Commonly known as parasitic worms, this group includes the ACANTHOCEPHALA; NEMATODA; and PLATYHELMINTHS. Some authors consider certain species of LEECHES that can become temporarily parasitic as helminths.
Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the ANTIGEN (or a very similar shape) that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially PLASMA CELLS).
Infestation with parasitic worms of the helminth class.
The treatment of patients without the use of allogeneic BLOOD TRANSFUSIONS or blood products.
The property of antibodies which enables them to react with some ANTIGENIC DETERMINANTS and not with others. Specificity is dependent on chemical composition, physical forces, and molecular structure at the binding site.
Immunoglobulins produced in response to VIRAL ANTIGENS.
The treatment of immune system diseases by deliberate infestation with helminths. This therapy is partly based on the HYGIENE HYPOTHESIS which states that the absence of parasites increases immune dysregulation because of the lack of stimulation of REGULATORY T-CELLS.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to BACTERIAL ANTIGENS.
Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.
Infections of the INTESTINES with PARASITES, commonly involving PARASITIC WORMS. Infections with roundworms (NEMATODE INFECTIONS) and tapeworms (CESTODE INFECTIONS) are also known as HELMINTHIASIS.
The production of ANTIBODIES by proliferating and differentiated B-LYMPHOCYTES under stimulation by ANTIGENS.
Antibodies that reduce or abolish some biological activity of a soluble antigen or infectious agent, usually a virus.
A genus of nematode worms comprising the whipworms.
Any part or derivative of a helminth that elicits an immune reaction. The most commonly seen helminth antigens are those of the schistosomes.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to HELMINTH ANTIGENS.
A superfamily of nematode parasitic hookworms consisting of four genera: ANCYLOSTOMA; NECATOR; Bunostomum; and Uncinaria. ANCYLOSTOMA and NECATOR occur in humans and other mammals. Bunostomum is common in ruminants and Uncinaria in wolves, foxes, and dogs.
A measure of the binding strength between antibody and a simple hapten or antigen determinant. It depends on the closeness of stereochemical fit between antibody combining sites and antigen determinants, on the size of the area of contact between them, and on the distribution of charged and hydrophobic groups. It includes the concept of "avidity," which refers to the strength of the antigen-antibody bond after formation of reversible complexes.
Agents destructive to parasitic worms. They are used therapeutically in the treatment of HELMINTHIASIS in man and animal.
Test for tissue antigen using either a direct method, by conjugation of antibody with fluorescent dye (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, DIRECT) or an indirect method, by formation of antigen-antibody complex which is then labeled with fluorescein-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin antibody (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, INDIRECT). The tissue is then examined by fluorescence microscopy.
The barrier between the perineurium of PERIPHERAL NERVES and the endothelium (ENDOTHELIUM, VASCULAR) of endoneurial CAPILLARIES. The perineurium acts as a diffusion barrier, but ion permeability at the blood-nerve barrier is still higher than at the BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER.
Antibodies which react with the individual structural determinants (idiotopes) on the variable region of other antibodies.
Local surface sites on antibodies which react with antigen determinant sites on antigens (EPITOPES.) They are formed from parts of the variable regions of FAB FRAGMENTS.
A species of intestinal nematode parasites which occur most commonly in mice. Infection is by ingesting larvae. This particular species is used extensively in immunological research.
Infections with nematodes of the order STRONGYLIDA.
Antibodies reactive with HIV ANTIGENS.
Infections by nematodes, general or unspecified.
Sites on an antigen that interact with specific antibodies.
Immunoglobulins induced by antigens specific for tumors other than the normally occurring HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to PROTOZOAN ANTIGENS.
A subclass of segmented worms comprising the tapeworms.
Autoantibodies directed against various nuclear antigens including DNA, RNA, histones, acidic nuclear proteins, or complexes of these molecular elements. Antinuclear antibodies are found in systemic autoimmune diseases including systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjogren's syndrome, scleroderma, polymyositis, and mixed connective tissue disease.
Determination of parasite eggs in feces.
Serological reactions in which an antiserum against one antigen reacts with a non-identical but closely related antigen.
A benzimidazole broad-spectrum anthelmintic structurally related to MEBENDAZOLE that is effective against many diseases. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p38)
A species of trematode blood flukes of the family Schistosomatidae. It is common in the Nile delta. The intermediate host is the planorbid snail. This parasite causes schistosomiasis mansoni and intestinal bilharziasis.
A class of immunoglobulin bearing mu chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN MU-CHAINS). IgM can fix COMPLEMENT. The name comes from its high molecular weight and originally being called a macroglobulin.
Antibodies that react with self-antigens (AUTOANTIGENS) of the organism that produced them.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to FUNGAL ANTIGENS.
A superfamily of nematodes of the suborder SPIRURINA. Its organisms possess a filiform body and a mouth surrounded by papillae.
Infections with unicellular organisms formerly members of the subkingdom Protozoa.
The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.
The measurement of infection-blocking titer of ANTISERA by testing a series of dilutions for a given virus-antiserum interaction end-point, which is generally the dilution at which tissue cultures inoculated with the serum-virus mixtures demonstrate cytopathology (CPE) or the dilution at which 50% of test animals injected with serum-virus mixtures show infectivity (ID50) or die (LD50).
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
A genus of trematode flukes belonging to the family Schistosomatidae. There are over a dozen species. These parasites are found in man and other mammals. Snails are the intermediate hosts.
The processes triggered by interactions of ANTIBODIES with their ANTIGENS.
Antibodies, often monoclonal, in which the two antigen-binding sites are specific for separate ANTIGENIC DETERMINANTS. They are artificial antibodies produced by chemical crosslinking, fusion of HYBRIDOMA cells, or by molecular genetic techniques. They function as the main mediators of targeted cellular cytotoxicity and have been shown to be efficient in the targeting of drugs, toxins, radiolabeled haptens, and effector cells to diseased tissue, primarily tumors.
Infections with nematodes of the superfamily FILARIOIDEA. The presence of living worms in the body is mainly asymptomatic but the death of adult worms leads to granulomatous inflammation and permanent fibrosis. Organisms of the genus Elaeophora infect wild elk and domestic sheep causing ischemic necrosis of the brain, blindness, and dermatosis of the face.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
Infections with true tapeworms of the helminth subclass CESTODA.
Infection with flukes (trematodes) of the genus SCHISTOSOMA. Three species produce the most frequent clinical diseases: SCHISTOSOMA HAEMATOBIUM (endemic in Africa and the Middle East), SCHISTOSOMA MANSONI (in Egypt, northern and southern Africa, some West Indies islands, northern 2/3 of South America), and SCHISTOSOMA JAPONICUM (in Japan, China, the Philippines, Celebes, Thailand, Laos). S. mansoni is often seen in Puerto Ricans living in the United States.
A genus of intestinal nematode parasites belonging to the superfamily HELIGMOSOMATOIDEA, which commonly occurs in rats but has been experimentally transmitted to other rodents and rabbits. Infection is usually through the skin.
Schistosomiasis caused by Schistosoma mansoni. It is endemic in Africa, the Middle East, South America, and the Caribbean and affects mainly the bowel, spleen, and liver.
A form of antibodies consisting only of the variable regions of the heavy and light chains (FV FRAGMENTS), connected by a small linker peptide. They are less immunogenic than complete immunoglobulin and thus have potential therapeutic use.
Excrement from the INTESTINES, containing unabsorbed solids, waste products, secretions, and BACTERIA of the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
Antibodies that inhibit the reaction between ANTIGEN and other antibodies or sensitized T-LYMPHOCYTES (e.g., antibodies of the IMMUNOGLOBULIN G class that compete with IGE antibodies for antigen, thereby blocking an allergic response). Blocking antibodies that bind tumors and prevent destruction of tumor cells by CYTOTOXIC T-LYMPHOCYTES have also been called enhancing antibodies. (Rosen et al., Dictionary of Immunology, 1989)
The complex formed by the binding of antigen and antibody molecules. The deposition of large antigen-antibody complexes leading to tissue damage causes IMMUNE COMPLEX DISEASES.
Univalent antigen-binding fragments composed of one entire IMMUNOGLOBULIN LIGHT CHAIN and the amino terminal end of one of the IMMUNOGLOBULIN HEAVY CHAINS from the hinge region, linked to each other by disulfide bonds. Fab contains the IMMUNOGLOBULIN VARIABLE REGIONS, which are part of the antigen-binding site, and the first IMMUNOGLOBULIN CONSTANT REGIONS. This fragment can be obtained by digestion of immunoglobulins with the proteolytic enzyme PAPAIN.
Class of parasitic flukes consisting of three subclasses, Monogenea, Aspidogastrea, and Digenea. The digenetic trematodes are the only ones found in man. They are endoparasites and require two hosts to complete their life cycle.
Antibodies elicited in a different species from which the antigen originated. These antibodies are directed against a wide variety of interspecies-specific antigens, the best known of which are Forssman, Hanganutziu-Deicher (H-D), and Paul-Bunnell (P-B). Incidence of antibodies to these antigens--i.e., the phenomenon of heterophile antibody response--is useful in the serodiagnosis, pathogenesis, and prognosis of infection and latent infectious states as well as in cancer classification.
Antibodies that can catalyze a wide variety of chemical reactions. They are characterized by high substrate specificity and share many mechanistic features with enzymes.
A species of helminth commonly called the sheep liver fluke. It occurs in the biliary passages, liver, and gallbladder during various stages of development. Snails and aquatic vegetation are the intermediate hosts. Occasionally seen in man, it is most common in sheep and cattle.
The relationship between an invertebrate and another organism (the host), one of which lives at the expense of the other. Traditionally excluded from definition of parasites are pathogenic BACTERIA; FUNGI; VIRUSES; and PLANTS; though they may live parasitically.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of helminths.
A common parasite of humans in the moist tropics and subtropics. These organisms attach to villi in the small intestine and suck blood causing diarrhea, anorexia, and anemia.
Infections caused by infestation with worms of the class Trematoda.
Subset of helper-inducer T-lymphocytes which synthesize and secrete the interleukins IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, and IL-10. These cytokines influence B-cell development and antibody production as well as augmenting humoral responses.
The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.
Represents 15-20% of the human serum immunoglobulins, mostly as the 4-chain polymer in humans or dimer in other mammals. Secretory IgA (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A, SECRETORY) is the main immunoglobulin in secretions.
An immunoglobulin associated with MAST CELLS. Overexpression has been associated with allergic hypersensitivity (HYPERSENSITIVITY, IMMEDIATE).
Antibodies from non-human species whose protein sequences have been modified to make them nearly identical with human antibodies. If the constant region and part of the variable region are replaced, they are called humanized. If only the constant region is modified they are called chimeric. INN names for humanized antibodies end in -zumab.
A form of fluorescent antibody technique commonly used to detect serum antibodies and immune complexes in tissues and microorganisms in specimens from patients with infectious diseases. The technique involves formation of an antigen-antibody complex which is labeled with fluorescein-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin antibody. (From Bennington, Saunders Dictionary & Encyclopedia of Laboratory Medicine and Technology, 1984)
The unconsolidated mineral or organic matter on the surface of the earth that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants.
Deliberate stimulation of the host's immune response. ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of ANTIGENS or IMMUNOLOGIC ADJUVANTS. PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of IMMUNE SERA or LYMPHOCYTES or their extracts (e.g., transfer factor, immune RNA) or transplantation of immunocompetent cell producing tissue (thymus or bone marrow).
Cells artificially created by fusion of activated lymphocytes with neoplastic cells. The resulting hybrid cells are cloned and produce pure MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES or T-cell products, identical to those produced by the immunologically competent parent cell.
A class of unsegmented helminths with fundamental bilateral symmetry and secondary triradiate symmetry of the oral and esophageal structures. Many species are parasites.
Serum that contains antibodies. It is obtained from an animal that has been immunized either by ANTIGEN injection or infection with microorganisms containing the antigen.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
Infections or infestations with parasitic organisms. They are often contracted through contact with an intermediate vector, but may occur as the result of direct exposure.
A parasite of carnivorous mammals that causes TRICHINELLOSIS. It is especially common in rats and in swine fed uncooked garbage. Human infection is initiated by the consumption of raw or insufficiently cooked pork or other meat containing the encysted larvae.
Amino acids with uncharged R groups or side chains.
Substances that are recognized by the immune system and induce an immune reaction.
Autoantibodies directed against phospholipids. These antibodies are characteristically found in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, SYSTEMIC;), ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID SYNDROME; related autoimmune diseases, some non-autoimmune diseases, and also in healthy individuals.
A species of parasitic nematode widely distributed in tropical and subtropical countries. The females and their larvae inhabit the mucosa of the intestinal tract, where they cause ulceration and diarrhea.
Infection with tapeworms of the genus Hymenolepis.
The study of parasites and PARASITIC DISEASES.
Substances elaborated by bacteria that have antigenic activity.
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
Immunologic techniques based on the use of: (1) enzyme-antibody conjugates; (2) enzyme-antigen conjugates; (3) antienzyme antibody followed by its homologous enzyme; or (4) enzyme-antienzyme complexes. These are used histologically for visualizing or labeling tissue specimens.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from INCIDENCE, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
A genus of nematodes of the superfamily ASCARIDOIDEA whose species usually inhabit the intestine.
A genus of large tapeworms.
Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blot transferring from the electrophoresis gel to strips of nitrocellulose paper, followed by labeling with antibody probes.
Antigens on surfaces of cells, including infectious or foreign cells or viruses. They are usually protein-containing groups on cell membranes or walls and may be isolated.
Infection of humans or animals with hookworms of the genus NECATOR. The resulting anemia from this condition is less severe than that from ANCYLOSTOMIASIS.
Transfer of immunity from immunized to non-immune host by administration of serum antibodies, or transplantation of lymphocytes (ADOPTIVE TRANSFER).
Infection with nematodes of the genus STRONGYLOIDES. The presence of larvae may produce pneumonitis and the presence of adult worms in the intestine could lead to moderate to severe diarrhea.
Lymphoid cells concerned with humoral immunity. They are short-lived cells resembling bursa-derived lymphocytes of birds in their production of immunoglobulin upon appropriate stimulation.
An infection with TRICHINELLA. It is caused by eating raw or undercooked meat that is infected with larvae of nematode worms TRICHINELLA genus. All members of the TRICHINELLA genus can infect human in addition to TRICHINELLA SPIRALIS, the traditional etiological agent. It is distributed throughout much of the world and is re-emerging in some parts as a public health hazard and a food safety problem.
A superfamily of strongyles or roundworms which are parasites in the intestinal tract of equines, pigs, rodents, and primates (including man). It includes the genera Cyasthostomum, Ransomus, Globocephalus, OESOPHAGOSTOMUM, and STRONGYLUS.
A technique using antibodies for identifying or quantifying a substance. Usually the substance being studied serves as antigen both in antibody production and in measurement of antibody by the test substance.
Partial immunoglobulin molecules resulting from selective cleavage by proteolytic enzymes or generated through PROTEIN ENGINEERING techniques.
A benzimidazole that acts by interfering with CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM and inhibiting polymerization of MICROTUBULES.
The genetic complement of a helminth (HELMINTHS) as represented in its DNA.
The sum of the weight of all the atoms in a molecule.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
Lymphocytes responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Two types have been identified - cytotoxic (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and helper T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, HELPER-INDUCER). They are formed when lymphocytes circulate through the THYMUS GLAND and differentiate to thymocytes. When exposed to an antigen, they divide rapidly and produce large numbers of new T cells sensitized to that antigen.
Substances elaborated by viruses that have antigenic activity.
Drugs used to treat or prevent parasitic infections.
Immunologic method used for detecting or quantifying immunoreactive substances. The substance is identified by first immobilizing it by blotting onto a membrane and then tagging it with labeled antibodies.
The smallest species of TAPEWORMS. It is the only cestode that parasitizes humans without requiring an intermediate host.
Classic quantitative assay for detection of antigen-antibody reactions using a radioactively labeled substance (radioligand) either directly or indirectly to measure the binding of the unlabeled substance to a specific antibody or other receptor system. Non-immunogenic substances (e.g., haptens) can be measured if coupled to larger carrier proteins (e.g., bovine gamma-globulin or human serum albumin) capable of inducing antibody formation.
Technique using an instrument system for making, processing, and displaying one or more measurements on individual cells obtained from a cell suspension. Cells are usually stained with one or more fluorescent dyes specific to cell components of interest, e.g., DNA, and fluorescence of each cell is measured as it rapidly transverses the excitation beam (laser or mercury arc lamp). Fluorescence provides a quantitative measure of various biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell, as well as a basis for cell sorting. Other measurable optical parameters include light absorption and light scattering, the latter being applicable to the measurement of cell size, shape, density, granularity, and stain uptake.
Electrophoresis in which a polyacrylamide gel is used as the diffusion medium.
A genus of nematode intestinal parasites that consists of several species. A. duodenale is the common hookworm in humans. A. braziliense, A. ceylonicum, and A. caninum occur primarily in cats and dogs, but all have been known to occur in humans.
An anthelmintic used in most schistosome and many cestode infestations.
Serologic tests based on inactivation of complement by the antigen-antibody complex (stage 1). Binding of free complement can be visualized by addition of a second antigen-antibody system such as red cells and appropriate red cell antibody (hemolysin) requiring complement for its completion (stage 2). Failure of the red cells to lyse indicates that a specific antigen-antibody reaction has taken place in stage 1. If red cells lyse, free complement is present indicating no antigen-antibody reaction occurred in stage 1.
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
A species of parasitic nematode usually found in domestic pigs and a few other animals. Human infection can also occur, presumably as result of handling pig manure, and can lead to intestinal obstruction.
Simultaneous infection of a host organism by two or more pathogens. In virology, coinfection commonly refers to simultaneous infection of a single cell by two or more different viruses.
Invertebrate organisms that live on or in another organism (the host), and benefit at the expense of the other. Traditionally excluded from definition of parasites are pathogenic BACTERIA; FUNGI; VIRUSES; and PLANTS; though they may live parasitically.
Infection with tapeworms of the genus Taenia.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
Sensitive tests to measure certain antigens, antibodies, or viruses, using their ability to agglutinate certain erythrocytes. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
Serologic tests in which a known quantity of antigen is added to the serum prior to the addition of a red cell suspension. Reaction result is expressed as the smallest amount of antigen which causes complete inhibition of hemagglutination.
Autoantibodies directed against cytoplasmic constituents of POLYMORPHONUCLEAR LEUKOCYTES and/or MONOCYTES. They are used as specific markers for GRANULOMATOSIS WITH POLYANGIITIS and other diseases, though their pathophysiological role is not clear. ANCA are routinely detected by indirect immunofluorescence with three different patterns: c-ANCA (cytoplasmic), p-ANCA (perinuclear), and atypical ANCA.
Liver disease caused by infections with parasitic flukes of the genus FASCIOLA, such as FASCIOLA HEPATICA.
That region of the immunoglobulin molecule that varies in its amino acid sequence and composition, and comprises the binding site for a specific antigen. It is located at the N-terminus of the Fab fragment of the immunoglobulin. It includes hypervariable regions (COMPLEMENTARITY DETERMINING REGIONS) and framework regions.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
A genus of small tapeworms of birds and mammals.
EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES based on the detection through serological testing of characteristic change in the serum level of specific ANTIBODIES. Latent subclinical infections and carrier states can thus be detected in addition to clinically overt cases.
Unique genetically-controlled determinants present on ANTIBODIES whose specificity is limited to a single group of proteins (e.g., another antibody molecule or an individual myeloma protein). The idiotype appears to represent the antigenicity of the antigen-binding site of the antibody and to be genetically codetermined with it. The idiotypic determinants have been precisely located to the IMMUNOGLOBULIN VARIABLE REGION of both immunoglobin polypeptide chains.
Techniques used to demonstrate or measure an immune response, and to identify or measure antigens using antibodies.
Administration of vaccines to stimulate the host's immune response. This includes any preparation intended for active immunological prophylaxis.
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
Infection by round worms of the genus TOXOCARA, usually found in wild and domesticated cats and dogs and foxes, except for the larvae, which may produce visceral and ocular larva migrans in man.
Proteins, glycoprotein, or lipoprotein moieties on surfaces of tumor cells that are usually identified by monoclonal antibodies. Many of these are of either embryonic or viral origin.
Granular leukocytes characterized by a relatively pale-staining, lobate nucleus and cytoplasm containing coarse dark-staining granules of variable size and stainable by basic dyes.
An encapsulated lymphatic organ through which venous blood filters.
Techniques for removal by adsorption and subsequent elution of a specific antibody or antigen using an immunosorbent containing the homologous antigen or antibody.
Non-antibody proteins secreted by inflammatory leukocytes and some non-leukocytic cells, that act as intercellular mediators. They differ from classical hormones in that they are produced by a number of tissue or cell types rather than by specialized glands. They generally act locally in a paracrine or autocrine rather than endocrine manner.
A republic in western Africa, south of MALI and BURKINA FASO, bordered by GHANA on the east. Its administrative capital is Abidjan and Yamoussoukro has been the official capital since 1983. The country was formerly called Ivory Coast.
Small antigenic determinants capable of eliciting an immune response only when coupled to a carrier. Haptens bind to antibodies but by themselves cannot elicit an antibody response.
A soluble factor produced by activated T-LYMPHOCYTES that induces the expression of MHC CLASS II GENES and FC RECEPTORS on B-LYMPHOCYTES and causes their proliferation and differentiation. It also acts on T-lymphocytes, MAST CELLS, and several other hematopoietic lineage cells.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
A species of trematode blood flukes of the family Schistosomatidae which occurs at different stages in development in veins of the pulmonary and hepatic system and finally the bladder lumen. This parasite causes urinary schistosomiasis.
The phenomenon of immense variability characteristic of ANTIBODIES. It enables the IMMUNE SYSTEM to react specifically against the essentially unlimited kinds of ANTIGENS it encounters. Antibody diversity is accounted for by three main theories: (1) the Germ Line Theory, which holds that each antibody-producing cell has genes coding for all possible antibody specificities, but expresses only the one stimulated by antigen; (2) the Somatic Mutation Theory, which holds that antibody-producing cells contain only a few genes, which produce antibody diversity by mutation; and (3) the Gene Rearrangement Theory, which holds that antibody diversity is generated by the rearrangement of IMMUNOGLOBULIN VARIABLE REGION gene segments during the differentiation of the ANTIBODY-PRODUCING CELLS.
Infection with nematodes of the genus MANSONELLA. Symptoms include pruritus, headache, and articular swelling.
A white threadlike worm which causes elephantiasis, lymphangitis, and chyluria by interfering with the lymphatic circulation. The microfilaria are found in the circulating blood and are carried by mosquitoes.
A collection of cloned peptides, or chemically synthesized peptides, frequently consisting of all possible combinations of amino acids making up an n-amino acid peptide.
A superfamily of parasitic nematodes which requires one or two intermediate arthropod hosts before finally being eaten by the final host. Its organisms occur rarely in man.
Antibodies to the HEPATITIS C ANTIGENS including antibodies to envelope, core, and non-structural proteins.
Antibodies from an individual that react with ISOANTIGENS of another individual of the same species.
The classes of immunoglobulins found in any species of animal. In man there are nine classes that migrate in five different groups in electrophoresis; they each consist of two light and two heavy protein chains, and each group has distinguishing structural and functional properties.
Multi-subunit proteins which function in IMMUNITY. They are produced by B LYMPHOCYTES from the IMMUNOGLOBULIN GENES. They are comprised of two heavy (IMMUNOGLOBULIN HEAVY CHAINS) and two light chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN LIGHT CHAINS) with additional ancillary polypeptide chains depending on their isoforms. The variety of isoforms include monomeric or polymeric forms, and transmembrane forms (B-CELL ANTIGEN RECEPTORS) or secreted forms (ANTIBODIES). They are divided by the amino acid sequence of their heavy chains into five classes (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A; IMMUNOGLOBULIN D; IMMUNOGLOBULIN E; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G; IMMUNOGLOBULIN M) and various subclasses.
Antibodies obtained from a single clone of cells grown in mice or rats.
Conjugated protein-carbohydrate compounds including mucins, mucoid, and amyloid glycoproteins.
A genus of parasitic nematodes widely distributed as intestinal parasites of mammals.
Antibodies to the HEPATITIS B ANTIGENS, including antibodies to the surface (Australia) and core of the Dane particle and those to the "e" antigens.
Technique involving the diffusion of antigen or antibody through a semisolid medium, usually agar or agarose gel, with the result being a precipitin reaction.
A plant family of the order Myrtales, subclass Rosidae, class Magnoliopsida. They are mostly trees and shrubs growing in warm areas.
Infection by flukes of the genus Echinostoma.
The interaction of two or more substrates or ligands with the same binding site. The displacement of one by the other is used in quantitative and selective affinity measurements.
A human disease caused by the infection of parasitic worms SCHISTOSOMA HAEMATOBIUM. It is endemic in AFRICA and parts of the MIDDLE EAST. Tissue damages most often occur in the URINARY TRACT, specifically the URINARY BLADDER.
Partial proteins formed by partial hydrolysis of complete proteins or generated through PROTEIN ENGINEERING techniques.
Resistance to a disease-causing agent induced by the introduction of maternal immunity into the fetus by transplacental transfer or into the neonate through colostrum and milk.
Antibody-mediated immune response. Humoral immunity is brought about by ANTIBODY FORMATION, resulting from TH2 CELLS activating B-LYMPHOCYTES, followed by COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION.
Antibodies specific to INSULIN.
Infections or infestations with parasitic organisms. The infestation may be experimental or veterinary.
The co-occurrence of pregnancy and parasitic diseases. The parasitic infection may precede or follow FERTILIZATION.
Serum glycoproteins participating in the host defense mechanism of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION that creates the COMPLEMENT MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX. Included are glycoproteins in the various pathways of complement activation (CLASSICAL COMPLEMENT PATHWAY; ALTERNATIVE COMPLEMENT PATHWAY; and LECTIN COMPLEMENT PATHWAY).
A chronic, relapsing, inflammatory, and often febrile multisystemic disorder of connective tissue, characterized principally by involvement of the skin, joints, kidneys, and serosal membranes. It is of unknown etiology, but is thought to represent a failure of the regulatory mechanisms of the autoimmune system. The disease is marked by a wide range of system dysfunctions, an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and the formation of LE cells in the blood or bone marrow.
A mixture of mostly avermectin H2B1a (RN 71827-03-7) with some avermectin H2B1b (RN 70209-81-3), which are macrolides from STREPTOMYCES avermitilis. It binds glutamate-gated chloride channel to cause increased permeability and hyperpolarization of nerve and muscle cells. It also interacts with other CHLORIDE CHANNELS. It is a broad spectrum antiparasitic that is active against microfilariae of ONCHOCERCA VOLVULUS but not the adult form.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations, or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. All animals within an inbred strain trace back to a common ancestor in the twentieth generation.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
The science dealing with the establishment and maintenance of health in the individual and the group. It includes the conditions and practices conducive to health. (Webster, 3d ed)
Substances used in the treatment or control of nematode infestations. They are used also in veterinary practice.
Suspensions of killed or attenuated microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa), antigenic proteins, synthetic constructs, or other bio-molecular derivatives, administered for the prevention, amelioration, or treatment of infectious and other diseases.
Differentiation antigens residing on mammalian leukocytes. CD stands for cluster of differentiation, which refers to groups of monoclonal antibodies that show similar reactivity with certain subpopulations of antigens of a particular lineage or differentiation stage. The subpopulations of antigens are also known by the same CD designation.
Glycoproteins found on the membrane or surface of cells.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
Endogenous tissue constituents that have the ability to interact with AUTOANTIBODIES and cause an immune response.
Recombinant proteins produced by the GENETIC TRANSLATION of fused genes formed by the combination of NUCLEIC ACID REGULATORY SEQUENCES of one or more genes with the protein coding sequences of one or more genes.
A supergroup (some say phylum) of ameboid EUKARYOTES, comprising ARCHAMOEBAE; LOBOSEA; and MYCETOZOA.
Diseases that are underfunded and have low name recognition but are major burdens in less developed countries. The World Health Organization has designated six tropical infectious diseases as being neglected in industrialized countries that are endemic in many developing countries (HELMINTHIASIS; LEPROSY; LYMPHATIC FILARIASIS; ONCHOCERCIASIS; SCHISTOSOMIASIS; and TRACHOMA).
Serologic tests in which a positive reaction manifested by visible CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION occurs when a soluble ANTIGEN reacts with its precipitins, i.e., ANTIBODIES that can form a precipitate.
Any part or derivative of any protozoan that elicits immunity; malaria (Plasmodium) and trypanosome antigens are presently the most frequently encountered.
Altered reactivity to an antigen, which can result in pathologic reactions upon subsequent exposure to that particular antigen.
Members of the class of compounds composed of AMINO ACIDS joined together by peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids into linear, branched or cyclical structures. OLIGOPEPTIDES are composed of approximately 2-12 amino acids. Polypeptides are composed of approximately 13 or more amino acids. PROTEINS are linear polypeptides that are normally synthesized on RIBOSOMES.
A species of parasitic nematode found in the intestine of dogs. Lesions in the brain, liver, eye, kidney, and lung are caused by migrating larvae. In humans, these larvae do not follow normal patterns and may produce visceral larva migrans (LARVA MIGRANS, VISCERAL).
The branch of medicine concerned with diseases, mainly of parasitic origin, common in tropical and subtropical regions.
Diagnostic procedures involving immunoglobulin reactions.
Parasitic infestation of the human lymphatic system by WUCHERERIA BANCROFTI or BRUGIA MALAYI. It is also called lymphatic filariasis.
Infection of humans or animals with hookworms of the genus ANCYLOSTOMA. Characteristics include anemia, dyspepsia, eosinophilia, and abdominal swelling.
The phenomenon of antibody-mediated target cell destruction by non-sensitized effector cells. The identity of the target cell varies, but it must possess surface IMMUNOGLOBULIN G whose Fc portion is intact. The effector cell is a "killer" cell possessing Fc receptors. It may be a lymphocyte lacking conventional B- or T-cell markers, or a monocyte, macrophage, or polynuclear leukocyte, depending on the identity of the target cell. The reaction is complement-independent.
The major interferon produced by mitogenically or antigenically stimulated LYMPHOCYTES. It is structurally different from TYPE I INTERFERON and its major activity is immunoregulation. It has been implicated in the expression of CLASS II HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS in cells that do not normally produce them, leading to AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.
White blood cells formed in the body's lymphoid tissue. The nucleus is round or ovoid with coarse, irregularly clumped chromatin while the cytoplasm is typically pale blue with azurophilic (if any) granules. Most lymphocytes can be classified as either T or B (with subpopulations of each), or NATURAL KILLER CELLS.
The type species of LENTIVIRUS and the etiologic agent of AIDS. It is characterized by its cytopathic effect and affinity for the T4-lymphocyte.

Neurocysticercosis without detectable specific antibody. (1/1192)

A 19-year-old girl who had lived in India for five years until 1992 was admitted to Hokuto Hospital after general seizures which lasted for fifteen minutes. Cerebral magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed a ring-enhanced lesion of 6 mm in diameter in the right parietal lobe. She underwent surgical resection after diagnosis of the brain tumor. Histopathological examinations revealed that the resected tumor was a cysticercus of Taenia solium (T. solium), and we concluded that her seizures were caused by neurocysticercosis. Serological examinations by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunoblots to detect specific antibody against the glycoproteins of T. solium showed no detectable antibody response. The patient is under careful observation in our out-patient clinic with no medication.  (+info)

Development of a serologic assay to detect Taenia solium taeniasis. (2/1192)

We developed a serologic assay to identify adult Taenia solium tapeworm carriers using excretory/secretory (TSES) antigens collected from in vitro cultured T. solium tapeworms. To identify taeniasis-specific antigens we used an immunoblot assay with serum samples from T. solium tapeworm carriers and cysticercosis patients. Antigens were identified that reacted with antibodies present in serum samples from taeniasis cases and not with those from cysticercosis patients. Using serum samples collected from persons with confirmed T. solium tapeworm infections, the test was determined to be 95% (69 of 73) sensitive. Serum samples (n = 193) from persons with other parasitic infections, including T. saginata tapeworm infections, do not contain cross-reacting antibodies to TSES, indicating that the assay is 100% specific. These data suggest that the immunoblot assay using TSES antigens can be used to identify persons with current or recent T. solium tapeworm infections and provides a new, important tool for epidemiologic purposes, including control and prevention strategies.  (+info)

Immunity to Chlamydia trachomatis mouse pneumonitis induced by vaccination with live organisms correlates with early granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and interleukin-12 production and with dendritic cell-like maturation. (3/1192)

As is true for other intracellular pathogens, immunization with live Chlamydia trachomatis generally induces stronger protective immunity than does immunization with inactivated organism. To investigate the basis for such a difference, we studied immune responses in BALB/c mice immunized with viable or UV-killed C. trachomatis mouse pneumonitis (MoPn). Strong, acquired resistance to C. trachomatis infection was elicited by immunization with viable but not dead organisms. Immunization with viable organisms induced high levels of antigen-specific delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), gamma interferon production, and immunoglobulin A (IgA) responses. Immunization with inactivated MoPn mainly induced interleukin-10 (IL-10) production and IgG1 antibody without IgA or DTH responses. Analysis of local early cytokine and cellular events at days 3, 5, and 7 after peritoneal cavity immunization showed that high levels of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and IL-12 were detected with viable but not inactivated organisms. Furthermore, enrichment of a dendritic cell (DC)-like population was detected in the peritoneal cavity only among mice immunized with viable organisms. The results suggest that early differences in inducing proinflammatory cytokines and activation and differentiation of DCs may be the key mechanism underlying the difference between viable and inactivated organisms in inducing active immunity to C. trachomatis infection.  (+info)

Vaccination with cathepsin L proteinases and with leucine aminopeptidase induces high levels of protection against fascioliasis in sheep. (4/1192)

The potential of different parasite proteinases for use as vaccine candidates against fascioliasis in sheep was studied by vaccinating animals with the cathepsin L proteinases CL1 and CL2 and with leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) purified from adult flukes. In the first trial, sheep were immunized with CL1 or CL2 and the mean protection levels obtained were 33 and 34%, respectively. Furthermore, a significant reduction in egg output was observed in sheep vaccinated either with CL1 (71%) or with CL2 (81%). The second trial was performed to determine the protective potential of the two cathepsin L proteinases assayed together, as well as in combination with LAP, and of LAP alone. The combination of CL1 and CL2 induced higher levels of protection (60%) than those produced when these enzymes were administered separately. Those sheep that received the cocktail vaccine including CL1, CL2, and LAP were significantly protected (78%) against metacercarial challenge, but vaccination with LAP alone elicited the highest level of protection (89%). All vaccine preparations induced high immunoglobulin G titers which were boosted after the challenge infection, but no correlations between antibody titers and worm burdens were found. However, the sera of those animals vaccinated with LAP contained LAP-neutralizing antibodies. Reduced liver damage, as assessed by the level of the liver enzyme gamma-glutamyl transferase, was observed in the groups vaccinated with CL1, CL2, and LAP or with LAP alone.  (+info)

Anti-filarial IgG4 in men and women living in Brugia malayi-endemic areas. (5/1192)

To assess whether antifilarial IgG4 can be used to study various epidemiological facets of filarial infections, we studied this isotype in 238 individuals resident in areas endemic for brugian filariasis, focusing on the differences between men and women. In the study area, the prevalence of microfilariae was 6.7% and the prevalence of antifilarial IgG4 was 49.2%. All microfilariae carriers were positive for antifilarial IgG4, whereas a proportion of the endemic normals (94/208) and clephantiasis patients (7/14) had IgG4 antibodies to filarial antigens. Data were analysed as a function of gender in distinct clinical groups and stratified for age. The prevalence of microfilariae was higher in males in all age groups, as reflected in significantly higher antifilarial IgG4 antibody levels compared to females. The prevalence of IgG4 increased to reach a plateau at the age of 30 years in both males and females. These results indicate that antifilarial IgG4 antibodies can reflect the differences in the extent of infection in males and females as measured by microfilarial counts, and that this parameter can be used for epidemiological assessments of filarial infection.  (+info)

Comparison of serological and parasitological assessments of Onchocerca volvulus transmission after 7 years of mass ivermectin treatment in Mexico. (6/1192)

OBJECTIVE AND METHOD: To compare the utility of an ELISA using 3 recombinant antigens with that of the skin biopsy to estimate incidence of infections in a sentinel cohort of individuals living in an endemic community in southern Mexico during a set of 11 subsequent ivermectin treatments. RESULTS: The apparent community prevalence of infection and microfilarial skin infection before and after 11 treatments with ivermectin plus nodulectomy were 78% and 13%, and 0.68 mf/mg and 0.04 mf/mg, respectively, as measured by skin biopsy. Of a group of 286 individuals participating in all surveys, a sentinel cohort of 42 mf and serologically negative individuals had been followed since 1994. The annual percentage of individuals becoming positive in this cohort was 24% (10/42), 28% (9/33), 0%, and 4.3% (1/23) in 1995, 1996, 1997 and 1998, respectively. Likewise, the incidence in children 5 years and under (n = 13) within this sentinel cohort was 15% (2/13), 18% (2/11), 0% and 11% (1/9), respectively. All individuals became positive to both tests simultaneously, indicating that seroconversion assessed infection incidence as accurately as skin biopsy in the sentinel group. CONCLUSION: Incidence monitoring of a sentinel cohort provides an estimation of the parasite transmission in the community; it is less costly than massive sampling, and a finger prick blood test might be more acceptable in some communities.  (+info)

Aetiological study of the presumed ocular histoplasmosis syndrome in the Netherlands. (7/1192)

AIM: To investigate whether presumed ocular histoplasmosis syndrome in the Netherlands is caused by Histoplasma capsulatum and whether other risk factors might play a role in the pathogenesis of this syndrome. METHODS: 23 patients were clinically diagnosed as having presumed ocular histoplasmosis syndrome based on the following criteria: peripapillary atrophy, punched out lesions, a macular disciform lesion or scar in one eye without vitritis. As controls, 66 sex and age matched healthy volunteers were used. Serum samples from both patients and controls were tested for the presence of antibodies against H capsulatum, Toxoplasma gondii, Toxocara canis et cati, Ascaris sp, and for the presence of antigens of Cryptococcus neoformans. Serum samples were also tested for the presence of autoantibodies against retinal or choroidal proteins. To investigate other risk factors, patients and controls were asked to fill in a health and travel related questionnaire. Ten patients with ocular toxoplasmosis were used as a disease control group. RESULTS: None of the patients with presumed ocular histoplasmosis syndrome or controls had circulating antibodies directed against H capsulatum. No risk factors could be identified and no indications for autoimmunity and no evidence for the role of the other infectious agents could be demonstrated. CONCLUSIONS: In a Dutch group of patients fulfilling the criteria of a disease currently named presumed ocular histoplasmosis syndrome, no risk factors or relation with the fungus H capsulatum could be detected.  (+info)

Interleukin-12 as an adjuvant for an antischistosome vaccine consisting of adult worm antigens: protection of rats from cercarial challenge. (8/1192)

Our group previously demonstrated that a detergent extract (fraction S3) prepared from immature (4-week) Schistosoma mansoni parasites can induce partial, serum-transferable immunity to challenge infection in rats when administered as an alum precipitate. In the present study, we examined whether S3 prepared from adult (7-week) worms could similarly induce protection and whether immunity could be positively influenced by treatment with interleukin-12 (IL-12). IL-12 coadministered to Fischer rats and C57BL/6 mice at the time of S3 vaccination altered the prechallenge kinetics of S3-specific antibody titers in both species, ultimately leading to a stable enhancement of titers (relative to those in animals vaccinated without IL-12) in mice but not rats. Immunoblot analysis of prechallenge immune sera demonstrated that IL-12 treatment was associated with changes in the S3 antigen recognition profile in each species. Isotyping of specific antibodies in S3- plus IL-12-vaccinated mice prior to challenge infection revealed a moderate elevation in immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1) responses, strongly enhanced IgG2a and IgG2b responses, as well as diminished total serum IgE responses compared to those in mice given S3 only. In vaccinated rats, IL-12 profoundly suppressed specific IgG1 and enhanced IgG2b responses but did not affect IgG2a responses. S3- plus IL-12-vaccinated rats also produced less total IgE upon challenge infection. Enumeration of worm burdens revealed that vaccination with S3 plus IL-12 conferred 50% protection from cercarial challenge to rats, whereas rats given S3 only were not protected; mice were not protected by S3 vaccination regardless of IL-12 coadministration. The protection observed in S3- plus IL-12-vaccinated rats could not be transferred with serum, suggesting participation of an activated cellular component in the expression of immunity.  (+info)

The most common types of helminthiasis include:

1. Ascariasis: caused by the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides, this is one of the most common intestinal parasitic infections worldwide. Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, and weight loss.
2. Trichuriasis: caused by the whipworm Trichuris trichiura, this infection can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, and rectal bleeding.
3. Hookworm infection: caused by the hookworm Ancylostoma duodenale or Necator americanus, this infection can cause symptoms such as anemia, abdominal pain, and diarrhea.
4. Strongyloidiasis: caused by the threadworm Strongyloides stercoralis, this infection can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, and skin rashes.
5. Filariasis: caused by the filarial worms Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, and Loa loa, this infection can cause symptoms such as swelling of the limbs, scrotum, and breasts, as well as skin rashes and fever.

Diagnosis of helminthiasis typically involves a physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as stool samples or blood tests to detect the presence of parasites or their eggs. Treatment usually involves antiparasitic drugs, and in some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove worms that have migrated to other parts of the body. Prevention measures include improving sanitation and hygiene, wearing protective clothing when working or traveling in areas with high prevalence of helminthiasis, and using insecticides to prevent mosquito bites.

In conclusion, helminthiasis is a group of diseases caused by parasitic worms that can affect humans and other animals. The most common types of helminthiasis include ascariasis, trichuriasis, hookworm infection, strongyloidiasis, and filariasis. Diagnosis and treatment involve laboratory tests and antiparasitic drugs, respectively. Prevention measures include improving sanitation and hygiene, wearing protective clothing, and using insecticides. Understanding the causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of helminthiasis is essential for effective control and management of these diseases.

Some common types of intestinal diseases, parasitic include:

1. Amoebiasis: This is an infection caused by the amoeba Entamoeba histolytica, which can cause diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fever.
2. Giardiasis: This is an infection caused by the parasite Giardia duodenalis, which can cause diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and weight loss.
3. Cryptosporidiosis: This is an infection caused by the parasite Cryptosporidium parvum, which can cause diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fever.
4. Isosporiasis: This is an infection caused by the parasite Isospora belli, which can cause diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and weight loss.
5. Tapeworm infections: These are infections caused by tapeworms, such as Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm) and Dipylidium caninum (dog tapeworm), which can cause abdominal pain, diarrhea, and weight loss.
6. Strongyloidiasis: This is an infection caused by the parasite Strongyloides stercoralis, which can cause diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fatigue.

Intestinal diseases, parasitic can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as stool samples or blood tests. Treatment depends on the specific type of infection and may include antiparasitic medications, anti-diarrheal medications, and supportive care to manage symptoms.

Strongylidae is a family of parasitic nematodes that includes several genera, such as Strongyloides, Ollulanus, and Habronema. These nematodes have a worldwide distribution and can infect a wide range of animals, including humans, cattle, sheep, goats, and horses.

Infection with strongyles can occur through the ingestion of contaminated food or water, or through direct contact with infected animals or their feces. The parasites migrate to the intestines, where they feed on the host's blood and tissues, causing a range of symptoms.

The most common species of strongyles to infect humans are S. stercoralis and S. fuellebornii. Infection with these parasites can lead to a condition known as strongyloidiasis, which can cause a range of symptoms, including:

* Diarrhea
* Weight loss
* Anemia
* Poor appetite
* Abdominal pain
* Fatigue

Strongyloidiasis is typically diagnosed through the detection of parasite eggs in stool samples or through the use of serological tests. Treatment typically involves the use of anthelmintic drugs, which can kill the parasites and alleviate symptoms.

Preventive measures against strongyles include:

* Avoiding contact with infected animals or their feces
* Properly cooking meat before consumption
* Avoiding consumption of raw or undercooked meat
* Maintaining good personal hygiene
* Using clean water and sanitation facilities.

Nematode infections are parasitic infections caused by nematodes, a type of worm. Nematodes are helminths, which are parasites that infect the body and feed on its tissues and fluids. There are several types of nematode infections, including:

1. Ascariasis: This is an infection caused by the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides. It is one of the most common intestinal parasitic infections in the world and can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, and weight loss.
2. Trichinellosis: This is an infection caused by the parasite Trichinella. It can be transmitted through the consumption of undercooked meat, particularly pork or wild game. Symptoms include fever, muscle pain, and diarrhea.
3. Strongyloidiasis: This is an infection caused by the roundworm Strongyloides. It can affect people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. Symptoms include diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fatigue.
4. Hookworm infection: This is an infection caused by the hookworm Ancylostoma duodenale. It can be transmitted through contact with contaminated feces or soil. Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, and anemia.
5. Trichuriasis: This is an infection caused by the whipworm Trichuris trichiura. It can affect people of all ages and can cause symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, and weight loss.

Nematode infections can be diagnosed through a variety of tests, including stool samples, blood tests, and imaging studies. Treatment depends on the type of infection and may involve medication to kill the parasites, as well as supportive care to manage symptoms. Prevention includes avoiding exposure to contaminated food and water, practicing good hygiene, and using insecticides to control the spread of hookworms.

Overall, nematode infections can have a significant impact on human health, especially in areas with poor sanitation and hygiene. It is important to be aware of these infections and seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

Some common types of protozoan infections include:

1. Malaria: Caused by the Plasmodium parasite, which is transmitted through the bite of an infected mosquito.
2. Giardiasis: Caused by the Giardia parasite, which can be found in contaminated food and water or spread through close contact with an infected person.
3. Amoebiasis: Caused by the Entamoeba parasite, which can infect the intestines and cause symptoms such as diarrhea and abdominal pain.
4. Toxoplasmosis: Caused by the Toxoplasma parasite, which can be spread through contact with contaminated soil or cat feces.
5. Cryptosporidiosis: Caused by the Cryptosporidium parasite, which can be found in contaminated water and can cause symptoms such as diarrhea and stomach cramps.

Protozoan infections are typically treated with antiparasitic medications, and early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent complications and improve outcomes.

The symptoms of filariasis can vary depending on the type of infection and the severity of the disease. In lymphatic filariasis, the most common symptoms are swelling of the limbs, known as elephantiasis, and skin thickening, which can lead to severe social stigma and disability. Other symptoms may include fever, joint pain, and fatigue.

Filariasis is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as blood smears or polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Treatment for filariasis typically involves antiparasitic drugs, which can help to reduce the symptoms and prevent complications. However, these drugs do not cure the infection, and repeated treatments may be necessary to control the disease.

Prevention of filariasis primarily involves reducing the population of infected mosquitoes through vector control measures such as insecticide spraying, use of bed nets, and elimination of standing water around homes and communities. Personal protective measures such as wearing protective clothing and applying insect repellents can also help to reduce the risk of infection.

In addition to these measures, there is ongoing research into new diagnostic tools and treatments for filariasis, as well as efforts to eliminate the disease through mass drug administration and other public health interventions.

Keywords: filariasis, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, loiasis, elephantiasis, swelling, joint pain, fatigue, antiparasitic drugs, vector control, personal protective measures, diagnostic tools, treatments, public health interventions.

Cestode infections are acquired through ingestion of contaminated food or water, or through direct contact with an infected animal or person. Once ingested, the cestodes migrate to the intestine, where they attach themselves to the wall of the intestine and feed on the host's nutrients.

The symptoms of cestode infections can vary depending on the location of the infection and the severity of the infestation. Some common symptoms include:

* Abdominal pain
* Diarrhea
* Weight loss
* Fatigue
* Malnutrition
* Anemia
* Inflammation of the affected organ (e.g., liver or lung)

Cestode infections can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as stool samples or blood tests. Treatment typically involves the use of anti-parasitic drugs to kill the cestodes, and supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Prevention measures include:

* Proper cooking and handling of food
* Avoiding consumption of undercooked meat, especially pork and beef
* Avoiding contact with animals that may be infected with cestodes
* Practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands regularly
* Keeping pets free of cestode infections to prevent human infection.

It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time, or if there are signs of complications such as inflammation or obstruction of the affected organ.

There are two main types of schistosomiasis:

1. Schistosoma haematobium: This type is most commonly found in Africa and the Middle East, and affects the urinary tract, causing bleeding, kidney damage, and bladder problems.
2. Schistosoma japonicum: This type is found in Asia, and affects the intestines, causing abdominal pain, diarrhea, and rectal bleeding.
3. Schistosoma mansoni: This type is found in sub-Saharan Africa, and affects both the intestines and the liver, causing abdominal pain, diarrhea, and liver damage.

Symptoms of schistosomiasis can include:

* Bloody urine
* Abdominal pain
* Diarrhea
* Rectal bleeding
* Fatigue
* Anemia
* Weight loss

If left untreated, schistosomiasis can lead to serious complications such as kidney damage, bladder cancer, and infertility.

Treatment of schistosomiasis typically involves the use of praziquantel, an antiparasitic drug that is effective against all species of Schistosoma. In addition to treatment, preventive measures such as avoiding contact with contaminated water and using protective clothing when swimming or bathing in areas where the disease is common can help reduce the risk of infection.

Preventive measures for schistosomiasis include:

* Avoiding contact with contaminated water
* Using protective clothing such as long sleeves and pants when swimming or bathing in areas where the disease is common
* Avoiding activities that involve exposure to water, such as swimming or fishing, in areas where the disease is common
* Using clean water for drinking, cooking, and personal hygiene
* Implementing sanitation measures such as building latrines and improving sewage systems in areas where the disease is common

It is important to note that schistosomiasis is a preventable and treatable disease, but it requires awareness and action from individuals, communities, and governments to control and eliminate the disease.

The infection occurs when the parasitic worm enters the body through the skin, usually during contact with infected water. The schistosomes migrate to the liver and intestines, where they cause inflammation and damage to the host tissues.

Symptoms of schistosomiasis mansoni can include abdominal pain, diarrhea, fatigue, and weight loss. If left untreated, it can lead to serious complications such as anemia, liver and kidney damage, and even death.

Diagnosis is based on the presence of schistosome eggs in the urine or stool, and treatment typically involves a combination of antiparasitic drugs and supportive care to manage symptoms. Prevention measures include avoiding contact with contaminated water and using snail-killing agents to reduce the number of intermediate hosts.

The most common types of trematode infections include:

1. Schistosomiasis: This is a parasitic disease caused by Schistosoma worms that affects over 200 million people worldwide, primarily in developing countries. It is spread through contact with contaminated freshwater snails.
2. Fascioliasis (also known as liver fluke): This is a parasitic disease caused by Fasciola worms that affects humans and various animals, including sheep, cattle, and pigs. It is spread through consumption of contaminated water or food.
3. Clonorchiasis: This is a parasitic disease caused by Clonorchis sinensis worms that affects humans in parts of Asia, particularly in China and Korea. It is spread through consumption of raw or undercooked fish.
4. Opisthorchiasis: This is a parasitic disease caused by Opisthorchis viverrini worms that affects humans in parts of Southeast Asia, particularly in Thailand and Laos. It is spread through consumption of raw or undercooked fish.

The symptoms of trematode infections vary depending on the type of parasite and the organs affected, but they can include:

* Abdominal pain
* Diarrhea
* Fatigue
* Weakness
* Loss of appetite
* Nausea and vomiting
* Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)
* Inflammation of the liver, lung, or other organs

Trematode infections can be diagnosed through various techniques, including:

1. Microscopic examination of stool samples for parasite eggs or larvae.
2. Serological tests such as ELISA or immunochromatography to detect antibodies against the parasite in the blood.
3. Imaging techniques such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI to visualize the parasites or their effects on organs.
4. Endoscopy to examine the digestive tract for parasites or inflammation.

Treatment of trematode infections depends on the type of parasite and the severity of the infection, but it often involves anti-parasitic drugs such as praziquantel, triclabendazole, or oxfendazole, which are effective against most trematodes. In severe cases, hospitalization may be required to manage complications such as liver inflammation or respiratory failure. Prevention measures include:

1. Avoiding consumption of raw or undercooked fish and other aquatic animals.
2. Properly cooking fish and other seafood before eating them.
3. Using clean water for drinking, cooking, and washing.
4. Avoiding contact with contaminated water or snails that may carry trematodes.
5. Implementing sanitation and hygiene measures in areas where trematode infections are common.

Trematodes are a diverse group of parasites that can infect humans and other animals, causing a range of diseases with varying severity. Diagnosis is based on serological or imaging techniques, and treatment involves anti-parasitic drugs. Prevention measures include avoiding raw or undercooked seafood, properly cooking fish and other seafood, using clean water, and implementing sanitation and hygiene measures in areas where trematode infections are common.

1. Malaria: A disease caused by a parasite that is transmitted through the bite of an infected mosquito. It can cause fever, chills, and flu-like symptoms.
2. Giardiasis: A disease caused by a parasite that is found in contaminated food and water. It can cause diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and weight loss.
3. Toxoplasmosis: A disease caused by a parasite that is transmitted through the consumption of contaminated meat or cat feces. It can cause fever, headache, and swollen lymph nodes.
4. Leishmaniasis: A group of diseases caused by a parasite that is transmitted through the bite of an infected sandfly. It can cause skin sores, fatigue, and weight loss.
5. Chagas disease: A disease caused by a parasite that is transmitted through the bite of an infected triatomine bug. It can cause heart problems, digestive issues, and brain damage.
6. Trichomoniasis: A disease caused by a parasite that is transmitted through sexual contact with an infected person. It can cause vaginal itching, burning during urination, and abnormal vaginal discharge.
7. Cryptosporidiosis: A disease caused by a parasite that is found in contaminated water and food. It can cause diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach cramps.
8. Amoebiasis: A disease caused by a parasite that is found in contaminated water and food. It can cause diarrhea, abdominal pain, and rectal bleeding.
9. Babesiosis: A disease caused by a parasite that is transmitted through the bite of an infected blacklegged tick. It can cause fever, chills, and fatigue.
10. Angiostrongyliasis: A disease caused by a parasite that is transmitted through the ingestion of raw or undercooked snails or slugs. It can cause eosinophilic meningitis, which is an inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord.

It's important to note that these are just a few examples of parasitic diseases, and there are many more out there. Additionally, while some of these diseases can be treated with antiparasitic medications, others may require long-term management and supportive care. It's important to seek medical attention if you suspect that you have been infected with a parasite or if you experience any symptoms that could be related to a parasitic infection.

In the medical field, hymenolepiasis is often diagnosed using a combination of clinical evaluation, laboratory tests, and imaging studies such as X-rays or CT scans. Treatment typically involves the use of anthelmintic drugs to kill the tapeworms and relieve symptoms.

Preventive measures for hymenolepiasis include avoiding contaminated food and water, washing hands and fruits and vegetables thoroughly before eating them, and cooking food thoroughly especially pork and wild game meats.

The infection occurs when the larvae of the roundworm enter the body through the skin or mucous membranes, typically through contact with contaminated soil or water. Once inside the body, the larvae migrate to various organs and tissues, including the liver, lungs, and intestines, where they can cause a range of symptoms.

The symptoms of necatoriasis can vary depending on the location of the infection and the severity of the infestation. Common symptoms include:

* Skin lesions or rashes
* Respiratory problems, such as coughing and wheezing
* Abdominal pain and diarrhea
* Fever and chills
* Weakness and fatigue

If left untreated, necatoriasis can lead to serious complications, such as intestinal obstruction, anemia, and other infections. Treatment typically involves the use of anti-parasitic medications, such as albendazole or mebendazole, to kill the parasites and prevent further damage. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to manage complications and supportive care.

Preventing necatoriasis involves measures to avoid contact with contaminated soil and water, such as using clean water for drinking and washing, wearing protective clothing when working or playing outdoors, and practicing good hygiene. In areas where the infection is common, regular deworming programs can also help to reduce the prevalence of necatoriasis.

The symptoms of strongyloidiasis can vary depending on the location and severity of the infection, but they typically include abdominal pain, diarrhea, fatigue, and weight loss. In severe cases, the parasite can migrate to other parts of the body, including the lungs, liver, and brain, causing a range of complications such as pneumonia, hepatitis, and meningitis.

Strongyloidiasis is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as stool samples or blood tests. Treatment typically involves antiparasitic medications, such as ivermectin or albendazole, which are effective in eliminating the parasite from the body. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to manage complications and supportive care.

Preventive measures for strongyloidiasis include improving sanitation and hygiene practices, wearing protective clothing and footwear when working or living in areas with poor sanitation, and avoiding contact with contaminated soil or water. In endemic areas, mass drug administration programs can be effective in reducing the prevalence of strongyloidiasis and other neglected tropical diseases.

The symptoms of trichinellosis can vary depending on the severity of the infection and the number of parasites consumed. Mild cases may not exhibit any symptoms at all, while more severe cases can cause a range of symptoms including:

* Abdominal pain
* Diarrhea
* Fever
* Headache
* Muscle pain
* Skin rash
* Swelling of the face and eyelids

In severe cases, trichinellosis can lead to complications such as inflammation of the heart, brain, and liver, and can be fatal if left untreated.

Trichinellosis is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as blood tests or biopsies. Treatment typically involves antiparasitic drugs to kill the parasite, and supportive care to manage symptoms.

Prevention of trichinellosis primarily involves proper food handling and cooking practices, such as cooking meat to an internal temperature of at least 165°F (74°C) to kill any Trichinella parasites that may be present. Avoiding the consumption of raw or undercooked meat, particularly from wild game animals, can also help prevent the infection.

Coinfection can be caused by various factors, including:

1. Exposure to multiple pathogens: When an individual is exposed to multiple sources of infection, such as contaminated food or water, they may contract multiple pathogens simultaneously.
2. Weakened immune system: A compromised immune system can make it more difficult for the body to fight off infections, making it more susceptible to coinfection.
3. Increased opportunities for transmission: In some situations, such as in healthcare settings or during travel to areas with high infection rates, individuals may be more likely to come into contact with multiple pathogens.

Examples of common coinfections include:

1. HIV and tuberculosis (TB): TB is a common opportunistic infection that affects individuals with HIV/AIDS.
2. Malaria and bacterial infections: In areas where malaria is prevalent, individuals may also be at risk for bacterial infections such as pneumonia or diarrhea.
3. Influenza and Streptococcus pneumoniae: During flu season, individuals may be more susceptible to both influenza and bacterial infections such as pneumonia.

Coinfection can have significant consequences for an individual's health, including increased morbidity and mortality. Treatment of coinfections often requires a combination of antimicrobial therapies targeting each pathogen, as well as supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Preventing coinfection is important for maintaining good health, especially in individuals with compromised immune systems. This can include:

1. Practicing good hygiene: Washing hands regularly and avoiding close contact with individuals who are sick can help reduce the risk of infection.
2. Getting vaccinated: Vaccines can protect against certain infections, such as influenza and pneumococcal disease.
3. Taking antimicrobial prophylaxis: In some cases, taking antibiotics or other antimicrobial drugs may be recommended to prevent infection in individuals who are at high risk of coinfection.
4. Managing underlying conditions: Effectively managing conditions such as HIV/AIDS, diabetes, and heart disease can help reduce the risk of infection and coinfection.
5. Avoiding risky behaviors: Avoiding risky behaviors such as sharing needles or engaging in unprotected sex can help reduce the risk of infection and coinfection.

The infection occurs when a person ingests undercooked or raw meat containing the tapeworm larvae, which then migrate to the intestines and mature into adult worms. The adult tapeworms can live for up to 20 years in the host's intestine, causing no symptoms in some cases, while in others, they may cause abdominal pain, diarrhea, and weight loss.

If left untreated, taeniasis can lead to complications such as intestinal blockages, perforation of the intestines, and anemia due to blood loss. Treatment typically involves anti-parasitic drugs to kill the adult worms and larvae. Prevention measures include proper cooking of meat, especially beef, to an internal temperature of at least 160°F (71°C) for a few minutes, as well as good hygiene practices when handling raw meat.

Symptoms of fascioliasis can vary depending on the severity of the infection and may include:

1. Abdominal pain
2. Diarrhea
3. Vomiting
4. Fatigue
5. Weight loss
6. Anemia
7. Elevated liver enzymes
8. Inflammation of the liver, bile ducts, or pancreas

If left untreated, fascioliasis can lead to serious complications such as:

1. Cholangiohepatitis (inflammation of the bile ducts and liver)
2. Hepatic cysts or cirrhosis (scarring of the liver)
3. Biliary obstruction or pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas)

Diagnosis of fascioliasis typically involves a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as:

1. Blood tests to detect antibodies against the parasite
2. Detection of the parasite in stool or bile samples
3. Imaging studies such as ultrasound or CT scans to visualize the liver and bile ducts

Treatment of fascioliasis usually involves the use of antiparasitic drugs, such as triclabendazole or nitazoxanide, to eliminate the parasite from the body. Supportive care may also be provided to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Prevention of fascioliasis primarily involves measures to avoid ingesting contaminated food or water, such as:

1. Avoiding consumption of raw or undercooked meat, particularly pork or lamb
2. Properly cooking and storing food
3. Avoiding consumption of untreated water
4. Using proper sanitation and hygiene practices
5. Avoiding contact with contaminated soil or water

In areas where fascioliasis is common, it is important to be aware of the risk and take appropriate precautions to prevent infection. Early detection and treatment can help prevent complications and improve outcomes for patients with fascioliasis.

The symptoms of toxocariasis can vary depending on the location of the parasite in the body, but they may include:

* Eye problems, such as blurred vision, eye pain, and inflammation of the retina
* Skin rashes or lesions
* Joint pain and swelling
* Neurological symptoms, such as headaches, seizures, and loss of coordination
* Diarrhea and abdominal pain

Toxocariasis is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests, such as blood tests and imaging studies. Treatment typically involves antiparasitic medications, which can help to eliminate the parasites from the body. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to manage complications such as eye inflammation or neurological problems.

Preventive measures for toxocariasis include:

* Avoiding contact with contaminated soil or feces
* Washing hands and food thoroughly
* Keeping pets free of parasites through regular deworming and proper sanitation
* Avoiding eating undercooked meat, especially pork and wild game

While toxocariasis is generally not life-threatening, it can cause significant morbidity and vision loss if left untreated. Therefore, it is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

Symptoms of mansonelliasis include fever, headache, joint pain, skin rashes, and swelling of the liver and spleen. These symptoms can be non-specific and may resemble those of other diseases, making diagnosis challenging.

The diagnosis of mansonelliasis is based on a combination of clinical findings, laboratory tests (such as blood smears and polymerase chain reaction), and the presence of characteristic skin lesions. Treatment of mansonelliasis typically involves the use of antiparasitic drugs such as diethylcarbamazine (DEC) and albendazole.

Preventive measures for mansonelliasis include using insecticides to control sandfly populations, wearing protective clothing and applying insect repellents when outdoors in areas where the parasites are common, and taking antiparasitic medications to prevent infection.

The clinical manifestations of echinostomiasis are varied and can include hematuria, dysuria, urinary frequency, flank pain, and bladder mass lesions. The diagnosis is based on the presence of characteristic eggs in urine or stool samples, or on the detection of adult worms during cystoscopy or imaging studies such as ultrasound or computed tomography (CT) scan.

Treatment of echinostomiasis typically involves the use of antiparasitic drugs, such as praziquantel or triclabendazole, which are effective in killing the adult worms and preventing further egg production. Surgical intervention may be necessary in cases with large bladder stones or hydronephrosis.

Preventive measures against echinostomiasis include education on safe water drinking practices, use of clean water for irrigation and cooking, and avoidance of raw or undercooked fish consumption.

In conclusion, echinostomiasis is a rare and neglected parasitic infection that can cause significant morbidity and mortality in certain regions of the world. Early diagnosis and treatment are essential to prevent complications and reduce the risk of transmission.

Schistosomiasis haematobia is a parasitic disease caused by the blood fluke worm Schistosoma haematobium. It is one of the two main types of schistosomiasis, with the other being schistosomiasis mansoni. The disease is most commonly found in Africa and the Middle East, where it affects millions of people each year.

The symptoms of schistosomiasis haematobia can vary depending on the severity of the infection and the location of the parasites in the body. Some common symptoms include:

* Blood in the urine
* Abdominal pain
* Diarrhea
* Vaginal bleeding in women
* Rectal bleeding in men
* Weakness and fatigue
* Fever

If left untreated, schistosomiasis haematobia can lead to complications such as kidney damage, bladder cancer, and infertility. In severe cases, it can be fatal.

The diagnosis of schistosomiasis haematobia is typically made through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests such as blood tests or urine tests. Treatment typically involves the use of praziquantel, a drug that is effective against all species of Schistosoma worms.

Prevention measures for schistosomiasis haematobia include avoiding contact with contaminated water and using appropriate sanitation and hygiene practices, such as washing hands after using the bathroom or before handling food. In areas where the disease is common, snail control measures can also be effective in reducing the risk of infection.

Overall, schistosomiasis haematobia is a serious and debilitating disease that can have severe consequences if left untreated. It is important to take preventive measures to avoid infection and to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.

1. Heartworms: A parasite that infects the heart and lungs of dogs and cats, causing respiratory problems and potentially leading to heart failure.
2. Tapeworms: A type of parasite that can infect the digestive system of animals, causing weight loss, diarrhea, and other symptoms.
3. Mites: Small, eight-legged parasites that can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions in animals.
4. Lice: Small, wingless parasites that feed on the blood of animals, causing itching and scratching.
5. Hookworms: A type of parasite that can infect the digestive system of animals, causing weight loss, anemia, and other symptoms.
6. Roundworms: A common type of parasite that can infect animals, causing a range of symptoms including diarrhea, vomiting, and weight loss.
7. Ticks: Blood-sucking parasites that can transmit diseases to animals, such as Lyme disease and anaplasmosis.
8. Fleas: Small, wingless insects that feed on the blood of animals, causing itching and scratching.
9. Leishmaniasis: A parasitic disease caused by a protozoan parasite that can infect dogs and other animals, causing skin lesions and other symptoms.
10. Babesiosis: A parasitic disease caused by a protozoan parasite that can infect dogs and other animals, causing fever, anemia, and other symptoms.

Parasitic diseases in animals are often diagnosed through physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment options vary depending on the specific disease and the severity of the infection, but may include antiparasitic medications, antibiotics, and supportive care such as fluid therapy and nutritional support. Prevention is key in avoiding parasitic diseases in animals, and this can be achieved through regular deworming and vaccination programs, as well as taking measures to reduce exposure to parasites such as fleas and ticks.

Examples of pregnancy complications, parasitic include:

1. Toxoplasmosis: This is a condition caused by the Toxoplasma gondii parasite, which can infect the mother and/or the fetus during pregnancy. Symptoms include fever, headache, and fatigue. In severe cases, toxoplasmosis can cause birth defects, such as intellectual disability, blindness, and deafness.
2. Malaria: This is a condition caused by the Plasmodium spp. parasite, which can be transmitted to the mother and/or the fetus during pregnancy. Symptoms include fever, chills, and flu-like symptoms. In severe cases, malaria can cause anemia, organ failure, and death.
3. Schistosomiasis: This is a condition caused by the Schistosoma spp. parasite, which can infect the mother and/or the fetus during pregnancy. Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, and fatigue. In severe cases, schistosomiasis can cause organ damage and infertility.

Pregnancy complications, parasitic can be diagnosed through blood tests, imaging studies, and other medical procedures. Treatment depends on the type of parasite and the severity of the infection. In some cases, treatment may involve antibiotics, antimalarial drugs, or anti-parasitic medications.

Preventive measures for pregnancy complications, parasitic include:

1. Avoiding contact with cat feces, as Toxoplasma gondii can be transmitted through contaminated soil and food.
2. Avoiding travel to areas where malaria and other parasitic infections are common.
3. Taking antimalarial medications before and during pregnancy if living in an area where malaria is common.
4. Using insecticide-treated bed nets and wearing protective clothing to prevent mosquito bites.
5. Practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands regularly, especially after handling food or coming into contact with cats.
6. Avoiding drinking unpasteurized dairy products and undercooked meat, as these can increase the risk of infection.
7. Ensuring that any water used for cooking or drinking is safe and free from parasites.

Preventive measures for pregnancy complications, parasitic are important for women who are pregnant or planning to become pregnant, as well as for their partners and healthcare providers. By taking these preventive measures, the risk of infection and complications can be significantly reduced.

In conclusion, pregnancy complications, parasitic are a serious issue that can have severe consequences for both the mother and the fetus. However, by understanding the causes, risk factors, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and preventive measures, women can take steps to protect themselves and their unborn babies from these infections. It is important for healthcare providers to be aware of these issues and provide appropriate education and care to pregnant women to reduce the risk of complications.

FAQs
1. What are some common parasitic infections that can occur during pregnancy?
Ans: Some common parasitic infections that can occur during pregnancy include malaria, toxoplasmosis, and cytomegalovirus (CMV).
2. How do parasitic infections during pregnancy affect the baby?
Ans: Parasitic infections during pregnancy can have serious consequences for the developing fetus, including birth defects, growth restriction, and stillbirth.
3. Can parasitic infections during pregnancy be treated?
Ans: Yes, parasitic infections during pregnancy can be treated with antibiotics and other medications. Early detection and treatment are important to prevent complications.
4. How can I prevent parasitic infections during pregnancy?
Ans: Preventive measures include avoiding areas where parasites are common, using insect repellents, wearing protective clothing, and practicing good hygiene. Pregnant women should also avoid undercooked meat and unpasteurized dairy products.
5. Do all pregnant women need to be tested for parasitic infections?
Ans: No, not all pregnant women need to be tested for parasitic infections. However, certain groups of women, such as those who live in areas where parasites are common or have a history of previous parasitic infections, may need to be tested and monitored more closely.
6. Can I prevent my baby from getting a parasitic infection during pregnancy?
Ans: Yes, there are several steps you can take to reduce the risk of your baby getting a parasitic infection during pregnancy, such as avoiding certain foods and taking antibiotics if necessary. Your healthcare provider can provide guidance on how to prevent and treat parasitic infections during pregnancy.
7. How are parasitic infections diagnosed during pregnancy?
Ans: Parasitic infections can be diagnosed through blood tests, stool samples, or imaging tests such as ultrasound or MRI. Your healthcare provider may also perform a physical exam and take a medical history to determine the likelihood of a parasitic infection.
8. Can parasitic infections cause long-term health problems for my baby?
Ans: Yes, some parasitic infections can cause long-term health problems for your baby, such as developmental delays or learning disabilities. In rare cases, parasitic infections can also lead to more serious complications, such as organ damage or death.
9. How are parasitic infections treated during pregnancy?
Ans: Treatment for parasitic infections during pregnancy may involve antibiotics, antiparasitic medications, or other supportive care. Your healthcare provider will determine the best course of treatment based on the severity and type of infection, as well as your individual circumstances.
10. Can I take steps to prevent parasitic infections during pregnancy?
Ans: Yes, there are several steps you can take to prevent parasitic infections during pregnancy, such as avoiding undercooked meat and fish, washing fruits and vegetables thoroughly, and practicing good hygiene. Additionally, if you have a higher risk of parasitic infections due to travel or other factors, your healthcare provider may recommend preventative medications or screening tests.
11. I'm pregnant and have been exposed to a parasitic infection. What should I do?
Ans: If you suspect that you have been exposed to a parasitic infection during pregnancy, it is important to seek medical attention immediately. Your healthcare provider can perform tests to determine if you have an infection and provide appropriate treatment to prevent any potential complications for your baby.
12. Can I breastfeed while taking medication for a parasitic infection?
Ans: It may be safe to breastfeed while taking medication for a parasitic infection, but it is important to consult with your healthcare provider before doing so. Some medications may not be safe for your baby and could potentially be passed through your milk. Your healthcare provider can provide guidance on the safest treatment options for you and your baby.
13. What are some common complications of parasitic infections during pregnancy?
Ans: Complications of parasitic infections during pregnancy can include miscarriage, preterm labor, low birth weight, and congenital anomalies. In rare cases, parasitic infections can also be transmitted to the baby during pregnancy or childbirth, which can lead to serious health problems for the baby.
14. Can I get a parasitic infection from my pet?
Ans: Yes, it is possible to get a parasitic infection from your pet if you come into contact with their feces or other bodily fluids. For example, toxoplasmosis can be transmitted through contact with cat feces, while hookworm infections can be spread through contact with contaminated soil or feces. It is important to practice good hygiene and take precautions when handling pets or coming into contact with potentially contaminated areas.
15. How can I prevent parasitic infections?
Ans: Preventing parasitic infections involves taking steps to avoid exposure to parasites and their vectors, as well as practicing good hygiene and taking precautions when traveling or engaging in activities that may put you at risk. Some ways to prevent parasitic infections include:
* Avoiding undercooked meat, especially pork and wild game
* Avoiding raw or unpasteurized dairy products
* Avoiding contaminated water and food
* Washing your hands frequently, especially after using the bathroom or before handling food
* Avoiding contact with cat feces, as toxoplasmosis can be transmitted through contact with cat feces
* Using protective clothing and insect repellent when outdoors in areas where parasites are common
* Keeping your home clean and free of clutter to reduce the risk of parasite infestations
* Avoiding touching or eating wild animals or plants that may be contaminated with parasites
16. What are some common misconceptions about parasitic infections?
Ans: There are several common misconceptions about parasitic infections, including:
* All parasites are the same and have similar symptoms
* Parasitic infections are only a problem for people who live in developing countries or have poor hygiene
* Only certain groups of people, such as children or pregnant women, are at risk for parasitic infections
* Parasitic infections are rare in developed countries
* All parasites can be treated with antibiotics
* Parasitic infections are not serious and do not require medical attention
17. How can I diagnose a parasitic infection?
Ans: Diagnosing a parasitic infection typically involves a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests. Some common methods for diagnosing parasitic infections include:
* Physical examination to look for signs such as skin lesions or abdominal pain
* Blood tests to check for the presence of parasites or their waste products
* Stool tests to detect the presence of parasite eggs or larvae
* Imaging tests, such as X-rays or CT scans, to look for signs of parasite infection in internal organs
* Endoscopy, which involves inserting a flexible tube with a camera into the body to visualize the inside of the digestive tract and other organs.
18. How are parasitic infections treated?
Ans: Treatment for parasitic infections depends on the type of parasite and the severity of the infection. Some common methods for treating parasitic infections include:
* Antiparasitic drugs, such as antibiotics or antimalarials, to kill the parasites
* Supportive care, such as fluids and electrolytes, to manage symptoms and prevent complications
* Surgery to remove parasites or repair damaged tissues
* Antibiotics to treat secondary bacterial infections that may have developed as a result of the parasitic infection.
It is important to seek medical attention if you suspect that you have a parasitic infection, as untreated infections can lead to serious complications and can be difficult to diagnose.
19. How can I prevent parasitic infections?
Ans: Preventing parasitic infections involves taking steps to avoid contact with parasites and their vectors, as well as maintaining good hygiene practices. Some ways to prevent parasitic infections include:
* Avoiding undercooked meat and unpasteurized dairy products, which can contain harmful parasites such as Trichinella spiralis and Toxoplasma gondii
* Washing your hands frequently, especially after using the bathroom or before eating
* Avoiding contact with contaminated water or soil, which can harbor parasites such as Giardia and Cryptosporidium
* Using insecticides and repellents to prevent mosquito bites, which can transmit diseases such as malaria and dengue fever
* Wearing protective clothing and applying insect repellent when outdoors in areas where ticks and other vectors are common
* Avoiding contact with animals that may carry parasites, such as dogs and cats that can transmit Toxoplasma gondii
* Using clean water and proper sanitation to prevent the spread of parasitic infections in communities and developing countries.
It is also important to be aware of the risks of parasitic infections when traveling to areas where they are common, and to take appropriate precautions such as avoiding undercooked meat and unpasteurized dairy products, and using insecticides and repellents to prevent mosquito bites.
20. What is the prognosis for parasitic infections?
Ans: The prognosis for parasitic infections varies depending on the specific type of infection and the severity of symptoms. Some parasitic infections can be easily treated with antiparasitic medications, while others may require more extensive treatment and management.
In general, the prognosis for parasitic infections is good if the infection is detected early and properly treated. However, some parasitic infections can cause long-term health problems or death if left untreated. It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time.
It is also important to note that some parasitic infections can be prevented through public health measures such as using clean water and proper sanitation, and controlling the spread of insect vectors. Prevention is key to avoiding the negative outcomes associated with these types of infections.
21. What are some common complications of parasitic infections?
Ans: Some common complications of parasitic infections include:
* Anemia and other blood disorders, such as thrombocytopenia and leukopenia
* Allergic reactions to parasite antigens
* Inflammation and damage to organs and tissues, such as the liver, kidneys, and brain
* Increased risk of infections with other microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses
* Malnutrition and deficiencies in essential nutrients
* Organ failure and death.
22. Can parasitic infections be prevented? If so, how?
Ans: Yes, some parasitic infections can be prevented through public health measures such as:
* Using clean water and proper sanitation to reduce the risk of ingesting infected parasites.
* Avoiding contact with insect vectors, such as mosquitoes and ticks, by using repellents, wearing protective clothing, and staying indoors during peak biting hours.
* Properly cooking and storing food to kill parasites that may be present.
* Avoiding consuming undercooked or raw meat, especially pork and wild game.
* Practicing safe sex to prevent the transmission of parasitic infections through sexual contact.
* Keeping children away from areas where they may come into contact with contaminated soil or water.
* Using antiparasitic drugs and other treatments as recommended by healthcare providers.
* Implementing control measures for insect vectors, such as spraying insecticides and removing breeding sites.
30. Can parasitic infections be treated with antibiotics? If so, which ones and why?
Ans: No, antibiotics are not effective against parasitic infections caused by protozoa, such as giardiasis and amoebiasis, because these organisms are not bacteria. However, antibiotics may be used to treat secondary bacterial infections that can develop as a complication of parasitic infections.
32. What is the difference between a parasite and a pathogen?
Ans: A parasite is an organism that lives on or in another organism, called the host, and feeds on the host's tissues or fluids without providing any benefits. A pathogen, on the other hand, is an organism that causes disease. While all parasites are pathogens, not all pathogens are parasites. For example, bacteria and viruses can cause diseases but are not considered parasites because they do not live within the host's body.

The term "systemic" refers to the fact that the disease affects multiple organ systems, including the skin, joints, kidneys, lungs, and nervous system. LES is a complex condition, and its symptoms can vary widely depending on which organs are affected. Common symptoms include fatigue, fever, joint pain, rashes, and swelling in the extremities.

There are several subtypes of LES, including:

1. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE): This is the most common form of the disease, and it can affect anyone, regardless of age or gender.
2. Discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE): This subtype typically affects the skin, causing a red, scaly rash that does not go away.
3. Drug-induced lupus erythematosus: This form of the disease is caused by certain medications, and it usually resolves once the medication is stopped.
4. Neonatal lupus erythematosus: This rare condition affects newborn babies of mothers with SLE, and it can cause liver and heart problems.

There is no cure for LES, but treatment options are available to manage the symptoms and prevent flares. Treatment may include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, immunosuppressive medications, and antimalarial drugs. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and treat the disease.

It is important for people with LES to work closely with their healthcare providers to manage their condition and prevent complications. With proper treatment and self-care, many people with LES can lead active and fulfilling lives.

1) They share similarities with humans: Many animal species share similar biological and physiological characteristics with humans, making them useful for studying human diseases. For example, mice and rats are often used to study diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer because they have similar metabolic and cardiovascular systems to humans.

2) They can be genetically manipulated: Animal disease models can be genetically engineered to develop specific diseases or to model human genetic disorders. This allows researchers to study the progression of the disease and test potential treatments in a controlled environment.

3) They can be used to test drugs and therapies: Before new drugs or therapies are tested in humans, they are often first tested in animal models of disease. This allows researchers to assess the safety and efficacy of the treatment before moving on to human clinical trials.

4) They can provide insights into disease mechanisms: Studying disease models in animals can provide valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of a particular disease. This information can then be used to develop new treatments or improve existing ones.

5) Reduces the need for human testing: Using animal disease models reduces the need for human testing, which can be time-consuming, expensive, and ethically challenging. However, it is important to note that animal models are not perfect substitutes for human subjects, and results obtained from animal studies may not always translate to humans.

6) They can be used to study infectious diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study infectious diseases such as HIV, TB, and malaria. These models allow researchers to understand how the disease is transmitted, how it progresses, and how it responds to treatment.

7) They can be used to study complex diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study complex diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. These models allow researchers to understand the underlying mechanisms of the disease and test potential treatments.

8) They are cost-effective: Animal disease models are often less expensive than human clinical trials, making them a cost-effective way to conduct research.

9) They can be used to study drug delivery: Animal disease models can be used to study drug delivery and pharmacokinetics, which is important for developing new drugs and drug delivery systems.

10) They can be used to study aging: Animal disease models can be used to study the aging process and age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. This allows researchers to understand how aging contributes to disease and develop potential treatments.

Examples of neglected diseases include:

1. Dengue fever: A mosquito-borne viral disease that affects millions of people worldwide, particularly in urban slums and other areas with poor sanitation and hygiene.
2. Chagas disease: A parasitic disease caused by the Trypanosoma cruzi parasite, which is transmitted through the bite of an infected triatomine bug. It affects millions of people in Latin America and can cause serious heart and gastrointestinal complications.
3. Leishmaniasis: A parasitic disease caused by several species of the Leishmania parasite, which is transmitted through the bite of an infected sandfly. It affects millions of people worldwide, particularly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
4. Onchocerciasis (river blindness): A parasitic disease caused by the Onchocerca volvulus parasite, which is transmitted through the bite of an infected blackfly. It affects millions of people in Africa and can cause blindness, skin lesions, and other serious complications.
5. Schistosomiasis: A parasitic disease caused by the Schistosoma parasite, which is transmitted through contact with contaminated water. It affects hundreds of millions of people worldwide, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America.
6. Lymphatic filariasis: A parasitic disease caused by the Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, and Loa loa parasites, which are transmitted through the bite of an infected mosquito. It affects millions of people worldwide, particularly in Africa and Asia, and can cause severe swelling of the limbs and other serious complications.
7. Chagas disease: A parasitic disease caused by the Trypanosoma cruzi parasite, which is transmitted through the bite of an infected triatomine bug. It affects millions of people in Latin America and can cause heart failure, digestive problems, and other serious complications.

These diseases are often chronic and debilitating, and can have a significant impact on the quality of life of those affected. In addition to the physical symptoms, they can also cause social and economic burdens, such as lost productivity and reduced income.

In terms of public health, these diseases pose a significant challenge for healthcare systems, particularly in developing countries where resources may be limited. They require sustained efforts to control and eliminate, including disease surveillance, vector control, and treatment.

In addition, these diseases are often interconnected with other health issues, such as poverty, poor sanitation, and lack of access to healthcare. Therefore, addressing these diseases requires a comprehensive approach that takes into account the social and economic factors that contribute to their spread.

Overall, the impact of these diseases on public health is significant, and sustained efforts are needed to control and eliminate them.

There are several types of hypersensitivity reactions, including:

1. Type I hypersensitivity: This is also known as immediate hypersensitivity and occurs within minutes to hours after exposure to the allergen. It is characterized by the release of histamine and other chemical mediators from immune cells, leading to symptoms such as hives, itching, swelling, and difficulty breathing. Examples of Type I hypersensitivity reactions include allergies to pollen, dust mites, or certain foods.
2. Type II hypersensitivity: This is also known as cytotoxic hypersensitivity and occurs within days to weeks after exposure to the allergen. It is characterized by the immune system producing antibodies against specific proteins on the surface of cells, leading to their destruction. Examples of Type II hypersensitivity reactions include blood transfusion reactions and serum sickness.
3. Type III hypersensitivity: This is also known as immune complex hypersensitivity and occurs when antigens bind to immune complexes, leading to the formation of deposits in tissues. Examples of Type III hypersensitivity reactions include rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus.
4. Type IV hypersensitivity: This is also known as delayed-type hypersensitivity and occurs within weeks to months after exposure to the allergen. It is characterized by the activation of T cells, leading to inflammation and tissue damage. Examples of Type IV hypersensitivity reactions include contact dermatitis and toxic epidermal necrolysis.

The diagnosis of hypersensitivity often involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and elimination diets or challenges. Treatment depends on the specific type of hypersensitivity reaction and may include avoidance of the allergen, medications such as antihistamines or corticosteroids, and immunomodulatory therapy.

Symptoms of filarial elephantiasis include swelling and thickening of the skin, especially in the legs, feet, and hands, as well as a loss of sensation in the affected areas. Treatment typically involves the use of antiparasitic drugs to kill the worms, but surgery may be necessary in some cases to remove severely affected tissue.

Preventive measures include avoiding mosquito bites by using insect repellents and wearing protective clothing, as well as taking antiparasitic medications to prevent infection. Early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent the development of severe complications and improve quality of life for individuals with filarial elephantiasis.

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The symptoms of ancylostomiasis can vary depending on the severity of the infection, but they typically include abdominal pain, diarrhea, fatigue, weight loss, and iron deficiency anemia. In severe cases, it can lead to life-threatening complications such as intestinal blockage or bleeding.

The diagnosis of ancylostomiasis is made by identifying the parasites in a stool sample or through blood tests that detect antigens produced by the parasites. Treatment typically involves the use of anthelmintic drugs to kill the parasites, and supportive care to manage symptoms such as diarrhea and anemia. Prevention measures include improving sanitation and personal hygiene, and avoiding contact with contaminated soil or feces.

The disease is transmitted through the bite of an infected blackfly of the genus Simulium. The parasitic worm Onchocerca volvulus is deposited into the skin of the human host, where it forms nodules that can migrate to various parts of the body, including the eye and skin.

The symptoms of onchocerciasis can vary depending on the location and severity of the infection. Skin symptoms include a rash, papules, and nodules, while eye symptoms can include vision loss, blurred vision, and blindness. The disease can also cause joint pain and fever.

Onchocerciasis is diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests, such as skin biopsy or blood testing for antigens. Treatment involves administering the drug ivermectin, which kills the adult worms and reduces symptoms. However, the drug does not kill the microfilariae, which can continue to cause disease for years after treatment.

Prevention of onchocerciasis involves controlling the population of blackflies that transmit the disease. This is achieved through measures such as using insecticides, wearing protective clothing and applying repellents, and draining standing water where blackflies breed. Elimination of the disease requires mass drug administration to all individuals in endemic areas, followed by repeated treatment every 6-12 months for at least 10-15 years.

1. Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS): This is a severe respiratory disease caused by the hantavirus, which is found in the urine and saliva of infected rodents. Symptoms of HPS can include fever, headache, muscle pain, and difficulty breathing.
2. Leptospirosis: This is a bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Leptospira, which is found in the urine of infected rodents. Symptoms can include fever, headache, muscle pain, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes).
3. Rat-bite fever: This is a bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Streptobacillus moniliformis, which is found in the saliva of infected rodents. Symptoms can include fever, headache, muscle pain, and swollen lymph nodes.
4. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM): This is a viral infection caused by the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), which is found in the urine and saliva of infected rodents. Symptoms can include fever, headache, muscle pain, and meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord).
5. Tularemia: This is a bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Francisella tularensis, which is found in the urine and saliva of infected rodents. Symptoms can include fever, headache, muscle pain, and swollen lymph nodes.

These are just a few examples of the many diseases that can be transmitted to humans through contact with rodents. It is important to take precautions when handling or removing rodents, as they can pose a serious health risk. If you suspect that you have been exposed to a rodent-borne disease, it is important to seek medical attention as soon as possible.

Examples of autoimmune diseases include:

1. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA): A condition where the immune system attacks the joints, leading to inflammation, pain, and joint damage.
2. Lupus: A condition where the immune system attacks various body parts, including the skin, joints, and organs.
3. Hashimoto's thyroiditis: A condition where the immune system attacks the thyroid gland, leading to hypothyroidism.
4. Multiple sclerosis (MS): A condition where the immune system attacks the protective covering of nerve fibers in the central nervous system, leading to communication problems between the brain and the rest of the body.
5. Type 1 diabetes: A condition where the immune system attacks the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas, leading to high blood sugar levels.
6. Guillain-Barré syndrome: A condition where the immune system attacks the nerves, leading to muscle weakness and paralysis.
7. Psoriasis: A condition where the immune system attacks the skin, leading to red, scaly patches.
8. Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis: Conditions where the immune system attacks the digestive tract, leading to inflammation and damage to the gut.
9. Sjögren's syndrome: A condition where the immune system attacks the glands that produce tears and saliva, leading to dry eyes and mouth.
10. Vasculitis: A condition where the immune system attacks the blood vessels, leading to inflammation and damage to the blood vessels.

The symptoms of autoimmune diseases vary depending on the specific disease and the organs or tissues affected. Common symptoms include fatigue, fever, joint pain, skin rashes, and swollen lymph nodes. Treatment for autoimmune diseases typically involves medication to suppress the immune system and reduce inflammation, as well as lifestyle changes such as dietary changes and stress management techniques.

There are several different types of malaria, including:

1. Plasmodium falciparum: This is the most severe form of malaria, and it can be fatal if left untreated. It is found in many parts of the world, including Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
2. Plasmodium vivax: This type of malaria is less severe than P. falciparum, but it can still cause serious complications if left untreated. It is found in many parts of the world, including Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
3. Plasmodium ovale: This type of malaria is similar to P. vivax, but it can cause more severe symptoms in some people. It is found primarily in West Africa.
4. Plasmodium malariae: This type of malaria is less common than the other three types, and it tends to cause milder symptoms. It is found primarily in parts of Africa and Asia.

The symptoms of malaria can vary depending on the type of parasite that is causing the infection, but they typically include:

1. Fever
2. Chills
3. Headache
4. Muscle and joint pain
5. Fatigue
6. Nausea and vomiting
7. Diarrhea
8. Anemia (low red blood cell count)

If malaria is not treated promptly, it can lead to more severe complications, such as:

1. Seizures
2. Coma
3. Respiratory failure
4. Kidney failure
5. Liver failure
6. Anemia (low red blood cell count)

Malaria is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and laboratory tests, such as blood smears or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests. Treatment for malaria typically involves the use of antimalarial drugs, such as chloroquine or artemisinin-based combination therapies. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to manage complications and provide supportive care.

Prevention is an important aspect of managing malaria, and this can include:

1. Using insecticide-treated bed nets
2. Wearing protective clothing and applying insect repellent when outdoors
3. Eliminating standing water around homes and communities to reduce the number of mosquito breeding sites
4. Using indoor residual spraying (IRS) or insecticide-treated wall lining to kill mosquitoes
5. Implementing malaria control measures in areas where malaria is common, such as distribution of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS)
6. Improving access to healthcare services, particularly in rural and remote areas
7. Providing education and awareness about malaria prevention and control
8. Encouraging the use of preventive medications, such as intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) for pregnant women and children under the age of five.

Early diagnosis and prompt treatment are critical in preventing the progression of malaria and reducing the risk of complications and death. In areas where malaria is common, it is essential to have access to reliable diagnostic tools and effective antimalarial drugs.

1. Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS): A chronic condition characterized by abdominal pain, bloating, and changes in bowel habits.
2. Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): A group of chronic conditions that cause inflammation in the digestive tract, including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis.
3. Diverticulosis: A condition in which small pouches form in the wall of the intestine, often causing abdominal pain and changes in bowel habits.
4. Intestinal obstruction: A blockage that prevents food, fluids, and gas from passing through the intestine, often causing abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting.
5. Intestinal ischemia: A reduction in blood flow to the intestine, which can cause damage to the tissues and lead to life-threatening complications.
6. Intestinal cancer: Cancer that develops in the small intestine or large intestine, often causing symptoms such as abdominal pain, weight loss, and rectal bleeding.
7. Gastrointestinal infections: Infections caused by viruses, bacteria, or parasites that affect the gastrointestinal tract, often causing symptoms such as diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain.
8. Intestinal motility disorders: Disorders that affect the movement of food through the intestine, often causing symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, and constipation.
9. Malabsorption: A condition in which the body is unable to properly absorb nutrients from food, often caused by conditions such as celiac disease or pancreatic insufficiency.
10. Intestinal pseudo-obstruction: A condition in which the intestine becomes narrowed or blocked, often causing symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, and constipation.

These are just a few examples of the many potential complications that can occur when the gastrointestinal system is not functioning properly. It is important to seek medical attention if you experience any persistent or severe symptoms in order to receive proper diagnosis and treatment.

Causes:

There are many possible causes of eosinophilia, including:

* Allergies
* Parasitic infections
* Autoimmune disorders
* Cancer
* Medications

Symptoms:

The symptoms of eosinophilia can vary depending on the underlying cause, but may include:

* Swelling of the skin, lips, and eyes
* Hives or itchy skin
* Shortness of breath or wheezing
* Abdominal pain
* Diarrhea

Diagnosis:

Eosinophilia is typically diagnosed through a blood test that measures the number of eosinophils in the blood. Other tests such as imaging studies, skin scrapings, and biopsies may also be used to confirm the diagnosis and identify the underlying cause.

Treatment:

The treatment of eosinophilia depends on the underlying cause, but may include medications such as antihistamines, corticosteroids, and chemotherapy. In some cases, removal of the causative agent or immunomodulatory therapy may be necessary.

Complications:

Eosinophilia can lead to a number of complications, including:

* Anaphylaxis (a severe allergic reaction)
* Asthma
* Eosinophilic granulomas (collections of eosinophils that can cause organ damage)
* Eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders (conditions where eosinophils invade the digestive tract)

Prognosis:

The prognosis for eosinophilia depends on the underlying cause, but in general, the condition is not life-threatening. However, if left untreated, complications can arise and the condition can have a significant impact on quality of life.

In conclusion, eosinophilia is a condition characterized by an abnormal increase in eosinophils in the body. While it can be caused by a variety of factors, including allergies, infections, and autoimmune disorders, the underlying cause must be identified and treated in order to effectively manage the condition and prevent complications.

The word "haemon" comes from the Greek word for blood, and "chiasis" means a change or alteration in the normal condition of the body. So, haemonchosis literally means a change or alteration in the body caused by bleeding.

Ogilvie, B. M. (1964). "Reagin-like Antibodies in Animals Immune to Helminth Parasites". Nature. 204 (4953): 91-92. Bibcode: ...
Schistosome proteins also contain abundant proteases which and cleave IgE antibodies. Alpha-1, a protein released by ... The Helminth Secretome Database (HSD) is a repository for helminth proteins predicted using expressed sequence tags (ESTs). ... Garg G, Ranganathan S (2012-01-01). "Helminth secretome database (HSD): a collection of helminth excretory/secretory proteins ... Helminth proteins modulate the immune response of their hosts, but do not suppress it entirely. A number of proteins are able ...
"Antibody structure". Archived from the original on September 6, 2008. Erb KJ (May 2007). "Helminths, allergic disorders and IgE ... June 2010). "Antibodies specific for a segment of human membrane IgE deplete IgE-producing B cells in humanized mice". The ... In the second approach, antibodies specific for a domain of 52 amino acid residues, referred to as CεmX or M1' (M1 prime), ... Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is a type of antibody (or immunoglobulin (Ig) "isotype") that has been found only in mammals. IgE is ...
Responses to specific helminths are also characterised with elevated levels of IgE antibodies. Idiotype Janeway, CA; Travers, P ... IgE antibodies are present at lowest concentrations in peripheral blood but constitute the main antibody class in allergic ... which define the antibody's class. Antibodies of different classes activate distinct effector mechanisms in response to an ... Thus an antibody isotype is determined by the constant regions of the heavy chains only. IgM is first expressed as a monomer on ...
The presence of antibody is indicative only of schistosome infection at some time and cannot be correlated with clinical status ... It belongs to the group of helminth infections. Diagnosis is by finding eggs of the parasite in a person's urine or stool. It ... Antibody detection can be useful to indicate schistosome infection in people who have traveled to areas where schistosomiasis ... It was proposed that the large amount of egg antigens released by S. japonicum interact with antibodies leading to the ...
Epidemiology and control of ruminant helminths in the Kericho Highlands of Kenya. "Moses Rugutt named Nacosti head". Business ... Diagnosis of Taenia saginata cysticercosis in Kenyan cattle by antibody and antigen ELISA. Anthelmintic resistance amongst ...
... such as eosinophils killing certain parasitic worms known as helminths via IgE antibodies. In general, ADCC has typically been ... Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), also referred to as antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity, is a ... whose membrane-surface antigens have been bound by specific antibodies. It is one of the mechanisms through which antibodies, ... Antibodies can then bind to these viral proteins. Next, the NK cells which have reciprocal Fcγ receptors will bind to that ...
... helminths, allergens). Antibodies that bind to surface antigens (for example, on bacteria) will attract the first component of ... antibody Neutralizing antibody Optimer Ligand Secondary antibodies Single-domain antibody Slope spectroscopy Synthetic antibody ... Antibody fragments, such as Fab and nanobodies are not considered as antibody mimetics. Common advantages over antibodies are ... Affimer Anti-mitochondrial antibodies Anti-nuclear antibodies Antibody mimetic Aptamer Colostrum ELISA Humoral immunity ...
It is also used as a molecular technique for infection with different pathogens, such as HIV, microbes, and helminth parasites ... Antigen-antibody interaction, or antigen-antibody reaction, is a specific chemical interaction between antibodies produced by B ... Since antibodies are bivalent or polyvalent, this is the sum of the strengths of individual antibody-antigen interactions. The ... In the blood, the antigens are specifically and with high affinity bound by antibodies to form an antigen-antibody complex. The ...
"Antibodies to Selected Canine Pathogens and Infestation with Intestinal Helminths in Golden Jackals (Canis aureus) in Israel". ... helminths) and Echinococcus granulosus. In Israel, some jackals are infected with intestinal helminths and Leishmania tropica. ...
Anthelmintic resistance amongst sheep and goats in Kenya and Epidemiology and control of ruminant helminths in the Kericho ... Diagnosis of Taenia saginata cysticercosis in Kenyan cattle by antibody and antigen ELISA; ...
Many low affinity interactions are formed between receptor and antibody that work together to tightly bind the antibody-coated ... against which helminths are not resistant. The interaction of the FcεRII receptor with the Fc portion of helminth bound IgE ... or infected cells by antibody-mediated phagocytosis or antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity. Some viruses such as ... IgE antibodies bind to antigens of allergens. These allergen-bound IgE molecules interact with Fcε receptors on the surface of ...
Muck, A.; Pires, M.; Lammie, P. (2003). "Influence of infection with non-filarial helminths on the specificity of serological ... increased titers of antifilarial antibodies; peripheral blood negative for microfilariae; and a clinical response to ... High antifilarial IgG titers to microfilariae often result in cross reactivity with other nonfilarial helminth antigens, such ...
It is the bound IgE antibody that confers a selective response of these cells to environmental substances, for example, pollen ... Voehringer D (December 2009). "The role of basophils in helminth infection". Trends in Parasitology. 25 (12): 551-6. doi: ... Interleukin-4 is considered one of the critical cytokines in the development of allergies and the production of IgE antibody by ... proteins or helminth antigens. Recent studies in mice suggest that basophils may also regulate the behavior of T cells and ...
Of all the known helminth species, the most important helminths with respect to understanding their transmission pathways, ... while the roles for B cells and antibodies are context-dependent. Inflammation leads to encapsulation of egg deposits ... Specific helminths can be identified through microscopic examination of their eggs (ova) found in faecal samples. The number of ... Helminths may cause iron-deficiency anemia. This is most severe in heavy hookworm infections, as Necator americanus and ...
... antibodies, fungal MeSH D12.776.124.486.485.114.185 - antibodies, helminth MeSH D12.776.124.486.485.114.191 - antibodies, ... antibodies, fungal MeSH D12.776.124.790.651.114.185 - antibodies, helminth MeSH D12.776.124.790.651.114.191 - antibodies, ... antibodies MeSH D12.776.124.486.485.114.071 - antibodies, anti-idiotypic MeSH D12.776.124.486.485.114.089 - antibodies, ... antibodies, bispecific MeSH D12.776.124.486.485.114.143 - antibodies, blocking MeSH D12.776.124.486.485.114.167 - antibodies, ...
Helminth cultivation. Oncological investigations. The advantages of using CAM are: It is easy to use as compared to other ... Limited availability of reagents like antibodies due to avian origin. Non-specific inflammatory reaction after 15 days of ... Fried B, Stableford LT (1991). "Cultivation of helminths in chick embryos". Advances in Parasitology. 30: 108-65. PMID 2069072 ...
... gastric fluid acidification to expel helminths. IL-5 from CD4 T cells will activate eosinophils to attack helminths. IL-10 ... Antibodies do not play a direct role in this allergy type. T cells play an important role in this hypersensitivity, as they ... helminth vs. fungus vs. protist). Mature Th cells express the surface protein CD4 and are referred to as CD4+ T cells. CD4+ T ... Antibody class switching declines significantly once helper T cell function fails. The immune system loses its ability to ...
This is despite the fact that many recently developed methods of antibody detection are of limited value because substantial ... antigenic cross-reactivity exists between filaria and other parasitic worms (helminths), and that a positive serologic test ... Seropositivity for antifilarial IgG antibody was also much higher in the placebo group. The recommended prophylactic dose is ...
Higher levels of antibodies measured by ELISA methods, referred to as optical density ratios (ODRs), are associated with ... Diagnosis of helminth infections in cattle : World Buiatrics Congress. Areskog, M., Ljungström, B., and Höglund, J. 2013. ... The failure to respond quickly to Ostertagia may be a result of the suggested immunosuppression or impairment of antibody and ... These include the determination of specific anti-parasite antibodies in milk. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) have ...
... antibodies, fungal MeSH D12.776.377.715.548.114.185 - antibodies, helminth MeSH D12.776.377.715.548.114.191 - antibodies, ... antibodies MeSH D12.776.377.715.548.114.071 - antibodies, anti-idiotypic MeSH D12.776.377.715.548.114.107 - antibodies, ... antibodies, bispecific MeSH D12.776.377.715.548.114.143 - antibodies, blocking MeSH D12.776.377.715.548.114.167 - antibodies, ... hiv antibodies MeSH D12.776.377.715.548.114.254.150.500 - htlv-i antibodies MeSH D12.776.377.715.548.114.254.150.510 - htlv-ii ...
He is also exploring the roles of proteins and lectins that recognize glycans, as well as anti-glycan antibodies, in biological ... Among his notable discoveries are the immunogenic glycans in parasitic helminths, the nature of the sulfated and glycosylated ... an anti-P-selectin antibody, in the reduction of vaso-occlusive pain crises in patients with sickle cell disease (SCD). ...
Frölich, K., Prusas, C., Schettler, E., & Hafez, H. M. (2002). Antibodies to adenoviruses in free-living common buzzards from ... Other factors that negatively effect raptors have been studied in common buzzards are helminths, avipoxvirus and assorted other ... Santoro, M., Tripepi, M., Kinsella, J. M., Panebianco, A., & Mattiucci, S. (2010). Helminth infestation in birds of prey ( ...
The (antibody) response is defined as the interaction between antibodies and antigens. Antibodies are specific proteins ... and helminth infestations) as well. Hence, research in the field of immunology is of prime importance for the advancements in ... These antibodies can also produce a negative response. If a child is exposed to the antibody for a particular antigen before ... Passively acquired maternal antibodies can suppress the antibody response to active immunization. Similarly, the response of T- ...
For example, helminth infections cause potent and highly polarized immune response characterized by increased T-helper cell ... Therefore, a vaccine that could induce antibodies for these antigens could interfere with the hookworm's digestive pathway and ... As compared to other helminths, hookworm is able to survive in much hotter conditions and was highly prevalent throughout the ... Knowles SC (August 2011). "The effect of helminth co-infection on malaria in mice". Int. J. Parasitol. 41 (10): 1041-51. doi: ...
Roepstorff, A.; Murrell, D. (1997). "Transmission dynamics of helminth parasites of pigs on continuous pasture: Ascaris suum ... "Anti-Ascaris suum IgG antibodies in fattening pigs with different respiratory conditions". Veterinary Parasitology. 265: 85-90 ...
It is a type of helminth infection. Three types of worm cause the disease and damage the lymphatic system.[citation needed] The ... Testing the blood serum for antibodies against the disease may also be used. The present objective of prevention is the ... Testing the blood for antibodies against the disease may also permit diagnosis. Other roundworms from the same family are ...
The antibodies from people infected by hookworm can recognize the dominant epitope of the antigen called Necator americanus APR ... implications for the development of vaccines against helminths". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 130 (1): 169- ... May 2010). "Neutralizing antibodies to the hookworm hemoglobinase Na-APR-1: implications for a multivalent vaccine against ... However, other non-dominant epitopes on APR-1 protein show the ability to induce the production of neutralizing antibodies ...
Considering antibody response, anti-cercarial IgM culminates 15 DPI, while anti-cercarial IgY reaches a peak 30 DPI. Ducks ... February 2022). "Mechanisms of the host immune response and helminth-induced pathology during Trichobilharzia regenti ( ... IgM antibody response targets mainly carbohydrate epitopes of parasite molecules. Parasite-specific IgG1 and IgG2a are present ... Turjanicová L, Mikeš L, Pecková M, Horák P (July 2015). "Antibody response of definitive hosts against antigens of two life ...
Coating antigen with antibody enhances phagocytosis Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity: Antibodies attached to ... In general, Th2 responses are more effective against extracellular bacteria, parasites including helminths and toxins. Like ... The antibodies cross the woman's placenta to the fetus. Antibodies can also be transferred through breast milk with the ... In antibody responses, B cells are activated to secrete antibodies, which are proteins also known as immunoglobulins. ...
Then further tests can be performed to confirm the presence of the bacteria, such as serology tests that find antibodies formed ... pathogenic protozoa and helminths. Several bacteria, such as E. coli, Clostridium botulinum, and Salmonella enterica, are well- ...
A 2018 study found that after using a non-neutralizing antibody against IL-25, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 decreased, and the number ... it acts to protect against several bowel infections caused by helminths. This role of IL-25 has been demonstrated in these ... Another proposed option of treating allergies with IL-25 is a combination of neutralizing antibodies against IL-25, IL-33 and ... Research studies suggest the blocking of IL-25 activity by the neutralizing antibody against IL-25. A delayed Th2 ...
... including monoclonal antibodies, non-specific immunotherapies, oncolytic virus therapy, T-cell therapy and cancer vaccines. ... similarly fucose presents the same for certain bacteria and helminths; and glucans are present on mycobacteria and fungi. In ...
... helminth protein - helper T cell - hemopexin - hemoglobin - herpes simplex virus protein vmw65 - heterocyclic compound - ... antibody - apoenzyme - apolipoprotein - apoptosis - aquaporin - archaea - arginine - argipressin - aromatic amine - aromatic ... monoclonal antibody - monomer - monosaccharide - monosaccharide transport protein - morphogenesis - morphogenetic field - mos ...
This test only works for IgE antibodies. Allergic reactions caused by other antibodies cannot be detected through skin-prick ... such as helminths, could protect against allergy. Therefore, reduced exposure to these organisms, particularly in developed ... IgE antibodies bind to a receptor on the surface of the protein, creating a tag, just as a virus or parasite becomes tagged. ... The IgE antibodies identify the allergenic proteins as harmful and initiate the allergic reaction. The harmful proteins are ...
Reynolds, Lisa A.; Filbey, Kara J.; Maizels, Rick M. (2012-10-11). "Immunity to the model intestinal helminth parasite ... "Heligmosomoides polygyrus Elicits a Dominant Nonprotective Antibody Response Directed against Restricted Glycan and Peptide ... 17 October 2017). "HpARI Protein Secreted by a Helminth Parasite Suppresses Interleukin-33". Immunity. 47 (4): 739-751. doi: ... as it is used as a model of human helminth infection to which a spectrum of natural resistance to parasite infection exists. ...
Reichert, JM (2015). "Antibodies to watch in 2015". mAbs. 7 (1): 1-8. doi:10.4161/19420862.2015.988944. PMC 4622967. PMID ... dengue and soil-transmitted helminths. In 2008, he received the Merit Diploma at the Konex Awards, in the "Innovative ... Gajdosik, Z (April 2014). "Racotumomab - a novel anti-idiotype monoclonal antibody vaccine for the treatment of cancer". Drugs ... Mundo Sano replicates its original work in the fight against soil-transmitted helminths". Archived from the original on 2015-05 ...
Another monoclonal antibody treatment, lebrikizumab, is in phase 3 trials in the US; the drug has been granted Fast Track ... Also, epidemiological studies support a protective role for helminths against AD. Likewise, children with poor hygiene are at a ... In 2017, the monoclonal antibody(mAb) dupilumab under the trade name Dupixent was approved to treat moderate-to-severe eczema. ... In 2021, an additional monoclonal antibody, tralokinumab, was approved in the EU & UK with the trade name Adtralza then later ...
Dupilumab is a monoclonal antibody IL-13 and IL-4 modulator that targets the shared receptor of IL-4 and IL-13, IL4Rα. Since IL ... For example, expulsion from the gut of a variety of mouse helminths requires IL-13 secreted by Th2 cells. IL-13 induces several ...
For example, the use of antibodies made artificially fluorescent (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to ... "Helminth Infections: Soil-transmitted Helminth Infections and Schistosomiasis", Disease Control Priorities in Developing ... These tests are based upon the ability of an antibody to bind specifically to an antigen. The antigen, usually a protein or ... Immunoassay B on the other hand may detect or measure antibodies produced by an organism's immune system that are made to ...
Along with other helminth parasites Clonorchis sinensis and Opisthorchis viverrini, S. haematobium was declared as Group 1 ( ... In response to infection, the hosts' antibodies bind to the tegument of the schistosome. But they are quickly removed the ... Parasitic helminths of humans, Bladder cancer, Waterborne diseases). ...
The causes of LETM are also heterogeneous and the presence of MOG auto-antibodies has been proposed as a diagnostic biomarker. ... Other associated causes include the helminth infection schistosomiasis, spinal cord injuries, vascular disorders that impede ... abnormalities detected on MRI and presence of oligoclonal antibodies in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)) Individuals who develop TM ...
Both the endomysial antibody and tissue transglutaminase antibody have very high sensitivities (93% for both) and specificities ... Early clinical trials suggested that exposure to helminths such as Trichuris suis or Necator americanus can improve IBD. ... 266-7. ISBN 978-0-19-856837-7. MacDonald JK, Nguyen TM, Khanna R, Timmer A (November 2016). "Anti-IL-12/23p40 antibodies for ... Kaila B, Orr K, Bernstein CN (December 2005). "The anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibody assay in a province-wide practice: ...
Increasing antibody titres in conjunction with clinical signs is suggestive of an active PHF infection. PCR assays can be ... using naturally infected aquatic insects and helminth vectors: preliminary report". Equine Veterinary Journal. 32 (4): 275-9. ... The IFA serological test detects the presence of IgG and IgM antibodies against N. risticii in the blood, however does not ... PCR is the test of choice in vaccinated animals because these animals will have antibodies against N. risticii , which ...
... were found with antibodies dengue viruses 1 and 2 while sloths (Bradypus torquatus) had antibodies for dengue virus 3 therefore ... Primates: At the University of Ibadan Zoological Garden in Nigeria, fecal samples of zookeepers tested positive for helminths ( ... Maternally derived H1N1 antibodies were detected in egg yolks and further genetic analyses revealed an identical H1N1 strain in ... The exact same strain of helminths and protozoan cysts were found in the zoo's non-human primates thus implicating a zoonosis ...
Parasitic diseases: helminths; p. 2651-2671. Almeda J, Corachan M, Soura A, Ascaso C, Carvalho JM, Rollinson D, Southgate VR ( ... Serologic testing looks for the presence of antibodies against the adult schistosome in the blood. This can only take place 6 ... treatment at the correct time is important since the drug only works against the adult worm and there must be a strong antibody ... 8 weeks after initial infection in order for the parasite to reach the adult stage and the immune system to produce antibodies ...
Many types of helminth including flukes and cestodes have complete life cycles involving two or more hosts. By far the largest ... that trigger the adaptive immune system's lymphocytes such as T cells and antibody-producing B cells. These have receptors that ... Various species of helminth castrate their hosts (such as insects and snails). This may happen directly, whether mechanically ... Much of the thinking on types of parasitism has focussed on terrestrial animal parasites of animals, such as helminths. Those ...
Helminths are common causes of hypereosinophilia and eosinophilia in areas endemic to these parasites. Helminths infections ... Zhang J, Zhang HY, Chen SZ, Huang JY (2016). "Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies in cholesterol embolism: A case report and ... elevated blood levels of IgM antibodies, and clonal expansion of T cells. Similar to lymphocyte=variant hypereosinophilia, the ...
Studies on the helminth fauna of Alaska. XXIV. Echinococcus sibiricensis n. sp., from St. Lawrence Island ... Antibodies, Helminth* Actions. * Search in PubMed * Search in MeSH * Add to Search ... Studies on the helminth fauna of Alaska. XXIV. Echinococcus sibiricensis n. sp., from St. Lawrence Island R RAUSCH et al. J ... Studies on the helminth fauna of Alaska. XXIV. Echinococcus sibiricensis n. sp., from St. Lawrence Island R RAUSCH, E L ...
Serology to detect STH antibodies is not available in the United States. PCR testing is more sensitive and specific than ... CDC website: Soil-transmitted helminths. The following authors contributed to the previous version of this chapter: Christine ... Soil-transmitted helminths (geohelminths). In: Cook GC, Zumla A, editors. Mansons tropical diseases, 22nd edition. London: ... Soil-transmitted helminth infections: ascariasis, trichuriasis, and hookworm. Lancet. 2006;367(9521):1521-32. ...
Here, we show that lung remodeling from a prior infection with a lung-migrating helminth, ,i,Nippostrongylus brasiliensis,/i,, ... Helminth endemic regions report lower COVID-19 morbidity and mortality. ... and anti-CD8 antibody depletion abrogated the N. brasiliensis-mediated reduction in viral loads. Pulmonary macrophages with a ... Targeting helminths: The expanding world of type 2 immune effector mechanisms. Maizels RM, Gause WC. Maizels RM, et al. J Exp ...
Antibody Detection. Immunodiagnostic tests can be very helpful in the diagnosis of echinococcal disease, particularly in ... False-positive reactions may occur in persons with other cestode infections, some other helminth infections, cancer, and liver ... Immunoaffinity-purified E. multilocularis antigens (Em2) used in EIA allow the detection of positive antibody reactions in more ... Negative test results do not rule out echinococcosis because some cyst carriers do not have detectable antibodies. Whether the ...
Antibodies, Helminth (immunology) *China. *Eosinophilia (diagnosis, drug therapy, immunology, parasitology) *Female. * ... Blood examination showed eosinophila (21.2%), and anti-sparganum antibodies were positive. Skin biopsy of the lesion and ... On further inquiring, she recalled having eaten undercooked eels and specific antibodies to the larvae of Gnathostoma ... the patient had no further symptoms and anti-Gnathostoma antibodies became negative. Conclusively, the present study is the ...
Antibodies and IL-3 support helminth-induced basophil expansion.. Herbst T; Esser J; Prati M; Kulagin M; Stettler R; Zaiss MM; ... Basophils are the major producers of IL-4 during primary helminth infection.. van Panhuys N; Prout M; Forbes E; Min B; Paul WE ... 5. Impaired basophil induction leads to an age-dependent innate defect in type 2 immunity during helminth infection in mice. ... 7. IL-9-mediated survival of type 2 innate lymphoid cells promotes damage control in helminth-induced lung inflammation. ...
Our work focuses on both the host response to helminth infection and the molecular basis for parasitism in helminths and the ... The focus of the Helminth Immunology Section is the study of host resistance and immune regulation in parasitic helminth ... I run and maintain the reference laboratory test for the detection of filarial-specific antibodies in serum in the laboratory. ... Our work focuses on both the host response to helminth infection and the molecular basis for parasitism in helminths and the ...
HIV and helminth coinfection is extremely common. How does one infection affect the other? ... On the other hand, HIV-1 is controlled by natural killer cells, CD8 T cells, and antibodies and destroys the host immune system ... Helminth Infection and HIV Helminth infections are common in tropical and subtropical areas of the globe. Worldwide, more than ... Despite these associations, the overall relationship between helminths and HIV remains unclear and might vary with helminth ...
Cystic echinococcosis [‎CE]‎ is a widespread helminth zoonosis, especially in rural areas. We investigated the prevalence of ... Blood samples from 3446 individuals from 700 randomly selected families were examined for detection of antibody against ...
... including intravenous immunoglobulin and licensed or experimental monoclonal antibodies. 8) A helminth parasitic infection ... 3) Positive hepatitis B surface antigen, or hepatitis C virus antibody serology, or a positive medical history for hepatitis B ... MEDI-563, a humanized anti-IL-5 receptor alpha mAb with enhanced antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity function. J ... 7) Known history of allergic or anaphylactic reaction to previous antibody therapy, ...
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to HELMINTH ANTIGENS.. Terms. Antibodies, Helminth Preferred Term Term UI T002673. Date ... Helminth Antibodies Pharm Action. Immunologic Factors. Registry Number. 0. Previous Indexing. Antibodies (1966-1987). Antigens ... Antibodies [D12.776.124.486.485.114] * Antibodies, Anti-Idiotypic [D12.776.124.486.485.114.071] * Antibodies, Archaeal [D12.776 ... Antibodies [D12.776.124.790.651.114] * Antibodies, Anti-Idiotypic [D12.776.124.790.651.114.071] * Antibodies, Archaeal [D12.776 ...
Toxoplasma oocysts were found in stray cats and antibody response to Toxoplasma in primary-school children [5,6]. These ... Helminth eggs were recovered from 12 of the 112 soil samples. The results during the whole year and the wet (autumn/winter) ... Prevalence of helminth ova in soil samples from public places in Shiraz ... Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal , All issues , Volume 12, 2006 , Volume 12, issue 5 , Prevalence of helminth ova in soil ...
No impact of helminth coinfection in patients with smear positive tuberculosis on immunoglobulin levels using a novel method ... Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease as a novel presentation of central nervous system autoimmunity ... Long-term efficacy of anti-IL-4 receptor antibody in a patient with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease and IgG4-related ... Development of a primary care screening algorithm for the early detection of patients at risk of primary antibody deficiency ...
Exum NG, Pisanic N, Granger DA, Schwab KJ, Detrick B, Kosek M, et al. Use of pathogen-specific antibody biomarkers to estimate ... Blackwell AD, Tamayo MA, Beheim B, Trumble BC, Stieglitz J, Hooper PL, et al. Helminth infection, fecundity, and age of first ... Antibody response can also be a key tool to monitor epidemics, such as HIV (18) and emerging pathogens (16,19). Antibody levels ... Because antibody levels reflect symptomatic and asymptomatic infections, measuring antibody responses could reveal a more ...
Data from: Maternally-derived anti-helminth antibodies predict offspring survival in a wild mammal ... Anti-nematode parasite antibody data set from long-term Soay sheep Description. We have assayed a variety of antibody types ... Maternal antibody transfer was predicted by maternal age and previous antibody responses, and was consistent within mothers ... Froy H (2019) Senescence in immunity against helminth parasites predicts adult mortality in a wild mammal. in Science (New York ...
Antibodies, Helminth Entry term(s):. Helminth Antibodies. Descriptor Spanish: Anticuerpos Antihelmínticos Entry term(s):. ...
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to HELMINTH ANTIGENS.. Terms. Antibodies, Helminth Preferred Term Term UI T002673. Date ... Helminth Antibodies Pharm Action. Immunologic Factors. Registry Number. 0. Previous Indexing. Antibodies (1966-1987). Antigens ... Antibodies [D12.776.124.486.485.114] * Antibodies, Anti-Idiotypic [D12.776.124.486.485.114.071] * Antibodies, Archaeal [D12.776 ... Antibodies [D12.776.124.790.651.114] * Antibodies, Anti-Idiotypic [D12.776.124.790.651.114.071] * Antibodies, Archaeal [D12.776 ...
Herd immunity to helminth infection and implications for parasite control. Nature (1985) 315(6019):493-6. doi:10.1038/315493a0 ... The resulting antibody switch. The y-axis represents fractions of the two populations with high levels of anti-soluble egg ... Evidence for a peak shift in a humoral response to helminths: age profiles of IgE in the Shuar of Ecuador, the Tsimane of ... Helminth parasites have been an important selection pressure in vertebrate and mammalian evolution, and in human evolution ...
... information regarding all miRNAs expressed in helminth parasites has been comprehensively provided and the utility of helminth ... Antibodies Produced Toward Recombinant RBD and Nucleocapsid Neutralize SARS-COV-2. Rezaei, Amir; Nazarian, Shahram; Samiei ... MicroRNAs in Helminth Parasites: A Systematic Review. Alizadeh, Zahra; Mahami-Oskouei, Mahmoud; Spotin, Adel; Ahmadpour, Ehsan ... The antibody titer of the blood serum from control and immunized mice groups was determined by ELISA technique. Finally, the ...
The 7 reviews included in this volume are: - Monoclonal antibodies as therapeutic agents for inflammatory diseases - ... specific antiprotozoal drugs that work against leishmania and helminths, and a study on potential agents against American ... Catalytic antibodies for targeting rabies and influenza viruses -Antiviral therapies for arenaviruses -The role of steroids in ... viral infections -Monoclonal antibody manufacturing processes -Prevention and eradication of biofilms in medical devices ...
Antigens, Helminth.. 650 02 - SUBJECT ADDED ENTRY--TOPICAL TERM. Topical term or geographic name as entry element. Antibodies, ...
S. mansoni, for example, degrades host antibodies with proteases. Helminths produce many other substances that suppress ... Over time, host antibodies are produced that recognize this coat, but T. brucei is able to alter the structure of the ... Some helminths are so large that the immune system is ineffective against them. Others, such as adult roundworms (which cause ... Helminths, or parasitic worms, are multicellular eukaryotic parasites that depend heavily on virulence factors that allow them ...
VisceralParagonimiasisAntibodies, HelminthMethacholine ChloridePrednisoloneLeukocyte DisordersMice, Inbred C57BLMastocytosis ... Helminth-related Eosinophilia in African Immigrants, Gran Canaria. Title : Helminth-related Eosinophilia in African Immigrants ... CCEosinophil-Derived NeurotoxinCytokinesRespiratory Syncytial Virus VaccinesInterleukin-4DiethylcarbamazineAntibodies, Helminth ... specific antibodies, T-cell clones, etc.) that will be used in the laboratory to address broader questions relating to the ...
Antibodies to viruses usually begin to rise the first week after onset of illness, peak by the fourth week, and can fall by the ... which is used for both helminths and protozoa, and the kinyoun carbol-fuchsin(modified acid-fast)-stained slide, which is used ... Serum - Specific antibody testing may be possible for some bacterial enteric agents such as Shigella. As is true for viral ... A fourfold rise in specific antibody titer is accepted as diagnostic of a recent infection.. Parasites. General guidelines. ...
The cocktail consisted of antibodies against CD3, CD4, CD8, CD14, CD16, HLA-DR, CD11c, CD45RO, CD45RA, TCR γδ, CD56, CD19 and ... The formol-ether concentration method was used to prepare samples for the detection of helminths or their eggs by microscopy. ... Many of these genes have been implicated in B cell receptor signalling and regulating antibody responses (and include TNFRSF13B ... Using a 14-colour panel of antibodies against a range of human immune cell surface molecules, we determined the relative ...
IFA was performed using STAT3 polyclonal antibody (1: 50; Affinity Biosciences) as primary antibody and goat anti-rabbit IgG ... Harris NL, Loke P. Recent advances in type-2-cell-mediated immunity: insights from helminth infection. Immunity. 2017;47:1024- ... buffer and incubated with the secondary antibody (goat anti-rat IgG antibody) conjugated to sulfo-cyanine 3 (Cy3; 1:500 ... the membranes were incubated with primary antibodies (TGF-β1 monoclonal antibody 1:500; Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc., Dallas ...
  • Immunoglobulins produced in a response to HELMINTH ANTIGENS . (nih.gov)
  • All pathogens leave behind immunologic footprints in the form of antibodies that last for months to years and can be detected by testing dried blood spots or serum samples against panels of well-defined antigens. (cdc.gov)
  • Antigens, Helminth. (who.int)
  • The link could come from molecular similarities between allergens such as dust mites and helminth antigens (worm proteins recognised by the immune system). (mrc.ac.uk)
  • Clinical trials using targeted therapies, including imatinib mesylate and monoclonal antibodies to IL-5 and IL-5 receptor, have provided additional insight into the etiology and pathogenesis of HES variants. (nih.gov)
  • Dupixent (dupilumab) and Nucala (mepolizumab) are monoclonal antibodies blocking the interaction of IL-4/IL-13 and IL-5, respectively, with their receptors. (healthcarejourney.com)
  • Due to the role of contaminated soil in their transmission, this group of nematode worms are known as soil-transmitted helminths (STH). (cdc.gov)
  • Approximately 1.5 billion people in the world (24.0% of the global population) are affected by soil-transmitted helminths, 270 million of whom are preschool-age children. (ophrp.org)
  • Our work focuses on both the host response to helminth infection and the molecular basis for parasitism in helminths and the prototypical responses they induce. (nih.gov)
  • My main project focuses on the role of interleukin-11 in the host immune response to helminth infection. (nih.gov)
  • The Human Eosinophil Section conducts basic and translational research related to the role of the eosinophil and eosinophil activation in disease pathogenesis, with the ultimate goal of developing novel diagnostic tools and treatment approaches for hypereosinophilic syndromes and other conditions associated with marked eosinophilia, including helminth infection. (nih.gov)
  • Eosinophilia is common in human helminth infection and may be associated with pathologic sequelae that mimic the clinical findings in HES, including tissue fibrosis and "allergic" manifestations. (nih.gov)
  • A Randomized, Placebo-controlled, Double-blind Pilot Study of Single-dose Humanized Anti-IL5 Antibody (Reslizumab) for the Reduction of Eosinophilia Following Diethylcarbamazine Treatment of Loa loa Infection. (nih.gov)
  • Chronic helminth infection does not impair immune response to malaria transmission blocking vaccine Pfs230D1-EPA/Alhydrogel? (umassmed.edu)
  • REPC1 antigen is not capable to detect the infection during the first 15 days post-infection, whereas the antibody cannot be detectable. (ac.ir)
  • The focus of the Helminth Immunology Section is the study of host resistance and immune regulation in parasitic helminth infections of global importance. (nih.gov)
  • Immune responses to parasitic helminth are usually characterized by quite mysterious phenomena: dominance of Th2-like immunity and antigen-nonspecific IgE secretion. (fujita-hu.ac.jp)
  • Prior research in the Helminth Immunology Section has demonstrated that these exacerbations are accompanied by an increase in IL-5, eosinophils, and markers of eosinophil activation. (nih.gov)
  • These responses include the serum IgG1 and IgE responses, the secretory IgA response, and eosinophil-mediated inflammatory responses, such as occur during gut helminth infections and allergic responses, including asthma. (nih.gov)
  • We will then use receptor-selective retinoids and RXR-knockout mice to determine, in vivo, if RXR regulates Th2 cell development and Th2-mediated antibody responses. (nih.gov)
  • 7. Participant with soiled transmitted helminths infections (STH) as diagnosed by microscopy (KK) and/or real-time PCR. (who.int)
  • And now a link between allergies and helminth worm infections has emerged, though whether they reduce or worsen symptoms is hotly debated. (mrc.ac.uk)
  • To test this idea, researchers asked whether antibodies (the body's defence molecules, red) could latch onto worms in samples from mice with no previous exposure (left), those sensitised to dust mites (middle) and those with immunity from previous helminth infections (right). (mrc.ac.uk)
  • Both Dupixent and Nucala are contraindicated in people with parasitic infections and some people with MS treat themselves with parasites (Helminths) to try and treat their disease. (healthcarejourney.com)
  • DUPIXENT is a human monoclonal antibody designed to specifically inhibit signaling of two key proteins, IL-4 and IL-13, which are believed to be important contributors of the persistent underlying inflammation in atopic dermatitis, and certain other allergic or atopic diseases. (prnewswire.com)
  • Dupixent is a human monoclonal antibody that inhibits the signaling of interleukin-4 (IL-4) and interleukin-13 (IL-13), two key proteins that play a central role in type 2 inflammation that underlies specific types of asthma as well as several other allergic diseases. (salesandmarketingnetwork.com)
  • It would not be a good idea for these people on parasitic treatment with Helminths to take either Dupixent or Nucala. (healthcarejourney.com)
  • IgE's main function is immunity to parasites such as helminths like Schistosoma mansoni, Trichinella spiralis, and Fasciola hepatica. (thenativeantigencompany.com)
  • In the presence of IL-4, DiAg induces mouse B cells to secrete IgE, which is antigen-nonspecific polyclonal antibody. (fujita-hu.ac.jp)
  • Differentiate between antigen and antibody. (omtexclasses.com)
  • Glycoproteins formed in the body to fight against antigen is called an antibody. (omtexclasses.com)
  • METHODS: Dot-ELISA based on the copro-antigen and recombinant EPC1 antigen (rEPC1) for antibody detection was performed. (ac.ir)
  • Antibodies are unique among biomarkers in their ability to identify persons with protective immunity to vaccine-preventable diseases and to measure past exposure to diverse pathogens. (cdc.gov)
  • Antibody response provides an objective and sensitive way to uncover immunization coverage gaps or waning immunity to vaccine-preventable diseases ( 5 - 7 ) and monitor a population's exposure to malaria ( 8 ), enteric pathogens ( 9 - 12 ), and many NTDs ( 13 - 17 ). (cdc.gov)
  • in addition, Toxoplasma oocysts were found in stray cats and antibody response to Toxoplasma in primary-school children [5,6]. (who.int)
  • Recombinant antibodies produced in TRANSGENIC PLANTS . (nih.gov)
  • Robust disease surveillance is a cornerstone of global health efforts that range from detecting emerging pathogens and epidemics to the control or elimination of vaccine-preventable diseases, HIV, malaria, and neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) ( http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/9789241564540/en/ ) ( 2 - 4 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Antibody response can also be a key tool to monitor epidemics, such as HIV ( 18 ) and emerging pathogens ( 16 , 19 ). (cdc.gov)
  • The fragment crystallizable region (Fc region) is the tail region of an antibody that interacts with cell surface receptors called Fc receptors and some proteins of the complement system. (thenativeantigencompany.com)
  • ABSTRACT To determine the prevalence of helminth eggs in public places and children's playgrounds, 112 soil samples were collected in 26 sites in Shiraz, southern Islamic Republic of Iran, during September 2002-September 2003. (who.int)
  • As there is a large population of stray dogs and cats in Shiraz and no studies have been made on the extent of contamination of the environment with helminth eggs, this study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of helminth eggs in public places and playgrounds. (who.int)
  • Low Levels of Human Antibodies to Gametocyte-Infected Erythrocytes Contrasts the PfEMP1-Dominant Response to Asexual Stages in P. falciparum Malaria. (umassmed.edu)
  • Blood samples from 3446 individuals from 700 randomly selected families were examined for detection of antibody against Echinococcus granulosus. (who.int)
  • The presence of Taenia solium antibodies was evaluated by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method in 269 serum samples from the same group of children. (ophrp.org)
  • A total of 3.0% of the serum samples were positive for T. solium antibodies. (ophrp.org)
  • Ascaris lumbricoides ( Ascaris or roundworm), Ancylostoma duodenale (hookworm), Necator americanus (hookworm), and Trichuris trichiura (whipworm) are helminths (parasitic worms) that infect the intestine. (cdc.gov)
  • Hence, while use of "generic" vaccine adjuvants, like CFA, to elicit antibody production for research purposes may be fine, that may not be the case when the goal is to develop a protective immune response against a pathogen or malignant cell, as in the case of vaccine development. (biosyn.com)
  • Dupilumab was discovered using Regeneron's proprietary VelocImmune ® technology that yields optimized fully-human antibodies, and is being jointly developed by Regeneron and Sanofi under a global collaboration agreement. (prnewswire.com)
  • 3. Positive rapid test for HIV 1-2 confirmed by a positive blood test for human immunodeficiency virus (positive antibodies to HIV 1/2). (who.int)
  • Dupilumab and REGN3500 were invented using Regeneron's proprietary VelocImmune technology that yields optimized fully-human antibodies. (salesandmarketingnetwork.com)
  • Antibody levels reflect past exposure over a period of months to years, so cross-sectional surveys contain an immense amount of information about past vaccination and pathogen exposure ( 8 , 20 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Seven of these birds had significant levels of neutralizing antibody to duck plague virus. (allenpress.com)
  • Guidelines include deworming using annual or biannual single doses of albendazole (400 mg) or mebendazole (500 mg) for eligible groups in the population according to their risk of soil-helminth transmission, with school-age children (5 to 14 years old) being a prioritized group [ 4 , 5 ]. (ophrp.org)
  • Helminth eggs were recovered from 12 of the 112 soil samples. (who.int)
  • Recommended as an immunogen to generate antibodies against mouse anti-IgE-Fc, a standard/control for mouse IgE-Fc assays or other mouse IgE-Fc domain applications. (thenativeantigencompany.com)
  • The Colombian Massive Anthelmintic Deworming Guidelines were created in 2013, based on the helminth control guide published by the World Health Organization (WHO). (ophrp.org)
  • First, we argue that antibody-based methods provide a unique opportunity to augment and integrate surveillance across diverse global health initiatives. (cdc.gov)
  • 5. Participant seropositive for hepatitis C virus (Antibodies to HCV). (who.int)

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