Antiviral agents. Medical search

Agents used in the prophylaxis or therapy of VIRUS DISEASES. Some of the ways they may act include preventing viral replication by inhibiting viral DNA polymerase; binding to specific cell-surface receptors and inhibiting viral penetration or uncoating; inhibiting viral protein synthesis; or blocking late stages of virus assembly.

The process of intracellular viral multiplication, consisting of the synthesis of PROTEINS; NUCLEIC ACIDS; and sometimes LIPIDS, and their assembly into a new infectious particle.

A GUANOSINE analog that acts as an antimetabolite. Viruses are especially susceptible. Used especially against herpes.

Carbon-containing phosphonic acid compounds. Included under this heading are compounds that have carbon bound to either OXYGEN atom or the PHOSPHOROUS atom of the (P=O)O2 structure.

An RNA synthesis inhibitor that is used as an antiviral agent in the prophylaxis and treatment of influenza.

The ability of viruses to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents or antiviral agents. This resistance is acquired through gene mutation.

An antiviral that is used in the prophylactic or symptomatic treatment of influenza A. It is also used as an antiparkinsonian agent, to treat extrapyramidal reactions, and for postherpetic neuralgia. The mechanisms of its effects in movement disorders are not well understood but probably reflect an increase in synthesis and release of dopamine, with perhaps some inhibition of dopamine uptake.

An antiviral derivative of THYMIDINE used mainly in the treatment of primary keratoconjunctivitis and recurrent epithelial keratitis due to HERPES SIMPLEX virus. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p557)

An acetamido cyclohexene that is a structural homolog of SIALIC ACID and inhibits NEURAMINIDASE.

Method for measuring viral infectivity and multiplication in CULTURED CELLS. Clear lysed areas or plaques develop as the VIRAL PARTICLES are released from the infected cells during incubation. With some VIRUSES, the cells are killed by a cytopathic effect; with others, the infected cells are not killed but can be detected by their hemadsorptive ability. Sometimes the plaque cells contain VIRAL ANTIGENS which can be measured by IMMUNOFLUORESCENCE.

A noble gas with the atomic symbol Xe, atomic number 54, and atomic weight 131.30. It is found in the earth's atmosphere and has been used as an anesthetic.

Purine or pyrimidine bases attached to a ribose or deoxyribose. (From King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)

An acute viral infection in humans involving the respiratory tract. It is marked by inflammation of the NASAL MUCOSA; the PHARYNX; and conjunctiva, and by headache and severe, often generalized, myalgia.

A nucleoside antimetabolite antiviral agent that blocks nucleic acid synthesis and is used against both RNA and DNA viruses.

A guanido-neuraminic acid that is used to inhibit NEURAMINIDASE.

An ACYCLOVIR analog that is a potent inhibitor of the Herpesvirus family including cytomegalovirus. Ganciclovir is used to treat complications from AIDS-associated cytomegalovirus infections.

A genus of FLAVIVIRIDAE causing parenterally-transmitted HEPATITIS C which is associated with transfusions and drug abuse. Hepatitis C virus is the type species.

Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.

A pyrimidine base that is a fundamental unit of nucleic acids.

A CELL LINE derived from the kidney of the African green (vervet) monkey, (CERCOPITHECUS AETHIOPS) used primarily in virus replication studies and plaque assays.

A general term for diseases produced by viruses.

An antiviral agent used in the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis. Foscarnet also shows activity against human herpesviruses and HIV.

A compound that, on administration, must undergo chemical conversion by metabolic processes before becoming the pharmacologically active drug for which it is a prodrug.

One of the type I interferons produced by peripheral blood leukocytes or lymphoblastoid cells. In addition to antiviral activity, it activates NATURAL KILLER CELLS and B-LYMPHOCYTES, and down-regulates VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL GROWTH FACTOR expression through PI-3 KINASE and MAPK KINASES signaling pathways.

The type species of LENTIVIRUS and the etiologic agent of AIDS. It is characterized by its cytopathic effect and affinity for the T4-lymphocyte.

A species of CERCOPITHECUS containing three subspecies: C. tantalus, C. pygerythrus, and C. sabeus. They are found in the forests and savannah of Africa. The African green monkey (C. pygerythrus) is the natural host of SIMIAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS and is used in AIDS research.

An analog of DEOXYURIDINE that inhibits viral DNA synthesis. The drug is used as an antiviral agent.

A genus of the family HERPESVIRIDAE, subfamily BETAHERPESVIRINAE, infecting the salivary glands, liver, spleen, lungs, eyes, and other organs, in which they produce characteristically enlarged cells with intranuclear inclusions. Infection with Cytomegalovirus is also seen as an opportunistic infection in AIDS.

A dideoxynucleoside compound in which the 3'-hydroxy group on the sugar moiety has been replaced by a hydrogen. This modification prevents the formation of phosphodiester linkages which are needed for the completion of nucleic acid chains. The compound is a potent inhibitor of HIV replication at low concentrations, acting as a chain-terminator of viral DNA by binding to reverse transcriptase. Its principal toxic side effect is axonal degeneration resulting in peripheral neuropathy.

Organic compounds that contain phosphorus as an integral part of the molecule. Included under this heading is broad array of synthetic compounds that are used as PESTICIDES and DRUGS.

Ribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.

A genus of the family HERPESVIRIDAE, subfamily ALPHAHERPESVIRINAE, consisting of herpes simplex-like viruses. The type species is HERPESVIRUS 1, HUMAN.

Nucleosides in which the purine or pyrimidine base is combined with ribose. (Dorland, 28th ed)

Minute infectious agents whose genomes are composed of DNA or RNA, but not both. They are characterized by a lack of independent metabolism and the inability to replicate outside living host cells.

A purine base and a fundamental unit of ADENINE NUCLEOTIDES.

A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS with the surface proteins hemagglutinin 1 and neuraminidase 1. The H1N1 subtype was responsible for the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918.

A purine that is an isomer of ADENINE (6-aminopurine).

Studies beyond the bachelor's degree at an institution having graduate programs for the purpose of preparing for entrance into a specific field, and obtaining a higher degree.

Species of the genus INFLUENZAVIRUS B that cause HUMAN INFLUENZA and other diseases primarily in humans. Antigenic variation is less extensive than in type A viruses (INFLUENZA A VIRUS) and consequently there is no basis for distinct subtypes or variants. Epidemics are less likely than with INFLUENZA A VIRUS and there have been no pandemics. Previously only found in humans, Influenza B virus has been isolated from seals which may constitute the animal reservoir from which humans are exposed.

The type species of the genus INFLUENZAVIRUS A that causes influenza and other diseases in humans and animals. Antigenic variation occurs frequently between strains, allowing classification into subtypes and variants. Transmission is usually by aerosol (human and most non-aquatic hosts) or waterborne (ducks). Infected birds shed the virus in their saliva, nasal secretions, and feces.

The prevention of infection or disease following exposure to a pathogen.

A family of RNA viruses causing INFLUENZA and other diseases. There are five recognized genera: INFLUENZAVIRUS A; INFLUENZAVIRUS B; INFLUENZAVIRUS C; ISAVIRUS; and THOGOTOVIRUS.

The type species of the genus ORTHOHEPADNAVIRUS which causes human HEPATITIS B and is also apparently a causal agent in human HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA. The Dane particle is an intact hepatitis virion, named after its discoverer. Non-infectious spherical and tubular particles are also seen in the serum.

A group of acute infections caused by herpes simplex virus type 1 or type 2 that is characterized by the development of one or more small fluid-filled vesicles with a raised erythematous base on the skin or mucous membrane. It occurs as a primary infection or recurs due to a reactivation of a latent infection. (Dorland, 27th ed.)

A dideoxynucleoside compound in which the 3'-hydroxy group on the sugar moiety has been replaced by an azido group. This modification prevents the formation of phosphodiester linkages which are needed for the completion of nucleic acid chains. The compound is a potent inhibitor of HIV replication, acting as a chain-terminator of viral DNA during reverse transcription. It improves immunologic function, partially reverses the HIV-induced neurological dysfunction, and improves certain other clinical abnormalities associated with AIDS. Its principal toxic effect is dose-dependent suppression of bone marrow, resulting in anemia and leukopenia.

A reverse transcriptase inhibitor and ZALCITABINE analog in which a sulfur atom replaces the 3' carbon of the pentose ring. It is used to treat HIV disease.

Inhibitors of reverse transcriptase (RNA-DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE), an enzyme that synthesizes DNA on an RNA template.

Proteins found in any species of virus.

The concentration of a compound needed to reduce population growth of organisms, including eukaryotic cells, by 50% in vitro. Though often expressed to denote in vitro antibacterial activity, it is also used as a benchmark for cytotoxicity to eukaryotic cells in culture.

Infection with CYTOMEGALOVIRUS, characterized by enlarged cells bearing intranuclear inclusions. Infection may be in almost any organ, but the salivary glands are the most common site in children, as are the lungs in adults.

INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by HEPATITIS B VIRUS lasting six months or more. It is primarily transmitted by parenteral exposure, such as transfusion of contaminated blood or blood products, but can also be transmitted via sexual or intimate personal contact.

Proteins encoded by a VIRAL GENOME that are produced in the organisms they infect, but not packaged into the VIRUS PARTICLES. Some of these proteins may play roles within the infected cell during VIRUS REPLICATION or act in regulation of virus replication or VIRUS ASSEMBLY.

INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans that is caused by HEPATITIS C VIRUS lasting six months or more. Chronic hepatitis C can lead to LIVER CIRRHOSIS.

Human immunodeficiency virus. A non-taxonomic and historical term referring to any of two species, specifically HIV-1 and/or HIV-2. Prior to 1986, this was called human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus (HTLV-III/LAV). From 1986-1990, it was an official species called HIV. Since 1991, HIV was no longer considered an official species name; the two species were designated HIV-1 and HIV-2.

The type species of SIMPLEXVIRUS causing most forms of non-genital herpes simplex in humans. Primary infection occurs mainly in infants and young children and then the virus becomes latent in the dorsal root ganglion. It then is periodically reactivated throughout life causing mostly benign conditions.

A subtype of equilibrative nucleoside transporter proteins that is sensitive to inhibition by 4-nitrobenzylthioinosine.

An adenosine monophosphate analog in which ribose is replaced by an arabinose moiety. It is the monophosphate ester of VIDARABINE with antiviral and possibly antineoplastic properties.

A purine base found in most body tissues and fluids, certain plants, and some urinary calculi. It is an intermediate in the degradation of adenosine monophosphate to uric acid, being formed by oxidation of hypoxanthine. The methylated xanthine compounds caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline and their derivatives are used in medicine for their bronchodilator effects. (Dorland, 28th ed)

Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.

Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.

Nuclear antigens encoded by VIRAL GENES found in HUMAN HERPESVIRUS 4. At least six nuclear antigens have been identified.

Therapy with two or more separate preparations given for a combined effect.

The entering of cells by viruses following VIRUS ATTACHMENT. This is achieved by ENDOCYTOSIS, by direct MEMBRANE FUSION of the viral membrane with the CELL MEMBRANE, or by translocation of the whole virus across the cell membrane.

Preclinical testing of drugs in experimental animals or in vitro for their biological and toxic effects and potential clinical applications.

A nucleoside antibiotic isolated from Streptomyces antibioticus. It has some antineoplastic properties and has broad spectrum activity against DNA viruses in cell cultures and significant antiviral activity against infections caused by a variety of viruses such as the herpes viruses, the VACCINIA VIRUS and varicella zoster virus.

Visible morphologic changes in cells infected with viruses. It includes shutdown of cellular RNA and protein synthesis, cell fusion, release of lysosomal enzymes, changes in cell membrane permeability, diffuse changes in intracellular structures, presence of viral inclusion bodies, and chromosomal aberrations. It excludes malignant transformation, which is CELL TRANSFORMATION, VIRAL. Viral cytopathogenic effects provide a valuable method for identifying and classifying the infecting viruses.

A family of enveloped, linear, double-stranded DNA viruses infecting a wide variety of animals. Subfamilies, based on biological characteristics, include: ALPHAHERPESVIRINAE; BETAHERPESVIRINAE; and GAMMAHERPESVIRINAE.

INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by HEPATITIS C VIRUS, a single-stranded RNA virus. Its incubation period is 30-90 days. Hepatitis C is transmitted primarily by contaminated blood parenterally, and is often associated with transfusion and intravenous drug abuse. However, in a significant number of cases, the source of hepatitis C infection is unknown.

The quantity of measurable virus in a body fluid. Change in viral load, measured in plasma, is sometimes used as a SURROGATE MARKER in disease progression.

An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of alpha-2,3, alpha-2,6-, and alpha-2,8-glycosidic linkages (at a decreasing rate, respectively) of terminal sialic residues in oligosaccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, colominic acid, and synthetic substrate. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992)

A species of SIMPLEXVIRUS associated with genital infections (HERPES GENITALIS). It is transmitted by sexual intercourse and close personal contact.

The molecular designing of drugs for specific purposes (such as DNA-binding, enzyme inhibition, anti-cancer efficacy, etc.) based on knowledge of molecular properties such as activity of functional groups, molecular geometry, and electronic structure, and also on information cataloged on analogous molecules. Drug design is generally computer-assisted molecular modeling and does not include pharmacokinetics, dosage analysis, or drug administration analysis.

The relationship between the chemical structure of a compound and its biological or pharmacological activity. Compounds are often classed together because they have structural characteristics in common including shape, size, stereochemical arrangement, and distribution of functional groups.

Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.

Infections of the eye caused by minute intracellular agents. These infections may lead to severe inflammation in various parts of the eye - conjunctiva, iris, eyelids, etc. Several viruses have been identified as the causative agents. Among these are Herpesvirus, Adenovirus, Poxvirus, and Myxovirus.

One of the type I interferons produced by fibroblasts in response to stimulation by live or inactivated virus or by double-stranded RNA. It is a cytokine with antiviral, antiproliferative, and immunomodulating activity.

INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by a member of the ORTHOHEPADNAVIRUS genus, HEPATITIS B VIRUS. It is primarily transmitted by parenteral exposure, such as transfusion of contaminated blood or blood products, but can also be transmitted via sexual or intimate personal contact.

Nucleosides that have two hydroxy groups removed from the sugar moiety. The majority of these compounds have broad-spectrum antiretroviral activity due to their action as antimetabolites. The nucleosides are phosphorylated intracellularly to their 5'-triphosphates and act as chain-terminating inhibitors of viral reverse transcription.

Interferon-induced DYNAMIN-like GTP-binding proteins localized in the cytoplasm, nuclear pore complex and nucleus. They play a role in antiviral defense and immunity.

Azoles with an OXYGEN and a NITROGEN next to each other at the 1,2 positions, in contrast to OXAZOLES that have nitrogens at the 1,3 positions.

A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 3 and neuraminidase 2. The H3N2 subtype was responsible for the Hong Kong flu pandemic of 1968.

An acute infectious, usually self-limited, disease believed to represent activation of latent varicella-zoster virus (HERPESVIRUS 3, HUMAN) in those who have been rendered partially immune after a previous attack of CHICKENPOX. It involves the SENSORY GANGLIA and their areas of innervation and is characterized by severe neuralgic pain along the distribution of the affected nerve and crops of clustered vesicles over the area. (From Dorland, 27th ed)

A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 5 and neuraminidase 1. The H5N1 subtype, frequently referred to as the bird flu virus, is endemic in wild birds and very contagious among both domestic (POULTRY) and wild birds. It does not usually infect humans, but some cases have been reported.

Vaccines used to prevent infection by viruses in the family ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE. It includes both killed and attenuated vaccines. The composition of the vaccines is changed each year in response to antigenic shifts and changes in prevalence of influenza virus strains. The vaccine is usually bivalent or trivalent, containing one or two INFLUENZAVIRUS A strains and one INFLUENZAVIRUS B strain.

Any DNA sequence capable of independent replication or a molecule that possesses a REPLICATION ORIGIN and which is therefore potentially capable of being replicated in a suitable cell. (Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)

Compounds which inhibit or antagonize biosynthesis or actions of proteases (ENDOPEPTIDASES).

The mechanism by which latent viruses, such as genetically transmitted tumor viruses (PROVIRUSES) or PROPHAGES of lysogenic bacteria, are induced to replicate and then released as infectious viruses. It may be effected by various endogenous and exogenous stimuli, including B-cell LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES, glucocorticoid hormones, halogenated pyrimidines, IONIZING RADIATION, ultraviolet light, and superinfecting viruses.

The type species of VESICULOVIRUS causing a disease symptomatically similar to FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE in cattle, horses, and pigs. It may be transmitted to other species including humans, where it causes influenza-like symptoms.

The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.

The type species of VARICELLOVIRUS causing CHICKENPOX (varicella) and HERPES ZOSTER (shingles) in humans.

The type species of ORTHOPOXVIRUS, related to COWPOX VIRUS, but whose true origin is unknown. It has been used as a live vaccine against SMALLPOX. It is also used as a vector for inserting foreign DNA into animals. Rabbitpox virus is a subspecies of VACCINIA VIRUS.

Virus diseases caused by the HERPESVIRIDAE.

The location of the atoms, groups or ions relative to one another in a molecule, as well as the number, type and location of covalent bonds.

Models used experimentally or theoretically to study molecular shape, electronic properties, or interactions; includes analogous molecules, computer-generated graphics, and mechanical structures.

Virus diseases caused by the ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE.

The first continuously cultured human malignant CELL LINE, derived from the cervical carcinoma of Henrietta Lacks. These cells are used for VIRUS CULTIVATION and antitumor drug screening assays.

An enzyme that catalyses RNA-template-directed extension of the 3'- end of an RNA strand by one nucleotide at a time, and can initiate a chain de novo. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992, p293)

Any tests that demonstrate the relative efficacy of different chemotherapeutic agents against specific microorganisms (i.e., bacteria, fungi, viruses).

Polymers of ETHYLENE OXIDE and water, and their ethers. They vary in consistency from liquid to solid depending on the molecular weight indicated by a number following the name. They are used as SURFACTANTS, dispersing agents, solvents, ointment and suppository bases, vehicles, and tablet excipients. Some specific groups are NONOXYNOLS, OCTOXYNOLS, and POLOXAMERS.

Sudden increase in the incidence of a disease. The concept includes EPIDEMICS and PANDEMICS.

The capacity of a normal organism to remain unaffected by microorganisms and their toxins. It results from the presence of naturally occurring ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS, constitutional factors such as BODY TEMPERATURE and immediate acting immune cells such as NATURAL KILLER CELLS.

Ribosome inactivating proteins consisting of only the toxic A subunit, which is a polypeptide of around 30 kDa.

Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.

Includes the spectrum of human immunodeficiency virus infections that range from asymptomatic seropositivity, thru AIDS-related complex (ARC), to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

Inhibitors of HIV PROTEASE, an enzyme required for production of proteins needed for viral assembly.

Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.

Derivatives of acetamide that are used as solvents, as mild irritants, and in organic synthesis.

A family of iminourea derivatives. The parent compound has been isolated from mushrooms, corn germ, rice hulls, mussels, earthworms, and turnip juice. Derivatives may have antiviral and antifungal properties.

The assembly of VIRAL STRUCTURAL PROTEINS and nucleic acid (VIRAL DNA or VIRAL RNA) to form a VIRUS PARTICLE.

Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.

An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of ATP into a series of (2'-5') linked oligoadenylates and pyrophosphate in the presence of double-stranded RNA. These oligonucleotides activate an endoribonuclease (RNase L) which cleaves single-stranded RNA. Interferons can act as inducers of these reactions. EC 2.7.7.-.

The application of drug preparations to the surfaces of the body, especially the skin (ADMINISTRATION, CUTANEOUS) or mucous membranes. This method of treatment is used to avoid systemic side effects when high doses are required at a localized area or as an alternative systemic administration route, to avoid hepatic processing for example.

Enzyme of the human immunodeficiency virus that is required for post-translational cleavage of gag and gag-pol precursor polyproteins into functional products needed for viral assembly. HIV protease is an aspartic protease encoded by the amino terminus of the pol gene.

The sour gum plant family of the order Nymphaeales, subclass Magnoliidae, class Magnoliopsida. All have horizontal or hanging branches and broad alternate leaves, and they are dioecious (male and female flowers on different plants).

The type species of CARDIOVIRUS causing encephalomyelitis and myocarditis in rodents, pigs, and monkeys. Infection in man has been reported with CNS involvement but without myocarditis.

Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.

The giving of drugs, chemicals, or other substances by mouth.

An interferon regulatory factor that is expressed constitutively and undergoes POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATION following viral infection. PHOSPHORYLATION of IRF-3 causes the protein to be translocated from the CYTOPLASM to CELL NUCLEUS where it binds DNA, and activates transcription.

The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.

A branched-chain essential amino acid that has stimulant activity. It promotes muscle growth and tissue repair. It is a precursor in the penicillin biosynthetic pathway.

An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of ATP and thymidine to ADP and thymidine 5'-phosphate. Deoxyuridine can also act as an acceptor and dGTP as a donor. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.7.1.21.

A large family of RNA helicases that share a common protein motif with the single letter amino acid sequence D-E-A-D (Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp). In addition to RNA helicase activity, members of the DEAD-box family participate in other aspects of RNA metabolism and regulation of RNA function.

A polypeptide that consists of the 1-34 amino-acid fragment of human PARATHYROID HORMONE, the biologically active N-terminal region. The acetate form is given by intravenous infusion in the differential diagnosis of HYPOPARATHYROIDISM and PSEUDOHYPOPARATHYROIDISM. (Reynolds JEF(Ed): Martindale: The Extra Pharmacopoeia (electronic version). Micromedex, Inc, Englewood, CO, 1995)

The genetic constitution of the individual, comprising the ALLELES present at each GENETIC LOCUS.

A human or animal whose immunologic mechanism is deficient because of an immunodeficiency disorder or other disease or as the result of the administration of immunosuppressive drugs or radiation.

A species of CORONAVIRUS causing atypical respiratory disease (SEVERE ACUTE RESPIRATORY SYNDROME) in humans. The organism is believed to have first emerged in Guangdong Province, China, in 2002. The natural host is the Chinese horseshoe bat, RHINOLOPHUS sinicus.

A subfamily in the family MURIDAE, comprising the hamsters. Four of the more common genera are Cricetus, CRICETULUS; MESOCRICETUS; and PHODOPUS.

The domestic dog, Canis familiaris, comprising about 400 breeds, of the carnivore family CANIDAE. They are worldwide in distribution and live in association with people. (Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th ed, p1065)

RNA consisting of two strands as opposed to the more prevalent single-stranded RNA. Most of the double-stranded segments are formed from transcription of DNA by intramolecular base-pairing of inverted complementary sequences separated by a single-stranded loop. Some double-stranded segments of RNA are normal in all organisms.

The ability of microorganisms, especially bacteria, to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).

DNA-dependent DNA polymerases found in bacteria, animal and plant cells. During the replication process, these enzymes catalyze the addition of deoxyribonucleotide residues to the end of a DNA strand in the presence of DNA as template-primer. They also possess exonuclease activity and therefore function in DNA repair.

The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.

The interactions between a host and a pathogen, usually resulting in disease.

Infection with nematodes of the genus DICTYOCAULUS. In deer, cattle, sheep, and horses the bronchi are the site of infestation.

Compounds or agents that combine with an enzyme in such a manner as to prevent the normal substrate-enzyme combination and the catalytic reaction.

A cell line derived from cultured tumor cells.

The type species of RESPIROVIRUS in the subfamily PARAMYXOVIRINAE. It is the murine version of HUMAN PARAINFLUENZA VIRUS 1, distinguished by host range.

A genus of the family RHABDOVIRIDAE that infects a wide range of vertebrates and invertebrates. The type species is VESICULAR STOMATITIS INDIANA VIRUS.

Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.

The span of viability of a cell characterized by the capacity to perform certain functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, some form of responsiveness, and adaptability.

Interferon inducer consisting of a synthetic, mismatched double-stranded RNA. The polymer is made of one strand each of polyinosinic acid and polycytidylic acid.

The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.

Peptides composed of between two and twelve amino acids.

Members of the class of compounds composed of AMINO ACIDS joined together by peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids into linear, branched or cyclical structures. OLIGOPEPTIDES are composed of approximately 2-12 amino acids. Polypeptides are composed of approximately 13 or more amino acids. PROTEINS are linear polypeptides that are normally synthesized on RIBOSOMES.

Layers of protein which surround the capsid in animal viruses with tubular nucleocapsids. The envelope consists of an inner layer of lipids and virus specified proteins also called membrane or matrix proteins. The outer layer consists of one or more types of morphological subunits called peplomers which project from the viral envelope; this layer always consists of glycoproteins.

The outer protein protective shell of a virus, which protects the viral nucleic acid.

The action of a drug in promoting or enhancing the effectiveness of another drug.

The type species of ARENAVIRUS, part of the Old World Arenaviruses (ARENAVIRUSES, OLD WORLD), producing a silent infection in house and laboratory mice. In humans, infection with LCMV can be inapparent, or can present with an influenza-like illness, a benign aseptic meningitis, or a severe meningoencephalomyelitis. The virus can also infect monkeys, dogs, field mice, guinea pigs, and hamsters, the latter an epidemiologically important host.

The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.

Viruses whose genetic material is RNA.

Recombinant proteins produced by the GENETIC TRANSLATION of fused genes formed by the combination of NUCLEIC ACID REGULATORY SEQUENCES of one or more genes with the protein coding sequences of one or more genes.

The transference of a part of or an entire liver from one human or animal to another.

A viral disease caused by at least two distinct species (serotypes) in the VESICULOVIRUS genus: VESICULAR STOMATITIS INDIANA VIRUS and VESICULAR STOMATITIS NEW JERSEY VIRUS. It is characterized by vesicular eruptions on the ORAL MUCOSA in cattle, horses, pigs, and other animals. In humans, vesicular stomatitis causes an acute influenza-like illness.

Agents that promote the production and release of interferons. They include mitogens, lipopolysaccharides, and the synthetic polymers Poly A-U and Poly I-C. Viruses, bacteria, and protozoa have been also known to induce interferons.

A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.

A dsRNA-activated cAMP-independent protein serine/threonine kinase that is induced by interferon. In the presence of dsRNA and ATP, the kinase autophosphorylates on several serine and threonine residues. The phosphorylated enzyme catalyzes the phosphorylation of the alpha subunit of EUKARYOTIC INITIATION FACTOR-2, leading to the inhibition of protein synthesis.

The return of a sign, symptom, or disease after a remission.

Specific molecular sites or structures on or in cells with which interferons react or to which they bind in order to modify the function of the cells. Interferons exert their pleiotropic effects through two different receptors. alpha- and beta-interferon crossreact with common receptors, while gamma-interferon initiates its biological effects through its own specific receptor system.

Region of the body immediately surrounding and including the ELBOW JOINT.

Works about pre-planned studies of the safety, efficacy, or optimum dosage schedule (if appropriate) of one or more diagnostic, therapeutic, or prophylactic drugs, devices, or techniques selected according to predetermined criteria of eligibility and observed for predefined evidence of favorable and unfavorable effects. This concept includes clinical trials conducted both in the U.S. and in other countries.

Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.

The major interferon produced by mitogenically or antigenically stimulated LYMPHOCYTES. It is structurally different from TYPE I INTERFERON and its major activity is immunoregulation. It has been implicated in the expression of CLASS II HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS in cells that do not normally produce them, leading to AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.

In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.

Biological properties, processes, and activities of VIRUSES.

A strain of ENCEPHALOMYOCARDITIS VIRUS, a species of CARDIOVIRUS, isolated from rodents and lagomorphs and occasionally causing febrile illness in man.

A critical subpopulation of regulatory T-lymphocytes involved in MHC Class I-restricted interactions. They include both cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and CD8+ suppressor T-lymphocytes.

The characteristic 3-dimensional shape of a protein, including the secondary, supersecondary (motifs), tertiary (domains) and quaternary structure of the peptide chain. PROTEIN STRUCTURE, QUATERNARY describes the conformation assumed by multimeric proteins (aggregates of more than one polypeptide chain).

Virus diseases caused by RHABDOVIRIDAE. Important infections include RABIES; EPHEMERAL FEVER; and vesicular stomatitis.

A gene silencing phenomenon whereby specific dsRNAs (RNA, DOUBLE-STRANDED) trigger the degradation of homologous mRNA (RNA, MESSENGER). The specific dsRNAs are processed into SMALL INTERFERING RNA (siRNA) which serves as a guide for cleavage of the homologous mRNA in the RNA-INDUCED SILENCING COMPLEX. DNA METHYLATION may also be triggered during this process.

Spectroscopic method of measuring the magnetic moment of elementary particles such as atomic nuclei, protons or electrons. It is employed in clinical applications such as NMR Tomography (MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING).

Process of cultural change in which one group or members of a group assimilate various cultural patterns from another.

A form of meningitis caused by LYMPHOCYTIC CHORIOMENINGITIS VIRUS. MICE and other rodents serve as the natural hosts, and infection in humans usually occurs through inhalation or ingestion of infectious particles. Clinical manifestations include an influenza-like syndrome followed by stiff neck, alterations of mentation, ATAXIA, and incontinence. Maternal infections may result in fetal malformations and injury, including neonatal HYDROCEPHALUS, aqueductal stenosis, CHORIORETINITIS, and MICROCEPHALY. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1996, Ch26, pp1-3)

A ubiquitously expressed heterodimeric receptor that is specific for both INTERFERON-ALPHA and INTERFERON-BETA. It is composed of two subunits referred to as IFNAR1 and IFNAR2. The IFNAR2 subunit is believed to serve as the ligand-binding chain; however both chains are required for signal transduction. The interferon alpha-beta receptor signals through the action of JANUS KINASES such as the TYK2 KINASE.

An enzyme that catalyzes the deamination of cytidine, forming uridine. EC 3.5.4.5.

The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.

Liquid chromatographic techniques which feature high inlet pressures, high sensitivity, and high speed.

A class of enzymes involved in the hydrolysis of the N-glycosidic bond of nitrogen-linked sugars.

A pattern recognition receptor that binds DOUBLE-STRANDED RNA. It mediates cellular responses to certain viral pathogens.

Virus diseases caused by the ARENAVIRIDAE.

The cutaneous and occasional systemic reactions associated with vaccination using smallpox (variola) vaccine.

A signal transducer and activator of transcription that mediates cellular responses to INTERFERONS. Stat1 interacts with P53 TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEIN and regulates expression of GENES involved in growth control and APOPTOSIS.

A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts.

A genus of PICORNAVIRIDAE inhabiting primarily the respiratory tract of mammalian hosts. It includes over 100 human serotypes associated with the COMMON COLD.

The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.

A cultured line of C3H mouse FIBROBLASTS that do not adhere to one another and do not express CADHERINS.

Any of the processes by which cytoplasmic factors influence the differential control of gene action in viruses.

The presence of viruses in the blood.

A genus of the family HERPESVIRIDAE, subfamily BETAHERPESVIRINAE, causing infection involving several organs in mice and rats. Murid herpesvirus is the type species.

A species of ENTEROVIRUS infecting humans and containing 36 serotypes. It is comprised of all the echoviruses and a few coxsackieviruses, including all of those previously named coxsackievirus B.

An interferon regulatory factor that is induced by INTERFERONS as well as LMP-1 protein from EPSTEIN-BARR VIRUS. IRF-7 undergoes PHOSPHORYLATION prior to nuclear translocation and it activates GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION of multiple interferon GENES.

The type species of ALPHAVIRUS normally transmitted to birds by CULEX mosquitoes in Egypt, South Africa, India, Malaya, the Philippines, and Australia. It may be associated with fever in humans. Serotypes (differing by less than 17% in nucleotide sequence) include Babanki, Kyzylagach, and Ockelbo viruses.

A phenomenon in which infection by a first virus results in resistance of cells or tissues to infection by a second, unrelated virus.

Substances that inhibit or prevent the proliferation of NEOPLASMS.

Proteins encoded by the VIF GENES of the HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS.

Methods used by pathogenic organisms to evade a host's immune system.

Transduction of glioma cells using a high-titer retroviral vector system and their subsequent migration in brain tumors. (1/11278)

The intracranial migration of transduced glioma cells was investigated in order to improve the treatment of malignant glioma by gene therapy using retroviral vectors. In this study, about half the volume of the tumor mass could be transduced in 14 days after only a single implantation of 3 x 10(5) retrovirus-producing cells into a tumor mass with a diameter of 5 mm. Moreover, we were able to follow the migration of glioma cells transduced by the lacZ-harboring retroviruses originating from the high-titer retrovirus-producing cells. Besides the importance of using a high-titer retroviral vector system, our results also indicate that the implantation site of the virus-producing cells and the interval between the implantation of the virus-producing cells and the subsequent administration of ganciclovir are important factors for the efficient killing of glioma cells. (+info)

The bystander effect in the HSVtk/ganciclovir system and its relationship to gap junctional communication. (2/11278)

The bystander effect (BSE) is an interesting and important property of the herpes thymidine kinase/ganciclovir (hTK/GCV) system of gene therapy for cancer. With the BSE, not only are the hTK expressing cells killed upon ganciclovir (GCV) exposure but also neighboring wild-type tumor cells. On testing a large number of tumor cell lines in vitro, a wide range of sensitivity to bystander killing was found. Since transfer of toxic GCV metabolites from hTK-modified to wild-type tumor cells via gap junctions (GJ) seemed to be a likely mechanism of the BSE, we tested GJ function in these various tumors with a dye transfer technique and pharmacological agents known to affect GJ communication. We confirmed that mixtures of tumor cell resistant to the BSE did not show dye transfer from cell to cell while bystander-sensitive tumor cells did. Dieldrin, a drug known to decrease GJ communication, diminished dye transfer and also inhibited the BSE. Forskolin, an upregulator of cAMP did increase GJ, but directly inhibited hTK and therefore its effect on BSE could not be determined. We conclude that these observations further support port the concept that functional GJ play an important role in the BSE and further suggest that pharmacological manipulation of GJ may influence the outcome of cancer therapy with hTK/GCV. (+info)

An antiviral mechanism of nitric oxide: inhibition of a viral protease. (3/11278)

Although nitric oxide (NO) kills or inhibits the replication of a variety of intracellular pathogens, the antimicrobial mechanisms of NO are unknown. Here, we identify a viral protease as a target of NO. The life cycle of many viruses depends upon viral proteases that cleave viral polyproteins into individual polypeptides. NO inactivates the Coxsackievirus protease 3C, an enzyme necessary for the replication of Coxsackievirus. NO S-nitrosylates the cysteine residue in the active site of protease 3C, inhibiting protease activity and interrupting the viral life cycle. Substituting a serine residue for the active site cysteine renders protease 3C resistant to NO inhibition. Since cysteine proteases are critical for virulence or replication of many viruses, bacteria, and parasites, S-nitrosylation of pathogen cysteine proteases may be a general mechanism of antimicrobial host defenses. (+info)

Characterization of transgenic mice with targeted disruption of the catalytic domain of the double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase, PKR. (4/11278)

The interferon-inducible, double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR has been implicated in anti-viral, anti-tumor, and apoptotic responses. Others have attempted to examine the requirement of PKR in these roles by targeted disruption at the amino terminal-encoding region of the Pkr gene. By using a strategy that aims at disruption of the catalytic domain of PKR, we have generated mice that are genetically ablated for functional PKR. Similar to the other mouse model of Pkr disruption, we have observed no consequences of loss of PKR on tumor suppression. Anti-viral response to influenza and vaccinia also appeared to be normal in mice and in cells lacking PKR. Cytokine signaling in the type I interferon pathway is normal but may be compromised in the erythropoietin pathway in erythroid bone marrow precursors. Contrary to the amino-terminal targeted Pkr mouse, tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced apoptosis and the anti-viral apoptosis response to influenza is not impaired in catalytic domain-targeted Pkr-null cells. The observation of intact eukaryotic initiation factor-2alpha phosphorylation in these Pkr-null cells provides proof of rescue by another eukaryotic initiation factor-2alpha kinase(s). (+info)

Infectious complications in 126 patients treated with high-dose chemotherapy and autologous peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. (5/11278)

The effect of an extensive prophylactic antimicrobial regimen was prospectively assessed in 126 patients after high-dose chemotherapy and autologous PBSC. They received ciprofloxacin (500 mg/12 h), acyclovir (200 mg/6 h), and itraconazole (200 mg/12 h) orally until neutrophil recovery. Febrile patients received i.v. imipenem (500 mg/6 h) to which vancomycin and amikacin were added if fever persisted for 2-3 and 5 days, respectively. Amphotericin B lipid complex was further given on day 7 or 8 of fever. Median times for a neutrophil count of >0.5 x 10(9)/l and a platelet count of >20 x 10(9)/l were 9 and 11 days. Severe neutropenia (<0.1 x 10(9)/l) lasted for a median of 5 days in which 72% of febrile episodes and 50% of cases of bacteremia occurred. Gram-positive bacteria were isolated in 30 of 40 episodes of bacteremia, 25 of which were caused by Staphylococcus epidermidis. Clinical foci were the intravascular catheter in 35 cases, respiratory infection in 11, cellulitis in two, anal abscess in one, and neutropenic enterocolitis in one. The high incidence of febrile episodes (94%) and bacteremias (31%) may be due to the lack of efficacy of antimicrobial prophylaxis and the persistence of a 5-day period of severe neutropenia. (+info)

Herpetic keratitis. Proctor Lecture. (6/11278)

Although much needs to be learned about the serious clinical problem of herpes infection of the cornea, we have come a long way. We now have effective topical antiviral drugs. We have animal models which, with a high degree of reliability, clearly predict the effect to be expected clinically in man, as well as the toxicity. We have systemically active drugs and the potential of getting highly active, potent, completely selective drugs, with the possibility that perhaps the source of viral reinfection can be eradicated. The biology of recurrent herpes and stromal disease is gradually being understood, and this understanding may result in new and better therapy of this devastating clinical disease. (+info)

Comparative study of the anti-human cytomegalovirus activities and toxicities of a tetrahydrofuran phosphonate analogue of guanosine and cidofovir. (7/11278)

Cidofovir is the first nucleoside monophosphate analogue currently being used for the treatment of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) retinitis in individuals with AIDS. Unfortunately, the period of therapy with the use of this compound may be limited due to the possible emergence of serious irreversible nephrotoxic effects. New drugs with improved toxicity profiles are needed. The goal of this study was to investigate the anticytomegaloviral properties and drug-induced toxicity of a novel phosphonate analogue, namely, (-)-2-(R)-dihydroxyphosphinoyl-5-(S)-(guanin-9'-yl-methyl) tetrahydrofuran (compound 1), in comparison with those of cidofovir. The inhibitory activities of both compounds on HCMV propagation in vitro were similar against the AD 169 and Towne strains, with 50% inhibitory concentrations ranging from 0.02 to 0.17 microgram/ml for cidofovir and < 0.05 to 0.09 microgram/ml for compound 1. A clinical HCMV isolate that was resistant to ganciclovir and that had a known mutation within the UL54 DNA polymerase gene and a cidofovir-resistant laboratory strain derived from strain AD 169 remained sensitive to compound 1, whereas their susceptibilities to ganciclovir and cidofovir were reduced by 33- and 10-fold, respectively. Both compound 1 and cidofovir exhibited equal potencies in an experimentally induced murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection in mice, with a prevention or prolongation of mean day to death at dosages of 1.0, 3.2, and 10.0 mg/kg of body weight/day. In cytotoxicity experiments, compound 1 was found to be generally more toxic than cidofovir in cell lines Hs68, HFF, and 3T3-L1 (which are permissive for HCMV or MCMV replication) but less toxic than cidofovir in MRC-5 cells (which are permissive for HCMV replication). Drug-induced toxic side effects were noticed for both compounds in rats and guinea pigs in a 5-day repeated-dose study. In guinea pigs, a greater weight loss was noticed with cidofovir than with compound 1 at dosages of 3.0 and 10.0 mg/kg/day. An opposite effect was detected in rats, which were treated with the compounds at relatively high dosages (up to 100 mg/kg/day). Compound 1 and cidofovir were nephrotoxic in both rats and guinea pigs, with the epithelium lining the proximal convoluted tubules in the renal cortex being the primary target site. The incidence and the severity of the lesions were found to be dose dependent. The lesions observed were characterized by cytoplasm degeneration and nuclear modifications such as karyomegaly, the presence of pseudoinclusions, apoptosis, and degenerative changes. In the guinea pig model, a greater incidence and severity of lesions were observed for cidofovir than for compound 1 (P < 0.001) with a drug regimen of 10 mg/kg/day. (+info)

Single-dose pharmacokinetics of a pleconaril (VP63843) oral solution in children and adolescents. Pediatric Pharmacology Research Unit Network. (8/11278)

Pleconaril is an orally active, broad-spectrum antipicornaviral agent which demonstrates excellent penetration into the central nervous system, liver, and nasal epithelium. In view of the potential pediatric use of pleconaril, we conducted a single-dose, open-label study to characterize the pharmacokinetics of this antiviral agent in pediatric patients. Following an 8- to 10-h period of fasting, 18 children ranging in age from 2 to 12 years (7.5 +/- 3.1 years) received a single 5-mg/kg of body weight oral dose of pleconaril solution administered with a breakfast of age-appropriate composition. Repeated blood samples (n = 10) were obtained over 24 h postdose, and pleconaril was quantified from plasma by gas chromatography. Plasma drug concentration-time data for each subject were fitted to the curve by using a nonlinear, weighted (weight = 1/Ycalc) least-squares algorithm, and model-dependent pharmacokinetic parameters were determined from the polyexponential parameter estimates. Pleconaril was well tolerated by all subjects. A one-compartment open-model with first-order absorption best described the plasma pleconaril concentration-time profile in 13 of the subjects over a 24-h postdose period. Pleconaril pharmacokinetic parameters (means +/- standard deviations) for these 13 patients were as follows. The maximum concentration of the drug in serum (Cmax) was 1,272.5 +/- 622.1 ng/ml. The time to Cmax was 4.1 +/- 1.5 h, and the lag time was 0.75 +/- 0.56 h. The apparent absorption rate constant was 0.75 +/- 0.48 1/h, and the elimination rate constant was 0.16 +/- 0.07 1/h. The area under the concentration-time curve from 0 to 24 h was 8,131.15 +/- 3,411.82 ng.h/ml. The apparent total plasma clearance was 0.81 +/- 0.86 liters/h/kg, and the apparent steady-state volume of distribution was 4.68 +/- 2.02 liters/kg. The mean elimination half-life of pleconaril was 5.7 h. The mean plasma pleconaril concentrations at both 12 h (250.4 +/- 148.2 ng/ml) and 24 h (137.9 +/- 92.2 ng/ml) after the single 5-mg/kg oral dose in children were higher than that from in vitro studies reported to inhibit > 90% of nonpolio enterovirus serotypes (i.e., 70 ng/ml). Thus, our data support the evaluation of a 5-mg/kg twice-daily oral dose of pleconaril for therapeutic trials in pediatric patients with enteroviral infections. (+info)

Symptoms of influenza include:

* Fever (usually high)
* Cough
* Sore throat
* Runny or stuffy nose
* Headache
* Muscle or body aches
* Fatigue (tiredness)
* Diarrhea and nausea (more common in children than adults)

Influenza can lead to serious complications, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and sinus and ear infections. These complications are more likely to occur in people who have a weakened immune system, such as the elderly, young children, and people with certain chronic health conditions (like heart disease, diabetes, and lung disease).

Influenza is diagnosed based on a physical examination and medical history. A healthcare provider may also use a rapid influenza test (RIT) or a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test to confirm the diagnosis.

Treatment for influenza typically involves rest, hydration, and over-the-counter medications such as acetaminophen (Tylenol) or ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin) to relieve fever and body aches. Antiviral medications, such as oseltamivir (Tamiflu) or zanamivir (Relenza), may also be prescribed to help shorten the duration and severity of the illness. However, these medications are most effective when started within 48 hours of the onset of symptoms.

Prevention is key in avoiding influenza. Vaccination is the most effective way to prevent influenza, as well as practicing good hygiene such as washing your hands frequently, avoiding close contact with people who are sick, and staying home when you are sick.

1. Common cold: A viral infection that affects the upper respiratory tract and causes symptoms such as sneezing, running nose, coughing, and mild fever.
2. Influenza (flu): A viral infection that can cause severe respiratory illness, including pneumonia, bronchitis, and sinus and ear infections.
3. Measles: A highly contagious viral infection that causes fever, rashes, coughing, and redness of the eyes.
4. Rubella (German measles): A mild viral infection that can cause fever, rashes, headache, and swollen lymph nodes.
5. Chickenpox: A highly contagious viral infection that causes fever, itching, and a characteristic rash of small blisters on the skin.
6. Herpes simplex virus (HSV): A viral infection that can cause genital herpes, cold sores, or other skin lesions.
7. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): A viral infection that attacks the immune system and can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
8. Hepatitis B: A viral infection that affects the liver, causing inflammation and damage to liver cells.
9. Hepatitis C: Another viral infection that affects the liver, often leading to chronic liver disease and liver cancer.
10. Ebola: A deadly viral infection that causes fever, vomiting, diarrhea, and internal bleeding.
11. SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome): A viral infection that can cause severe respiratory illness, including pneumonia and respiratory failure.
12. West Nile virus: A viral infection that can cause fever, headache, and muscle pain, as well as more severe symptoms such as meningitis or encephalitis.

Viral infections can be spread through contact with an infected person or contaminated surfaces, objects, or insects such as mosquitoes. Prevention strategies include:

1. Practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands frequently and thoroughly.
2. Avoiding close contact with people who are sick.
3. Covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing.
4. Avoiding sharing personal items such as towels or utensils.
5. Using condoms or other barrier methods during sexual activity.
6. Getting vaccinated against certain viral infections, such as HPV and hepatitis B.
7. Using insect repellents to prevent mosquito bites.
8. Screening blood products and organs for certain viruses before transfusion or transplantation.

Treatment for viral infections depends on the specific virus and the severity of the illness. Antiviral medications may be used to reduce the replication of the virus and alleviate symptoms. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to provide supportive care such as intravenous fluids, oxygen therapy, or mechanical ventilation.

Prevention is key in avoiding viral infections, so taking the necessary precautions and practicing good hygiene can go a long way in protecting oneself and others from these common and potentially debilitating illnesses.

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) typically causes cold sores or fever blisters that appear on the lips, mouth, or nose. While herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) is responsible for genital herpes which affects the genital area, buttocks, and anal area.

The infection can be spread through direct contact with an infected person's saliva, mucus, or skin, even if there are no visible sores present. Symptoms of herpes simplex may include itching, burning, tingling, redness, and small blisters that burst and ooze fluid.

There is no cure for herpes simplex, but medications can help manage symptoms and shorten the duration of an outbreak. Antiviral drugs such as acyclovir, famciclovir, and valacyclovir are commonly used to treat herpes simplex.

CMV infections are more common in people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, or taking immunosuppressive drugs after an organ transplant. In these individuals, CMV can cause severe and life-threatening complications, such as pneumonia, retinitis (inflammation of the retina), and gastrointestinal disease.

In healthy individuals, CMV infections are usually mild and may not cause any symptoms at all. However, in some cases, CMV can cause a mononucleosis-like illness with fever, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes.

CMV infections are diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, blood tests, and imaging studies such as CT scans or MRI. Treatment is generally not necessary for mild cases, but may include antiviral medications for more severe infections. Prevention strategies include avoiding close contact with individuals who have CMV, practicing good hygiene, and considering immunoprophylaxis (prevention of infection through the use of immune globulin) for high-risk individuals.

Overall, while CMV infections can be serious and life-threatening, they are relatively rare in healthy individuals and can often be treated effectively with supportive care and antiviral medications.

A persistent infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV) that can lead to liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. HBV is a bloodborne pathogen and can be spread through contact with infected blood, sexual contact, or vertical transmission from mother to child during childbirth.

Chronic hepatitis B is characterized by the presence of HBsAg in the blood for more than 6 months, indicating that the virus is still present in the liver. The disease can be asymptomatic or symptomatic, with symptoms such as fatigue, malaise, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, joint pain, and jaundice.

Chronic hepatitis B is diagnosed through serological tests such as HBsAg, anti-HBc, and HBV DNA. Treatment options include interferon alpha and nucleos(t)ide analogues, which can slow the progression of the disease but do not cure it.

Prevention strategies for chronic hepatitis B include vaccination with hepatitis B vaccine, which is effective in preventing acute and chronic HBV infection, as well as avoidance of risky behaviors such as unprotected sex and sharing of needles.

The symptoms of chronic hepatitis C may be mild or absent, but some people experience fatigue, joint pain, muscle aches, nausea, loss of appetite, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes).

Chronic hepatitis C is usually diagnosed through blood tests that detect the presence of antibodies against HCV or the virus itself. Imaging tests such as ultrasound and liver biopsy may also be performed to assess the extent of liver damage.

Treatment for chronic hepatitis C typically involves a combination of medications, including interferon and ribavirin, which can help clear the virus from the body. In severe cases, a liver transplant may be necessary. Prevention of the spread of HCV includes avoiding sharing of needles or other sharp objects, practicing safe sex, and getting tested for the virus before donating blood or organs.

See also: Hepatitis C; Liver; Virus

There are several types of hepatitis C, including genotype 1, which is the most common and accounts for approximately 70% of cases in the United States. Other genotypes include 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The symptoms of hepatitis C can range from mild to severe and may include fatigue, fever, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, joint pain, jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), dark urine, pale stools, and itching all over the body. Some people with hepatitis C may not experience any symptoms at all.

Hepatitis C is diagnosed through a combination of blood tests that detect the presence of antibodies against HCV or the virus itself. Treatment typically involves a combination of medications, including interferon and ribavirin, which can cure the infection but may have side effects such as fatigue, nausea, and depression. In recent years, new drugs known as direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) have become available, which can cure the infection with fewer side effects and in a shorter period of time.

Prevention measures for hepatitis C include avoiding sharing needles or other drug paraphernalia, using condoms to prevent sexual transmission, and ensuring that any tattoos or piercings are performed with sterilized equipment. Vaccines are also available for people who are at high risk of contracting the virus, such as healthcare workers and individuals who engage in high-risk behaviors.

Overall, hepatitis C is a serious and common liver disease that can lead to significant health complications if left untreated. Fortunately, with advances in medical technology and treatment options, it is possible to manage and cure the virus with proper care and attention.

Some common types of viral eye infections include:

1. Conjunctivitis caused by adenovirus: This is a highly contagious form of conjunctivitis that often affects children and can be spread through close contact with an infected person or by touching contaminated surfaces.
2. Conjunctivitis caused by enterovirus: This type of conjunctivitis is also highly contagious and can be spread through contact with an infected person's saliva, mucus, or feces.
3. Herpetic keratitis: This is a rare form of viral eye infection that is caused by the herpes simplex virus and can lead to serious complications if left untreated.
4. Epidemic keratoconjunctivitis: This is a highly contagious form of conjunctivitis that is caused by adenovirus and can affect both children and adults.

Viral eye infections are typically diagnosed through a comprehensive eye exam, which may include a visual acuity test, a dilated eye exam, and/or a viral culture. Treatment for viral eye infections usually involves antiviral medication, cold compresses, and good hygiene practices to prevent the spread of the infection.

Prevention:

To prevent the spread of viral eye infections, it is important to practice good hygiene habits such as washing your hands frequently, avoiding close contact with people who are infected, and not sharing personal items like towels or makeup. If you have a viral eye infection, it is also important to avoid touching your eyes and to cover your mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing.

Conclusion:

Viral eye infections can be highly contagious and cause uncomfortable symptoms such as redness, discharge, and blurred vision. It is important to seek medical attention if you experience any of these symptoms, as they can lead to serious complications if left untreated. Good hygiene practices and antiviral medication can help prevent and treat viral eye infections.

The symptoms of hepatitis B can range from mild to severe and may include fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dark urine, pale stools, joint pain, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). In some cases, hepatitis B can be asymptomatic, meaning that individuals may not experience any symptoms at all.

Hepatitis B is diagnosed through blood tests that detect the presence of HBV antigens or antibodies in the body. Treatment for acute hepatitis B typically involves rest, hydration, and medication to manage symptoms, while chronic hepatitis B may require ongoing therapy with antiviral drugs to suppress the virus and prevent liver damage.

Preventive measures for hepatitis B include vaccination, which is recommended for individuals at high risk of infection, such as healthcare workers, sexually active individuals, and those traveling to areas where HBV is common. In addition, safe sex practices, avoiding sharing of needles or other bodily fluids, and proper sterilization of medical equipment can help reduce the risk of transmission.

Overall, hepatitis B is a serious infection that can have long-term consequences for liver health, and it is important to take preventive measures and seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

There are several types of herpes zoster, including:

1. Primary herpes zoster: This is the first episode of the virus and is typically more severe than recurrent episodes.
2. Recurrent herpes zoster: This occurs when the virus reactivates in a previously infected area, usually causing milder symptoms than primary herpes zoster.
3. Herpes zoster oticus (Ramsay Hunt syndrome): This is a form of herpes zoster that affects the facial nerve and causes pain, hearing loss, and facial paralysis.
4. Meningitis herpetic: This is a rare form of herpes zoster that causes inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord.
5. Eczema herpeticum: This is a severe form of herpes zoster that occurs in people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or undergoing chemotherapy. It causes widespread skin lesions and can be life-threatening.

Symptoms of herpes zoster include:

* Pain or tingling sensation in the affected area before the rash appears
* Small, painful blisters that crust over
* Fever, headache, and fatigue
* Itching or burning sensation on the skin
* Muscle weakness or paralysis (in severe cases)

Herpes zoster is diagnosed through physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as viral cultures or PCR tests. Treatment includes antiviral medications, pain relief medication, and corticosteroids to reduce inflammation. Home remedies such as cool compresses, calamine lotion, and rest can also provide relief from symptoms.

Prevention:

1. Vaccination: The herpes zoster vaccine is recommended for people over the age of 50 to prevent herpes zoster.
2. Avoiding close contact with people who have herpes zoster.
3. Practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands frequently and avoiding sharing personal items.
4. Managing stress and maintaining a healthy lifestyle to keep the immune system strong.
5. Getting enough rest and staying hydrated to help the body recover from illness.

In conclusion, herpes zoster is a common condition that can cause significant discomfort and disability. It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time, as early treatment can reduce the risk of complications.

Herpesviridae infections are caused by the Herpesviridae family of viruses and can be transmitted through skin-to-skin contact, sexual contact, or from mother to child during pregnancy or childbirth. Symptoms of herpesviridae infections can vary depending on the type of virus and the individual infected, but may include fever, fatigue, muscle aches, and skin sores or rashes.

There is no cure for herpesviridae infections, but antiviral medications can help manage symptoms and reduce the risk of transmission to others. Good hygiene practices, such as washing hands regularly and avoiding close contact with those who are infected, can also help prevent the spread of these viruses.

Some common types of herpesviridae infections include:

* Herpes simplex virus (HSV) - Causes cold sores and genital herpes.
* Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) - Causes chickenpox and shingles.
* Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) - Associated with certain types of cancer, such as Kaposi's sarcoma.

Orthomyxoviridae infections are a group of viral infections caused by the Orthomyxoviridae family of viruses, which includes influenza A and B viruses, as well as other related viruses. These infections can affect both humans and animals and can cause a range of symptoms, from mild to severe.

The most common type of Orthomyxoviridae infection is seasonal influenza, which occurs when the virus is transmitted from person to person through the air or by contact with infected surfaces. Other types of Orthomyxoviridae infections include:

1. Pandemic influenza: This occurs when a new strain of the virus emerges and spreads quickly around the world, causing widespread illness and death. Examples of pandemic influenza include the Spanish flu of 1918 and the Asian flu of 1957.
2. Avian influenza: This occurs when birds are infected with the virus and can be transmitted to humans through close contact with infected birds or their droppings.
3. Swine influenza: This occurs when pigs are infected with the virus and can be transmitted to humans through close contact with infected pigs or their droppings.
4. H5N1 and H7N9: These are two specific types of bird flu viruses that have caused serious outbreaks in humans in recent years.

Symptoms of Orthomyxoviridae infections can include fever, cough, sore throat, runny nose, muscle aches, and fatigue. In severe cases, these infections can lead to pneumonia, bronchitis, and other respiratory complications, as well as hospitalization and even death.

Diagnosis of Orthomyxoviridae infections is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests, such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction) or viral culture. Treatment is generally focused on relieving symptoms and supporting the immune system, with antiviral medications may be used in severe cases.

Prevention of Orthomyxoviridae infections can include avoiding close contact with infected birds or pigs, wearing protective clothing and gear when handling animals, and practicing good hygiene such as washing hands frequently. Vaccines are also available for some species of birds and pigs to protect against these viruses.

Overall, Orthomyxoviridae is a family of viruses that can cause serious illness in humans and other animals, and it's important to take precautions to prevent exposure and spread of these viruses.

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection is a condition in which the body is infected with HIV, a type of retrovirus that attacks the body's immune system. HIV infection can lead to AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), a condition in which the immune system is severely damaged and the body is unable to fight off infections and diseases.

There are several ways that HIV can be transmitted, including:

1. Sexual contact with an infected person
2. Sharing of needles or other drug paraphernalia with an infected person
3. Mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding
4. Blood transfusions ( although this is rare in developed countries due to screening processes)
5. Organ transplantation (again, rare)

The symptoms of HIV infection can be mild at first and may not appear until several years after infection. These symptoms can include:

1. Fever
2. Fatigue
3. Swollen glands in the neck, armpits, and groin
4. Rash
5. Muscle aches and joint pain
6. Night sweats
7. Diarrhea
8. Weight loss

If left untreated, HIV infection can progress to AIDS, which is a life-threatening condition that can cause a wide range of symptoms, including:

1. Opportunistic infections (such as pneumocystis pneumonia)
2. Cancer (such as Kaposi's sarcoma)
3. Wasting syndrome
4. Neurological problems (such as dementia and seizures)

HIV infection is diagnosed through a combination of blood tests and physical examination. Treatment typically involves antiretroviral therapy (ART), which is a combination of medications that work together to suppress the virus and slow the progression of the disease.

Prevention methods for HIV infection include:

1. Safe sex practices, such as using condoms and dental dams
2. Avoiding sharing needles or other drug-injecting equipment
3. Avoiding mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding
4. Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), which is a short-term treatment that can prevent infection after potential exposure to the virus
5. Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), which is a daily medication that can prevent infection in people who are at high risk of being exposed to the virus.

It's important to note that HIV infection is manageable with proper treatment and care, and that people living with HIV can lead long and healthy lives. However, it's important to be aware of the risks and take steps to prevent transmission.

Symptoms: The symptoms of dictyocaulosis can vary depending on the location and severity of the infection. Common symptoms include coughing, difficulty breathing, loss of appetite, weight loss, and fever. In severe cases, the infection can lead to pneumonia or respiratory failure.

Diagnosis: Dictyocaulosis is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, radiography (x-rays), and laboratory tests such as fecal egg count or serology.

Treatment: Treatment for dictyocaulosis usually involves the use of anthelmintic drugs to eliminate the parasites from the animal's body. Supportive care, such as antibiotics and anti-inflammatory medications, may also be administered to manage secondary infections and inflammation.

Prevention: Prevention of dictyocaulosis includes regular deworming of animals with anthelmintic drugs, good husbandry practices such as proper feeding and sanitation, and avoiding contact with contaminated feces or pastures. Vaccination is also available for some species.

Prognosis: The prognosis for dictyocaulosis is generally good if the infection is diagnosed and treated early. However, if left untreated, the infection can lead to serious complications such as respiratory failure or pneumonia, which can be fatal.

Complications: Complications of dictyocaulosis include respiratory failure, pneumonia, and secondary bacterial infections.

Differential diagnosis: Dictyocaulosis should be differentiated from other respiratory and gastrointestinal tract infections such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and gastroenteritis.

1. Influenza (flu): Caused by the influenza virus, which is an RNA virus that affects the respiratory system and can cause fever, cough, sore throat, and body aches.
2. HIV/AIDS: Caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which is an RNA virus that attacks the body's immune system and can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
3. Hepatitis B: Caused by the hepatitis B virus, which is an RNA virus that infects the liver and can cause inflammation, scarring, and cancer.
4. Measles: Caused by the measles virus, which is an RNA virus that affects the respiratory system and can cause fever, cough, and a rash.
5. Rabies: Caused by the rabies virus, which is an RNA virus that attacks the central nervous system and can cause brain damage and death.
6. Ebola: Caused by the Ebola virus, which is an RNA virus that affects the blood vessels and can cause fever, vomiting, diarrhea, and bleeding.
7. SARS-CoV-2: Caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which is an RNA virus that affects the respiratory system and can cause COVID-19.

RNA virus infections are often difficult to treat and can be highly contagious, so it's important to take precautions to prevent transmission and seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

1) They share similarities with humans: Many animal species share similar biological and physiological characteristics with humans, making them useful for studying human diseases. For example, mice and rats are often used to study diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer because they have similar metabolic and cardiovascular systems to humans.

2) They can be genetically manipulated: Animal disease models can be genetically engineered to develop specific diseases or to model human genetic disorders. This allows researchers to study the progression of the disease and test potential treatments in a controlled environment.

3) They can be used to test drugs and therapies: Before new drugs or therapies are tested in humans, they are often first tested in animal models of disease. This allows researchers to assess the safety and efficacy of the treatment before moving on to human clinical trials.

4) They can provide insights into disease mechanisms: Studying disease models in animals can provide valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of a particular disease. This information can then be used to develop new treatments or improve existing ones.

5) Reduces the need for human testing: Using animal disease models reduces the need for human testing, which can be time-consuming, expensive, and ethically challenging. However, it is important to note that animal models are not perfect substitutes for human subjects, and results obtained from animal studies may not always translate to humans.

6) They can be used to study infectious diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study infectious diseases such as HIV, TB, and malaria. These models allow researchers to understand how the disease is transmitted, how it progresses, and how it responds to treatment.

7) They can be used to study complex diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study complex diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. These models allow researchers to understand the underlying mechanisms of the disease and test potential treatments.

8) They are cost-effective: Animal disease models are often less expensive than human clinical trials, making them a cost-effective way to conduct research.

9) They can be used to study drug delivery: Animal disease models can be used to study drug delivery and pharmacokinetics, which is important for developing new drugs and drug delivery systems.

10) They can be used to study aging: Animal disease models can be used to study the aging process and age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. This allows researchers to understand how aging contributes to disease and develop potential treatments.

Epidemiology:

VS is most commonly found in the western United States, particularly in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas. The virus is transmitted through the bite of an infected blacklegged tick (Ixodes pacificus) or a biting fly such as the blood-sucking conenose bug (Triatoma spp.).

Symptoms:

In humans, VS symptoms can range from mild to severe and include fever, headache, muscle aches, and fatigue. The most characteristic feature of VS is the appearance of painful vesicles or blisters on the skin, usually on the hands, arms, face, and mouth. These blisters may become crusted and form scabs, which can be very uncomfortable and disrupt daily activities. In severe cases, VS can cause more serious complications such as meningitis, encephalitis, or pneumonia.

Diagnosis:

VS is diagnosed based on a combination of clinical symptoms, laboratory tests, and the presence of tick bites or other exposure to infected insects. Laboratory tests may include PCR (polymerase chain reaction) or viral culture to detect the presence of NJV or IV in patient samples.

Treatment and Prevention:

There is no specific treatment for VS, but symptoms can be managed with pain relief medication, antiviral drugs, and wound care. Prevention is key, and individuals can reduce their risk of contracting VS by avoiding tick-prone areas, wearing protective clothing and insect repellent when outdoors, and conducting regular tick checks.

In animals, VS can cause similar symptoms such as fever, loss of appetite, and skin lesions. In severe cases, it can lead to death. VS in animals is usually diagnosed through laboratory tests, and there is no specific treatment available. Prevention measures are similar to those for humans, including avoiding contact with infected ticks, using tick repellents, and conducting regular tick checks.

Recurrence can also refer to the re-emergence of symptoms in a previously treated condition, such as a chronic pain condition that returns after a period of remission.

In medical research, recurrence is often studied to understand the underlying causes of disease progression and to develop new treatments and interventions to prevent or delay its return.

Example sentences:

1. The rhabdoviridae infections in cattle can cause significant economic losses for farmers, as they can lead to reduced milk production and mortality rates.
2. Scientists are working on developing vaccines against rhabdoviridae infections in pigs, which could help reduce the risk of disease transmission to humans.

The symptoms of LCM can vary depending on the severity of the infection, but they typically include fever, headache, neck stiffness, and sensitivity to light. In severe cases, LCM can cause meningitis, encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), and even death.

The diagnosis of LCM is based on a combination of clinical symptoms, laboratory tests, and imaging studies such as MRI or CT scans. Laboratory tests may include blood tests to detect the presence of antibodies against the virus, as well as tests to assess liver function and other organ systems.

Treatment of LCM typically involves supportive care, such as intravenous fluids, oxygen therapy, and pain management. Antiviral medications may also be used in some cases. In severe cases, hospitalization may be required to monitor and treat the patient.

Prevention of LCM primarily involves avoiding contact with infected rodents, particularly during pregnancy and childhood when the risk of infection is higher. Good hygiene practices, such as frequent handwashing, can also help reduce the risk of transmission. Vaccines are not available for LCM, but research is ongoing to develop one.

The prognosis for LCM varies depending on the severity of the infection and the promptness and effectiveness of treatment. In general, the outcome is good for patients with mild symptoms, but those with severe infections may experience long-term neurological problems or death.

The symptoms of Arenaviridae infections can vary depending on the specific virus causing the infection, but they may include:

* Fever
* Headache
* Muscle pain
* Joint pain
* Sore throat
* Swollen lymph nodes
* Rash
* Seizures
* Meningitis
* Encephalitis (inflammation of the brain)

Some Arenaviridae infections can be transmitted to humans through contact with infected rodents or other animals, while others are spread by blood transfusions or organ transplantation. There is no specific treatment for Arenaviridae infections, and treatment is primarily focused on relieving symptoms and managing complications.

Examples of Arenaviridae infections include:

* Lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCMV)
* Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE)
* Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE)
* Western equine encephalitis (WEE)
* Sabia virus infection

It's important to note that Arenaviridae infections can be severe and potentially life-threatening, so if you suspect you or someone else may have been infected, it's important to seek medical attention immediately.

Vaccinia is most commonly associated with smallpox, which is caused by a similar virus and was eradicated in the late 1970s through widespread vaccination. However, there have been occasional outbreaks of vaccinia in the United States and other countries since then, often linked to laboratory accidents or deliberate releases of the virus.

The treatment of vaccinia typically involves supportive care, such as rest, hydration, and antipyretic medications to reduce fever. Antiviral medications may also be used in some cases. Prevention of the disease relies on avoiding contact with infected animals or people, and on following proper infection control practices in laboratory and healthcare settings.

Vaccinia is a serious viral infection that can have severe consequences if left untreated. It is important to seek medical attention immediately if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

Viremia is a condition where the virus is present in the bloodstream, outside of infected cells or tissues. This can occur during the acute phase of an infection, when the virus is actively replicating and spreading throughout the body. Viremia can also be seen in chronic infections, where the virus may persist in the blood for longer periods of time.

In some cases, viremia can lead to the development of antibodies against the virus, which can help to neutralize it and prevent its spread. However, if the viremia is not controlled, it can cause serious complications, such as sepsis or organ damage.

Diagnosis of viremia typically involves laboratory tests, such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction) or ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay), which can detect the presence of virus in the blood. Treatment of viremia depends on the underlying cause and may include antiviral medications, supportive care, and management of any related complications.

Alphaviruses are a group of viruses that cause a range of diseases, including arthritis, encephalitis, and fever. These viruses are typically found in tropical and subtropical regions of the world and are transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes or other insects.

There are several different types of alphaviruses, including:

* Chikungunya virus (CHIKV)
* Sindbis virus (SINV)
* Ross River virus (RRV)
* Barmah Forest virus (BFV)

The symptoms of alphavirus infections can vary depending on the specific type of virus and the severity of the infection. Common symptoms include:

* Fever
* Headache
* Muscle and joint pain
* Swelling and inflammation
* Rash
* Fatigue
* Weakness

In some cases, alphavirus infections can lead to more serious complications, such as meningitis or encephalitis (inflammation of the brain). These complications are more likely to occur in older adults or people with weakened immune systems.

There is no specific treatment for alphavirus infections, but symptoms can be managed with over-the-counter pain relievers, fever reducers, and anti-inflammatory medications. Rest, hydration, and supportive care may also be recommended. Prevention is key to avoiding alphavirus infections, and this includes protecting against mosquito bites by using insect repellents, wearing protective clothing, and staying in air-conditioned or screened areas. Vaccines are also being developed to protect against some of the most common types of alphaviruses.

Interferon-inducing antiviral agents". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 28 (12): 1864-9. doi:10.1021/jm00150a018. PMID 2999405. ... Bropirimine is an experimental drug with anti-cancer and antiviral properties.[citation needed] It is an orally effective ... Akaza H, Kotake T, Machida T (August 1998). "Bropirimine, an orally active anticancer agent for superficial bladder cancer". ... Chemistry of the immunomodulatory agent bropirimine". Anti-Cancer Drug Design. 10 (3): 215-26. PMID 7748456. v t e (Articles ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bropirimine

"Antiviral Agent and Antiviral Composition". Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diospyros. Wikispecies has information ... Extracts from Diospyros plants have also been proposed as novel anti-viral treatment. Though bees do not play a key role as ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diospyros

Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections; antiviral agents treat viral infections; and antifungal agents treat fungal ... Infectious diseases specialists employ a variety of antimicrobial agents to help treat infections. The type of antimicrobial ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)

"Pathogenic Molluscum Contagiosum Virus Sequenced". Antiviral Agents Bulletin: 196-7. August 1996. Retrieved 16 July 2006. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poxviridae

"Pandemic Influenza: Use of Antiviral Agents". Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy (CIDRAP). Butler D (2005). " ... Other anti-viral drugs are less likely to be effective against pandemic influenza. Both Tamiflu and Relenza are in short supply ... Due to the high rate of side effects and risk of antiviral resistance, use of adamantanes to fight influenza is limited. Many ... Antiviral drugs can be used to treat influenza, with neuraminidase inhibitors being particularly effective.[citation needed] ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_pandemic

April 2020). "Discovery and development of safe-in-man broad-spectrum antiviral agents". International Journal of Infectious ... Broad-spectrum antivirals (BSAs) are a class of molecules or compounds, which inhibit the replication of a broad range of ... García-Serradilla M, Risco C, Pacheco B (April 2019). "Drug repurposing for new, efficient, broad spectrum antivirals". Virus ... Articles with short description, Short description is different from Wikidata, Antiviral drugs, Viruses). ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad-spectrum_antiviral_drug

"Lichen secondary metabolites as possible antiviral agents". In Ranković, Branislav (ed.). Lichen Secondary Metabolites. ... Alectorialic acid has been investigated for its antiviral properties. A study of the growth rates of various lichens consumed ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gowardia_nigricans

Antiviral agents act by inhibiting viral DNA replication. There is little evidence to support the use of antivirals such as ... Antivirals are expensive, risk causing resistance to antiviral agents, and (in 1% to 10% of cases) can cause unpleasant side ... De Paor, M; O'Brien, K; Fahey, T; Smith, SM (8 December 2016). "Antiviral agents for infectious mononucleosis (glandular fever ... De Paor M, O'Brien K, Smith SM (2016). "Antiviral agents for infectious mononucleosis (glandular fever)". The Cochrane Database ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_mononucleosis

... is an NS5A inhibitor antiviral agent. In the United States and Europe, it is approved for use with glecaprevir as ... May 2017). "In Vitro Antiviral Activity and Resistance Profile of the Next-Generation Hepatitis C Virus NS5A Inhibitor ... Antiinfective agent stubs, NS5A inhibitors, Fluoroarenes, Benzimidazoles, AbbVie brands, Carbamates). ... Pibrentasvir". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 61 (5): e02558-16. doi:10.1128/AAC.02558-16. PMC 5404558. PMID 28193664. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pibrentasvir

Antiviral agents act by inhibiting viral DNA replication, but as of 2016[update], there was little evidence that they are ... De Paor M, O'Brien K, Smith SM (2016). "Antiviral agents for infectious mononucleosis (glandular fever)". The Cochrane Database ... they risk causing resistance to antiviral agents, and (in 1% to 10% of cases) can cause unpleasant side effects. Several ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epstein–Barr_virus_vaccine

... is also a possible antiviral agent. It causes the death of cells infected with HIV and preventing the replication of ... Antiviral Research. 61 (1): 1-18. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2003.09.004. PMID 14670589. Pumfery A, de la Fuente C, Berro R, ... Agbottah E, de La Fuente C, Nekhai S, Barnett A, Gianella-Borradori A, Pumfery A, Kashanchi F (28 January 2005). "Antiviral ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seliciclib

... and Antiviral drugs against multiple viral agents. Some vaccines also have applicability for diseases of domestic animals (e.g ... In 1997, United States law formally defined weaponizable bio-agents as "Biological Select Agents or Toxins" (BSATs) - or simply ... Biological agents have been used in warfare for centuries to produce death or disease in humans, animals, or plants. The United ... A "Select Agent Program" (SAP) was established to satisfy requirements of the USA PATRIOT Act of 2001 and the Public Health ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_biological_defense_program

Antiviral agents act by inhibiting viral DNA replication, but there is little evidence that they are effective against Epstein- ... Moreover, they are expensive, risk causing resistance to antiviral agents, and (in 1% to 10% of cases) can cause unpleasant ... De Paor M, O'Brien K, Smith SM (2016). "Antiviral agents for infectious mononucleosis (glandular fever)". The Cochrane Database ... 2014). "The role of EBV in the pathogenesis of Burkitt's Lymphoma: an Italian hospital based survey". Infectious Agents and ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epstein–Barr_virus

"Mucin biopolymers as broad-spectrum antiviral agents". Biomacromolecules. 13 (6): 1724-1732. doi:10.1021/bm3001292. ISSN 1526- ... purified foreign mucins can prevent viruses from infecting cells and suggested that they could be used to supplement the anti-viral ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katharina_Ribbeck

Shannon WM, Schabel FM (1980). "Antiviral agents as adjuncts in cancer chemotherapy". Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 11 (2): 263- ... implications for mitochondrial toxicity of antiviral nucleoside analogs". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 58 (11): 6758- ... Some antiviral drugs, such as acyclovir (ATC: J05AB01) and ganciclovir (ATC: J05AB06) as well as other nucleoside analogs make ... Thymidine kinase is required for the action of many antiviral drugs. It is used to select hybridoma cell lines in production of ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thymidine_kinase

... a first-in-class broad-spectrum antiviral agent". Antiviral Res. 110: 94-103. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2014.07.014. PMC 7113776 ... Antiviral resistance has been reported in antivirals for herpes, HIV, hepatitis B and C, and influenza, but antiviral ... A ribozyme antiviral to deal with hepatitis C has been suggested, and ribozyme antivirals are being developed to deal with HIV ... Antiviral drugs are a class of medication used for treating viral infections. Most antivirals target specific viruses, while a ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral_drug

It is also used as an antiviral agent. It is currently marketed, by United Phosphorus Ltd - UPL, as "Asulox" which contains 400 ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asulam

Novel antiviral agents to prevent and treat infection with the viruses responsible for HFMD are currently under development. ... Pourianfar HR, Grollo L (February 2014). "Development of antiviral agents toward enterovirus 71 infection". J Microbiol Immunol ... No antiviral medication or vaccine is available, but development efforts are underway. For fever and for painful mouth sores, ... Preliminary studies have shown inhibitors of the EV-71 viral capsid to have potent antiviral activity. Kaminska, K; Martinetti ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand,_foot,_and_mouth_disease

August 2020). "Repurposing old drugs as antiviral agents for coronaviruses". Biomedical Journal. 43 (4): 368-374. doi:10.1016/j ... Antimalarial agents, Antiprotozoal agents, 1,4-Naphthoquinones, Chloroarenes, GSK plc brands, Hydroxynaphthoquinones). ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atovaquone

There is thus obtained the antiviral agent edoxudine 4. Hamuy R, Berman B (December 1998). "Topical antiviral agents for herpes ... Edoxudine (or edoxudin) is an antiviral drug. It is an analog of thymidine, a nucleoside. It has shown effectiveness against ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edoxudine

Moghadamtousi, Soheil; Nikzad, Sonia; Kadir, Habsah; Abubakar, Sazaly; Zandi, Keivan (2015-07-22). "Potential Antiviral Agents ... The antiviral properties of marine fungi were realized in 1988 after their compounds were used to successfully treat the H1N1 ... Marine fungi produce antiviral and antibacterial compounds as metabolites with upwards of 1,000 having realized and potential ... In addition to H1N1, antiviral compounds isolated from marine fungi have been shown to have virucidal effects on HIV, herpes ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_fungi

De Clercq E (April 2002). "Highlights in the development of new antiviral agents". Mini Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry. 2 (2): ... Antiviral drugs, All stub articles, Antiinfective agent stubs). ... Mozenavir (DMP-450) is an antiviral drug which was developed as ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozenavir

ISBN 978-0-8247-7298-7. Rayman MP (November 2020). "Iodine and Selenium as Antiviral Agents: Potential Relevance to SARS-CoV-2 ... Finally lactoperoxidase may find application as anti-tumor and anti viral agents. Lactoperoxidase has been used with ... Lactoperoxidase is an effective antimicrobial and antiviral agent. Consequently, applications of lactoperoxidase are being ... Lactoperoxidase is an effective antimicrobial agent and is used as an antibacterial agent in reducing bacterial microflora in ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactoperoxidase

De Clercq E (2002). "Highlights in the development of new antiviral agents". Mini Rev Med Chem. 2 (2): 163-75. doi:10.2174/ ... Agents Chemother. 37 (2): 153-8. doi:10.1128/aac.37.2.153. PMC 187630. PMID 8452343. Skett P, Gibson GG (2001). "Chapter 3: ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme

Snell, N. J. (1 August 2001). "Ribavirin--current status of a broad spectrum antiviral agent". Expert Opinion on ... In 1972, ICN discovered the ribavirin compound, the earliest recorded broad spectrum antiviral agent. Chemists Joseph T. ... "Broad-Spectrum Antiviral Activity of Virazole: 1-f8- D-Ribofuranosyl- 1,2,4-triazole- 3-carboxamide". Science. 177 (4050): 705- ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_Panić

Marriott AC, Dimmock NJ (January 2010). "Defective interfering viruses and their potential as antiviral agents". Reviews in ... Antiviral Research. 96 (3): 376-385. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2012.09.017. PMC 3526778. PMID 23041142. Scott PD, Meng B, ... July 2021). "Antiviral Activity of Influenza A Virus Defective Interfering Particles against SARS-CoV-2 Replication In Vitro ... Given their unique R0>1 mechanism of action, TIPs exhibit high barriers to the evolution of antiviral resistance and are ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_interfering_particle

Currently treatment of ARN consists of antiviral therapy administered orally. Typical antiviral agents used include famciclovir ... Taking antiviral agents after the issue is resolved seems to lessen the chance of it spreading to the other eye. ... While there is no prevention for ARN, exposing a patient to antiviral agents in the earlier phases of the outbreak tend to ... The patients were not so responsive to the antiviral agents given to them through an IV, acyclovir specifically. The cases ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_retinal_necrosis

Marriott AC, Dimmock NJ (January 2010). "Defective interfering viruses and their potential as antiviral agents". Reviews in ... "A New Class of Antiviral Therapy Could Treat COVID-19". www.prnewswire.com. Retrieved 2021-12-28. Dimmock NJ, Easton AJ (May ... the interference in infection of host cells and how DI genomes could potentially work as immunostimulatory antiviral agents. ... December 2021). "Identification of a therapeutic interfering particle-A single-dose SARS-CoV-2 antiviral intervention with a ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defective_interfering_particle

Thus, protease inhibitors are developed as antiviral therapeutic agents. Other natural protease inhibitors are used as defense ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protease

... a first-in-class broad-spectrum antiviral agent". Antiviral Res. 110: 94-103. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2014.07.014. PMC 7113776 ... Antiviral Res. 77 (1): 56-63. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2007.08.005. PMID 17888524. "First Generic Drug Approvals". U.S. Food and ... Agents Chemother. 46 (7): 2116-23. doi:10.1128/aac.46.7.2116-2123.2002. PMC 127316. PMID 12069963. Nitazoxanide (NTZ) is a ... Nitazoxanide, sold under the brand name Alinia among others, is a broad-spectrum antiparasitic and broad-spectrum antiviral ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitazoxanide

When the camelpox virus is identified as the causative agent, the disease can be treated with anti-viral medications. The most ... In cases where TEM technology is not available, serological tests are available to identify camelpox as the causative agent for ... common medication used to treat camelpox is Cidofovir, a broad spectrum anti-viral that acts by inhibiting the viral DNA ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camelpox

Antiviral Res. 133: 14-22. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2016.07.006. PMC 5026924. PMID 27421712. Kobayashi M, Matsushima, Y, Motoya ... The norovirus was originally named the "Norwalk agent" after Norwalk, Ohio, in the United States, where an outbreak of acute ... "Norwalk agent" and "Norwalk virus", the virus has also been called "Norwalk-like virus", "small, round-structured viruses" ( ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norovirus

... (fluorothymidine) is an antiviral agent which was being developed by Medivir. It was discontinued after a Phase II ... Antiviral drugs, Pyrimidinediones, Organofluorides, Abandoned drugs, All stub articles, Antiinfective agent stubs). ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alovudine

In SARS-CoV, the causative agent of SARS, the N protein is 422 amino acid residues long and in SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent ... Antiviral Research. 103: 39-50. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.12.009. PMC 7113676. PMID 24418573. McBride, Ruth; van Zyl, ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_nucleocapsid_protein

... was being treated using a highly experimental anti-viral agent called GS5734, and had significantly improved, although she ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_Cafferkey

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_monkeypox_outbreak_in_North_America

97 patients were randomly assigned to one of the three groups: indinavir monotherapy, AZT and lamivudine, or all three agents. ... It is soluble white powder administered orally in combination with other antiviral drugs. The drug prevents protease from ... The study's goal was to show the different effects of different antiviral treatments. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indinavir

The term typically refers to the use of antiviral drugs as a strategy for the prevention of HIV/AIDS. PrEP is one of a number ... is the use of medications to prevent the spread of disease in people who have not yet been exposed to a disease-causing agent, ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-exposure_prophylaxis

The variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox, is also in this genus. Of the two types in humans, clade II (formerly West ... Antiviral drugs, cidofovir and tecovirimat, vaccinia immune globulin and the smallpox vaccine may be used during outbreaks. The ... Yang, Angelica Y. (28 May 2022). "No FDA approval yet for monkeypox antivirals - DOH". The Philippine Star. Archived from the ... The health department stated it is exploring potential sources of monkeypox vaccines and antivirals. Saudi Arabia: On 21 May, ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_monkeypox_outbreak

All interferons share several common effects: they are antiviral agents and they modulate functions of the immune system. ... Unconfirmed results suggested that the combination of interferon and an antiviral agent may speed the healing process compared ... Stringfellow D, Glasgow L (1972). "Tilorone hydrochloride: an oral interferon-inducing agent". Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2 ( ... Antiviral and antiproliferative effects specific to type I IFNs result from p38 MAP kinase signaling. The phosphatidylinositol ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon

They discovered several novel classes of cytostatic agents with nanomolar antitumor activities based on substituted or fused ... "Synthesis and Cytotoxic and Antiviral Profiling of Pyrrolo- and Furo-Fused 7-Deazapurine Ribonucleosides". J. Med. Chem. 61 (20 ... "Synthesis and Cytostatic and Antiviral Profiling of Thieno-Fused 7-Deazapurine Ribonucleosides". J. Med. Chem. 60 (6): 2411- ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michal_Hocek

Other agents that have been proposed to target polyomavirus BK, such as cidofovir, fluoroquinolones, leflunomide, and statins ... For polyomavirus BK, only the restoration of immunologic function and the subsequent reconstitution of cells with antiviral ... Also, some of these agents may cause severe long-lasting side effects.[citation needed] Huang, Gang; Chen, Li-Zhong; Qiu, Jiang ... In kidney transplant recipients who are treated with immunosuppressive agents, immunologic function can be treated by tapering ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoy_cells

Antiviral drugs, All stub articles, Antiinfective agent stubs). ... Antiviral Research. 149: 34-40. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2017.11 ... Li SF, Gong MJ, Shao JJ, Sun YF, Zhang YG, Chang HY (October 2019). "Antiviral activity of merimepodib against foot and mouth ... Arunachalam R, Kumar P M U (10 July 2020). "COVID-19: Clinical Trials and Potential Therapeutic Agents - A Narrative Review". ... This consequently inhibits synthesis of DNA and RNA, and results in antiviral and immunosuppressive effects. It progressed as ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merimepodib

... s have been investigated as possible anti-inflammatory agents and evaluated on their anti-cancer and anti-oxidant ... Several porphyrin-peptide conjugates were found to have antiviral activity against HIV in vitro. Although not commercialized, ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porphyrin

... the first antiviral agent approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, and discovered the anti-HIV effect of stavudine ( ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_School_of_Medicine

Antibacterial agents can be further subdivided into bactericidal agents, which kill bacteria, and bacteriostatic agents, which ... Like antibiotics, specific antivirals are used for specific viruses. They should be distinguished from viricides, which ... Agents that kill microbes are microbicides, while those that merely inhibit their growth are called bacteriostatic agents. The ... The main classes of antimicrobial agents are disinfectants (non-selective agents, such as bleach), which kill a wide range of ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_monkeypox_outbreak_in_Spain

Park's early foray into research (1975-1983) focused on the study of molecular mechanisms of numerous antiviral agents (e.g., ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-Hee_Park

Antiviral Research. 161: 116-124. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2018.11.005. PMID 30472161. S2CID 53763831. Kuhr RJ, Dorough HW (1976 ... Zhang L, He J, Bai L, Ruan S, Yang T, Luo Y (July 2021). "Ribosome-targeting antibacterial agents: Advances, challenges, and ... Antiviral drugs include protease inhibitors used to treat HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis C, reverse-transcriptase inhibitors targeting ... An example of such a transition state inhibitor is the antiviral drug oseltamivir; this drug mimics the planar nature of the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor

It has been suggested that the main antiviral program induced by RLR is based on ATPase activity. RLRs often interact and ... It recognizes and binds to repeated mannose units on the surfaces of infectious agents and its activation triggers endocytosis ... January 2010). "LGP2 is a positive regulator of RIG-I- and MDA5-mediated antiviral responses". Proceedings of the National ... December 2015). "Targeting Innate Immunity for Antiviral Therapy through Small Molecule Agonists of the RLR Pathway". Journal ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_recognition_receptor

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, she worked on antivirals for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Hsiung was the first to ... she had a dramatic influence on the recognition of viruses as etiologic agents of human disease. She continued her virology ... She developed animal models, especially the guinea pig, to study viral pathogenesis and test treatments by antivirals. Her ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._D._Hsiung

In 2011 Manchester University scientists showed that treating infected cells with antiviral agents decreased the accumulation ... 2,3-Bis(acetylmercaptomethyl)quinoxaline, an antiviral agent against HHV-1 Human alphaherpesvirus 2 Wikispecies has information ... Wozniak MA, Frost AL, Preston CM, Itzhaki RF (2011). "Antivirals Reduce the Formation of Key Alzheimer's Disease Molecules in ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_alphaherpesvirus_1

Method of using cold-adapted live influenza virus vaccine as an antiviral agent against influenza, retrieved 2016-01-26 Dowling ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Youngner

... as Ahmed Nazari Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (1 episode, 2018) as Qolpakc House of Cards (2 episodes, 2018) as Rafiq Nasser Moon ... Antiviral Film Project' Launches From Darwin Shaw, Will Hawkes [1] Bailey, David (2005) Bailey's Democracy. Thames and Hudson, ... The Antiviral Film Project (Webarchive template wayback links, EngvarB from November 2013, Use dmy dates from September 2020, ... Shaw is developing an international motion picture anthology titled The Antiviral Film Project. Shaw has modelled for the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin_Shaw

The genome of HPWMoV was shown to encode two suppressors of RNA silencing, to counter antiviral defense of the host wheat ... is the causative agent of High plains disease of maize and wheat. It is spread by wheat curl mite, Aceria tosichella, which ... Wheat mosaic virus (WMoV), the Causal Agent of High Plains Disease, is Present in Ohio Wheat Fields http://www.apsnet.org/ ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Plains_wheat_mosaic_emaravirus

doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2007.10.012. PMC 2810485. PMID 18093668. Klempa B, Witkowski PT, Popugaeva E, Auste B, Koivogui L, ... Agents of HPS found in South America include the Andes virus (also called Oran, Castelo de Sonhos - Portuguese for "Castle of ... Jonsson, Colleen B.; Hooper, Jay; Mertz, Gregory (2008-04-01). "Treatment of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome". Antiviral Research ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthohantavirus

That is, the majority of HHV-8-negative EBL cases do not evidence a potentially PEL causative agent, such as HIV, EBV, HCV, or ... Anti-viral drugs directed against Cytomegalovirus (i.e. cidofovir, ganciclovir, and valganciclovir) have been reported to ... The National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) guideline recommends treating HIV/AIDS-related PEL with antiviral therapy in ... individuals whose immune system is weakened and therefore less able to fight infectious agents and cancers. This weakening is ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_effusion_lymphoma

... famciclovir is effective at treating this infection in cats without the side effects reported with other anti-viral agents. ... There are no specific antiviral drugs in common use at this time for FVR, although one study has shown that ganciclovir, PMEDAP ... Van Der Meulen, K; Garré, B; Croubels, S; Nauwynck, H (2006). "In vitro comparison of antiviral drugs against feline ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feline_viral_rhinotracheitis

Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004 Jan;48(1):337-9 Janssen PA, Lewi PJ, Arnold E, Daeyaert F, de Jonge M, Heeres J, Koymans L, ... "Two groups of rhinoviruses revealed by a panel of antiviral compounds present sequence divergence and differential ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Lewi

Agents. 31 (3): 189-92. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2007.11.010. PMID 18248798. Abraham EP (1987). "Cephalosporins 1945-1986". ... "Gilead Sciences Statement on Expanding Global Supply of Investigational Antiviral Remdesivir , Gilead". Archived from the ... Approximately 400 tons of these agents are manufactured each year; this is enough to put approximately 9,000,000 people to ... Lv J, Perkovic V, Foote CV, Craig ME, Craig JC, Strippoli GF (2012). "Antihypertensive agents for preventing diabetic kidney ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry

Antiviral Agents for Influenza. Four licensed prescription influenza antiviral agents are available in the United States: ... Antiviral Agents for the Treatment and Chemoprophylaxis of Influenza: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization ... Influenza-testing and antiviral-agent prescribing practices---Connecticut, Minnesota, New Mexico, and New York, 2006--07 ... Oseltamivir or zanamivir are the primary antiviral agents recommended for the prevention and treatment of influenza (28,51,105 ...

https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr6001a1.htm?s_cid=rr6001a1_w

Antiviral Agents. Class Summary. Tecovirimat may be used under an expanded access investigational new drug (EA-IND) available ... Antiviral agent indicated for treatment of human smallpox disease caused by variola virus in adults and children who weigh at ... Antiviral agents (ie, tecovirimat, brincidofovir, cidofovir) are possible treatment options in severe, life-threatening cases. ... 46, 47] Smallpox preparedness research has led to the development of new antiviral agents for the treatment of orthopoxvirus ...

https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1134714-medication

... 0-9. A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. K. L. M. N. O. P. Q. R. S. T. U. V. ...

https://extranet.who.int/iris/restricted/handle/10665/197911/browse?authority=Antiviral+Agents&type=mesh

Can the dengue virus be prevented using antiviral agents such as antibiotics or vaccines? Before considering that step, ... Can antiviral agents help immune systems fight mosquito-borne dengue?. by Lourdes Mederos, University of Florida ... Citation: Can antiviral agents help immune systems fight mosquito-borne dengue? (2021, December 7) retrieved 27 May 2023 from ... Can the dengue virus be prevented using antiviral agents such as antibiotics or vaccines? Before considering that step, ...

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2021-12-antiviral-agents-immune-mosquito-borne-dengue.html

Antiviral Agents Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) ... Because antiviral agents taken prophylactically may prevent illness but not subclinical infection, some persons who take these ... The two antiviral agents with specific activity against influenza A viruses are amantadine hydrochloride and rimantadine ... Prevention and Control of Influenza: Part II, Antiviral Agents Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization ...

https://wonder.cdc.gov/wonder/prevguid/m0035666/m0035666.asp

85, 86] In comparison with antiviral agents alone, the combined regimen was were found to accelerate the resolution of acute ... Antiviral agents. Many studies have found acyclovir and its derivatives (valacyclovir, famciclovir, penciclovir, and ... Corticosteroids (see above) and antiviral agents (see below) have also been shown to accelerate the resolution of zoster- ... Patients without such risk factors can be treated with oral antiviral agents. Data on adjunctive therapy with corticosteroids ...

https://www.medscape.com/answers/1132465-41040/why-should-corticosteroids-use-for-the-treatment-of-herpes-zoster-shingles-be-limited

Some antiviral and antineoplastic agents and other pharmaceutical agents : views and expert opinions of an IARC Working Group ... Some Antiviral and Antineoplastic Agents and other Pharmaceutical Agents (1999: Lyon, France) , International Agency for ... Antiviral agents and viral diseases of man / editors, George J. Galasso, Thomas C. Merigan, Robert A. Buchanan. by Galasso, ... Viral vaccines and antiviral drugs : report of a WHO scientific group [meeting held in London from 5 to 9 July 1982] by WHO ...

https://kohahq.searo.who.int/cgi-bin/koha/opac-search.pl?q=su:%7BAntiviral%20agents%7D

Impact of antiviral therapy with direct acting antiviral agents (DAAs) on kidney disease in patients with chronic hepatitis C. ... Impact of antiviral therapy with direct acting antiviral agents (DAAs) on kidney disease i ... The availability of safe and effective drugs (direct-acting antiviral agents) for HCV eradication supports this approach. Novel ... One method to analyze the relationship between anti-HCV status and CKD is to evaluate the impact of anti-HCV antiviral therapy ...

https://pesquisa.bvsalud.org/portal/resource/pt/mdl-33793155

Sharon R. Lewin gives expert insight on IV and oral antiviral agents for nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19, from Clinical ... Hear expert insights on the use of IV and oral antiviral agents for the treatment of nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19. ... the Claimant has a good faith belief that use of the disputed material is not authorized by the copyright owner or his agent; ...

https://clinicaloptions.com/CE-CME/infectious-disease/antivirals:-nonhospitalized/100004287

Nanoparticle-assisted Small Molecules as Broadly Active Antiviral Agents. *Freiberg, Alexander (PI) ...

https://researchexperts.utmb.edu/en/projects/nanoparticle-assisted-small-molecules-as-broadly-active-antiviral

Commercially available antiviral agents tested, source and starting concentration. Antiviral agent. Source. Highest ... Inhibition of SARS Coronavirus Infection In Vitro with Clinically Approved Antiviral Drugs Emily L.C. Tan*, Eng Eong Ooi†, Chin ... Inhibition of SARS Coronavirus Infection In Vitro with Clinically Approved Antiviral Drugs. ...

https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/content/10/4/581-t1.htm

Antiviral Agents. Anti-Infective Agents. Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors. Nucleic Acid Synthesis Inhibitors. Enzyme Inhibitors ...

https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00158717

Antiviral agents. Perhaps the greatest excitement has been generated by the use of antiretroviral therapy for prevention, as a ... Although treatment with antiviral agents has proven a very effective way to improve the health and survival of infected ... This CD8+ T cell noncytotoxic antiviral response is mediated by a novel, but undefined, CD8+ T cell antiviral factor known as ... administration of a combination of the antiviral agents tenofovir and emtricitabine to rhesus macaques provided complete ...

https://www.jci.org/articles/view/34706

Antidepressive Agents / therapeutic use * Antiviral Agents / therapeutic use * Chickenpox / physiopathology * Chickenpox / ...

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18657721/

Antiviral Agents [‎6]‎. Awards and Prizes [‎6]‎. Biomedical Technology [‎12]‎. Breast Feeding [‎18]‎. ...

https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/19975/browse?type=mesh

Pharmacological Actions : Anti-Bacterial Agents, Anti-Infective Agents, Antifungal Agents, Antiviral Agents, Immunomodulatory ... Pharmacological Actions : Antiviral Agents, Cardioprotective, Immunomodulatory, Neuroprotective Agents. Additional Keywords : ... H. cordata has much potential for the development of antiviral agents against coronavirus and dengue infections.Jan 01, 2016. ... Flavonoids display significant antiviral activity, including against coronavirus.Jul 01, 1990. Click here to read the entire ...

https://greenmedinfo.com/disease/coronavirus-disease

Antiviral agents Developing antiviral agents is a huge undertaking, not just because of the many types of viruses that plague ... These materials are used for various purposes, such as sensing, antiviral agents, pharmaceuticals, and pavement engineering. ... In addition to the usual suspects, there is a host of innovative and promising antiviral compounds on the horizon. Among the ... Concrete Foaming Agent, Superplasticizer, and other additives for CLC Blocks - Cie-China.ORG ...

https://www.robocup2009.org/News/Application-of-Nanomaterials-and-NbC-Powder-introduction.html

Special Issue in Molecules: Recent Advances in the Development of Antiviral Agents. Special Issue in Medicina: Features of ... Special Issue in Viruses: Novel Antiviral Agents: Synthesis, Molecular Modelling Studies and Biological Investigation. ... Special Issue in Pathogens: Coronaviruses and Other Human Respiratory Viruses from "Regular" Circulating Agents to Emerging ... Interests: virus evolution; macrophages; HIV pathogenesis; antivirals; HIV chemotherapy; neuroAIDS; mechanisms of virus entry; ...

https://www.mdpi.com/journal/covid/editors

Harvoni belongs to the class of medicines known as hepatitis C antivirals. It may also be called a combination antiviral agent. ... acid-reducing agents, such as antacids (eg, aluminum and magnesium hydroxide), H2 receptor antagonists (eg, famotidine), and ...

https://www.drugs.com/tips/harvoni-patient-tips

Categories: Antiviral Agents Image Types: Photo, Illustrations, Video, Color, Black&White, PublicDomain, CopyrightRestricted 34 ...

https://phil.cdc.gov/AdvancedSearchResults.aspx?Search=Antiviral+Agents&parentid=3062&catid=3239

No effective antiviral agents yet exist to treat dengue infection and treatment therefore remains supportive2. Furthermore, no ... Exploring scenarios of chikungunya mitigation with a data-driven agent-based model of the 2014-2016 outbreak in Colombia. 15 ...

https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12060?error=cookies_not_supported&code=2a6d518b-9871-43dc-b2db-d3b740012b6d

... treatment with antiviral agents should be considered. ... If possible, anticholinesterase agents should be withdrawn at ... Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Agents (NSAIDS): Concomitant use of aspirin (or other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents) and ... As sodium retention with resultant edema and potassium loss may occur in patients receiving corticosteroids, these agents ... Amphotericin B injection and potassium-depleting agents: When corticosteroids are administered concomitantly with potassium- ...

https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/lookup.cfm?setid=f2b491db-ffce-4742-a164-5f094b4ad772

They may also discuss the investigational use of other influenza antiviral agents such as Baloxivir. Dr. Munoz would like to ... While early use of antiviral drugs in children can reduce the duration of symptoms and prevent serious complications, ... Dawood and Munoz who may discuss Neuraminidase inhibitor medications (antivirals) which are FDA approved only for the treatment ... What Clinicians Need to Know About the New Oral Antiviral Medications for COVID-19 ...

https://emergency.cdc.gov/coca/calls/2020/callinfo_100820.asp

Antiviral agent; diarylpyrimidine non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) of HIV-1 ... Applies only to oral form of both agents. Modify Therapy/Monitor Closely. Concurrent use, may cause treatment failure and/or ... Applies only to oral form of both agents. Modify Therapy/Monitor Closely. Concurrent use, may cause treatment failure and/or ... Applies only to oral form of both agents. Modify Therapy/Monitor Closely. Concurrent use, may cause treatment failure and/or ...

http://reference.medscape.com/drug/edurant-rilpivirine-999657

... there have been significant advances in the development of antiviral agents with improved efficacy against HCV.1 This new ...

https://wwwn.cdc.gov/Nchs/Nhanes/2015-2016/HEPC_I.htm

Ashfaq, U.A., Masoud, M.S., Nawaz, Z., and Riazuddin, S. (2011). Glycyrrhizin as antiviral agent against Hepatitis C Virus. ... Harada, S. (2005). The broad anti-viral agent glycyrrhizin directly modulates the fluidity of plasma membrane and HIV-1 ... 2013). Antiviral activity of glycyrrhizin against hepatitis C virus in vitro. PloS One 8, e68992.. Mego, M. (2002). Telomerase ... Hill, G.M., Moriarity, D.M., and Setzer, W.N. (2011). Attenuation of Cytotoxic Natural Product DNA Intercalating Agents by ...

https://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/cgi-bin/gs32/gsweb.cgi/login?o=dnclcdr&s=id=%22102CGU05114012%22.&searchmode=basic

Hepatitis C virologic response in hepatitis B and C coinfected persons treated with directly acting antiviral agents: Results ... assuming antiviral treatment drug costs remain at ,$894 per year. Antiviral treatment drug costs would need to rise to $9,692 a ... Antiviral therapy was associated with viral suppression, HBsAg loss, normalization of ALT levels, and HBeAg loss. Antiviral ... Although treatment is not considered curative, antiviral treatment, monitoring, and liver cancer surveillance can reduce ...

https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/rr/rr7201a1.htm?s_cid=rr7201a1_ww

The literature indicates that this anti-malarial has broad-spectrum antiviral activity. (who.int)
Identification of alpha-linolenic acid as a broad-spectrum antiviral against zika, dengue, herpes simplex, influenza virus and SARS-CoV-2 infection. (bvsalud.org)
ALA is a promising broad-spectrum antiviral agent . (bvsalud.org)

Because antiviral agents taken prophylactically may prevent illness but not subclinical infection, some persons who take these drugs may still develop immune responses that will protect them when they are exposed to antigenically related viruses in later years. (cdc.gov)
Progress in the development and use of antiviral drugs and interferon : report of a WHO Scientific Group [meeting held in Geneva from 10 to 13 March 1987]. (who.int)
The availability of safe and effective drugs (direct-acting antiviral agents ) for HCV eradication supports this approach. (bvsalud.org)
Influenza antiviral prescription drugs can be used to treat influenza or to prevent influenza. (cdc.gov)
These drugs are chemically related antiviral medications known as neuraminidase inhibitors that have activity against both influenza A and B viruses. (cdc.gov)
Amantadine and rimantadine are antiviral drugs in a class of medications known as adamantanes. (cdc.gov)
While early use of antiviral drugs in children can reduce the duration of symptoms and prevent serious complications, immunization remains the most effective way to prevent influenza and its complications, including death. (cdc.gov)
Hazardous drugs can include those used for cancer therapy, some antiviral drugs, hormone agents, and bioengineered drugs. (cdc.gov)
Some classes of drugs are more hazardous than others and, as a group, antineoplastic drugs have been shown in animal studies to be some of the most potent teratogenic agents known, at doses typically used in cancer treatment. (cdc.gov)

This report contains information on treatment and chemoprophylaxis of influenza virus infection and provides a summary of the effectiveness and safety of antiviral treatment medications. (cdc.gov)

The two antiviral agents with specific activity against influenza A viruses are amantadine hydrochloride and rimantadine hydrochloride. (cdc.gov)
Therefore, amantadine and rimantadine are not recommended for antiviral treatment or chemoprophylaxis of currently circulating influenza A viruses. (cdc.gov)

Can the dengue virus be prevented using antiviral agents such as antibiotics or vaccines? (medicalxpress.com)

Impact of antiviral therapy with direct acting antiviral agents (DAAs) on kidney disease in patients with chronic hepatitis C. (bvsalud.org)
In 2018, WHO's updated 2018 guidelines recommended therapy with pan-genotypic direct-acting antivirals (DAAs). (who.int)

The information on this page should be considered current for the 2016-2017 influenza season for clinical practice regarding the use of influenza antiviral medications. (cdc.gov)
The use of antiviral medications depends on the severity of the lesions. (contemporarypediatrics.com)

Antiviral chemotherapy : new directions for clinical application and research, proceedings of the Conference New Directions in Antiviral Chemotherapy, held in San Francisco, November 4-6, 1985 / editors, John Mills, Lawrence Corey. (who.int)
by Conference New Directions in Antiviral Chemotherapy (1985: San Francisco, Calif. (who.int)

Antiviral resistance to oseltamivir, zanamivir, and peramivir among circulating influenza viruses is currently low, but this can change. (cdc.gov)
A 75 mg capsule of oseltamivir (Tamiflu) twice per day for 5 days is the recommended first choice antiviral. (medlineplus.gov)

These recommendations provide information about two antiviral agents: amantadine hydrochloride and rimantadine hydrochloride. (cdc.gov)

and 6) consideration of antiviral treatment for outpatients with confirmed or suspected influenza who do not have known risk factors for severe illness, if treatment can be initiated within 48 hours of illness onset. (cdc.gov)
[ 46 , 47 ] Smallpox preparedness research has led to the development of new antiviral agents for the treatment of orthopoxvirus infections. (medscape.com)
Antiviral agent indicated for treatment of human smallpox disease caused by variola virus in adults and children who weigh at least 13 kg. (medscape.com)
Hear expert insights on the use of IV and oral antiviral agents for the treatment of nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19. (clinicaloptions.com)
Although treatment with antiviral agents has proven a very effective way to improve the health and survival of infected individuals, as we discuss here, the epidemic will continue to grow unless greatly improved prevention strategies can be developed and implemented. (jci.org)
Also, antiviral resistance can emerge during or after treatment in some patients (e.g., immunosuppressed). (cdc.gov)
Although treatment is not considered curative, antiviral treatment, monitoring, and liver cancer surveillance can reduce morbidity and mortality. (cdc.gov)
Typically, the earlier antiviral agents are started, the better the treatment response. (contemporarypediatrics.com)
This early increase in disease incidence highlights the importance of optimizing respiratory virus prevention and treatment measures, including prompt vaccination and antiviral treatment, as outlined below. (cdc.gov)

Can antiviral agents help immune systems fight mosquito-borne dengue? (medicalxpress.com)
Scientists gained much-needed insight into the physiology of the species, its immune system response to agents against the dengue virus, and their next steps to develop new control strategies to keep people from getting the disease. (medicalxpress.com)
The researchers introduce the agents to determine if they would activate or suppress, respectively, the autophagy pathway in an Aedes aegypti cell line that was infected with the dengue virus. (medicalxpress.com)

Developing antiviral agents is a huge undertaking, not just because of the many types of viruses that plague humankind, but also because of the vast amount of biochemical complexity and genetic diversity among the various viruses. (robocup2009.org)
Antiviral Drug-Resistance among Influenza Viruses. (cdc.gov)

Developments in antiviral therapy / edited by L. H. Collier, J. Oxford. (who.int)
One method to analyze the relationship between anti-HCV status and CKD is to evaluate the impact of anti-HCV antiviral therapy on the risk of CKD in the general population . (bvsalud.org)

However, several behavioral and structural strategies have made a difference - male circumcision provides substantial protection from sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV-1, and the application of antiretroviral agents for prevention holds great promise. (jci.org)

Harvoni belongs to the class of medicines known as hepatitis C antivirals. (drugs.com)
It is best to start antiviral medicines within the first 48 hours of developing symptoms, but antivirals can also be used after this time period. (medlineplus.gov)

The use of anti-viral cleaning agents, disinfectants and UV light is set to become commonplace. (hotel-online.com)

Previous Antivirals for influenza-Like Illness? (bmj.com)

RÉSUMÉ En Tunisie, la charge de la grippe a été estimée à partir des données de surveillance, en utilisant les paramètres épidémiologiques de la transmission avec les outils classiques de l'OMS et la modélisation mathématique. (who.int)

[ 54 , 55 ] These agents may be used under an expanded access investigational new drug (EA-IND) available from the CDC. (medscape.com)

If you have been around someone who has the flu, ask your provider if you need an antiviral drug. (medlineplus.gov)

This agent is made from vaccinia, which is related to, but different from, the virus that causes smallpox. (medscape.com)
Discovering an antiviral candidate from this pathway that may stop the transmission cycle would be an indication that the virus could be controlled at an earlier stage. (medicalxpress.com)
Also, based on the experiences with SARS-CoA and MERS-CoA, numerous antiviral agents and immunotherapies are being investigated for efficacy against the virus. (who.int)

Review recommendations about influenza antiviral use in children. (cdc.gov)

and 3) there have been significant advances in the development of antiviral agents with improved efficacy against HCV. (cdc.gov)

It may also be called a combination antiviral agent. (drugs.com)

Applies only to oral form of both agents. (medscape.com)

In addition to the usual suspects, there is a host of innovative and promising antiviral compounds on the horizon. (robocup2009.org)

Anatomy14

Organisms46

Diseases23

Chemicals and Drugs87

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment20

Phenomena and Processes38

Disciplines and Occupations1

Technology, Industry, Agriculture1

Information Science3

Health Care4

Geographicals1

Transduction of glioma cells using a high-titer retroviral vector system and their subsequent migration in brain tumors. (1/11278)

The bystander effect in the HSVtk/ganciclovir system and its relationship to gap junctional communication. (2/11278)

An antiviral mechanism of nitric oxide: inhibition of a viral protease. (3/11278)

Characterization of transgenic mice with targeted disruption of the catalytic domain of the double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase, PKR. (4/11278)

Infectious complications in 126 patients treated with high-dose chemotherapy and autologous peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. (5/11278)

Herpetic keratitis. Proctor Lecture. (6/11278)

Comparative study of the anti-human cytomegalovirus activities and toxicities of a tetrahydrofuran phosphonate analogue of guanosine and cidofovir. (7/11278)

Single-dose pharmacokinetics of a pleconaril (VP63843) oral solution in children and adolescents. Pediatric Pharmacology Research Unit Network. (8/11278)

Antiviral Agents

Virus Replication

Acyclovir

Organophosphonates

Rimantadine

Drug Resistance, Viral

Amantadine

Trifluridine

Oseltamivir

Viral Plaque Assay

Xenon

Nucleosides

Influenza, Human

Ribavirin

Zanamivir

Ganciclovir

Hepacivirus

Cell Line

Cytosine

Vero Cells

Virus Diseases

Foscarnet

Prodrugs

Interferon-alpha

HIV-1

Cercopithecus aethiops

Idoxuridine

Cytomegalovirus

Zalcitabine

Organophosphorus Compounds

RNA, Viral

Simplexvirus

Ribonucleosides

Viruses

Adenine

Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype

2-Aminopurine

Education, Graduate

Influenza B virus

Influenza A virus

Post-Exposure Prophylaxis

Orthomyxoviridae

Hepatitis B virus

Herpes Simplex

Zidovudine

Lamivudine

Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors

Pyrans

Viral Proteins

Inhibitory Concentration 50

Cytomegalovirus Infections

Hepatitis B, Chronic

Viral Nonstructural Proteins

Hepatitis C, Chronic

HIV

Herpesvirus 1, Human

Equilibrative Nucleoside Transporter 1

Vidarabine Phosphate

Xanthine

Molecular Sequence Data

DNA, Viral

Epstein-Barr Virus Nuclear Antigens

Drug Therapy, Combination

Virus Internalization

Drug Evaluation, Preclinical

Vidarabine

Cytopathogenic Effect, Viral

Herpesviridae

Hepatitis C

Viral Load

Neuraminidase

Herpesvirus 2, Human

Drug Design

Structure-Activity Relationship

Cells, Cultured

Eye Infections, Viral

Interferon-beta

Hepatitis B

Dideoxynucleosides

Myxovirus Resistance Proteins