts with poly(A) binding protein and represses internal ... "Crystal structure of the APC10/DOC1 subunit of the human anaphase-promoting complex". Nature Structural Biology. 8 (9): 784-8. ... "TPR subunits of the anaphase-promoting complex mediate binding to the activator protein CDH1". Current Biology. 13 (17): 1459- ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDC27

"Characterization of the DOC1/APC10 subunit of the yeast and the human anaphase-promoting complex". The Journal of Biological ... "Mammalian p55CDC mediates association of the spindle checkpoint protein Mad2 with the cyclosome/anaphase-promoting complex, and ... Vodermaier HC, Gieffers C, Maurer-Stroh S, Eisenhaber F, Peters JM (Sep 2003). "TPR subunits of the anaphase-promoting complex ... "TPR subunits of the anaphase-promoting complex mediate binding to the activator protein CDH1". Current Biology. 13 (17): 1459- ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDC16

1999). "Characterization of the DOC1/APC10 subunit of the yeast and the human anaphase-promoting complex". J. Biol. Chem. 274 ( ... This gene encodes a tetratricopeptide repeat containing component of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), a large ... Anaphase-promoting complex subunit 7 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ANAPC7 gene. Multiple transcript variants ... "Entrez Gene: ANAPC7 anaphase promoting complex subunit 7". Vodermaier HC, Gieffers C, Maurer-Stroh S, Eisenhaber F, Peters JM ( ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANAPC7

2004). "The Apc5 Subunit of the Anaphase-Promoting Complex/Cyclosome Interacts with Poly(A) Binding Protein and Represses ... 1999). "Characterization of the DOC1/APC10 subunit of the yeast and the human anaphase-promoting complex". J. Biol. Chem. 274 ( ... Anaphase-promoting complex subunit 5 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ANAPC5 gene. The anaphase-promoting complex ... "The Apc5 Subunit of the Anaphase-Promoting Complex/Cyclosome Interacts with Poly(A) Binding Protein and Represses Internal ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANAPC5

2004). "The Arabidopsis anaphase-promoting complex or cyclosome: molecular and genetic characterization of the APC2 subunit". ... 1999). "Characterization of the DOC1/APC10 subunit of the yeast and the human anaphase-promoting complex". J. Biol. Chem. 274 ( ... A large protein complex, termed the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), or the cyclosome, promotes metaphase-anaphase transition ... 2004). "TPR subunits of the anaphase-promoting complex mediate binding to the activator protein CDH1". Curr. Biol. 13 (17): ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANAPC2

... like Apc10, contribute towards substrate association as well. In APC/C constructs lacking the Apc10/Doc1 subunit, substrates ... April 2015). "Structure of an APC3-APC16 complex: insights into assembly of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome". Journal ... Anaphase-promoting complex (also called the cyclosome or APC/C) is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that marks target cell cycle proteins ... a Drosophila gene encoding the Cdc27 subunit of the anaphase promoting complex, enhance centrosomal defects in polo and are ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaphase-promoting_complex

1999). "Characterization of the DOC1/APC10 subunit of the yeast and the human anaphase-promoting complex". J. Biol. Chem. 274 ( ... A large protein complex, termed the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), or the cyclosome, promotes metaphase-anaphase transition ... 2004). "TPR subunits of the anaphase-promoting complex mediate binding to the activator protein CDH1". Curr. Biol. 13 (17): ... Anaphase-promoting complex subunit 4 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ANAPC4 gene. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANAPC4

The APC10 subunit of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome orchestrates NLRP3 inflammasome activation during the cell cycle. ... 1. Theoretical 3D Modeling of NLRP3 Inflammasome Complex.. Bota PM; Oliva B; Fernandez-Fuentes N. Methods Mol Biol; 2023; 2696 ...

https://pubmedhh.nlm.nih.gov/biomarkers/search.php?id=37578729&mod=related&page=1&outid=&proj=

Apc10 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome [D12.776.167.024.625] * Apc11 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome ... Apc10 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome [D08.811.464.938.750.092.625] * Apc11 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex- ... Apc2 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome [D12.776.167.024.750] * Apc3 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome [ ... Apc4 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome [D12.776.167.024.937] * Apc5 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome [ ...

https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D064197

Apc10 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome Entry term(s). Anapc10 Apc10 Subunit, Anaphase Promoting Complex Apc10 ... Apc10 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome [D08.811.464.938.750.092.625] Apc10 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex- ... Apc10 Subunit, Anaphase Promoting Complex. Apc10 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex. Tree number(s):. D08.811.464.938.750.092. ... Apc1 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome [D08.811.464.938.750.092.500] Apc1 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex- ...

https://decs.bvsalud.org/en/ths/resource/?id=55274

https://meshb-prev.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D064197

Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome N0000189463 Apc10 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome N0000189459 Apc11 Subunit ... Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome N0000189465 Apc2 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome N0000189462 Apc3 Subunit, ... Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome N0000189466 Apc4 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome N0000189467 Apc5 Subunit, ... Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome N0000189464 Apc6 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome N0000189457 Apc7 Subunit, ...

https://evs.nci.nih.gov/ftp1/FDA/ndfrt/Archive/StructuralClass%202015-10-05.txt

The anaphase promoting complex subunit 10 (APC10), a subunit of the APC/C, executes a vital function in substrate recognition. ... The anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), a cell cycle-regulated E3 ubiquitin ligase, is responsible for the transition ... A novel function of anaphase promoting complex subunit 10 in tumor progression in non-small cell lung cancer. ... CyclinB1 can be degraded through ubiquitination mediated by the anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C). However, the ...

https://pesquisa.bvsalud.org/controlecancer/?lang=pt&q=au:Gan,+Mingxi

HN - 2014 MH - Apc10 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome UI - D064197 MN - D8.811.464.938.750.92.625 MN - D12.776. ... HN - 2014 MH - Apc11 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome UI - D064198 MN - D8.811.464.938.750.92.687 MN - D12.776. ... HN - 2014 MH - Apc2 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome UI - D064190 MN - D8.811.464.938.750.92.750 MN - D12.776. ... HN - 2014 MH - Apc3 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome UI - D064191 MN - D8.811.464.938.750.92.875 MN - D12.776. ...

https://nlmpubs.nlm.nih.gov/projects/mesh/2014/newterms/mshnew2014.txt

Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome. *Apc1 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome. *Apc10 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting ... "Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome" by people in this website by year, and whether "Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome" was ... Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome. *Apc2 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome. *Apc3 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting ... Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome. *Apc5 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome. *Apc6 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting ...

https://profiles.uchicago.edu/profiles/display/33662072

Subunidade Apc10 do Ciclossomo-Complexo Promotor de Anáfase. Apc10 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome. Subunidad ... Subunidade Apc10 do Ciclossomo-Complexo Promotor de Anáfase. Apc10 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome. Subunidad ... Apc1 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome. Subunidad Apc1 del Ciclosoma-Complejo Promotor de la Anafase. ... Apc11 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome. Subunidad Apc11 del Ciclosoma-Complejo Promotor de la Anafase. ...

https://decs.bvs.br/P/new_2014.htm

https://decs2014.bvsalud.org/P/new_2014.htm

Apc1 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome Apc10 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome Apc11 Subunit, Anaphase- ... Apc2 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome Apc3 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome Apc4 Subunit, Anaphase- ... Apc5 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome Apc6 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome Apc7 Subunit, Anaphase- ... Promoting Complex-Cyclosome Apc8 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome Ape Diseases Apexification Apgar Score Aphakia ...

https://nlmpubs.nlm.nih.gov/projects/mesh/.newterms/mshd2017.txt

https://decs2018.bvsalud.org/P/new_2014.htm

https://decs2016.bvsalud.org/P/new_2014.htm

https://decs2019.bvsalud.org/P/new_2014.htm

https://decs2020.bvsalud.org/P/new_2014.htm

https://decs2015.bvsalud.org/P/new_2014.htm

https://decs2017.bvsalud.org/P/new_2014.htm

... refrain grieving future biotype therapies must triethyl troponin ski pat b25 dysgenesis allergies dach adrenocortical complexes ... wood agency scoliosis staging methacrylate choline how cauterization nor persistent instrument mix neisseria promote bilirubin ... side acetic etoposide film fractures segmental tartrate doppler supply longitudinal channel chloroethyl gluconate subunit ... myocilin terpenyl gogat pneu tetracyanoquinodimethane centrofacial adsorbate climber rasgrp paramunity somato vti1 fec apc10 ...

https://lexsrv3.nlm.nih.gov/LexSysGroup/Projects/tc/2007/docs/data/Jdi/restrictWords.txt

Cell Cycle Pr Cdc20

HN - 2014 FX - Ammonia MH - Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome UI - D064173 MN - D8.811.464.938.750.92 MN - D12.776.167.24 MS - An E3 ubiquitin ligase primarily involved in regulation of the metaphase-to-anaphase transition during MITOSIS through ubiquitination of specific CELL CYCLE PROTEINS. (nih.gov)

It binds the Apc2 subunit, which is a part of the catalytic core, and interacts with coactivators Cdh1 or Cdc20 to recruit substrates to the complex. (nih.gov)

Anatomy22

Organisms17

Diseases5

Chemicals and Drugs85

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment15

Phenomena and Processes60

Disciplines and Occupations1

Technology, Industry, Agriculture1

Information Science4

Characterization of the DOC1/APC10 subunit of the yeast and the human anaphase-promoting complex. (1/7)

Identification of human APC10/Doc1 as a subunit of anaphase promoting complex. (2/7)

Doc1 mediates the activity of the anaphase-promoting complex by contributing to substrate recognition. (3/7)

The APC subunit Doc1 promotes recognition of the substrate destruction box. (4/7)

Structures of APC/C(Cdh1) with substrates identify Cdh1 and Apc10 as the D-box co-receptor. (5/7)

Spindle assembly requires complete disassembly of spindle remnants from the previous cell cycle. (6/7)

A novel yeast screen for mitotic arrest mutants identifies DOC1, a new gene involved in cyclin proteolysis. (7/7)

Anaphase

Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome

Ubiquitin-Protein Ligase Complexes

Cdc20 Proteins

Cdh1 Proteins

Clostridium botulinum type G

Apc3 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome

Cell Cycle Proteins

Apc1 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome

Spindle Apparatus

Neurospora

Cyclin B

F-Box Proteins

Genes, APC

Metaphase

Ligases

M Phase Cell Cycle Checkpoints

Cyclin A2

Apc5 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome

Mad2 Proteins

Cyclin B1

Chromosome Segregation

Ubiquitin-Protein Ligases

Cell Cycle

Prometaphase

CDC2 Protein Kinase

HeLa Cells

Meiosis

Ubiquitination

Geminin

Schizosaccharomyces pombe Proteins

Apc2 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome

Cyclin A

Saccharomyces cerevisiae Proteins

Protein-Serine-Threonine Kinases

Molecular Sequence Data

Schizosaccharomyces

Apc8 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome

Separase

Amino Acid Sequence

Fungal Proteins

Nocodazole

Mutation

Nuclear Proteins

Telophase

Aurora Kinases

Chromatids

Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-mos

Xenopus Proteins

G1 Phase

Genes, cdc

Protein Binding

Oocytes

Protein Subunits

Microtubules

Ubiquitin

Ubiquitin-Conjugating Enzymes

Xenopus

Apc6 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome

SKP Cullin F-Box Protein Ligases

Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Ubiquitins

Kinetochores

Proteasome Endopeptidase Complex

Phosphorylation

RNA Interference

Chromosomes

Recombinant Fusion Proteins

S Phase

Amino Acid Motifs

Cytokinesis

Calcium-Binding Proteins

Drosophila Proteins

Models, Biological

G2 Phase

Protein Kinases

Substrate Specificity

Centromere

Apc11 Subunit, Anaphase-Promoting Complex-Cyclosome

Carrier Proteins